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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Negro, by W.E.B. Du Bois
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Negro
+
+Author: W.E.B. Du Bois
+
+Release Date: March 14, 2005 [EBook #15359]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE NEGRO ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Suzanne Shell, Melissa Er-Raqabi and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net.
+
+
+
+
+
+THE NEGRO
+
+W.E.B. Du Bois
+
+
+
+
+New York: Holt, 1915
+
+[Transcriber's Notes for e-book versions:
+
+Hyphenation and accentuation are inconsistent, but are generally left as
+found in the edition used for transcription. This edition may or may not
+have completely replicated the 1915 edition of the book. Where changes
+have been made, they are noted below. If you are using this book for
+research, please verify any spelling or punctuation with another source.
+
+A missing quotation mark was inserted at the beginning of this
+paragraph: "It is difficult to imagine that Egypt should have obtained it
+from Europe where the oldest find (in Hallstadt) cannot be of an earlier
+period than 800 B.C., or from Asia, where iron is not known before 1000
+B.C., and where, in the times of Ashur Nazir Pal, it was still used
+concurrently with bronze, while iron beads have been only recently
+discovered by Messrs. G.A. Wainwright and Bushe Fox in a predynastic
+grave, and where a piece of this metal, possibly a tool, was found in the
+masonry of the great pyramid."]
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+     Preface
+   I Africa
+  II The Coming of Black Men
+ III Ethiopia and Egypt
+  IV The Niger and Islam
+   V Guinea and Congo
+  VI The Great Lakes and Zymbabwe
+ VII The War of Races at Land's End
+VIII African Culture
+  IX The Trade in Men
+   X The West Indies and Latin America
+  XI The Negro in the United States
+ XII The Negro Problems
+     Suggestions for Further Reading
+
+
+MAPS
+
+The Physical Geography of Africa
+Ancient Kingdoms of Africa
+Races in Africa
+Distribution of Negro Blood, Ancient and Modern
+
+
+
+
+THE NEGRO
+
+
+
+
+TO
+A FAITHFUL HELPER
+M.G.A.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+The time has not yet come for a complete history of the Negro
+peoples. Archæological research in Africa has just begun, and many
+sources of information in Arabian, Portuguese, and other tongues are
+not fully at our command; and, too, it must frankly be confessed,
+racial prejudice against darker peoples is still too strong in so-called
+civilized centers for judicial appraisement of the peoples of Africa.
+Much intensive monographic work in history and science is needed
+to clear mooted points and quiet the controversialist who mistakes
+present personal desire for scientific proof.
+
+Nevertheless, I have not been able to withstand the temptation to
+essay such short general statement of the main known facts and their
+fair interpretation as shall enable the general reader to know as men
+a sixth or more of the human race. Manifestly so short a story must
+be mainly conclusions and generalizations with but meager indication
+of authorities and underlying arguments. Possibly, if the Public
+will, a later and larger book may be more satisfactory on these points.
+
+W.E. BURGHARDT DU BOIS.
+
+New York City, Feb. 1, 1915.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: The Physical Geography of Africa]
+
+
+
+
+I AFRICA
+
+                "Behold!
+The Sphinx is Africa. The bond
+Of Silence is upon her. Old
+And white with tombs, and rent and shorn;
+With raiment wet with tears and torn,
+And trampled on, yet all untamed."
+
+MILLER
+
+
+Africa is at once the most romantic and the most tragic of continents. Its
+very names reveal its mystery and wide-reaching influence. It is the
+"Ethiopia" of the Greek, the "Kush" and "Punt" of the Egyptian, and the
+Arabian "Land of the Blacks." To modern Europe it is the "Dark Continent"
+and "Land of Contrasts"; in literature it is the seat of the Sphinx and
+the lotus eaters, the home of the dwarfs, gnomes, and pixies, and the
+refuge of the gods; in commerce it is the slave mart and the source of
+ivory, ebony, rubber, gold, and diamonds. What other continent can rival
+in interest this Ancient of Days?
+
+There are those, nevertheless, who would write universal history and leave
+out Africa. But how, asks Ratzel, can one leave out the land of Egypt and
+Carthage? and Frobenius declares that in future Africa must more and more
+be regarded as an integral part of the great movement of world history.
+Yet it is true that the history of Africa is unusual, and its strangeness
+is due in no small degree to the physical peculiarities of the continent.
+With three times the area of Europe it has a coast line a fifth shorter.
+Like Europe it is a peninsula of Asia, curving southwestward around the
+Indian Sea. It has few gulfs, bays, capes, or islands. Even the rivers,
+though large and long, are not means of communication with the outer
+world, because from the central high plateau they plunge in rapids and
+cataracts to the narrow coastlands and the sea.
+
+The general physical contour of Africa has been likened to an inverted
+plate with one or more rows of mountains at the edge and a low coastal
+belt. In the south the central plateau is three thousand or more feet
+above the sea, while in the north it is a little over one thousand feet.
+Thus two main divisions of the continent are easily distinguished: the
+broad northern rectangle, reaching down as far as the Gulf of Guinea and
+Cape Guardafui, with seven million square miles; and the peninsula which
+tapers toward the south, with five million square miles.
+
+Four great rivers and many lesser streams water the continent. The
+greatest is the Congo in the center, with its vast curving and endless
+estuaries; then the Nile, draining the cluster of the Great Lakes and
+flowing northward "like some grave, mighty thought, threading a dream";
+the Niger in the northwest, watering the Sudan below the Sahara; and,
+finally, the Zambesi, with its greater Niagara in the southeast. Even
+these waters leave room for deserts both south and north, but the greater
+ones are the three million square miles of sand wastes in the north.
+
+More than any other land, Africa lies in the tropics, with a warm, dry
+climate, save in the central Congo region, where rain at all seasons
+brings tropical luxuriance. The flora is rich but not wide in variety,
+including the gum acacia, ebony, several dye woods, the kola nut, and
+probably tobacco and millet. To these many plants have been added in
+historic times. The fauna is rich in mammals, and here, too, many from
+other continents have been widely introduced and used.
+
+Primarily Africa is the Land of the Blacks. The world has always been
+familiar with black men, who represent one of the most ancient of human
+stocks. Of the ancient world gathered about the Mediterranean, they formed
+a part and were viewed with no surprise or dislike, because this world saw
+them come and go and play their part with other men. Was Clitus the
+brother-in-law of Alexander the Great less to be honored because he
+happened to be black? Was Terence less famous? The medieval European
+world, developing under the favorable physical conditions of the north
+temperate zone, knew the black man chiefly as a legend or occasional
+curiosity, but still as a fellow man--an Othello or a Prester John or an
+Antar.
+
+The modern world, in contrast, knows the Negro chiefly as a bond slave in
+the West Indies and America. Add to this the fact that the darker races in
+other parts of the world have, in the last four centuries, lagged behind
+the flying and even feverish footsteps of Europe, and we face to-day a
+widespread assumption throughout the dominant world that color is a mark
+of inferiority.
+
+The result is that in writing of this, one of the most ancient,
+persistent, and widespread stocks of mankind, one faces astounding
+prejudice. That which may be assumed as true of white men must be proven
+beyond peradventure if it relates to Negroes. One who writes of the
+development of the Negro race must continually insist that he is writing
+of a normal human stock, and that whatever it is fair to predicate of the
+mass of human beings may be predicated of the Negro. It is the silent
+refusal to do this which has led to so much false writing on Africa and
+of its inhabitants. Take, for instance, the answer to the apparently
+simple question "What is a Negro?" We find the most extraordinary
+confusion of thought and difference of opinion. There is a certain type in
+the minds of most people which, as David Livingstone said, can be found
+only in caricature and not in real life. When scientists have tried to
+find an extreme type of black, ugly, and woolly-haired Negro, they have
+been compelled more and more to limit his home even in Africa. At least
+nine-tenths of the African people do not at all conform to this type, and
+the typical Negro, after being denied a dwelling place in the Sudan, along
+the Nile, in East Central Africa, and in South Africa, was finally given a
+very small country between the Senegal and the Niger, and even there was
+found to give trace of many stocks. As Winwood Reade says, "The typical
+Negro is a rare variety even among Negroes."
+
+As a matter of fact we cannot take such extreme and largely fanciful stock
+as typifying that which we may fairly call the Negro race. In the case of
+no other race is so narrow a definition attempted. A "white" man may be of
+any color, size, or facial conformation and have endless variety of
+cranial measurement and physical characteristics. A "yellow" man is
+perhaps an even vaguer conception.
+
+In fact it is generally recognized to-day that no scientific definition of
+race is possible. Differences, and striking differences, there are between
+men and groups of men, but they fade into each other so insensibly that we
+can only indicate the main divisions of men in broad outlines. As Von
+Luschan says, "The question of the number of human races has quite lost
+its _raison d'être_ and has become a subject rather of philosophic
+speculation than of scientific research. It is of no more importance now
+to know how many human races there are than to know how many angels can
+dance on the point of a needle. Our aim now is to find out how ancient and
+primitive races developed from others and how races changed or evolved
+through migration and inter-breeding."[1]
+
+The mulatto (using the term loosely to indicate either an intermediate
+type between white and black or a mingling of the two) is as typically
+African as the black man and cannot logically be included in the "white"
+race, especially when American usage includes the mulatto in the Negro
+race.
+
+It is reasonable, according to fact and historic usage, to include under
+the word "Negro" the darker peoples of Africa characterized by a brown
+skin, curled or "frizzled" hair, full and sometimes everted lips, a
+tendency to a development of the maxillary parts of the face, and a
+dolichocephalic head. This type is not fixed or definite. The color varies
+widely; it is never black or bluish, as some say, and it becomes often
+light brown or yellow. The hair varies from curly to a wool-like mass, and
+the facial angle and cranial form show wide variation.
+
+It is as impossible in Africa as elsewhere to fix with any certainty the
+limits of racial variation due to climate and the variation due to
+intermingling. In the past, when scientists assumed one unvarying Negro
+type, every variation from that type was interpreted as meaning mixture of
+blood. To-day we recognize a broader normal African type which, as
+Palgrave says, may best be studied "among the statues of the Egyptian
+rooms of the British Museum; the larger gentle eye, the full but not
+over-protruding lips, the rounded contour, and the good-natured, easy,
+sensuous expression. This is the genuine African model." To this race
+Africa in the main and parts of Asia have belonged since prehistoric
+times.
+
+The color of this variety of man, as the color of other varieties, is due
+to climate. Conditions of heat, cold, and moisture, working for thousands
+of years through the skin and other organs, have given men their
+differences of color. This color pigment is a protection against sunlight
+and consequently varies with the intensity of the sunlight. Thus in Africa
+we find the blackest men in the fierce sunlight of the desert, red pygmies
+in the forest, and yellow Bushmen on the cooler southern plateau.
+
+Next to the color, the hair is the most distinguishing characteristic of
+the Negro, but the two characteristics do not vary with each other. Some
+of the blackest of the Negroes have curly rather than woolly hair, while
+the crispest, most closely curled hair is found among the yellow
+Hottentots and Bushmen. The difference between the hair of the lighter and
+darker races is a difference of degree, not of kind, and can be easily
+measured. If the hair follicles of a China-man, a European, and a Negro
+are cut across transversely, it will be found that the diameter of the
+first is 100 by 77 to 85, the second 100 by 62 to 72, while that of the
+Negro is 100 by 40 to 60. This elliptical form of the Negro's hair causes
+it to curl more or less tightly.
+
+There have been repeated efforts to discover, by measurements of various
+kinds, further and more decisive differences which would serve as really
+scientific determinants of race. Gradually these efforts have been given
+up. To-day we realize that there are no hard and fast racial types among
+men. Race is a dynamic and not a static conception, and the typical races
+are continually changing and developing, amalgamating and differentiating.
+In this little book, then, we are studying the history of the darker part
+of the human family, which is separated from the rest of mankind by no
+absolute physical line, but which nevertheless forms, as a mass, a social
+group distinct in history, appearance, and to some extent in spiritual
+gift.
+
+We cannot study Africa without, however, noting some of the other races
+concerned in its history, particularly the Asiatic Semites. The
+intercourse of Africa with Arabia and other parts of Asia has been so
+close and long-continued that it is impossible to-day to disentangle the
+blood relationships. Negro blood certainly appears in strong strain among
+the Semites, and the obvious mulatto groups in Africa, arising from
+ancient and modern mingling of Semite and Negro, has given rise to the
+term "Hamite," under cover of which millions of Negroids have been
+characteristically transferred to the "white" race by some eager
+scientists.
+
+The earliest Semites came to Africa across the Red Sea. The Phoenicians
+came along the northern coasts a thousand years before Christ and began
+settlements which culminated in Carthage and extended down the Atlantic
+shores of North Africa nearly to the Gulf of Guinea.
+
+From the earliest times the Greeks have been in contact with Africa as
+visitors, traders, and colonists, and the Persian influence came with
+Cambyses and others. Roman Africa was bounded by the desert, but at times
+came into contact with the blacks across the Sahara and in the valley of
+the Nile. After the breaking up of the Roman Empire the Greek and Latin
+Christians filtered through Africa, followed finally by a Germanic
+invasion in 429 A.D.
+
+In the seventh century the All-Mother, Asia, claimed Africa again for her
+own and blew a cloud of Semitic Mohammedanism all across North Africa,
+veiling the dark continent from Europe for a thousand years and converting
+vast masses of the blacks to Islam. The Portuguese began to raise the veil
+in the fifteenth century, sailing down the Atlantic coast and initiating
+the modern slave trade. The Spanish, French, Dutch, and English followed
+them, but as traders in men rather than explorers.
+
+The Portuguese explored the coasts of the Gulf of Guinea, visiting the
+interior kingdoms, and then passing by the mouth of the Congo proceeded
+southward. Eventually they rounded the Cape of Good Hope and pursued their
+explorations as far as the mountains of Abyssinia. This began the modern
+exploration of Africa, which is a curious fairy tale, and recalls to us
+the great names of Livingstone, Burton, Speke, Stanley, Barth,
+Schweinfurth, and many others. In this way Africa has been made known to
+the modern world.
+
+The difficulty of this modern lifting of the veil of centuries emphasizes
+two physical facts that underlie all African history: the peculiar
+inaccessibility of the continent to peoples from without, which made it so
+easily possible for the great human drama played here to hide itself from
+the ears of other worlds; and, on the other hand, the absence of interior
+barriers--the great stretch of that central plateau which placed
+practically every budding center of culture at the mercy of barbarism,
+sweeping a thousand miles, with no Alps or Himalayas or Appalachians to
+hinder.
+
+With this peculiarly uninviting coast line and the difficulties in
+interior segregation must be considered the climate of Africa. While there
+is much diversity and many salubrious tracts along with vast barren
+wastes, yet, as Sir Harry Johnston well remarks, "Africa is the chief
+stronghold of the real Devil--the reactionary forces of Nature hostile to
+the uprise of Humanity. Here Beelzebub, King of the Flies, marshals his
+vermiform and arthropod hosts--insects, ticks, and nematode worms--which
+more than in other continents (excepting Negroid Asia) convey to the skin,
+veins, intestines, and spinal marrow of men and other vertebrates the
+microorganisms which cause deadly, disfiguring, or debilitating diseases,
+or themselves create the morbid condition of the persecuted human being,
+beasts, bird, reptile, frog, or fish."[2] The inhabitants of this land
+have had a sheer fight for physical survival comparable with that in no
+other great continent, and this must not be forgotten when we consider
+their history.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Von Luschan: in _Inter-Racial Problems_, p. 16.
+
+[2] Johnston: _Negro in the New World_, pp. 14-15.
+
+
+
+
+II THE COMING OF BLACK MEN
+
+
+The movements of prehistoric man can be seen as yet but dimly in the
+uncertain mists of time. This is the story that to-day seems most
+probable: from some center in southern Asia primitive human beings began
+to differentiate in two directions. Toward the south appeared the
+primitive Negro, long-headed and with flattened hair follicle. He spread
+along southern Asia and passed over into Africa, where he survives to-day
+as the reddish dwarfs of the center and the Bushmen of South Africa.
+
+Northward and eastward primitive man became broader headed and
+straight-haired and spread over eastern Asia, forming the Mongolian type.
+Either through the intermingling of these two types or, as some prefer to
+think, by the direct prolongation of the original primitive man, a third
+intermediate type of human being appeared with hair and cranial
+measurement intermediate between the primitive Negro and Mongolian. All
+these three types of men intermingled their blood freely and developed
+variations according to climate and environment.
+
+Other and older theories and legends of the origin and spread of mankind
+are of interest now only because so many human beings have believed them
+in the past. The biblical story of Shem, Ham, and Japheth retains the
+interest of a primitive myth with its measure of allegorical truth,[3] but
+has, of course, no historic basis.
+
+The older "Aryan" theory assumed the migration into Europe of one dominant
+Asiatic race of civilized conquerors, to whose blood and influence all
+modern culture was due. To this "white" race Semitic Asia, a large part of
+black Africa, and all Europe was supposed to belong. This "Aryan" theory
+has been practically abandoned in the light of recent research, and it
+seems probable now that from the primitive Negroid stock evolved in Asia
+the Semites either by local variation or intermingling with other stocks;
+later there developed the Mediterranean race, with Negroid
+characteristics, and the modern Negroes. The blue-eyed, light-haired
+Germanic people may have arisen as a modern variation of the mixed peoples
+produced by the mingling of Asiatic and African elements. The last word on
+this development has not yet been said, and there is still much to learn
+and explain; but it is certainly proved to-day beyond doubt that the
+so-called Hamites of Africa, the brown and black curly and frizzly-haired
+inhabitants of North and East Africa, are not "white" men if we draw the
+line between white and black in any logical way.
+
+The primitive Negroid race of men developed in Asia wandered eastward as
+well as westward. They entered on the one hand Burmah and the South Sea
+Islands, and on the other hand they came through Mesopotamia and gave
+curly hair and a Negroid type to Jew, Syrian, and Assyrian. Ancient
+statues of Indian divinities show the Negro type with black face and
+close-curled hair, and early Babylonian culture was Negroid. In Arabia the
+Negroes may have divided, and one stream perhaps wandered into Europe by
+way of Syria. Traces of these Negroes are manifest not only in skeletons,
+but in the brunette type of all South Europe. The other branch proceeded
+to Egypt and tropical Africa. Another, but perhaps less probable, theory
+is that ancient Negroes may have entered Africa from Europe, since the
+most ancient skulls of Algeria are Negroid.
+
+The primitive African was not an extreme type. One may judge from modern
+pygmy and Bushmen that his color was reddish or yellow, and his skull was
+sometimes round like the Mongolian. He entered Africa not less than fifty
+thousand years ago and settled eventually in the broad region between Lake
+Chad and the Great Lakes and remained there long stretches of years.
+
+After a lapse of perhaps thirty thousand years there entered Africa a
+further migration of Asiatic people, Negroid in many characteristics, but
+lighter and straighter haired than the primitive Negroes. From this
+Mediterranean race was developed the modern inhabitants of the shores of
+the Mediterranean in Europe, Asia, and Africa and, by mingling with the
+primitive Negroes, the ancient Egyptians and modern Negroid races of
+Africa.
+
+As we near historic times the migrations of men became more frequent from
+Asia and from Europe, and in Africa came movements and minglings which
+give to the whole of Africa a distinct mulatto character. The primitive
+Negro stock was "mulatto" in the sense of being not widely differentiated
+from the dark, original Australoid stock. As the earlier yellow Negro
+developed in the African tropics to the bigger, blacker type, he was
+continually mingling his blood with similar types developed in temperate
+climes to sallower color and straighter hair.
+
+We find therefore, in Africa to-day, every degree of development in
+Negroid stocks and every degree of intermingling of these developments,
+both among African peoples and between Africans, Europeans, and Asiatics.
+The mistake is continually made of considering these types as transitions
+between absolute Caucasians and absolute Negroes. No such absolute type
+ever existed on either side. Both were slowly differentiated from a common
+ancestry and continually remingled their blood while the differentiating
+was progressing. From prehistoric times down to to-day Africa is, in this
+sense, primarily the land of the mulatto. So, too, was earlier Europe and
+Asia; only in these countries the mulatto was early bleached by the
+climate, while in Africa he was darkened.
+
+It is not easy to summarize the history of these dark African peoples,
+because so little is known and so much is still in dispute. Yet, by
+avoiding the real controversies and being unafraid of mere questions of
+definition, we may trace a great human movement with considerable
+definiteness.
+
+Three main Negro types early made their appearance: the lighter and
+smaller primitive stock; the larger forest Negro in the center and on the
+west coast, and the tall, black Nilotic Negro in the eastern Sudan. In the
+earliest times we find the Negroes in the valley of the Nile, pressing
+downward from the interior. Here they mingled with Semitic types, and
+after a lapse of millenniums there arose from this mingling the culture of
+Ethiopia and Egypt, probably the first of higher human cultures.
+
+To the west of the Nile the Negroes expanded straight across the continent
+to the Atlantic. Centers of higher culture appeared very early along the
+Gulf of Guinea and curling backward met Egyptian, Ethiopian, and even
+European and Asiatic influences about Lake Chad. To the southeast, nearer
+the primitive seats of the earliest African immigrants and open to
+Egyptian and East Indian influences, the Negro culture which culminated at
+Zymbabwe arose, and one may trace throughout South Africa its wide
+ramifications.
+
+All these movements gradually aroused the central tribes to unrest. They
+beat against the barriers north, northeast, and west, but gradually
+settled into a great southeastward migration. Calling themselves proudly
+La Bantu (The People), they grew by agglomeration into a warlike nation,
+speaking one language. They eventually conquered all Africa south of the
+Gulf of Guinea and spread their influence to the northward.
+
+While these great movements were slowly transforming Africa, she was also
+receiving influences from beyond her shores and sending influences out.
+With mulatto Egypt black Africa was always in closest touch, so much so
+that to some all evidence of Negro uplift seem Egyptian in origin. The
+truth is, rather, that Egypt was herself always palpably Negroid, and from
+her vantage ground as almost the only African gateway received and
+transmitted Negro ideals.
+
+Phoenician, Greek, and Roman came into touch more or less with black
+Africa. Carthage, that North African city of a million men, had a large
+caravan trade with Negroland in ivory, metals, cloth, precious stones, and
+slaves. Black men served in the Carthaginian armies and marched with
+Hannibal on Rome. In some of the North African kingdoms the infiltration
+of Negro blood was very large and kings like Massinissa and Jugurtha were
+Negroid. By way of the Atlantic the Carthaginians reached the African west
+coast. Greek and Roman influences came through the desert, and the
+Byzantine Empire and Persia came into communication with Negroland by way
+of the valley of the Nile. The influence of these trade routes, added to
+those of Egypt, Ethiopia, Benin, and Yoruba, stimulated centers of culture
+in the central and western Sudan, and European and African trade early
+reached large volume.
+
+Negro soldiers were used largely in the armies that enabled the
+Mohammedans to conquer North Africa and Spain. Beginning in the tenth
+century and slowly creeping across the desert into Negroland, the new
+religion found an already existent culture and came, not a conqueror, but
+as an adapter and inspirer. Civilization received new impetus and a wave
+of Mohammedanism swept eastward, erecting the great kingdoms of Melle, the
+Songhay, Bornu, and the Hausa states. The older Negro culture was not
+overthrown, but, like a great wedge, pushed upward and inward from Yoruba,
+and gave stubborn battle to the newer culture for seven or eight
+centuries.
+
+Then it was, in the fifteenth century, that the heart disease of Africa
+developed in its most virulent form. There is a modern theory that black
+men are and always have been naturally slaves. Nothing is further from the
+truth. In the ancient world Africa was no more a slave hunting ground than
+Europe or Asia, and both Greece and Rome had much larger numbers of white
+slaves than of black. It was natural that a stream of black slaves should
+have poured into Egypt, because the chief line of Egyptian conquest and
+defense lay toward the heart of Africa. Moreover, the Egyptians,
+themselves of Negro descent, had not only Negro slaves but Negroes among
+their highest nobility and even among their Pharaohs. Mohammedan
+conquerors enslaved peoples of all colors in Europe, Asia, and Africa, but
+eventually their empire centered in Asia and Africa and their slaves came
+principally from these countries. Asia submitted to Islam except in the
+Far East, which was self-protecting. Negro Africa submitted only
+partially, and the remaining heathen were in small states which could not
+effectively protect themselves against the Mohammedan slave trade. In this
+wise the slave trade gradually began to center in Africa, for religious
+and political rather than for racial reasons.
+
+The typical African culture was the culture of family, town, and small
+tribe. Hence domestic slavery easily developed a slave trade through war
+and commerce. Only the integrating force of state building could have
+stopped this slave trade. Was this failure to develop the great state a
+racial characteristic? This does not seem a fair conclusion. In four great
+centers state building began in Africa. In Ethiopia several large states
+were built up, but they tottered before the onslaughts of Egypt, Persia,
+Rome, and Byzantium, on the one hand, and finally fell before the
+turbulent Bantu warriors from the interior. The second attempt at empire
+building began in the southeast, but the same Bantu hordes, pressing now
+slowly, now fiercely, from the congested center of the continent,
+gradually overthrew this state and erected on its ruins a series of
+smaller and more transient kingdoms.
+
+The third attempt at state building arose on the Guinea coast in Benin and
+Yoruba. It never got much beyond a federation of large industrial cities.
+Its expansion toward the Congo valley was probably a prime cause of the
+original Bantu movements to the southeast. Toward the north and northeast,
+on the other hand, these city-states met the Sudanese armed with the new
+imperial Mohammedan idea. Just as Latin Rome gave the imperial idea to the
+Nordic races, so Islam brought this idea to the Sudan.
+
+In the consequent attempts at imperialism in the western Sudan there
+arose the largest of the African empires. Two circumstances, however,
+militated against this empire building: first, the fierce resistance of
+the heathen south made war continuous and slaves one of the articles of
+systematic commerce. Secondly, the highways of legitimate African commerce
+had for millenniums lain to the north. These were suddenly closed by the
+Moors in the sixteenth century, and the Negro empires were thrown into the
+turmoil of internal war.
+
+It was then that the European slave traders came from the southwest. They
+found partially disrupted Negro states on the west coast and falling
+empires in the Sudan, together with the old unrest of over-population and
+migration in the valley of the Congo. They not only offered a demand for
+the usual slave trade, but they increased it to an enormous degree, until
+their demand, added to the demand of the Mohammedan in Africa and Asia,
+made human beings the highest priced article of commerce in Africa. Under
+such circumstances there could be but one end: the virtual uprooting of
+ancient African culture, leaving only misty reminders of the ruin in the
+customs and work of the people. To complete this disaster came the
+partition of the continent among European nations and the modern attempt
+to exploit the country and the natives for the economic benefit of the
+white world, together with the transplanting of black nations to the new
+western world and their rise and self-assertion there.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[3] Ham is probably the Egyptian word "Khem" (black), the native name of
+Egypt. In the original myth Canaan and not Ham was Noah's third son.
+
+The biblical story of the "curse of Canaan" (Genesis IX, 24-25) has been
+the basis of an astonishing literature which has to-day only a
+psychological interest. It is sufficient to remember that for several
+centuries leaders of the Christian Church gravely defended Negro slavery
+and oppression as the rightful curse of God upon the descendants of a son
+who had been disrespectful to his drunken father! Cf. Bishop Hopkins:
+_Bible Views of Slavery_, p. 7.
+
+
+
+
+III ETHIOPIA AND EGYPT
+
+
+Having viewed now the land and movements of African people in main
+outline, let us scan more narrowly the history of five main centers of
+activity and culture, namely: the valleys of the Nile and of the Congo,
+the borders of the great Gulf of Guinea, the Sudan, and South Africa.
+These divisions do not cover all of Negro Africa, but they take in the
+main areas and the main lines in development.
+
+First, we turn to the valley of the Nile, perhaps the most ancient of
+known seats of civilization in the world, and certainly the oldest in
+Africa, with a culture reaching back six or eight thousand years. Like all
+civilizations it drew largely from without and undoubtedly arose in the
+valley of the Nile, because that valley was so easily made a center for
+the meeting of men of all types and from all parts of the world. At the
+same time Egyptian civilization seems to have been African in its
+beginnings and in its main line of development, despite strong influences
+from all parts of Asia. Of what race, then, were the Egyptians? They
+certainly were not white in any sense of the modern use of that
+word--neither in color nor physical measurement, in hair nor countenance,
+in language nor social customs. They stood in relationship nearest the
+Negro race in earliest times, and then gradually through the infiltration
+of Mediterranean and Semitic elements became what would be described in
+America as a light mulatto stock of Octoroons or Quadroons. This stock was
+varied continually; now by new infiltration of Negro blood from the south,
+now by Negroid and Semitic blood from the east, now by Berber types from
+the north and west.
+
+Egyptian monuments show distinctly Negro and mulatto faces. Herodotus, in
+an incontrovertible passage, alludes to the Egyptians as "black and
+curly-haired"[4]--a peculiarly significant statement from one used to the
+brunette Mediterranean type; in another passage, concerning the fable of
+the Dodonian Oracle, he again alludes to the swarthy color of the
+Egyptians as exceedingly dark and even black. Æschylus, mentioning a boat
+seen from the shore, declares that its crew are Egyptians, because of
+their black complexions.
+
+Modern measurements, with all their admitted limitations, show that in the
+Thebaid from one-seventh to one-third of the Egyptian population were
+Negroes, and that of the predynastic Egyptians less than half could be
+classed as non-Negroid. Judging from measurements in the tombs of nobles
+as late as the eighteenth dynasty, Negroes form at least one-sixth of the
+higher class.[5]
+
+Such measurements are by no means conclusive, but they are apt to be
+under rather than over statements of the prevalence of Negro blood. Head
+measurements of Negro Americans would probably place most of them in the
+category of whites. The evidence of language also connects Egypt with
+Africa and the Negro race rather than with Asia, while religious
+ceremonies and social customs all go to strengthen this evidence.
+
+The ethnic history of Northeast Africa would seem, therefore, to have been
+this: predynastic Egypt was settled by Negroes from Ethiopia. They were of
+varied type: the broad-nosed, woolly-haired type to which the word "Negro"
+is sometimes confined; the black, curly-haired, sharper featured type,
+which must be considered an equally Negroid variation. These Negroes met
+and mingled with the invading Mediterranean race from North Africa and
+Asia. Thus the blood of the sallower race spread south and that of the
+darker race north. Black priests appear in Crete three thousand years
+before Christ, and Arabia is to this day thoroughly permeated with Negro
+blood. Perhaps, as Chamberlain says, "one of the prime reasons why no
+civilization of the type of that of the Nile arose in other parts of the
+continent, if such a thing were at all possible, was that Egypt acted as a
+sort of channel by which the genius of Negro-land was drafted off into the
+service of Mediterranean and Asiatic culture."[6]
+
+To one familiar with the striking and beautiful types arising from the
+mingling of Negro with Latin and Germanic types in America, the puzzle of
+the Egyptian type is easily solved. It was unlike any of its neighbors and
+a unique type until one views the modern mulatto; then the faces of
+Rahotep and Nefert, of Khafra and Amenemhat I, of Aahmes and Nefertari,
+and even of the great Ramessu II, become curiously familiar.
+
+The history of Egypt is a science in itself. Before the reign of the first
+recorded king, five thousand years or more before Christ, there had
+already existed in Egypt a culture and art arising by long evolution from
+the days of paleolithic man, among a distinctly Negroid people. About 4777
+B.C. Aha-Mena began the first of three successive Egyptian empires. This
+lasted two thousand years, with many Pharaohs, like Khafra of the Fourth
+Dynasty, of a strongly Negroid cast of countenance.
+
+At the end of the period the empire fell apart into Egyptian and Ethiopian
+halves, and a silence of three centuries ensued. It is quite possible that
+an incursion of conquering black men from the south poured over the land
+in these years and dotted Egypt in the next centuries with monuments on
+which the full-blooded Negro type is strongly and triumphantly impressed.
+The great Sphinx at Gizeh, so familiar to all the world, the Sphinxes of
+Tanis, the statue from the Fayum, the statue of the Esquiline at Rome,
+and the Colossi of Bubastis all represent black, full-blooded Negroes and
+are described by Petrie as "having high cheek bones, flat cheeks, both in
+one plane, a massive nose, firm projecting lips, and thick hair, with an
+austere and almost savage expression of power."[7]
+
+Blyden, the great modern black leader of West Africa, said of the Sphinx
+at Gizeh: "Her features are decidedly of the African or Negro type, with
+'expanded nostrils.' If, then, the Sphinx was placed here--looking out in
+majestic and mysterious silence over the empty plain where once stood the
+great city of Memphis in all its pride and glory, as an 'emblematic
+representation of the king'--is not the inference clear as to the peculiar
+type or race to which that king belonged?"[8]
+
+The middle empire arose 3064 B.C. and lasted nearly twenty-four centuries.
+Under Pharaohs whose Negro descent is plainly evident, like Amenemhat I
+and III and Usertesen I, the ancient glories of Egypt were restored and
+surpassed. At the same time there is strong continuous pressure from the
+wild and unruly Negro tribes of the upper Nile valley, and we get some
+idea of the fear which they inspired throughout Egypt when we read of the
+great national rejoicing which followed the triumph of Usertesen III (c.
+2660-22) over these hordes. He drove them back and attempted to confine
+them to the edge of the Nubian Desert above the Second Cataract. Hemmed in
+here, they set up a state about this time and founded Nepata.
+
+Notwithstanding this repulse of black men, less than one hundred years
+later a full-blooded Negro from the south, Ra Nehesi, was seated on the
+throne of the Pharaohs and was called "The king's eldest son." This may
+mean that an incursion from the far south had placed a black conqueror on
+the throne. At any rate, the whole empire was in some way shaken, and two
+hundred years later the invasion of the Hyksos began. The domination of
+Hyksos kings who may have been Negroids from Asia[9] lasted for five
+hundred years.
+
+The redemption of Egypt from these barbarians came from Upper Egypt, led
+by the mulatto Aahmes. He founded in 1703 B.C. the new empire, which
+lasted fifteen hundred years. His queen, Nefertari, "the most venerated
+figure of Egyptian history,"[10] was a Negress of great beauty, strong
+personality, and of unusual administrative force. She was for many years
+joint ruler with her son, Amenhotep I, who succeeded his father.[11]
+
+The new empire was a period of foreign conquest and internal splendor and
+finally of religious dispute and overthrow. Syria was conquered in these
+reigns and Asiatic civilization and influences poured in upon Egypt. The
+great Tahutmes III, whose reign was "one of the grandest and most eventful
+in Egyptian history,"[12] had a strong Negroid countenance, as had also
+Queen Hatshepsut, who sent the celebrated expedition to reopen ancient
+trade with the Hottentots of Punt. A new strain of Negro blood came to the
+royal line through Queen Mutemua about 1420 B.C., whose son, Amenhotep
+III, built a great temple at Luqsor and the Colossi at Memnon.
+
+The whole of the period in a sense culminated in the great Ramessu II, the
+oppressor of the Hebrews, who with his Egyptian, Libyan, and Negro armies
+fought half the world. His reign, however, was the beginning of decline,
+and foes began to press Egypt from the white north and the black south.
+The priests transferred their power at Thebes, while the Assyrians under
+Nimrod overran Lower Egypt. The center of interest is now transferred to
+Ethiopia, and we pass to the more shadowy history of that land.
+
+The most perfect example of Egyptian poetry left to us is a celebration of
+the prowess of Usertesen III in confining the turbulent Negro tribes to
+the territory below the Second Cataract of the Nile. The Egyptians called
+this territory Kush, and in the farthest confines of Kush lay Punt, the
+cradle of their race. To the ancient Mediterranean world Ethiopia (i.e.,
+the Land of the Black-faced) was a region of gods and fairies. Zeus and
+Poseidon feasted each year among the "blameless Ethiopians," and Black
+Memnon, King of Ethiopia, was one of the greatest of heroes.
+
+"The Ethiopians conceive themselves," says Diodorus Siculus (Lib. III),
+"to be of greater antiquity than any other nation; and it is probable
+that, born under the sun's path, its warmth may have ripened them earlier
+than other men. They suppose themselves also to be the inventors of divine
+worship, of festivals, of solemn assemblies, of sacrifices, and every
+religious practice. They affirm that the Egyptians are one of their
+colonies."
+
+The Egyptians themselves, in later days, affirmed that they and their
+civilization came from the south and from the black tribes of Punt, and
+certainly "at the earliest period in which human remains have been
+recovered Egypt and Lower Nubia appear to have formed culturally and
+racially one land."[13]
+
+The forging ahead of Egypt in culture was mainly from economic causes.
+Ethiopia, living in a much poorer land with limited agricultural
+facilities, held to the old arts and customs, and at the same time lost
+the best elements of its population to Egypt, absorbing meantime the
+oncoming and wilder Negro tribes from the south and west. Under the old
+empire, therefore, Ethiopia remained in comparative poverty, except as
+some of its tribes invaded Egypt with their handicrafts.
+
+As soon as the civilization below the Second Cataract reached a height
+noticeably above that of Ethiopia, there was continued effort to protect
+that civilization against the incursion of barbarians. Hundreds of
+campaigns through thousands of years repeatedly subdued or checked the
+blacks and brought them in as captives to mingle their blood with the
+Egyptian nation; but the Egyptian frontier was not advanced.
+
+A separate and independent Ethiopian culture finally began to arise during
+the middle empire of Egypt and centered at Nepata and Meroe. Widespread
+trade in gold, ivory, precious stones, skins, wood, and works of
+handicraft arose.[14] The Negro began to figure as the great trader of
+Egypt.
+
+This new wealth of Ethiopia excited the cupidity of the Pharaohs and led
+to aggression and larger intercourse, until at last, when the dread Hyksos
+appeared, Ethiopia became both a physical and cultural refuge for
+conquered Egypt. The legitimate Pharaohs moved to Thebes, nearer the
+boundaries of Ethiopia, and from here, under Negroid rulers, Lower Egypt
+was redeemed.
+
+The ensuing new empire witnessed the gradual incorporation of Ethiopia
+into Egypt, although the darker kingdom continued to resist. Both mulatto
+Pharaohs, Aahmes and Amenhotep I, sent expeditions into Ethiopia, and in
+the latter's day sons of the reigning Pharaoh began to assume the title of
+"Royal Son of Kush" in some such way as the son of the King of England
+becomes the Prince of Wales.
+
+Trade relations were renewed with Punt under circumstances which lead us
+to place that land in the region of the African lakes. The Sudanese tribes
+were aroused by these and other incursions, until the revolts became
+formidable in the fourteenth century before Christ.
+
+Egyptian culture, however, gradually conquered Ethiopia where her armies
+could not, and Egyptian religion and civil rule began to center in the
+darker kingdom. When, therefore, Shesheng I, the Libyan, usurped the
+throne of the Pharaohs in the tenth century B.C., the Egyptian legitimate
+dynasty went to Nepata as king priests and established a theocratic
+monarchy. Gathering strength, the Ethiopian kingdom under this dynasty
+expanded north about 750 B.C. and for a century ruled all Egypt.
+
+The first king, Pankhy, was Egyptian bred and not noticeably Negroid, but
+his successors showed more and more evidence of Negro blood--Kashta the
+Kushite, Shabaka, Tarharqa, and Tanutamen. During the century of Ethiopian
+rule a royal son was appointed to rule Egypt, just as formerly a royal
+Egyptian had ruled Kush. In many ways this Ethiopian kingdom showed its
+Negro peculiarities: first, in its worship of distinctly Sudanese gods;
+secondly, in the rigid custom of female succession in the kingdom, and
+thirdly, by the election of kings from the various royal claimants to the
+throne. "It was the heyday of the Negro. For the greater part of the
+century ... Egypt itself was subject to the blacks, just as in the new
+empire the Sudan had been subject to Egypt."[15]
+
+Egypt now began to fall into the hands of Asia and was conquered first by
+the Assyrians and then by the Persians, but the Ethiopian kings kept their
+independence. Aspeluta, whose mother and sister are represented as
+full-blooded Negroes, ruled from 630 to 600 B.C. Horsiatef (560-525 B.C.)
+made nine expeditions against the warlike tribes south of Meroe, and his
+successor, Nastosenen (525-500 B.C.) was the one who repelled Cambyses. He
+also removed the capital from Nepata to Meroe, although Nepata continued
+to be the religious capital and the Ethiopian kings were still crowned on
+its golden throne.
+
+From the fifth to the second century B.C. we find the wild Sudanese tribes
+pressing in from the west and Greek culture penetrating from the east.
+King Arg-Amen (Ergamenes) showed strong Greek influences and at the same
+time began to employ the Ethiopian speech in writing and used a new
+Ethiopian alphabet.
+
+While the Ethiopian kings were still crowned at Nepata, Meroe gradually
+became the real capital and supported at one time four thousand artisans
+and two hundred thousand soldiers. It was here that the famous Candaces
+reigned as queens. Pliny tells us that one Candace of the time of Nero had
+had forty-four predecessors on the throne, while another Candace figures
+in the New Testament.[16]
+
+It was probably this latter Candace who warred against Rome at the time of
+Augustus and received unusual consideration from her formidable foe. The
+prestige of Ethiopia at this time was considerable throughout the world.
+Pseudo-Callisthenes tells an evidently fabulous story of the visit of
+Alexander the Great to Candace, Queen of Meroe, which nevertheless
+illustrates her fame: Candace will not let him enter Ethiopia and says he
+is not to scorn her people because they are black, for they are whiter in
+soul than his white folk. She sent him gold, maidens, parrots, sphinxes,
+and a crown of emeralds and pearls. She ruled eighty tribes, who were
+ready to punish those who attacked her.
+
+The Romans continued to have so much trouble with their Ethiopian frontier
+that finally, when Semitic mulattoes appeared in the east, the Emperor
+Diocletian invited the wild Sudanese tribe of Nubians (Nobadæ) from the
+west to repel them. These Nubians eventually embraced Christianity, and
+northern Ethiopia came to be known in time as Nubia.
+
+The Semitic mulattoes from the east came from the highlands bordering the
+Red Sea and Asia. On both sides of this sea Negro blood is strongly in
+evidence, predominant in Africa and influential in Asia. Ludolphus,
+writing in the seventeenth century, says that the Abyssinians "are
+generally black, which [color] they most admire." Trade and war united the
+two shores, and merchants have passed to and fro for thirty centuries.
+
+In this way Arabian, Jewish, Egyptian, Greek, and Roman influences spread
+slowly upon the Negro foundation. Early legendary history declares that a
+queen, Maqueda, or Nikaula of Sheba, a state of Central Abyssinia, visited
+Solomon in 1050 B.C. and had her son Menelik educated in Jerusalem. This
+was the supposed beginning of the Axumite kingdom, the capital of which,
+Axume, was a flourishing center of trade. Ptolemy Evergetes and his
+successors did much to open Abyssinia to the world, but most of the
+population of that day was nomadic. In the fourth century Byzantine
+influences began to be felt, and in 330 St. Athanasius of Alexandria
+consecrated Fromentius as Bishop of Ethiopia. He tutored the heir to the
+Abyssinian kingdom and began its gradual christianization. By the early
+part of the sixth century Abyssinia was trading with India and Byzantium
+and was so far recognized as a Christian country that the Emperor
+Justinian appealed to King Kaleb to protect the Christians in southwestern
+Arabia. Kaleb conquered Yemen in 525 and held it fifty years.
+
+Eventually a Jewish princess, Judith, usurped the Axumite throne; the
+Abyssinians were expelled from Arabia, and a long period begins when as
+Gibbon says, "encompassed by the enemies of their religion, the Ethiopians
+slept for nearly a thousand years, forgetful of the world by whom they
+were forgotten." Throughout the middle ages, however, the legend of a
+great Christian kingdom hidden away in Africa persisted, and the search
+for Prester John became one of the world quests.
+
+It was the expanding power of Abyssinia that led Rome to call in the
+Nubians from the western desert. The Nubians had formed a strong league of
+tribes, and as the ancient kingdom of Ethiopia declined they drove back
+the Abyssinians, who had already established themselves at Meroe.
+
+In the sixth century the Nubians were converted to Christianity by a
+Byzantine priest, and they immediately began to develop. A new capital,
+Dongola, replaced Nepata and Meroe, and by the twelfth century churches
+and brick dwellings had appeared. As the Mohammedan flood pressed up the
+Nile valley it was the Nubians that held it back for two centuries.
+
+Farther south other wild tribes pushed out of the Sudan and began a
+similar development. Chief among these were the Fung, who fixed their
+capital at Senaar, at the junction of the White and Blue Nile. When the
+Mohammedan flood finally passed over Nubia, the Fung diverted it by
+declaring themselves Moslems. This left the Fung as the dominant power in
+the fifteenth century from the Three Cataracts to Fazogli and from the Red
+Sea at Suakin to the White Nile. Islam then swept on south in a great
+circle, skirted the Great Lakes, and then curled back to Somaliland,
+completely isolating Abyssinia.
+
+Between the thirteenth and sixteenth centuries the Egyptian Sudan became a
+congeries of Mohammedan kingdoms with Arab, mulatto, and Negro kings. Far
+to the west, near Lake Chad, arose in 1520 the sultanate of Baghirmi,
+which reached its highest power in the seventh century. This dynasty was
+overthrown by the Negroid Mabas, who established Wadai to the eastward
+about 1640. South of Wadai lay the heathen and cannibals of the Congo
+valley, against which Islam never prevailed. East of Wadai and nearer the
+Nile lay the kindred state of Darfur, a Nubian nation whose sultans
+reigned over two hundred years and which reached great prosperity in the
+early seventeenth century under Soliman Solon.
+
+Before the Mohammedan power reached Abyssinia the Portuguese pioneers had
+entered the country from the east and begun to open the country again to
+European knowledge. Without doubt, in the centuries of silence, a
+civilization of some height had flourished in Abyssinia, but all authentic
+records were destroyed by fire in the tenth century. When the Portuguese
+came, the older Axumite kingdom had fallen and had been succeeded by a
+number of petty states.
+
+The Sudanese kingdoms of the Sudan resisted the power of the Mameluke beys
+in Egypt, and later the power of the Turks until the nineteenth century,
+when the Sudan was made nominally a part of Egypt. Continuous upheaval,
+war, and conquest had by this time done their work, and little of ancient
+Ethiopian culture survived except the slave trade.
+
+The entrance of England into Egypt, after the building of the Suez Canal,
+stirred up eventually revolt in the Sudan, for political, economic, and
+religious reasons. Led by a Sudanese Negro, Mohammed Ahmad, who claimed to
+be the Messiah (Mahdi), the Sudan arose in revolt in 1881, determined to
+resist a hated religion, foreign rule, and interference with their chief
+commerce, the trade in slaves. The Sudan was soon aflame, and the able
+mulatto general, Osman Digna, aided by revolt among the heathen Dinka,
+drove Egypt and England out of the Sudan for sixteen years. It was not
+until 1898 that England reëntered the Sudan and in petty revenge
+desecrated the bones of the brave, even if misguided, prophet.
+
+Meantime this Mahdist revolt had delayed England's designs on Abyssinia,
+and the Italians, replacing her, attempted a protectorate. Menelik of
+Shoa, one of the smaller kingdoms of Abyssinia, was a shrewd man of
+predominantly Negro blood, and had been induced to make a treaty with the
+Italians after King John had been killed by the Mahdists. The exact terms
+of the treaty were disputed, but undoubtedly the Italians tried by this
+means to reduce Menelik to vassalage. Menelik stoutly resisted, and at the
+great battle of Adua, one of the decisive battles of the modern world, the
+Abyssinians on March 1, 1896, inflicted a crushing defeat on the Italians,
+killing four thousand of them and capturing two thousand prisoners. The
+empress, Taitou, a full-blooded Negress, led some of the charges. By this
+battle Abyssinia became independent.
+
+Such in vague and general outline is the strange story of the valley of
+the Nile--of Egypt, the motherland of human culture and
+
+"That starr'd Ethiop Queen that strove To set her beauty's praise above
+The sea nymphs."
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[4] [Greek: "autos de eikasa têde kai hote melanchroes eisi kai
+oulotriches."] Liber II, Cap. 104.
+
+[5] Cf. Maciver and Thompson: _Ancient Races of the Thebaid_.
+
+[6] _Journal of Race Development_, I, 484.
+
+[7] Petrie: _History of Egypt_, I, 51, 237.
+
+[8] _From West Africa to Palestine_, p. 114.
+
+[9] Depending partly on whether the so-called Hyksos sphinxes belong to
+the period of the Hyksos kings or to an earlier period (cf. Petrie, I,
+52-53, 237). That Negroids largely dominated in the early history of
+western Asia is proven by the monuments.
+
+[10] Petrie: _History of Egypt_, II, 337.
+
+[11] Chamberlain: _Journal of Race Development_, April, 1911.
+
+[12] Petrie: _History of Egypt_, II, 337.
+
+[13] Reisner: _Archeological Survey of Nubia_, I, 319.
+
+[14] Hoskins declares that the arch had its origin in Ethiopia.
+
+[15] Maciver and Wooley: _Areika_, p. 2.
+
+[16] Acts VIII, 27.
+
+
+
+
+IV THE NIGER AND ISLAM
+
+
+The Arabian expression "Bilad es Sudan" (Land of the Blacks) was applied
+to the whole region south of the Sahara, from the Atlantic to the Nile. It
+is a territory some thirty-five hundred miles by six hundred miles,
+containing two million square miles, and has to-day a population of
+perhaps eighty million. It is thus two-thirds the size of the United
+States and quite as thickly settled. In the western Sudan the Niger plays
+the same role as the Nile in the east. In this chapter we follow the
+history of the Niger.
+
+The history of this part of Africa was probably something as follows:
+primitive man, entering Africa from Arabia, found the Great Lakes, spread
+in the Nile valley, and wandered westward to the Niger. Herodotus tells of
+certain youths who penetrated the desert to the Niger and found there a
+city of black dwarfs. Succeeding migrations of Negroes and Negroids pushed
+the dwarfs gradually into the inhospitable forests and occupied the Sudan,
+pushing on to the Atlantic. Here the newcomers, curling northward, met the
+Mediterranean race coming down across the western desert, while to the
+southward the Negro came to the Gulf of Guinea and the thick forests of
+the Congo valley. Indigenous civilizations arose on the west coast in
+Yoruba and Benin, and contact of these with the Mediterranean race in the
+desert, and with Egyptian and Arab from the east, gave rise to centers of
+Negro culture in the Sudan at Ghana and Melle and in Songhay, Nupe, the
+Hausa states, and Bornu.
+
+The history of the Sudan thus leads us back again to Ethiopia, that
+strange and ancient center of world civilization whose inhabitants in the
+ancient world were considered to be the most pious and the oldest of men.
+From this center the black originators of African culture, and to a large
+degree of world culture, wandered not simply down the Nile, but also
+westward. These Negroes developed the original substratum of culture which
+later influences modified but never displaced.
+
+We know that Egyptian Pharaohs in several cases ventured into the western
+Sudan and that Egyptian influences are distinctly traceable. Greek and
+Byzantine culture and Phoenician and Carthaginian trade also penetrated,
+while Islam finally made this whole land her own. Behind all these
+influences, however, stood from the first an indigenous Negro culture. The
+stone figures of Sherbro, the megaliths of Gambia, the art and industry of
+the west coast are all too deep and original evidences of civilization to
+be merely importations from abroad.
+
+Nor was the Sudan the inert recipient of foreign influence when it came.
+According to credible legend, the "Great King" at Byzantium imported
+glass, tin, silver, bronze, cut stones, and other treasure from the Sudan.
+Embassies were sent and states like Nupe recognized the suzerainty of the
+Byzantine emperor. The people of Nupe especially were filled with pride
+when the Byzantine people learned certain kinds of work in bronze and
+glass from them, and this intercourse was only interrupted by the
+Mohammedan conquest.
+
+To this ancient culture, modified somewhat by Byzantine and Christian
+influences, came Islam. It approached from the northwest, coming
+stealthily and slowly and being handed on particularly by the Mandingo
+Negroes. About 1000-1200 A.D. the situation was this: Ghana was on the
+edge of the desert in the north, Mandingoland between the Niger and the
+Senegal in the south and the western Sahara, Djolof was in the west on the
+Senegal, and the Songhay on the Niger in the center. The Mohammedans came
+chiefly as traders and found a trade already established. Here and there
+in the great cities were districts set aside for these new merchants, and
+the Mohammedans gave frequent evidence of their respect for these black
+nations.
+
+Islam did not found new states, but modified and united Negro states
+already ancient; it did not initiate new commerce, but developed a
+widespread trade already established. It is, as Frobenius says, "easily
+proved from chronicles written in Arabic that Islam was only effective in
+fact as a fertilizer and stimulant. The essential point is the
+resuscitative and invigorative concentration of Negro power in the service
+of a new era and a Moslem propaganda, as well as the reaction thereby
+produced."[17]
+
+Early in the eighth century Islam had conquered North Africa and converted
+the Berbers. Aided by black soldiers, the Moslems crossed into Spain; in
+the following century Berber and Arab armies crossed the west end of the
+Sahara and came to Negroland. Later in the eleventh century Arabs
+penetrated the Sudan and Central Africa from the east, filtering through
+the Negro tribes of Darfur, Kanem, and neighboring regions. The Arabs were
+too nearly akin to Negroes to draw an absolute color line. Antar, one of
+the great pre-Islamic poets of Arabia, was the son of a black woman, and
+one of the great poets at the court of Haroun al Raschid was black. In the
+twelfth century a learned Negro poet resided at Seville, and Sidjilmessa,
+the last town in Lower Morocco toward the desert, was founded in 757 by a
+Negro who ruled over the Berber inhabitants. Indeed, many towns in the
+Sudan and the desert were thus ruled, and felt no incongruity in this
+arrangement. They say, to be sure, that the Moors destroyed Audhoghast
+because it paid tribute to the black town of Ghana, but this was because
+the town was heathen and not because it was black. On the other hand,
+there is a story that a Berber king overthrew one of the cities of the
+Sudan and all the black women committed suicide, being too proud to allow
+themselves to fall into the hands of white men.
+
+In the west the Moslems first came into touch with the Negro kingdom of
+Ghana. Here large quantities of gold were gathered in early days, and we
+have names of seventy-four rulers before 300 A.D. running through
+twenty-one generations. This would take us back approximately a thousand
+years to 700 B.C., or about the time that Pharaoh Necho of Egypt sent out
+the Phoenician expedition which circumnavigated Africa, and possibly
+before the time when Hanno, the Carthaginian, explored the west coast of
+Africa.
+
+By the middle of the eleventh century Ghana was the principal kingdom in
+the western Sudan. Already the town had a native and a Mussulman quarter,
+and was built of wood and stone with surrounding gardens. The king had an
+army of two hundred thousand and the wealth of the country was great. A
+century later the king had become Mohammedan in faith and had a palace
+with sculptures and glass windows. The great reason for this development
+was the desert trade. Gold, skins, ivory, kola nuts, gums, honey, wheat,
+and cotton were exported, and the whole Mediterranean coast traded in the
+Sudan. Other and lesser black kingdoms like Tekrou, Silla, and Masina
+surrounded Ghana.
+
+In the early part of the thirteenth century the prestige of Ghana began to
+fall before the rising Mandingan kingdom to the west. Melle, as it was
+called, was founded in 1235 and formed an open door for Moslem and Moorish
+traders. The new kingdom, helped by its expanding trade, began to grow,
+and Islam slowly surrounded the older Negro culture west, north, and east.
+However, a great mass of the older heathen culture, pushing itself upward
+from the Guinea coast, stood firmly against Islam down to the nineteenth
+century.
+
+Steadily Mohammedanism triumphed in the growing states which almost
+encircled the protagonists of ancient Atlantic culture. Mandingan Melle
+eventually supplanted Ghana in prestige and power, after Ghana had been
+overthrown by the heathen Su Su from the south.
+
+The territory of Melle lay southeast of Ghana and some five hundred miles
+north of the Gulf of Guinea. Its kings were known by the title of Mansa,
+and from the middle of the thirteenth century to the middle of the
+fourteenth the Mellestine, as its dominion was called, was the leading
+power in the land of the blacks. Its greatest king, Mari Jalak (Mansa
+Musa), made his pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324, with a caravan of sixty
+thousand persons, including twelve thousand young slaves gowned in figured
+cotton and Persian silk. He took eighty camel loads of gold dust (worth
+about five million dollars) to defray his expenses, and greatly impressed
+the people of the East with his magnificence.
+
+On his return he found that Timbuktu had been sacked by the Mossi, but he
+rebuilt the town and filled the new mosque with learned blacks from the
+University of Fez. Mansa Musa reigned twenty-five years and "was
+distinguished by his ability and by the holiness of his life. The justice
+of his administration was such that the memory of it still lives."[18] The
+Mellestine preserved its preëminence until the beginning of the sixteenth
+century, when the rod of Sudanese empire passed to Songhay, the largest
+and most famous of the black empires.
+
+The known history of Songhay covers a thousand years and three dynasties
+and centers in the great bend of the Niger. There were thirty kings of the
+First Dynasty, reigning from 700 to 1335. During the reign of one of these
+the Songhay kingdom became the vassal kingdom of Melle, then at the height
+of its glory. In addition to this the Mossi crossed the valley, plundered
+Timbuktu in 1339, and separated Jenne, the original seat of the Songhay,
+from the main empire. The sixteenth king was converted to Mohammedanism in
+1009, and after that all the Songhay princes were Mohammedans. Mansa Musa
+took two young Songhay princes to the court of Melle to be educated in
+1326. These boys when grown ran away and founded a new dynasty in Songhay,
+that of the Sonnis, in 1355. Seventeen of these kings reigned, the last
+and greatest being Sonni Ali, who ascended the throne in 1464. Melle was
+at this time declining, other cities like Jenne, with its seven thousand
+villages, were rising, and the Tuaregs (Berbers with Negro blood) had
+captured Timbuktu.
+
+Sonni Ali was a soldier and began his career with the conquest of Timbuktu
+in 1469. He also succeeded in capturing Jenne and attacked the Mossi and
+other enemies on all sides. Finally he concentrated his forces for the
+destruction of Melle and subdued nearly the whole empire on the west bend
+of the Niger. In summing up Sonni Ali's military career the chronicle says
+of him, "He surpassed all his predecessors in the numbers and valor of his
+soldiery. His conquests were many and his renown extended from the rising
+to the setting of the sun. If it is the will of God, he will be long
+spoken of."[19]
+
+Sonni Ali was a Songhay Negro whose father was a Berber. He was succeeded
+by a full-blooded black, Mohammed Abou Bekr, who had been his prime
+minister. Mohammed was hailed as "Askia" (usurper) and is best known as
+Mohammed Askia. He was strictly orthodox where Ali was rather a scoffer,
+and an organizer where Ali was a warrior. On his pilgrimage to Mecca in
+1495 there was nothing of the barbaric splendor of Mansa Musa, but a
+brilliant group of scholars and holy men with a small escort of fifteen
+hundred soldiers and nine hundred thousand dollars in gold. He stopped and
+consulted with scholars and politicians and studied matters of taxation,
+weights and measures, trade, religious tolerance, and manners. In Cairo,
+where he was invested by the reigning caliph of Egypt, he may have heard
+of the struggle of Europe for the trade of the Indies, and perhaps of the
+parceling of the new world between Portugal and Spain. He returned to the
+Sudan in 1497, instituted a standing army of slaves, undertook a holy war
+against the indomitable Mossi, and finally marched against the Hausa. He
+subdued these cities and even imposed the rule of black men on the Berber
+town of Agades, a rich city of merchants and artificers with stately
+mansions. In fine Askia, during his reign, conquered and consolidated an
+empire two thousand miles long by one thousand wide at its greatest
+diameters; a territory as large as all Europe. The territory was divided
+into four vice royalties, and the system of Melle, with its
+semi-independent native dynasties, was carried out. His empire extended
+from the Atlantic to Lake Chad and from the salt mines of Tegazza and the
+town of Augila in the north to the 10th degree of north latitude toward
+the south.
+
+It was a six months' journey across the empire and, it is said, "he was
+obeyed with as much docility on the farthest limits of the empire as he
+was in his own palace, and there reigned everywhere great plenty and
+absolute peace."[20] The University of Sankore became a center of learning
+in correspondence with Egypt and North Africa and had a swarm of black
+Sudanese students. Law, literature, grammar, geography and surgery were
+studied. Askia the Great reigned thirty-six years, and his dynasty
+continued on the throne until after the Moorish conquest in 1591.
+
+Meanwhile, to the eastward, two powerful states appeared. They never
+disputed the military supremacy of Songhay, but their industrial
+development was marvelous. The Hausa states were formed by seven original
+cities, of which Kano was the oldest and Katsena the most famous. Their
+greatest leaders, Mohammed Rimpa and Ahmadu Kesoke, arose in the fifteenth
+and early sixteenth centuries. The land was subject to the Songhay, but
+the cities became industrious centers of smelting, weaving, and dyeing.
+Katsena especially, in the middle of the sixteenth century, is described
+as a place thirteen or fourteen miles in circumference, divided into
+quarters for strangers, for visitors from various other states, and for
+the different trades and industries, as saddlers, shoemakers, dyers, etc.
+
+Beyond the Hausa states and bordering on Lake Chad was Bornu. The people
+of Bornu had a large infiltration of Berber blood, but were predominantly
+Negro. Berber mulattoes had been kings in early days, but they were soon
+replaced by black men. Under the early kings, who can be traced back to
+the third century, these people had ruled nearly all the territory between
+the Nile and Lake Chad. The country was known as Kanem, and the pagan
+dynasty of Dugu reigned there from the middle of the ninth to the end of
+the eleventh century. Mohammedanism was introduced from Egypt at the end
+of the eleventh century, and under the Mohammedan kings Kanem became one
+of the first powers of the Sudan. By the end of the twelfth century the
+armies of Kanem were very powerful and its rulers were known as "Kings of
+Kanem and Lords of Bornu." In the thirteenth century the kings even dared
+to invade the southern country down toward the valley of the Congo.
+
+Meantime great things were happening in the world beyond the desert, the
+ocean, and the Nile. Arabian Mohammedanism had succumbed to the wild
+fanaticism of the Seljukian Turks. These new conquerors were not only
+firmly planted at the gates of Vienna, but had swept the shores of the
+Mediterranean and sent all Europe scouring the seas for their lost trade
+connections with the riches of India. Religious zeal, fear of conquest,
+and commercial greed inflamed Europe against the Mohammedan and led to the
+discovery of a new world, the riches of which poured first on Spain.
+Oppression of the Moors followed, and in 1502 they were driven back into
+Africa, despoiled and humbled. Here the Spaniards followed and harassed
+them and here the Turks, fighting the Christians, captured the
+Mediterranean ports and cut the Moors off permanently from Europe. In the
+slow years that followed, huddled in Northwest Africa, they became a
+decadent people and finally cast their eyes toward Negroland.
+
+The Moors in Morocco had come to look upon the Sudan as a gold mine, and
+knew that the Sudan was especially dependent upon salt. In 1545 Morocco
+claimed the principal salt mines at Tegazza, but the reigning Askia
+refused to recognize the claim.
+
+When the Sultan Elmansour came to the throne of Morocco, he increased the
+efficiency of his army by supplying it with fire arms and cannon.
+Elmansour determined to attack the Sudan and sent four hundred men under
+Pasha Djouder, who left Morocco in 1590. The Songhay, with their bows and
+arrows, were helpless against powder and shot, and they were defeated at
+Tenkadibou April 12, 1591. Askia Ishak, the king, offered terms, and
+Djouder Pasha referred them to Morocco. The sultan, angry with his
+general's delay, deposed him and sent another, who crushed and
+treacherously murdered the king and set up a puppet. Thereafter there were
+two Askias, one under the Moors at Timbuktu and one who maintained himself
+in the Hausa states, which the Moors could not subdue. Anarchy reigned in
+Songhay. The Moors tried to put down disorder with a high hand, drove out
+and murdered the distinguished men of Timbuktu, and as a result let loose
+a riot of robbery and decadence throughout the Sudan. Pasha now succeeded
+pasha with revolt and misrule until in 1612 the soldiers elected their own
+pasha and deliberately shut themselves up in the Sudan by cutting off
+approach from the north.
+
+Hausaland and Bornu were still open to Turkish and Mohammedan influence
+from the east, and the Gulf of Guinea to the slave trade from the south,
+but the face of the finest Negro civilization the modern world had ever
+produced was veiled from Europe and given to the defilement of wild
+Moorish soldiers. In 1623 it is written "excesses of every kind are now
+committed unchecked by the soldiery," and "the country is profoundly
+convulsed and oppressed."[21] The Tuaregs marched down from the desert and
+deprived the Moors of many of the principal towns. The rest of the empire
+of the Songhay was by the end of the eighteenth century divided among
+separate Moorish chiefs, who bought supplies from the Negro peasantry and
+were "at once the vainest, proudest, and perhaps the most bigoted,
+ferocious, and intolerant of all the nations of the south."[22] They lived
+a nomadic life, plundering the Negroes. To such depths did the mighty
+Songhay fall.
+
+As the Songhay declined a new power arose in the nineteenth century, the
+Fula. The Fula, who vary in race from Berber mulattoes to full-blooded
+Negroes, may be the result of a westward migration of some people like the
+"Leukoæthiopi" of Pliny, or they may have arisen from the migration of
+Berber mulattoes in the western oases, driven south by Romans and Arabs.
+
+These wandering herdsmen lived on the Senegal River and the ocean in very
+early times and were not heard of until the nineteenth century. By this
+time they had changed to a Negro or dark mulatto people and lived
+scattered in small communities between the Atlantic and Darfur. They were
+without political union or national sentiment, but were all Mohammedans.
+Then came a sudden change, and led by a religious fanatic, these despised
+and persecuted people became masters of the central Sudan. They were the
+ones who at last broke down that great wedge of resisting Atlantic
+culture, after it had been undermined and disintegrated by the American
+slave trade.
+
+Thus Islam finally triumphed in the Sudan and the ancient culture combined
+with the new. In the Sudan to-day one may find evidences of the union of
+two classes of people. The representatives of the older civilization dwell
+as peasants in small communities, carrying on industries and speaking a
+large number of different languages. With them or above them is the ruling
+Mohammedan caste, speaking four main languages: Mandingo, Hausa, Fula, and
+Arabic. These latter form the state builders. Negro blood predominates
+among both classes, but naturally there is more Berber blood among the
+Mohammedan invaders.
+
+Europe during the middle ages had some knowledge of these movements in the
+Sudan and Africa. Melle and Songhay appear on medieval maps. In literature
+we have many allusions: the mulatto king, Feirifis, was one of Wolfram von
+Eschenbach's heroes; Prester John furnished endless lore; Othello, the
+warrior, and the black king represented by medieval art as among the three
+wise men, and the various black Virgin Marys' all show legendary knowledge
+of what African civilization was at that time doing.
+
+It is a curious commentary on modern prejudice that most of this splendid
+history of civilization and uplift is unknown to-day, and men confidently
+assert that Negroes have no history.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[17] Frobenius: _Voice of Africa_, II, 359-360.
+
+[18] Ibn Khaldun, quoted in Lugard, p. 128.
+
+[19] Quoted in Lugard, p. 180.
+
+[20] Es-Sa 'di, quoted by Lugard, p. 199.
+
+[21] Lugard, p. 373.
+
+[22] Mungo Park, quoted in Lugard, p. 374.
+
+
+
+
+V GUINEA AND CONGO
+
+
+One of the great cities of the Sudan was Jenne. The chronicle says "that
+its markets are held every day of the week and its populations are very
+enormous. Its seven thousand villages are so near to one another that the
+chief of Jenne has no need of messengers. If he wishes to send a note to
+Lake Dibo, for instance, it is cried from the gate of the town and
+repeated from village to village, by which means it reaches its
+destination almost instantly."[23]
+
+
+
+From the name of this city we get the modern name Guinea, which is used
+to-day to designate the country contiguous to the great gulf of that
+name--a territory often referred to in general as West Africa. Here,
+reaching from the mouth of the Gambia to the mouth of the Niger, is a
+coast of six hundred miles, where a marvelous drama of world history has
+been enacted. The coast and its hinterland comprehends many well-known
+names. First comes ancient Guinea, then, modern Sierra Leone and Liberia;
+then follow the various "coasts" of ancient traffic--the grain, ivory,
+gold, and slave coasts--with the adjoining territories of Ashanti,
+Dahomey, Lagos, and Benin, and farther back such tribal and territorial
+names as those of the Mandingoes, Yorubas, the Mossi, Nupe, Borgu, and
+others.
+
+Recent investigation makes it certain that an ancient civilization existed
+on this coast which may have gone back as far as three thousand years
+before Christ. Frobenius, perhaps fancifully, identified this African
+coast with the Atlantis of the Greeks and as part of that great western
+movement in human culture, "beyond the pillars of Hercules," which
+thirteen centuries before Christ strove with Egypt and the East. It is, at
+any rate, clear that ancient commerce reached down the west coast. The
+Phoenicians, 600 B.C., and the Carthaginians, a century or more later,
+record voyages, and these may have been attempted revivals of still more
+ancient intercourse.
+
+These coasts at some unknown prehistoric period were peopled from the
+Niger plateau toward the north and west by the black West African type of
+Negro, while along the west end of the desert these Negroes mingled with
+the Berbers, forming various Negroid races.
+
+Movement and migration is evident along this coast in ancient and modern
+times. The Yoruba-Benin-Dahomey peoples were among the earliest arrivals,
+with their remarkable art and industry, which places them in some lines of
+technique abreast with the modern world. Behind them came the Mossi from
+the north, and many other peoples in recent days have filtered through,
+like the Limba and Temni of Sierra Leone and the Agni-Ashanti, who moved
+from Borgu some two thousand years ago to the Gold and Ivory coasts.
+
+We have already noted in the main the history of black men along the
+wonderful Niger and seen how, pushing up from the Gulf of Guinea, a
+powerful wedge of ancient culture held back Islam for a thousand years,
+now victorious, now stubbornly disputing every inch of retreat. The center
+of this culture lay probably, in oldest times, above the Bight of Benin,
+along the Slave Coast, and reached east, west, and north. We trace it
+to-day not only in the remarkable tradition of the natives, but in stone
+monuments, architecture, industrial and social organization, and works of
+art in bronze, glass, and terra cotta.
+
+Benin art has been practiced without interruption for centuries, and Von
+Luschan says that it is "of extraordinary significance that by the
+sixteenth and seventeenth centuries a local and monumental art had been
+learned in Benin which in many respects equaled European art and developed
+a technique of the very highest accomplishment."[24]
+
+Summing up Yoruban civilization, Frobenius concluded that "the technical
+summit of that civilization was reached in the terra-cotta industry, and
+that the most important achievements in art were not expressed in stone,
+but in fine clay baked in the furnace; that hollow casting was thoroughly
+known, too, and practiced by these people; that iron was mainly used for
+decoration; that, whatever their purpose, they kept their glass beads in
+stoneware urns within their own locality, and that they manufactured both
+earthen and glass ware; that the art of weaving was highly developed among
+them; that the stone monuments, it is true, show some dexterity in
+handling and are so far instructive, but in other respects evidence a
+cultural condition insufficiently matured to grasp the utility of stone
+monumental material; and, above all, that the then great and significant
+idea of the universe as imaged in the Templum was current in those
+days."[25]
+
+Effort has naturally been made to ascribe this civilization to white
+people. First it was ascribed to Portuguese influence, but much of it is
+evidently older than the Portuguese discovery. Egypt and India have been
+evoked and Greece and Carthage. But all these explanations are
+far-fetched. If ever a people exhibited unanswerable evidence of
+indigenous civilization, it is the west-coast Africans. Undoubtedly they
+adapted much that came to them, utilized new ideas, and grew from contact.
+But their art and culture is Negro through and through.
+
+Yoruba forms one of the three city groups of West Africa; another is
+around Timbuktu, and a third in the Hausa states. The Timbuktu cities have
+from five to fifteen hundred towns, while the Yoruba cities have one
+hundred and fifty thousand inhabitants and more. The Hausa cities are many
+of them important, but few are as large as the Yoruba cities and they lie
+farther apart. AH three centers, however, are connected with the Niger,
+and the group nearest the coast--that is, the Yoruba cities--has the
+greatest numbers of towns, the most developed architectural styles, and
+the oldest institutions.
+
+The Yoruba cities are not only different from the Sudanese in population,
+but in their social relations. The Sudanese cities were influenced from
+the desert and the Mediterranean, and form nuclei of larger surrounding
+monarchial states. The Yoruba cities, on the other hand, remained
+comparatively autonomous organizations down to modern times, and their
+relative importance changed from time to time without developing an
+imperialistic idea or subordinating the group to one overpowering city.
+
+This social and industrial state of the Yorubas formerly spread and
+wielded great influence. We find Yoruba reaching out and subduing states
+like Nupe toward the northward. But the industrial democracy and city
+autonomy of Yoruba lent itself indifferently to conquest, and the state
+fell eventually a victim to the fanatical Fula Mohammedans and was made a
+part of the modern sultanate of Gando.
+
+West of Yoruba on the lower courses of the Niger is Benin, an ancient
+state which in 1897 traced its twenty-three kings back one thousand years;
+some legends even named a line of sixty kings. It seems probable that
+Benin developed the imperial idea and once extended its rule into the
+Congo valley. Later and also to the west of the Yoruba come two states
+showing a fiercer and ruder culture, Dahomey and Ashanti. The state of
+Dahomey was founded by Tacondomi early in the seventeenth century, and
+developed into a fierce and bloody tyranny with wholesale murder. The king
+had a body of two thousand to five thousand Amazons renowned for their
+bravery and armed with rifles. The kingdom was overthrown by the French in
+1892-93. Under Sai Tutu, Ashanti arose to power in the seventeenth
+century. A military aristocracy with cruel blood sacrifices was formed. By
+1816 the king had at his disposal two hundred thousand soldiers. The
+Ashanti power was crushed by the English in the war of 1873-74.
+
+In these states and in later years in Benin the whole character of
+west-coast culture seems to change. In place of the Yoruban culture, with
+its city democracy, its elevated religious ideas, its finely organized
+industry, and its noble art, came Ashanti and Dahomey. What was it that
+changed the character of the west coast from this to the orgies of war and
+blood sacrifice which we read of later in these lands?
+
+There can be but one answer: the slave trade. Not simply the sale of men,
+but an organized traffic of such proportions and widely organized
+ramifications as to turn the attention and energies of men from nearly all
+other industries, encourage war and all the cruelest passions of war, and
+concentrate this traffic in precisely that part of Africa farthest from
+the ancient Mediterranean lines of trade.
+
+We need not assume that the cultural change was sudden or absolute.
+Ancient Yoruba had the cruelty of a semi-civilized land, but it was not
+dominant or tyrannical. Modern Benin and Dahomey showed traces of skill,
+culture, and industry along with inexplicable cruelty and
+bloodthirstiness. But it was the slave trade that turned the balance and
+set these lands backward. Dahomey was the last word in a series of human
+disasters which began with the defeat of the Askias at Tenkadibou.[26]
+
+From the middle of the fifteenth to the last half of the nineteenth
+centuries the American slave trade centered in Guinea and devastated the
+coast morally, socially, and physically. European rum and fire arms were
+traded for human beings, and it was not until 1787 that any measures were
+taken to counteract this terrible scourge. In that year the idea arose of
+repatriating stolen Negroes on that coast and establishing civilized
+centers to supplant the slave trade. About four hundred Negroes from
+England were sent to Sierra Leone, to whom the promoters considerately
+added sixty white prostitutes as wives. The climate on the low coast,
+however, was so deadly that new recruits were soon needed. An American
+Negro, Thomas Peters, who had served as sergeant under Sir Henry Clinton
+in the British army in America, went to England seeking an allotment of
+land for his fellows. The Sierra Leone Company welcomed him and offered
+free passage and land in Sierra Leone to the Negroes of Nova Scotia. As a
+result fifteen vessels sailed with eleven hundred and ninety Negroes in
+1792. Arriving in Africa, they found the chief white man in control there
+so drunk that he soon died of delirium tremens. John Clarkson, however,
+brother of Thomas Clarkson, the abolitionist, eventually took the lead,
+founded Freetown, and the colony began its checkered career. In 1896 the
+colony was saved from insurrection by the exiled Maroon Negroes from
+Jamaica. After 1833, when emancipation in English colonies took place,
+severer measures against the slave trade was possible and the colony began
+to grow. To-day its imports and exports amount to fifteen million dollars
+a year.
+
+Liberia was a similar American experiment. In 1816 American
+philanthropists decided that slavery was bound to die out, but that the
+problem lay in getting rid of the freed Negroes, of which there were then
+two hundred thousand in the United States. Accordingly the American
+Colonization Society was proposed this year and founded January 1, 1817,
+with Bushrod Washington as President. It was first thought to encourage
+migration to Sierra Leone, and eighty-eight Negroes were sent, but they
+were not welcomed. As a result territory was bought in the present
+confines of Liberia, December 15, 1821, and colonists began to arrive. A
+little later an African depot for recaptured slaves taken in the
+contraband slave trade, provided for in the Act of 1819, was established
+and an agent was sent to Africa to form a settlement. Gradually this
+settlement was merged with the settlement of the Colonization Society, and
+from this union Liberia was finally evolved.
+
+The last white governor of Liberia died in 1841 and was succeeded by the
+first colored governor, Joseph J. Roberts, a Virginian. The total
+population in 1843 was about twenty-seven hundred and ninety, and with
+this as a beginning in 1847 Governor Roberts declared the independence of
+the state. The recognition of Liberian independence by all countries
+except the United States followed in 1849. The United States, not wishing
+to receive a Negro minister, did not recognize Liberia until 1862.
+
+No sooner was the independence of Liberia announced than England and
+France began a long series of aggressions to limit her territory and
+sovereignty. Considerable territory was lost by treaty, and in the effort
+to get capital to develop the rest, Liberia was saddled with a debt of
+four hundred thousand dollars, of which she received less than one hundred
+thousand dollars in actual cash. Finally the Liberians turned to the
+United States for capital and protection. As a result the Liberian customs
+have been put under international control and Major Charles Young, the
+ranking Negro officer in the United States army, with several colored
+assistants, has been put in charge of the making of roads and drilling a
+constabulary to keep order in the interior.
+
+To-day Liberia has an area of forty thousand square miles, about three
+hundred and fifty miles of coast line, and an estimated total population
+of two million of which fifty thousand are civilized. The revenue amounted
+in 1913 to $531,500. The imports in 1912 were $1,667,857 and the exports
+$1,199,152. The latter consisted chiefly of rubber, palm oil and kernels,
+coffee, piassava fiber, ivory, ginger, camwood, and arnotto.
+
+Perhaps Liberia's greatest citizen was the late Edward Wilmot Blyden, who
+migrated in early life from the Danish West Indies and became a prophet of
+the renaissance of the Negro race.
+
+Turning now from Guinea we pass down the west coast. In 1482 Diego Cam of
+Portugal, sailing this coast, set a stone at the mouth of a great river
+which he called "The Mighty," but which eventually came to be known by the
+name of the powerful Negro kingdom through which it flowed--the Congo.
+
+We must think of the valley of the Congo with its intricate interlacing of
+water routes and jungle of forests as a vast caldron shut away at first
+from the African world by known and unknown physical hindrances. Then it
+was penetrated by the tiny red dwarfs and afterward horde after horde of
+tall black men swirled into the valley like a maelstrom, moving usually
+from north to east and from south to west.
+
+The Congo valley became, therefore, the center of the making of what we
+know to-day as the Bantu nations. They are not a unified people, but a
+congeries of tribes of considerable physical diversity, united by the
+compelling bond of language and other customs imposed on the conquered by
+invading conquerors.
+
+The history or these invasions we must to-day largely imagine. Between two
+and three thousand years ago the wilder tribes of Negroes began to move
+out of the region south or southeast of Lake Chad. This was always a land
+of shadows and legends, where fearful cannibals dwelt and where no
+Egyptian or Ethiopian or Sudanese armies dared to go. It is possible,
+however, that pressure from civilization in the Nile valley and rising
+culture around Lake Chad was at this time reënforced by expansion of the
+Yoruba-Benin culture on the west coast. Perhaps, too, developing culture
+around the Great Lakes in the east beckoned or the riotous fertility of
+the Congo valleys became known. At any rate the movement commenced, now by
+slow stages, now in wild forays. There may have been a preliminary
+movement from east to west to the Gulf of Guinea. The main movement,
+however, was eastward, skirting the Congo forests and passing down by the
+Victoria Nyanza and Lake Tanganyika. Here two paths beckoned: the lakes
+and the sea to the east, the Congo to the west. A great stream of men
+swept toward the ocean and, dividing, turned northward and fought its way
+down the Nile valley and into the Abyssinian highlands; another branch
+turned south and approached the Zambesi, where we shall meet it again.
+
+Another horde of invaders turned westward and entered the valley of the
+Congo in three columns. The northern column moved along the Lualaba and
+Congo rivers to the Cameroons; the second column became the industrial and
+state-building Luba and Lunda peoples in the southern Congo valley and
+Angola; while the third column moved into Damaraland and mingled with
+Bushman and Hottentot.
+
+In the Congo valley the invaders settled in village and plain, absorbed
+such indigenous inhabitants as they found or drove them deeper into the
+forest, and immediately began to develop industry and political
+organization. They became skilled agriculturists, raising in some
+localities a profusion of cereals, fruit, and vegetables such as manioc,
+maize, yams, sweet potatoes, ground nuts, sorghum, gourds, beans, peas,
+bananas, and plantains. Everywhere they showed skill in mining and the
+welding of iron, copper, and other metals. They made weapons, wire and
+ingots, cloth, and pottery, and a widespread system of trade arose. Some
+tribes extracted rubber from the talamba root; others had remarkable
+breeds of fowl and cattle, and still others divided their people by crafts
+into farmers, smiths, boat builders, warriors, cabinet makers, armorers,
+and speakers. Women here and there took part in public assemblies and were
+rulers in some cases. Large towns were built, some of which required hours
+to traverse from end to end.
+
+Many tribes developed intelligence of a high order. Wissmann called the Ba
+Luba "a nation of thinkers." Bateman found them "thoroughly and
+unimpeachably honest, brave to foolhardiness, and faithful to each other
+and to their superiors." One of their kings, Calemba, "a really princely
+prince," Bateman says would "amongst any people be a remarkable and indeed
+in many respects a magnificent man."[27]
+
+These beginnings of human culture were, however, peculiarly vulnerable to
+invading hosts of later comers. There were no natural protecting barriers
+like the narrow Nile valley or the Kong mountains or the forests below
+Lake Chad. Once the pathways to the valley were open and for hundreds of
+years the newcomers kept arriving, especially from the welter of tribes
+south of the Sudan and west of the Nile, which rising culture beyond kept
+in unrest and turmoil.
+
+Against these intruders there was but one defense, the State. State
+building was thus forced on the Congo valley. How early it started we
+cannot say, but when the Portuguese arrived in the fifteenth century,
+there had existed for centuries a large state among the Ba-Congo, with its
+capital at the city now known as San Salvador.
+
+The Negro Mfumu, or emperor, was eventually induced to accept
+Christianity. His sons and many young Negroes of high birth were taken to
+Portugal to be educated. There several were raised to the Catholic
+priesthood and one became bishop; others distinguished themselves at the
+universities. Thus suddenly there arose a Catholic kingdom south of the
+valley of the Congo, which lasted three centuries, but was partially
+overthrown by invading barbarians from the interior in the seventeenth
+century. A king of Congo still reigns as pensioner of Portugal, and on the
+coast to-day are the remains of the kingdom in the civilized blacks and
+mulattoes, who are intelligent traders and boat builders.
+
+Meantime the Luba-Lunda people to the eastward founded Kantanga and other
+states, and in the sixteenth century the larger and more ambitious realm
+of the Mwata Yamvo. The last of the fourteen rulers of this line was
+feudal lord of about three hundred chiefs, who paid him tribute in ivory,
+skins, corn, cloth, and salt. His territory included about one hundred
+thousand square miles and two million or more inhabitants. Eventually this
+state became torn by internal strife and revolt, especially by attacks
+from the south across the Congo-Zambesi divide.
+
+Farther north, among the Ba-Lolo and the Ba-Songo, the village policy
+persisted and the cannibals of the northeast pressed down on the more
+settled tribes. The result was a curious blending of war and industry,
+artistic tastes and savage customs.
+
+The organized slave trade of the Arabs penetrated the Congo valley in the
+sixteenth century and soon was aiding all the forces of unrest and
+turmoil. Industry was deranged and many tribes forced to take refuge in
+caves and other hiding places.
+
+Here, as on the west coast, disintegration and retrogression followed, for
+as the American traffic lessened, the Arabian traffic increased. When,
+therefore, Stanley opened the Congo valley to modern knowledge, Leopold II
+of Belgium conceived the idea of founding here a free international state
+which was to bring civilization to the heart of Africa. Consequently there
+was formed in 1878 an international committee to study the region. Stanley
+was finally commissioned to inquire as to the best way of introducing
+European trade and culture. "I am charged," he said, "to open and keep
+open, if possible, all such districts and countries as I may explore, for
+the benefit of the commercial world. The mission is supported by a
+philanthropic society, which numbers nobleminded men of several nations.
+It is not a religious society, but my instructions are entirely of that
+spirit. No violence must be used, and wherever rejected, the mission must
+withdraw to seek another field."[28]
+
+The Bula Matadi or Stone Breaker, as the natives called Stanley, threw
+himself energetically into the work and had by 1881 built a road past the
+falls to the plateau, where thousands of miles of river navigation were
+thus opened. Stations were established, and by 1884 Stanley returned armed
+with four hundred and fifty "treaties" with the native chiefs, and the new
+"State" appealed to the world for recognition.
+
+The United States first recognized the "Congo Free State," which was at
+last made a sovereign power under international guarantees by the Congress
+of Berlin in the year 1885, and Leopold II was chosen its king. The state
+had an area of about nine hundred thousand square miles, with a population
+of about thirty million.
+
+One of the first tasks before the new state was to check the Arab slave
+traders. The Arabs had hitherto acted as traders and middlemen along the
+upper Congo, and when the English and Congo state overthrew Mzidi, the
+reigning king in the Kantanga country, a general revolt of the Arabs and
+mulattoes took place. For a time, 1892-93, the whites were driven out, but
+in a year or two the Arabs and their allies were subdued.
+
+Humanity and commerce, however, did not replace the Arab slave traders.
+Rather European greed and serfdom were substituted. The land was
+confiscated by the state and farmed out to private Belgian corporations.
+The wilder cannibal tribes were formed into a militia to prey on the
+industrious, who were taxed with specific amounts of ivory and rubber, and
+scourged and mutilated if they failed to pay. Harris declares that King
+Leopold's regime meant the death of twelve million natives.
+
+"Europe was staggered at the Leopoldian atrocities, and they were terrible
+indeed; but what we, who were behind the scenes, felt most keenly was the
+fact that the real catastrophe in the Congo was the desolation and murder
+in the larger sense. The invasion of family life, the ruthless destruction
+of every social barrier, the shattering of every tribal law, the
+introduction of criminal practices which struck the chiefs of the people
+dumb with horror--in a word, a veritable avalanche of filth and immorality
+overwhelmed the Congo tribes."[29]
+
+So notorious did the exploitation and misrule become that Leopold was
+forced to take measures toward reform, and finally in 1909 the Free State
+became a Belgian colony. Some reforms have been inaugurated and others may
+follow, but the valley of the Congo will long stand as a monument of shame
+to Christianity and European civilization.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[23] Quoted in Du Bois: _Timbuktu_.
+
+[24] Von Luschan: _Verhandlungen der berliner Gesellschaft für
+Anthropologie_, etc., 1898.
+
+[25] Frobenius: _Voice of Africa_, Vol. I.
+
+[26] Cf. p. 58.
+
+[27] Keane: _Africa_, II, 117-118.
+
+[28] _The Congo_, I, Chap. III.
+
+[29] Harris: _Dawn in Africa_.
+
+
+
+
+VI THE GREAT LAKES AND ZYMBABWE
+
+
+We have already seen how a branch of the conquering Bantus turned eastward
+by the Great Lakes and thus reached the sea and eventually both the Nile
+and South Africa.
+
+This brought them into the ancient and mysterious land far up the Nile,
+south of Ethiopia. Here lay the ancient Punt of the Egyptians (whether we
+place it in Somaliland or, as seems far more likely, around the Great
+Lakes) and here, as the Egyptians thought, their civilization began. The
+earliest inhabitants of the land were apparently of the Bushman or
+Hottentot type of Negro. These were gradually pushed southward and
+westward by the intrusion of the Nilotic Negroes. Five thousand years
+before Christ the mulatto Egyptians were in the Nile valley below the
+First Cataract. The Negroes were in the Nile valley down as far as the
+Second Cataract and between the First and Second Cataracts were Negroes
+into whose veins Semitic blood had penetrated more or less. These mixed
+elements became the ancestors of the modern Somali, Gala, Bishari, and
+Beja and spread Negro blood into Arabia beyond the Red Sea. The Nilotic
+Negroes to the south early became great traders in ivory, gold, leopard
+skins, gums, beasts, birds, and slaves, and they opened up systematic
+trade between Egypt and the Great Lakes.
+
+The result was endless movement and migration both in ancient and modern
+days, which makes the cultural history of the Great Lakes region very
+difficult to understand. Three great elements are, however, clear: first,
+the Egyptian element, by the northward migration of the Negro ancestors of
+predynastic Egypt and the southern conquests and trade of dynastic Egypt;
+second, the Semitic influence from Arabia and Persia; third, the Negro
+influences from western and central Africa.
+
+The migration of the Bantu is the first clearly defined movement of modern
+times. As we have shown, they began to move southward at least a thousand
+years before Christ, skirting the Congo forests and wandering along the
+Great Lakes and down to the Zambesi. What did they find in this land?
+
+We do not know certainly, but from what we do know we may reconstruct the
+situation in this way: the primitive culture of the Hottentots of Punt had
+been further developed by them and by other stronger Negro stocks until it
+reached a highly developed culture. Widespread agriculture, and mining of
+gold, silver, and precious stones started a trade that penetrated to Asia
+and North Africa. This may have been the source of the gold of the Ophir.
+
+The state that thus arose became in time strongly organized; it employed
+slave labor in crushing the hard quartz, sinking pits, and carrying
+underground galleries; it carried out a system of irrigation and built
+stone buildings and fortifications. There exists to-day many remains of
+these building operations in the Kalahari desert and in northern Rhodesia.
+Five hundred groups, covering over an area of one hundred and fifty
+thousand square miles, lie between the Limpopo and Zambesi rivers. Mining
+operations have been carried on in these plains for generations, and one
+estimate is that at least three hundred and seventy-five million dollars'
+worth of gold had been extracted. Some have thought that the older
+workings must date back to one or even three thousand years before the
+Christian era.
+
+"There are other mines," writes De Barros in the seventeenth century,[30]
+"in a district called Toroa, which is otherwise known as the kingdom of
+Butua, whose ruler is a prince, by name Burrow, a vassal of Benomotapa.
+This land is near the other which we said consisted of extensive plains,
+and those ruins are the oldest that are known in that region. They are all
+in a plain, in the middle of which stands a square fortress, all of
+dressed stones within and without, well wrought and of marvelous size,
+without any lime showing the joinings, the walls of which are over
+twenty-five hands thick, but the height is not so great compared to the
+thickness. And above the gateway of that edifice is an inscription which
+some Moorish [Arab] traders who were there could not read, nor say what
+writing it was. All these structures the people of this country call
+Symbaoe [Zymbabwe], which with them means a court, for every place where
+Benomotapa stays is so called."
+
+Later investigation has shown that these buildings were in many cases
+carefully planned and built fortifications. At Niekerk, for instance, nine
+or ten hills are fortified on concentric walls thirty to fifty feet in
+number, with a place for the village at the top. The buildings are forts,
+miniature citadels, and also workshops and cattle kraals. Iron implements
+and handsome pottery were found here, and close to the Zambesi there are
+extraordinary fortifications. Farther south at Inyanga there is less
+strong defense, and at Umtali there are no fortifications, showing that
+builders feared invasion from the north.
+
+These people worked in gold, silver, tin, copper, and bronze and made
+beautiful pottery. There is evidence of religious significance in the
+buildings, and what is called the temple was the royal residence and
+served as a sort of acropolis. The surrounding residences in the valley
+were evidently occupied by wealthy traders and were not fortified. Here
+the gold was received from surrounding districts and bartered with
+traders.
+
+As usual there have been repeated attempts to find an external and
+especially an Asiatic origin for this culture. So far, however,
+archeological research seems to confirm its African origin. The
+implements, weapons, and art are characteristically African and there is
+no evident connection with outside sources. How far back this civilization
+dates it is difficult to say, a great deal depending upon the dating of
+the iron age in South Africa. If it was the same as in the Mediterranean
+regions, the earliest limit was 1000 B.C.; it might, however, have been
+much earlier, especially if, as seems probable, the use of iron originated
+in Africa. On the other hand the culmination of this culture has been
+placed by some as late as the modern middle ages.
+
+What was it that overthrew this civilization? Undoubtedly the same sort of
+raids of barbarous warriors that we have known in our day. For instance,
+in 1570 there came upon the country of Mozambique, farther up the coast,
+"such an inundation of pagans that they could not be numbered. They came
+from that part of Monomotapa where is the great lake from which spring
+these great rivers. They left no other signs of the towns they passed but
+the heaps of ruins and the bones of inhabitants." So, too, it is told how
+the Zimbas came, "a strange people never before seen there, who, leaving
+their own country, traversed a great part of this Ethiopia like a scourge
+of God, destroying every living thing they came across. They were twenty
+thousand strong and marched without children or women," just as four
+hundred years later the Zulu impi marched. Again in 1602 a horde of people
+came from the interior called the Cabires, or cannibals. They entered the
+kingdom of Monomotapa, and the reigning king, being weak, was in great
+terror. Thus gradually the Monomotapa fell, and its power was scattered
+until the Kaffir-Zulu raids of our day.[31]
+
+The Arab writer, Macoudi, in the tenth century visited the East African
+coast somewhere north of the equator. He found the Indian Sea at that time
+frequented by Arab and Persian vessels, but there were no Asiatic
+settlements on the African shore. The Bantu, or as he calls them, Zenji,
+inhabited the country as far south as Sofala, where they bordered upon the
+Bushmen. These Bantus were under a ruler with the dynastic title of
+Waklimi. He was paramount over all the other tribes of the north and could
+put three hundred thousand men in the field. They used oxen as beasts of
+burden and the country produced gold in abundance, while panther skin was
+largely used for clothing. Ivory was sold to Asia and the Bantu used iron
+for personal adornment instead of gold or silver. They rode on their oxen,
+which ran with great speed, and they ate millet and honey and the flesh of
+animals.
+
+Inland among the Bantu arose later the line of rulers called the
+Monomotapa among the gifted Makalanga. Their state was very extensive,
+ranging from the coast far into the interior and from Mozambique down to
+the Limpopo. It was strongly organized, with feudatory allied states, and
+carried on an extensive commerce by means of the traders on the coast. The
+kings were converted to nominal Christianity by the Portuguese.
+
+There are indications of trade between Nupe in West Africa and Sofala on
+the east coast, and certainly trade between Asia and East Africa is
+earlier than the beginning of the Christian era. The Asiatic traders
+settled on the coast and by means of mulatto and Negro merchants brought
+Central Africa into contact with Arabia, India, China, and Malaysia.
+
+The coming of the Asiatics was in this wise: Zaide, great-grandson of Ali,
+nephew and son-in-law of Mohammed, was banished from Arabia as a heretic.
+He passed over to Africa and formed temporary settlements. His people
+mingled with the blacks, and the resulting mulatto traders, known as the
+Emoxaidi, seem to have wandered as far south as the equator. Soon other
+Arabian families came over on account of oppression and founded the towns
+of Magadosho and Brava, both not far north of the equator. The first town
+became a place of importance and other settlements were made. The
+Emoxaidi, whom the later immigrants regarded as heretics, were driven
+inland and became the interpreting traders between the coast and the
+Bantu. Some wanderers from Magadosho came into the Port of Sofala and
+there learned that gold could be obtained. This led to a small Arab
+settlement at that place.
+
+Seventy years later, and about fifty years before the Norman conquest of
+England, certain Persians settled at Kilwa in East Africa, led by Ali, who
+had been despised in his land because he was the son of a black Abyssinian
+slave mother. Kilwa, because of this, eventually became the most important
+commercial station on the East African coast, and in this and all these
+settlements a very large mulatto population grew up, so that very soon the
+whole settlement was indistinguishable in color from the Bantu.
+
+In 1330 Ibn Batuta visited Kilwa. He found an abundance of ivory and some
+gold and heard that the inhabitants of Kilwa had gained victories over the
+Zenji or Bantu. Kilwa had at that time three hundred mosques and was
+"built of handsome houses of stone and lime, and very lofty, with their
+windows like those of the Christians; in the same way it has streets, and
+these houses have got terraces, and the wood-work is with the masonry,
+with plenty of gardens, in which there are many fruit trees and much
+water."[32] Kilwa after a time captured Sofala, seizing it from Magadosho.
+Eventually Kilwa became mistress of the island of Zanzibar, of Mozambique,
+and of much other territory. The forty-third ruler of Kilwa after Ali was
+named Abraham, and he was ruling when the Portuguese arrived. The latter
+reported that these people cultivated rice and cocoa, built ships, and had
+considerable commerce with Asia. All the people, of whatever color, were
+Mohammedans, and the richer were clothed in gorgeous robes of silk and
+velvet. They traded with the inland Bantus and met numerous tribes,
+receiving gold, ivory, millet, rice, cattle, poultry, and honey.
+
+On the islands the Asiatics were independent, but on the main lands south
+of Kilwa the sheiks ruled only their own people, under the overlordship of
+the Bantus, to whom they were compelled to pay large tribute each year.
+
+Vasco da Gama doubled the Cape of Good Hope in 1497 and went north on the
+east coast as far as India. In the next ten years the Portuguese had
+occupied more than six different points on that coast, including
+Sofala.[33]
+
+Thus civilization waxed and waned in East Africa among prehistoric
+Negroes, Arab and Persian mulattoes on the coast, in the Zend or Zeng
+empire of Bantu Negroes, and later in the Bantu rule of the Monomotapa.
+And thus, too, among later throngs of the fiercer, warlike Bantu, the
+ancient culture of the land largely died. Yet something survived, and in
+the modern Bantu state, language, and industry can be found clear links
+that establish the essential identity of the absorbed peoples with the
+builders of Zymbabwe.
+
+So far we have traced the history of the lands into which the southward
+stream of invading Bantus turned, and have followed them to the Limpopo
+River. We turn now to the lands north from Lake Nyassa.
+
+The aboriginal Negroes sustained in prehistoric time invasions from the
+northeast by Negroids of a type like the ancient Egyptians and like the
+modern Gallas, Masai, and Somalis. To these migrations were added attacks
+from the Nile Negroes to the north and the Bantu invaders from the south.
+This has led to great differences among the groups of the population and
+in their customs. Some are fierce mountaineers, occupying hilly plateaus
+six thousand feet above the sea level; others, like the Wa Swahili, are
+traders on the coast. There are the Masai, chocolate-colored and
+frizzly-haired, organized for war and cattle lifting; and Negroids like
+the Gallas, who, blending with the Bantus, have produced the race of
+modern Uganda.
+
+It was in this region that the kingdom of Kitwara was founded by the Galla
+chief, Kintu. About the beginning of the nineteenth century the empire was
+dismembered, the largest share falling to Uganda. The ensuing history of
+Uganda is of great interest. When King Mutesa came to the throne in 1862,
+he found Mohammedan influences in his land and was induced to admit
+English Protestants and French Catholics. Uganda thereupon became an
+extraordinary religious battlefield between these three beliefs. Mutesa's
+successor, Mwanga, caused an English bishop to be killed in 1885,
+believing (as has since proven quite true) that the religion he offered
+would be used as a cloak for conquest. The final result was that, after
+open war between the religions, Uganda was made an English protectorate in
+1894.
+
+The Negroes of Uganda are an intelligent people who had organized a
+complex feudal state. At the head stood the king, and under him twelve
+feudal lords. The present king, Daudi Chua, is the young grandson of
+Mutesa and rules under the overlordship of England.
+
+Many things show the connection between Egypt and this part of Africa. The
+same glass beads are found in Uganda and Upper Egypt, and similar canoes
+are built. Harps and other instruments bear great resemblance. Finally the
+Bahima, as the Galla invaders are called, are startlingly Egyptian in
+type; at the same time they are undoubtedly Negro in hair and color.
+Perhaps we have here the best racial picture of what ancient Egyptian and
+upper Nile regions were in predynastic times and later.
+
+Thus in outline was seen the mission of The People--La Bantu as they
+called themselves. They migrated, they settled, they tore down, and they
+learned, and they in turn were often overthrown by succeeding tribes of
+their own folk. They rule with their tongue and their power all Africa
+south of the equator, save where the Europeans have entered. They have
+never been conquered, although the gold and diamond traders have sought to
+debauch them, and the ivory and rubber capitalists have cruelly wronged
+their weaker groups. They are the Africans with whom the world of
+to-morrow must reckon, just as the world of yesterday knew them to its
+cost.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[30] Quoted in Bent: _Ruined Cities of Mashonaland_, pp. 203 ff.
+
+[31] Cf. "Ethiopia Oriental," by J. Dos Santos, in Theal's _Records of
+South Africa_, Vol. VII.
+
+[32] Barbosa, quoted in Keane, II, 482.
+
+[33] It was called Sofala, from an Arabic word, and may be associated with
+the Ophir of Solomon. So, too, the river Sabi, a little off Sofala, may be
+associated with the name of the Queen of Sheba, whose lineage was supposed
+to be perpetuated in the powerful Monomotapa as well as the Abyssinians.
+
+
+
+
+VII THE WAR OF RACES AT LAND'S END
+
+
+Primitive man in Africa is found in the interior jungles and down at
+Land's End in South Africa. The Pygmy people in the jungles represent
+to-day a small survival from the past, but a survival of curious interest,
+pushed aside by the torrent of conquest. Also pushed on by these waves of
+Bantu conquest, moved the ancient Abatwa or Bushmen. They are small in
+stature, yellow in color, with crisp-curled hair. The traditions of the
+Bushmen say that they came southward from the regions of the Great Lakes,
+and indeed the king and queen of Punt, as depicted by the Egyptians, were
+Bushmen or Hottentots.
+
+Their tribes may be divided, in accordance with their noticeable artistic
+talents, into the painters and the sculptors. The sculptors entered South
+Africa by moving southward through the more central portions of the
+country, crossing the Zambesi, and coming down to the Cape. The painters,
+on the other hand, came through Damaraland on the west coast; when they
+came to the great mountain regions, they turned eastward and can be traced
+as far as the mountains opposite Delagoa Bay. The mass of them settled
+down in the lower part of the Cape and in the Kalahari desert. The
+painters were true cave dwellers, but the sculptors lived in large
+communities on the stony hills, which they marked with their carvings.
+
+These Bushmen believed in an ancient race of people who preceded them in
+South Africa. They attributed magic power to these unknown folk, and said
+that some of them had been translated as stars to the sky. Before their
+groups were dispersed the Bushmen had regular government. Tribes with
+their chiefs occupied well-defined tracts of country and were subdivided
+into branch tribes under subsidiary chiefs. The great cave represented the
+dignity and glory of the entire tribe.
+
+The Bushmen suffered most cruelly in the succeeding migrations and
+conquests of South Africa. They fought desperately in self-defense; they
+saw their women and children carried into bondage and they themselves
+hunted like wild beasts. Both savage and civilized men appropriated their
+land. Still they were brave people. "In this struggle for existence their
+bitterest enemies, of whatever shade of color they might be, were forced
+to make an unqualified acknowledgement of the courage and daring they so
+invariably exhibited."[34]
+
+Here, to a remote corner of the world, where, as one of their number said,
+they had supposed that the only beings in the world were Bushmen and
+lions, came a series of invaders. It was the outer ripples of civilization
+starting far away, the indigenous and external civilizations of Africa
+beating with great impulse among the Ethiopians and the Egyptian mulattoes
+and Sudanese Negroes and Yorubans, and driving the Bantu race southward.
+The Bantus crowded more and more upon the primitive Bushmen, and probably
+a mingling of the Bushmen and the Bantus gave rise to the Hottentots.
+
+The Hottentots, or as they called themselves, Khoi Khoin (Men of Men),
+were physically a stronger race than the Abatwa and gave many evidences of
+degeneration from a high culture, especially in the "phenomenal
+perfection" of a language which "is so highly developed, both in its rich
+phonetic system, as represented by a very delicately graduated series of
+vowels and diphthongs, and in its varied grammatical structure, that
+Lepsius sought for its affinities in the Egyptian at the other end of the
+continent."
+
+When South Africa was first discovered there were two distinct types of
+Hottentot. The more savage Hottentots were simply large, strong Bushmen,
+using weapons superior to the Bushmen, without domestic cattle or sheep.
+Other tribes nearer the center of South Africa were handsomer in
+appearance and raised an Egyptian breed of cattle which they rode.
+
+In general the Hottentots were yellow, with close-curled hair, high cheek
+bones, and somewhat oblique eyes. Their migration commenced about the end
+of the fourteenth century and was, as is usual in such cases, a scattered,
+straggling movement. The traditions of the Hottentots point to the lake
+country of Central Africa as their place of origin, whence they were
+driven by the Bechuana tribes of the Bantu. They fled westward to the
+ocean and then turned south and came upon the Bushmen, whom they had only
+partially subdued when the Dutch arrived as settlers in 1652.
+
+The Dutch "Boers" began by purchasing land from the Hottentots and then,
+as they grew more powerful, they dispossessed the dark men and tried to
+enslave them. There grew up a large Dutch-Hottentot class. Indeed the
+filtration of Negro blood noticeable in modern Boers accounts for much
+curious history. Soon after the advent of the Dutch some of the
+Hottentots, of whom there were not more than thirty or forty thousand, led
+by the Korana clans, began slowly to retreat northward, followed by the
+invading Dutch and fighting the Dutch, each other, and the wretched
+Bushmen. In the latter part of the eighteenth century the Hottentots had
+reached the great interior plain and met the on-coming outposts of the
+Bantu nations.
+
+The Bechuana, whom the Hottentots first met, were the most advanced of the
+Negro tribes of Central Africa. They had crossed the Zambesi in the
+fourteenth or fifteenth century; their government was a sort of feudal
+system with hereditary chiefs and vassals; they were careful
+agriculturists, laid out large towns with great regularity, and were the
+most skilled of smiths. They used stone in building, carved on wood, and
+many of them, too, were keen traders. These tribes, coming southward,
+occupied the east-central part of South Africa comprising modern
+Bechuanaland. Apparently they had started from the central lake country
+somewhere late in the fifteenth century, and by the middle of the
+eighteenth century one of their great chiefs, Tao, met the on-coming
+Hottentots.
+
+The Hottentots compelled Tao to retreat, but the mulatto Gricquas arrived
+from the south, and, allying themselves with the Bechuana, stopped the
+rout. The Gricquas sprang from and took their name from an old Hottentot
+tribe. They were led by Kok and Barends, and by adding other elements they
+became, partly through their own efforts and partly through the efforts of
+the missionaries, a community of fairly well civilized people. In
+Gricqualand West the mulatto Gricquas, under their chiefs Kok and
+Waterboer, lived until the discovery of diamonds.
+
+The Griquas and Bechuana tribes were thus gradually checking the
+Hottentots when, in the nineteenth century, there came two new
+developments: first, the English took possession of Cape Colony, and the
+Dutch began to move in larger numbers toward the interior; secondly, a
+newer and fiercer element of the Bantu tribes, the Zulu-Kaffirs, appeared.
+The Kaffirs, or as they called themselves, the Amazosas, claimed descent
+from Zuide, a great chief of the fifteenth century in the lake country.
+They are among the tallest people in the world, averaging five feet ten
+inches, and are slim, well-proportioned, and muscular. The more warlike
+tribes were usually clothed in leopard or ox skins. Cattle formed their
+chief wealth, stock breeding and hunting and fighting their main pursuits.
+Mentally they were men of tact and intelligence, with a national religion
+based upon ancestor worship, while their government was a patriarchal
+monarchy limited by an aristocracy and almost feudal in character. The
+common law which had grown up from the decisions of the chiefs made the
+head of the family responsible for the conduct of its branches, a village
+for all its residents, and the clan for all its villages. Finally there
+was a paramount chief, who was the civil and military father of his
+people. These people laid waste to the coast regions and in 1779 came in
+contact with the Dutch. A series of Dutch-Kaffir wars ensued between 1779
+and 1795 in which the Dutch were hard pressed.
+
+In 1806 the English took final possession of Cape Colony. At that time
+there were twenty-five thousand Boers, twenty-five thousand pure and mixed
+Hottentots, and twenty-five thousand slaves secured from the east coast.
+Between 1811 and 1877 there were six Kaffir-English wars. One of these in
+1818 grew out of the ignorant interference of the English with the Kaffir
+tribal system; then there came a terrible war between 1834 and 1835,
+followed by the annexation of all the country as far as the Kei River. The
+war of the Axe (1846-48) led to further annexation by the British.
+
+Hostilities broke out again in 1856 and 1863. In the former year,
+despairing of resistance to invading England, a prophet arose who advised
+the wholesale destruction of all Kaffir property except weapons, in order
+that this faith might bring back their dead heroes. The result was that
+almost a third of the nation perished from hunger. Fresh troubles occurred
+in 1877, when the Ama-Xosa confederacy was finally broken up, and to-day
+gradually these tribes are passing from independence to a state of mild
+vassalage to the British.
+
+Meantime the more formidable part of the Zulu-Kaffirs had been united
+under the terrible Chief Chaka. He had organized a military system, not a
+new one by any means, but one of which we hear rumors back in the lake
+regions in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. McDonald says, "There
+has probably never been a more perfect system of discipline than that by
+which Chaka ruled his army and kingdom. At a review an order might be
+given in the most unexpected manner, which meant death to hundreds. If the
+regiment hesitated or dared to remonstrate, so perfect was the discipline
+and so great the jealousy that another was ready to cut them down. A
+warrior returning from battle without his arms was put to death without
+trial. A general returning unsuccessful in the main purpose of his
+expedition shared the same fate. Whoever displeased the king was
+immediately executed. The traditional courts practically ceased to exist
+so far as the will and action of the tyrant was concerned." With this army
+Chaka fell on tribe after tribe. The Bechuana fled before him and some
+tribes of them were entirely destroyed. The Hottentots suffered severely
+and one of his rival Zulu tribes under Umsilikatsi fled into Matabililand,
+pushing back the Bechuana. By the time the English came to Port Natal,
+Chaka was ruling over the whole southeastern seaboard, from the Limpopo
+River to Cape Colony, including the Orange and Transvaal states and the
+whole of Natal. Chaka was killed in 1828 and was eventually succeeded by
+his brother Dingan, who reigned twelve years. It was during Dingan's reign
+that England tried to abolish slavery in Cape Colony, but did not pay
+promptly for the slaves, as she had promised; the result was the so-called
+"Great Trek," about 1834, when thousands of Boers went into the interior
+across the Orange and Vaal rivers.
+
+Dingan and these Boers were soon engaged in a death struggle in which the
+Zulus were repulsed and Dingan replaced by Panda. Under this chief there
+was something like repose for sixteen years, but in 1856 civil war broke
+out between his sons, one of whom, Cetewayo, succeeded his father in 1882.
+He fell into border disputes with the English, and the result was one of
+the fiercest clashes of Europe and Africa in modern days. The Zulus fought
+desperately, annihilating at one time a whole detachment and killing the
+young prince Napoleon. But after all it was assagais against machine guns,
+and the Zulus were finally defeated at Ulundi, July 4, 1879. Thereupon
+Zululand was divided among thirteen semi-independent chiefs and became a
+British protectorate.
+
+[Illustration: Ancient Kingdom of Africa]
+
+Since then the best lands have been gradually reoccupied by a large number
+of tribes--Kaffirs from the south and Zulus from the north. The tribal
+organization, without being actually broken up, has been deprived of its
+dangerous features by appointing paid village headmen and transforming the
+hereditary chief into a British government official. In Natal there are
+about one hundred and seventy tribal chiefs, and nearly half of these have
+been appointed by the governor.
+
+Umsilikatsi, who had been driven into Matabililand by the terrible Chaka
+in 1828 and defeated by the Dutch in 1837, had finally reestablished his
+headquarters in Rhodesia in 1838. Here he introduced the Zulu military
+system and terrorized the peaceful and industrious Bechuana populations.
+Lobengula succeeded Umsilikatsi in 1870 and, realizing that his power was
+waning, began to retreat northward toward the Zambesi. He was finally
+defeated by the British and native forces in 1893 and the land was
+incorporated into South Central Africa.
+
+The result of all these movements was to break the inhabitants of
+Bechuanaland into numerous fragments. There were small numbers of mulatto
+Gricquas in the southwest and similar Bastaards in the northwest. The
+Hottentots and Bushmen were dispersed into groups and seem doomed to
+extinction, the last Hottentot chief being deposed in 1810 and replaced by
+an English magistrate. Partially civilized Hottentots still live grouped
+together in their kraals and are members of Christian churches. The
+Bechuana hold their own in several centers; one is in Basutoland, west of
+Natal, where a number of tribes were welded together under the far-sighted
+Moshesh into a modern and fairly well civilized nation. In the north part
+of Bechuanaland are the self-governing Bamangwato and the Batwana, the
+former ruled by Khama, one of the canniest of modern rulers in Africa.
+
+Meantime, in Portuguese territory south of the Zambesi, there arose Gaza,
+a contemporary and rival of Chaka. His son, Manikus, was deputed by
+Dingan, Chaka's successor, to drive out the Portuguese. This Manikus
+failed to do, and to escape vengeance he migrated north of the Limpopo.
+Here he established his military kraal in a district thirty-six hundred
+and fifty feet above the sea and one hundred and twenty miles inland from
+Sofala. From this place his soldiery nearly succeeded in driving the
+Portuguese out of East Africa. He was succeeded by his son, Umzila, and
+Umzila's brother, Guzana (better known as Gungunyana), who exercised for a
+time joint authority. Gungunyana was finally overthrown in November, 1895,
+captured, and removed to the Azores.
+
+[Illustration: Races in Africa]
+
+North of the Zambesi, in British territory, the chief role in recent times
+has been played by the Bechuana, the first of the Bantu to return
+northward after the South African migration. Livingstone found there the
+Makolo, who with other tribes had moved northward on account of the
+pressure of the Dutch and Zulus below, and by conquering various tribes
+in the Zambesi region had established a strong power. This kingdom was
+nearly overthrown by the rebellion of the Barotse, and in 1875 the Barotse
+kingdom comprised a large territory. To-day their king, Lewanika, rules
+directly and indirectly fifty thousand square miles, with a population
+between one and two and a half million. They are under a protectorate of
+the British.
+
+In Southwest Africa, Hottentot mulattoes crossing from the Cape caused
+widespread change. They were strong men and daring fighters and soon
+became dominant in what is now German Southwest Africa, where they fought
+fiercely with the Bantu Ova-Hereros. Armed with fire arms, these Namakwa
+Hottentots threatened Portuguese West Africa, but Germany intervened,
+ostensibly to protect missionaries. By spending millions of dollars and
+thousands of soldiers Germany has nearly exterminated these brave men.
+
+Thus we have between the years 1400 and 1900 a great period of migration
+up to 1750, when Bushmen, Hottentot, Bantu, and Dutch appeared in
+succession at Land's End. In the latter part of the eighteenth century we
+have the clash of the Hottentots and Bechuana, followed in the nineteenth
+century by the terrible wars of Chaka, the Kaffirs, and Matabili. Finally,
+in the latter half of the nineteenth century, we see the gradual
+subjection of the Kaffir-Zulus and the Bechuana under the English and the
+final conquest of the Dutch. The resulting racial problem in South Africa
+is one of great intricacy.
+
+To the racial problem has been added the tremendous problem of modern
+capital brought by the discovery of gold and diamond mines, so that the
+future of the Negro race is peculiarly bound up in developments here at
+Land's End, where the ship of the Flying Dutchman beats back and forth on
+its endless quest.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[34] Stowe: Native Races of South Africa, pp. 215-216.
+
+
+
+
+VIII AFRICAN CULTURE
+
+
+We have followed the history of mankind in Africa down the valley of the
+Nile, past Ethiopia to Egypt; we have seen kingdoms arise along the great
+bend of the Niger and strive with the ancient culture at its mouth. We
+have seen the remnants of mankind at Land's End, the ancient culture at
+Punt and Zymbabwe, and followed the invading Bantu east, south, and west
+to their greatest center in the vast jungle of the Congo valleys.
+
+We must now gather these threads together and ask what manner of men these
+were and how far and in what way they progressed on the road of human
+culture.
+
+That Negro peoples were the beginners of civilization along the Ganges,
+the Euphrates, and the Nile seems proven. Early Babylon was founded by a
+Negroid race. Hammurabi's code, the most ancient known, says "Anna and Bel
+called me, Hammurabi the exalted prince, the worshiper of the gods; to
+cause justice to prevail in the land, to destroy the wicked, to prevent
+the strong from oppressing the weak, to go forth like the sun over the
+black-head race, to enlighten the land, and to further the welfare of the
+people." The Assyrians show a distinct Negroid strain and early Egypt was
+predominantly Negro. These earliest of cultures were crude and primitive,
+but they represented the highest attainment of mankind after tens of
+thousands of years in unawakened savagery.
+
+It has often been assumed that the Negro is physically inferior to other
+races and markedly distinguishable from them; modern science gives no
+authority for such an assumption. The supposed inferiority cannot rest on
+color,[35] for that is "due to the combined influences of a great number
+of factors of environment working through physiological processes," and
+"however marked the contrasts may be, there is no corresponding difference
+in anatomical structure discoverable."[36] So, too, difference in texture
+of hair is a matter of degree, not kind, and is caused by heat, moisture,
+exposure, and the like.
+
+The bony skeleton presents no distinctly racial lines of variation.
+Prognathism "presents too many individual varieties to be taken as a
+distinctive character of race."[37] Difference in physical measurements
+does not show the Negro to be a more primitive evolutionary form.
+Comparative ethnology to-day affords "no support to the view which sees in
+the so-called lower races of mankind a transition stage from beast to
+man."[38]
+
+Much has been made of the supposed smaller brain of the Negro race; but
+this is as yet an unproved assumption, based on the uncritical measurement
+of less than a thousand Negro brains as compared with eleven thousand or
+more European brains. Even if future measurement prove the average Negro
+brain lighter, the vast majority of Negro brain weights fall within the
+same limits as the whites; and finally, "neither size nor weight of the
+brain seems to be of importance" as an index of mental capacity. We may,
+therefore, say with Ratzel, "There is only one species of man. The
+variations are numerous, but do not go deep."[39]
+
+To this we may add the word of the Secretary of the First Races Congress:
+"We are, then, under the necessity of concluding that an impartial
+investigator would be inclined to look upon the various important peoples
+of the world as to all intents and purposes essentially equal in
+intellect, enterprise, morality, and physique."[40]
+
+If these conclusions are true, we should expect to see in Africa the
+human drama play itself out much as in other lands, and such has actually
+been the fact. At the same time we must expect peculiarities arising from
+the physiography of the land--its climate, its rainfall, its deserts, and
+the peculiar inaccessibility of the coast.
+
+Three principal zones of habitation appear: first, the steppes and deserts
+around the Sahara in the north and the Kalahari desert in the south;
+secondly, the grassy highlands bordering the Great Lakes and connecting
+these two regions; thirdly, the forests and rivers of Central and West
+Africa. In the deserts are the nomads, and the Pygmies are in the forest
+fastnesses. Herdsmen and their cattle cover the steppes and highlands,
+save where the tsetse fly prevents. In the open forests and grassy
+highlands are the agriculturists.
+
+Among the forest farmers the village is the center of life, while in the
+open steppes political life tends to spread into larger political units.
+Political integration is, however, hindered by an ease of internal
+communication almost as great as the difficulty of reaching outer worlds
+beyond the continent. The narrow Nile valley alone presented physical
+barriers formidable enough to keep back the invading barbarians of the
+south, and even then with difficulty. Elsewhere communication was all too
+easy. For a while the Congo forests fended away the restless, but this
+only temporarily.
+
+On the whole Africa from the Sahara to the Cape offered no great physical
+barrier to the invader, and we continually have whirlwinds of invading
+hosts rushing now southward, now northward, from the interior to the coast
+and from the coast inland, and hurling their force against states,
+kingdoms, and cities. Some resisted for generations, some for centuries,
+some but a few years. It is, then, this sudden change and the fear of it
+that marks African culture, particularly in its political aspects, and
+which makes it so difficult to trace this changing past. Nevertheless
+beneath all change rests the strong substructure of custom, religion,
+industry, and art well worth the attention of students.
+
+Starting with agriculture, we learn that "among all the great groups of
+the 'natural' races, the Negroes are the best and keenest tillers of the
+ground. A minority despise agriculture and breed cattle; many combine both
+occupations. Among the genuine tillers the whole life of the family is
+taken up in agriculture, and hence the months are by preference called
+after the operations which they demand. Constant clearings change forests
+to fields, and the ground is manured with the ashes of the burnt thicket.
+In the middle of the fields rise the light watch-towers, from which a
+watchman scares grain-eating birds and other thieves. An African
+cultivated landscape is incomplete without barns. The rapidity with which,
+when newly imported, the most various forms of cultivation spread in
+Africa says much for the attention which is devoted to this branch of
+economy. Industries, again, which may be called agricultural, like the
+preparation of meal from millet and other crops, also from cassava, the
+fabrication of fermented drinks from grain, or the manufacture of cotton,
+are widely known and sedulously fostered."[41]
+
+Bücher reminds us of the deep impression made upon travelers when they
+sight suddenly the well-attended fields of the natives on emerging from
+the primeval forests. "In the more thickly populated parts of Africa these
+fields often stretch for many a mile, and the assiduous care of the Negro
+women shines in all the brighter light when we consider the insecurity of
+life, the constant feuds and pillages, in which no one knows whether he
+will in the end be able to harvest what he has sown. Livingstone gives
+somewhere a graphic description of the devastations wrought by slave
+hunts; the people were lying about slain, the dwellings were demolished;
+in the fields, however, the grain was ripening and there was none to
+harvest it."[42]
+
+Sheep, goat, and chickens are domestic animals all over Africa, and Von
+Franzius considers Africa the home of the house cattle and the Negro as
+the original tamer. Northeastern Africa especially is noted for
+agriculture, cattle raising, and fruit culture. In the eastern Sudan, and
+among the great Bantu tribes extending from the Sudan down toward the
+south, cattle are evidences of wealth; one tribe, for instance, having so
+many oxen that each village had ten or twelve thousand head. Lenz (1884),
+Bouet-Williaumez (1848), Hecquard (1854), Bosman (1805), and Baker (1868)
+all bear witness to this, and Schweinfurth (1878) tells us of great cattle
+parks with two to three thousand head and of numerous agricultural and
+cattle-raising tribes. Von der Decken (1859-61) described the paradise of
+the dwellers about Kilimanjaro--the bananas, fruit, beans and peas, cattle
+raising with stall feed, the fertilizing of the fields, and irrigation.
+The Negroid Gallas have seven or eight cattle to each inhabitant.
+Livingstone bears witness to the busy cattle raising of the Bantus and
+Kaffirs. Hulub (1881) and Chapman (1868) tell of agriculture and fruit
+raising in South Africa. Shutt (1884) found the tribes in the southwestern
+basin of the Congo with sheep, swine, goats, and cattle. On this
+agricultural and cattle-raising economic foundation has arisen the
+organized industry of the artisan, the trader, and the manufacturer.
+
+While the Pygmies, still living in the age of wood, make no iron or stone
+implements, they seem to know how to make bark cloth and fiber baskets and
+simple outfits for hunting and fishing. Among the Bushmen the art of
+making weapons and working in hides is quite common. The Hottentots are
+further advanced in the industrial arts, being well versed in the
+manufacture of clothing, weapons, and utensils. In the dressing of skins
+and furs, as well as in the plaiting of cords and the weaving of mats, we
+find evidences of their workmanship. In addition they are good workers in
+iron and copper, using the sheepskin bellows for this purpose. The
+Ashantis of the Gold Coast know how to make "cotton fabrics, turn and
+glaze earthenware, forge iron, fabricate instruments and arms, embroider
+rugs and carpets, and set gold and precious stones."[43] Among the people
+of the banana zone we find rough basket work, coarse pottery, grass cloth,
+and spoons made of wood and ivory. The people of the millet zone, because
+of uncertain agricultural resources, quite generally turn to
+manufacturing. Charcoal is prepared by the smiths, iron is smelted, and
+numerous implements are manufactured. Among them we find axes, hatchets,
+hoes, knives, nails, scythes, and other hardware. Cloaks, shoes, sandals,
+shields, and water and oil vessels are made from leather which the natives
+have dressed. Soap is manufactured in the Bautschi district, glass is
+made, formed, and colored by the people of Nupeland, and in almost every
+city cotton is spun and woven and dyed. Barth tells us that the weaving of
+cotton was known in the Sudan as early as the eleventh century. There is
+also extensive manufacture of wooden ware, tools, implements, and
+utensils.
+
+In describing particular tribes, Baker and Felkin tell of smiths of
+wonderful adroitness, goatskins prepared better than a European tanner
+could do, drinking cups and kegs of remarkable symmetry, and polished clay
+floors. Schweinfurth says, "The arrow and the spear heads are of the
+finest and most artistic work; their bristlelike barbs and points are
+baffling when one knows how few tools these smiths have." Excellent wood
+carving is found among the Bongo, Ovambo, and Makololo. Pottery and
+basketry and careful hut building distinguish many tribes. Cameron (1877)
+tells of villages so clean, with huts so artistic, that, save in book
+knowledge, the people occupied no low plane of civilization. The Mangbettu
+work both iron and copper. "The masterpieces of the Monbutto [Mangbettu]
+smiths are the fine chains worn as ornaments, and which in perfection of
+form and fineness compare well with our best steel chains." Shubotz in
+1911 called the Mangbettu "a highly cultivated people" in architecture and
+handicraft. Barth found copper exported from Central Africa in competition
+with European copper at Kano.
+
+Nor is the iron industry confined to the Sudan. About the Great Lakes and
+other parts of Central Africa it is widely distributed. Thornton says,
+"This iron industry proves that the East Africans stand by no means on so
+low a plane of culture as many travelers would have us think. It is
+unnecessary to be reminded what a people without instruction, and with the
+rudest tools to do such skilled work, could do if furnished with steel
+tools." Arrows made east of Lake Nyanza were found to be nearly as good as
+the best Swedish iron in Birmingham. From Egypt to the Cape, Livingstone
+assures us that the mortar and pestle, the long-handled axe, the goatskin
+bellows, etc., have the same form, size, etc., pointing to a migration
+southwestward. Holub (1879), on the Zambesi, found fine workers in iron
+and bronze. The Bantu huts contain spoons, wooden dishes, milk pails,
+calabashes, handmills, and axes.
+
+Kaffirs and Zulus, in the extreme south, are good smiths, and the latter
+melt copper and tin together and draw wire from it, according to Kranz
+(1880). West of the Great Lakes, Stanley (1878) found wonderful examples
+of smith work: figures worked out of brass and much work in copper.
+Cameron (1878) saw vases made near Lake Tanganyika which reminded him of
+the amphorae in the Villa of Diomedes, Pompeii. Horn (1882) praises tribes
+here for iron and copper work. Livingstone (1871) passed thirty smelting
+houses in one journey, and Cameron came across bellows with valves, and
+tribes who used knives in eating. He found tribes which no Europeans had
+ever visited, who made ingots of copper in the form of the St. Andrew's
+cross, which circulated even to the coast. In the southern Congo basin
+iron and copper are worked; also wood and ivory carving and pottery making
+are pursued. In equatorial West Africa, Lenz and Du Chaillu (1861) found
+iron workers with charcoal, and also carvers of bone and ivory. Near Cape
+Lopez, Hübbe-Schleiden found tribes making ivory needles inlaid with
+ebony, while the arms and dishes of the Osaka are found among many tribes
+even as far as the Atlantic Ocean. Wilson (1856) found natives in West
+Africa who could repair American watches.
+
+Gold Coast Negroes make gold rings and chains, forming the metal into all
+kinds of forms. Soyaux says, "The works in relief which natives of Lower
+Guinea carve with their own knives out of ivory and hippopotamus teeth are
+really entitled to be called works of art, and many wooden figures of
+fetishes in the Ethnographical Museum of Berlin show some understanding of
+the proportions of the human body." Great Bassam is called by Hecquard the
+"Fatherland of Smiths." The Mandingo in the northwest are remarkable
+workers in iron, silver, and gold, we are told by Mungo Park (1800), while
+there is a mass of testimony as to the work in the north-west of Africa in
+gold, tin, weaving, and dyeing. Caille found the Negroes in Bambana
+manufacturing gunpowder (1824-28), and the Hausa make soap; so, too,
+Negroes in Uganda and other parts have made guns after seeing European
+models.
+
+So marked has been the work of Negro artisans and traders in the
+manufacture and exchange of iron implements that a growing number of
+archeologists are disposed to-day to consider the Negro as the originator
+of the art of smelting iron. Gabriel de Mortillet (1883) declared Negroes
+the only iron users among primitive people. Some would, therefore, argue
+that the Negro learned it from other folk, but Andree declares that the
+Negro developed his own "Iron Kingdom." Schweinfurth, Von Luschan, Boaz,
+and others incline to the belief that the Negroes invented the smelting of
+iron and passed it on to the Egyptians and to modern Europe.
+
+Boaz says, "It seems likely that at a time when the European was still
+satisfied with rude stone tools, the African had invented or adopted the
+art of smelting iron. Consider for a moment what this invention has meant
+for the advance of the human race. As long as the hammer, knife, saw,
+drill, the spade, and the hoe had to be chipped out of stone, or had to be
+made of shell or hard wood, effective industrial work was not impossible,
+but difficult. A great progress was made when copper found in large
+nuggets was hammered out into tools and later on shaped by melting, and
+when bronze was introduced; but the true advancement of industrial life
+did not begin until the hard iron was discovered. It seems not unlikely
+that the people who made the marvelous discovery of reducing iron ores by
+smelting were the African Negroes. Neither ancient Europe, nor ancient
+western Asia, nor ancient China knew the iron, and everything points to
+its introduction from Africa. At the time of the great African discoveries
+toward the end of the past century, the trade of the blacksmith was found
+all over Africa, from north to south and from east to west. With his
+simple bellows and a charcoal fire he reduced the ore that is found in
+many parts of the continent and forged implements of great usefulness and
+beauty."[44]
+
+Torday has argued recently, "I feel convinced by certain arguments that
+seem to prove to my satisfaction that we are indebted to the Negro for the
+very keystone of our modern civilization and that we owe him the discovery
+of iron. That iron could be discovered by accident in Africa seems beyond
+doubt: if this is so in other parts of the world, I am not competent to
+say. I will only remind you that Schweinfurth and Petherick record the
+fact that in the northern part of East Africa smelting furnaces are worked
+without artificial air current and, on the other hand, Stuhlmann and
+Kollmann found near Victoria Nyanza that the natives simply mixed powdered
+ore with charcoal and by introduction of air currents obtained the metal.
+These simple processes make it simple that iron should have been
+discovered in East or Central Africa. No bronze implements have ever been
+found in black Africa; had the Africans received iron from the Egyptians,
+bronze would have preceded this metal and all traces of it would not have
+disappeared. Black Africa was for a long time an exporter of iron, and
+even in the twelfth century exports to India and Java are recorded by
+Idrisi.
+
+"It is difficult to imagine that Egypt should have obtained it from
+Europe where the oldest find (in Hallstadt) cannot be of an earlier period
+than 800 B.C., or from Asia, where iron is not known before 1000 B.C., and
+where, in the times of Ashur Nazir Pal, it was still used concurrently
+with bronze, while iron beads have been only recently discovered by
+Messrs. G.A. Wainwright and Bushe Fox in a predynastic grave, and where a
+piece of this metal, possibly a tool, was found in the masonry of the
+great pyramid."[45]
+
+The Negro is a born trader. Lenz says, "our sharpest European merchants,
+even Jews and Armenians, can learn much of the cunning and trade of the
+Negroes." We know that the trade between Central Africa and Egypt was in
+the hands of Negroes for thousands of years, and in early days the cities
+of the Sudan and North Africa grew rich through Negro trade.
+
+Leo Africanus, writing of Timbuktu in the sixteenth century, said, "It is
+a wonder to see what plentie of Merchandize is daily brought hither and
+how costly and sumptuous all things be.... Here are many shops of
+artificers and merchants and especially of such as weave linnen and
+cloth."
+
+Long before cotton weaving was a British industry, West Africa and the
+Sudan were supplying a large part of the world with cotton cloth. Even
+to-day cities like Kuka on the west shore of Lake Chad and Sokota are
+manufacturing centers where cotton is spun and woven, skins tanned,
+implements and iron ornaments made.
+
+"Travelers," says Bücher, "have often observed this tribal or local
+development of industrial technique. 'The native villages,' relates a
+Belgian observer of the Lower Congo, 'are often situated in groups. Their
+activities are based upon reciprocality, and they are to a certain extent
+the complements of one another. Each group has its more or less strongly
+defined specialty. One carries on fishing; another produces palm wine; a
+third devotes itself to trade and is broker for the others, supplying the
+community with all products from outside; another has reserved to itself
+work in iron and copper, making weapons for war and hunting, various
+utensils, etc. None may, however, pass beyond the sphere of its own
+specialty without exposing itself to the risk of being universally
+proscribed.'"
+
+From the Loango Coast, Bastian tells of a great number of centers for
+special products of domestic industry. "Loango excels in mats and fishing
+baskets, while the carving of elephants' tusks is specially followed in
+Chilungo. The so-called Mafooka hats with raised patterns are drawn
+chiefly from the bordering country of Kakongo and Mayyume. In Bakunya are
+made potter's wares, which are in great demand; in Basanza, excellent
+swords; in Basundi, especially beautiful ornamented copper rings; on the
+Congo, clever wood and tablet carvings; in Loango, ornamented clothes and
+intricately designed mats; in Mayumbe, clothing of finely woven mat-work;
+in Kakongo, embroidered hats and also burnt clay pitchers; and among the
+Bayakas and Mantetjes, stuffs of woven grass."[46]
+
+A native Negro student tells of the development of trade among the
+Ashanti. "It was a part of the state system of Ashanti to encourage trade.
+The king once in every forty days, at the Adai custom, distributed among a
+number of chiefs various sums of gold dust with a charge to turn the same
+to good account. These chiefs then sent down to the coast caravans of
+tradesmen, some of whom would be their slaves, sometimes some two or three
+hundred strong, to barter ivory for European goods, or buy such goods with
+gold dust, which the king obtained from the royal alluvial workings. Down
+to 1873 a constant stream of Ashanti traders might be seen daily wending
+their way to the merchants of the coast and back again, yielding more
+certain wealth and prosperity to the merchants of the Gold Coast and Great
+Britain than may be expected for some time yet to come from the mining
+industry and railway development put together. The trade chiefs would, in
+due time, render a faithful account to the king's stewards, being allowed
+to retain a fair portion of the profit. In the king's household, too, he
+would have special men who directly traded for him. Important chiefs
+carried on the same system of trading with the coast as did the king. Thus
+every member of the state, from the king downward, took an active interest
+in the promotion of trade and in the keeping open of trade routes into the
+interior."[47]
+
+The trade thus encouraged and carried on in various parts of West Africa
+reached wide areas. From the Fish River to Kuka, and from Lagos to
+Zanzibar, the markets have become great centers of trade, the leading
+implement to civilization. Permanent markets are found in places like
+Ujiji and Nyangwe, where everything can be bought and sold from
+earthenware to wives; from the one to three thousand traders flocked here.
+
+"How like is the market traffic, with all its uproar and sound of human
+voices, to one of our own markets! There is the same rivalry in praising
+the goods, the violent, brisk movements, the expressive gesture, the
+inquiring, searching glance, the changing looks of depreciation or
+triumph, of apprehension, delight, approbation. So says Stanley. Trade
+customs are not everywhere alike. If when negotiating with the Bangalas of
+Angola you do not quickly give them what they want, they go away and do
+not come back. Then perhaps they try to get possession of the coveted
+object by means of theft. It is otherwise with the Songos and Kiokos, who
+let you deal with them in the usual way. To buy even a small article you
+must go to the market; people avoid trading anywhere else. If a man says
+to another; 'Sell me this hen' or 'that fruit,' the answer as a rule will
+be, 'Come to the market place.' The crowd gives confidence to individuals,
+and the inviolability of the visitor to the market, and of the market
+itself, looks like an idea of justice consecrated by long practice. Does
+not this remind us of the old Germanic 'market place'?"[48]
+
+Turning now to Negro family and social life we find, as among all
+primitive peoples, polygamy and marriage by actual or simulated purchase.
+Out of the family develops the typical African village organization, which
+is thus described in Ashanti by a native Gold Coast writer: "The headman,
+as his name implies, is the head of a village community, a ward in a
+township, or of a family. His position is important, inasmuch as he has
+directly to deal with the composite elements of the general bulk of the
+people.
+
+"It is the duty of the head of a family to bring up the members thereof in
+the way they should go; and by 'family' you must understand the entire
+lineal descendants of a materfamilias, if I may coin a convenient phrase.
+It is expected of him by the state to bring up his charge in the knowledge
+of matters political and traditional. It is his work to train up his wards
+in the ways of loyalty and obedience to the powers that be. He is held
+responsible for the freaks of recalcitrant members of his family, and he
+is looked to to keep them within bounds and to insist upon conformity of
+their party with the customs, laws, and traditional observances of the
+community. In early times he could send off to exile by sale a troublesome
+relative who would not observe the laws of the community.
+
+"It is a difficult task that he is set to, but in this matter he has
+all-powerful helpers in the female members of the family, who will be
+either the aunts, or the sisters, or the cousins, or the nieces of the
+headman; and as their interests are identical with his in every
+particular, the good women spontaneously train up their children to
+implicit obedience to the headman, whose rule in the family thus becomes a
+simple and an easy matter. 'The hand that rocks the cradle rules the
+world.' What a power for good in the native state system would the mothers
+of the Gold Coast and Ashanti become by judicious training upon native
+lines!
+
+"The headman is par excellence the judge of his family or ward. Not only
+is he called upon to settle domestic squabbles, but frequently he sits
+judge over more serious matters arising between one member of the ward and
+another; and where he is a man of ability and influence, men from other
+wards bring him their disputes to settle. When he so settles disputes, he
+is entitled to a hearing fee, which, however, is not so much as would be
+payable in the regular court of the king or chief.
+
+"The headman is naturally an important member of his company and often is
+a captain thereof. When he combines the two offices of headman and
+captain, he renders to the community a very important service. For in
+times of war, where the members of the ward would not serve cordially
+under a stranger, they would in all cases face any danger with their own
+kinsman as their leader. The headman is always succeeded by his uterine
+brother, cousin, or nephew--the line of succession, that is to say,
+following the customary law."[49]
+
+We may contrast this picture with the more warlike Bantus of Southeast
+Africa. Each tribe lived by itself in a town with from five to fifteen
+thousand inhabitants, surrounded by gardens of millet, beans, and
+watermelon. Beyond these roamed their cattle, sheep, and goats. Their
+religion was ancestor worship with sacrifice to spirits and the dead, and
+some of the tribes made mummies of the corpses and clothed them for
+burial. They wove cloth of cotton and bark, they carved wood and built
+walls of unhewn stone. They had a standing military organization, and the
+tribes had their various totems, so that they were known as the Men of
+Iron, the Men of the Sun, the Men of the Serpents, Sons of the Corn
+Cleaners, and the like. Their system of common law was well conceived and
+there were organized tribunals of justice. In difficult cases precedents
+were sought and learned antiquaries consulted. At the age of fifteen or
+sixteen the boys were circumcised and formed into guilds. The land was
+owned by the tribe and apportioned to the chief by each family, and the
+main wealth of the tribe was in its cattle.
+
+In general, among the African clans the idea of private property was but
+imperfectly developed and never included land. The main mass of visible
+wealth belonged to the family and clan rather than to the individual; only
+in the matter of weapons and ornaments was exclusive private ownership
+generally recognized.
+
+The government, vested in fathers and chiefs, varied in different tribes
+from absolute despotisms to limited monarchies, almost republican. Viewing
+the Basuto National Assembly in South Africa, Lord Bryce recently wrote,
+"The resemblance to the primary assemblies of the early peoples of Europe
+is close enough to add another to the arguments which discredit the theory
+that there is any such thing as an Aryan type of institutions."[50]
+
+While women are sold into marriage throughout Africa, nevertheless their
+status is far removed from slavery. In the first place the tracing of
+relationships through the female line, which is all but universal in
+Africa, gives the mother great influence. Parental affection is very
+strong, and throughout Negro Africa the mother is the most influential
+councilor, even in cases of tyrants like Chaka or Mutesa.
+
+"No mother can love more tenderly or be more deeply beloved than the Negro
+mother. Robin tells of a slave in Martinique who, with his savings, freed
+his mother instead of himself. 'Everywhere in Africa,' writes Mungo Park,
+'I have noticed that no greater affront can be offered a Negro than
+insulting his mother. 'Strike me,' cried a Mandingo to his enemy, 'but
+revile not my mother!' ... The Herero swears 'By my mother's tears!'.. The
+Angola Negroes have a saying, 'As a mist lingers on the swamps, so lingers
+the love of father and mother.'"[51]
+
+Black queens have often ruled African tribes. Among the Ba-Lolo, we are
+told, women take part in public assemblies where all-important questions
+are discussed. The system of educating children among such tribes as the
+Yoruba is worthy of emulation by many more civilized peoples.
+
+Close knit with the family and social organization comes the religious
+life of the Negro. The religion of Africa is the universal animism or
+fetishism of primitive peoples, rising to polytheism and approaching
+monotheism chiefly, but not wholly, as a result of Christian and Islamic
+missions. Of fetishism there is much misapprehension. It is not mere
+senseless degradation. It is a philosophy of life. Among primitive Negroes
+there can be, as Miss Kingsley reminds us, no such divorce of religion
+from practical life as is common in civilized lands. Religion is life, and
+fetish an expression of the practical recognition of dominant forces in
+which the Negro lives. To him all the world is spirit. Miss Kingsley says,
+"If you want, for example, to understand the position of man in nature
+according to fetish, there is, as far as I know, no clearer statement of
+it made than is made by Goethe in his superb 'Prometheus.'"[52] Fetish is
+a severely logical way of accounting for the world in terms of good and
+malignant spirits.
+
+"It is this power of being able logically to account for everything that
+is, I believe, at the back of the tremendous permanency of fetish in
+Africa, and the cause of many of the relapses into it by Africans
+converted to other religions; it is also the explanation of the fact that
+white men who live in the districts where death and danger are everyday
+affairs, under a grim pall of boredom, are liable to believe in fetish,
+though ashamed of so doing. For the African, whose mind has been soaked in
+fetish during his early and most impressionable years, the voice of fetish
+is almost irresistible when affliction comes to him."[53]
+
+Ellis tells us of the spirit belief of the Ewe people, who believe that
+men and all nature have the indwelling "Kra," which is immortal; that the
+man himself after death may exist as a ghost, which is often conceived of
+as departed from the "Kra," a shadowy continuing of the man. Bryce,
+speaking of the Kaffirs of South Africa, says, "To the Kaffirs, as to the
+most savage races, the world was full of spirits--spirits of the rivers,
+the mountains, and the woods. Most important were the ghosts of the dead,
+who had power to injure or help the living, and who were, therefore,
+propitiated by offerings at stated periods, as well as on occasions when
+their aid was especially desired. This kind of worship, the worship once
+most generally diffused throughout the world, and which held its ground
+among the Greeks and Italians in the most flourishing period of ancient
+civilization, as it does in China and Japan to-day, was, and is, virtually
+the religion of the Kaffirs."[54]
+
+African religion does not, however, stop with fetish, but, as in the case
+of other peoples, tends toward polytheism and monotheism. Among the
+Yoruba, for instance, Frobenius shows that religion and city-state go hand
+in hand.
+
+"The first experienced glance will here detect the fact that this nation
+originally possessed a clear and definite organization so duly ordered and
+so logical that we but seldom meet with its like among all the peoples of
+the earth. And the basic idea of every clan's progeniture is a powerful
+God; the legitimate order in which the descendants of a particular clan
+unite in marriage to found new families, the essential origin of every
+new-born babe's descent in the founder of its race and its consideration
+as a part of the God in Chief; the security with which the newly wedded
+wife not only may, but should, minister to her own God in an unfamiliar
+home."[55]
+
+The Yoruba have a legend of a dying divinity. "This people ... give
+evidence of a generalized system; a theocratic scheme, a well-conceived
+perceptible organization, reared in rhythmically proportioned manner."
+
+Miss Kingsley says, "The African has a great Over God."[56] Nassau, the
+missionary, declares, "After more than forty years' residence among these
+tribes, fluently using their language, conversant with their customs,
+dwelling intimately in their huts, associating with them in the various
+relations of teacher, pastor, friend, master, fellow-traveler, and guest,
+and in my special office as missionary, searching after their religious
+thought (and therefore being allowed a deeper entrance into the arcana of
+their soul than would be accorded to a passing explorer), I am able
+unhesitatingly to say that among all the multitude of degraded ones with
+whom I have met, I have seen or heard of none whose religious thought was
+only a superstition.
+
+"Standing in the village street, surrounded by a company whom their chief
+has courteously summoned at my request, when I say to him, 'I have come to
+speak to your people,' I do not need to begin by telling them that there
+is a God. Looking on that motley assemblage of villagers,--the bold, gaunt
+cannibal with his armament of gun, spear, and dagger; the artisan with
+rude adze in hand, or hands soiled at the antique bellows of the village
+smithy; women who have hasted from their kitchen fire with hands white
+with the manioc dough or still grasping the partly scaled fish; and
+children checked in their play with tiny bow and arrow or startled from
+their dusty street pursuit of dog or goat,--I have yet to be asked, 'Who
+is God?'"[57]
+
+The basis of Egyptian religion was "of a purely Nigritian character,"[58]
+and in its developed form Sudanese tribal gods were invoked and venerated
+by the priests. In Upper Egypt, near the confines of Ethiopia, paintings
+repeatedly represent black priests conferring on red Egyptian priests the
+instruments and symbols of priesthood. In the Sudan to-day Frobenius
+distinguishes four principal religions: first, earthly ancestor worship;
+next, the social cosmogony of the Atlantic races; third, the religion of
+the Bori, and fourth, Islam. The Bori religion spreads from Nubia as far
+as the Hausa, and from Lake Chad in the Niger as far as the Yoruba. It is
+the religion of possession and has been connected by some with Asiatic
+influences.
+
+From without have come two great religious influences, Islam and
+Christianity. Islam came by conquest, trade, and proselytism. As a
+conqueror it reached Egypt in the seventh century and had by the end of
+the fourteenth century firm footing in the Egyptian Sudan. It overran the
+central Sudan by the close of the seventeenth century, and at the
+beginning of the nineteenth century had swept over Senegambia and the
+whole valley of the Niger down to the Gulf of Guinea. On the east Islam
+approached as a trader in the eighth century; it spread into Somaliland
+and overran Nubia in the fourteenth century. To-day Islam dominates Africa
+north of ten degrees north latitude and is strong between five and ten
+degrees north latitude. In the east it reaches below the Victoria Nyanza.
+
+Christianity early entered Africa; indeed, as Mommsen says, "It was
+through Africa that Christianity became the religion of the world.
+Tertullian and Cyprian were from Carthage, Arnobius from Sicca Veneria,
+Lactantius, and probably in like manner Minucius Felix, in spite of their
+Latin names, were natives of Africa, and not less so Augustine. In Africa
+the Church found its most zealous confessors of the faith and its most
+gifted defenders."[59]
+
+The Africa referred to here, however, was not Negroland, but Africa above
+the desert, where Negro blood was represented in the ancient Mediterranean
+race and by intercourse across the desert. On the other hand Christianity
+was early represented in the valley of the Nile under "the most holy pope
+and patriarch of the great city of Alexandria and of all of the land of
+Egypt, of Jerusalem, the holy city, of Nubia, Abyssinia, and Pentapolis,
+and all the preaching of St. Mark." This patriarchate had a hundred
+bishoprics in the fourth century and included thousands of black
+Christians. Through it the Cross preceded the Crescent in some of the
+remotest parts of black Africa.
+
+All these beginnings were gradually overthrown by Islam except among the
+Copts in Egypt, and in Abyssinia. The Portuguese in the sixteenth century
+began to replant the Christian religion and for a while had great success,
+both on the east and west coasts. Roman Catholic enterprise halted in the
+eighteenth century and the Protestants began. To-day the west coast is
+studded with English and German missions, South Africa is largely
+Christian through French and English influence, and the region about the
+Great Lakes is becoming christianized. The Roman Catholics have lately
+increased their activities, and above all the Negroes of America have
+entered with their own churches and with the curiously significant
+"Ethiopian" movement.
+
+Coming now to other spiritual aspects of African culture, we can speak at
+present only in a fragmentary way. Roughly speaking, Africa can be divided
+into two language zones: north of the fifth degree of north latitude is
+the zone of diversity, with at least a hundred groups of widely divergent
+languages; south of the line there is one minor language
+(Bushman-Hottentot), spoken by less than fifty thousand people, and
+elsewhere the predominant Bantu tongue with its various dialects, spoken
+by at least fifty million. The Bantu tongue, which thus rules all Central,
+West, and South Africa, is an agglutinative tongue which makes especial
+use of prefixes. The hundreds of Negro tongues or dialects in the north
+represent most probably the result of war and migration and the breaking
+up of ancient centers of culture. In Abyssinia and the great horn of East
+Africa the influence of Semitic tongues is noted. Despite much effort on
+the part of students, it has been impossible to show any Asiatic origin
+for the Egyptian language. As Sergi maintains, "everything favors an
+African origin."[60] The most brilliant suggestion of modern days links
+together the Egyptian of North Africa and the Hottentot and Bushmen
+tongues of South Africa.
+
+Language was reduced to writing among the Egyptians and Ethiopians and to
+some extent elsewhere in Africa. Over 100 manuscripts of Ethiopian and
+Ethiopic-Arabian literature are extant, including a version of the Bible
+and historical chronicles. The Arabic was used as the written tongue of
+the Sudan, and Negroland has given us in this tongue many chronicles and
+other works of black authors. The greatest of these, the Epic of the Sudan
+(Tarikh-es-Soudan), deserves to be placed among the classics of all
+literature. In other parts of Africa there was no written language, but
+there was, on the other hand, an unusual perfection of oral tradition
+through bards, and extraordinary efficiency in telegraphy by drum and
+horn.
+
+The folklore and proverbs of the African tribes are exceedingly rich. Some
+of these have been made familiar to English writers through the work of
+"Uncle Remus." Others have been collected by Johnston, Ellis, and Theal.
+
+A black bard of our own day has described the onslaught of the Matabili in
+poetry of singular force and beauty:
+
+  They saw the clouds ascend from the plains:
+  It was the smoke of burning towns.
+    The confusion of the whirlwind
+Was in the heart of the great chief of the blue-colored cattle.
+      The shout was raised,
+        "They are friends!"
+      But they shouted again,
+        "They are foes!"
+Till their near approach proclaimed them Matabili.
+      The men seized their arms,
+And rushed out as if to chase the antelope.
+    The onset was as the voice of lightning,
+And their javelins as the shaking of the forest in the autumn storm.[61]
+
+There can be no doubt of the Negro's deep and delicate sense of beauty in
+form, color, and sound. Soyaux says of African industry, "Whoever denies
+to them independent invention and individual taste in their work either
+shuts his eyes intentionally before perfectly evident facts, or lack of
+knowledge renders him an incompetent judge."[62] M. Rutot had lately told
+us how the Negro race brought art and sculpture to pre-historic Europe.
+The bones of the European Negroids are almost without exception found in
+company with drawings and sculpture in high and low relief; some of their
+sculptures, like the Wellendorff "Venus," are unusually well finished for
+primitive man. So, too, the painting and carving of the Bushmen and their
+forerunners in South Africa has drawn the admiration of students. The
+Negro has been prolific in the invention of musical instruments and has
+given a new and original music to the western world.
+
+Schweinfurth, who has preserved for us much of the industrial art of the
+Negroes, speaks of their delight in the production of works of art for the
+embellishment and convenience of life. Frobenius expressed his
+astonishment at the originality of the African in the Yoruba temple which
+he visited. "The lofty veranda was divided from the passageway by
+fantastically carved and colored pillars. On the pillars were sculptured
+knights, men climbing trees, women, gods, and mythical beings. The dark
+chamber lying beyond showed a splendid red room with stone hatchets,
+wooden figures, cowry beads, and jars. The whole picture, the columns
+carved in colors in front of the colored altar, the old man sitting in the
+circle of those who reverenced him, the open scaffolding of ninety
+rafters, made a magnificent impression."[63]
+
+The Germans have found, in Kamarun, towns built, castellated, and
+fortified in a manner that reminds one of the prehistoric cities of Crete.
+The buildings and fortifications of Zymbabwe have already been described
+and something has been said of the art of Benin, with its brass and bronze
+and ivory. All the work of Benin in bronze and brass was executed by
+casting, and by methods so complicated that it would be no easy task for a
+modern European craftsman to imitate them.
+
+Perhaps no race has shown in its earlier development a more magnificent
+art impulse than the Negro, and the student must not forget how far Negro
+genius entered into the art in the valley of the Nile from Meroe and
+Nepata down to the great temples of Egypt.
+
+Frobenius has recently directed the world's attention to art in West
+Africa. Quartz and granite he found treated with great dexterity. But more
+magnificent than the stone monument is the proof that at some remote era
+glass was made and molded in Yorubaland and that the people here were
+brilliant in the production of terra-cotta images. The great mass of
+potsherds, lumps of glass, heaps of slag, etc., "proves, at all events,
+that the glass industry flourished in this locality in ages past. It is
+plain that the glass beads found to have been so very common in Africa
+were not only not imported, but were actually manufactured in great
+quantities at home."
+
+The terra-cotta pieces are "remains of another ancient and fine type of
+art" and were "eloquent of a symmetry, a vitality, a delicacy of form, and
+practically a reminiscence of the ancient Greeks." The antique bronze head
+Frobenius describes as "a head of marvelous beauty, wonderfully cast," and
+"almost equal in beauty and, at least, no less noble in form, and as
+ancient as the terra-cotta heads."[64]
+
+In a park of monuments Frobenius saw the celebrated forge and hammer: a
+mighty mass of iron, like a falling drop in shape, and a block of quartz
+fashioned like a drum. Frobenius thinks these were relics dating from past
+ages of culture, when the manipulation of quartz and granite was
+thoroughly understood and when iron manipulation gave evidence of a skill
+not met with to-day.
+
+Even when we contemplate such revolting survivals of savagery as
+cannibalism we cannot jump too quickly at conclusions. Cannibalism is
+spread over many parts of Negro Africa, yet the very tribes who practice
+cannibalism show often other traits of industry and power. "These cannibal
+Bassonga were, according to the types we met with, one of those rare
+nations of the African interior which can be classed with the most
+esthetic and skilled, most discreet and intelligent of all those generally
+known to us as the so-called natural races. Before the Arabic and European
+invasion they did not dwell in 'hamlets,' but in towns with twenty or
+thirty thousand inhabitants, in towns whose highways were shaded by
+avenues of splendid palms planted at regular intervals and laid out with
+the symmetry of colonnades. Their pottery would be fertile in suggestion
+to every art craftsman in Europe. Their weapons of iron were so perfectly
+fashioned that no industrial art from abroad could improve upon their
+workmanship. The iron blades were cunningly ornamented with damascened
+copper, and the hilts artistically inlaid with the same metal. Moreover,
+they were most industrious and capable husbandmen, whose careful tillage
+of the suburbs made them able competitors of any gardener in Europe. Their
+sexual and parental relations evidenced an amount of tact and delicacy of
+feelings unsurpassed among ourselves, either in the simplicity of the
+country or the refinements of the town. Originally their political and
+municipal system was organized on the lines of a representative republic.
+True, it is on record that these well-governed towns often waged an
+internecine warfare; but in spite of this it had been their invariable
+custom from time immemorial, even in times of strife, to keep the trade
+routes open and to allow their own and foreign merchants to go their ways
+unharmed. And the commerce of these nations ebbed and flowed along a road
+of unknown age, running from Itimbiri to Batubenge, about six hundred
+miles in length. This highway was destroyed by the 'missionaries of
+civilization' from Arabia only toward the close of the eighteenth century.
+But even in my own time there were still smiths who knew the names of
+places along that wonderful trade route driven through the heart of the
+'impenetrable forests of the Congo.' For every scrap of imported iron was
+carried over it."[65]
+
+In disposition the Negro is among the most lovable of men. Practically all
+the great travelers who have spent any considerable time in Africa testify
+to this and pay deep tribute to the kindness with which they were
+received. One has but to remember the classic story of Mungo Park, the
+strong expressions of Livingstone, the words of Stanley and hundreds of
+others to realize this.
+
+Ceremony and courtesy mark Negro life. Livingstone again and again reminds
+us of "true African dignity." "When Ilifian men or women salute each
+other, be it with a plain and easy curtsey (which is here the simplest
+form adopted), or kneeling down, or throwing oneself upon the ground, or
+kissing the dust with one's forehead, no matter which, there is yet a
+deliberateness, a majesty, a dignity, a devoted earnestness in the manner
+of its doing, which brings to light with every gesture, with every fold of
+clothing, the deep significance and essential import of every single
+action. Everyone may, without too greatly straining his attention, notice
+the very striking precision and weight with which the upper and lower
+native classes observe these niceties of intercourse."[66]
+
+All this does not mean that the African Negro is not human with the
+all-too-well-known foibles of humanity. Primitive life among them is,
+after all, as bare and cruel as among primitive Germans or Chinese, but it
+is not more so, and the more we study the Negro the more we realize that
+we are dealing with a normal human stock which under reasonable conditions
+has developed and will develop in the same lines as other men. Why is it,
+then, that so much of misinformation and contempt is widespread concerning
+Africa and its people, not simply among the unthinking mass, but among men
+of education and knowledge?
+
+One reason lies undoubtedly in the connotation of the term "Negro." In
+North America a Negro may be seven-eights white, since the term refers to
+any person of Negro descent. If we use the term in the same sense
+concerning the inhabitants of the rest of world, we may say truthfully
+that Negroes have been among the leaders of civilization in every age of
+the world's history from ancient Babylon to modern America; that they have
+contributed wonderful gifts in art, industry, political organization, and
+religion, and that they are doing the same to-day in all parts of the
+world.
+
+In sharp contrast to this usage the term "Negro" in Africa has been more
+and more restricted until some scientists, late in the last century,
+declared that the great mass of the black and brown people of Africa were
+not Negroes at all, and that the "real" Negro dwells in a small space
+between the Niger and the Senegal. Ratzel says, "If we ask what justifies
+so narrow a limitation, we find that the hideous Negro type, which the
+fancy of observers once saw all over Africa, but which, as Livingstone
+says, is really to be seen only as a sign in front of tobacco shops, has
+on closer inspection evaporated from all parts of Africa, to settle no one
+knows how in just this region. If we understand that an extreme case may
+have been taken for the genuine and pure form, even so we do not
+comprehend the ground of its geographical limitation and location; for
+wherever dark, woolly-haired men dwell, this ugly type also crops up. We
+are here in the presence of a refinement of science which to an
+unprejudiced eye will hardly hold water."[67]
+
+In this restricted sense the Negro has no history, culture, or ability,
+for the simple fact that such human beings as have history and evidence
+culture and ability are not Negroes! Between these two extreme
+definitions, with unconscious adroitness, the most extraordinary and
+contradictory conclusions have been reached.
+
+Let it therefore be said, once for all, that racial inferiority is not the
+cause of anti-Negro prejudice. Boaz, the anthropologist, says, "An
+unbiased estimate of the anthropological evidence so far brought forward
+does not permit us to countenance the belief in a racial inferiority which
+would unfit an individual of the Negro race to take his part in modern
+civilization. We do not know of any demand made on the human body or mind
+in modern life that anatomical or ethnological evidence would prove to be
+beyond the powers of the Negro."[68]
+
+"We have every reason to suppose that all races are capable, under proper
+guidance, of being fitted into the complex scheme of our modern
+civilization, and the policy of artificially excluding them from its
+benefits is as unjustifiable scientifically as it is ethically
+abhorrent."[69] What is, then, this so-called "instinctive" modern
+prejudice against black folk?
+
+Lord Bryce says of the intermingling of blacks and whites in South
+America, "The ease with which the Spaniards have intermingled by marriage
+with the Indian tribes--and the Portuguese have done the like, not only
+with the Indians, but with the more physically dissimilar Negroes--shows
+that race repugnance is no such constant and permanent factor in human
+affairs as members of the Teutonic peoples are apt to assume. Instead of
+being, as we Teutons suppose, the rule in the matter, we are rather the
+exception, for in the ancient world there seems to have been little race
+repulsion."
+
+In nearly every age and land men of Negro descent have distinguished
+themselves. In literature there is Terence in Rome, Nosseyeb and Antar in
+Arabia, Es-Sa'di in the Sudan, Pushkin in Russia, Dumas in France, Al
+Kanemi in Spain, Heredia in the West Indies, and Dunbar in the United
+States, not to mention the alleged Negro strain in Æsop and Robert
+Browning. As rulers and warriors we remember such Negroes as Queen
+Nefertari and Amenhotep III among many others in Egypt; Candace and
+Ergamenes in Ethiopia; Mansa Musa, Sonni Ali, and Mohammed Askai in the
+Sudan; Diaz in Brazil, Toussaint L'Ouverture in Hayti, Hannivalov in
+Russia, Sakanouye Tamuramaro in Japan, the elder Dumas in France, Cazembe
+and Chaka among the Bantu, and Menelik, of Abyssinia; the numberless black
+leaders of India, and the mulatto strain of Alexander Hamilton. In music
+and art we recall Bridgewater, the friend of Beethoven, and the
+unexplained complexion of Beethoven's own father; Coleridge-Taylor in
+England, Tanner in America, Gomez in Spain; Ira Aldridge, the actor, and
+Johnson, Cook, and Burleigh, who are making the new American syncopated
+music. In the Church we know that Negro blood coursed in the veins of many
+of the Catholic African fathers, if not in certain of the popes; and there
+were in modern days Benoit of Palermo, St. Benedict, Bishop Crowther, the
+Mahdi who drove England from the Sudan, and Americans like Allen, Lot
+Carey, and Alexander Crummell. In science, discovery, and invention the
+Negroes claim Lislet Geoffroy of the French Academy, Latino and Amo, well
+known in European university circles; and in America the explorers
+Dorantes and Henson; Banneker, the almanac maker; Wood, the telephone
+improver; McCoy, inventor of modern lubrication; Matseliger, who
+revolutionized shoemaking. Here are names representing all degrees of
+genius and talent from the mediocre to the highest, but they are strong
+human testimony to the ability of this race.
+
+We must, then, look for the origin of modern color prejudice not to
+physical or cultural causes, but to historic facts. And we shall find the
+answer in modern Negro slavery and the slave trade.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[35] "Some authors write that the Ethiopians paint the devil white, in
+disdain of our complexions."--Ludolf: _History of Ethiopia_, p. 72.
+
+[36] Ripley: _Races of Europe_, pp. 58, 62.
+
+[37] Denniker: _Races of Men_, p. 63.
+
+[38] G. Finot: _Race Prejudice_. F. Herz: _Moderne Rassentheorien_.
+
+[39] Ratzel: quoted in Spiller: _Inter-Racial Problems_, p. 31.
+
+[40] Spiller: _Inter-Racial Problems_, p. 35.
+
+[41] Ratzel: _History of Mankind_, II, 380 ff.
+
+[42] _Industrial Evolution_, p. 47.
+
+[43] These and other references in this chapter are from Schneider:
+Culturfähigkeit des Negers.
+
+[44] Atlanta University Leaflet, No. 19.
+
+[45] _Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute_, XLIII, 414, 415.
+Cf. also _The Crisis_, Vol. IX, p. 234.
+
+[46] Bücher: _Industrial Revolution_ (tr. by Wickett), pp. 57-58.
+
+[47] Hayford: _Native Institutions_, pp. 95-96.
+
+[48] Ratzel, II, 376.
+
+[49] Hayford: _Native Institutions_, pp. 76 ff.
+
+[50] _Impressions of South Africa_, 3d ed., p. 352.
+
+[51] William Schneider.
+
+[52] _West African Studies_, Chap. V.
+
+[53] _Op. cit._
+
+[54] _Impressions of South Africa._
+
+[55] Frobenius: _Voice of Africa_, Vol. I.
+
+[56] _West African Studies_, p. 107.
+
+[57] Nassau: _Fetishism in West Africa_, p. 36.
+
+[58] _Encyclopædia Britannica_, 9th ed., XX, 362.
+
+[59] _The African Provinces_, II, 345.
+
+[60] _Mediterranean Race_, p. 10.
+
+[61] Stowe: _Native Races_, etc., pp. 553-554.
+
+[62] Quoted in Schneider.
+
+[63] Frobenius: _Voice of Africa_, Vol. I, Chap. XIV.
+
+[64] Frobenius: _Voice of Africa_, Vol. I.
+
+[65] Frobenius: _Voice of Africa_, I, 14-15.
+
+[66] Frobenius: _Voice of Africa_, I, 272.
+
+[67] Ratzel: _History of Mankind_, II, 313.
+
+[68] Atlanta University Publications, No. 11.
+
+[69] Robert Lowie in the _New Review_, Sept., 1914.
+
+
+
+
+IX THE TRADE IN MEN
+
+
+Color was never a badge of slavery in the ancient or medieval world, nor
+has it been in the modern world outside of Christian states. Homer sings
+of a black man, a "reverend herald"
+
+    Of visage solemn, sad, but sable hue,
+    Short, woolly curls, o'erfleeced his bending head,...
+    Eurybiates, in whose large soul alone,
+    Ulysses viewed an image of his own.
+
+Greece and Rome had their chief supplies of slaves from Europe and Asia.
+Egypt enslaved races of all colors, and if there were more blacks than
+others among her slaves, there were also more blacks among her nobles and
+Pharaohs, and both facts are explained by her racial origin and
+geographical position. The fall of Rome led to a cessation of the slave
+trade, but after a long interval came the white slave trade of the
+Saracens and Moors, and finally the modern trade in Negroes.
+
+Slavery as it exists universally among primitive people is a system
+whereby captives in war are put to tasks about the homes and in the
+fields, thus releasing the warriors for systematic fighting and the women
+for leisure. Such slavery has been common among all peoples and was
+wide-spread in Africa. The relative number of African slaves under these
+conditions was small and the labor not hard; they were members of the
+family and might and did often rise to high position in the tribe.
+
+Remembering that in the fifteenth century there was no great disparity
+between the civilization of Negroland and that of Europe, what made the
+striking difference in subsequent development? European civilization, cut
+off by physical barriers from further incursions of barbaric races,
+settled more and more to systematic industry and to the domination of one
+religion; African culture and industries were threatened by powerful
+barbarians from the west and central regions of the continent and by the
+Moors in the north, and Islam had only partially converted the leading
+peoples.
+
+When, therefore, a demand for workmen arose in America, European
+exportation was limited by religious ties and economic stability. African
+exportation was encouraged not simply by the Christian attitude toward
+heathen, but also by the Moslem enmity toward the unconverted Negroes. Two
+great modern religions, therefore, agreed at least in the policy of
+enslaving heathen blacks, while the overthrow of black Askias by the Moors
+at Tenkadibou brought that economic chaos among the advanced Negro peoples
+and movement among the more barbarous tribes which proved of prime
+advantage to the development of a systematic trade in men.
+
+The modern slave trade began with the Mohammedan conquests in Africa, when
+heathen Negroes were seized to supply the harems, and as soldiers and
+servants. They were bought from the masters and seized in war, until the
+growing wealth and luxury of the conquerors demanded larger numbers. Then
+Negroes from the Egyptian Sudan, Abyssinia, and Zanzibar began to pass
+into Arabia, Persia, and India in increased numbers. As Negro kingdoms and
+tribes rose to power they found the slave trade lucrative and natural,
+since the raids in which slaves were captured were ordinary inter-tribal
+wars. It was not until the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries that the
+demand for slaves in Christian lands made slaves the object, and not the
+incident, of African wars.
+
+In Mohammedan countries there were gleams of hope in slavery. In fiction
+and in truth the black slave had a chance. Once converted to Islam, he
+became a brother to the best, and the brotherhood of the faith was not the
+sort of idle lie that Christian slave masters made it. In Arabia black
+leaders arose like Antar; in India black slaves carved out principalities
+where their descendants still rule.
+
+Some Negro slaves were brought to Europe by the Spaniards in the
+fourteenth century, and a small trade was continued by the Portuguese, who
+conquered territory from the "tawny" Moors of North Africa in the early
+fifteenth century. Later, after their severe repulse at Al-Kasr-Al-Kabu,
+the Portuguese began to creep down the west coast in quest of trade. They
+reached the River of Gold in 1441, and their story is that their leader
+seized certain free Moors and the next year exchanged them for ten black
+slaves, a target of hide, ostrich eggs, and some gold dust. The trade was
+easily justified on the ground that the Moors were Mohammedans and refused
+to be converted to Christianity, while heathen Negroes would be better
+subjects for conversion and stronger laborers. In the next few years a
+small number of Negroes continued to be imported into Spain and Portugal
+as servants. We find, for instance, in 1474, that Negro slaves were common
+in Seville. There is a letter from Ferdinand and Isabella in the year 1474
+to a celebrated Negro, Juan de Valladolid, commonly called the "Negro
+Count" (El Conde Negro), nominating him to the office of "mayoral of the
+Negroes" in Seville. The slaves were apparently treated kindly, allowed to
+keep their own dances and festivals, and to have their own chief, who
+represented them in the courts, as against their own masters, and settled
+their private quarrels.
+
+Between 1455 and 1492 little mention is made of slaves in the trade with
+Africa. Columbus is said to have suggested Negroes for America, but
+Ferdinand and Isabella refused. Nevertheless, by 1501, we have the first
+incidental mention of Negroes going to America in a declaration that Negro
+slaves "born in the power of Christians were to be allowed to pass to the
+Indies, and the officers of the royal revenue were to receive the money to
+be paid for their permits."
+
+About 1501 Ovando, Governor of Spanish America, was objecting to Negro
+slaves and "solicited that no Negro slaves should be sent to Hispaniola,
+for they fled amongst the Indians and taught them bad customs, and never
+could be captured." Nevertheless a letter from the king to Ovando, dated
+Segovia, the fifteenth of September, 1505, says, "I will send more Negro
+slaves as you request; I think there may be a hundred. At each time a
+trustworthy person will go with them who may have some share in the gold
+they may collect and may promise them ease if they work well."[70] There
+is a record of a hundred slaves being sent out this very year, and Diego
+Columbus was notified of fifty to be sent from Seville for the mines in
+1510.
+
+After this time frequent notices show that Negroes were common in the new
+world.[71] When Pizarro, for instance, had been slain in Peru, his body
+was dragged to the cathedral by two Negroes. After the battle of Anaquito
+the head of the viceroy was cut off by a Negro, and during the great
+earthquake in Guatemala a most remarkable figure was a gigantic Negro seen
+in various parts of the city. Nunez had thirty Negroes with him on the top
+of the Sierras, and there was rumor of an aboriginal tribe of Negroes in
+South America. One of the last acts of King Ferdinand was to urge that no
+more Negroes be sent to the West Indies, but under Charles V, Bishop Las
+Casas drew up a plan of assisted migration to America and asked in 1517
+the right for immigrants to import twelve Negro slaves, in return for
+which the Indians were to be freed.
+
+Las Casas, writing in his old age, owns his error: "This advice that
+license should be given to bring Negro slaves to these lands, the Clerigo
+Casas first gave, not considering the injustice with which the Portuguese
+take them and make them slaves; which advice, after he had apprehended the
+nature of the thing, he would not have given for all he had in the world.
+For he always held that they had been made slaves unjustly and
+tyrannically; for the same reason holds good of them as of the
+Indians[72]."
+
+As soon as the plan was broached a Savoyard, Lorens de Gomenot, Governor
+of Bresa, obtained a monopoly of this proposed trade and shrewdly sold it
+to the Genoese for twenty-five thousand ducats. Other monopolies were
+granted in 1523, 1527, and 1528[73]. Thus the American trade became
+established and gradually grew, passing successively into the hands of the
+Portuguese, the Dutch, the French, and the English.
+
+At first the trade was of the same kind and volume as that already passing
+northward over the desert routes. Soon, however, the American trade
+developed. A strong, unchecked demand for brute labor in the West Indies
+and on the continent of America grew until it culminated in the eighteenth
+century, when Negro slaves were crossing the Atlantic at the rate of fifty
+to one hundred thousand a year. This called for slave raiding on a scale
+that drew upon every part of Africa--upon the west coast, the western and
+Egyptian Sudan, the valley of the Congo, Abyssinia, the lake regions, the
+east coast, and Madagascar. Not simply the degraded and weaker types of
+Negroes were seized, but the strong Bantu, the Mandingo and Songhay, the
+Nubian and Nile Negroes, the Fula, and even the Asiatic Malay, were
+represented in the raids.
+
+There was thus begun in modern days a new slavery and slave trade. It was
+different from that of the past, because more and more it came in time to
+be founded on racial caste, and this caste was made the foundation of a
+new industrial system. For four hundred years, from 1450 to 1850, European
+civilization carried on a systematic trade in human beings of such
+tremendous proportions that the physical, economic, and moral effects are
+still plainly to be remarked throughout the world. To this must be added
+the large slave trade of Mussulman lands, which began with the seventh
+century and raged almost unchecked until the end of the nineteenth
+century.
+
+These were not days of decadence, but a period that gave the world
+Shakespeare, Martin Luther, and Raphael, Haroun-al-Raschid and Abraham
+Lincoln. It was the day of the greatest expansion of two of the world's
+most pretentious religions and of the beginnings of the modern
+organization of industry. In the midst of this advance and uplift this
+slave trade and slavery spread more human misery, inculcated more
+disrespect for and neglect of humanity, a greater callousness to
+suffering, and more petty, cruel, human hatred than can well be
+calculated. We may excuse and palliate it, and write history so as to let
+men forget it; it remains the most inexcusable and despicable blot on
+modern human history.
+
+The Portuguese built the first slave-trading fort at Elmina, on the Gold
+Coast, in 1482, and extended their trade down the west coast and up the
+east coast. Under them the abominable traffic grew larger and larger,
+until it became far the most important in money value of all the commerce
+of the Zambesi basin. There could be no extension of agriculture, no
+mining, no progress of any kind where it was so extensively carried
+on[74].
+
+It was the Dutch, however, who launched the oversea slave trade as a
+regular institution. They began their fight for freedom from Spain in
+1579; in 1595, as a war measure against Spain, who at that time was
+dominating Portugal, they made their first voyage to Guinea. By 1621 they
+had captured Portugal's various slave forts on the west coast and they
+proceeded to open sixteen forts along the coast of the Gulf of Guinea.
+Ships sailed from Holland to Africa, got slaves in exchange for their
+goods, carried the slaves to the West Indies or Brazil, and returned home
+laden with sugar. In 1621 the private companies trading in the west were
+all merged into the Dutch West India Company, which sent in four years
+fifteen thousand four hundred and thirty Negroes to Brazil, carried on war
+with Spain, supplied even the English plantations, and gradually became
+the great slave carrier of the day.
+
+The commercial supremacy of the Dutch early excited the envy and emulation
+of the English. The Navigation Ordinance of 1651 was aimed at them, and
+two wars were necessary to wrest the slave trade from them and place it in
+the hands of the English. The final terms of peace, among other things,
+surrendered New Netherlands to England and opened the way for England to
+become henceforth the world's greatest slave trader.
+
+The English trade began with Sir John Hawkins' voyages in 1562 and later,
+in which "the Jesus, our chiefe shippe" played a leading part. Desultory
+trade was kept up by the English until the middle of the seventeenth
+century, when English chartered slave-trading companies began to appear.
+In 1662 the "Royal Adventurers," including the king, the queen dowager,
+and the Duke of York, invested in the trade, and finally the Royal African
+Company, which became the world's chief slave trader, was formed in 1672
+and carried on a growing trade for a quarter of a century. Jamaica had
+finally been captured and held by Oliver Cromwell in 1655 and formed a
+West Indian base for the trade in men.
+
+The chief contract for trade in Negroes was the celebrated "Asiento" or
+agreement of the King of Spain to the importation of slaves into Spanish
+domains. The Pope's Bull or Demarkation, 1493, debarred Spain from African
+possessions, and compelled her to contract with other nations for slaves.
+This contract was in the hands of the Portuguese in 1600; in 1640 the
+Dutch received it, and in 1701 the French. The War of the Spanish
+Succession brought this monopoly to England.
+
+This Asiento of 1713 was an agreement between England and Spain by which
+the latter granted the former a monopoly of the Spanish colonial slave
+trade for thirty years, and England engaged to supply the colonies within
+that time with at least one hundred and forty-four thousand slaves at the
+rate of forty-eight hundred per year. The English counted this prize as
+the greatest result of the Treaty of Utrecht (1713), which ended the
+mighty struggle against the power of Louis XIV. The English held the
+monopoly until the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748), although they had to
+go to war over it in 1739.
+
+From this agreement the slave traders reaped a harvest. The trade centered
+at Liverpool, and that city's commercial greatness was built largely on
+this foundation. In 1709 it sent out one slaver of thirty tons' burden;
+encouraged by Parliamentary subsidies which amounted to nearly half a
+million dollars between 1729 and 1750, the trade amounted to fifty-three
+ships in 1751; eighty-six in 1765, and at the beginning of the nineteenth
+century one hundred and eighty-five, which carried forty-nine thousand two
+hundred and thirteen slaves in one year.
+
+The slave trade thus begun by the Portuguese, enlarged by the Dutch, and
+carried to its culmination by the English centered on the west coast near
+the seat of perhaps the oldest and most interesting culture of Africa. It
+came at a critical time. The culture of Yoruba, Benin, Mossiland, and Nupe
+had exhausted itself in a desperate attempt to stem the on-coming flood of
+Mohammedan culture. It has succeeded in maintaining its small, loosely
+federated city-states suited to trade, industry, and art. It had developed
+strong resistance toward the Sudan state builders toward the north, as in
+the case of the fighting Mossi; but behind this warlike resistance lay the
+peaceful city life which gave industrial ideas to Byzantium and shared
+something of Ethiopian and Mediterranean culture.
+
+The first advent of the slave traders increased and encouraged native
+industry, as is evidenced by the bronze work of Benin; but soon this was
+pushed into the background, for it was not bronze metal but bronze flesh
+that Europe wanted. A new tyranny, blood-thirsty, cruel, and built on war,
+forced itself forward in the Niger delta. The powerful state of Dahomey
+arose early in the eighteenth century and became a devastating tyranny,
+reaching its highest power early in the nineteenth century. Ashanti, a
+similar kingdom, began its conquests in 1719 and grew with the slave
+trade. Thus state building in West Africa began to replace the city
+economy, but it was a state built on war and on war supported and
+encouraged largely for the sake of trade in human flesh. The native
+industries were changed and disorganized. Family ties and government were
+weakened. Far into the heart of Africa this devilish disintegration,
+coupled with Christian rum and Mohammedan raiding, penetrated. The face of
+Africa was turned south on these slave traders instead of northward toward
+the Mediterranean, where for two thousand years and more Europe and Africa
+had met in legitimate trade and mutual respect. The full significance of
+the battle of Tenkadibou, which overthrew the Askias, was now clear.
+Hereafter Africa for centuries was to appear before the world, not as the
+land of gold and ivory, of Mansa Musa and Meroe, but as a bound and
+captive slave, dumb and degraded.
+
+The natural desire to avoid a painful subject has led historians to gloss
+over the details of the slave trade and leave the impression that it was a
+local west-coast phenomenon and confined to a few years. It was, on the
+contrary, continent wide and centuries long and an economic, social, and
+political catastrophe probably unparalleled in human history.
+
+The exact proportions of the slave trade can be estimated only
+approximately. From 1680 to 1688 we know that the English African Company
+alone sent 249 ships to Africa, shipped there 60,783 Negro slaves, and
+after losing 14,387 on the middle passage, delivered 46,396 in America.
+
+It seems probable that 25,000 Negroes a year arrived in America between
+1698 and 1707. After the Asiento of 1713 this number rose to 30,000
+annually, and before the Revolutionary War it had reached at least 40,000
+and perhaps 100,000 slaves a year.
+
+The total number of slaves imported is not known. Dunbar estimates that
+nearly 900,000 came to America in the sixteenth century, 2,750,000 in the
+seventeenth, 7,000,000 in the eighteenth, and over 4,000,000 in the
+nineteenth, perhaps 15,000,000 in all. Certainly it seems that at least
+10,000,000 Negroes were expatriated. Probably every slave imported
+represented on the average five corpses in Africa or on the high seas. The
+American slave trade, therefore, meant the elimination of at least
+60,000,000 Negroes from their fatherland. The Mohammedan slave trade meant
+the expatriation or forcible migration in Africa of nearly as many more.
+It would be conservative, then, to say that the slave trade cost Negro
+Africa 100,000,000 souls. And yet people ask to-day the cause of the
+stagnation of culture in that land since 1600!
+
+Such a large number of slaves could be supplied only by organized slave
+raiding in every corner of Africa. The African continent gradually became
+revolutionized. Whole regions were depopulated, whole tribes disappeared;
+villages were built in caves and on hills or in forest fastnesses; the
+character of peoples like those of Benin developed their worst excesses of
+cruelty instead of the already flourishing arts of peace. The dark,
+irresistible grasp of fetish took firmer hold on men's minds.
+
+Further advances toward civilization became impossible. Not only was there
+the immense demand for slaves which had its outlet on the west coast, but
+the slave caravans were streaming up through the desert to the
+Mediterranean coast and down the valley of the Nile to the centers of
+Mohammedanism. It was a rape of a continent to an extent never paralleled
+in ancient or modern times.
+
+In the American trade there was not only the horrors of the slave raid,
+which lined the winding paths of the African jungles with bleached bones,
+but there was also the horrors of what was called the "middle passage,"
+that is, the voyage across the Atlantic. As Sir William Dolben said, "The
+Negroes were chained to each other hand and foot, and stowed so close that
+they were not allowed above a foot and a half for each in breadth. Thus
+crammed together like herrings in a barrel, they contracted putrid and
+fatal disorders; so that they who came to inspect them in a morning had
+occasionally to pick dead slaves out of their rows, and to unchain their
+carcases from the bodies of their wretched fellow-sufferers to whom they
+had been fastened[75]."
+
+It was estimated that out of every one hundred lot shipped from Africa
+only about fifty lived to be effective laborers across the sea, and among
+the whites more seamen died in that trade in one year than in the whole
+remaining trade of England in two. The full realization of the horrors of
+the slave trade was slow in reaching the ears and conscience of the modern
+world, just as to-day the treatment of dark natives in European colonies
+is brought to publicity with the greatest difficulty. The first move
+against the slave trade in England came in Parliament in 1776, but it was
+not until thirty-one years later, in 1807, that the trade was banned
+through the arduous labors of Clarkson, Wilberforce, Sharpe, and others.
+
+Denmark had already abolished the trade, and the United States attempted
+to do so the following year. Portugal and Spain were induced to abolish
+the trade between 1815 and 1830. Notwithstanding these laws, the
+contraband trade went on until the beginning of the Civil War in America.
+The reasons for this were the enormous profit of the trade and the
+continued demand of the American slave barons, who had no sympathy with
+the efforts to stop their source of cheap labor supply.
+
+However, philanthropy was not working alone to overthrow Negro slavery and
+the slave trade. It was seen, first in England and later in other
+countries, that slavery as an industrial system could not be made to work
+satisfactorily in modern times. Its cost was too great, and one of the
+causes of this cost was the slave insurrections from the very beginning,
+when the slaves rose on the plantation of Diego Columbus down to the Civil
+War in America. Actual and potential slave insurrection in the West
+Indies, in North and South America, kept the slave owners in apprehension
+and turmoil, or called for a police system difficult to maintain. In North
+America revolt finally took the form of organized running away to the
+North, and this, with the growing scarcity of suitable land and the moral
+revolt, led to the Civil War and the disappearance of the American slave
+trade.
+
+There was still, however, the Mohammedan slave trade to deal with, and
+this has been the work of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. In
+the last quarter of the nineteenth century ten thousand slaves annually
+were being distributed on the southern and eastern coast of the
+Mediterranean and at the great slave market in Bornu.
+
+On the east coast of Africa in 1862 nineteen thousand slaves were passed
+into Zanzibar and thence into Arabia and Persia. As late as 1880, three
+thousand annually were being thus transplanted, but now the trade is about
+stopped. To-day the only centers of actual slave trading may be said to be
+the cocoa plantations of the Portuguese Islands on the west coast of
+Africa, and the Congo Free State.
+
+Such is the story of the Rape of Ethiopia--a sordid, pitiful, cruel tale.
+Raphael painted, Luther preached, Corneille wrote, and Milton sung; and
+through it all, for four hundred years, the dark captives wound to the sea
+amid the bleaching bones of the dead; for four hundred years the sharks
+followed the scurrying ships; for four hundred years America was strewn
+with the living and dying millions of a transplanted race; for four
+hundred years Ethiopia stretched forth her hands unto God.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[70] Cf. Helps: _Spanish Conquest_, IV, 401.
+
+[71] Helps, _op. cit._, I, 219-220.
+
+[72] Helps, _op. cit._, II, 18-19.
+
+[73] Helps, _op. cit._, III, 211-212.
+
+[74] Theal: _History and Ethnography of South Africa before 1795_, I, 476.
+
+[75] Ingram: _History of Slavery_, p. 152.
+
+
+
+
+X THE WEST INDIES AND LATIN AMERICA
+
+
+That was a wonderful century, the fifteenth, when men realized that beyond
+the scowling waste of western waters were dreams come true. Curious and
+yet crassly human it is that, with all this poetry and romance, arose at
+once the filthiest institution of the modern world and the costliest. For
+on Negro slavery in America was built, not simply the abortive cotton
+kingdom, but the foundations of that modern imperialism which is based on
+the despising of backward men.
+
+According to some accounts Alonzo, "the Negro," piloted one of the ships
+of Columbus, and certainly there was Negro blood among his sailors. As
+early as 1528 there were nearly ten thousand Negroes in the new world. We
+hear of them in all parts. In Honduras, for instance, a Negro is sent to
+burn a native village; in 1555 the town council of Santiago de Chile voted
+to allow an enfranchised Negro possession of land in the town, and
+evidently treated him just as white applicants were treated. D'Allyon, who
+explored the coast of Virginia in the first quarter of the sixteenth
+century, used Negro slaves (who afterward revolted) to build his ships and
+help in exploration; Balboa had with him thirty Negroes, who, in 1513,
+helped to build the first ships on the Pacific coast; Cortez had three
+hundred Negro porters in 1522.
+
+Before 1530 there were enough Negroes in Mexico to lead to an
+insurrection, where the Negroes fought desperately, but were overcome and
+their ringleaders executed. Later the followers of another Negro
+insurgent, Bayano, were captured and sent back to Spain. Negroes founded
+the town of Santiago del Principe in 1570, and in 1540 a Negro slave of
+Hernandez de Alarcon was the only one of the party to carry a message
+across the country to the Zunis of New Mexico. A Negro, Stephen Dorantes,
+discovered New Mexico. This Stephen or "Estevanico" was sent ahead by
+certain Spanish friars to the "Seven Cities of Cibola." "As soon as
+Stephen had left said friars, he determined to earn all the reputation and
+honor for himself, and that the boldness and daring of having alone
+discovered those villages of high stories so much spoken of throughout
+that country should be attributed to him; and carrying along with him the
+people who followed him, he endeavored to cross the wilderness which is
+between Cibola and the country he had gone through, and he was so far
+ahead of the friars that when they arrived at Chichilticalli, which is on
+the edge of the wilderness, he was already at Cibola, which is eighty
+leagues of wilderness beyond." But the Indians of the new and strange
+country took alarm and concluded that Stephen "must be a spy or guide for
+some nations who intended to come and conquer them, because it seemed to
+them unreasonable for him to say that the people were white in the country
+from which he came, being black himself and being sent by them."[76]
+
+Slaves imported under the Asiento treaties went to all parts of the
+Americas. Spanish America had by the close of the eighteenth century ten
+thousand in Santo Domingo, eighty-four thousand in Cuba, fifty thousand in
+Porto Rico, sixty thousand in Louisiana and Florida, and sixty thousand in
+Central and South America.
+
+The history of the Negro in Spanish America centered in Cuba, Venezuela,
+and Central America. In the sixteenth century slaves began to arrive in
+Cuba and Negroes joined many of the exploring expeditions from there to
+various parts of America. The slave trade greatly increased in the latter
+part of the eighteenth century, and after the revolution in Hayti large
+numbers of French emigrants from that island settled in Cuba. This and
+Spanish greed increased the harshness of slavery and eventually led to
+revolt among the Negroes. In 1844 Governor O'Donnell began a cruel
+persecution of the blacks on account of a plot discovered among them.
+Finally in 1866 the Ten Years' War broke out in which Negro and white
+rebels joined. They demanded the abolition of slavery and equal political
+rights for natives and foreigners, whites and blacks. The war was cruel
+and bloody but ended in 1878 with the abolition of slavery, while a
+further uprising the following year secured civil rights for Negroes.
+Spanish economic oppression continued, however, and the leading chiefs of
+the Ten Years' War including such leaders as the mulatto, Antonio Maceo,
+with large numbers of Negro soldiers, took the field again in 1895. The
+result was the freeing of Cuba by the intervention of the United States.
+Negro regiments from the United States played here a leading role. A
+number of leaders in Cuba in political, industrial, and literary lines
+have been men of Negro descent.
+
+Slavery was abolished by Guatemala in 1824 and by Mexico in 1829.
+Argentine, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Paraguay ceased to recognize it about
+1825. Between 1840 and 1845 it came to an end in Colombia, Venezuela, and
+Ecquador. Bolivar, Paez, Sucre, and other South American leaders used
+Negro soldiers in fighting for freedom (1814-16), and Hayti twice at
+critical times rendered assistance and received Bolivar twice as a
+refugee.
+
+Brazil was the center of Portuguese slavery, but slaves were not
+introduced in large numbers until about 1720, when diamonds were
+discovered in the territory above Rio Janeiro. Gradually the seaboard from
+Pernambuco to Rio Janeiro and beyond became filled with Negroes, and
+although the slave trade north of the equator was theoretically abolished
+by Portugal in 1815 and south of the equator in 1830, and by Brazil in
+these regions in 1826 and 1830, nevertheless between 1825 and 1850 over a
+million and a quarter of Negroes were introduced. Not until Brazil
+abolished slavery in 1888 did the importation wholly cease. Brazilian
+slavery allowed the slave to purchase his freedom, and the color line was
+not strict. Even in the eighteenth century there were black clergy and
+bishops; indeed the Negro clergy seem to have been on a higher moral level
+than the whites.
+
+Insurrection was often attempted, especially among the Mohammedan Negroes
+around Bahia. In 1695 a tribe of revolted slaves held out for a long time.
+In 1719 a widespread conspiracy failed, but many of the leaders fled to
+the forest. In 1828 a thousand rose in revolt at Bahia, and again in 1830.
+From 1831 to 1837 revolt was in the air, and in 1835 came the great revolt
+of the Mohammedans, who attempted to enthrone a queen. The Negroes fought
+with furious bravery, but were finally defeated.
+
+By 1872 the number of free Negroes had very greatly increased, so that
+emancipation did not come as a shock. While Mohammedan Negroes still gave
+trouble and were in some cases sent back to Africa, yet on the whole
+emancipation was peaceful, and whites, Negroes, and Indians are to-day
+amalgamating into a new race. "At the present moment there is scarcely a
+lowly or a highly placed federal or provincial official at the head of or
+within any of the great departments of state that has not more or less
+Negro or Amer-Indian blood in his veins."[77]
+
+Lord Bryce says, "It is hardly too much to say that along the coast from
+Rio to Bahia and Pernambuco, as well as in parts of the interior behind
+these two cities, the black population predominates.... The Brazilian
+lower class intermarries freely with the black people; the Brazilian
+middle class intermarries with mulattoes and Quadroons. Brazil is the one
+country in the world, besides the Portuguese colonies on the east and west
+coasts of Africa, in which a fusion of the European and African races is
+proceeding unchecked by law or custom. The doctrines of human equality and
+human solidarity have here their perfect work. The result is so far
+satisfactory that there is little or no class friction. The white man does
+not lynch or maltreat the Negro; indeed I have never heard of a lynching
+anywhere in South America except occasionally as part of a political
+convulsion. The Negro is not accused of insolence and does not seem to
+develop any more criminality than naturally belongs to any ignorant
+population with loose notions of morality and property.
+
+"What ultimate effect the intermixture of blood will have on the European
+element in Brazil I will not venture to predict. If one may judge from a
+few remarkable cases, it will not necessarily reduce the intellectual
+standard. One of the ablest and most refined Brazilians I have known had
+some color; and other such cases have been mentioned to me. Assumptions
+and preconceptions must be eschewed, however plausible they may
+seem."[78]
+
+A Brazilian writer said at the First Races Congress: "The coöperation of
+the _metis_[79] in the advance of Brazil is notorious and far from
+inconsiderable. They played the chief part during many years in Brazil in
+the campaign for the abolition of slavery. I could quote celebrated names
+of more than one of these _metis_ who put themselves at the head of the
+literary movement. They fought with firmness and intrepidity in the press
+and on the platform. They faced with courage the gravest perils to which
+they were exposed in their struggle against the powerful slave owners, who
+had the protection of a conservative government. They gave evidence of
+sentiments of patriotism, self-denial, and appreciation during the long
+campaign in Paraguay, fighting heroically at the boarding of the ships in
+the naval battle of Riachuelo and in the attacks on the Brazilian army, on
+numerous occasions in the course of this long South American war. It was
+owing to their support that the republic was erected on the ruins of the
+empire."[80]
+
+The Dutch brought the first slaves to the North American continent. John
+Rolfe relates that the last of August, 1619, there came to Virginia "a
+Dutch man of warre that sold us twenty Negars."[81] This was probably one
+of the ships of the numerous private Dutch trading companies which early
+entered into the developed and the lucrative African slave trade. Although
+the Dutch thus commenced the continental slave trade they did not actually
+furnish a very large number of slaves to the English colonies outside the
+West Indies. A small trade had by 1698 brought a few thousand to New York
+and still fewer to New Jersey.
+
+The Dutch found better scope for slaves in Guiana, which they settled in
+1616. Sugar cane became the staple crop, but the Negroes early began to
+revolt and the Dutch brought in East Indian coolies. The slaves were badly
+treated and the runaways joined the revolted Bush Negroes in the interior.
+From 1715 to 1775 there was continuous fighting with the Bush Negroes or
+insurrections, until at last in 1749 a formal treaty between sixteen
+hundred Negroes and the Dutch was made. Immediately a new group revolted
+under a Mohammedan, Arabi, and they obtained land and liberty. In 1763 the
+coast Negroes revolted. They were checked, but made terms and settled in
+the interior. The Bush Negroes fought against both French and English to
+save Guiana to the Dutch, but Guiana was eventually divided between the
+three. The Bush Negroes still maintain their independence and vigor.
+
+The French encouraged settlements in the West Indies in the seventeenth
+century, but at last, finding that French immigrants would not come, they
+began about 1642 to import Negroes. Owing to wars with England, slaves
+were supplied by the Dutch and Portuguese, although the Royal Senegal
+Company held the coveted Asiento from 1701 to 1713.
+
+It was in the island of Hayti, however, that French slavery centered.
+Pirates from many nations, but chiefly French, began to frequent the
+island, and in 1663 the French annexed the eastern part, thus dividing the
+island between France and Spain. By 1680 there were so many slaves and
+mulattoes that Louis XIV issued his celebrated Code Noir, which was
+notable in compelling bachelor masters, fathers of slave children, to
+marry their concubines. Children followed the condition of the mother as
+to slavery or freedom; they could have no property; harsh punishments were
+provided for, but families could not be separated by sale except in the
+case of grown children; emancipation with full civil rights was made
+possible for any slave twenty years of age or more. When Louisiana was
+settled and the Alabama coast, slaves were introduced there. Louisiana was
+transferred to Spain in 1762, against the resistance of both settlers and
+slaves, but Spain took possession in 1769 and introduced more Negroes.
+
+Later, in Hayti, a more liberal policy encouraged trade; war was over and
+capital and slaves poured in. Sugar, coffee, chocolate, indigo, dyes, and
+spices were raised. There were large numbers of mulattoes, many of whom
+were educated in France, and many masters married Negro women who had
+inherited large properties, just as in the United States to-day white men
+are marrying eagerly the landed Indian women in the West. When white
+immigration increased in 1749, however, prejudice arose against these
+mulattoes and severe laws were passed depriving them of civil rights,
+entrance into the professions, and the right to hold office; severe edicts
+were enforced as to clothing, names, and social intercourse. Finally,
+after 1777, mulattoes were forbidden to come to France.
+
+When the French Revolution broke out, the Haytians managed to send two
+delegates to Paris. Nevertheless the planters maintained the upper hand,
+and one of the colored delegates, Oge, on returning, started a small
+rebellion. He and his companions were killed with great brutality. This
+led the French government to grant full civil rights to free Negroes,
+Immediately planters and free Negroes flew to arms against each other and
+then, suddenly, August 22, 1791, the black slaves, of whom there were four
+hundred and fifty-two thousand, arose in revolt to help the free Negroes.
+
+For many years runaway slaves had hidden in the mountains under their own
+chiefs. One of the earliest of these chiefs was Polydor, in 1724, who was
+succeeded by Macandal. The great chief of these runaways or "Maroons" at
+the time of the slave revolt was Jean François, who was soon succeeded by
+Biassou.
+
+Pierre Dominic Toussaint, known as Toussaint L'Ouverture, joined these
+Maroon bands, where he was called "the doctor of the armies of the king,"
+and soon became chief aid to Jean François and Biassou. Upon their deaths
+Toussaint rose to the chief command. He acquired complete control over the
+blacks, not only in military matters, but in politics and social
+organization; "the soldiers regarded him as a superior being, and the
+farmers prostrated themselves before him. All his generals trembled before
+him (Dessalines did not dare to look in his face), and all the world
+trembled before his generals."[82]
+
+The revolt once started, blacks and mulattoes murdered whites without
+mercy and the whites retaliated. Commissioners were sent from France, who
+asked simply civil rights for freedmen, and not emancipation. Indeed that
+was all that Toussaint himself had as yet demanded. The planters intrigued
+with the British and this, together with the beheading of the king (an
+impious act in the eyes of Negroes), induced Toussaint to join the
+Spaniards. In 1793 British troops were landed and the French commissioners
+in desperation declared the slaves emancipated. This at once won back
+Toussaint from the Spaniards. He became supreme in the north, while
+Rigaud, leader of the mulattoes, held the south and the west. By 1798 the
+British, having lost most of their forces by yellow fever, surrendered
+Mole St. Nicholas to Toussaint and departed. Rigaud finally left for
+France, and Toussaint in 1800 was master of Hayti. He promulgated a
+constitution under which Hayti was to be a self-governing colony; all men
+were equal before the law, and trade was practically free. Toussaint was
+to be president for life, with the power to name his successor.
+
+Napoleon Bonaparte, master of France, had at this time dreams of a great
+American empire, and replied to Toussaint's new government by sending
+twenty-five thousand men under his brother-in-law to subdue the
+presumptuous Negroes, as a preliminary step to his occupation and
+development of the Mississippi valley. Fierce fighting and yellow fever
+decimated the French, but matters went hard with the Negroes too, and
+Toussaint finally offered to yield. He was courteously received with
+military honors and then, as soon as possible, treacherously seized,
+bound, and sent to France. He was imprisoned at Fort Joux and died,
+perhaps of poison, after studied humiliations, April 7, 1803.
+
+Thus perished the greatest of American Negroes and one of the great men of
+all time, at the age of fifty-six. A French planter said, "God in his
+terrestrial globe did not commune with a purer spirit."[83] Wendell
+Phillips said, "Some doubt the courage of the Negro. Go to Hayti and stand
+on those fifty thousand graves of the best soldiers France ever had and
+ask them what they think of the Negro's sword. I would call him Napoleon,
+but Napoleon made his way to empire over broken oaths and through a sea of
+blood. This man never broke his word. I would call him Cromwell, but
+Cromwell was only a soldier, and the state he founded went down with him
+into his grave. I would call him Washington, but the great Virginian held
+slaves. This man risked his empire rather than permit the slave trade in
+the humblest village of his dominions. You think me a fanatic, for you
+read history, not with your eyes, but with your prejudices. But fifty
+years hence, when Truth gets a hearing, the Muse of history will put
+Phocion for the Greek, Brutus for the Roman, Hampden for the English, La
+Fayette for France, choose Washington as the bright, consummate flower of
+our earlier civilization, then, dipping her pen in the sunlight, will
+write in the clear blue, above them all, the name of the soldier, the
+statesman, the martyr, Toussaint L'Ouverture."
+
+The treacherous killing of Toussaint did not conquer Hayti. In 1802 and
+1803 some forty thousand French soldiers died of war and fever. A new
+colored leader, Dessalines, arose and all the eight thousand remaining
+French surrendered to the blockading British fleet.
+
+The effect of all this was far-reaching. Napoleon gave up his dream of
+American empire and sold Louisiana for a song. "Thus, all of Indian
+Territory, all of Kansas and Nebraska and Iowa and Wyoming and Montana and
+the Dakotas, and most of Colorado and Minnesota, and all of Washington and
+Oregon states, came to us as the indirect work of a despised Negro.
+Praise, if you will, the work of a Robert Livingstone or a Jefferson, but
+to-day let us not forget our debt to Toussaint L'Ouverture, who was
+indirectly the means of America's expansion by the Louisiana Purchase of
+1803."[84]
+
+With the freedom of Hayti in 1801 came a century of struggle to fit the
+people for the freedom they had won. They were yet slaves, crushed by a
+cruel servitude, without education or religious instruction. The Haytian
+leaders united upon Dessalines to maintain the independence of the
+republic. Dessalines, like Toussaint and his lieutenant Christophe, was
+noted in slavery days for his severity toward his fellows and the
+discipline which he insisted on. He had other characteristics of African
+chieftains. "There were seasons when he broke through his natural
+sullenness and showed himself open, affable, and even generous. His vanity
+was excessive and manifested itself in singular perversities."[85] He was
+a man of great personal bravery and succeeded in maintaining the
+independence of Hayti, which had already cost the Frenchmen fifty thousand
+lives.
+
+On January 1, 1804, at the place whence Toussaint had been treacherously
+seized and sent to France, the independence of Hayti was declared by the
+military leaders. Dessalines was made governor-general for life and
+afterward proclaimed himself emperor. This was not an act of
+grandiloquence and mimicry. "It is truer to say that in it both Dessalines
+and later Christophe were actuated by a clear insight into the social
+history and peculiarities of their people. There was nothing in the
+constitution which did not have its companion in Africa, where the
+organization of society was despotic, with elective hereditary chiefs,
+royal families, polygamic marriages, councils, and regencies."[86]
+
+The population was divided into soldiers and laborers. The territory was
+parceled out to chiefs, and the laborers were bound to the soil and worked
+under rigorous inspection; part of the products were reserved for their
+support, and the rest went to the chiefs, the king, the general
+government, and the army. The army was under stern discipline and
+military service was compulsory. Women did much of the agricultural labor.
+Under Toussaint the administration of this system was committed to
+Dessalines, who carried it out with rigor; it was afterward followed by
+Christophe. The latter even imported four thousand Negroes from Africa,
+from whom he formed a national guard for patrolling the land. These
+regulations brought back for a time a large part of the former prosperity
+of the island.
+
+The severity with which Dessalines enforced the laws soon began to turn
+many against him. The educated mulattoes especially objected to submission
+to the savage African _mores_. Dessalines started to suppress their
+revolt, but was killed in ambush in October, 1806.
+
+Great Britain now began to intrigue for a protectorate over the island and
+the Spanish end of the island threatened attack. These difficulties were
+overcome, but at a cost of great internal strain. After the death of
+Dessalines it seemed that Hayti was about to dissolve into a number of
+petty subdivisions. At one time Christophe was ruling as king in the
+north, Petion as president at Port au Prince, Rigaud in the south, and a
+semi-brigand, Goman, in the extreme southwest. Very soon, however, the
+rivalry narrowed down to Petion and Christophe. Petion was a man of
+considerable ability and did much, not simply for Hayti, but for South
+America. Already as early as 1779, before the revolution in Hayti, the
+Haytian Negroes had helped the United States. The British had captured
+Savannah in 1778. The French fleet appeared on the coast of Georgia late
+that year and was ordered to recruit men in Hayti. Eight hundred young
+freedmen, blacks and mulattoes, offered to take part in the expedition,
+and they fought valiantly in the siege and covered themselves with glory.
+It was this legion that made the charge on the British and saved the
+retreating American army. Among the men who fought there was Christophe.
+
+When Simon Bolivar, Commodore Aury, and many Venezuelan families were
+driven from their country in 1815, they and their ships took temporary
+refuge in Hayti. Notwithstanding the embarrassed condition of the
+republic, Petion received them and gave them four thousand rifles with
+ammunition, provisions, and last and best a printing press. He also
+settled some international quarrels among members of the groups, and
+Bolivar expressed himself afterward as being "overwhelmed with magnanimous
+favors."[87]
+
+Petion died in 1818 and was succeeded by his friend Boyer. Christophe
+committed suicide the following year and Boyer became not simply ruler of
+western Hayti, but also, by arrangement with the eastern end of the
+island, gained the mastery there, where they were afraid of Spanish
+aggression. Thus from 1822 to 1843 Boyer, a man of much ability, ruled the
+whole of the island and gained the recognition of Haytian independence
+from France and other nations.
+
+France, under Charles X, demanded an indemnity of thirty million dollars
+to reimburse the planters for confiscated lands and property. This Hayti
+tried to pay, but the annual installment was a tremendous burden to the
+impoverished country. Further negotiations were entered into. Finally in
+1838 France recognized the independence of the republic and the indemnity
+was reduced to twelve million dollars. Even this was a large burden for
+Hayti, and the payment of it for years crippled the island.
+
+The United States and Great Britain in 1825-26 recognized the independence
+of Hayti. A concordat was arranged with the Pope for governing the church
+in Hayti, and finally in 1860 the church placed under the French
+hierarchy. Thus Boyer did unusually well; but his necessary concessions to
+France weakened his influence at home, and finally an earthquake, which
+destroyed several towns in 1842, raised the superstitious of the populace
+against him. He resigned in 1843, leaving the treasury well filled; but
+with his withdrawal the Spanish portion of the island was lost to Hayti.
+
+The subsequent history of Hayti since 1843 has been the struggle of a
+small divided country to maintain political independence. The rich
+resources of the country called for foreign capital, but outside capital
+meant political influence from abroad, which the little nation rightly
+feared. Within, the old antagonism between the freedman and the slave
+settled into a color line between the mulatto and the black, which for a
+time meant the difference between educated liberalism and reactionary
+ignorance. This difference has largely disappeared, but some vestiges of
+the color line remain. The result has been reaction and savagery under
+Soulouque, Dominique, and Nord Alexis, and decided advance under
+presidents like Nissage-Saget, Solomon, Legitime, and Hyppolite.
+
+In political life Hayti is still in the sixteenth century; but in
+economic life she has succeeded in placing on their own little farms the
+happiest and most contented peasantry in the world, after raising them
+from a veritable hell of slavery. If modern capitalistic greed can be
+restrained from interference until the best elements of Hayti secure
+permanent political leadership the triumph of the revolution will be
+complete.
+
+In other parts of the French-American dominion the slaves achieved freedom
+also by insurrection. In Guadeloupe they helped the French drive out the
+British, and thus gained emancipation. In Martinique it took three revolts
+and a civil war to bring freedom.
+
+The English slave empire in America centered in the Bermudas, Barbadoes,
+Jamaica and the lesser islands, and in the United States. Barbadoes
+developed a savage slave code, and the result was attempted slave
+insurrections in 1674, 1692, and 1702. These were not successful, but a
+rising in 1816 destroyed much property under the leadership of a mulatto,
+Washington Franklin, and the repeal of bad laws and eventual
+enfranchisement of the colored people followed. One Barbadian mulatto, Sir
+Conrad Reeves, has held the position of chief justice in the island and
+was knighted. A Negro insurrection in Dominica under Farcel greatly
+exercised England in 1791 and 1794 and delayed slave trade abolition; in
+1844 and 1847 further uprisings took place, and these continued from 1853
+to 1893.
+
+The chief island domain of English slavery was Jamaica. It was Oliver
+Cromwell who, in his zeal for God and the slave trade, sent an expedition
+to seize Hayti. His fleet, driven off there, took Jamaica in 1655. The
+English found the mountains already infested with runaway slaves known as
+"Maroons," and more Negroes joined them when the English arrived. In 1663
+the freedom of the Maroons was acknowledged, land was given them, and
+their leader, Juan de Bolas, was made a colonel in the militia. He was
+killed, however, in the following year, and from 1664 to 1738 the three
+thousand or more black Maroons fought the British Empire in guerrilla
+warfare. Soldiers, Indians, and dogs were sent against them, and finally
+in 1738 Captain Cudjo and other chiefs made a formal treaty of peace with
+Governor Trelawney. They were granted twenty-five hundred acres and their
+freedom was recognized.
+
+The peace lasted until 1795, when they rebelled again and gave the
+British a severe drubbing, besides murdering planters. Bloodhounds again
+were imported. The Maroons offered to surrender on the express condition
+that none of their number should be deported from the island, as the
+legislature wished. General Walpole hesitated, but could get peace on no
+other terms and gave his word. The Maroons surrendered their arms, and
+immediately the whites seized six hundred of the ringleaders and
+transported them to the snows of Nova Scotia! The legislature then voted a
+sword worth twenty-five hundred dollars to General Walpole, which he
+indignantly refused to accept. Eventually these exiled Maroons found their
+way to Sierra Leone, West Africa, in time to save that colony to the
+British crown.[88]
+
+The pressing desire for peace with the Maroons on the part of the white
+planters arose from the new sugar culture introduced in 1673. A greatly
+increased demand for slaves followed, and between 1700 and 1786 six
+hundred and ten thousand slaves were imported; nevertheless, so severely
+were they driven, that there were only three hundred thousand Negroes in
+Jamaica in the latter year.
+
+Despite the Moravian missions and other efforts late in the eighteenth
+century, unrest among the Jamaica slaves and freedmen grew and was
+increased by the anti-slavery agitation in England and the revolt in
+Hayti. There was an insurrection in 1796; and in 1831 again the Negroes of
+northwest Jamaica, impatient because of the slow progress of the
+emancipation, arose in revolt and destroyed nearly three and a half
+million dollars' worth of property, well-nigh ruining the planters there.
+The next year two hundred and fifty-five thousand slaves were set free,
+for which the planters were paid nearly thirty million dollars. There
+ensued a discouraging condition of industry. The white officials sent out
+in these days were arbitrary and corrupt. Little was done for the mass of
+the people and there was outrageous over-taxation. Nevertheless the
+backwardness of the colony was attributed to the Negro. Governor Eyre
+complained in 1865 that the young and strong were good for nothing and
+were filling the jails; but a simultaneous report by a missionary told the
+truth concerning the officials. This aroused the colored people, and a
+mulatto, George William Gordon, called a meeting. Other meetings were
+afterward held, and finally the Negro peasantry began a riot in 1861, in
+which eighteen people were killed, only a few of whom were white.
+
+The result was that Governor Eyre tried and executed by court-martial 354
+persons, and in addition to this killed without trial 85, a total of 439.
+One thousand Negro homes were burned to the ground and thousands of
+Negroes flogged or mutilated. Children had their brains dashed out,
+pregnant women were murdered, and Gordon was tried by court-martial and
+hanged. In fact the punishment was, as the royal commissioners said,
+"reckless and positively barbarous."[89]
+
+This high-handed act aroused England. Eyre was not punished, but the
+island was made a crown colony in 1866, and given representation in the
+legislature in 1886.
+
+In the island of St. Vincent, Indians first sought to enslave the fugitive
+Negroes wrecked there, but the Negroes took the Carib women and then drove
+the Indian men away. These "black Caribs" fought with Indians, English,
+and others for three quarters of a century, until the Indians were
+exterminated. The British took possession in 1763. The black Caribs
+resisted, and after hard fighting signed a treaty in 1773, receiving
+one-third of the island as their property. They afterward helped the
+French against the British, and were finally deported to the island of
+Ruatan, off Honduras. In Trinidad and British Guiana there have been
+mutinies and rioting of slaves and a curious mingling of races.
+
+Other parts of South America must be dismissed briefly, because of
+insufficient data. Colombia and Venezuela, with perhaps eight million
+people, have at least one-third of their population of Negro and Indian
+descent. Here Simon Bolivar with his Negro, mulatto, and Indian forces
+began the war that liberated South America. Central America has a smaller
+proportion of Negroids, perhaps one hundred thousand in all. Bolivia and
+Peru have small amounts of Negro blood, while Argentine and Uruguay have
+very little. The Negro population in these lands is everywhere in process
+of rapid amalgamation with whites and Indians.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[76] H.O. Flipper's translation of Castaneda de Nafera's narrative.
+
+[77] Johnston: _Negro in the New World_, p. 109.
+
+[78] Bryce: _South America_, pp. 479-480.
+
+[79] I.e., mulattoes.
+
+[80] _Inter-Racial Problems_, p. 381.
+
+[81] Smith: _General History of Virginia_.
+
+[82] La Croix: _Mémoires sur la Révolution_, I, 253, 408.
+
+[83] Marquis d'Hermonas. Cf. Johnston: _Negro in the New World_, p. 158.
+
+[84] DeWitt Talmage, in Christian Herald, November 28, 1906.
+
+[85] Aimes: _African Institutions in America_ (reprinted from _Journal of
+American Folk Lore_), p. 25.
+
+[86] Brown: _History of San Domingo_, II, 158-159.
+
+[87] See Leger: _Hayti_, Chap. XI.
+
+[88] Cf. Chapter V, p. 69.
+
+[89] Johnston: _Negro in the New World_.
+
+
+
+
+XI THE NEGRO IN THE UNITED STATES
+
+
+There were half a million slaves in the confines of the United States when
+the Declaration of Independence declared "that all men are created equal;
+that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights;
+that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness." The
+land that thus magniloquently heralded its advent into the family of
+nations had supported the institution of human slavery for one hundred and
+fifty-seven years and was destined to cling to it eighty-seven years
+longer.
+
+The greatest experiment in Negro slavery as a modern industrial system was
+made on the mainland of North America and in the confines of the present
+United States. And this experiment was on such a scale and so
+long-continued that it is profitable for study and reflection. There were
+in the United States in its dependencies, in 1910, 9,828,294 persons of
+acknowledged Negro descent, not including the considerable infiltration of
+Negro blood which is not acknowledged and often not known. To-day the
+number of persons called Negroes is probably about ten and a quarter
+million. These persons are almost entirely descendants of African slaves,
+brought to America in the sixteenth, seventeenth, eighteenth, and
+nineteenth centuries.
+
+The importation of Negroes to the mainland of North America was small
+until the British got the coveted privilege of the Asiento in 1713. Before
+that Northern States like New York had received some slaves from the
+Dutch, and New England had early developed a trade by which she imported a
+number of house servants. Ships went out to the African coast with rum,
+sold the rum, and brought the slaves to the West Indies; there they
+exchanged the slaves for sugar and molasses and brought the molasses back
+to New England, to be made into rum for further exploits. After the
+Asiento treaty the Negro population increased in the eighteenth century
+from about 50,000 in 1710 to 220,000 in 1750 and to 462,000 in 1770. When
+the colonies became independent, the foreign slave trade was soon made
+illegal; but illicit trade, annexation of territory and natural increase
+enlarged the Negro population from a little over a million at the
+beginning of the nineteenth century to four and a half millions at the
+outbreak of the Civil War and to about ten and a quarter millions in 1914.
+
+The present so-called Negro population of the United States is:
+
+1. A mixture of the various African populations, Bantu, Sudanese,
+west-coast Negroes, some dwarfs, and some traces of Arab, Berber, and
+Semitic blood.
+
+2. A mixture of these strains with the blood of white Americans through a
+system of concubinage of colored women in slavery days, together with some
+legal intermarriage.
+
+The figures as to mulattoes[90] have been from time to time officially
+acknowledged to be understatements. Probably one-third of the Negroes of
+the United States have distinct traces of white blood. This blending of
+the races has led to interesting human types, but racial prejudice has
+hitherto prevented any scientific study of the matter. In general the
+Negro population in the United States is brown in color, darkening to
+almost black and shading off in the other direction to yellow and white,
+and is indistinguishable in some cases from the white population.
+
+Much has been written of the black man in America, but most of this has
+been from the point of view of the whites, so that we know of the effect
+of Negro slavery on the whites, the strife among the whites for and
+against abolition, and the consequent problem of the Negro so far as the
+white population is concerned.
+
+This chapter, however, is dealing with the matter more from the point of
+view of the Negro group itself, and seeking to show what slavery meant to
+them, how they reacted against it, what they did to secure their freedom,
+and what they are doing with their partial freedom to-day.
+
+The slaves landing from 1619 onward were received by the colonies at first
+as laborers, on the same plane as other laborers. For a long time there
+was in law no distinction between the indented white servant from England
+and the black servant from Africa, except in the term of their service.
+Even here the distinction was not always observed, some of the whites
+being kept beyond term of their service and Negroes now and then securing
+their freedom. Gradually the planters realized the advantage of laborers
+held for life, but they were met by certain moral difficulties. The
+opposition to slavery had from the first been largely stilled when it was
+stated that this was a method of converting the heathen to Christianity.
+The corollary was that when a slave was converted he became free. Up to
+1660 or thereabouts it seemed accepted in most colonies and in the English
+West Indies that baptism into a Christian church would free a Negro slave.
+Masters therefore, were reluctant in the seventeenth century to have their
+slaves receive Christian instruction. Massachusetts first apparently
+legislated on this matter by enacting in 1641 that slavery should be
+confined to captives in just wars "and such strangers as willingly sell
+themselves or are sold to us,"[91] meaning by "strangers" apparently
+heathen, but saying nothing as to the effect of conversion. Connecticut
+adopted similar legislation in 1650, and Virginia declared in 1661 that
+Negroes "are incapable of making satisfaction" for time lost in running
+away by lengthening their time of services, thus implying that they were
+slaves for life. Maryland declared in 1663 that Negro slaves should serve
+_durante vita_, but it was not until 1667 that Virginia finally plucked up
+courage to attack the issue squarely and declared by law: "Baptism doth
+not alter the condition of the person as to his bondage or freedom, in
+order that diverse masters freed from this doubt may more carefully
+endeavor the propagation of Christianity."[92]
+
+The transplanting of the Negro from his African clan life to the West
+Indian plantation was a social revolution. Marriage became geographical
+and transient, while women and girls were without protection.
+
+The private home as a self-protective, independent unit did not exist.
+That powerful institution, the polygamous African home, was almost
+completely destroyed, and in its place in America arose sexual
+promiscuity, a weak community life, with common dwelling, meals, and child
+nurseries. The internal slave trade tended further to weaken natural ties.
+A small number of favored house servants and artisans were raised above
+this--had their private homes, came in contact with the culture of the
+master class, and assimilated much of American civilization. This was,
+however, exceptional; broadly speaking, the greatest social effect of
+American slavery was to substitute for the polygamous Negro home a new
+polygamy less guarded, less effective, and less civilized.
+
+At first sight it would seem that slavery completely destroyed every
+vestige of spontaneous movement among the Negroes. This is not strictly
+true. The vast power of the priest in the African state is well known; his
+realm alone--the province of religion and medicine--remained largely
+unaffected by the plantation system. The Negro priest, therefore, early
+became an important figure on the plantation and found his function as the
+interpreter of the supernatural, the comforter of the sorrowing, and as
+the one who expressed, rudely but picturesquely, the longing and
+disappointment and resentment of a stolen people. From such beginnings
+arose and spread with marvelous rapidity the Negro church, the first
+distinctively Negro American social institution. It was not at first by
+any means a Christian church, but a mere adaptation of those rites of
+fetish which in America is termed obe worship, or "voodooism."[93]
+Association and missionary effort soon gave these rites a veneer of
+Christianity and gradually, after two centuries, the church became
+Christian, with a simple Calvinistic creed, but with many of the old
+customs still clinging to the services. It is this historic fact, that the
+Negro church of to-day bases itself upon the sole surviving social
+institution of the African fatherland, that accounts for its extraordinary
+growth and vitality.
+
+The slave codes at first were really labor codes based on an attempt to
+reestablish in America the waning feudalism of Europe. The laborers were
+mainly black and were held for life. Above them came the artisans, free
+whites with a few blacks, and above them the master class. The feudalism
+called for the plantation system, and the plantation system as developed
+in America, and particularly in Virginia, was at first a feudal domain. On
+these plantations the master was practically supreme. The slave codes in
+early days were but moderately harsh, allowing punishment by the master,
+but restraining him in extreme cases and providing for care of the slaves
+and of the aged. With the power, however, solely in the hands of the
+master class, and with the master supreme on his own plantation, his power
+over the slave was practically what he wished it to be. In some cases the
+cruelty was as great as on the worst West Indian plantations. In other
+cases the rule was mild and paternal.
+
+Up through this American feudalism the Negro began to rise. He learned in
+the eighteenth century the English language, he began to be identified
+with the Christian church, he mingled his blood to a considerable extent
+with the master class. The house servants particularly were favored, in
+some cases receiving education, and the number of free Negroes gradually
+increased.
+
+Present-day students are often puzzled at the apparent contradictions of
+Southern slavery. One hears, on the one hand, of the staid and gentle
+patriarchy, the wide and sleepy plantations with lord and retainers, ease
+and happiness; on the other hand one hears of barbarous cruelty and
+unbridled power and wide oppression of men. Which is the true picture? The
+answer is simple: both are true. They are not opposite sides of the same
+shield; they are different shields. They are pictures, on the one hand, of
+house service in the great country seats and in the towns, and on the
+other hand of the field laborers who raised the great tobacco, rice, and
+cotton crops. We have thus not only carelessly mixed pictures of what were
+really different kinds of slavery, but of that which represented different
+degrees in the development of the economic system. House service was the
+older feudal idea of personal retainership, developed in Virginia and
+Carolina in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. It had all the
+advantages and disadvantages of such a system; the advantage of the strong
+personal tie and disadvantage of unyielding caste distinctions, with the
+resultant immoralities. At its worst, however, it was a matter primarily
+of human relationships.
+
+Out of this older type of slavery in the northern South there developed,
+during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, in the southern South the
+type of slavery which corresponds to the modern factory system in its
+worst conceivable form. It represented production of a staple product on a
+large scale; between the owner and laborer were interposed the overseer
+and the drivers. The slaves were whipped and driven to a mechanical task
+system. Wide territory was needed, so that at last absentee landlordship
+was common. It was this latter type of slavery that marked the cotton
+kingdom, and the extension of the area of this system southward and
+westward marked the aggressive world-conquering visions of the slave
+barons. On the other hand it was the milder and far different Virginia
+house service and the personal retainership of town life in which most
+white children grew up; it was this that impressed their imaginations and
+which they have so vividly portrayed. The Negroes, however, knew the other
+side, for it was under the harsher, heartless driving of the fields that
+fully nine-tenths of them lived.
+
+There early began to be some internal development and growth of
+self-consciousness among the Negroes: for instance, in New England towns
+Negro "governors" were elected. This was partly an African custom
+transplanted and partly an endeavor to put the regulation of the slaves
+into their own hands. Negroes voted in those days: for instance, in North
+Carolina until 1835 the Constitution extended the franchise to every
+freeman, and when Negroes were disfranchised in 1835, several hundred
+colored men were deprived of the vote. In fact, as Albert Bushnell Hart
+says, "In the colonies freed Negroes, like freed indentured white
+servants, acquired property, founded families, and came into the political
+community if they had the energy, thrift, and fortune to get the necessary
+property."[94]
+
+The humanitarian movement of the eighteenth century was active toward
+Negroes, because of the part which they played in the Revolutionary War.
+Negro regiments and companies were raised in Connecticut and Rhode Island,
+and a large number of Negroes were members of the continental armies
+elsewhere. Individual Negroes distinguished themselves. It is estimated
+that five thousand Negroes fought in the American armies.
+
+The mass of the Americans considered at the time of the adoption of the
+Constitution that Negro slavery was doomed. There soon came a series of
+laws emancipating slaves in the North: Vermont began in 1779, followed by
+judicial decision in Massachusetts in 1780 and gradual emancipation in
+Pennsylvania beginning the same year; emancipation was accomplished in New
+Hampshire in 1783, and in Connecticut and Rhode Island in 1784. The
+momentous exclusion of slavery in the Northwest Territory took place in
+1787, and gradual emancipation began in New York and New Jersey in 1799
+and 1804.
+
+Beneficial and insurance societies began to appear among colored people.
+Nearly every town of any size in Virginia in the early eighteenth century
+had Negro organizations for caring for the sick and burying the dead. As
+the number of free Negroes increased, particularly in the North, these
+financial societies began to be openly formed. One of the earliest was the
+Free African Society of Philadelphia. This eventually became the present
+African Methodist Church, which has to-day half a million members and over
+eleven million dollars' worth of property.
+
+Negroes began to be received into the white church bodies in separate
+congregations, and before 1807 there is the record of the formation of
+eight such Negro churches. This brought forth leaders who were usually
+preachers in these churches. Richard Allen, the founder of the African
+Methodist Church, was one; Lot Carey, one of the founders of Liberia, was
+another. In the South there was John Chavis, who passed through a regular
+course of studies at what is now Washington and Lee University. He started
+a school for young white men in North Carolina and had among his pupils a
+United States senator, sons of a chief justice of North Carolina, a
+governor of the state, and many others. He was a full-blooded Negro, but a
+Southern writer says that "all accounts agree that John Chavis was a
+gentleman. He was received socially among the best whites and asked to
+table."[95]
+
+In the war of 1812 thirty-three hundred Negroes helped Jackson win the
+battle of New Orleans, and numbers fought in New York State and in the
+navy under Perry, Channing, and others. Phyllis Wheatley, a Negro girl,
+wrote poetry, and the mulatto, Benjamin Banneker, published one of the
+first American series of almanacs.
+
+In fine, it seemed in the early years of the nineteenth century that
+slavery in the United States would gradually disappear and that the Negro
+would have, in time, a man's chance. A change came, however, between 1820
+and 1830, and it is directly traceable to the industrial revolution of the
+nineteenth century.
+
+Between 1738 and 1830 there had come a remarkable series of inventions
+which revolutionized the methods of making cloth. This series included the
+invention of the fly shuttle, the carding machine, the steam engine, and
+the power loom. The world began to look about for a cheaper and larger
+supply of fiber for weaving. It was found in the cotton plant, and the
+southern United States was especially adapted to its culture. The
+invention of the cotton gin removed the last difficulties. The South now
+had a crop which could be attended to by unskilled labor and for which
+there was practically unlimited demand. There was land, and rich land, in
+plenty. The result was that the cotton crop in the United States increased
+from 8,000 bales in 1790 to 650,000 bales in 1820, to 2,500,000 bales in
+1850, and to 4,000,000 bales in 1860.
+
+In this growth one sees the economic foundation of the new slavery in the
+United States, which rose in the second decade of the nineteenth century.
+Manifestly the fatal procrastination in dealing with slavery in the
+eighteenth century received in the nineteenth century its terrible reward.
+The change in the attitude toward slavery was manifest in various ways.
+The South no longer excused slavery, but began to defend it as an economic
+system. The enforcement of the slave trade laws became notoriously lax
+and there was a tendency to make slave codes harsher.
+
+This led to retaliation on the part of the Negroes. There had not been in
+the United States before this many attempts at insurrection. The slaves
+were distributed over a wide territory, and before they became intelligent
+enough to cooperate the chance of emancipation was held before them.
+Several small insurrections are alluded to in South Carolina early in the
+eighteenth century, and one by Cato at Stono in 1740 caused widespread
+alarm. The Negro plot in New York in 1712 put the city into hysterics.
+There was no further plotting on any scale until the Haytian revolt, when
+Gabriel in Virginia made an abortive attempt. In 1822 a free Negro,
+Denmark Vesey, in South Carolina, failed in a well-laid plot, and ten
+years after that, in 1831, Nat Turner led his insurrection in Virginia and
+killed fifty-one persons. The result of this insurrection was to
+crystallize tendencies toward harshness which the economic revolution was
+making advisable.
+
+A wave of legislation passed over the South, prohibiting the slaves from
+learning to read and write, forbidding Negroes to preach, and interfering
+with Negro religious meetings. Virginia declared in 1831 that neither
+slaves nor free Negroes might preach, nor could they attend religious
+service at night without permission. In North Carolina slaves and free
+Negroes were forbidden to preach, exhort, or teach "in any prayer meeting
+or other association for worship where slaves of different families are
+collected together" on penalty of not more than thirty-nine lashes.
+Maryland and Georgia and other states had similar laws.
+
+The real effective revolt of the Negro against slavery was not, however,
+by fighting, but by running away, usually to the North, which had been
+recently freed from slavery. From the beginning of the nineteenth century
+slaves began to escape in considerable numbers. Four geographical paths
+were chiefly followed: one, leading southward, was the line of swamps
+along the coast from Norfolk, Virginia, to the northern border of Florida.
+This gave rise to the Negro element among the Indians in Florida and led
+to the two Seminole wars of 1817 and 1835. These wars were really slave
+raids to make the Indians give up the Negro and half-breed slaves
+domiciled among them. The wars cost the United States ten million dollars
+and two thousand lives.
+
+The great Appalachian range, with its abutting mountains, was the safest
+path northward. Through Tennessee and Kentucky and the heart of the
+Cumberland Mountains, using the limestone caverns, was the third route,
+and the valley of the Mississippi was the western tunnel.
+
+These runaways and the freedmen of the North soon began to form a group of
+people who sought to consider the problem of slavery and the destiny of
+the Negro in America. They passed through many psychological changes of
+attitude in the years from 1700 to 1850. At first, in the early part of
+the eighteenth century, there was but one thought: revolt and revenge. The
+development of the latter half of the century brought an attitude of hope
+and adjustment and emphasized the differences between the slave and the
+free Negro. The first part of the nineteenth century brought two
+movements: among the free Negroes an effort at self-development and
+protection through organization; among slaves and recent fugitives a
+distinct reversion to the older idea of revolt.
+
+As the new industrial slavery, following the rise of the cotton kingdom,
+began to press harder, a period of storm and stress ensued in the black
+world, and in 1829 came the first full-voiced, almost hysterical protest
+of a Negro against slavery and the color line in David Walker's Appeal,
+which aroused Southern legislatures to action.
+
+The decade 1830-40 was a severe period of trial. Not only were the chains
+of slavery tighter in the South, but in the North the free Negro was
+beginning to feel the ostracism and competition of white workingmen,
+native and foreign. In Philadelphia, between 1829 and 1849, six mobs of
+hoodlums and foreigners murdered and maltreated Negroes. In the Middle
+West harsh black laws which had been enacted in earlier days were hauled
+from their hiding places and put into effect. No Negro was allowed to
+settle in Ohio unless he gave bond within twenty days to the amount of
+five thousand dollars to guarantee his good behavior and support.
+Harboring or concealing fugitives was heavily fined, and no Negro could
+give evidence in any case where a white man was party. These laws began to
+be enforced in 1829 and for three days riots went on in Cincinnati and
+Negroes were shot and killed. Aroused, the Negroes sent a deputation to
+Canada where they were offered asylum. Fully two thousand migrated from
+Ohio. Later large numbers from other parts of the United States joined
+them.
+
+In 1830-31 the first Negro conventions were called in Philadelphia to
+consider the desperate condition of the Negro population, and in 1833 the
+convention met again and local societies were formed. The first Negro
+paper was issued in New York in 1827, while later emancipation in the
+British West Indies brought some cheer in the darkness.
+
+A system of separate Negro schools was established and the little band of
+abolitionists led by Garrison and others appeared. In spite of all the
+untoward circumstances, therefore, the internal development of the free
+Negro in the North went on. The Negro population increased twenty-three
+per cent between 1830 and 1840; Philadelphia had, in 1838, one hundred
+small beneficial societies, while Ohio Negroes had ten thousand acres of
+land. The slave mutiny on the Creole, the establishment of the Negro Odd
+Fellows, and the growth of the Negro churches all indicated advancement.
+
+Between 1830 and 1850 the concerted coöperation to assist fugitives came
+to be known as the Underground Railroad. It was an organization not simply
+of white philanthropists, but the coöperation of Negroes in the most
+difficult part of the work made it possible. Hundreds of Negroes visited
+the slave states to entice the slaves away, and the list of Underground
+Railroad operators given by Siebert contains one hundred and twenty-eight
+names of Negroes. In Canada and in the northern United States there was a
+secret society, known as the League of Freedom, which especially worked to
+help slaves run away. Harriet Tubman was one of the most energetic of
+these slave conductors and brought away several thousand slaves. William
+Lambert, a colored man, was reputed between 1829 and 1862 to have aided in
+the escape of thirty thousand.
+
+The decade 1840-50 was a period of hope and uplift for the Negro group,
+with clear evidences of distinct self-assertion and advance. A few
+well-trained lawyers and physicians appeared, and colored men took their
+place among the abolition orators. The catering business in Philadelphia
+and other cities fell largely into their hands, and some small merchants
+arose here and there. Above all, Frederick Douglass made his first speech
+in 1841 and thereafter became one of the most prominent figures in the
+abolition crusade. A new series of national conventions began to assemble
+late in the forties, and the delegates were drawn from the artisans and
+higher servants, showing a great increase of efficiency in the rank and
+file of the free Negroes.
+
+By 1850 the Negroes had increased to three and a half million. Those in
+Canada were being organized in settlements and were accumulating property.
+The escape of fugitive slaves was systematized and some of the most
+representative conventions met. One particularly, in 1854, grappled
+frankly with the problem of emigration. It looked as though it was going
+to be impossible for Negroes to remain in the United States and be free.
+As early as 1788 a Negro union of Newport, Rhode Island, had proposed a
+general exodus to Africa. John and Paul Cuffe, after petitioning for the
+right to vote in 1780, started in 1815 for Africa, organizing an
+expedition at their own expense which cost four thousand dollars. Lot
+Carey organized the African Mission Society in 1813, and the first Negro
+college graduate went to Liberia in 1829 and became superintendent of
+public schools. The Colonization Society encouraged this migration, and
+the Negroes themselves had organized the Canadian exodus.
+
+The Rochester Negro convention in 1853 pronounced against migration, but
+nevertheless emissaries were sent in various directions to see what
+inducements could be offered. One went to the Niger valley, one to Central
+America, and one to Hayti. The Haytian trip was successful and about two
+thousand black emigrants eventually settled in Hayti.
+
+Delaney, who went to Africa, concluded a treaty with eight kings offering
+inducements to Negroes, but nothing came of it. In 1853 Negroes like
+Purvis and Barbadoes helped in the formation of the American Anti-slavery
+society, and for a while colored men coöperated with John Brown and
+probably would have given him considerable help if they had thoroughly
+known his plans. As it was, six or seven of his twenty-two followers were
+Negroes.
+
+Meantime the slave power was impelled by the high price of slaves and the
+exhaustion of cotton land to make increased demands. Slavery was forced
+north of Mason and Dixon's line in 1820; a new slave empire with thousands
+of slaves was annexed in 1850, and a fugitive slave law was passed which
+endangered the liberty of every free Negro; finally a determined attempt
+was made to force slavery into the Northwest in competition with free
+white labor, and less effective but powerful movements arose to annex more
+slave territory to the south and to reopen the African slave trade.
+
+It looked like a triumphal march for the slave barons, but each step cost
+more than the last. Missouri gave rise to the early abolitionist movement.
+Mexico and the fugitive slave law aroused deep opposition in the North,
+and Kansas developed an attack upon the free labor system, not simply of
+the North, but of the civilized world. The result was war; but the war was
+not against slavery. It was fought to protect free white laborers against
+the competition of slaves, and it was thought possible to do this by
+segregating slavery.
+
+The first thing that vexed the Northern armies on Southern soil during the
+war was the question of the disposition of the fugitive slaves, who
+immediately began to arrive in increasing numbers. Butler confiscated
+them, Fremont freed them, and Halleck caught and returned them; but their
+numbers swelled to such large proportions that the mere economic problem
+of their presence overshadowed everything else, especially after the
+Emancipation Proclamation. Lincoln was glad to have them come after once
+he realized their strength to the Confederacy.
+
+The Emancipation Proclamation was forced, not simply by the necessity of
+paralyzing industry in the South, but also by the necessity of employing
+Negro soldiers. During the first two years of the war no one wanted Negro
+soldiers. It was declared to be a "white man's war." General Hunter tried
+to raise a regiment in South Carolina, but the War Department disavowed
+the act. In Louisiana the Negroes were anxious to enlist, but were held
+off. In the meantime the war did not go as well as the North had hoped,
+and on the twenty-sixth of January, 1863, the Secretary of War authorized
+the Governor of Massachusetts to raise two regiments of Negro troops.
+Frederick Douglass and others began the work with enthusiasm, and in the
+end one hundred and eighty-seven thousand Negroes enlisted in the Northern
+armies, of whom seventy thousand were killed and wounded. The conduct of
+these troops was exemplary. They were indispensable in camp duties and
+brave on the field, where they fought in two hundred and thirteen battles.
+General Banks wrote, "Their conduct was heroic. No troops could be more
+determined or more daring."[96]
+
+The assault on Fort Wagner, led by a thousand black soldiers under the
+white Colonel Shaw, is one of the greatest deeds of desperate bravery on
+record. On the other hand the treatment of Negro soldiers when captured by
+the Confederates was barbarous. At Fort Pillow, after the surrender of the
+federal troops, the colored regiment was indiscriminately butchered and
+some of them were buried alive.
+
+Abraham Lincoln said, "The slightest knowledge of arithmetic will prove to
+any man that the rebel armies cannot be destroyed with Democratic
+strategy. It would sacrifice all the white men of the North to do it.
+There are now in the service of the United States near two hundred
+thousand able-bodied colored men, most of them under arms, defending and
+acquiring Union territory.... Abandon all the posts now garrisoned by
+black men; take two hundred thousand men from our side and put them in the
+battlefield or cornfield against us, and we would be compelled to abandon
+the war in three weeks."[97] Emancipation thus came as a war measure to
+break the power of the Confederacy, preserve the Union, and gain the
+sympathy of the civilized world.
+
+However, two hundred and forty-four years of slavery could not be stopped
+by edict. There were legal difficulties, the whole slow problem of
+economic readjustment, and the subtle and far-reaching questions of future
+race relations.
+
+The peculiar circumstances of emancipation forced the legal and political
+difficulties to the front, and these were so striking that they have since
+obscured the others in the eyes of students. Quite unexpectedly and
+without forethought the nation had emancipated four million slaves. Once
+the deed was done, the majority of the nation was glad and recognized that
+this was, after all, the only result of a fearful four years' war which in
+any degree justified it. But how was the result to be secured for all
+time? There were three possibilities: (1) to declare the slave free and
+leave him at the mercy of his former masters; (2) to establish a careful
+government guardianship designed to guide the slave from legal to real
+economic freedom; (3) to give the Negro the political power to guard
+himself as well as he could during this development. It is very easy to
+forget that the United States government tried each one of these in
+succession and was literally forced to adopt the third, because the first
+had utterly failed and the second was thought too "paternal" and
+especially too costly. To leave the Negroes helpless after a paper edict
+of emancipation was manifestly impossible. It would have meant that the
+war had been fought in vain.
+
+Carl Schurz, who traversed the South just after the war, said, "A
+veritable reign of terror prevailed in many parts of the South. The Negro
+found scant justice in the local courts against the white man. He could
+look for protection only to the military forces of the United States still
+garrisoning the states lately in rebellion and to the Freedmen's
+Bureau."[98] This Freedmen's Bureau was proposed by Charles Sumner. If it
+had been presented to-day instead of fifty years ago, it would have been
+regarded as a proposal far less revolutionary than the state insurance of
+England and Germany. A half century ago, however, and in a country which
+gave the _laisser faire_ economics their extremest trial, the Freedmen's
+Bureau struck the whole nation as unthinkable, save as a very temporary
+expedient and to relieve the more pointed forms of distress following war.
+Yet the proposals of the Bureau were both simple and sensible:
+
+1. To oversee the making and enforcement of wage contracts for freedmen.
+
+2. To appear in the courts as the freedmen's best friend.
+
+3. To furnish the freedmen with a minimum of land and of capital.
+
+4. To establish schools.
+
+5. To furnish such institutions of relief as hospitals, outdoor relief
+stations, etc.
+
+How a sensible people could expect really to conduct a slave into freedom
+with less than this it is hard to see. Even with such tutelage extending
+over a period of two or three decades, the ultimate end had to be
+enfranchisement and political and social freedom for those freedmen who
+attained a certain set standard. Otherwise the whole training had neither
+object nor guarantee. Precisely on this account the former masters opposed
+the Freedmen's Bureau with all their influence. They did not want the
+Negro trained or really freed, and they criticized mercilessly the many
+mistakes of the new Bureau.
+
+The North at first thought to pay for the main cost of the Freedmen's
+Bureau by confiscating the property of former slave owners; but finding
+this not in accordance with law, they realized that they were embarking on
+an enterprise which bade fair to add many millions to the already
+staggering cost of the war. When, therefore, they saw that the abolition
+of slavery could not be left to the white South and could not be done by
+the North without time and money, they determined to put the
+responsibility on the Negro himself. This was without a doubt a tremendous
+experiment, but with all its manifest mistakes it succeeded to an
+astonishing degree. It made the immediate reëstablishment of the old
+slavery impossible, and it was probably the only quick method of doing
+this. It gave the freedmen's sons a chance to begin their education. It
+diverted the energy of the white South slavery to the recovery of
+political power, and in this interval, small as it was, the Negro took his
+first steps toward economic freedom.
+
+The difficulties that stared reconstruction politicians in the face were
+these: (1) They must act quickly. (2) Emancipation had increased the
+political power of the South by one-sixth. Could this increased political
+power be put in the hands of those who, in defense of slavery, had
+disrupted the Union? (3) How was the abolition of slavery to be made
+effective? (4) What was to be the political position of the freedmen?
+
+The Freedmen's Bureau in its short life accomplished a great task. Carl
+Schurz, in 1865, felt warranted in saying that "not half of the labor that
+has been done in the South this year, or will be done there next year,
+would have been or would be done but for the exertions of the Freedmen's
+Bureau.... No other agency except one placed there by the national
+government could have wielded that moral power whose interposition was so
+necessary to prevent Southern society from falling at once into the chaos
+of a general collision between its different elements."[99]
+Notwithstanding this the Bureau was temporary, was regarded as a
+makeshift, and soon abandoned.
+
+Meantime partial Negro suffrage seemed not only just, but almost
+inevitable. Lincoln, in 1864, "cautiously" suggested to Louisiana's
+private consideration "whether some of the colored people may not be let
+in as, for instance, the very intelligent, and especially those who fought
+gallantly in our ranks. They would probably help in some trying time to
+come, to keep the jewel of liberty in the family of freedom." Indeed, the
+"family of freedom" in Louisiana being somewhat small just then, who else
+was to be intrusted with the "jewel"? Later and for different reasons
+Johnson, in 1865, wrote to Mississippi, "If you could extend the elective
+franchise to all persons of color who can read the Constitution of the
+United States in English and write their name, and to all persons of color
+who own real estate valued at not less than two hundred and fifty dollars,
+and pay taxes thereon, you would completely disarm the adversary and set
+an example the other states will follow. This you can do with perfect
+safety, and you thus place the Southern States, in reference to free
+persons of color, upon the same basis with the free states. I hope and
+trust your convention will do this."
+
+The Negroes themselves began to ask for the suffrage. The Georgia
+convention in Augusta (1866) advocated "a proposition to give those who
+could write and read well and possessed a certain property qualification
+the right of suffrage." The reply of the South to these suggestions was
+decisive. In Tennessee alone was any action attempted that even suggested
+possible Negro suffrage in the future, and that failed. In all other
+states the "Black Codes" adopted were certainly not reassuring to the
+friends of freedom. To be sure, it was not a time to look for calm, cool,
+thoughtful action on the part of the white South. Their economic condition
+was pitiable, their fear of Negro freedom genuine. Yet it was reasonable
+to expect from them something less than repression and utter reaction
+toward slavery. To some extent this expectation was fulfilled. The
+abolition of slavery was recognized on the statute book, and the civil
+rights of owning property and appearing as a witness in cases in which he
+was a party were generally granted the Negro; yet with these in many cases
+went harsh and unbearable regulations which largely neutralized the
+concessions and certainly gave ground for an assumption that, once free,
+the South would virtually reenslave the Negro. The colored people
+themselves naturally feared this, protesting, as in Mississippi, "against
+the reactionary policy prevailing and expressing the fear that the
+legislature will pass such prescriptive laws as will drive the freedmen
+from the state, or practically reënslave them."
+
+The codes spoke for themselves. As Burgess says, "Almost every act, word,
+or gesture of the Negro, not consonant with good taste and good manners as
+well as good morals, was made a crime or misdemeanor for which he could
+first be fined by the magistrates and then be consigned to a condition of
+almost slavery for an indefinite time, if he could not pay the bill."[100]
+
+All things considered, it seems probable that, if the South had been
+permitted to have its way in 1865, the harshness of Negro slavery would
+have been mitigated so as to make slave trading difficult, and so as to
+make it possible for a Negro to hold property and appear in some cases in
+court; but that in most other respects the blacks would have remained in
+slavery.
+
+What could prevent this? A Freedmen's Bureau established for ten, twenty,
+or forty years, with a careful distribution of land and capital and a
+system of education for the children, might have prevented such an
+extension of slavery. But the country would not listen to such a
+comprehensive plan. A restricted grant of the suffrage voluntarily made by
+the states would have been a reassuring proof of a desire to treat the
+freedmen fairly and would have balanced in part, at least, the increased
+political power of the South. There was no such disposition evident.
+
+In Louisiana, for instance, under the proposed reconstruction "not one
+Negro was allowed to vote, though at that very time the wealthy
+intelligent free colored people of the state paid taxes on property
+assessed at fifteen million dollars and many of them were well known for
+their patriotic zeal and love for the Union."[101]
+
+Thus the arguments for universal Negro suffrage from the start were strong
+and are still strong, and no one would question their strength were it not
+for the assumption that the experiment failed. Frederick Douglass said to
+President Johnson, "Your noble and humane predecessor placed in our hands
+the sword to assist in saving the nation, and we do hope that you, his
+able successor, will favorably regard the placing in our hands the ballot
+with which to save ourselves."[102]
+
+Carl Schurz wrote, "It is idle to say that it will be time to speak of
+Negro suffrage when the whole colored race will be educated, for the
+ballot may be necessary to him to secure his education."[103]
+
+The granting of full Negro suffrage meant one of two alternatives to the
+South: (1) The uplift of the Negro for sheer self-preservation. This is
+what Schurz and the saner North expected. As one Southern school
+superintendent said, "The elevation of this class is a matter of prime
+importance, since a ballot in the hands of a black citizen is quite as
+potent as in the hands of a white one." Or (2) Negro suffrage meant a
+determined concentration of Southern effort by actual force to deprive the
+Negro of the ballot or nullify its use. This last is what really happened.
+But even in this case, so much energy was taken in keeping the Negro from
+voting that the plan for keeping him in virtual slavery and denying him
+education partially failed. It took ten years to nullify Negro suffrage in
+part and twenty years to escape the fear of federal intervention. In these
+twenty years a vast number of Negroes had arisen so far as to escape
+slavery forever. Debt peonage could be fastened on part of the rural South
+and was; but even here the new Negro landholder appeared. Thus despite
+everything the Fifteenth Amendment, and that alone, struck the death knell
+of slavery.
+
+The steps toward the Fifteenth Amendment were taken slowly. First Negroes
+were allowed to take part in reconstructing the state governments. This
+was inevitable if loyal governments were to be obtained. Next the restored
+state governments were directed to enfranchise all citizens, black or
+white, or have their representation in Congress cut down proportionately.
+Finally the United States said the last word of simple justice: the states
+may regulate the suffrage, but no state may deprive a person of the right
+to vote simply because he is a Negro or has been a slave.
+
+For such reasons the Negro was enfranchised. What was the result? No
+language has been spared to describe these results as the worst
+imaginable. This is not true. There were bad results, and bad results
+arising from Negro suffrage; but those results were not so bad as usually
+painted, nor was Negro suffrage the prime cause of many of them. Let us
+not forget that the white South believed it to be of vital interest to its
+welfare that the experiment of Negro suffrage should fail ignominiously
+and that almost to a man the whites were willing to insure this failure
+either by active force or passive acquiescence; that besides this there
+were, as might be expected, men, black and white, Northern and Southern,
+only too eager to take advantage of such a situation for feathering their
+own nests. Much evil must result in such case; but to charge the evil to
+Negro suffrage is unfair. It may be charged to anger, poverty, venality,
+and ignorance, but the anger and poverty were the almost inevitable
+aftermath of war; the venality was much greater among whites than Negroes
+both North and South, and while ignorance was the curse of Negroes, the
+fault was not theirs and they took the initiative to correct it.
+
+The chief charges against the Negro governments are extravagance, theft,
+and incompetency of officials. There is no serious charge that these
+governments threatened civilization or the foundations of social order.
+The charge is that they threatened property and that they were
+inefficient. These charges are in part undoubtedly true, but they are
+often exaggerated. The South had been terribly impoverished and saddled
+with new social burdens. In other words, states with smaller resources
+were asked not only to do a work of restoration, but a larger social
+work. The property holders were aghast. They not only demurred, but,
+predicting ruin and revolution, they appealed to secret societies, to
+intimidation, force, and murder. They refused to believe that these
+novices in government and their friends were aught but scamps and fools.
+Under the circumstances occurring directly after the war, the wisest
+statesman would have been compelled to resort to increased taxation and
+would have, in turn, been execrated as extravagant, dishonest, and
+incompetent. It is easy, therefore, to see what flaming and incredible
+stories of Reconstruction governments could gain wide currency and belief.
+In fact the extravagance, although great, was not universal, and much of
+it was due to the extravagant spirit pervading the whole country in a day
+of inflated currency and speculation.
+
+That the Negroes led by the astute thieves, became at first tools and
+received some small share of the spoils is true. But two considerations
+must be added: much of the legislation which resulted in fraud was
+represented to the Negroes as good legislation, and thus their votes were
+secured by deliberate misrepresentation. Take, for instance, the land
+frauds of South Carolina. A wise Negro leader of that state, advocating
+the state purchase of farm lands, said, "One of the greatest of slavery
+bulwarks was the infernal plantation system, one man owning his thousand,
+another his twenty, another fifty thousand acres of land. This is the only
+way by which we will break up that system, and I maintain that our freedom
+will be of no effect if we allow it to continue. What is the main cause of
+the prosperity of the North? It is because every man has his own farm and
+is free and independent. Let the lands of the South be similarly
+divided."[104]
+
+From such arguments the Negroes were induced to aid a scheme to buy land
+and distribute it. Yet a large part of eight hundred thousand dollars
+appropriated was wasted and went to the white landholders' pockets.
+
+The most inexcusable cheating of the Negroes took place through the
+Freedmen's Bank. This bank was incorporated by Congress in 1865 and had in
+its list of incorporators some of the greatest names in America including
+Peter Cooper, William Cullen Bryan and John Jay. Yet the bank was allowed
+to fail in 1874 owing the freedmen their first savings of over three
+millions of dollars. They have never been reimbursed.
+
+Many Negroes were undoubtedly venal, but more were ignorant and deceived.
+The question is: Did they show any signs of a disposition to learn to
+better things? The theory of democratic government is not that the will of
+the people is always right, but rather that normal human beings of average
+intelligence will, if given a chance, learn the right and best course by
+bitter experience. This is precisely what the Negro voters showed
+indubitable signs of doing. First they strove for schools to abolish
+ignorance, and second, a large and growing number of them revolted against
+the extravagance and stealing that marred the beginning of Reconstruction,
+and joined with the best elements to institute reform. The greatest stigma
+on the white South is not that it opposed Negro suffrage and resented
+theft and incompetence, but that, when it saw the reform movements growing
+and even in some cases triumphing, and a larger and larger number of black
+voters learning to vote for honesty and ability, it still preferred a
+Reign of Terror to a campaign of education and disfranchised Negroes
+instead of punishing rascals.
+
+No one has expressed this more convincingly than a Negro who was himself a
+member of the Reconstruction legislature of South Carolina, and who spoke
+at the convention which disfranchised him against one of the onslaughts of
+Tillman. "We were eight years in power. We had built school houses,
+established charitable institutions, built and maintained the penitentiary
+system, provided for the education of the deaf and dumb, rebuilt the jails
+and court houses, rebuilt the bridges, and reestablished the ferries. In
+short, we had reconstructed the state and placed it upon the road to
+prosperity, and at the same time, by our acts of financial reform,
+transmitted to the Hampton government an indebtedness not greater by more
+than two and a half million dollars than was the bonded debt of the state
+in 1868, before the Republican Negroes and their white allies came into
+power."[105]
+
+So, too, in Louisiana in 1872, and in Mississippi later, the better
+element of the Republicans triumphed at the polls and, joining with the
+Democrats, instituted reforms, repudiated the worst extravagance, and
+started toward better things. Unfortunately there was one thing that the
+white South feared more than Negro dishonesty, ignorance, and
+incompetency, and that was Negro honesty, knowledge, and efficiency.
+
+In the midst of all these difficulties the Negro governments in the South
+accomplished much of positive good. We may recognize three things which
+Negro rule gave to the South: (1) democratic government, (2) free public
+schools, (3) new social legislation.
+
+In general, the words of Judge Albion W. Tourgee, a white "carpet bagger,"
+are true when he says of the Negro governments, "They obeyed the
+Constitution of the United States and annulled the bonds of states,
+counties, and cities which had been issued to carry on the War of
+Rebellion and maintain armies in the field against the Union. They
+instituted a public school system in a realm where public schools had been
+unknown. They opened the ballot box and the jury box to thousands of white
+men who had been debarred from them by a lack of earthly possessions. They
+introduced home rule into the South. They abolished the whipping post, the
+branding iron, the stocks, and other barbarous forms of punishment which
+had up to that time prevailed. They reduced capital felonies from about
+twenty to two or three. In an age of extravagance they were extravagant in
+the sums appropriated for public works. In all of that time no man's
+rights of persons were invaded under the forms of law. Every Democrat's
+life, home, fireside, and business were safe. No man obstructed any white
+man's way to the ballot box, interfered with his freedom of speech, or
+boycotted him on account of his political faith."[106]
+
+A thorough study of the legislation accompanying these constitutions and
+its changes since shows the comparatively small amount of change in law
+and government which the overthrow of Negro rule brought about. There were
+sharp and often hurtful economies introduced, marking the return of
+property to power; there was a sweeping change of officials, but the main
+body of Reconstruction legislation stood. The Reconstruction democracy
+brought forth new leaders and definitely overthrew the old Southern
+aristocracy. Among these new men were Negroes of worth and ability. John
+R. Lynch, when Speaker of the Mississippi House of Representatives, was
+given a public testimonial by Republicans and Democrats, and the leading
+white paper said, "His bearing in office had been so proper, and his
+rulings in such marked contrasts to the partisan conduct of the ignoble
+whites of his party who have aspired to be leaders of the blacks, that the
+conservatives cheerfully joined in the testimonial."[107]
+
+Of the colored treasurer of South Carolina the white Governor Chamberlain
+said, "I have never heard one word or seen one act of Mr. Cardoza's which
+did not confirm my confidence in his personal integrity and his political
+honor and zeal for the honest administration of the state government. On
+every occasion, and under all circumstances, he has been against fraud and
+robbery and in favor of good measures and good men."[108]
+
+Jonathan C. Gibbs, a colored man and the first state superintendent of
+instruction in Florida, was a graduate of Dartmouth. He established the
+system and brought it to success, dying in harness in 1874. Such men--and
+there were others--ought not to be forgotten or confounded with other
+types of colored and white Reconstruction leaders.
+
+There is no doubt that the thirst of the black man for knowledge, a thirst
+which has been too persistent and durable to be mere curiosity or whim,
+gave birth to the public school system of the South. It was the question
+upon which black voters and legislators insisted more than anything else,
+and while it is possible to find some vestiges of free schools in some of
+the Southern States before the war, yet a universal, well-established
+system dates from the day that the black man got political power.
+
+Finally, in legislation covering property, the wider functions of the
+state, the punishment of crime and the like, it is sufficient to say that
+the laws on these points established by Reconstruction legislatures were
+not only different from and even revolutionary to the laws in the older
+South, but they were so wise and so well suited to the needs of the new
+South that, in spite of a retrogressive movement following the overthrow
+of the Negro governments, the mass of this legislation, with elaborations
+and development, still stands on the statute books of the South.[109]
+
+The triumph of reaction in the South inaugurated a new era in which we may
+distinguish three phases: the renewed attempt to reduce the Negroes to
+serfdom, the rise of the Negro metayer, and the economic disfranchisement
+of the Southern working class.
+
+The attempt to replace individual slavery had been frustrated by the
+Freedmen's Bureau and the Fifteenth Amendment. The disfranchisement of
+1876 was followed by the widespread rise of "crime" peonage. Stringent
+laws on vagrancy, guardianship, and labor contracts were enacted and large
+discretion given judge and jury in cases of petty crime. As a result
+Negroes were systematically arrested on the slightest pretext and the
+labor of convicts leased to private parties. This "convict lease system"
+was almost universal in the South until about 1890, when its outrageous
+abuses and cruelties aroused the whole country. It still survives over
+wide areas, and is not only responsible for the impression that the Negro
+is a natural criminal, but also for the inability of the Southern courts
+to perform their normal functions after so long a prostitution to ends far
+removed from justice.
+
+In more normal economic lines the employers began with the labor contract
+system. Before the war they owned labor, land, and subsistence. After the
+war they still held the land and subsistence. The laborer was hired and
+the subsistence "advanced" to him while the crop was growing. The fall of
+the Freedmen's Bureau hindered the transmutation of this system into a
+modern wage system, and allowed the laborers to be cheated by high
+interest charges on the subsistence advanced and actual cheating often in
+book accounts.
+
+The black laborers became deeply dissatisfied under this system and began
+to migrate from the country to the cities, where there was an increasing
+demand for labor. The employing farmers complained bitterly of the
+scarcity of labor and of Negro "laziness," and secured the enactment of
+harsher vagrancy and labor contract laws, and statutes against the
+"enticement" of laborers. So severe were these laws that it was often
+impossible for a laborer to stop work without committing a felony.
+Nevertheless competition compelled the landholders to offer more
+inducements to the farm hand. The result was the rise of the black share
+tenant: the laborer securing better wages saved a little capital and began
+to hire land in parcels of forty to eighty acres, furnishing his own tools
+and seed and practically raising his own subsistence. In this way the
+whole face of the labor contract in the South was, in the decade 1880-90,
+in process of change from a nominal wage contract to a system of tenantry.
+The great plantations were apparently broken up into forty and eighty acre
+farms with black farmers. To many it seemed that emancipation was
+accomplished, and the black folk were especially filled with joy and hope.
+
+It soon was evident, however, that the change was only partial. The
+landlord still held the land in large parcels. He rented this in small
+farms to tenants, but retained direct control. In theory the laborer was
+furnishing capital, but in the majority of cases he was borrowing at
+least a part of this capital from some merchant.
+
+The retail merchant in this way entered on the scene as middle man between
+landlord and laborer. He guaranteed the landowner his rent and relieved
+him of details by taking over the furnishing of supplies to the laborer.
+He tempted the laborer by a larger stock of more attractive goods, made a
+direct contract with him, and took a mortgage on the growing crop. Thus he
+soon became the middle man to whom the profit of the transaction largely
+flowed, and he began to get rich.
+
+If the new system benefited the merchant and the landlord, it also brought
+some benefits to the black laborers. Numbers of these were still held in
+peonage, and the mass were laborers working for scant board and clothes;
+but above these began to rise a large number of independent tenants and
+farm owners.
+
+In 1890, therefore, the South was faced by this question: Are we willing
+to allow the Negro to advance as a free worker, peasant farmer, metayer,
+and small capitalist, with only such handicaps as naturally impede the
+poor and ignorant, or is it necessary to erect further artificial barriers
+to restrain the advance of the Negroes? The answer was clear and
+unmistakable. The advance of the freedmen had been too rapid and the South
+feared it; every effort must be made to "keep the Negro in his place" as a
+servile caste.
+
+To this end the South strove to make the disfranchisement of the Negroes
+effective and final. Up to this time disfranchisement was illegal and
+based on intimidation. The new laws passed between 1890 and 1910 sought on
+their face to base the right to vote on property and education in such a
+way as to exclude poor and illiterate Negroes and admit all whites. In
+fact they could be administered so as to exclude nearly all Negroes. To
+this was added a series of laws designed publicly to humiliate and
+stigmatize Negro blood: as, for example, separate railway cars; separate
+seats in street cars, and the like; these things were added to the
+separation in schools and churches, and the denial of redress to seduced
+colored women, which had long been the custom in the South. All these new
+enactments meant not simply separation, but subordination, caste,
+humiliation, and flagrant injustice.
+
+To all this was added a series of labor laws making the exploitation of
+Negro labor more secure. All this legislation had to be accomplished in
+the face of the labor movement throughout the world, and particularly in
+the South, where it was beginning to enter among the white workers. This
+was accomplished easily, however, by an appeal to race prejudice. No
+method of inflaming the darkest passions of men was unused. The lynching
+mob was given its glut of blood and egged on by purposely exaggerated and
+often wholly invented tales of crime on the part of perhaps the most
+peaceful and sweet-tempered race the world has ever known. Under the flame
+of this outward noise went the more subtle and dangerous work. The
+election laws passed in the states where three-fourths of the Negroes
+live, were so ingeniously framed that a black university graduate could be
+prevented from voting and the most ignorant white hoodlum could be
+admitted to the polls. Labor laws were so arranged that imprisonment for
+debt was possible and leaving an employer could be made a penitentiary
+offense. Negro schools were cut off with small appropriations or wholly
+neglected, and a determined effort was made with wide success to see that
+no Negro had any voice either in the making or the administration of
+local, state, or national law.
+
+The acquiescence of the white labor vote of the South was further insured
+by throwing white and black laborers, so far as possible, into rival
+competing groups and making each feel that the one was the cause of the
+other's troubles. The neutrality of the white people of the North was
+secured through their fear for the safety of large investments in the
+South, and through the fatalistic attitude common both in America and
+Europe toward the possibility of real advance on the part of the darker
+nations.
+
+The reaction of the Negro Americans upon this wholesale and open attempt
+to reduce them to serfdom has been interesting. Naturally they began to
+organize and protest and in some cases to appeal to the courts. Then, to
+their astonishment, there arose a colored leader, Mr. Booker T.
+Washington, who advised them to yield to disfranchisement and caste and
+wait for greater economic strength and general efficiency before demanding
+full rights as American citizens. The white South naturally agreed with
+Mr. Washington, and the white North thought they saw here a chance for
+peace in the racial conflict and safety for their Southern investments.
+
+For a time the colored people hesitated. They respected Mr. Washington for
+shrewdness and recognized the wisdom of his homely insistence on thrift
+and hard work; but gradually they came to see more and more clearly that,
+stripped of political power and emasculated by caste, they could never
+gain sufficient economic strength to take their place as modern men. They
+also realized that any lull in their protests would be taken advantage of
+by Negro haters to push their caste program. They began, therefore, with
+renewed persistence to fight for their fundamental rights as American
+citizens. The struggle tended at first to bitter personal dissension
+within the group. But wiser counsels and the advice of white friends
+eventually prevailed and raised it to the broad level of a fight for the
+fundamental principles of democracy. The launching of the "Niagara
+Movement" by twenty-nine daring colored men in 1905, followed by the
+formation of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored
+People in 1910, marked an epoch in the advance of the Negro. This latter
+organization, with its monthly organ, _The Crisis_, is now waging a
+nation-wide fight for justice to Negroes. Other organizations, and a
+number of strong Negro weekly papers are aiding in this fight. What has
+been the net result of this struggle of half a century?
+
+In 1863 there were about five million persons of Negro descent in the
+United States. Of these, four million and more were just being released
+from slavery. These slaves could be bought and sold, could move from place
+to place only with permission, were forbidden to learn to read or write,
+and legally could never hold property or marry. Ninety per cent were
+totally illiterate, and only one adult in six was a nominal Christian.
+
+Fifty years later, in 1913, there were in the United States ten and a
+quarter million persons of Negro descent, an increase of one hundred and
+five per cent. Legal slavery has been abolished leaving, however, vestiges
+in debt slavery, peonage, and the convict lease system. The mass of the
+freedmen and their sons have
+
+1. Earned a living as free and partially free laborers.
+
+2. Shared the responsibilities of government.
+
+3. Developed the internal organization of their race.
+
+4. Aspired to spiritual self-expression.
+
+The Negro was freed as a penniless, landless, naked, ignorant laborer.
+There were a few free Negroes who owned property in the South, and a
+larger number who owned property in the North; but ninety-nine per cent of
+the race in the South were penniless field hands and servants.
+
+To-day there are two and a half million laborers, the majority of whom are
+efficient wage earners. Above these are more than a million servants and
+tenant farmers; skilled and semi-skilled workers make another million and
+at the top of the economic column are 600,000 owners and managers of farms
+and businesses, cash tenants, officials, and professional men. This makes
+a total of 5,192,535 colored breadwinners in 1910.
+
+More specifically these breadwinners include 218,972 farm owners and
+319,346 cash farm tenants and managers. There were in all 62,755 miners,
+288,141 in the building and hand trades; 28,515 workers in clay, glass,
+and stone; 41,739 iron and steel workers; 134,102 employees on railways;
+62,822 draymen, cab drivers, and liverymen; 133,245 in wholesale and
+retail trade; 32,170 in the public service; and 69,471 in professional
+service, including 29,750 teachers, 17,495 clergymen, and 4,546
+physicians, dentists, trained nurses, etc. Finally, we must not forget
+2,175,000 Negro homes, with their housewives, and 1,620,000 children in
+school.
+
+Fifty years ago the overwhelming mass of these people were not only
+penniless, but were themselves assessed as real estate. By 1875 the
+Negroes probably had gotten hold of something between 2,000,000 and
+4,000,000 acres of land through their bounties as soldiers and the low
+price of land after the war. By 1880 this was increased to about 6,000,000
+acres; in 1890 to about 8,000,000 acres; in 1900 to over 12,000,000 acres.
+In 1910 this land had increased to nearly 20,000,000 acres, a realm as
+large as Ireland.
+
+The 120,738 farms owned by Negroes in 1890 increased to 218,972 in 1910,
+or eighty-one per cent. The value of these farms increased from
+$179,796,639 in 1900 to $440,992,439 in 1910; Negroes owned in 1910 about
+500,000 homes out of a total of 2,175,000. Their total property in 1900
+was estimated at $300,000,000 by the American Economic Association. On the
+same basis of calculation it would be worth to-day not less than
+$800,000,000.
+
+Despite the disfranchisement of three-fourths of his voting population,
+the Negro to-day is a recognized part of the American government. He holds
+7,500 offices in the executive service of the nation, besides furnishing
+four regiments in the army and a large number of sailors. In the state and
+municipal service he holds nearly 20,000 other offices, and he furnishes
+500,000 of the votes which rule the Union.
+
+In these same years the Negro has relearned the lost art of organization.
+Slavery was the almost absolute denial of initiative and responsibility.
+To-day Negroes have nearly 40,000 churches, with edifices worth at least
+$75,000,000 and controlling nearly 4,000,000 members. They raise
+themselves $7,500,000 a year for these churches.
+
+There are 200 private schools and colleges managed and almost entirely
+supported by Negroes, and these and other public and private Negro schools
+have received in 40 years $45,000,000 of Negro money in taxes and
+donations. Five millions a year are raised by Negro secret and beneficial
+societies which hold at least $6,000,000 in real estate. Negroes support
+wholly or in part over 100 old folks' homes and orphanages, 30 hospitals,
+and 500 cemeteries. Their organized commercial life is extending rapidly
+and includes over 22,000 small retail businesses and 40 banks.
+
+Above and beyond this material growth has gone the spiritual uplift of a
+great human race. From contempt and amusement they have passed to the
+pity, perplexity, and fear on the part of their neighbors, while within
+their own souls they have arisen from apathy and timid complaint to open
+protest and more and more manly self-assertion. Where nine-tenths of them
+could not read or write in 1860, to-day over two-thirds can; they have 300
+papers and periodicals, and their voice and expression are compelling
+attention. Already in poetry, literature, music, and painting the work of
+Americans of Negro descent has gained notable recognition. Instead of
+being led and defended by others, as in the past, American Negroes are
+gaining their own leaders, their own voices, their own ideals.
+Self-realization is thus coming slowly but surely to another of the
+world's great races, and they are to-day girding themselves to fight in
+the van of progress, not simply for their own rights as men, but for the
+ideals of the greater world in which they live: the emancipation of women,
+universal peace, democratic government, the socialization of wealth, and
+human brotherhood.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[90]
+
+The figures given by the census are as follows:
+1850, mulattoes formed 11.2 per cent of the total Negro population.
+1860, mulattoes formed 13.2 per cent of the total Negro population.
+1870, mulattoes formed 12 per cent of the total Negro population.
+1890, mulattoes formed 15.2 per cent of the total Negro population.
+1910, mulattoes formed 20.9 per cent of the total Negro population.
+
+Or in actual numbers:
+1850, 405,751 mulattoes.
+1860, 588,352 mulattoes.
+1870, 585,601 mulattoes.
+1890, 1,132,060 mulattoes.
+1910, 2,050,686 mulattoes.
+
+[91] Cf. "The Spanish Jurist Solorzaris," quoted in Helps: _Spanish
+Conquest_, IV, 381.
+
+[92] Hurd: _Law of Freedom and Bondage_.
+
+[93] "Obi (Obeah, Obiah, or Obia) is the adjective; Obe or Obi, the noun.
+It is of African origin, probably connected with Egyptian Ob, Aub, or
+Obron, meaning 'serpent.' Moses forbids Israelites ever to consult the
+demon Ob, i.e., 'Charmer, Wizard.' The Witch of Endor is called Oub or Ob.
+Oubaois is the name of the Baselisk or Royal Serpent, emblem of the Sun,
+and, according to Horus Appollo, 'the Ancient Deity of Africa.'"--Edwards:
+_West Indies_, ed. 1819, II. 106-119. Cf. Johnston: _Negro in the New
+World_, pp. 65-66; _also Atlanta University Publications_, No. 8, pp. 5-6.
+
+[94] _Boston Transcript_, March 24, 1906.
+
+[95] Bassett: _North Carolina_, pp. 73-76.
+
+[96] Cf. Wilson: _The Black Phalanx_.
+
+[97] Wilson: _The Black Phalanx_, p. 108.
+
+[98] _American Historical Review_, Vol. XV.
+
+[99] Report to President Johnson.
+
+[100] _Reconstruction and the Constitution._
+
+[101] Brewster: _Sketches_, etc.
+
+[102] McPherson: _Reconstruction_, p. 52.
+
+[103] Report to the President, 1865.
+
+[104] _American Historical Review_, Vol. XV, No. 4.
+
+[105] _Occasional Papers_, American Negro Academy, No. 6.
+
+[106] _Occasional Papers_, American Negro Academy, No. 6.
+
+[107] _Jackson (Miss.) Clarion_, April 24, 1873.
+
+[108] Allen: _Governor Chamberlain's Administration_, p. 82.
+
+[109] Reconstruction Constitutions, practically unaltered, were kept in
+Florida, 1868-85, seventeen years; Virginia, 1870-1902, thirty-two years;
+South Carolina, 1868-95, twenty-seven years; Mississippi, 1868-90,
+twenty-two years.
+
+
+
+
+XII THE NEGRO PROBLEMS
+
+
+It is impossible to separate the population of the world accurately by
+race, since that is no scientific criterion by which to divide races. If
+we divide the world, however, roughly into African Negroes and Negroids,
+European whites, and Asiatic and American brown and yellow peoples, we
+have approximately 150,000,000 Negroes, 500,000,000 whites, and
+900,000,000 yellow and brown peoples. Of the 150,000,000 Negroes,
+121,000,000 live in Africa, 27,000,000[110] in the new world, and
+2,000,000 in Asia.
+
+What is to be the future relation of the Negro race to the rest of the
+world? The visitor from Altruria might see here no peculiar problem. He
+would expect the Negro race to develop along the lines of other human
+races. In Africa his economic and political development would restore and
+eventually outrun the ancient glories of Egypt, Ethiopia, and Yoruba;
+overseas the West Indies would become a new and nobler Africa, built in
+the very pathway of the new highway of commerce between East and West--the
+real sea route to India; while in the United States a large part of its
+citizenship (showing for perhaps centuries their dark descent, but
+nevertheless equal sharers of and contributors to the civilization of the
+West) would be the descendants of the wretched victims of the seventeenth,
+eighteenth, and nineteenth century slave trade.
+
+This natural assumption of a stranger finds, however, lodging in the minds
+of few present-day thinkers. On the contrary, such an outcome is usually
+dismissed summarily. Most persons have accepted that tacit but clear
+modern philosophy which assigns to the white race alone the hegemony of
+the world and assumes that other races, and particularly the Negro race,
+will either be content to serve the interests of the whites or die out
+before their all-conquering march. This philosophy is the child of the
+African slave trade and of the expansion of Europe during the nineteenth
+century.
+
+The Negro slave trade was the first step in modern world commerce,
+followed by the modern theory of colonial expansion. Slaves as an article
+of commerce were shipped as long as the traffic paid. When the Americas
+had enough black laborers for their immediate demand, the moral action of
+the eighteenth century had a chance to make its faint voice heard.
+
+The moral repugnance was powerfully reënforced by the revolt of the slaves
+in the West Indies and South America, and by the fact that North America
+early began to regard itself as the seat of advanced ideas in politics,
+religion, and humanity.
+
+Finally European capital began to find better investments than slave
+shipping and flew to them. These better investments were the fruit of the
+new industrial revolution of the nineteenth century, with its factory
+system; they were also in part the result of the cheapened price of gold
+and silver, brought about by slavery and the slave trade to the new world.
+Commodities other than gold, and commodities capable of manufacture and
+exploitation in Europe out of materials furnishable by America, became
+enhanced in value; the bottom fell out of the commercial slave trade and
+its suppression became possible.
+
+The middle of the nineteenth century saw the beginning of the rise of the
+modern working class. By means of political power the laborers slowly but
+surely began to demand a larger share in the profiting industry. In the
+United States their demand bade fair to be halted by the competition of
+slave labor. The labor vote, therefore, first confined slavery to limits
+in which it could not live, and when the slave power sought to exceed
+these territorial limits, it was suddenly and unintentionally abolished.
+
+As the emancipation of millions of dark workers took place in the West
+Indies, North and South America, and parts of Africa at this time, it was
+natural to assume that the uplift of this working class lay along the same
+paths with that of European and American whites. This was the _first_
+suggested solution of the Negro problem. Consequently these Negroes
+received partial enfranchisement, the beginnings of education, and some of
+the elementary rights of wage earners and property holders, while the
+independence of Liberia and Hayti was recognized. However, long before
+they were strong enough to assert the rights thus granted or to gather
+intelligence enough for proper group leadership, the new colonialism of
+the later nineteenth and twentieth centuries began to dawn. The new
+colonial theory transferred the reign of commercial privilege and
+extraordinary profit from the exploitation of the European working class
+to the exploitation of backward races under the political domination of
+Europe. For the purpose of carrying out this idea the European and white
+American working class was practically invited to share in this new
+exploitation, and particularly were flattered by popular appeals to their
+inherent superiority to "Dagoes," "Chinks," "Japs," and "Niggers."
+
+This tendency was strengthened by the fact that the new colonial expansion
+centered in Africa. Thus in 1875 something less than one-tenth of Africa
+was under nominal European control, but the Franco-Prussian War and the
+exploration of the Congo led to new and fateful things. Germany desired
+economic expansion and, being shut out from America by the Monroe
+Doctrine, turned to Africa. France, humiliated in war, dreamed of an
+African empire from the Atlantic to the Red Sea. Italy became ambitious
+for Tripoli and Abyssinia. Great Britain began to take new interest in her
+African realm, but found herself largely checkmated by the jealousy of all
+Europe. Portugal sought to make good her ancient claim to the larger part
+of the whole southern peninsula. It was Leopold of Belgium who started to
+make the exploration and civilization of Africa an international movement.
+This project failed, and the Congo Free State became in time simply a
+Belgian colony. While the project was under discussion, the international
+scramble for Africa began. As a result the Berlin Conference and
+subsequent wars and treaties gave Great Britain control of 2,101,411
+square miles of African territory, in addition to Egypt and the Egyptian
+Sudan with 1,600,000 square miles. This includes South Africa,
+Bechuanaland and Rhodesia, East Africa, Uganda and Zanzibar, Nigeria, and
+British West Africa. The French hold 4,106,950 square miles, including
+nearly all North Africa (except Tripoli) west of the Niger valley and
+Libyan Desert, and touching the Atlantic at four points. To this is added
+the Island of Madagascar. The Germans have 910,150 square miles,
+principally in Southeast and South-west Africa and the Kamerun. The
+Portuguese retain 787,500 square miles in Southeast and Southwest Africa.
+The Belgians have 900,000 square miles, while Liberia (43,000 square
+miles) and Abyssinia (350,000 square miles) are independent. The Italians
+have about 600,000 square miles and the Spanish less than 100,000 square
+miles.
+
+This partition of Africa brought revision of the ideas of Negro uplift.
+Why was it necessary, the European investors argued, to push a continent
+of black workers along the paths of social uplift by education,
+trades-unionism, property holding, and the electoral franchise when the
+workers desired no change, and the rate of European profit would suffer?
+
+There quickly arose then the _second_ suggestion for settling the Negro
+problem. It called for the virtual enslavement of natives in certain
+industries, as rubber and ivory collecting in the Belgian Congo, cocoa
+raising in Portuguese Angola, and diamond mining in South Africa. This new
+slavery or "forced" labor was stoutly defended as a necessary foundation
+for implanting modern industry in a barbarous land; but its likeness to
+slavery was too clear and it has been modified, but not wholly abolished.
+
+The _third_ attempted solution of the Negro sought the result of the
+_second_ by less direct methods. Negroes in Africa, the West Indies, and
+America were to be forced to work by land monopoly, taxation, and little
+or no education. In this way a docile industrial class working for low
+wages, and not intelligent enough to unite in labor unions, was to be
+developed. The peonage systems in parts of the United States and the labor
+systems of many of the African colonies of Great Britain and Germany
+illustrate this phase of solution.[111] It is also illustrated in many of
+the West Indian islands where we have a predominant Negro population, and
+this population freed from slavery and partially enfranchised. Land and
+capital, however, have for the most part been so managed and monopolized
+that the black peasantry have been reduced to straits to earn a living in
+one of the richest parts of the world. The problem is now going to be
+intensified when the world's commerce begins to sweep through the Panama
+Canal.
+
+All these solutions and methods, however, run directly counter to modern
+philanthropy, and have to be carried on with a certain concealment and
+half-hypocrisy which is not only distasteful in itself, but always liable
+to be discovered and exposed by some liberal or religious movement of the
+masses of men and suddenly overthrown. These solutions are, therefore,
+gradually merging into a _fourth_ solution, which is to-day very popular.
+This solution says: Negroes differ from whites in their inherent genius
+and stage of development. Their development must not, therefore, be sought
+along European lines, but along their own native lines. Consequently the
+effort is made to-day in British Nigeria, in the French Congo and Sudan,
+in Uganda and Rhodesia to leave so far as possible the outward structure
+of native life intact; the king or chief reigns, the popular assemblies
+meet and act, the native courts adjudicate, and native social and family
+life and religion prevail. All this, however, is subject to the veto and
+command of a European magistracy supported by a native army with European
+officers. The advantage of this method is that on its face it carries no
+clue to its real working. Indeed it can always point to certain undoubted
+advantages: the abolition of the slave trade, the suppression of war and
+feud, the encouragement of peaceful industry. On the other hand, back of
+practically all these experiments stands the economic motive--the
+determination to use the organization, the land, and the people, not for
+their own benefit, but for the benefit of white Europe. For this reason
+education is seldom encouraged, modern religious ideas are carefully
+limited, sound political development is sternly frowned upon, and industry
+is degraded and changed to the demands of European markets. The most
+ruthless class of white mercantile exploiters is allowed large liberty, if
+not a free hand, and protected by a concerted attempt to deify white men
+as such in the eyes of the native and in their own imagination.[112]
+
+White missionary societies are spending perhaps as much as five million
+dollars a year in Africa and accomplishing much good, but at the same time
+white merchants are sending at least twenty million dollars' worth of
+European liquor into Africa each year, and the debauchery of the almost
+unrestricted rum traffic goes far to neutralize missionary effort.
+
+[Illustration: Distribution of Negro Blood, Ancient and Modern]
+
+Under this last mentioned solution of the Negro problems we may put the
+attempts at the segregation of Negroes and mulattoes in the United States
+and to some extent in the West Indies. Ostensibly this is "separation" of
+the races in society, civil rights, etc. In practice it is the
+subordination of colored people of all grades under white tutelage, and
+their separation as far as possible from contact with civilization in
+dwelling place, in education, and in public life.
+
+On the other hand the economic significance of the Negro to-day is
+tremendous. Black Africa to-day exports annually nearly two hundred
+million dollars' worth of goods, and its economic development has scarcely
+begun. The black West Indies export nearly one hundred million dollars'
+worth of goods; to this must be added the labor value of Negroes in South
+Africa, Egypt, the West Indies, North, Central, and South America, where
+the result is blended in the common output of many races. The economic
+foundation of the Negro problem can easily be seen to be a matter of many
+hundreds of millions to-day, and ready to rise to the billions tomorrow.
+
+Such figures and facts give some slight idea of the economic meaning of
+the Negro to-day as a worker and industrial factor. "Tropical Africa and
+its peoples are being brought more irrevocably every year into the vortex
+of the economic influences that sway the western world."[113]
+
+What do Negroes themselves think of these their problems and the attitude
+of the world toward them? First and most significant, they are thinking.
+There is as yet no great single centralizing of thought or unification of
+opinion, but there are centers which are growing larger and larger and
+touching edges. The most significant centers of this new thinking are,
+perhaps naturally, outside Africa and in America: in the United States and
+in the West Indies; this is followed by South Africa and West Africa and
+then, more vaguely, by South America, with faint beginnings in East
+Central Africa, Nigeria, and the Sudan.
+
+The Pan-African movement when it comes will not, however, be merely a
+narrow racial propaganda. Already the more far-seeing Negroes sense the
+coming unities: a unity of the working classes everywhere, a unity of the
+colored races, a new unity of men. The proposed economic solution of the
+Negro problem in Africa and America has turned the thoughts of Negroes
+toward a realization of the fact that the modern white laborer of Europe
+and America has the key to the serfdom of black folk, in his support of
+militarism and colonial expansion. He is beginning to say to these
+workingmen that, so long as black laborers are slaves, white laborers
+cannot be free. Already there are signs in South Africa and the United
+States of the beginning of understanding between the two classes.
+
+In a conscious sense of unity among colored races there is to-day only a
+growing interest. There is slowly arising not only a curiously strong
+brotherhood of Negro blood throughout the world, but the common cause of
+the darker races against the intolerable assumptions and insults of
+Europeans has already found expression. Most men in this world are
+colored. A belief in humanity means a belief in colored men. The future
+world will, in all reasonable probability, be what colored men make it. In
+order for this colored world to come into its heritage, must the earth
+again be drenched in the blood of fighting, snarling human beasts, or will
+Reason and Good Will prevail? That such may be true, the character of the
+Negro race is the best and greatest hope; for in its normal condition it
+is at once the strongest and gentlest of the races of men: "Semper novi
+quid ex Africa!"
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[110] Sir Harry Johnston estimates 135,000,000 Negroes, of whom 24,591,000
+live in America. See _Inter-Racial Problems_, p. 335.
+
+[111] The South African natives, in an appeal to the English Parliament,
+show in an astonishing way the confiscation of their land by the English.
+They say that in the Union of South Africa 1,250,000 whites own
+264,000,000 acres of land, while the 4,500,000 natives have only
+21,000,000 acres. On top of this the Union Parliament has passed a law
+making even the future purchase of land by Negroes illegal save in
+restricted areas!
+
+[112] The traveler Glave writes in the _Century Magazine_ (LIII, 913):
+"Formerly [in the Congo Free State] an ordinary white man was merely
+called 'bwana' or 'Mzunga'; now the merest insect of a pale face earns the
+title of 'bwana Mkubwa' [big master]."
+
+[113] E.D. Morel, in the _Nineteenth Century_.
+
+
+
+
+SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING
+
+
+There is no general history of the Negro race. Perhaps Sir Harry H.
+Johnston, in his various works on Africa, has come as near covering the
+subject as any one writer, but his valuable books have puzzling
+inconsistencies and inaccuracies. Keane's _Africa_ is a helpful
+compendium, despite the fact that whenever Keane discovers intelligence in
+an African he immediately discovers that its possessor is no "Negro." The
+articles in the latest edition of the _Encyclopædia Britannica_ are of
+some value, except the ridiculous article on the "Negro" by T.A. Joyce.
+Frobenius' newly published _Voice of Africa_ is broad-minded and
+informing, and Brown's _Story of Africa and its Explorers_ brings together
+much material in readable form. The compendiums by Keltie and White, and
+Johnston's _Opening up of Africa_ are the best among the shorter
+treatises.
+
+None of these authors write from the point of view of the Negro as a man,
+or with anything but incidental acknowledgment of the existence or value
+of his history. We may, however, set down certain books under the various
+subjects which the chapters have treated. These books will consist of (1)
+standard works for wider reading and (2) special works on which the author
+has relied for his statements or which amplify his point of view. _The
+latter are starred_.
+
+
+THE PHYSIOGRAPHY OF AFRICA
+
+A.S. White: _The Development of Africa_, 2d ed., 1892.
+
+Stanford's Compendium of Geography: _Africa_, by A.H. Keane, 2d ed.,
+1904-7.
+
+E. Reclus: _Universal Geography_, Vols. X-XIII.
+
+
+RACIAL DIFFERENCES AND THE ORIGIN AND CHARACTERISTICS OF NEGROES
+
+J. Deniker: _The Races of Man_, etc., New York, 1904.
+
+*J. Finot: _Race Prejudice_ (tr. by Wade-Evans), New York, 1907.
+
+*W.Z. Ripley: _The Races of Europe_, etc., New York, 1899.
+
+*Jacques Loeb: in _The Crisis_, Vol. VIII, p. 84, Vol. IX, p. 92.
+
+*_Papers on Inter-Racial Problems Communicated to the First Universal
+Races Congress_, etc. (ed. by G. Spiller), 1911.
+
+*G. Sergi: _The Mediterranean Race_, etc., London, 1901.
+
+*Franz Boas: _The Mind of Primitive Man_, New York, 1911.
+
+C.B. Davenport: _Heredity of Skin Color in Negro-White Crosses_, 1913.
+
+
+EARLY MOVEMENTS OF THE NEGRO RACE
+
+*Sir Harry H. Johnston: _The Opening up of Africa_ (Home University
+Library).
+
+---- _A History of the Colonization of Africa by Alien Races_, Cambridge,
+1905.
+
+*G.W. Stowe: _The Native Races of South Africa_ (ed. by G.M. Theal),
+London, 1910.
+
+(Consult also Johnston's other works on Africa, and his article in Vol.
+XLIII of the _Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great
+Britain and Ireland_; also _Inter-Racial Problems, and_ Deniker, noted
+above.)
+
+
+NEGRO IN ETHIOPIA AND EGYPT
+
+(The works of Breasted and Petrie, Maspero, Budge and Newberry and
+Garstang are the standard books on Egypt. They mention the Negro, but
+incidentally and often slightingly.)
+
+*A.F. Chamberlain: "The Contribution of the Negro to Human Civilization"
+(_Journal of Race Development_, Vol. I, April, 1911).
+
+T.E.S. Scholes: _Glimpses of the Ages_, etc., London, 1905.
+
+W.H. Ferris: _The African Abroad_, etc., 2 vols., New Haven, 1913.
+
+E.A.W. Budge: _The Egyptian Sudan_, 2 vols., 1907.
+
+*_Archeological Survey of Nubia_.
+
+*A. Thompson and D. Randal McIver: _The Ancient Races of the Thebaid_,
+1905.
+
+
+ABYSSINIA
+
+Job Ludolphus: _A New History of Ethiopia_ (tr. by Gent), London, 1682.
+
+W.S. Harris: _Highlands of Æthiopia_, 3 vols., London, 1844.
+
+R.S. Whiteway: _The Portuguese Expedition to Abyssinia_ ... as narrated by
+Castanhosa, etc., 1902.
+
+
+THE NIGER RIVER AND ISLAM *F.L. Shaw (Lady Lugard): _A Tropical
+Dependency_, etc., London, 1906.
+
+(The reader may dismiss as worthless Lady Lugard's definition of "Negro."
+Otherwise her book is excellent.)
+
+*Es-Sa'di, Abderrahman Ben Abdallah, etc., translated into French by O.
+Houdas, Paris, 1900.
+
+*F. DuBois: _Timbuktu the Mysterious_ (tr. by White), 1896.
+
+*W.D. Cooley: _The Negroland of the Arabs_, etc., 1841.
+
+*H. Barth: _Travels and Discoveries in North and Central Africa_, etc., 5
+vols., 1857-58.
+
+*Ibn Batuta: _Travels_, etc. (tr. by Lee), 1829.
+
+*Leo Africanus: _The History and Description of Africa_, etc. (tr. by
+Pory, ed. by R. Brown), 3 vols., 1896.
+
+*E.W. Blyden: _Christianity, Islam, and the Negro Race_.
+
+*Leo Frobenius: _The Voice of Africa_ (tr. by Blind), 2 vols., 1913.
+
+Mungo Park: _Travels in the Interior Districts of Africa_, 1799.
+
+
+THE NEGRO ON THE GUINEA COAST
+
+*Leo Frobenius (as above).
+
+Sir Harry H. Johnston: _Liberia_, 2 vols., New York, 1906.
+
+H.H. Foote: _Africa and the American Flag_, New York, 1859.
+
+T.H.T. McPherson: _A History of Liberia_, Baltimore, Johns Hopkins
+Studies.
+
+T.J. Alldridge: _A Transformed Colony_ (Sierra Leone), London, 1910.
+
+E.D. Morel: _Affairs of West Africa_, 1902.
+
+H.L. Roth: _Great Benin and Its Customs_, 1903.
+
+*F. Starr: _Liberia_, 1913.
+
+W. Jay: _An Inquiry_, etc., 1835.
+
+*A.B. Ellis: _The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the Gold Coast_, 1887.
+
+---- _The Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast_, 1890.
+
+---- _The Yoruba-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast_, 1894.
+
+C.H. Read and O.M. Dalton: _Antiquities from the City of Benin_, etc.,
+1899.
+
+*M.H. Kingsley: _West African Studies_, 2d. ed., 1904.
+
+*G.W. Ellis: _Negro Culture in West Africa_ (Vai-speaking peoples), 1914.
+
+
+
+THE CONGO VALLEY
+
+*G. Schweinfurth: _The Heart of Africa_, Vol. II, 1873.
+
+*H.M. Stanley: _Through the Dark Continent_, 2 vols., 1878.
+
+---- _In Darkest Africa_, 2 vols., 1890.
+
+---- _The Congo_, etc., 2 vols., London, 1885.
+
+H. von Wissman: _My Second Journey through Equatorial Africa_, 1891.
+
+*H.R. Fox-Bourne: _Civilization in Congoland_, 1903.
+
+Sir Harry H. Johnston: _George Grenfell and the Congo_, 2 vols., London,
+1908.
+
+*E.D. Morel: _Red Rubber_, London, 1906.
+
+
+THE NEGRO IN THE REGION OF THE GREAT LAKES
+
+*Sir Harry H. Johnston: _The Uganda Protectorate_, 2d ed., 2 vols., 1904.
+
+---- _British Central Africa_, 1897.
+
+---- _The Nile Quest_, 1903.
+
+*D. Randal McIver: _Mediæval Rhodesia_, 1906.
+
+*_The Last Journals of David Livingstone in Central Africa_ (ed. by H.
+Waller), 1874.
+
+J. Dos Santos: _Ethiopia Oriental_ (Theal's _Records of South Africa_,
+Vol. VII).
+
+C. Peters: "Ophir and Punt in South Africa" (_African Society Journal_,
+Vol. I).
+
+De Barros: _De Asia_.
+
+R. Burton: _Lake Regions of Central Africa_, 1860.
+
+R.P. Ashe: _Chronicles of Uganda_, 1894.
+
+(See also Stanley's works, as above.)
+
+
+THE NEGRO IN SOUTH AFRICA
+
+*G.M. Theal: _History and Ethnography of South Africa of the Zambesi to
+1795_, 3 vols., 1907-10.
+
+---- _History of South Africa since September, 1795_, 5 vols., 1908.
+
+---- _Records of South Eastern Africa_, 9 vols., 1898-1903.
+
+*J. Bryce: _Impressions of South Africa_, 1897.
+
+D. Livingstone: _Missionary Travels in South Africa_, 1857.
+
+*South African Native Affairs Commission, 1903-5, _Reports_, etc., 5
+vols., Cape Town, 1904-5.
+
+G. Lagden: _The Basutos_, London, 1909.
+
+J. Stewart: _Lovedale_, 1884.
+
+(See also Stowe, as above.)
+
+
+ON NEGRO CIVILIZATION
+
+J. Dowd: _The Negro Races_, 1907, 1914.
+
+*H. Gregoire: _An Inquiry concerning the Intellectual and Moral Faculties
+and Literature of Negroes_, etc. (tr. by Warden), Brooklyn, 1810.
+
+C. Bücher: _Industrial Evolution_ (tr. by Wickett), New York, 1904.
+
+*Franz Boas: "The Real Race Problem" (_The Crisis_, December, 1910).
+
+---- _Commencement Address_ (Atlanta University Leaflet, No. 19).
+
+*F. Ratzel: _The History of Mankind_ (tr. by Butler), 3 vols., 1904.
+
+C. Hayford: _Gold Coast Institutions_, 1903.
+
+A.B. Camphor: _Missionary Sketches and Folk Lore from Africa_, 1909.
+
+R.H. Nassau: _Fetishism in West Africa_, 1907.
+
+*William Schneider: _Die Culturfähigkeit des Negers_, Frankfort, 1885.
+
+*G. Schweinfurth: _Artes Africanae_, etc., 1875.
+
+Duke of Mecklenburg: _From the Congo to the Niger and the Nile_ (English
+tr.), Philadelphia, 1914.
+
+D. Crawford: _Thinking Black_.
+
+R.N. Cust: _Sketch of Modern Language of Africa_, 2 vols., 1883.
+
+H. Chatelain: _The Folk Lore of Angola_.
+
+D. Kidd: _The Essential Kaffir_, 1904.
+
+---- _Savage Childhood_, 1906.
+
+---- _Kaffir Socialism and the Dawn of Individualism_, 1908.
+
+M.H. Tongue: _Bushman Paintings_, Oxford, 1909.
+
+(See also the works of A.B. Ellis, Miss Kingsley, Sir Harry H. Johnston,
+Frobenius, Stowe, Theal, and Ibn Batuta; and particularly Chamberlain's
+article in the _Journal of Race Development_.)
+
+
+THE SLAVE TRADE
+
+T.K. Ingram: _History of Slavery and Serfdom_, London, 1895. (Same article
+revised in Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th edition.)
+
+John R. Spears: The American Slave Trade, 1900.
+
+*T.F. Buxton: _The African Slave Trade and Its Remedy_, etc., 1896.
+
+T. Clarkson: _History ... of the Abolition of the African Slave Trade_,
+etc., 2 vols., 1808.
+
+R. Drake: _Revelations of a Slave Smuggler_, New York, 1860.
+
+*_Report of the Lords of the Committee of Council_, etc., London, 1789.
+
+*B. Mayer: _Captain Canot or Twenty Years of an African Slaver_, etc.,
+1854.
+
+W.E.B. DuBois: _The suppression of the African Slave-Trade to the U.S.A._,
+1896.
+
+(See also Bryan Edwards' _West Indies_.)
+
+
+THE WEST INDIES AND SOUTH AMERICA
+
+Fletcher and Kidder: _Brazil and the Brazilians_, 1879.
+
+*Bryan Edwards: _History ... of the British West Indies_, 5 editions,
+Vols. II-V, 1793-1819.
+
+*Sir Harry H. Johnston: _The Negro in the New World_, 1910.
+
+T.G. Steward: _The Haitian Revolution_, 1791-1804, 1914.
+
+J.N. Leger: _Haiti_, etc., 1907.
+
+J. Bryce: _South America_, etc., 1912.
+
+*J.B. de Lacerda: "The Metis or Half-Breeds of Brazil" (_Inter-Racial
+Problems_, etc.)
+
+A.K. Fiske: _History of the West Indies_, 1899.
+
+
+THE NEGRO IN THE UNITED STATES
+
+*_Walker's Appeal_, 1829.
+
+*G.W. Williams: _History of the Negro Race in America_, 1619-1880, 1882.
+
+B.G. Brawley: _A Short History of the American Negro_, 1913.
+
+B.T. Washington: _Up from Slavery_, 1901.
+
+---- _The Story of the Negro_, 2 vols., 1909.
+
+*_The Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man_, 1912.
+
+*G.E. Stroud: _Sketch of the Laws relating to Slavery_, etc., 1827.
+
+_The Human Way_: Addresses on Race Problems at the Southern Sociological
+Congress, Atlanta, 1913 (ed. by J.E. McCulloch).
+
+W.J. Simmons: _Men of Mark_, 1887.
+
+*J.R. Giddings: _The Exiles of Florida_, 1858.
+
+W.E. Nell: _The Colored Patriots of the American Revolution_, etc., 1855.
+
+C.W. Chesnutt: _The Marrow of Tradition_, 1901.
+
+P.L. Dunbar: _Lyrics of Lowly Life_, 1896.
+
+*_Life and Times of Frederick Douglass_, revised edition, 1892.
+
+*H.E. Kreihbel: _Afro-American Folk Songs_, etc., 1914.
+
+T.P. Fenner and others: _Cabin and Plantation Songs_, 3d ed., 1901.
+
+W.F. Allen and others: _Slave Songs of the United States_, 1867.
+
+W.E.B. DuBois: "The Negro Race in the United States of America"
+(_Inter-Racial Problems_, etc.).
+
+---- "The Economics of Negro Emancipation" (_Sociological Review_,
+October, 1911).
+
+---- _John Brown_.
+
+---- _The Philadelphia Negro_, 1899.
+
+W.E.B. DuBois: "Reconstruction and its Benefits" (_American Historical
+Review_, Vol. XV, No. 4).
+
+---- _editor_, The Crisis: A Record of the Darker Races, monthly, 1910.
+
+---- _editor_, The Atlanta University Studies:
+  No. 1. _Mortality Among Negroes in Cities_, 1896.
+  No. 2. _Social and Physical Conditions of Negroes in Cities_, 1897.
+  No. 3. _Some Efforts of Negroes for Social Betterment_, 1898.
+  No. 4. _The Negro in Business_, 1899.
+  No. 5. _The College Bred Negro_, 1900.
+  No. 6. _The Negro Common School_, 1901.
+  No. 7. _The Negro Artisan_, 1902.
+  No. 8. _The Negro Church_, 1903.
+  No. 9. _Notes on Negro Crime_, 1904.
+  No. 10. _A Select Bibliography of the Negro American_, 1905.
+  No. 11. _Health and Physique of the Negro American_, 1906.
+  No. 12. _Economic Co-operation among Negro Americans_, 1907.
+  No. 13. _The Negro American Family_, 1908.
+  No. 14. _Efforts for Social Betterment among Negro Americans_, 1909.
+  No. 15. _The College Bred Negro American_, 1910.
+  No. 16. _The Common School and the Negro American_, 1911.
+  No. 17. _The Negro American Artisan_, 1912.
+  No. 18. _Morals and Manners among Negro Americans_, 1913.
+
+*G.W. Cable: _The Silent South_, etc., 1885.
+
+*J.R. Lynch: _The Facts of Reconstruction_, 1913.
+
+*J.T. Wilson: _The Black Phalanx_, 1897.
+
+William Goodell: _Slavery and Anti-Slavery_, 1852.
+
+G.S. Merriam: _The Negro and the Nation_, 1906.
+
+A.B. Hart: _The Southern South_, 1910.
+
+*G. Livermore: _An Historical Research respecting the Opinions of the
+Founders of the Republic on Negroes_, etc., 1862.
+
+Hartshorn and Penniman: _An Era of Progress and Promise_, 1910 (profusely
+illustrated).
+
+*James Brewster: _Sketches of Southern Mystery, Treason, and Murder_.
+
+Willcox and DuBois: _Negroes in the United States_ (United States Census
+of 1900, Bulletin No. 8).
+
+
+THE FUTURE OF THE NEGRO RACE
+
+*J.S. Keltie: _The Partition of Africa_, 2d ed., 1895.
+
+B.T. Washington: _The Future of the Negro_.
+
+W.E.B. DuBois: "The Future of the Negro Race in America" (_East and West_,
+Vol. II, No. 5).
+
+---- _Souls of Black Folk_, 1913.
+
+---- _Quest of the Silver Fleece_.
+
+Alexander Crummell: _The Future of Africa_, 2d ed., 1862.
+
+*Casely Hayford: _Ethiopia Unbound_, 1911.
+
+Kelly Miller: _Out of the House of Bondage_, 1914.
+
+---- _Race Adjustment_, 1908.
+
+*J. Royce: _Race Questions_, etc., 1908.
+
+*R.S. Baker: _Following the Color Line_, 1908.
+
+N.S. Shaler: _The Neighbor_.
+
+E.D. Morel: "Free Labor in Tropical Africa" (_Nineteenth Century and
+After_, 1914).
+
+(See also Finot, Boas, _Inter-Racial Problems_, and White's _Development
+of Africa_.)
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Negro, by W.E.B. Du Bois
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+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Negro, by W.E.B. Du Bois
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Negro
+
+Author: W.E.B. Du Bois
+
+Release Date: March 14, 2005 [EBook #15359]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE NEGRO ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Suzanne Shell, Melissa Er-Raqabi and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net.
+
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+</pre>
+
+
+<h1>THE NEGRO</h1>
+
+<h2>W.E.B. Du Bois</h2>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>New York: Holt, 1915</h2>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p class="center"><i>[Transcriber's Notes for e-book versions:</i></p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Hyphenation and accentuation are inconsistent, but are generally left as
+found in the edition used for transcription. This edition may or may not
+have completely replicated the 1915 edition of the book. Where changes
+have been made, they are noted below. If you are using this book for
+research, please verify any spelling or punctuation with another source.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>A missing quotation mark was inserted at the beginning of this
+paragraph: &quot;It is difficult to imagine that Egypt should have obtained it
+from Europe where the oldest find (in Hallstadt) cannot be of an earlier
+period than 800 B.C., or from Asia, where iron is not known before 1000
+B.C., and where, in the times of Ashur Nazir Pal, it was still used
+concurrently with bronze, while iron beads have been only recently
+discovered by Messrs. G.A. Wainwright and Bushe Fox in a predynastic
+grave, and where a piece of this metal, possibly a tool, was found in the
+masonry of the great pyramid.&quot;]</i></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+<p class="center">
+ <a href="#I_AFRICA"><b>I<br />AFRICA</b></a><br /><br />
+ <a href="#II_THE_COMING_OF_BLACK_MEN"><b>II<br />THE COMING OF BLACK MEN</b></a><br /><br />
+ <a href="#III_ETHIOPIA_AND_EGYPT"><b>III<br />ETHIOPIA AND EGYPT</b></a><br /><br />
+ <a href="#IV_THE_NIGER_AND_ISLAM"><b>IV<br />THE NIGER AND ISLAM</b></a><br /><br />
+ <a href="#V_GUINEA_AND_CONGO"><b>V<br />GUINEA AND CONGO</b></a><br /><br />
+ <a href="#VI_THE_GREAT_LAKES_AND_ZYMBABWE"><b>VI<br />THE GREAT LAKES AND ZYMBABWE</b></a><br /><br />
+ <a href="#VII_THE_WAR_OF_RACES_AT_LANDS_END"><b>VII<br />THE WAR OF RACES AT LAND'S END</b></a><br /><br />
+ <a href="#VIII_AFRICAN_CULTURE"><b>VIII<br />AFRICAN CULTURE</b></a><br /><br />
+ <a href="#IX_THE_TRADE_IN_MEN"><b>IX<br />THE TRADE IN MEN</b></a><br /><br />
+ <a href="#X_THE_WEST_INDIES_AND_LATIN_AMERICA"><b>X<br />THE WEST INDIES AND LATIN AMERICA</b></a><br /><br />
+ <a href="#XI_THE_NEGRO_IN_THE_UNITED_STATES"><b>XI<br />THE NEGRO IN THE UNITED STATES</b></a><br /><br />
+ <a href="#XII_THE_NEGRO_PROBLEMS"><b>XII<br />THE NEGRO PROBLEMS</b></a><br /><br />
+ <a href="#SUGGESTIONS_FOR_FURTHER_READING"><b>SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING</b></a><br />
+ <br />
+ <br />
+ </p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<h2>MAPS</h2>
+
+<p class="center">
+<br />
+<a href="#i163">The Physical Geography of Africa</a><br /><br />
+<a href="#i164">Ancient Kingdoms of Africa</a><br /><br />
+<a href="#i165">Races in Africa</a><br /><br />
+<a href="#i166">Distribution of Negro Blood, Ancient and Modern</a><br />
+</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>THE NEGRO</h2>
+
+
+
+
+<p class="center">TO
+A FAITHFUL HELPER
+M.G.A.
+</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>PREFACE</h2>
+
+
+<p>The time has not yet come for a complete history of the Negro
+peoples. Arch&aelig;ological research in Africa has just begun, and many
+sources of information in Arabian, Portuguese, and other tongues are
+not fully at our command; and, too, it must frankly be confessed,
+racial prejudice against darker peoples is still too strong in so-called
+civilized centers for judicial appraisement of the peoples of Africa.
+Much intensive monographic work in history and science is needed
+to clear mooted points and quiet the controversialist who mistakes
+present personal desire for scientific proof.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, I have not been able to withstand the temptation to
+essay such short general statement of the main known facts and their
+fair interpretation as shall enable the general reader to know as men
+a sixth or more of the human race. Manifestly so short a story must
+be mainly conclusions and generalizations with but meager indication
+of authorities and underlying arguments. Possibly, if the Public
+will, a later and larger book may be more satisfactory on these points.</p>
+
+<p>W.E. BURGHARDT DU BOIS.</p>
+
+<p>New York City, Feb. 1, 1915.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="i163" id="i163"></a>
+<img src="images/i163.png"
+alt="The Physical Geography of Africa"
+title="The Physical Geography of Africa" /><br /><br />
+<span class="caption">The Physical Geography of Africa</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="I_AFRICA" id="I_AFRICA" />I<br /> <br />AFRICA</h2>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i12">&quot;Behold!<br /></span>
+<span>The Sphinx is Africa. The bond<br /></span>
+<span>Of Silence is upon her. Old<br /></span>
+<span>And white with tombs, and rent and shorn;<br /></span>
+<span>With raiment wet with tears and torn,<br /></span>
+<span>And trampled on, yet all untamed.&quot;<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span>MILLER<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+
+<p>Africa is at once the most romantic and the most tragic of continents.
+Its very names reveal its mystery and wide-reaching influence.
+It is the &quot;Ethiopia&quot; of the Greek, the &quot;Kush&quot; and &quot;Punt&quot; of the
+Egyptian, and the Arabian &quot;Land of the Blacks.&quot; To modern Europe
+it is the &quot;Dark Continent&quot; and &quot;Land of Contrasts&quot;; in literature it
+is the seat of the Sphinx and the lotus eaters, the home of the
+dwarfs, gnomes, and pixies, and the refuge of the gods; in commerce
+it is the slave mart and the source of ivory, ebony, rubber, gold, and
+diamonds. What other continent can rival in interest this Ancient
+of Days?</p>
+
+<p>There are those, nevertheless, who would write universal history
+and leave out Africa. But how, asks Ratzel, can one leave out the
+land of Egypt and Carthage? and Frobenius declares that in future
+Africa must more and more be regarded as an integral part of the
+great movement of world history. Yet it is true that the history of
+Africa is unusual, and its strangeness is due in no small degree to
+the physical peculiarities of the continent. With three times the area
+of Europe it has a coast line a fifth shorter. Like Europe it is a
+peninsula of Asia, curving southwestward around the Indian Sea.
+It has few gulfs, bays, capes, or islands. Even the rivers, though
+large and long, are not means of communication with the outer
+world, because from the central high plateau they plunge in rapids
+and cataracts to the narrow coastlands and the sea.</p>
+
+<p>The general physical contour of Africa has been likened to an
+inverted plate with one or more rows of mountains at the edge and
+a low coastal belt. In the south the central plateau is three thousand
+or more feet above the sea, while in the north it is a little over one
+thousand feet. Thus two main divisions of the continent are easily
+distinguished: the broad northern rectangle, reaching down as far
+as the Gulf of Guinea and Cape Guardafui, with seven million
+square miles; and the peninsula which tapers toward the south, with
+five million square miles.</p>
+
+<p>Four great rivers and many lesser streams water the continent.
+The greatest is the Congo in the center, with its vast curving and
+endless estuaries; then the Nile, draining the cluster of the Great
+Lakes and flowing northward &quot;like some grave, mighty thought,
+threading a dream&quot;; the Niger in the northwest, watering the Sudan
+below the Sahara; and, finally, the Zambesi, with its greater Niagara
+in the southeast. Even these waters leave room for deserts both south
+and north, but the greater ones are the three million square miles
+of sand wastes in the north.</p>
+
+<p>More than any other land, Africa lies in the tropics, with a warm,
+dry climate, save in the central Congo region, where rain at all seasons
+brings tropical luxuriance. The flora is rich but not wide in
+variety, including the gum acacia, ebony, several dye woods, the kola
+nut, and probably tobacco and millet. To these many plants have
+been added in historic times. The fauna is rich in mammals, and
+here, too, many from other continents have been widely introduced
+and used.</p>
+
+<p>Primarily Africa is the Land of the Blacks. The world has always
+been familiar with black men, who represent one of the most ancient
+of human stocks. Of the ancient world gathered about the Mediterranean,
+they formed a part and were viewed with no surprise or dislike,
+because this world saw them come and go and play their part
+with other men. Was Clitus the brother-in-law of Alexander the
+Great less to be honored because he happened to be black? Was
+Terence less famous? The medieval European world, developing
+under the favorable physical conditions of the north temperate zone,
+knew the black man chiefly as a legend or occasional curiosity, but
+still as a fellow man&mdash;an Othello or a Prester John or an Antar.</p>
+
+<p>The modern world, in contrast, knows the Negro chiefly as a bond
+slave in the West Indies and America. Add to this the fact that the
+darker races in other parts of the world have, in the last four centuries,
+lagged behind the flying and even feverish footsteps of
+Europe, and we face to-day a widespread assumption throughout the
+dominant world that color is a mark of inferiority.</p>
+
+<p>The result is that in writing of this, one of the most ancient, persistent,
+and widespread stocks of mankind, one faces astounding
+prejudice. That which may be assumed as true of white men must be
+proven beyond peradventure if it relates to Negroes. One who writes
+of the development of the Negro race must continually insist that he
+is writing of a normal human stock, and that whatever it is fair to
+predicate of the mass of human beings may be predicated of the
+Negro. It is the silent refusal to do this which has led to so much
+false writing on Africa and of its inhabitants. Take, for instance, the
+answer to the apparently simple question &quot;What is a Negro?&quot; We
+find the most extraordinary confusion of thought and difference of
+opinion. There is a certain type in the minds of most people which,
+as David Livingstone said, can be found only in caricature and not
+in real life. When scientists have tried to find an extreme type of
+black, ugly, and woolly-haired Negro, they have been compelled
+more and more to limit his home even in Africa. At least nine-tenths
+of the African people do not at all conform to this type, and the
+typical Negro, after being denied a dwelling place in the Sudan,
+along the Nile, in East Central Africa, and in South Africa, was
+finally given a very small country between the Senegal and the
+Niger, and even there was found to give trace of many stocks. As
+Winwood Reade says, &quot;The typical Negro is a rare variety even
+among Negroes.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>As a matter of fact we cannot take such extreme and largely fanciful
+stock as typifying that which we may fairly call the Negro race.
+In the case of no other race is so narrow a definition attempted. A
+&quot;white&quot; man may be of any color, size, or facial conformation and
+have endless variety of cranial measurement and physical characteristics.
+A &quot;yellow&quot; man is perhaps an even vaguer conception.</p>
+
+<p>In fact it is generally recognized to-day that no scientific definition
+of race is possible. Differences, and striking differences, there are
+between men and groups of men, but they fade into each other so
+insensibly that we can only indicate the main divisions of men in
+broad outlines. As Von Luschan says, &quot;The question of the number
+of human races has quite lost its <i>raison d'&ecirc;tre</i> and has become a subject
+rather of philosophic speculation than of scientific research. It
+is of no more importance now to know how many human races
+there are than to know how many angels can dance on the point of
+a needle. Our aim now is to find out how ancient and primitive races
+developed from others and how races changed or evolved through
+migration and inter-breeding.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+
+<p>The mulatto (using the term loosely to indicate either an intermediate
+type between white and black or a mingling of the two) is
+as typically African as the black man and cannot logically be included
+in the &quot;white&quot; race, especially when American usage includes
+the mulatto in the Negro race.</p>
+
+<p>It is reasonable, according to fact and historic usage, to include
+under the word &quot;Negro&quot; the darker peoples of Africa characterized
+by a brown skin, curled or &quot;frizzled&quot; hair, full and sometimes everted
+lips, a tendency to a development of the maxillary parts of the face,
+and a dolichocephalic head. This type is not fixed or definite. The
+color varies widely; it is never black or bluish, as some say, and it
+becomes often light brown or yellow. The hair varies from curly to
+a wool-like mass, and the facial angle and cranial form show wide
+variation.</p>
+
+<p>It is as impossible in Africa as elsewhere to fix with any certainty
+the limits of racial variation due to climate and the variation due to
+intermingling. In the past, when scientists assumed one unvarying
+Negro type, every variation from that type was interpreted as meaning
+mixture of blood. To-day we recognize a broader normal African
+type which, as Palgrave says, may best be studied &quot;among the statues
+of the Egyptian rooms of the British Museum; the larger gentle eye,
+the full but not over-protruding lips, the rounded contour, and the
+good-natured, easy, sensuous expression. This is the genuine African
+model.&quot; To this race Africa in the main and parts of Asia have belonged
+since prehistoric times.</p>
+
+<p>The color of this variety of man, as the color of other varieties, is
+due to climate. Conditions of heat, cold, and moisture, working for
+thousands of years through the skin and other organs, have given
+men their differences of color. This color pigment is a protection
+against sunlight and consequently varies with the intensity of the
+sunlight. Thus in Africa we find the blackest men in the fierce sunlight
+of the desert, red pygmies in the forest, and yellow Bushmen
+on the cooler southern plateau.</p>
+
+<p>Next to the color, the hair is the most distinguishing characteristic
+of the Negro, but the two characteristics do not vary with each
+other. Some of the blackest of the Negroes have curly rather than
+woolly hair, while the crispest, most closely curled hair is found
+among the yellow Hottentots and Bushmen. The difference between
+the hair of the lighter and darker races is a difference of degree, not
+of kind, and can be easily measured. If the hair follicles of a China-man,
+a European, and a Negro are cut across transversely, it will be
+found that the diameter of the first is 100 by 77 to 85, the second
+100 by 62 to 72, while that of the Negro is 100 by 40 to 60. This
+elliptical form of the Negro's hair causes it to curl more or less
+tightly.</p>
+
+<p>There have been repeated efforts to discover, by measurements of
+various kinds, further and more decisive differences which would
+serve as really scientific determinants of race. Gradually these efforts
+have been given up. To-day we realize that there are no hard and
+fast racial types among men. Race is a dynamic and not a static conception,
+and the typical races are continually changing and developing,
+amalgamating and differentiating. In this little book, then, we
+are studying the history of the darker part of the human family,
+which is separated from the rest of mankind by no absolute physical
+line, but which nevertheless forms, as a mass, a social group distinct
+in history, appearance, and to some extent in spiritual gift.</p>
+
+<p>We cannot study Africa without, however, noting some of the
+other races concerned in its history, particularly the Asiatic Semites.
+The intercourse of Africa with Arabia and other parts of Asia has
+been so close and long-continued that it is impossible to-day to disentangle
+the blood relationships. Negro blood certainly appears in
+strong strain among the Semites, and the obvious mulatto groups in
+Africa, arising from ancient and modern mingling of Semite and
+Negro, has given rise to the term &quot;Hamite,&quot; under cover of which
+millions of Negroids have been characteristically transferred to the
+&quot;white&quot; race by some eager scientists.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest Semites came to Africa across the Red Sea. The
+Phoenicians came along the northern coasts a thousand years before
+Christ and began settlements which culminated in Carthage and
+extended down the Atlantic shores of North Africa nearly to the
+Gulf of Guinea.</p>
+
+<p>From the earliest times the Greeks have been in contact with
+Africa as visitors, traders, and colonists, and the Persian influence
+came with Cambyses and others. Roman Africa was bounded by the
+desert, but at times came into contact with the blacks across the
+Sahara and in the valley of the Nile. After the breaking up of the
+Roman Empire the Greek and Latin Christians filtered through
+Africa, followed finally by a Germanic invasion in 429 A.D.</p>
+
+<p>In the seventh century the All-Mother, Asia, claimed Africa again
+for her own and blew a cloud of Semitic Mohammedanism all across
+North Africa, veiling the dark continent from Europe for a thousand
+years and converting vast masses of the blacks to Islam. The Portuguese
+began to raise the veil in the fifteenth century, sailing down
+the Atlantic coast and initiating the modern slave trade. The Spanish,
+French, Dutch, and English followed them, but as traders in
+men rather than explorers.</p>
+
+<p>The Portuguese explored the coasts of the Gulf of Guinea, visiting
+the interior kingdoms, and then passing by the mouth of the Congo
+proceeded southward. Eventually they rounded the Cape of Good
+Hope and pursued their explorations as far as the mountains of
+Abyssinia. This began the modern exploration of Africa, which is a
+curious fairy tale, and recalls to us the great names of Livingstone,
+Burton, Speke, Stanley, Barth, Schweinfurth, and many others. In
+this way Africa has been made known to the modern world.</p>
+
+<p>The difficulty of this modern lifting of the veil of centuries emphasizes
+two physical facts that underlie all African history: the
+peculiar inaccessibility of the continent to peoples from without,
+which made it so easily possible for the great human drama played
+here to hide itself from the ears of other worlds; and, on the other
+hand, the absence of interior barriers&mdash;the great stretch of that central
+plateau which placed practically every budding center of culture
+at the mercy of barbarism, sweeping a thousand miles, with no Alps
+or Himalayas or Appalachians to hinder.</p>
+
+<p>With this peculiarly uninviting coast line and the difficulties in
+interior segregation must be considered the climate of Africa. While
+there is much diversity and many salubrious tracts along with vast
+barren wastes, yet, as Sir Harry Johnston well remarks, &quot;Africa is
+the chief stronghold of the real Devil&mdash;the reactionary forces of Nature
+hostile to the uprise of Humanity. Here Beelzebub, King of the
+Flies, marshals his vermiform and arthropod hosts&mdash;insects, ticks,
+and nematode worms&mdash;which more than in other continents (excepting
+Negroid Asia) convey to the skin, veins, intestines, and
+spinal marrow of men and other vertebrates the microorganisms
+which cause deadly, disfiguring, or debilitating diseases, or themselves
+create the morbid condition of the persecuted human being,
+beasts, bird, reptile, frog, or fish.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> The inhabitants of this land have
+had a sheer fight for physical survival comparable with that in no
+other great continent, and this must not be forgotten when we consider
+their history.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Von Luschan: in <i>Inter-Racial Problems</i>, p. 16.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Johnston: <i>Negro in the New World</i>, pp. 14-15.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="II_THE_COMING_OF_BLACK_MEN" id="II_THE_COMING_OF_BLACK_MEN" />II<br /><br /> THE COMING OF BLACK MEN</h2>
+
+
+<p>The movements of prehistoric man can be seen as yet but dimly in
+the uncertain mists of time. This is the story that to-day seems most
+probable: from some center in southern Asia primitive human beings
+began to differentiate in two directions. Toward the south appeared
+the primitive Negro, long-headed and with flattened hair follicle. He
+spread along southern Asia and passed over into Africa, where he
+survives to-day as the reddish dwarfs of the center and the Bushmen
+of South Africa.</p>
+
+<p>Northward and eastward primitive man became broader headed
+and straight-haired and spread over eastern Asia, forming the Mongolian
+type. Either through the intermingling of these two types or,
+as some prefer to think, by the direct prolongation of the original
+primitive man, a third intermediate type of human being appeared
+with hair and cranial measurement intermediate between the primitive
+Negro and Mongolian. All these three types of men intermingled
+their blood freely and developed variations according to climate
+and environment.</p>
+
+<p>Other and older theories and legends of the origin and spread of
+mankind are of interest now only because so many human beings
+have believed them in the past. The biblical story of Shem, Ham,
+and Japheth retains the interest of a primitive myth with its measure
+of allegorical truth,
+<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a>
+ but has, of course, no historic basis.</p>
+
+<p>The older &quot;Aryan&quot; theory assumed the migration into Europe of
+one dominant Asiatic race of civilized conquerors, to whose blood
+and influence all modern culture was due. To this &quot;white&quot; race Semitic
+Asia, a large part of black Africa, and all Europe was supposed
+to belong. This &quot;Aryan&quot; theory has been practically abandoned in the
+light of recent research, and it seems probable now that from the
+primitive Negroid stock evolved in Asia the Semites either by local
+variation or intermingling with other stocks; later there developed
+the Mediterranean race, with Negroid characteristics, and the modern
+Negroes. The blue-eyed, light-haired Germanic people may have
+arisen as a modern variation of the mixed peoples produced by the
+mingling of Asiatic and African elements. The last word on this development
+has not yet been said, and there is still much to learn and
+explain; but it is certainly proved to-day beyond doubt that the so-called
+Hamites of Africa, the brown and black curly and frizzly-haired
+inhabitants of North and East Africa, are not &quot;white&quot; men if
+we draw the line between white and black in any logical way.</p>
+
+<p>The primitive Negroid race of men developed in Asia wandered
+eastward as well as westward. They entered on the one hand
+Burmah and the South Sea Islands, and on the other hand they came
+through Mesopotamia and gave curly hair and a Negroid type to
+Jew, Syrian, and Assyrian. Ancient statues of Indian divinities show
+the Negro type with black face and close-curled hair, and early
+Babylonian culture was Negroid. In Arabia the Negroes may have
+divided, and one stream perhaps wandered into Europe by way of
+Syria. Traces of these Negroes are manifest not only in skeletons,
+but in the brunette type of all South Europe. The other branch
+proceeded to Egypt and tropical Africa. Another, but perhaps less
+probable, theory is that ancient Negroes may have entered Africa
+from Europe, since the most ancient skulls of Algeria are Negroid.</p>
+
+<p>The primitive African was not an extreme type. One may judge
+from modern pygmy and Bushmen that his color was reddish or
+yellow, and his skull was sometimes round like the Mongolian. He
+entered Africa not less than fifty thousand years ago and settled
+eventually in the broad region between Lake Chad and the Great
+Lakes and remained there long stretches of years.</p>
+
+<p>After a lapse of perhaps thirty thousand years there entered Africa
+a further migration of Asiatic people, Negroid in many characteristics,
+but lighter and straighter haired than the primitive Negroes.
+From this Mediterranean race was developed the modern inhabitants
+of the shores of the Mediterranean in Europe, Asia, and Africa and,
+by mingling with the primitive Negroes, the ancient Egyptians and
+modern Negroid races of Africa.</p>
+
+<p>As we near historic times the migrations of men became more frequent
+from Asia and from Europe, and in Africa came movements
+and minglings which give to the whole of Africa a distinct mulatto
+character. The primitive Negro stock was &quot;mulatto&quot; in the sense of
+being not widely differentiated from the dark, original Australoid
+stock. As the earlier yellow Negro developed in the African tropics
+to the bigger, blacker type, he was continually mingling his blood
+with similar types developed in temperate climes to sallower color
+and straighter hair.</p>
+
+<p>We find therefore, in Africa to-day, every degree of development
+in Negroid stocks and every degree of intermingling of these developments,
+both among African peoples and between Africans, Europeans,
+and Asiatics. The mistake is continually made of considering
+these types as transitions between absolute Caucasians and absolute
+Negroes. No such absolute type ever existed on either side. Both
+were slowly differentiated from a common ancestry and continually
+remingled their blood while the differentiating was progressing.
+From prehistoric times down to to-day Africa is, in this sense, primarily
+the land of the mulatto. So, too, was earlier Europe and Asia;
+only in these countries the mulatto was early bleached by the climate,
+while in Africa he was darkened.</p>
+
+<p>It is not easy to summarize the history of these dark African peoples,
+because so little is known and so much is still in dispute. Yet,
+by avoiding the real controversies and being unafraid of mere questions
+of definition, we may trace a great human movement with
+considerable definiteness.</p>
+
+<p>Three main Negro types early made their appearance: the lighter
+and smaller primitive stock; the larger forest Negro in the center
+and on the west coast, and the tall, black Nilotic Negro in the
+eastern Sudan. In the earliest times we find the Negroes in the valley
+of the Nile, pressing downward from the interior. Here they
+mingled with Semitic types, and after a lapse of millenniums there
+arose from this mingling the culture of Ethiopia and Egypt, probably
+the first of higher human cultures.</p>
+
+<p>To the west of the Nile the Negroes expanded straight across the
+continent to the Atlantic. Centers of higher culture appeared very
+early along the Gulf of Guinea and curling backward met Egyptian,
+Ethiopian, and even European and Asiatic influences about Lake
+Chad. To the southeast, nearer the primitive seats of the earliest
+African immigrants and open to Egyptian and East Indian influences,
+the Negro culture which culminated at Zymbabwe arose, and
+one may trace throughout South Africa its wide ramifications.</p>
+
+<p>All these movements gradually aroused the central tribes to unrest.
+They beat against the barriers north, northeast, and west, but gradually
+settled into a great southeastward migration. Calling themselves
+proudly La Bantu (The People), they grew by agglomeration
+into a warlike nation, speaking one language. They eventually conquered
+all Africa south of the Gulf of Guinea and spread their influence
+to the northward.</p>
+
+<p>While these great movements were slowly transforming Africa, she
+was also receiving influences from beyond her shores and sending
+influences out. With mulatto Egypt black Africa was always in
+closest touch, so much so that to some all evidence of Negro uplift
+seem Egyptian in origin. The truth is, rather, that Egypt was herself
+always palpably Negroid, and from her vantage ground as almost
+the only African gateway received and transmitted Negro ideals.</p>
+
+<p>Phoenician, Greek, and Roman came into touch more or less with
+black Africa. Carthage, that North African city of a million men,
+had a large caravan trade with Negroland in ivory, metals, cloth,
+precious stones, and slaves. Black men served in the Carthaginian
+armies and marched with Hannibal on Rome. In some of the North
+African kingdoms the infiltration of Negro blood was very large and
+kings like Massinissa and Jugurtha were Negroid. By way of the
+Atlantic the Carthaginians reached the African west coast. Greek
+and Roman influences came through the desert, and the Byzantine
+Empire and Persia came into communication with Negroland by
+way of the valley of the Nile. The influence of these trade routes,
+added to those of Egypt, Ethiopia, Benin, and Yoruba, stimulated
+centers of culture in the central and western Sudan, and European
+and African trade early reached large volume.</p>
+
+<p>Negro soldiers were used largely in the armies that enabled the
+Mohammedans to conquer North Africa and Spain. Beginning in
+the tenth century and slowly creeping across the desert into Negroland,
+the new religion found an already existent culture and came,
+not a conqueror, but as an adapter and inspirer. Civilization received
+new impetus and a wave of Mohammedanism swept eastward,
+erecting the great kingdoms of Melle, the Songhay, Bornu, and the
+Hausa states. The older Negro culture was not overthrown, but, like
+a great wedge, pushed upward and inward from Yoruba, and gave
+stubborn battle to the newer culture for seven or eight centuries.</p>
+
+<p>Then it was, in the fifteenth century, that the heart disease of
+Africa developed in its most virulent form. There is a modern theory
+that black men are and always have been naturally slaves. Nothing is
+further from the truth. In the ancient world Africa was no more a
+slave hunting ground than Europe or Asia, and both Greece and
+Rome had much larger numbers of white slaves than of black. It
+was natural that a stream of black slaves should have poured into
+Egypt, because the chief line of Egyptian conquest and defense lay
+toward the heart of Africa. Moreover, the Egyptians, themselves of
+Negro descent, had not only Negro slaves but Negroes among their
+highest nobility and even among their Pharaohs. Mohammedan conquerors
+enslaved peoples of all colors in Europe, Asia, and Africa,
+but eventually their empire centered in Asia and Africa and their
+slaves came principally from these countries. Asia submitted to Islam
+except in the Far East, which was self-protecting. Negro Africa submitted
+only partially, and the remaining heathen were in small states
+which could not effectively protect themselves against the Mohammedan
+slave trade. In this wise the slave trade gradually began to
+center in Africa, for religious and political rather than for racial
+reasons.</p>
+
+<p>The typical African culture was the culture of family, town, and
+small tribe. Hence domestic slavery easily developed a slave trade
+through war and commerce. Only the integrating force of state
+building could have stopped this slave trade. Was this failure to develop
+the great state a racial characteristic? This does not seem a
+fair conclusion. In four great centers state building began in Africa.
+In Ethiopia several large states were built up, but they tottered before
+the onslaughts of Egypt, Persia, Rome, and Byzantium, on the
+one hand, and finally fell before the turbulent Bantu warriors from
+the interior. The second attempt at empire building began in the
+southeast, but the same Bantu hordes, pressing now slowly, now
+fiercely, from the congested center of the continent, gradually overthrew
+this state and erected on its ruins a series of smaller and more
+transient kingdoms.</p>
+
+<p>The third attempt at state building arose on the Guinea coast in
+Benin and Yoruba. It never got much beyond a federation of large
+industrial cities. Its expansion toward the Congo valley was probably
+a prime cause of the original Bantu movements to the southeast.
+Toward the north and northeast, on the other hand, these city-states
+met the Sudanese armed with the new imperial Mohammedan idea.
+Just as Latin Rome gave the imperial idea to the Nordic races, so
+Islam brought this idea to the Sudan.</p>
+
+<p>In the consequent attempts at imperialism in the western Sudan
+there arose the largest of the African empires. Two circumstances,
+however, militated against this empire building: first, the fierce resistance
+of the heathen south made war continuous and slaves one
+of the articles of systematic commerce. Secondly, the highways of
+legitimate African commerce had for millenniums lain to the north.
+These were suddenly closed by the Moors in the sixteenth century,
+and the Negro empires were thrown into the turmoil of internal war.</p>
+
+<p>It was then that the European slave traders came from the southwest.
+They found partially disrupted Negro states on the west coast
+and falling empires in the Sudan, together with the old unrest of
+over-population and migration in the valley of the Congo. They not
+only offered a demand for the usual slave trade, but they increased
+it to an enormous degree, until their demand, added to the demand
+of the Mohammedan in Africa and Asia, made human beings the
+highest priced article of commerce in Africa. Under such circumstances
+there could be but one end: the virtual uprooting of ancient
+African culture, leaving only misty reminders of the ruin in the customs
+and work of the people. To complete this disaster came the
+partition of the continent among European nations and the modern
+attempt to exploit the country and the natives for the economic benefit
+of the white world, together with the transplanting of black nations
+to the new western world and their rise and self-assertion there.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Ham is probably the Egyptian word &quot;Khem&quot; (black), the native name of
+Egypt. In the original myth Canaan and not Ham was Noah's third son.
+</p><p>
+The biblical story of the &quot;curse of Canaan&quot; (Genesis IX, 24-25) has been the
+basis of an astonishing literature which has to-day only a psychological interest.
+It is sufficient to remember that for several centuries leaders of the Christian
+Church gravely defended Negro slavery and oppression as the rightful curse of
+God upon the descendants of a son who had been disrespectful to his drunken
+father! Cf. Bishop Hopkins: <i>Bible Views of Slavery</i>, p. 7.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="III_ETHIOPIA_AND_EGYPT" id="III_ETHIOPIA_AND_EGYPT" />III<br /><br /> ETHIOPIA AND EGYPT</h2>
+
+
+<p>Having viewed now the land and movements of African people in
+main outline, let us scan more narrowly the history of five main centers
+of activity and culture, namely: the valleys of the Nile and of
+the Congo, the borders of the great Gulf of Guinea, the Sudan, and
+South Africa. These divisions do not cover all of Negro Africa, but
+they take in the main areas and the main lines in development.</p>
+
+<p>First, we turn to the valley of the Nile, perhaps the most ancient
+of known seats of civilization in the world, and certainly the oldest
+in Africa, with a culture reaching back six or eight thousand years.
+Like all civilizations it drew largely from without and undoubtedly
+arose in the valley of the Nile, because that valley was so easily made
+a center for the meeting of men of all types and from all parts of the
+world. At the same time Egyptian civilization seems to have been
+African in its beginnings and in its main line of development, despite
+strong influences from all parts of Asia. Of what race, then,
+were the Egyptians? They certainly were not white in any sense of
+the modern use of that word&mdash;neither in color nor physical measurement,
+in hair nor countenance, in language nor social customs. They
+stood in relationship nearest the Negro race in earliest times, and
+then gradually through the infiltration of Mediterranean and Semitic
+elements became what would be described in America as a light
+mulatto stock of Octoroons or Quadroons. This stock was varied
+continually; now by new infiltration of Negro blood from the south,
+now by Negroid and Semitic blood from the east, now by Berber
+types from the north and west.</p>
+
+<p>Egyptian monuments show distinctly Negro and mulatto faces.
+Herodotus, in an incontrovertible passage, alludes to the Egyptians
+as &quot;black and curly-haired&quot;<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a>&mdash;a peculiarly significant statement from
+one used to the brunette Mediterranean type; in another passage,
+concerning the fable of the Dodonian Oracle, he again alludes to the
+swarthy color of the Egyptians as exceedingly dark and even black.
+&AElig;schylus, mentioning a boat seen from the shore, declares that its
+crew are Egyptians, because of their black complexions.</p>
+
+<p>Modern measurements, with all their admitted limitations, show
+that in the Thebaid from one-seventh to one-third of the Egyptian
+population were Negroes, and that of the predynastic Egyptians less
+than half could be classed as non-Negroid. Judging from measurements
+in the tombs of nobles as late as the eighteenth dynasty, Negroes
+form at least one-sixth of the higher class.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p>
+
+<p>Such measurements are by no means conclusive, but they are apt
+to be under rather than over statements of the prevalence of Negro
+blood. Head measurements of Negro Americans would probably
+place most of them in the category of whites. The evidence of language
+also connects Egypt with Africa and the Negro race rather
+than with Asia, while religious ceremonies and social customs all go
+to strengthen this evidence.</p>
+
+<p>The ethnic history of Northeast Africa would seem, therefore, to
+have been this: predynastic Egypt was settled by Negroes from
+Ethiopia. They were of varied type: the broad-nosed, woolly-haired
+type to which the word &quot;Negro&quot; is sometimes confined; the black,
+curly-haired, sharper featured type, which must be considered an
+equally Negroid variation. These Negroes met and mingled with the
+invading Mediterranean race from North Africa and Asia. Thus the
+blood of the sallower race spread south and that of the darker race
+north. Black priests appear in Crete three thousand years before Christ,
+and Arabia is to this day thoroughly permeated with Negro blood.
+Perhaps, as Chamberlain says, &quot;one of the prime reasons why no civilization
+of the type of that of the Nile arose in other parts of the continent,
+if such a thing were at all possible, was that Egypt acted as a
+sort of channel by which the genius of Negro-land was drafted off into
+the service of Mediterranean and Asiatic culture.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p>
+
+<p>To one familiar with the striking and beautiful types arising from
+the mingling of Negro with Latin and Germanic types in America,
+the puzzle of the Egyptian type is easily solved. It was unlike any of
+its neighbors and a unique type until one views the modern mulatto;
+then the faces of Rahotep and Nefert, of Khafra and Amenemhat I,
+of Aahmes and Nefertari, and even of the great Ramessu II, become
+curiously familiar.</p>
+
+<p>The history of Egypt is a science in itself. Before the reign of the
+first recorded king, five thousand years or more before Christ, there
+had already existed in Egypt a culture and art arising by long evolution
+from the days of paleolithic man, among a distinctly Negroid
+people. About 4777 B.C. Aha-Mena began the first of three successive
+Egyptian empires. This lasted two thousand years, with many Pharaohs,
+like Khafra of the Fourth Dynasty, of a strongly Negroid cast
+of countenance.</p>
+
+<p>At the end of the period the empire fell apart into Egyptian and
+Ethiopian halves, and a silence of three centuries ensued. It is quite
+possible that an incursion of conquering black men from the south
+poured over the land in these years and dotted Egypt in the next
+centuries with monuments on which the full-blooded Negro type is
+strongly and triumphantly impressed. The great Sphinx at Gizeh, so
+familiar to all the world, the Sphinxes of Tanis, the statue from the
+Fayum, the statue of the Esquiline at Rome, and the Colossi of
+Bubastis all represent black, full-blooded Negroes and are described
+by Petrie as &quot;having high cheek bones, flat cheeks, both in one plane,
+a massive nose, firm projecting lips, and thick hair, with an austere
+and almost savage expression of power.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p>
+
+<p>Blyden, the great modern black leader of West Africa, said of the
+Sphinx at Gizeh: &quot;Her features are decidedly of the African or
+Negro type, with 'expanded nostrils.' If, then, the Sphinx was placed
+here&mdash;looking out in majestic and mysterious silence over the empty
+plain where once stood the great city of Memphis in all its pride and
+glory, as an 'emblematic representation of the king'&mdash;is not the inference
+clear as to the peculiar type or race to which that king belonged?&quot;<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p>
+
+<p>The middle empire arose 3064 B.C. and lasted nearly twenty-four
+centuries. Under Pharaohs whose Negro descent is plainly evident,
+like Amenemhat I and III and Usertesen I, the ancient glories of
+Egypt were restored and surpassed. At the same time there is strong
+continuous pressure from the wild and unruly Negro tribes of the
+upper Nile valley, and we get some idea of the fear which they inspired
+throughout Egypt when we read of the great national rejoicing
+which followed the triumph of Usertesen III (c. 2660-22) over
+these hordes. He drove them back and attempted to confine them to
+the edge of the Nubian Desert above the Second Cataract. Hemmed
+in here, they set up a state about this time and founded Nepata.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding this repulse of black men, less than one hundred
+years later a full-blooded Negro from the south, Ra Nehesi, was
+seated on the throne of the Pharaohs and was called &quot;The king's
+eldest son.&quot; This may mean that an incursion from the far south
+had placed a black conqueror on the throne. At any rate, the whole
+empire was in some way shaken, and two hundred years later the
+invasion of the Hyksos began. The domination of Hyksos kings who
+may have been Negroids from Asia<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> lasted for five hundred years.</p>
+
+<p>The redemption of Egypt from these barbarians came from Upper
+Egypt, led by the mulatto Aahmes. He founded in 1703 B.C. the
+new empire, which lasted fifteen hundred years. His queen, Nefertari,
+&quot;the most venerated figure of Egyptian history,&quot;<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> was a Negress
+of great beauty, strong personality, and of unusual administrative
+force. She was for many years joint ruler with her son, Amenhotep
+I, who succeeded his father.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></p>
+
+<p>The new empire was a period of foreign conquest and internal
+splendor and finally of religious dispute and overthrow. Syria was
+conquered in these reigns and Asiatic civilization and influences
+poured in upon Egypt. The great Tahutmes III, whose reign was
+&quot;one of the grandest and most eventful in Egyptian history,&quot;<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> had a
+strong Negroid countenance, as had also Queen Hatshepsut, who
+sent the celebrated expedition to reopen ancient trade with the Hottentots
+of Punt. A new strain of Negro blood came to the royal line
+through Queen Mutemua about 1420 B.C., whose son, Amenhotep
+III, built a great temple at Luqsor and the Colossi at Memnon.</p>
+
+<p>The whole of the period in a sense culminated in the great Ramessu
+II, the oppressor of the Hebrews, who with his Egyptian,
+Libyan, and Negro armies fought half the world. His reign, however,
+was the beginning of decline, and foes began to press Egypt
+from the white north and the black south. The priests transferred
+their power at Thebes, while the Assyrians under Nimrod overran
+Lower Egypt. The center of interest is now transferred to Ethiopia,
+and we pass to the more shadowy history of that land.</p>
+
+<p>The most perfect example of Egyptian poetry left to us is a celebration
+of the prowess of Usertesen III in confining the turbulent
+Negro tribes to the territory below the Second Cataract of the Nile.
+The Egyptians called this territory Kush, and in the farthest confines
+of Kush lay Punt, the cradle of their race. To the ancient Mediterranean
+world Ethiopia (i.e., the Land of the Black-faced) was a
+region of gods and fairies. Zeus and Poseidon feasted each year
+among the &quot;blameless Ethiopians,&quot; and Black Memnon, King of
+Ethiopia, was one of the greatest of heroes.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;The Ethiopians conceive themselves,&quot; says Diodorus Siculus
+(Lib. III), &quot;to be of greater antiquity than any other nation; and it
+is probable that, born under the sun's path, its warmth may have
+ripened them earlier than other men. They suppose themselves also
+to be the inventors of divine worship, of festivals, of solemn assemblies,
+of sacrifices, and every religious practice. They affirm that the
+Egyptians are one of their colonies.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>The Egyptians themselves, in later days, affirmed that they and
+their civilization came from the south and from the black tribes of
+Punt, and certainly &quot;at the earliest period in which human remains
+have been recovered Egypt and Lower Nubia appear to have formed
+culturally and racially one land.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></p>
+
+<p>The forging ahead of Egypt in culture was mainly from economic
+causes. Ethiopia, living in a much poorer land with limited agricultural
+facilities, held to the old arts and customs, and at the same
+time lost the best elements of its population to Egypt, absorbing
+meantime the oncoming and wilder Negro tribes from the south and
+west. Under the old empire, therefore, Ethiopia remained in comparative
+poverty, except as some of its tribes invaded Egypt with
+their handicrafts.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as the civilization below the Second Cataract reached a
+height noticeably above that of Ethiopia, there was continued effort
+to protect that civilization against the incursion of barbarians. Hundreds
+of campaigns through thousands of years repeatedly subdued
+or checked the blacks and brought them in as captives to mingle
+their blood with the Egyptian nation; but the Egyptian frontier was
+not advanced.</p>
+
+<p>A separate and independent Ethiopian culture finally began to
+arise during the middle empire of Egypt and centered at Nepata and
+Meroe. Widespread trade in gold, ivory, precious stones, skins, wood,
+and works of handicraft arose.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> The Negro began to figure as the
+great trader of Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>This new wealth of Ethiopia excited the cupidity of the Pharaohs
+and led to aggression and larger intercourse, until at last, when the
+dread Hyksos appeared, Ethiopia became both a physical and cultural
+refuge for conquered Egypt. The legitimate Pharaohs moved
+to Thebes, nearer the boundaries of Ethiopia, and from here, under
+Negroid rulers, Lower Egypt was redeemed.</p>
+
+<p>The ensuing new empire witnessed the gradual incorporation of
+Ethiopia into Egypt, although the darker kingdom continued to
+resist. Both mulatto Pharaohs, Aahmes and Amenhotep I, sent expeditions
+into Ethiopia, and in the latter's day sons of the reigning
+Pharaoh began to assume the title of &quot;Royal Son of Kush&quot; in some
+such way as the son of the King of England becomes the Prince of
+Wales.</p>
+
+<p>Trade relations were renewed with Punt under circumstances
+which lead us to place that land in the region of the African lakes.
+The Sudanese tribes were aroused by these and other incursions,
+until the revolts became formidable in the fourteenth century before
+Christ.</p>
+
+<p>Egyptian culture, however, gradually conquered Ethiopia where
+her armies could not, and Egyptian religion and civil rule began to
+center in the darker kingdom. When, therefore, Shesheng I, the
+Libyan, usurped the throne of the Pharaohs in the tenth century
+B.C., the Egyptian legitimate dynasty went to Nepata as king priests
+and established a theocratic monarchy. Gathering strength, the
+Ethiopian kingdom under this dynasty expanded north about 750
+B.C. and for a century ruled all Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>The first king, Pankhy, was Egyptian bred and not noticeably Negroid,
+but his successors showed more and more evidence of Negro
+blood&mdash;Kashta the Kushite, Shabaka, Tarharqa, and Tanutamen.
+During the century of Ethiopian rule a royal son was appointed to
+rule Egypt, just as formerly a royal Egyptian had ruled Kush. In
+many ways this Ethiopian kingdom showed its Negro peculiarities:
+first, in its worship of distinctly Sudanese gods; secondly, in the rigid
+custom of female succession in the kingdom, and thirdly, by the
+election of kings from the various royal claimants to the throne. &quot;It
+was the heyday of the Negro. For the greater part of the century ... Egypt
+itself was subject to the blacks, just as in the new empire
+the Sudan had been subject to Egypt.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p>
+
+<p>Egypt now began to fall into the hands of Asia and was conquered
+first by the Assyrians and then by the Persians, but the Ethiopian
+kings kept their independence. Aspeluta, whose mother and sister
+are represented as full-blooded Negroes, ruled from 630 to 600 B.C.
+Horsiatef (560-525 B.C.) made nine expeditions against the warlike
+tribes south of Meroe, and his successor, Nastosenen (525-500 B.C.)
+was the one who repelled Cambyses. He also removed the capital
+from Nepata to Meroe, although Nepata continued to be the religious
+capital and the Ethiopian kings were still crowned on its
+golden throne.</p>
+
+<p>From the fifth to the second century B.C. we find the wild Sudanese
+tribes pressing in from the west and Greek culture penetrating
+from the east. King Arg-Amen (Ergamenes) showed strong
+Greek influences and at the same time began to employ the Ethiopian
+speech in writing and used a new Ethiopian alphabet.</p>
+
+<p>While the Ethiopian kings were still crowned at Nepata, Meroe
+gradually became the real capital and supported at one time four
+thousand artisans and two hundred thousand soldiers. It was here
+that the famous Candaces reigned as queens. Pliny tells us that one
+Candace of the time of Nero had had forty-four predecessors on the
+throne, while another Candace figures in the New Testament.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p>
+
+<p>It was probably this latter Candace who warred against Rome at
+the time of Augustus and received unusual consideration from her
+formidable foe. The prestige of Ethiopia at this time was considerable
+throughout the world. Pseudo-Callisthenes tells an evidently
+fabulous story of the visit of Alexander the Great to Candace, Queen
+of Meroe, which nevertheless illustrates her fame: Candace will not
+let him enter Ethiopia and says he is not to scorn her people because
+they are black, for they are whiter in soul than his white folk. She
+sent him gold, maidens, parrots, sphinxes, and a crown of emeralds
+and pearls. She ruled eighty tribes, who were ready to punish those
+who attacked her.</p>
+
+<p>The Romans continued to have so much trouble with their Ethiopian
+frontier that finally, when Semitic mulattoes appeared in the
+east, the Emperor Diocletian invited the wild Sudanese tribe of
+Nubians (Nobad&aelig;) from the west to repel them. These Nubians
+eventually embraced Christianity, and northern Ethiopia came to be
+known in time as Nubia.</p>
+
+<p>The Semitic mulattoes from the east came from the highlands
+bordering the Red Sea and Asia. On both sides of this sea Negro
+blood is strongly in evidence, predominant in Africa and influential
+in Asia. Ludolphus, writing in the seventeenth century, says that the
+Abyssinians &quot;are generally black, which [color] they most admire.&quot;
+Trade and war united the two shores, and merchants have passed
+to and fro for thirty centuries.</p>
+
+<p>In this way Arabian, Jewish, Egyptian, Greek, and Roman influences
+spread slowly upon the Negro foundation. Early legendary
+history declares that a queen, Maqueda, or Nikaula of Sheba, a state
+of Central Abyssinia, visited Solomon in 1050 B.C. and had her son
+Menelik educated in Jerusalem. This was the supposed beginning
+of the Axumite kingdom, the capital of which, Axume, was a flourishing
+center of trade. Ptolemy Evergetes and his successors did
+much to open Abyssinia to the world, but most of the population of
+that day was nomadic. In the fourth century Byzantine influences
+began to be felt, and in 330 St. Athanasius of Alexandria consecrated
+Fromentius as Bishop of Ethiopia. He tutored the heir to the Abyssinian
+kingdom and began its gradual christianization. By the early
+part of the sixth century Abyssinia was trading with India and Byzantium
+and was so far recognized as a Christian country that the
+Emperor Justinian appealed to King Kaleb to protect the Christians
+in southwestern Arabia. Kaleb conquered Yemen in 525 and held it
+fifty years.</p>
+
+<p>Eventually a Jewish princess, Judith, usurped the Axumite throne;
+the Abyssinians were expelled from Arabia, and a long period begins
+when as Gibbon says, &quot;encompassed by the enemies of their religion,
+the Ethiopians slept for nearly a thousand years, forgetful of the
+world by whom they were forgotten.&quot; Throughout the middle ages,
+however, the legend of a great Christian kingdom hidden away in
+Africa persisted, and the search for Prester John became one of the
+world quests.</p>
+
+<p>It was the expanding power of Abyssinia that led Rome to call in
+the Nubians from the western desert. The Nubians had formed a
+strong league of tribes, and as the ancient kingdom of Ethiopia declined
+they drove back the Abyssinians, who had already established
+themselves at Meroe.</p>
+
+<p>In the sixth century the Nubians were converted to Christianity
+by a Byzantine priest, and they immediately began to develop. A
+new capital, Dongola, replaced Nepata and Meroe, and by the
+twelfth century churches and brick dwellings had appeared. As the
+Mohammedan flood pressed up the Nile valley it was the Nubians
+that held it back for two centuries.</p>
+
+<p>Farther south other wild tribes pushed out of the Sudan and began
+a similar development. Chief among these were the Fung, who fixed
+their capital at Senaar, at the junction of the White and Blue Nile.
+When the Mohammedan flood finally passed over Nubia, the Fung
+diverted it by declaring themselves Moslems. This left the Fung as
+the dominant power in the fifteenth century from the Three Cataracts
+to Fazogli and from the Red Sea at Suakin to the White Nile.
+Islam then swept on south in a great circle, skirted the Great Lakes,
+and then curled back to Somaliland, completely isolating Abyssinia.</p>
+
+<p>Between the thirteenth and sixteenth centuries the Egyptian
+Sudan became a congeries of Mohammedan kingdoms with Arab,
+mulatto, and Negro kings. Far to the west, near Lake Chad, arose
+in 1520 the sultanate of Baghirmi, which reached its highest power
+in the seventh century. This dynasty was overthrown by the Negroid
+Mabas, who established Wadai to the eastward about 1640.
+South of Wadai lay the heathen and cannibals of the Congo valley,
+against which Islam never prevailed. East of Wadai and nearer the
+Nile lay the kindred state of Darfur, a Nubian nation whose sultans
+reigned over two hundred years and which reached great prosperity
+in the early seventeenth century under Soliman Solon.</p>
+
+<p>Before the Mohammedan power reached Abyssinia the Portuguese
+pioneers had entered the country from the east and begun to open
+the country again to European knowledge. Without doubt, in the
+centuries of silence, a civilization of some height had flourished in
+Abyssinia, but all authentic records were destroyed by fire in the
+tenth century. When the Portuguese came, the older Axumite kingdom
+had fallen and had been succeeded by a number of petty states.</p>
+
+<p>The Sudanese kingdoms of the Sudan resisted the power of the
+Mameluke beys in Egypt, and later the power of the Turks until
+the nineteenth century, when the Sudan was made nominally a part
+of Egypt. Continuous upheaval, war, and conquest had by this time
+done their work, and little of ancient Ethiopian culture survived
+except the slave trade.</p>
+
+<p>The entrance of England into Egypt, after the building of the
+Suez Canal, stirred up eventually revolt in the Sudan, for political,
+economic, and religious reasons. Led by a Sudanese Negro, Mohammed
+Ahmad, who claimed to be the Messiah (Mahdi), the
+Sudan arose in revolt in 1881, determined to resist a hated religion,
+foreign rule, and interference with their chief commerce, the trade
+in slaves. The Sudan was soon aflame, and the able mulatto general,
+Osman Digna, aided by revolt among the heathen Dinka, drove
+Egypt and England out of the Sudan for sixteen years. It was not
+until 1898 that England re&euml;ntered the Sudan and in petty revenge
+desecrated the bones of the brave, even if misguided, prophet.</p>
+
+<p>Meantime this Mahdist revolt had delayed England's designs on
+Abyssinia, and the Italians, replacing her, attempted a protectorate.
+Menelik of Shoa, one of the smaller kingdoms of Abyssinia, was a
+shrewd man of predominantly Negro blood, and had been induced
+to make a treaty with the Italians after King John had been killed
+by the Mahdists. The exact terms of the treaty were disputed, but
+undoubtedly the Italians tried by this means to reduce Menelik to
+vassalage. Menelik stoutly resisted, and at the great battle of Adua,
+one of the decisive battles of the modern world, the Abyssinians on
+March 1, 1896, inflicted a crushing defeat on the Italians, killing
+four thousand of them and capturing two thousand prisoners. The
+empress, Taitou, a full-blooded Negress, led some of the charges. By
+this battle Abyssinia became independent.</p>
+
+<p>Such in vague and general outline is the strange story of the
+valley of the Nile&mdash;of Egypt, the motherland of human culture and</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span>&quot;That starr'd Ethiop Queen that strove<br /></span>
+<span>To set her beauty's praise above<br /></span>
+<span>The sea nymphs.&quot;<br /><br /><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> [&#945;&#8016;&#964;&#8057;&#962; &#948;&#8050; &#949;&#7989;&#954;&#945;&#963;&#945; &#964;&#7970;&#953;&#948;&#949; &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#8005;&#964;&#949; &#956;&#949;&#955;&#7937;&#957;&#967;&#961;&#959;&#7953;&#962; &#949;&#7984;&#963;&#953; &#954;&#945;&#7984; &#959;&#8016;&#955;&#8057;&#964;&#961;&#953;&#967;&#949;&#963;. Greek: &quot;autos de eikasa têde kai hote melanchroes eisi kai oulotriches.&quot;] Liber II, Cap. 104.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Cf. Maciver and Thompson: <i>Ancient Races of the Thebaid</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> <i>Journal of Race Development</i>, I, 484.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Petrie: <i>History of Egypt</i>, I, 51, 237.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> <i>From West Africa to Palestine</i>, p. 114.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Depending partly on whether the so-called Hyksos sphinxes belong to the
+period of the Hyksos kings or to an earlier period (cf. Petrie, I, 52-53, 237).
+That Negroids largely dominated in the early history of western Asia is proven
+by the monuments.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Petrie: <i>History of Egypt</i>, II, 337.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Chamberlain: <i>Journal of Race Development</i>, April, 1911.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Petrie: <i>History of Egypt</i>, II, 337.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Reisner: <i>Archeological Survey of Nubia</i>, I, 319.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Hoskins declares that the arch had its origin in Ethiopia.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Maciver and Wooley: <i>Areika</i>, p. 2.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Acts VIII, 27.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="IV_THE_NIGER_AND_ISLAM" id="IV_THE_NIGER_AND_ISLAM" />IV<br /><br /> THE NIGER AND ISLAM</h2>
+
+
+<p>The Arabian expression &quot;Bilad es Sudan&quot; (Land of the Blacks) was
+applied to the whole region south of the Sahara, from the Atlantic
+to the Nile. It is a territory some thirty-five hundred miles by six
+hundred miles, containing two million square miles, and has to-day
+a population of perhaps eighty million. It is thus two-thirds the size
+of the United States and quite as thickly settled. In the western
+Sudan the Niger plays the same role as the Nile in the east. In this
+chapter we follow the history of the Niger.</p>
+
+<p>The history of this part of Africa was probably something as follows:
+primitive man, entering Africa from Arabia, found the Great
+Lakes, spread in the Nile valley, and wandered westward to the
+Niger. Herodotus tells of certain youths who penetrated the desert
+to the Niger and found there a city of black dwarfs. Succeeding
+migrations of Negroes and Negroids pushed the dwarfs gradually
+into the inhospitable forests and occupied the Sudan, pushing on to
+the Atlantic. Here the newcomers, curling northward, met the Mediterranean
+race coming down across the western desert, while to the
+southward the Negro came to the Gulf of Guinea and the thick forests
+of the Congo valley. Indigenous civilizations arose on the west coast in
+Yoruba and Benin, and contact of these with the Mediterranean race
+in the desert, and with Egyptian and Arab from the east, gave rise
+to centers of Negro culture in the Sudan at Ghana and Melle and
+in Songhay, Nupe, the Hausa states, and Bornu.</p>
+
+<p>The history of the Sudan thus leads us back again to Ethiopia,
+that strange and ancient center of world civilization whose inhabitants
+in the ancient world were considered to be the most pious and
+the oldest of men. From this center the black originators of African
+culture, and to a large degree of world culture, wandered not simply
+down the Nile, but also westward. These Negroes developed the
+original substratum of culture which later influences modified but
+never displaced.</p>
+
+<p>We know that Egyptian Pharaohs in several cases ventured into
+the western Sudan and that Egyptian influences are distinctly traceable.
+Greek and Byzantine culture and Phoenician and Carthaginian
+trade also penetrated, while Islam finally made this whole land her
+own. Behind all these influences, however, stood from the first an
+indigenous Negro culture. The stone figures of Sherbro, the megaliths
+of Gambia, the art and industry of the west coast are all too
+deep and original evidences of civilization to be merely importations
+from abroad.</p>
+
+<p>Nor was the Sudan the inert recipient of foreign influence when
+it came. According to credible legend, the &quot;Great King&quot; at Byzantium
+imported glass, tin, silver, bronze, cut stones, and other treasure
+from the Sudan. Embassies were sent and states like Nupe recognized
+the suzerainty of the Byzantine emperor. The people of Nupe
+especially were filled with pride when the Byzantine people learned
+certain kinds of work in bronze and glass from them, and this intercourse
+was only interrupted by the Mohammedan conquest.</p>
+
+<p>To this ancient culture, modified somewhat by Byzantine and
+Christian influences, came Islam. It approached from the northwest,
+coming stealthily and slowly and being handed on particularly by
+the Mandingo Negroes. About 1000-1200 A.D. the situation was
+this: Ghana was on the edge of the desert in the north, Mandingoland
+between the Niger and the Senegal in the south and the western
+Sahara, Djolof was in the west on the Senegal, and the Songhay on
+the Niger in the center. The Mohammedans came chiefly as traders
+and found a trade already established. Here and there in the great
+cities were districts set aside for these new merchants, and the Mohammedans
+gave frequent evidence of their respect for these black
+nations.</p>
+
+<p>Islam did not found new states, but modified and united Negro
+states already ancient; it did not initiate new commerce, but developed
+a widespread trade already established. It is, as Frobenius says,
+&quot;easily proved from chronicles written in Arabic that Islam was only
+effective in fact as a fertilizer and stimulant. The essential point is
+the resuscitative and invigorative concentration of Negro power in
+the service of a new era and a Moslem propaganda, as well as the
+reaction thereby produced.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></p>
+
+<p>Early in the eighth century Islam had conquered North Africa
+and converted the Berbers. Aided by black soldiers, the Moslems
+crossed into Spain; in the following century Berber and Arab armies
+crossed the west end of the Sahara and came to Negroland. Later in
+the eleventh century Arabs penetrated the Sudan and Central Africa
+from the east, filtering through the Negro tribes of Darfur, Kanem,
+and neighboring regions. The Arabs were too nearly akin to Negroes
+to draw an absolute color line. Antar, one of the great pre-Islamic
+poets of Arabia, was the son of a black woman, and one of the great
+poets at the court of Haroun al Raschid was black. In the twelfth
+century a learned Negro poet resided at Seville, and Sidjilmessa,
+the last town in Lower Morocco toward the desert, was founded in
+757 by a Negro who ruled over the Berber inhabitants. Indeed,
+many towns in the Sudan and the desert were thus ruled, and felt
+no incongruity in this arrangement. They say, to be sure, that the
+Moors destroyed Audhoghast because it paid tribute to the black
+town of Ghana, but this was because the town was heathen and not
+because it was black. On the other hand, there is a story that a
+Berber king overthrew one of the cities of the Sudan and all the
+black women committed suicide, being too proud to allow themselves
+to fall into the hands of white men.</p>
+
+<p>In the west the Moslems first came into touch with the Negro
+kingdom of Ghana. Here large quantities of gold were gathered in
+early days, and we have names of seventy-four rulers before 300 A.D.
+running through twenty-one generations. This would take us back
+approximately a thousand years to 700 B.C., or about the time that
+Pharaoh Necho of Egypt sent out the Phoenician expedition which
+circumnavigated Africa, and possibly before the time when Hanno,
+the Carthaginian, explored the west coast of Africa.</p>
+
+<p>By the middle of the eleventh century Ghana was the principal
+kingdom in the western Sudan. Already the town had a native and
+a Mussulman quarter, and was built of wood and stone with surrounding
+gardens. The king had an army of two hundred thousand
+and the wealth of the country was great. A century later the king
+had become Mohammedan in faith and had a palace with sculptures
+and glass windows. The great reason for this development was the
+desert trade. Gold, skins, ivory, kola nuts, gums, honey, wheat, and
+cotton were exported, and the whole Mediterranean coast traded in
+the Sudan. Other and lesser black kingdoms like Tekrou, Silla, and
+Masina surrounded Ghana.</p>
+
+<p>In the early part of the thirteenth century the prestige of Ghana
+began to fall before the rising Mandingan kingdom to the west.
+Melle, as it was called, was founded in 1235 and formed an open
+door for Moslem and Moorish traders. The new kingdom, helped
+by its expanding trade, began to grow, and Islam slowly surrounded
+the older Negro culture west, north, and east. However, a great mass
+of the older heathen culture, pushing itself upward from the Guinea
+coast, stood firmly against Islam down to the nineteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>Steadily Mohammedanism triumphed in the growing states which
+almost encircled the protagonists of ancient Atlantic culture. Mandingan
+Melle eventually supplanted Ghana in prestige and power,
+after Ghana had been overthrown by the heathen Su Su from the
+south.</p>
+
+<p>The territory of Melle lay southeast of Ghana and some five
+hundred miles north of the Gulf of Guinea. Its kings were known
+by the title of Mansa, and from the middle of the thirteenth century
+to the middle of the fourteenth the Mellestine, as its dominion was
+called, was the leading power in the land of the blacks. Its greatest
+king, Mari Jalak (Mansa Musa), made his pilgrimage to Mecca in
+1324, with a caravan of sixty thousand persons, including twelve
+thousand young slaves gowned in figured cotton and Persian silk.
+He took eighty camel loads of gold dust (worth about five million
+dollars) to defray his expenses, and greatly impressed the people of
+the East with his magnificence.</p>
+
+<p>On his return he found that Timbuktu had been sacked by the
+Mossi, but he rebuilt the town and filled the new mosque with
+learned blacks from the University of Fez. Mansa Musa reigned
+twenty-five years and &quot;was distinguished by his ability and by the
+holiness of his life. The justice of his administration was such that
+the memory of it still lives.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> The Mellestine preserved its pre&euml;minence
+until the beginning of the sixteenth century, when the rod
+of Sudanese empire passed to Songhay, the largest and most famous
+of the black empires.</p>
+
+<p>The known history of Songhay covers a thousand years and three
+dynasties and centers in the great bend of the Niger. There were
+thirty kings of the First Dynasty, reigning from 700 to 1335. During
+the reign of one of these the Songhay kingdom became the vassal
+kingdom of Melle, then at the height of its glory. In addition to this
+the Mossi crossed the valley, plundered Timbuktu in 1339, and
+separated Jenne, the original seat of the Songhay, from the main
+empire. The sixteenth king was converted to Mohammedanism in
+1009, and after that all the Songhay princes were Mohammedans.
+Mansa Musa took two young Songhay princes to the court of Melle
+to be educated in 1326. These boys when grown ran away and
+founded a new dynasty in Songhay, that of the Sonnis, in 1355.
+Seventeen of these kings reigned, the last and greatest being Sonni
+Ali, who ascended the throne in 1464. Melle was at this time declining,
+other cities like Jenne, with its seven thousand villages, were
+rising, and the Tuaregs (Berbers with Negro blood) had captured
+Timbuktu.</p>
+
+<p>Sonni Ali was a soldier and began his career with the conquest
+of Timbuktu in 1469. He also succeeded in capturing Jenne and
+attacked the Mossi and other enemies on all sides. Finally he concentrated
+his forces for the destruction of Melle and subdued nearly
+the whole empire on the west bend of the Niger. In summing up
+Sonni Ali's military career the chronicle says of him, &quot;He surpassed
+all his predecessors in the numbers and valor of his soldiery. His
+conquests were many and his renown extended from the rising to
+the setting of the sun. If it is the will of God, he will be long
+spoken of.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p>
+
+<p>Sonni Ali was a Songhay Negro whose father was a Berber. He
+was succeeded by a full-blooded black, Mohammed Abou Bekr, who
+had been his prime minister. Mohammed was hailed as &quot;Askia&quot;
+(usurper) and is best known as Mohammed Askia. He was strictly
+orthodox where Ali was rather a scoffer, and an organizer where Ali
+was a warrior. On his pilgrimage to Mecca in 1495 there was nothing
+of the barbaric splendor of Mansa Musa, but a brilliant group
+of scholars and holy men with a small escort of fifteen hundred soldiers
+and nine hundred thousand dollars in gold. He stopped and
+consulted with scholars and politicians and studied matters of taxation,
+weights and measures, trade, religious tolerance, and manners.
+In Cairo, where he was invested by the reigning caliph of Egypt, he
+may have heard of the struggle of Europe for the trade of the Indies,
+and perhaps of the parceling of the new world between Portugal
+and Spain. He returned to the Sudan in 1497, instituted a standing
+army of slaves, undertook a holy war against the indomitable Mossi,
+and finally marched against the Hausa. He subdued these cities and
+even imposed the rule of black men on the Berber town of Agades,
+a rich city of merchants and artificers with stately mansions. In fine
+Askia, during his reign, conquered and consolidated an empire two
+thousand miles long by one thousand wide at its greatest diameters;
+a territory as large as all Europe. The territory was divided into four
+vice royalties, and the system of Melle, with its semi-independent
+native dynasties, was carried out. His empire extended from the
+Atlantic to Lake Chad and from the salt mines of Tegazza and the
+town of Augila in the north to the 10th degree of north latitude toward
+the south.</p>
+
+<p>It was a six months' journey across the empire and, it is said, &quot;he
+was obeyed with as much docility on the farthest limits of the empire
+as he was in his own palace, and there reigned everywhere
+great plenty and absolute peace.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> The University of Sankore became
+a center of learning in correspondence with Egypt and North
+Africa and had a swarm of black Sudanese students. Law, literature,
+grammar, geography and surgery were studied. Askia the Great
+reigned thirty-six years, and his dynasty continued on the throne
+until after the Moorish conquest in 1591.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, to the eastward, two powerful states appeared. They
+never disputed the military supremacy of Songhay, but their industrial
+development was marvelous. The Hausa states were formed by
+seven original cities, of which Kano was the oldest and Katsena the
+most famous. Their greatest leaders, Mohammed Rimpa and Ahmadu
+Kesoke, arose in the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries.
+The land was subject to the Songhay, but the cities became industrious
+centers of smelting, weaving, and dyeing. Katsena especially,
+in the middle of the sixteenth century, is described as a place thirteen
+or fourteen miles in circumference, divided into quarters for
+strangers, for visitors from various other states, and for the different
+trades and industries, as saddlers, shoemakers, dyers, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Beyond the Hausa states and bordering on Lake Chad was Bornu.
+The people of Bornu had a large infiltration of Berber blood, but
+were predominantly Negro. Berber mulattoes had been kings in
+early days, but they were soon replaced by black men. Under the
+early kings, who can be traced back to the third century, these people
+had ruled nearly all the territory between the Nile and Lake
+Chad. The country was known as Kanem, and the pagan dynasty
+of Dugu reigned there from the middle of the ninth to the end of
+the eleventh century. Mohammedanism was introduced from Egypt
+at the end of the eleventh century, and under the Mohammedan
+kings Kanem became one of the first powers of the Sudan. By the
+end of the twelfth century the armies of Kanem were very powerful
+and its rulers were known as &quot;Kings of Kanem and Lords of Bornu.&quot;
+In the thirteenth century the kings even dared to invade the southern
+country down toward the valley of the Congo.</p>
+
+<p>Meantime great things were happening in the world beyond the
+desert, the ocean, and the Nile. Arabian Mohammedanism had succumbed
+to the wild fanaticism of the Seljukian Turks. These new
+conquerors were not only firmly planted at the gates of Vienna, but
+had swept the shores of the Mediterranean and sent all Europe
+scouring the seas for their lost trade connections with the riches of
+India. Religious zeal, fear of conquest, and commercial greed inflamed
+Europe against the Mohammedan and led to the discovery
+of a new world, the riches of which poured first on Spain. Oppression
+of the Moors followed, and in 1502 they were driven back into
+Africa, despoiled and humbled. Here the Spaniards followed and
+harassed them and here the Turks, fighting the Christians, captured
+the Mediterranean ports and cut the Moors off permanently from
+Europe. In the slow years that followed, huddled in Northwest
+Africa, they became a decadent people and finally cast their eyes
+toward Negroland.</p>
+
+<p>The Moors in Morocco had come to look upon the Sudan as a
+gold mine, and knew that the Sudan was especially dependent upon
+salt. In 1545 Morocco claimed the principal salt mines at Tegazza,
+but the reigning Askia refused to recognize the claim.</p>
+
+<p>When the Sultan Elmansour came to the throne of Morocco, he
+increased the efficiency of his army by supplying it with fire arms
+and cannon. Elmansour determined to attack the Sudan and sent
+four hundred men under Pasha Djouder, who left Morocco in 1590.
+The Songhay, with their bows and arrows, were helpless against
+powder and shot, and they were defeated at Tenkadibou April 12,
+1591. Askia Ishak, the king, offered terms, and Djouder Pasha
+referred them to Morocco. The sultan, angry with his general's delay,
+deposed him and sent another, who crushed and treacherously
+murdered the king and set up a puppet. Thereafter there were two
+Askias, one under the Moors at Timbuktu and one who maintained
+himself in the Hausa states, which the Moors could not subdue.
+Anarchy reigned in Songhay. The Moors tried to put down disorder
+with a high hand, drove out and murdered the distinguished men of
+Timbuktu, and as a result let loose a riot of robbery and decadence
+throughout the Sudan. Pasha now succeeded pasha with revolt and
+misrule until in 1612 the soldiers elected their own pasha and deliberately
+shut themselves up in the Sudan by cutting off approach
+from the north.</p>
+
+<p>Hausaland and Bornu were still open to Turkish and Mohammedan
+influence from the east, and the Gulf of Guinea to the slave
+trade from the south, but the face of the finest Negro civilization
+the modern world had ever produced was veiled from Europe and
+given to the defilement of wild Moorish soldiers. In 1623 it is written
+&quot;excesses of every kind are now committed unchecked by the
+soldiery,&quot; and &quot;the country is profoundly convulsed and oppressed.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a>
+The Tuaregs marched down from the desert and deprived the Moors
+of many of the principal towns. The rest of the empire of the Songhay
+was by the end of the eighteenth century divided among separate
+Moorish chiefs, who bought supplies from the Negro peasantry
+and were &quot;at once the vainest, proudest, and perhaps the most bigoted,
+ferocious, and intolerant of all the nations of the south.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> They
+lived a nomadic life, plundering the Negroes. To such depths did the
+mighty Songhay fall.</p>
+
+<p>As the Songhay declined a new power arose in the nineteenth
+century, the Fula. The Fula, who vary in race from Berber mulattoes
+to full-blooded Negroes, may be the result of a westward migration
+of some people like the &quot;Leuko&aelig;thiopi&quot; of Pliny, or they may have
+arisen from the migration of Berber mulattoes in the western oases,
+driven south by Romans and Arabs.</p>
+
+<p>These wandering herdsmen lived on the Senegal River and the
+ocean in very early times and were not heard of until the nineteenth
+century. By this time they had changed to a Negro or dark mulatto
+people and lived scattered in small communities between the Atlantic
+and Darfur. They were without political union or national
+sentiment, but were all Mohammedans. Then came a sudden
+change, and led by a religious fanatic, these despised and persecuted
+people became masters of the central Sudan. They were the ones
+who at last broke down that great wedge of resisting Atlantic culture,
+after it had been undermined and disintegrated by the American
+slave trade.</p>
+
+<p>Thus Islam finally triumphed in the Sudan and the ancient culture
+combined with the new. In the Sudan to-day one may find
+evidences of the union of two classes of people. The representatives
+of the older civilization dwell as peasants in small communities,
+carrying on industries and speaking a large number of different languages.
+With them or above them is the ruling Mohammedan caste,
+speaking four main languages: Mandingo, Hausa, Fula, and Arabic.
+These latter form the state builders. Negro blood predominates among
+both classes, but naturally there is more Berber blood among the
+Mohammedan invaders.</p>
+
+<p>Europe during the middle ages had some knowledge of these
+movements in the Sudan and Africa. Melle and Songhay appear on
+medieval maps. In literature we have many allusions: the mulatto
+king, Feirifis, was one of Wolfram von Eschenbach's heroes; Prester
+John furnished endless lore; Othello, the warrior, and the black king
+represented by medieval art as among the three wise men, and the
+various black Virgin Marys' all show legendary knowledge of what
+African civilization was at that time doing.</p>
+
+<p>It is a curious commentary on modern prejudice that most of this
+splendid history of civilization and uplift is unknown to-day, and
+men confidently assert that Negroes have no history.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> Frobenius: <i>Voice of Africa</i>, II, 359-360.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> Ibn Khaldun, quoted in Lugard, p. 128.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> Quoted in Lugard, p. 180.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> Es-Sa 'di, quoted by Lugard, p. 199.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Lugard, p. 373.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> Mungo Park, quoted in Lugard, p. 374.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="V_GUINEA_AND_CONGO" id="V_GUINEA_AND_CONGO" />V <br /><br />GUINEA AND CONGO</h2>
+
+
+<p>One of the great cities of the Sudan was Jenne. The chronicle says
+&quot;that its markets are held every day of the week and its populations
+are very enormous. Its seven thousand villages are so near to one
+another that the chief of Jenne has no need of messengers. If he
+wishes to send a note to Lake Dibo, for instance, it is cried from
+the gate of the town and repeated from village to village, by which
+means it reaches its destination almost instantly.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></p>
+
+
+<p>From the name of this city we get the modern name Guinea,
+which is used to-day to designate the country contiguous to the great
+gulf of that name&mdash;a territory often referred to in general as West
+Africa. Here, reaching from the mouth of the Gambia to the mouth
+of the Niger, is a coast of six hundred miles, where a marvelous
+drama of world history has been enacted. The coast and its hinterland
+comprehends many well-known names. First comes ancient
+Guinea, then, modern Sierra Leone and Liberia; then follow the
+various &quot;coasts&quot; of ancient traffic&mdash;the grain, ivory, gold, and slave
+coasts&mdash;with the adjoining territories of Ashanti, Dahomey, Lagos,
+and Benin, and farther back such tribal and territorial names as
+those of the Mandingoes, Yorubas, the Mossi, Nupe, Borgu, and
+others.</p>
+
+<p>Recent investigation makes it certain that an ancient civilization
+existed on this coast which may have gone back as far as three thousand
+years before Christ. Frobenius, perhaps fancifully, identified
+this African coast with the Atlantis of the Greeks and as part of
+that great western movement in human culture, &quot;beyond the pillars
+of Hercules,&quot; which thirteen centuries before Christ strove with
+Egypt and the East. It is, at any rate, clear that ancient commerce
+reached down the west coast. The Phoenicians, 600 B.C., and the
+Carthaginians, a century or more later, record voyages, and these
+may have been attempted revivals of still more ancient intercourse.</p>
+
+<p>These coasts at some unknown prehistoric period were peopled
+from the Niger plateau toward the north and west by the black
+West African type of Negro, while along the west end of the desert
+these Negroes mingled with the Berbers, forming various Negroid
+races.</p>
+
+<p>Movement and migration is evident along this coast in ancient and
+modern times. The Yoruba-Benin-Dahomey peoples were among the
+earliest arrivals, with their remarkable art and industry, which places
+them in some lines of technique abreast with the modern world.
+Behind them came the Mossi from the north, and many other peoples
+in recent days have filtered through, like the Limba and Temni
+of Sierra Leone and the Agni-Ashanti, who moved from Borgu some
+two thousand years ago to the Gold and Ivory coasts.</p>
+
+<p>We have already noted in the main the history of black men along
+the wonderful Niger and seen how, pushing up from the Gulf of
+Guinea, a powerful wedge of ancient culture held back Islam for
+a thousand years, now victorious, now stubbornly disputing every
+inch of retreat. The center of this culture lay probably, in oldest
+times, above the Bight of Benin, along the Slave Coast, and reached
+east, west, and north. We trace it to-day not only in the remarkable
+tradition of the natives, but in stone monuments, architecture, industrial
+and social organization, and works of art in bronze, glass,
+and terra cotta.</p>
+
+<p>Benin art has been practiced without interruption for centuries,
+and Von Luschan says that it is &quot;of extraordinary significance that
+by the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries a local and monumental
+art had been learned in Benin which in many respects equaled
+European art and developed a technique of the very highest accomplishment.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a></p>
+
+<p>Summing up Yoruban civilization, Frobenius concluded that &quot;the
+technical summit of that civilization was reached in the terra-cotta
+industry, and that the most important achievements in art were not
+expressed in stone, but in fine clay baked in the furnace; that hollow
+casting was thoroughly known, too, and practiced by these people;
+that iron was mainly used for decoration; that, whatever their purpose,
+they kept their glass beads in stoneware urns within their own
+locality, and that they manufactured both earthen and glass ware;
+that the art of weaving was highly developed among them; that the
+stone monuments, it is true, show some dexterity in handling and
+are so far instructive, but in other respects evidence a cultural condition
+insufficiently matured to grasp the utility of stone monumental
+material; and, above all, that the then great and significant idea of
+the universe as imaged in the Templum was current in those
+days.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a></p>
+
+<p>Effort has naturally been made to ascribe this civilization to white
+people. First it was ascribed to Portuguese influence, but much of it
+is evidently older than the Portuguese discovery. Egypt and India
+have been evoked and Greece and Carthage. But all these explanations
+are far-fetched. If ever a people exhibited unanswerable evidence
+of indigenous civilization, it is the west-coast Africans. Undoubtedly
+they adapted much that came to them, utilized new
+ideas, and grew from contact. But their art and culture is Negro
+through and through.</p>
+
+<p>Yoruba forms one of the three city groups of West Africa; another
+is around Timbuktu, and a third in the Hausa states. The Timbuktu
+cities have from five to fifteen hundred towns, while the Yoruba
+cities have one hundred and fifty thousand inhabitants and more.
+The Hausa cities are many of them important, but few are as large
+as the Yoruba cities and they lie farther apart. AH three centers,
+however, are connected with the Niger, and the group nearest the
+coast&mdash;that is, the Yoruba cities&mdash;has the greatest numbers of towns,
+the most developed architectural styles, and the oldest institutions.</p>
+
+<p>The Yoruba cities are not only different from the Sudanese in
+population, but in their social relations. The Sudanese cities were
+influenced from the desert and the Mediterranean, and form nuclei
+of larger surrounding monarchial states. The Yoruba cities, on the
+other hand, remained comparatively autonomous organizations down
+to modern times, and their relative importance changed from time
+to time without developing an imperialistic idea or subordinating
+the group to one overpowering city.</p>
+
+<p>This social and industrial state of the Yorubas formerly spread
+and wielded great influence. We find Yoruba reaching out and subduing
+states like Nupe toward the northward. But the industrial
+democracy and city autonomy of Yoruba lent itself indifferently to
+conquest, and the state fell eventually a victim to the fanatical
+Fula Mohammedans and was made a part of the modern sultanate
+of Gando.</p>
+
+<p>West of Yoruba on the lower courses of the Niger is Benin, an
+ancient state which in 1897 traced its twenty-three kings back one
+thousand years; some legends even named a line of sixty kings. It
+seems probable that Benin developed the imperial idea and once extended
+its rule into the Congo valley. Later and also to the west of
+the Yoruba come two states showing a fiercer and ruder culture,
+Dahomey and Ashanti. The state of Dahomey was founded by
+Tacondomi early in the seventeenth century, and developed into a
+fierce and bloody tyranny with wholesale murder. The king had a
+body of two thousand to five thousand Amazons renowned for their
+bravery and armed with rifles. The kingdom was overthrown by the
+French in 1892-93. Under Sai Tutu, Ashanti arose to power in the
+seventeenth century. A military aristocracy with cruel blood sacrifices
+was formed. By 1816 the king had at his disposal two hundred
+thousand soldiers. The Ashanti power was crushed by the English
+in the war of 1873-74.</p>
+
+<p>In these states and in later years in Benin the whole character of
+west-coast culture seems to change. In place of the Yoruban culture,
+with its city democracy, its elevated religious ideas, its finely organized
+industry, and its noble art, came Ashanti and Dahomey. What
+was it that changed the character of the west coast from this to the
+orgies of war and blood sacrifice which we read of later in these
+lands?</p>
+
+<p>There can be but one answer: the slave trade. Not simply the
+sale of men, but an organized traffic of such proportions and widely
+organized ramifications as to turn the attention and energies of men
+from nearly all other industries, encourage war and all the cruelest
+passions of war, and concentrate this traffic in precisely that part of
+Africa farthest from the ancient Mediterranean lines of trade.</p>
+
+<p>We need not assume that the cultural change was sudden or absolute.
+Ancient Yoruba had the cruelty of a semi-civilized land, but it
+was not dominant or tyrannical. Modern Benin and Dahomey
+showed traces of skill, culture, and industry along with inexplicable
+cruelty and bloodthirstiness. But it was the slave trade that turned
+the balance and set these lands backward. Dahomey was the last
+word in a series of human disasters which began with the defeat of
+the Askias at Tenkadibou.<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a></p>
+
+<p>From the middle of the fifteenth to the last half of the nineteenth
+centuries the American slave trade centered in Guinea and devastated
+the coast morally, socially, and physically. European rum and
+fire arms were traded for human beings, and it was not until 1787
+that any measures were taken to counteract this terrible scourge. In
+that year the idea arose of repatriating stolen Negroes on that coast
+and establishing civilized centers to supplant the slave trade. About
+four hundred Negroes from England were sent to Sierra Leone, to
+whom the promoters considerately added sixty white prostitutes as
+wives. The climate on the low coast, however, was so deadly that
+new recruits were soon needed. An American Negro, Thomas
+Peters, who had served as sergeant under Sir Henry Clinton in the
+British army in America, went to England seeking an allotment of
+land for his fellows. The Sierra Leone Company welcomed him
+and offered free passage and land in Sierra Leone to the Negroes of
+Nova Scotia. As a result fifteen vessels sailed with eleven hundred
+and ninety Negroes in 1792. Arriving in Africa, they found the
+chief white man in control there so drunk that he soon died of
+delirium tremens. John Clarkson, however, brother of Thomas
+Clarkson, the abolitionist, eventually took the lead, founded Freetown,
+and the colony began its checkered career. In 1896 the colony
+was saved from insurrection by the exiled Maroon Negroes from
+Jamaica. After 1833, when emancipation in English colonies took
+place, severer measures against the slave trade was possible and the
+colony began to grow. To-day its imports and exports amount to
+fifteen million dollars a year.</p>
+
+<p>Liberia was a similar American experiment. In 1816 American
+philanthropists decided that slavery was bound to die out, but that
+the problem lay in getting rid of the freed Negroes, of which there
+were then two hundred thousand in the United States. Accordingly
+the American Colonization Society was proposed this year and
+founded January 1, 1817, with Bushrod Washington as President.
+It was first thought to encourage migration to Sierra Leone, and
+eighty-eight Negroes were sent, but they were not welcomed. As a
+result territory was bought in the present confines of Liberia, December
+15, 1821, and colonists began to arrive. A little later an African
+depot for recaptured slaves taken in the contraband slave trade,
+provided for in the Act of 1819, was established and an agent was
+sent to Africa to form a settlement. Gradually this settlement was
+merged with the settlement of the Colonization Society, and from
+this union Liberia was finally evolved.</p>
+
+<p>The last white governor of Liberia died in 1841 and was succeeded
+by the first colored governor, Joseph J. Roberts, a Virginian.
+The total population in 1843 was about twenty-seven hundred and
+ninety, and with this as a beginning in 1847 Governor Roberts declared
+the independence of the state. The recognition of Liberian
+independence by all countries except the United States followed in
+1849. The United States, not wishing to receive a Negro minister,
+did not recognize Liberia until 1862.</p>
+
+<p>No sooner was the independence of Liberia announced than England
+and France began a long series of aggressions to limit her territory
+and sovereignty. Considerable territory was lost by treaty, and
+in the effort to get capital to develop the rest, Liberia was saddled
+with a debt of four hundred thousand dollars, of which she received
+less than one hundred thousand dollars in actual cash. Finally the
+Liberians turned to the United States for capital and protection. As
+a result the Liberian customs have been put under international
+control and Major Charles Young, the ranking Negro officer in the
+United States army, with several colored assistants, has been put in
+charge of the making of roads and drilling a constabulary to keep
+order in the interior.</p>
+
+<p>To-day Liberia has an area of forty thousand square miles, about
+three hundred and fifty miles of coast line, and an estimated total
+population of two million of which fifty thousand are civilized. The
+revenue amounted in 1913 to $531,500. The imports in 1912 were
+$1,667,857 and the exports $1,199,152. The latter consisted chiefly
+of rubber, palm oil and kernels, coffee, piassava fiber, ivory, ginger,
+camwood, and arnotto.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps Liberia's greatest citizen was the late Edward Wilmot
+Blyden, who migrated in early life from the Danish West Indies
+and became a prophet of the renaissance of the Negro race.</p>
+
+<p>Turning now from Guinea we pass down the west coast. In 1482
+Diego Cam of Portugal, sailing this coast, set a stone at the mouth
+of a great river which he called &quot;The Mighty,&quot; but which eventually
+came to be known by the name of the powerful Negro kingdom
+through which it flowed&mdash;the Congo.</p>
+
+<p>We must think of the valley of the Congo with its intricate interlacing
+of water routes and jungle of forests as a vast caldron shut
+away at first from the African world by known and unknown physical
+hindrances. Then it was penetrated by the tiny red dwarfs and
+afterward horde after horde of tall black men swirled into the valley
+like a maelstrom, moving usually from north to east and from south
+to west.</p>
+
+<p>The Congo valley became, therefore, the center of the making of
+what we know to-day as the Bantu nations. They are not a unified
+people, but a congeries of tribes of considerable physical diversity,
+united by the compelling bond of language and other customs imposed
+on the conquered by invading conquerors.</p>
+
+<p>The history or these invasions we must to-day largely imagine.
+Between two and three thousand years ago the wilder tribes of
+Negroes began to move out of the region south or southeast of Lake
+Chad. This was always a land of shadows and legends, where fearful
+cannibals dwelt and where no Egyptian or Ethiopian or Sudanese
+armies dared to go. It is possible, however, that pressure from civilization
+in the Nile valley and rising culture around Lake Chad was
+at this time re&euml;nforced by expansion of the Yoruba-Benin culture
+on the west coast. Perhaps, too, developing culture around the
+Great Lakes in the east beckoned or the riotous fertility of the
+Congo valleys became known. At any rate the movement commenced,
+now by slow stages, now in wild forays. There may have
+been a preliminary movement from east to west to the Gulf of
+Guinea. The main movement, however, was eastward, skirting the
+Congo forests and passing down by the Victoria Nyanza and Lake
+Tanganyika. Here two paths beckoned: the lakes and the sea to the
+east, the Congo to the west. A great stream of men swept toward the
+ocean and, dividing, turned northward and fought its way down the
+Nile valley and into the Abyssinian highlands; another branch
+turned south and approached the Zambesi, where we shall meet it
+again.</p>
+
+<p>Another horde of invaders turned westward and entered the valley
+of the Congo in three columns. The northern column moved along
+the Lualaba and Congo rivers to the Cameroons; the second column
+became the industrial and state-building Luba and Lunda peoples in
+the southern Congo valley and Angola; while the third column
+moved into Damaraland and mingled with Bushman and Hottentot.</p>
+
+<p>In the Congo valley the invaders settled in village and plain,
+absorbed such indigenous inhabitants as they found or drove them
+deeper into the forest, and immediately began to develop industry
+and political organization. They became skilled agriculturists, raising
+in some localities a profusion of cereals, fruit, and vegetables such
+as manioc, maize, yams, sweet potatoes, ground nuts, sorghum,
+gourds, beans, peas, bananas, and plantains. Everywhere they
+showed skill in mining and the welding of iron, copper, and other
+metals. They made weapons, wire and ingots, cloth, and pottery, and
+a widespread system of trade arose. Some tribes extracted rubber
+from the talamba root; others had remarkable breeds of fowl and
+cattle, and still others divided their people by crafts into farmers,
+smiths, boat builders, warriors, cabinet makers, armorers, and
+speakers. Women here and there took part in public assemblies and
+were rulers in some cases. Large towns were built, some of which
+required hours to traverse from end to end.</p>
+
+<p>Many tribes developed intelligence of a high order. Wissmann
+called the Ba Luba &quot;a nation of thinkers.&quot; Bateman found them
+&quot;thoroughly and unimpeachably honest, brave to foolhardiness, and
+faithful to each other and to their superiors.&quot; One of their kings,
+Calemba, &quot;a really princely prince,&quot; Bateman says would &quot;amongst
+any people be a remarkable and indeed in many respects a magnificent
+man.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a></p>
+
+<p>These beginnings of human culture were, however, peculiarly
+vulnerable to invading hosts of later comers. There were no natural
+protecting barriers like the narrow Nile valley or the Kong mountains
+or the forests below Lake Chad. Once the pathways to the valley
+were open and for hundreds of years the newcomers kept arriving,
+especially from the welter of tribes south of the Sudan and west
+of the Nile, which rising culture beyond kept in unrest and turmoil.</p>
+
+<p>Against these intruders there was but one defense, the State.
+State building was thus forced on the Congo valley. How early it
+started we cannot say, but when the Portuguese arrived in the
+fifteenth century, there had existed for centuries a large state
+among the Ba-Congo, with its capital at the city now known as San
+Salvador.</p>
+
+<p>The Negro Mfumu, or emperor, was eventually induced to accept
+Christianity. His sons and many young Negroes of high birth
+were taken to Portugal to be educated. There several were raised to
+the Catholic priesthood and one became bishop; others distinguished
+themselves at the universities. Thus suddenly there arose a Catholic
+kingdom south of the valley of the Congo, which lasted three centuries,
+but was partially overthrown by invading barbarians from the
+interior in the seventeenth century. A king of Congo still reigns as
+pensioner of Portugal, and on the coast to-day are the remains of
+the kingdom in the civilized blacks and mulattoes, who are intelligent
+traders and boat builders.</p>
+
+<p>Meantime the Luba-Lunda people to the eastward founded Kantanga
+and other states, and in the sixteenth century the larger and
+more ambitious realm of the Mwata Yamvo. The last of the fourteen
+rulers of this line was feudal lord of about three hundred chiefs, who
+paid him tribute in ivory, skins, corn, cloth, and salt. His territory
+included about one hundred thousand square miles and two million
+or more inhabitants. Eventually this state became torn by internal
+strife and revolt, especially by attacks from the south across the
+Congo-Zambesi divide.</p>
+
+<p>Farther north, among the Ba-Lolo and the Ba-Songo, the village
+policy persisted and the cannibals of the northeast pressed down on
+the more settled tribes. The result was a curious blending of war
+and industry, artistic tastes and savage customs.</p>
+
+<p>The organized slave trade of the Arabs penetrated the Congo valley
+in the sixteenth century and soon was aiding all the forces of
+unrest and turmoil. Industry was deranged and many tribes forced
+to take refuge in caves and other hiding places.</p>
+
+<p>Here, as on the west coast, disintegration and retrogression followed,
+for as the American traffic lessened, the Arabian traffic increased.
+When, therefore, Stanley opened the Congo valley to
+modern knowledge, Leopold II of Belgium conceived the idea of
+founding here a free international state which was to bring civilization
+to the heart of Africa. Consequently there was formed in 1878
+an international committee to study the region. Stanley was finally
+commissioned to inquire as to the best way of introducing European
+trade and culture. &quot;I am charged,&quot; he said, &quot;to open and keep open,
+if possible, all such districts and countries as I may explore, for the
+benefit of the commercial world. The mission is supported by a
+philanthropic society, which numbers nobleminded men of several
+nations. It is not a religious society, but my instructions are entirely
+of that spirit. No violence must be used, and wherever rejected, the
+mission must withdraw to seek another field.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Bula Matadi or Stone Breaker, as the natives called Stanley,
+threw himself energetically into the work and had by 1881 built a
+road past the falls to the plateau, where thousands of miles of river
+navigation were thus opened. Stations were established, and by 1884
+Stanley returned armed with four hundred and fifty &quot;treaties&quot; with
+the native chiefs, and the new &quot;State&quot; appealed to the world for
+recognition.</p>
+
+<p>The United States first recognized the &quot;Congo Free State,&quot; which
+was at last made a sovereign power under international guarantees
+by the Congress of Berlin in the year 1885, and Leopold II was
+chosen its king. The state had an area of about nine hundred thousand
+square miles, with a population of about thirty million.</p>
+
+<p>One of the first tasks before the new state was to check the Arab
+slave traders. The Arabs had hitherto acted as traders and middlemen
+along the upper Congo, and when the English and Congo state
+overthrew Mzidi, the reigning king in the Kantanga country, a general
+revolt of the Arabs and mulattoes took place. For a time, 1892-93,
+the whites were driven out, but in a year or two the Arabs and
+their allies were subdued.</p>
+
+<p>Humanity and commerce, however, did not replace the Arab slave
+traders. Rather European greed and serfdom were substituted. The
+land was confiscated by the state and farmed out to private Belgian
+corporations. The wilder cannibal tribes were formed into a militia
+to prey on the industrious, who were taxed with specific amounts of
+ivory and rubber, and scourged and mutilated if they failed to pay.
+Harris declares that King Leopold's regime meant the death of
+twelve million natives.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Europe was staggered at the Leopoldian atrocities, and they were
+terrible indeed; but what we, who were behind the scenes, felt most
+keenly was the fact that the real catastrophe in the Congo was the
+desolation and murder in the larger sense. The invasion of family
+life, the ruthless destruction of every social barrier, the shattering of
+every tribal law, the introduction of criminal practices which struck
+the chiefs of the people dumb with horror&mdash;in a word, a veritable
+avalanche of filth and immorality overwhelmed the Congo tribes.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a></p>
+
+<p>So notorious did the exploitation and misrule become that Leopold
+was forced to take measures toward reform, and finally in 1909
+the Free State became a Belgian colony. Some reforms have been
+inaugurated and others may follow, but the valley of the Congo will
+long stand as a monument of shame to Christianity and European
+civilization.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> Quoted in Du Bois: <i>Timbuktu</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> Von Luschan: <i>Verhandlungen der berliner Gesellschaft f&uuml;r Anthropologie</i>,
+etc., 1898.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Frobenius: <i>Voice of Africa</i>, Vol. I.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> Cf. p. 58.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> Keane: <i>Africa</i>, II, 117-118.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> <i>The Congo</i>, I, Chap. III.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> Harris: <i>Dawn in Africa</i>.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="VI_THE_GREAT_LAKES_AND_ZYMBABWE" id="VI_THE_GREAT_LAKES_AND_ZYMBABWE" />VI<br /><br /> THE GREAT LAKES AND ZYMBABWE</h2>
+
+
+<p>We have already seen how a branch of the conquering Bantus
+turned eastward by the Great Lakes and thus reached the sea and
+eventually both the Nile and South Africa.</p>
+
+<p>This brought them into the ancient and mysterious land far up
+the Nile, south of Ethiopia. Here lay the ancient Punt of the
+Egyptians (whether we place it in Somaliland or, as seems far more
+likely, around the Great Lakes) and here, as the Egyptians thought,
+their civilization began. The earliest inhabitants of the land were
+apparently of the Bushman or Hottentot type of Negro. These were
+gradually pushed southward and westward by the intrusion of the
+Nilotic Negroes. Five thousand years before Christ the mulatto
+Egyptians were in the Nile valley below the First Cataract. The
+Negroes were in the Nile valley down as far as the Second Cataract
+and between the First and Second Cataracts were Negroes into
+whose veins Semitic blood had penetrated more or less. These
+mixed elements became the ancestors of the modern Somali, Gala,
+Bishari, and Beja and spread Negro blood into Arabia beyond the
+Red Sea. The Nilotic Negroes to the south early became great
+traders in ivory, gold, leopard skins, gums, beasts, birds, and slaves,
+and they opened up systematic trade between Egypt and the Great
+Lakes.</p>
+
+<p>The result was endless movement and migration both in ancient
+and modern days, which makes the cultural history of the Great
+Lakes region very difficult to understand. Three great elements are,
+however, clear: first, the Egyptian element, by the northward migration
+of the Negro ancestors of predynastic Egypt and the southern
+conquests and trade of dynastic Egypt; second, the Semitic influence
+from Arabia and Persia; third, the Negro influences from
+western and central Africa.</p>
+
+<p>The migration of the Bantu is the first clearly defined movement
+of modern times. As we have shown, they began to move southward
+at least a thousand years before Christ, skirting the Congo forests
+and wandering along the Great Lakes and down to the Zambesi.
+What did they find in this land?</p>
+
+<p>We do not know certainly, but from what we do know we may
+reconstruct the situation in this way: the primitive culture of the
+Hottentots of Punt had been further developed by them and by
+other stronger Negro stocks until it reached a highly developed culture.
+Widespread agriculture, and mining of gold, silver, and precious
+stones started a trade that penetrated to Asia and North Africa.
+This may have been the source of the gold of the Ophir.</p>
+
+<p>The state that thus arose became in time strongly organized; it
+employed slave labor in crushing the hard quartz, sinking pits, and
+carrying underground galleries; it carried out a system of irrigation
+and built stone buildings and fortifications. There exists to-day
+many remains of these building operations in the Kalahari desert
+and in northern Rhodesia. Five hundred groups, covering over an
+area of one hundred and fifty thousand square miles, lie between
+the Limpopo and Zambesi rivers. Mining operations have been carried
+on in these plains for generations, and one estimate is that at
+least three hundred and seventy-five million dollars' worth of gold
+had been extracted. Some have thought that the older workings
+must date back to one or even three thousand years before the
+Christian era.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;There are other mines,&quot; writes De Barros in the seventeenth century,<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a>
+&quot;in a district called Toroa, which is otherwise known as the
+kingdom of Butua, whose ruler is a prince, by name Burrow, a vassal
+of Benomotapa. This land is near the other which we said consisted
+of extensive plains, and those ruins are the oldest that are known in
+that region. They are all in a plain, in the middle of which stands
+a square fortress, all of dressed stones within and without, well
+wrought and of marvelous size, without any lime showing the
+joinings, the walls of which are over twenty-five hands thick, but
+the height is not so great compared to the thickness. And above the
+gateway of that edifice is an inscription which some Moorish [Arab]
+traders who were there could not read, nor say what writing it was.
+All these structures the people of this country call Symbaoe [Zymbabwe],
+which with them means a court, for every place where
+Benomotapa stays is so called.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Later investigation has shown that these buildings were in many
+cases carefully planned and built fortifications. At Niekerk, for instance,
+nine or ten hills are fortified on concentric walls thirty to
+fifty feet in number, with a place for the village at the top. The
+buildings are forts, miniature citadels, and also workshops and cattle
+kraals. Iron implements and handsome pottery were found here, and
+close to the Zambesi there are extraordinary fortifications. Farther
+south at Inyanga there is less strong defense, and at Umtali there
+are no fortifications, showing that builders feared invasion from the
+north.</p>
+
+<p>These people worked in gold, silver, tin, copper, and bronze and
+made beautiful pottery. There is evidence of religious significance
+in the buildings, and what is called the temple was the royal residence
+and served as a sort of acropolis. The surrounding residences
+in the valley were evidently occupied by wealthy traders and were
+not fortified. Here the gold was received from surrounding districts
+and bartered with traders.</p>
+
+<p>As usual there have been repeated attempts to find an external
+and especially an Asiatic origin for this culture. So far, however,
+archeological research seems to confirm its African origin. The implements,
+weapons, and art are characteristically African and there
+is no evident connection with outside sources. How far back this
+civilization dates it is difficult to say, a great deal depending upon
+the dating of the iron age in South Africa. If it was the same as in
+the Mediterranean regions, the earliest limit was 1000 B.C.; it might,
+however, have been much earlier, especially if, as seems probable,
+the use of iron originated in Africa. On the other hand the culmination
+of this culture has been placed by some as late as the modern
+middle ages.</p>
+
+<p>What was it that overthrew this civilization? Undoubtedly the
+same sort of raids of barbarous warriors that we have known in our
+day. For instance, in 1570 there came upon the country of Mozambique,
+farther up the coast, &quot;such an inundation of pagans that they
+could not be numbered. They came from that part of Monomotapa
+where is the great lake from which spring these great rivers. They
+left no other signs of the towns they passed but the heaps of ruins
+and the bones of inhabitants.&quot; So, too, it is told how the Zimbas
+came, &quot;a strange people never before seen there, who, leaving their
+own country, traversed a great part of this Ethiopia like a scourge
+of God, destroying every living thing they came across. They were
+twenty thousand strong and marched without children or women,&quot;
+just as four hundred years later the Zulu impi marched. Again in
+1602 a horde of people came from the interior called the Cabires,
+or cannibals. They entered the kingdom of Monomotapa, and the
+reigning king, being weak, was in great terror. Thus gradually the
+Monomotapa fell, and its power was scattered until the Kaffir-Zulu
+raids of our day.<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Arab writer, Macoudi, in the tenth century visited the East
+African coast somewhere north of the equator. He found the Indian
+Sea at that time frequented by Arab and Persian vessels, but there
+were no Asiatic settlements on the African shore. The Bantu, or as
+he calls them, Zenji, inhabited the country as far south as Sofala,
+where they bordered upon the Bushmen. These Bantus were under
+a ruler with the dynastic title of Waklimi. He was paramount over
+all the other tribes of the north and could put three hundred thousand
+men in the field. They used oxen as beasts of burden and the
+country produced gold in abundance, while panther skin was largely
+used for clothing. Ivory was sold to Asia and the Bantu used iron
+for personal adornment instead of gold or silver. They rode on their
+oxen, which ran with great speed, and they ate millet and honey
+and the flesh of animals.</p>
+
+<p>Inland among the Bantu arose later the line of rulers called the
+Monomotapa among the gifted Makalanga. Their state was very
+extensive, ranging from the coast far into the interior and from
+Mozambique down to the Limpopo. It was strongly organized, with
+feudatory allied states, and carried on an extensive commerce by
+means of the traders on the coast. The kings were converted to
+nominal Christianity by the Portuguese.</p>
+
+<p>There are indications of trade between Nupe in West Africa and
+Sofala on the east coast, and certainly trade between Asia and East
+Africa is earlier than the beginning of the Christian era. The Asiatic
+traders settled on the coast and by means of mulatto and Negro
+merchants brought Central Africa into contact with Arabia, India,
+China, and Malaysia.</p>
+
+<p>The coming of the Asiatics was in this wise: Zaide, great-grandson
+of Ali, nephew and son-in-law of Mohammed, was banished from
+Arabia as a heretic. He passed over to Africa and formed temporary
+settlements. His people mingled with the blacks, and the resulting
+mulatto traders, known as the Emoxaidi, seem to have wandered as
+far south as the equator. Soon other Arabian families came over on
+account of oppression and founded the towns of Magadosho and
+Brava, both not far north of the equator. The first town became a
+place of importance and other settlements were made. The Emoxaidi,
+whom the later immigrants regarded as heretics, were driven
+inland and became the interpreting traders between the coast and
+the Bantu. Some wanderers from Magadosho came into the Port of
+Sofala and there learned that gold could be obtained. This led to a
+small Arab settlement at that place.</p>
+
+<p>Seventy years later, and about fifty years before the Norman
+conquest of England, certain Persians settled at Kilwa in East Africa,
+led by Ali, who had been despised in his land because he was the
+son of a black Abyssinian slave mother. Kilwa, because of this,
+eventually became the most important commercial station on the
+East African coast, and in this and all these settlements a very large
+mulatto population grew up, so that very soon the whole settlement
+was indistinguishable in color from the Bantu.</p>
+
+<p>In 1330 Ibn Batuta visited Kilwa. He found an abundance of
+ivory and some gold and heard that the inhabitants of Kilwa had
+gained victories over the Zenji or Bantu. Kilwa had at that time
+three hundred mosques and was &quot;built of handsome houses of stone
+and lime, and very lofty, with their windows like those of the
+Christians; in the same way it has streets, and these houses have got
+terraces, and the wood-work is with the masonry, with plenty of
+gardens, in which there are many fruit trees and much water.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a>
+Kilwa after a time captured Sofala, seizing it from Magadosho.
+Eventually Kilwa became mistress of the island of Zanzibar, of
+Mozambique, and of much other territory. The forty-third ruler of
+Kilwa after Ali was named Abraham, and he was ruling when the
+Portuguese arrived. The latter reported that these people cultivated
+rice and cocoa, built ships, and had considerable commerce with
+Asia. All the people, of whatever color, were Mohammedans, and
+the richer were clothed in gorgeous robes of silk and velvet. They
+traded with the inland Bantus and met numerous tribes, receiving
+gold, ivory, millet, rice, cattle, poultry, and honey.</p>
+
+<p>On the islands the Asiatics were independent, but on the main
+lands south of Kilwa the sheiks ruled only their own people, under
+the overlordship of the Bantus, to whom they were compelled to
+pay large tribute each year.</p>
+
+<p>Vasco da Gama doubled the Cape of Good Hope in 1497 and
+went north on the east coast as far as India. In the next ten years
+the Portuguese had occupied more than six different points on that
+coast, including Sofala.<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a></p>
+
+<p>Thus civilization waxed and waned in East Africa among prehistoric
+Negroes, Arab and Persian mulattoes on the coast, in the
+Zend or Zeng empire of Bantu Negroes, and later in the Bantu rule
+of the Monomotapa. And thus, too, among later throngs of the
+fiercer, warlike Bantu, the ancient culture of the land largely died.
+Yet something survived, and in the modern Bantu state, language,
+and industry can be found clear links that establish the essential
+identity of the absorbed peoples with the builders of Zymbabwe.</p>
+
+<p>So far we have traced the history of the lands into which the
+southward stream of invading Bantus turned, and have followed
+them to the Limpopo River. We turn now to the lands north from
+Lake Nyassa.</p>
+
+<p>The aboriginal Negroes sustained in prehistoric time invasions
+from the northeast by Negroids of a type like the ancient Egyptians
+and like the modern Gallas, Masai, and Somalis. To these migrations
+were added attacks from the Nile Negroes to the north and
+the Bantu invaders from the south. This has led to great differences
+among the groups of the population and in their customs. Some are
+fierce mountaineers, occupying hilly plateaus six thousand feet above
+the sea level; others, like the Wa Swahili, are traders on the coast.
+There are the Masai, chocolate-colored and frizzly-haired, organized
+for war and cattle lifting; and Negroids like the Gallas, who, blending
+with the Bantus, have produced the race of modern Uganda.</p>
+
+<p>It was in this region that the kingdom of Kitwara was founded
+by the Galla chief, Kintu. About the beginning of the nineteenth
+century the empire was dismembered, the largest share falling to
+Uganda. The ensuing history of Uganda is of great interest. When
+King Mutesa came to the throne in 1862, he found Mohammedan
+influences in his land and was induced to admit English Protestants
+and French Catholics. Uganda thereupon became an extraordinary
+religious battlefield between these three beliefs. Mutesa's successor,
+Mwanga, caused an English bishop to be killed in 1885, believing
+(as has since proven quite true) that the religion he offered would
+be used as a cloak for conquest. The final result was that, after
+open war between the religions, Uganda was made an English protectorate
+in 1894.</p>
+
+<p>The Negroes of Uganda are an intelligent people who had organized
+a complex feudal state. At the head stood the king, and
+under him twelve feudal lords. The present king, Daudi Chua, is
+the young grandson of Mutesa and rules under the overlordship of
+England.</p>
+
+<p>Many things show the connection between Egypt and this part of
+Africa. The same glass beads are found in Uganda and Upper
+Egypt, and similar canoes are built. Harps and other instruments
+bear great resemblance. Finally the Bahima, as the Galla invaders
+are called, are startlingly Egyptian in type; at the same time they
+are undoubtedly Negro in hair and color. Perhaps we have here the
+best racial picture of what ancient Egyptian and upper Nile regions
+were in predynastic times and later.</p>
+
+<p>Thus in outline was seen the mission of The People&mdash;La Bantu
+as they called themselves. They migrated, they settled, they tore
+down, and they learned, and they in turn were often overthrown by
+succeeding tribes of their own folk. They rule with their tongue
+and their power all Africa south of the equator, save where the
+Europeans have entered. They have never been conquered, although
+the gold and diamond traders have sought to debauch them, and
+the ivory and rubber capitalists have cruelly wronged their weaker
+groups. They are the Africans with whom the world of to-morrow
+must reckon, just as the world of yesterday knew them to its cost.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> Quoted in Bent: <i>Ruined Cities of Mashonaland</i>, pp. 203 ff.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> Cf. &quot;Ethiopia Oriental,&quot; by J. Dos Santos, in Theal's <i>Records of South
+Africa</i>, Vol. VII.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> Barbosa, quoted in Keane, II, 482.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> It was called Sofala, from an Arabic word, and may be associated with the
+Ophir of Solomon. So, too, the river Sabi, a little off Sofala, may be associated
+with the name of the Queen of Sheba, whose lineage was supposed to be perpetuated
+in the powerful Monomotapa as well as the Abyssinians.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="VII_THE_WAR_OF_RACES_AT_LANDS_END" id="VII_THE_WAR_OF_RACES_AT_LANDS_END" />VII <br /><br />THE WAR OF RACES AT LAND'S END</h2>
+
+
+<p>Primitive man in Africa is found in the interior jungles and down
+at Land's End in South Africa. The Pygmy people in the jungles
+represent to-day a small survival from the past, but a survival of
+curious interest, pushed aside by the torrent of conquest. Also pushed
+on by these waves of Bantu conquest, moved the ancient Abatwa or
+Bushmen. They are small in stature, yellow in color, with crisp-curled
+hair. The traditions of the Bushmen say that they came southward
+from the regions of the Great Lakes, and indeed the king and
+queen of Punt, as depicted by the Egyptians, were Bushmen or
+Hottentots.</p>
+
+<p>Their tribes may be divided, in accordance with their noticeable
+artistic talents, into the painters and the sculptors. The sculptors
+entered South Africa by moving southward through the more central
+portions of the country, crossing the Zambesi, and coming down
+to the Cape. The painters, on the other hand, came through Damaraland
+on the west coast; when they came to the great mountain
+regions, they turned eastward and can be traced as far as the mountains
+opposite Delagoa Bay. The mass of them settled down in the
+lower part of the Cape and in the Kalahari desert. The painters were
+true cave dwellers, but the sculptors lived in large communities on
+the stony hills, which they marked with their carvings.</p>
+
+<p>These Bushmen believed in an ancient race of people who preceded
+them in South Africa. They attributed magic power to these
+unknown folk, and said that some of them had been translated as
+stars to the sky. Before their groups were dispersed the Bushmen
+had regular government. Tribes with their chiefs occupied well-defined
+tracts of country and were subdivided into branch tribes
+under subsidiary chiefs. The great cave represented the dignity and
+glory of the entire tribe.</p>
+
+<p>The Bushmen suffered most cruelly in the succeeding migrations
+and conquests of South Africa. They fought desperately in self-defense;
+they saw their women and children carried into bondage
+and they themselves hunted like wild beasts. Both savage and civilized
+men appropriated their land. Still they were brave people. &quot;In
+this struggle for existence their bitterest enemies, of whatever shade
+of color they might be, were forced to make an unqualified acknowledgement
+of the courage and daring they so invariably exhibited.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a></p>
+
+<p>Here, to a remote corner of the world, where, as one of their
+number said, they had supposed that the only beings in the world
+were Bushmen and lions, came a series of invaders. It was the outer
+ripples of civilization starting far away, the indigenous and external
+civilizations of Africa beating with great impulse among the Ethiopians
+and the Egyptian mulattoes and Sudanese Negroes and
+Yorubans, and driving the Bantu race southward. The Bantus
+crowded more and more upon the primitive Bushmen, and probably
+a mingling of the Bushmen and the Bantus gave rise to the Hottentots.</p>
+
+<p>The Hottentots, or as they called themselves, Khoi Khoin (Men
+of Men), were physically a stronger race than the Abatwa and gave
+many evidences of degeneration from a high culture, especially in
+the &quot;phenomenal perfection&quot; of a language which &quot;is so highly developed,
+both in its rich phonetic system, as represented by a very
+delicately graduated series of vowels and diphthongs, and in its
+varied grammatical structure, that Lepsius sought for its affinities in
+the Egyptian at the other end of the continent.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>When South Africa was first discovered there were two distinct
+types of Hottentot. The more savage Hottentots were simply large,
+strong Bushmen, using weapons superior to the Bushmen, without
+domestic cattle or sheep. Other tribes nearer the center of South
+Africa were handsomer in appearance and raised an Egyptian breed
+of cattle which they rode.</p>
+
+<p>In general the Hottentots were yellow, with close-curled hair,
+high cheek bones, and somewhat oblique eyes. Their migration commenced
+about the end of the fourteenth century and was, as is usual
+in such cases, a scattered, straggling movement. The traditions of
+the Hottentots point to the lake country of Central Africa as their
+place of origin, whence they were driven by the Bechuana tribes of
+the Bantu. They fled westward to the ocean and then turned south
+and came upon the Bushmen, whom they had only partially subdued
+when the Dutch arrived as settlers in 1652.</p>
+
+<p>The Dutch &quot;Boers&quot; began by purchasing land from the Hottentots
+and then, as they grew more powerful, they dispossessed the dark
+men and tried to enslave them. There grew up a large Dutch-Hottentot
+class. Indeed the filtration of Negro blood noticeable in
+modern Boers accounts for much curious history. Soon after the
+advent of the Dutch some of the Hottentots, of whom there were
+not more than thirty or forty thousand, led by the Korana clans,
+began slowly to retreat northward, followed by the invading Dutch
+and fighting the Dutch, each other, and the wretched Bushmen. In
+the latter part of the eighteenth century the Hottentots had reached
+the great interior plain and met the on-coming outposts of the Bantu
+nations.</p>
+
+<p>The Bechuana, whom the Hottentots first met, were the most
+advanced of the Negro tribes of Central Africa. They had crossed
+the Zambesi in the fourteenth or fifteenth century; their government
+was a sort of feudal system with hereditary chiefs and vassals; they
+were careful agriculturists, laid out large towns with great regularity,
+and were the most skilled of smiths. They used stone in building,
+carved on wood, and many of them, too, were keen traders. These
+tribes, coming southward, occupied the east-central part of South
+Africa comprising modern Bechuanaland. Apparently they had
+started from the central lake country somewhere late in the fifteenth
+century, and by the middle of the eighteenth century one of their
+great chiefs, Tao, met the on-coming Hottentots.</p>
+
+<p>The Hottentots compelled Tao to retreat, but the mulatto Gricquas
+arrived from the south, and, allying themselves with the
+Bechuana, stopped the rout. The Gricquas sprang from and took
+their name from an old Hottentot tribe. They were led by Kok and
+Barends, and by adding other elements they became, partly through
+their own efforts and partly through the efforts of the missionaries, a
+community of fairly well civilized people. In Gricqualand West the
+mulatto Gricquas, under their chiefs Kok and Waterboer, lived until
+the discovery of diamonds.</p>
+
+<p>The Griquas and Bechuana tribes were thus gradually checking
+the Hottentots when, in the nineteenth century, there came two
+new developments: first, the English took possession of Cape Colony,
+and the Dutch began to move in larger numbers toward the
+interior; secondly, a newer and fiercer element of the Bantu tribes,
+the Zulu-Kaffirs, appeared. The Kaffirs, or as they called themselves,
+the Amazosas, claimed descent from Zuide, a great chief of the fifteenth
+century in the lake country. They are among the tallest people
+in the world, averaging five feet ten inches, and are slim, well-proportioned,
+and muscular. The more warlike tribes were usually
+clothed in leopard or ox skins. Cattle formed their chief wealth,
+stock breeding and hunting and fighting their main pursuits. Mentally
+they were men of tact and intelligence, with a national religion
+based upon ancestor worship, while their government was a
+patriarchal monarchy limited by an aristocracy and almost feudal in
+character. The common law which had grown up from the decisions
+of the chiefs made the head of the family responsible for the conduct
+of its branches, a village for all its residents, and the clan for
+all its villages. Finally there was a paramount chief, who was the
+civil and military father of his people. These people laid waste to
+the coast regions and in 1779 came in contact with the Dutch. A
+series of Dutch-Kaffir wars ensued between 1779 and 1795 in which
+the Dutch were hard pressed.</p>
+
+<p>In 1806 the English took final possession of Cape Colony. At that
+time there were twenty-five thousand Boers, twenty-five thousand
+pure and mixed Hottentots, and twenty-five thousand slaves secured
+from the east coast. Between 1811 and 1877 there were six Kaffir-English
+wars. One of these in 1818 grew out of the ignorant interference
+of the English with the Kaffir tribal system; then there came
+a terrible war between 1834 and 1835, followed by the annexation
+of all the country as far as the Kei River. The war of the Axe
+(1846-48) led to further annexation by the British.</p>
+
+<p>Hostilities broke out again in 1856 and 1863. In the former year,
+despairing of resistance to invading England, a prophet arose who
+advised the wholesale destruction of all Kaffir property except weapons,
+in order that this faith might bring back their dead heroes. The
+result was that almost a third of the nation perished from hunger.
+Fresh troubles occurred in 1877, when the Ama-Xosa confederacy
+was finally broken up, and to-day gradually these tribes are passing
+from independence to a state of mild vassalage to the British.</p>
+
+<p>Meantime the more formidable part of the Zulu-Kaffirs had been
+united under the terrible Chief Chaka. He had organized a military
+system, not a new one by any means, but one of which we hear
+rumors back in the lake regions in the fourteenth and fifteenth
+centuries. McDonald says, &quot;There has probably never been a more
+perfect system of discipline than that by which Chaka ruled his
+army and kingdom. At a review an order might be given in the most
+unexpected manner, which meant death to hundreds. If the regiment
+hesitated or dared to remonstrate, so perfect was the discipline
+and so great the jealousy that another was ready to cut them down.
+A warrior returning from battle without his arms was put to death
+without trial. A general returning unsuccessful in the main purpose
+of his expedition shared the same fate. Whoever displeased the king
+was immediately executed. The traditional courts practically ceased
+to exist so far as the will and action of the tyrant was concerned.&quot;
+With this army Chaka fell on tribe after tribe. The Bechuana fled
+before him and some tribes of them were entirely destroyed. The
+Hottentots suffered severely and one of his rival Zulu tribes under
+Umsilikatsi fled into Matabililand, pushing back the Bechuana. By
+the time the English came to Port Natal, Chaka was ruling over
+the whole southeastern seaboard, from the Limpopo River to Cape
+Colony, including the Orange and Transvaal states and the whole
+of Natal. Chaka was killed in 1828 and was eventually succeeded
+by his brother Dingan, who reigned twelve years. It was during
+Dingan's reign that England tried to abolish slavery in Cape
+Colony, but did not pay promptly for the slaves, as she had promised;
+the result was the so-called &quot;Great Trek,&quot; about 1834, when
+thousands of Boers went into the interior across the Orange and
+Vaal rivers.</p>
+
+<p>Dingan and these Boers were soon engaged in a death struggle in
+which the Zulus were repulsed and Dingan replaced by Panda.
+Under this chief there was something like repose for sixteen years,
+but in 1856 civil war broke out between his sons, one of whom,
+Cetewayo, succeeded his father in 1882. He fell into border disputes
+with the English, and the result was one of the fiercest clashes
+of Europe and Africa in modern days. The Zulus fought desperately,
+annihilating at one time a whole detachment and killing the young
+prince Napoleon. But after all it was assagais against machine guns,
+and the Zulus were finally defeated at Ulundi, July 4, 1879. Thereupon
+Zululand was divided among thirteen semi-independent chiefs
+and became a British protectorate.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="i164" id="i164"></a>
+<img src="images/i164.png"
+alt="Ancient Kingdom of Africa"
+title="Ancient Kingdom of Africa" /><br /><br />
+<span class="caption">Ancient Kingdoms of Africa</span>
+</div>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p>Since then the best lands have been gradually reoccupied by a
+large number of tribes&mdash;Kaffirs from the south and Zulus from the
+north. The tribal organization, without being actually broken up,
+has been deprived of its dangerous features by appointing paid village
+headmen and transforming the hereditary chief into a British
+government official. In Natal there are about one hundred and
+seventy tribal chiefs, and nearly half of these have been appointed
+by the governor.</p>
+
+<p>Umsilikatsi, who had been driven into Matabililand by the terrible
+Chaka in 1828 and defeated by the Dutch in 1837, had finally
+reestablished his headquarters in Rhodesia in 1838. Here he introduced
+the Zulu military system and terrorized the peaceful and
+industrious Bechuana populations. Lobengula succeeded Umsilikatsi
+in 1870 and, realizing that his power was waning, began to retreat
+northward toward the Zambesi. He was finally defeated by the
+British and native forces in 1893 and the land was incorporated into
+South Central Africa.</p>
+
+<p>The result of all these movements was to break the inhabitants
+of Bechuanaland into numerous fragments. There were small numbers
+of mulatto Gricquas in the southwest and similar Bastaards in
+the northwest. The Hottentots and Bushmen were dispersed into
+groups and seem doomed to extinction, the last Hottentot chief being
+deposed in 1810 and replaced by an English magistrate. Partially
+civilized Hottentots still live grouped together in their kraals and
+are members of Christian churches. The Bechuana hold their own
+in several centers; one is in Basutoland, west of Natal, where a
+number of tribes were welded together under the far-sighted Moshesh
+into a modern and fairly well civilized nation. In the north part
+of Bechuanaland are the self-governing Bamangwato and the Batwana,
+the former ruled by Khama, one of the canniest of modern
+rulers in Africa.</p>
+
+<p>Meantime, in Portuguese territory south of the Zambesi, there
+arose Gaza, a contemporary and rival of Chaka. His son, Manikus,
+was deputed by Dingan, Chaka's successor, to drive out the Portuguese.
+This Manikus failed to do, and to escape vengeance he
+migrated north of the Limpopo. Here he established his military
+kraal in a district thirty-six hundred and fifty feet above the sea and
+one hundred and twenty miles inland from Sofala. From this place
+his soldiery nearly succeeded in driving the Portuguese out of East
+Africa. He was succeeded by his son, Umzila, and Umzila's brother,
+Guzana (better known as Gungunyana), who exercised for a time
+joint authority. Gungunyana was finally overthrown in November,
+1895, captured, and removed to the Azores.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="i165" id="i165"></a>
+<img src="images/i165.png"
+alt="Races in Africa"
+title="Races in Africa" /><br /><br />
+<span class="caption">Races in Africa</span>
+</div>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p>North of the Zambesi, in British territory, the chief role in recent
+times has been played by the Bechuana, the first of the Bantu to
+return northward after the South African migration. Livingstone
+found there the Makolo, who with other tribes had moved northward
+on account of the pressure of the Dutch and Zulus below, and
+by conquering various tribes in the Zambesi region had established
+a strong power. This kingdom was nearly overthrown by the rebellion
+of the Barotse, and in 1875 the Barotse kingdom comprised a large
+territory. To-day their king, Lewanika, rules directly and indirectly
+fifty thousand square miles, with a population between one and two
+and a half million. They are under a protectorate of the British.</p>
+
+<p>In Southwest Africa, Hottentot mulattoes crossing from the Cape
+caused widespread change. They were strong men and daring fighters
+and soon became dominant in what is now German Southwest
+Africa, where they fought fiercely with the Bantu Ova-Hereros.
+Armed with fire arms, these Namakwa Hottentots threatened Portuguese
+West Africa, but Germany intervened, ostensibly to protect
+missionaries. By spending millions of dollars and thousands of soldiers
+Germany has nearly exterminated these brave men.</p>
+
+<p>Thus we have between the years 1400 and 1900 a great period
+of migration up to 1750, when Bushmen, Hottentot, Bantu, and
+Dutch appeared in succession at Land's End. In the latter part of
+the eighteenth century we have the clash of the Hottentots and
+Bechuana, followed in the nineteenth century by the terrible wars
+of Chaka, the Kaffirs, and Matabili. Finally, in the latter half of
+the nineteenth century, we see the gradual subjection of the Kaffir-Zulus
+and the Bechuana under the English and the final conquest
+of the Dutch. The resulting racial problem in South Africa is one
+of great intricacy.</p>
+
+<p>To the racial problem has been added the tremendous problem
+of modern capital brought by the discovery of gold and diamond
+mines, so that the future of the Negro race is peculiarly bound up
+in developments here at Land's End, where the ship of the Flying
+Dutchman beats back and forth on its endless quest.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> Stowe: Native Races of South Africa, pp. 215-216.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="VIII_AFRICAN_CULTURE" id="VIII_AFRICAN_CULTURE" />VIII <br /><br />AFRICAN CULTURE</h2>
+
+
+<p>We have followed the history of mankind in Africa down the valley
+of the Nile, past Ethiopia to Egypt; we have seen kingdoms arise
+along the great bend of the Niger and strive with the ancient culture
+at its mouth. We have seen the remnants of mankind at Land's
+End, the ancient culture at Punt and Zymbabwe, and followed the
+invading Bantu east, south, and west to their greatest center in the
+vast jungle of the Congo valleys.</p>
+
+<p>We must now gather these threads together and ask what manner
+of men these were and how far and in what way they progressed
+on the road of human culture.</p>
+
+<p>That Negro peoples were the beginners of civilization along the
+Ganges, the Euphrates, and the Nile seems proven. Early Babylon
+was founded by a Negroid race. Hammurabi's code, the most ancient
+known, says &quot;Anna and Bel called me, Hammurabi the exalted
+prince, the worshiper of the gods; to cause justice to prevail in the
+land, to destroy the wicked, to prevent the strong from oppressing
+the weak, to go forth like the sun over the black-head race, to
+enlighten the land, and to further the welfare of the people.&quot; The
+Assyrians show a distinct Negroid strain and early Egypt was predominantly
+Negro. These earliest of cultures were crude and primitive,
+but they represented the highest attainment of mankind after
+tens of thousands of years in unawakened savagery.</p>
+
+<p>It has often been assumed that the Negro is physically inferior
+to other races and markedly distinguishable from them; modern
+science gives no authority for such an assumption. The supposed
+inferiority cannot rest on color,<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> for that is &quot;due to the combined
+influences of a great number of factors of environment working
+through physiological processes,&quot; and &quot;however marked the contrasts
+may be, there is no corresponding difference in anatomical structure
+discoverable.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> So, too, difference in texture of hair is a matter of
+degree, not kind, and is caused by heat, moisture, exposure, and the
+like.</p>
+
+<p>The bony skeleton presents no distinctly racial lines of variation.
+Prognathism &quot;presents too many individual varieties to be taken as
+a distinctive character of race.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> Difference in physical measurements
+does not show the Negro to be a more primitive evolutionary form.
+Comparative ethnology to-day affords &quot;no support to the view which
+sees in the so-called lower races of mankind a transition stage from
+beast to man.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a></p>
+
+<p>Much has been made of the supposed smaller brain of the Negro
+race; but this is as yet an unproved assumption, based on the uncritical
+measurement of less than a thousand Negro brains as compared
+with eleven thousand or more European brains. Even if future
+measurement prove the average Negro brain lighter, the vast majority
+of Negro brain weights fall within the same limits as the whites;
+and finally, &quot;neither size nor weight of the brain seems to be of
+importance&quot; as an index of mental capacity. We may, therefore, say
+with Ratzel, &quot;There is only one species of man. The variations are
+numerous, but do not go deep.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a></p>
+
+<p>To this we may add the word of the Secretary of the First Races
+Congress: &quot;We are, then, under the necessity of concluding that an
+impartial investigator would be inclined to look upon the various
+important peoples of the world as to all intents and purposes essentially
+equal in intellect, enterprise, morality, and physique.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a></p>
+
+<p>If these conclusions are true, we should expect to see in Africa
+the human drama play itself out much as in other lands, and such
+has actually been the fact. At the same time we must expect peculiarities
+arising from the physiography of the land&mdash;its climate, its
+rainfall, its deserts, and the peculiar inaccessibility of the coast.</p>
+
+<p>Three principal zones of habitation appear: first, the steppes and
+deserts around the Sahara in the north and the Kalahari desert in
+the south; secondly, the grassy highlands bordering the Great Lakes
+and connecting these two regions; thirdly, the forests and rivers of
+Central and West Africa. In the deserts are the nomads, and the
+Pygmies are in the forest fastnesses. Herdsmen and their cattle cover
+the steppes and highlands, save where the tsetse fly prevents. In the
+open forests and grassy highlands are the agriculturists.</p>
+
+<p>Among the forest farmers the village is the center of life, while
+in the open steppes political life tends to spread into larger political
+units. Political integration is, however, hindered by an ease of internal
+communication almost as great as the difficulty of reaching
+outer worlds beyond the continent. The narrow Nile valley alone
+presented physical barriers formidable enough to keep back the
+invading barbarians of the south, and even then with difficulty.
+Elsewhere communication was all too easy. For a while the Congo
+forests fended away the restless, but this only temporarily.</p>
+
+<p>On the whole Africa from the Sahara to the Cape offered no
+great physical barrier to the invader, and we continually have whirlwinds
+of invading hosts rushing now southward, now northward,
+from the interior to the coast and from the coast inland, and hurling
+their force against states, kingdoms, and cities. Some resisted for
+generations, some for centuries, some but a few years. It is, then,
+this sudden change and the fear of it that marks African culture,
+particularly in its political aspects, and which makes it so difficult
+to trace this changing past. Nevertheless beneath all change rests
+the strong substructure of custom, religion, industry, and art well
+worth the attention of students.</p>
+
+<p>Starting with agriculture, we learn that &quot;among all the great
+groups of the 'natural' races, the Negroes are the best and keenest
+tillers of the ground. A minority despise agriculture and breed
+cattle; many combine both occupations. Among the genuine tillers
+the whole life of the family is taken up in agriculture, and hence
+the months are by preference called after the operations which they
+demand. Constant clearings change forests to fields, and the ground
+is manured with the ashes of the burnt thicket. In the middle of
+the fields rise the light watch-towers, from which a watchman scares
+grain-eating birds and other thieves. An African cultivated landscape
+is incomplete without barns. The rapidity with which, when
+newly imported, the most various forms of cultivation spread in
+Africa says much for the attention which is devoted to this branch
+of economy. Industries, again, which may be called agricultural, like
+the preparation of meal from millet and other crops, also from
+cassava, the fabrication of fermented drinks from grain, or the manufacture
+of cotton, are widely known and sedulously fostered.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a></p>
+
+<p>B&uuml;cher reminds us of the deep impression made upon travelers
+when they sight suddenly the well-attended fields of the natives on
+emerging from the primeval forests. &quot;In the more thickly populated
+parts of Africa these fields often stretch for many a mile, and the
+assiduous care of the Negro women shines in all the brighter light
+when we consider the insecurity of life, the constant feuds and
+pillages, in which no one knows whether he will in the end be able
+to harvest what he has sown. Livingstone gives somewhere a graphic
+description of the devastations wrought by slave hunts; the people
+were lying about slain, the dwellings were demolished; in the fields,
+however, the grain was ripening and there was none to harvest it.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a></p>
+
+<p>Sheep, goat, and chickens are domestic animals all over Africa,
+and Von Franzius considers Africa the home of the house cattle and
+the Negro as the original tamer. Northeastern Africa especially is
+noted for agriculture, cattle raising, and fruit culture. In the eastern
+Sudan, and among the great Bantu tribes extending from the Sudan
+down toward the south, cattle are evidences of wealth; one tribe,
+for instance, having so many oxen that each village had ten or
+twelve thousand head. Lenz (1884), Bouet-Williaumez (1848),
+Hecquard (1854), Bosman (1805), and Baker (1868) all bear witness
+to this, and Schweinfurth (1878) tells us of great cattle parks
+with two to three thousand head and of numerous agricultural and
+cattle-raising tribes. Von der Decken (1859-61) described the
+paradise of the dwellers about Kilimanjaro&mdash;the bananas, fruit, beans
+and peas, cattle raising with stall feed, the fertilizing of the fields,
+and irrigation. The Negroid Gallas have seven or eight cattle to
+each inhabitant. Livingstone bears witness to the busy cattle raising
+of the Bantus and Kaffirs. Hulub (1881) and Chapman (1868) tell
+of agriculture and fruit raising in South Africa. Shutt (1884) found
+the tribes in the southwestern basin of the Congo with sheep, swine,
+goats, and cattle. On this agricultural and cattle-raising economic
+foundation has arisen the organized industry of the artisan, the
+trader, and the manufacturer.</p>
+
+<p>While the Pygmies, still living in the age of wood, make no iron
+or stone implements, they seem to know how to make bark cloth
+and fiber baskets and simple outfits for hunting and fishing. Among
+the Bushmen the art of making weapons and working in hides is
+quite common. The Hottentots are further advanced in the industrial
+arts, being well versed in the manufacture of clothing, weapons,
+and utensils. In the dressing of skins and furs, as well as in the
+plaiting of cords and the weaving of mats, we find evidences of their
+workmanship. In addition they are good workers in iron and copper,
+using the sheepskin bellows for this purpose. The Ashantis of the
+Gold Coast know how to make &quot;cotton fabrics, turn and glaze
+earthenware, forge iron, fabricate instruments and arms, embroider
+rugs and carpets, and set gold and precious stones.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> Among the
+people of the banana zone we find rough basket work, coarse pottery,
+grass cloth, and spoons made of wood and ivory. The people
+of the millet zone, because of uncertain agricultural resources, quite
+generally turn to manufacturing. Charcoal is prepared by the smiths,
+iron is smelted, and numerous implements are manufactured. Among
+them we find axes, hatchets, hoes, knives, nails, scythes, and other
+hardware. Cloaks, shoes, sandals, shields, and water and oil vessels
+are made from leather which the natives have dressed. Soap is manufactured
+in the Bautschi district, glass is made, formed, and colored
+by the people of Nupeland, and in almost every city cotton is spun
+and woven and dyed. Barth tells us that the weaving of cotton was
+known in the Sudan as early as the eleventh century. There is also
+extensive manufacture of wooden ware, tools, implements, and
+utensils.</p>
+
+<p>In describing particular tribes, Baker and Felkin tell of smiths of
+wonderful adroitness, goatskins prepared better than a European
+tanner could do, drinking cups and kegs of remarkable symmetry,
+and polished clay floors. Schweinfurth says, &quot;The arrow and the
+spear heads are of the finest and most artistic work; their bristlelike
+barbs and points are baffling when one knows how few tools these
+smiths have.&quot; Excellent wood carving is found among the Bongo,
+Ovambo, and Makololo. Pottery and basketry and careful hut building
+distinguish many tribes. Cameron (1877) tells of villages so
+clean, with huts so artistic, that, save in book knowledge, the people
+occupied no low plane of civilization. The Mangbettu work both
+iron and copper. &quot;The masterpieces of the Monbutto [Mangbettu]
+smiths are the fine chains worn as ornaments, and which in perfection
+of form and fineness compare well with our best steel chains.&quot;
+Shubotz in 1911 called the Mangbettu &quot;a highly cultivated people&quot;
+in architecture and handicraft. Barth found copper exported from
+Central Africa in competition with European copper at Kano.</p>
+
+<p>Nor is the iron industry confined to the Sudan. About the Great
+Lakes and other parts of Central Africa it is widely distributed.
+Thornton says, &quot;This iron industry proves that the East Africans
+stand by no means on so low a plane of culture as many travelers
+would have us think. It is unnecessary to be reminded what a people
+without instruction, and with the rudest tools to do such skilled
+work, could do if furnished with steel tools.&quot; Arrows made east of
+Lake Nyanza were found to be nearly as good as the best Swedish
+iron in Birmingham. From Egypt to the Cape, Livingstone assures
+us that the mortar and pestle, the long-handled axe, the goatskin
+bellows, etc., have the same form, size, etc., pointing to a migration
+southwestward. Holub (1879), on the Zambesi, found fine workers
+in iron and bronze. The Bantu huts contain spoons, wooden dishes,
+milk pails, calabashes, handmills, and axes.</p>
+
+<p>Kaffirs and Zulus, in the extreme south, are good smiths, and the
+latter melt copper and tin together and draw wire from it, according
+to Kranz (1880). West of the Great Lakes, Stanley (1878) found
+wonderful examples of smith work: figures worked out of brass and
+much work in copper. Cameron (1878) saw vases made near Lake
+Tanganyika which reminded him of the amphorae in the Villa of
+Diomedes, Pompeii. Horn (1882) praises tribes here for iron and
+copper work. Livingstone (1871) passed thirty smelting houses in
+one journey, and Cameron came across bellows with valves, and
+tribes who used knives in eating. He found tribes which no Europeans
+had ever visited, who made ingots of copper in the form of
+the St. Andrew's cross, which circulated even to the coast. In the
+southern Congo basin iron and copper are worked; also wood and
+ivory carving and pottery making are pursued. In equatorial West
+Africa, Lenz and Du Chaillu (1861) found iron workers with
+charcoal, and also carvers of bone and ivory. Near Cape Lopez,
+H&uuml;bbe-Schleiden found tribes making ivory needles inlaid with
+ebony, while the arms and dishes of the Osaka are found among
+many tribes even as far as the Atlantic Ocean. Wilson (1856)
+found natives in West Africa who could repair American watches.</p>
+
+<p>Gold Coast Negroes make gold rings and chains, forming the
+metal into all kinds of forms. Soyaux says, &quot;The works in relief
+which natives of Lower Guinea carve with their own knives out
+of ivory and hippopotamus teeth are really entitled to be called
+works of art, and many wooden figures of fetishes in the Ethnographical
+Museum of Berlin show some understanding of the proportions
+of the human body.&quot; Great Bassam is called by Hecquard
+the &quot;Fatherland of Smiths.&quot; The Mandingo in the northwest are
+remarkable workers in iron, silver, and gold, we are told by Mungo
+Park (1800), while there is a mass of testimony as to the work in the
+north-west of Africa in gold, tin, weaving, and dyeing. Caille found
+the Negroes in Bambana manufacturing gunpowder (1824-28), and
+the Hausa make soap; so, too, Negroes in Uganda and other parts
+have made guns after seeing European models.</p>
+
+<p>So marked has been the work of Negro artisans and traders in the
+manufacture and exchange of iron implements that a growing number
+of archeologists are disposed to-day to consider the Negro as the
+originator of the art of smelting iron. Gabriel de Mortillet (1883)
+declared Negroes the only iron users among primitive people. Some
+would, therefore, argue that the Negro learned it from other folk,
+but Andree declares that the Negro developed his own &quot;Iron Kingdom.&quot;
+Schweinfurth, Von Luschan, Boaz, and others incline to the
+belief that the Negroes invented the smelting of iron and passed it
+on to the Egyptians and to modern Europe.</p>
+
+<p>Boaz says, &quot;It seems likely that at a time when the European was
+still satisfied with rude stone tools, the African had invented or
+adopted the art of smelting iron. Consider for a moment what this
+invention has meant for the advance of the human race. As long as
+the hammer, knife, saw, drill, the spade, and the hoe had to be
+chipped out of stone, or had to be made of shell or hard wood,
+effective industrial work was not impossible, but difficult. A great
+progress was made when copper found in large nuggets was hammered
+out into tools and later on shaped by melting, and when
+bronze was introduced; but the true advancement of industrial life
+did not begin until the hard iron was discovered. It seems not unlikely
+that the people who made the marvelous discovery of reducing
+iron ores by smelting were the African Negroes. Neither ancient
+Europe, nor ancient western Asia, nor ancient China knew the iron,
+and everything points to its introduction from Africa. At the time of
+the great African discoveries toward the end of the past century, the
+trade of the blacksmith was found all over Africa, from north to
+south and from east to west. With his simple bellows and a charcoal
+fire he reduced the ore that is found in many parts of the continent
+and forged implements of great usefulness and beauty.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a></p>
+
+<p>Torday has argued recently, &quot;I feel convinced by certain arguments
+that seem to prove to my satisfaction that we are indebted to
+the Negro for the very keystone of our modern civilization and that
+we owe him the discovery of iron. That iron could be discovered by
+accident in Africa seems beyond doubt: if this is so in other parts of
+the world, I am not competent to say. I will only remind you that
+Schweinfurth and Petherick record the fact that in the northern
+part of East Africa smelting furnaces are worked without artificial
+air current and, on the other hand, Stuhlmann and Kollmann found
+near Victoria Nyanza that the natives simply mixed powdered ore
+with charcoal and by introduction of air currents obtained the metal.
+These simple processes make it simple that iron should have been
+discovered in East or Central Africa. No bronze implements have
+ever been found in black Africa; had the Africans received iron
+from the Egyptians, bronze would have preceded this metal and all
+traces of it would not have disappeared. Black Africa was for a long
+time an exporter of iron, and even in the twelfth century exports to
+India and Java are recorded by Idrisi.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;It is difficult to imagine that Egypt should have obtained it from
+Europe where the oldest find (in Hallstadt) cannot be of an earlier
+period than 800 B.C., or from Asia, where iron is not known before
+1000 B.C., and where, in the times of Ashur Nazir Pal, it was still
+used concurrently with bronze, while iron beads have been only
+recently discovered by Messrs. G.A. Wainwright and Bushe Fox
+in a predynastic grave, and where a piece of this metal, possibly a
+tool, was found in the masonry of the great pyramid.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Negro is a born trader. Lenz says, &quot;our sharpest European
+merchants, even Jews and Armenians, can learn much of the cunning
+and trade of the Negroes.&quot; We know that the trade between
+Central Africa and Egypt was in the hands of Negroes for thousands
+of years, and in early days the cities of the Sudan and North Africa
+grew rich through Negro trade.</p>
+
+<p>Leo Africanus, writing of Timbuktu in the sixteenth century,
+said, &quot;It is a wonder to see what plentie of Merchandize is daily
+brought hither and how costly and sumptuous all things be....
+Here are many shops of artificers and merchants and especially of
+such as weave linnen and cloth.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Long before cotton weaving was a British industry, West Africa
+and the Sudan were supplying a large part of the world with cotton
+cloth. Even to-day cities like Kuka on the west shore of Lake Chad
+and Sokota are manufacturing centers where cotton is spun and
+woven, skins tanned, implements and iron ornaments made.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Travelers,&quot; says B&uuml;cher, &quot;have often observed this tribal or local
+development of industrial technique. 'The native villages,' relates
+a Belgian observer of the Lower Congo, 'are often situated in
+groups. Their activities are based upon reciprocality, and they are to
+a certain extent the complements of one another. Each group has its
+more or less strongly defined specialty. One carries on fishing; another
+produces palm wine; a third devotes itself to trade and is broker
+for the others, supplying the community with all products from outside;
+another has reserved to itself work in iron and copper, making
+weapons for war and hunting, various utensils, etc. None may, however,
+pass beyond the sphere of its own specialty without exposing
+itself to the risk of being universally proscribed.'&quot;</p>
+
+<p>From the Loango Coast, Bastian tells of a great number of centers
+for special products of domestic industry. &quot;Loango excels in mats
+and fishing baskets, while the carving of elephants' tusks is specially
+followed in Chilungo. The so-called Mafooka hats with raised patterns
+are drawn chiefly from the bordering country of Kakongo and
+Mayyume. In Bakunya are made potter's wares, which are in great
+demand; in Basanza, excellent swords; in Basundi, especially beautiful
+ornamented copper rings; on the Congo, clever wood and tablet
+carvings; in Loango, ornamented clothes and intricately designed
+mats; in Mayumbe, clothing of finely woven mat-work; in Kakongo,
+embroidered hats and also burnt clay pitchers; and among the
+Bayakas and Mantetjes, stuffs of woven grass.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a></p>
+
+<p>A native Negro student tells of the development of trade among
+the Ashanti. &quot;It was a part of the state system of Ashanti to encourage
+trade. The king once in every forty days, at the Adai custom,
+distributed among a number of chiefs various sums of gold
+dust with a charge to turn the same to good account. These chiefs
+then sent down to the coast caravans of tradesmen, some of whom
+would be their slaves, sometimes some two or three hundred strong,
+to barter ivory for European goods, or buy such goods with gold dust,
+which the king obtained from the royal alluvial workings. Down to
+1873 a constant stream of Ashanti traders might be seen daily
+wending their way to the merchants of the coast and back again,
+yielding more certain wealth and prosperity to the merchants of the
+Gold Coast and Great Britain than may be expected for some time
+yet to come from the mining industry and railway development put
+together. The trade chiefs would, in due time, render a faithful
+account to the king's stewards, being allowed to retain a fair portion
+of the profit. In the king's household, too, he would have special
+men who directly traded for him. Important chiefs carried on the
+same system of trading with the coast as did the king. Thus every
+member of the state, from the king downward, took an active interest
+in the promotion of trade and in the keeping open of trade routes
+into the interior.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a></p>
+
+<p>The trade thus encouraged and carried on in various parts of West
+Africa reached wide areas. From the Fish River to Kuka, and from
+Lagos to Zanzibar, the markets have become great centers of trade,
+the leading implement to civilization. Permanent markets are found
+in places like Ujiji and Nyangwe, where everything can be bought
+and sold from earthenware to wives; from the one to three thousand
+traders flocked here.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;How like is the market traffic, with all its uproar and sound of
+human voices, to one of our own markets! There is the same rivalry
+in praising the goods, the violent, brisk movements, the expressive
+gesture, the inquiring, searching glance, the changing looks of
+depreciation or triumph, of apprehension, delight, approbation. So
+says Stanley. Trade customs are not everywhere alike. If when
+negotiating with the Bangalas of Angola you do not quickly give
+them what they want, they go away and do not come back. Then
+perhaps they try to get possession of the coveted object by means of
+theft. It is otherwise with the Songos and Kiokos, who let you deal
+with them in the usual way. To buy even a small article you must
+go to the market; people avoid trading anywhere else. If a man says
+to another; 'Sell me this hen' or 'that fruit,' the answer as a rule will
+be, 'Come to the market place.' The crowd gives confidence to individuals,
+and the inviolability of the visitor to the market, and of the
+market itself, looks like an idea of justice consecrated by long
+practice. Does not this remind us of the old Germanic 'market
+place'?&quot;<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a></p>
+
+<p>Turning now to Negro family and social life we find, as among
+all primitive peoples, polygamy and marriage by actual or simulated
+purchase. Out of the family develops the typical African village
+organization, which is thus described in Ashanti by a native Gold
+Coast writer: &quot;The headman, as his name implies, is the head of a
+village community, a ward in a township, or of a family. His position
+is important, inasmuch as he has directly to deal with the composite
+elements of the general bulk of the people.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;It is the duty of the head of a family to bring up the members
+thereof in the way they should go; and by 'family' you must understand
+the entire lineal descendants of a materfamilias, if I may coin a
+convenient phrase. It is expected of him by the state to bring up his
+charge in the knowledge of matters political and traditional. It is
+his work to train up his wards in the ways of loyalty and obedience
+to the powers that be. He is held responsible for the freaks of recalcitrant
+members of his family, and he is looked to to keep them within
+bounds and to insist upon conformity of their party with the customs,
+laws, and traditional observances of the community. In early
+times he could send off to exile by sale a troublesome relative who
+would not observe the laws of the community.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;It is a difficult task that he is set to, but in this matter he has all-powerful
+helpers in the female members of the family, who will be
+either the aunts, or the sisters, or the cousins, or the nieces of the
+headman; and as their interests are identical with his in every particular,
+the good women spontaneously train up their children to implicit
+obedience to the headman, whose rule in the family thus becomes
+a simple and an easy matter. 'The hand that rocks the cradle
+rules the world.' What a power for good in the native state system
+would the mothers of the Gold Coast and Ashanti become by judicious
+training upon native lines!</p>
+
+<p>&quot;The headman is par excellence the judge of his family or ward.
+Not only is he called upon to settle domestic squabbles, but frequently
+he sits judge over more serious matters arising between one
+member of the ward and another; and where he is a man of ability
+and influence, men from other wards bring him their disputes to
+settle. When he so settles disputes, he is entitled to a hearing fee,
+which, however, is not so much as would be payable in the regular
+court of the king or chief.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;The headman is naturally an important member of his company
+and often is a captain thereof. When he combines the two
+offices of headman and captain, he renders to the community a very
+important service. For in times of war, where the members of the
+ward would not serve cordially under a stranger, they would in all
+cases face any danger with their own kinsman as their leader. The
+headman is always succeeded by his uterine brother, cousin, or
+nephew&mdash;the line of succession, that is to say, following the customary
+law.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a></p>
+
+<p>We may contrast this picture with the more warlike Bantus of
+Southeast Africa. Each tribe lived by itself in a town with from
+five to fifteen thousand inhabitants, surrounded by gardens of millet,
+beans, and watermelon. Beyond these roamed their cattle, sheep, and
+goats. Their religion was ancestor worship with sacrifice to spirits
+and the dead, and some of the tribes made mummies of the corpses
+and clothed them for burial. They wove cloth of cotton and bark,
+they carved wood and built walls of unhewn stone. They had a
+standing military organization, and the tribes had their various
+totems, so that they were known as the Men of Iron, the Men of the
+Sun, the Men of the Serpents, Sons of the Corn Cleaners, and the
+like. Their system of common law was well conceived and there
+were organized tribunals of justice. In difficult cases precedents
+were sought and learned antiquaries consulted. At the age of fifteen
+or sixteen the boys were circumcised and formed into guilds. The
+land was owned by the tribe and apportioned to the chief by each
+family, and the main wealth of the tribe was in its cattle.</p>
+
+<p>In general, among the African clans the idea of private property
+was but imperfectly developed and never included land. The main
+mass of visible wealth belonged to the family and clan rather than
+to the individual; only in the matter of weapons and ornaments was
+exclusive private ownership generally recognized.</p>
+
+<p>The government, vested in fathers and chiefs, varied in different
+tribes from absolute despotisms to limited monarchies, almost republican.
+Viewing the Basuto National Assembly in South Africa,
+Lord Bryce recently wrote, &quot;The resemblance to the primary assemblies
+of the early peoples of Europe is close enough to add another
+to the arguments which discredit the theory that there is any such
+thing as an Aryan type of institutions.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a></p>
+
+<p>While women are sold into marriage throughout Africa, nevertheless
+their status is far removed from slavery. In the first place the
+tracing of relationships through the female line, which is all but
+universal in Africa, gives the mother great influence. Parental affection
+is very strong, and throughout Negro Africa the mother is the
+most influential councilor, even in cases of tyrants like Chaka or
+Mutesa.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;No mother can love more tenderly or be more deeply beloved
+than the Negro mother. Robin tells of a slave in Martinique who,
+with his savings, freed his mother instead of himself. 'Everywhere in
+Africa,' writes Mungo Park, 'I have noticed that no greater affront
+can be offered a Negro than insulting his mother. 'Strike me,' cried
+a Mandingo to his enemy, 'but revile not my mother!' ... The
+Herero swears 'By my mother's tears!'.. The Angola Negroes have
+a saying, 'As a mist lingers on the swamps, so lingers the love of
+father and mother.'&quot;<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a></p>
+
+<p>Black queens have often ruled African tribes. Among the Ba-Lolo,
+we are told, women take part in public assemblies where all-important
+questions are discussed. The system of educating children
+among such tribes as the Yoruba is worthy of emulation by many
+more civilized peoples.</p>
+
+<p>Close knit with the family and social organization comes the religious
+life of the Negro. The religion of Africa is the universal animism
+or fetishism of primitive peoples, rising to polytheism and approaching
+monotheism chiefly, but not wholly, as a result of
+Christian and Islamic missions. Of fetishism there is much misapprehension.
+It is not mere senseless degradation. It is a philosophy
+of life. Among primitive Negroes there can be, as Miss Kingsley reminds
+us, no such divorce of religion from practical life as is common
+in civilized lands. Religion is life, and fetish an expression of
+the practical recognition of dominant forces in which the Negro
+lives. To him all the world is spirit. Miss Kingsley says, &quot;If you
+want, for example, to understand the position of man in nature
+according to fetish, there is, as far as I know, no clearer statement
+of it made than is made by Goethe in his superb 'Prometheus.'&quot;<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a>
+Fetish is a severely logical way of accounting for the world in terms
+of good and malignant spirits.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;It is this power of being able logically to account for everything
+that is, I believe, at the back of the tremendous permanency of fetish
+in Africa, and the cause of many of the relapses into it by Africans
+converted to other religions; it is also the explanation of the fact that
+white men who live in the districts where death and danger are
+everyday affairs, under a grim pall of boredom, are liable to believe
+in fetish, though ashamed of so doing. For the African, whose mind
+has been soaked in fetish during his early and most impressionable
+years, the voice of fetish is almost irresistible when affliction comes
+to him.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a></p>
+
+<p>Ellis tells us of the spirit belief of the Ewe people, who believe
+that men and all nature have the indwelling &quot;Kra,&quot; which is immortal;
+that the man himself after death may exist as a ghost, which
+is often conceived of as departed from the &quot;Kra,&quot; a shadowy continuing
+of the man. Bryce, speaking of the Kaffirs of South Africa,
+says, &quot;To the Kaffirs, as to the most savage races, the world was full
+of spirits&mdash;spirits of the rivers, the mountains, and the woods. Most
+important were the ghosts of the dead, who had power to injure or
+help the living, and who were, therefore, propitiated by offerings at
+stated periods, as well as on occasions when their aid was especially
+desired. This kind of worship, the worship once most generally diffused
+throughout the world, and which held its ground among the
+Greeks and Italians in the most flourishing period of ancient civilization,
+as it does in China and Japan to-day, was, and is, virtually the
+religion of the Kaffirs.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a></p>
+
+<p>African religion does not, however, stop with fetish, but, as in the
+case of other peoples, tends toward polytheism and monotheism.
+Among the Yoruba, for instance, Frobenius shows that religion and
+city-state go hand in hand.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;The first experienced glance will here detect the fact that this
+nation originally possessed a clear and definite organization so duly
+ordered and so logical that we but seldom meet with its like among
+all the peoples of the earth. And the basic idea of every clan's progeniture
+is a powerful God; the legitimate order in which the
+descendants of a particular clan unite in marriage to found new
+families, the essential origin of every new-born babe's descent in the
+founder of its race and its consideration as a part of the God in
+Chief; the security with which the newly wedded wife not only may,
+but should, minister to her own God in an unfamiliar home.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Yoruba have a legend of a dying divinity. &quot;This people ...
+give evidence of a generalized system; a theocratic scheme, a well-conceived
+perceptible organization, reared in rhythmically proportioned
+manner.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Miss Kingsley says, &quot;The African has a great Over God.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> Nassau,
+the missionary, declares, &quot;After more than forty years' residence
+among these tribes, fluently using their language, conversant with
+their customs, dwelling intimately in their huts, associating with
+them in the various relations of teacher, pastor, friend, master,
+fellow-traveler, and guest, and in my special office as missionary,
+searching after their religious thought (and therefore being allowed
+a deeper entrance into the arcana of their soul than would be accorded
+to a passing explorer), I am able unhesitatingly to say that
+among all the multitude of degraded ones with whom I have met, I
+have seen or heard of none whose religious thought was only a
+superstition.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Standing in the village street, surrounded by a company whom
+their chief has courteously summoned at my request, when I say to
+him, 'I have come to speak to your people,' I do not need to begin
+by telling them that there is a God. Looking on that motley assemblage
+of villagers,&mdash;the bold, gaunt cannibal with his armament of
+gun, spear, and dagger; the artisan with rude adze in hand, or hands
+soiled at the antique bellows of the village smithy; women who have
+hasted from their kitchen fire with hands white with the manioc
+dough or still grasping the partly scaled fish; and children checked
+in their play with tiny bow and arrow or startled from their dusty
+street pursuit of dog or goat,&mdash;I have yet to be asked, 'Who is
+God?'&quot;<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a></p>
+
+<p>The basis of Egyptian religion was &quot;of a purely Nigritian character,&quot;<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a>
+and in its developed form Sudanese tribal gods were invoked
+and venerated by the priests. In Upper Egypt, near the confines of
+Ethiopia, paintings repeatedly represent black priests conferring on
+red Egyptian priests the instruments and symbols of priesthood. In
+the Sudan to-day Frobenius distinguishes four principal religions:
+first, earthly ancestor worship; next, the social cosmogony of the
+Atlantic races; third, the religion of the Bori, and fourth, Islam. The
+Bori religion spreads from Nubia as far as the Hausa, and from Lake
+Chad in the Niger as far as the Yoruba. It is the religion of possession
+and has been connected by some with Asiatic influences.</p>
+
+<p>From without have come two great religious influences, Islam and
+Christianity. Islam came by conquest, trade, and proselytism. As a
+conqueror it reached Egypt in the seventh century and had by the
+end of the fourteenth century firm footing in the Egyptian Sudan.
+It overran the central Sudan by the close of the seventeenth century,
+and at the beginning of the nineteenth century had swept over
+Senegambia and the whole valley of the Niger down to the Gulf of
+Guinea. On the east Islam approached as a trader in the eighth century;
+it spread into Somaliland and overran Nubia in the fourteenth
+century. To-day Islam dominates Africa north of ten degrees north
+latitude and is strong between five and ten degrees north latitude.
+In the east it reaches below the Victoria Nyanza.</p>
+
+<p>Christianity early entered Africa; indeed, as Mommsen says, &quot;It
+was through Africa that Christianity became the religion of the
+world. Tertullian and Cyprian were from Carthage, Arnobius from
+Sicca Veneria, Lactantius, and probably in like manner Minucius
+Felix, in spite of their Latin names, were natives of Africa, and not
+less so Augustine. In Africa the Church found its most zealous confessors
+of the faith and its most gifted defenders.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Africa referred to here, however, was not Negroland, but
+Africa above the desert, where Negro blood was represented in the
+ancient Mediterranean race and by intercourse across the desert. On
+the other hand Christianity was early represented in the valley of
+the Nile under &quot;the most holy pope and patriarch of the great city
+of Alexandria and of all of the land of Egypt, of Jerusalem, the
+holy city, of Nubia, Abyssinia, and Pentapolis, and all the preaching
+of St. Mark.&quot; This patriarchate had a hundred bishoprics in
+the fourth century and included thousands of black Christians.
+Through it the Cross preceded the Crescent in some of the remotest
+parts of black Africa.</p>
+
+<p>All these beginnings were gradually overthrown by Islam except
+among the Copts in Egypt, and in Abyssinia. The Portuguese in the
+sixteenth century began to replant the Christian religion and for a
+while had great success, both on the east and west coasts. Roman
+Catholic enterprise halted in the eighteenth century and the Protestants
+began. To-day the west coast is studded with English and German
+missions, South Africa is largely Christian through French and
+English influence, and the region about the Great Lakes is becoming
+christianized. The Roman Catholics have lately increased their activities,
+and above all the Negroes of America have entered with
+their own churches and with the curiously significant &quot;Ethiopian&quot;
+movement.</p>
+
+<p>Coming now to other spiritual aspects of African culture, we can
+speak at present only in a fragmentary way. Roughly speaking,
+Africa can be divided into two language zones: north of the fifth
+degree of north latitude is the zone of diversity, with at least a hundred
+groups of widely divergent languages; south of the line there
+is one minor language (Bushman-Hottentot), spoken by less than
+fifty thousand people, and elsewhere the predominant Bantu tongue
+with its various dialects, spoken by at least fifty million. The Bantu
+tongue, which thus rules all Central, West, and South Africa, is an
+agglutinative tongue which makes especial use of prefixes. The hundreds
+of Negro tongues or dialects in the north represent most probably
+the result of war and migration and the breaking up of ancient
+centers of culture. In Abyssinia and the great horn of East Africa
+the influence of Semitic tongues is noted. Despite much effort on
+the part of students, it has been impossible to show any Asiatic origin
+for the Egyptian language. As Sergi maintains, &quot;everything
+favors an African origin.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> The most brilliant suggestion of modern
+days links together the Egyptian of North Africa and the Hottentot
+and Bushmen tongues of South Africa.</p>
+
+<p>Language was reduced to writing among the Egyptians and Ethiopians
+and to some extent elsewhere in Africa. Over 100 manuscripts
+of Ethiopian and Ethiopic-Arabian literature are extant, including a
+version of the Bible and historical chronicles. The Arabic was used
+as the written tongue of the Sudan, and Negroland has given us in
+this tongue many chronicles and other works of black authors. The
+greatest of these, the Epic of the Sudan (Tarikh-es-Soudan), deserves
+to be placed among the classics of all literature. In other
+parts of Africa there was no written language, but there was, on the
+other hand, an unusual perfection of oral tradition through bards,
+and extraordinary efficiency in telegraphy by drum and horn.</p>
+
+<p>The folklore and proverbs of the African tribes are exceedingly
+rich. Some of these have been made familiar to English writers
+through the work of &quot;Uncle Remus.&quot; Others have been collected by
+Johnston, Ellis, and Theal.</p>
+
+<p>A black bard of our own day has described the onslaught of the
+Matabili in poetry of singular force and beauty:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span>They saw the clouds ascend from the plains:<br /></span>
+<span>It was the smoke of burning towns.<br /></span>
+<span>The confusion of the whirlwind<br /></span>
+<span>Was in the heart of the great chief of the blue-colored cattle.<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">The shout was raised,<br /></span>
+<span class="i4">&quot;They are friends!&quot;<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">But they shouted again,<br /></span>
+<span class="i4">&quot;They are foes!&quot;<br /></span>
+<span>Till their near approach proclaimed them Matabili.<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">The men seized their arms,<br /></span>
+<span>And rushed out as if to chase the antelope.<br /></span>
+<span>The onset was as the voice of lightning,<br /></span>
+<span>And their javelins as the shaking of the forest in the autumn storm.<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>There can be no doubt of the Negro's deep and delicate sense of
+beauty in form, color, and sound. Soyaux says of African industry,
+&quot;Whoever denies to them independent invention and individual
+taste in their work either shuts his eyes intentionally before perfectly
+evident facts, or lack of knowledge renders him an incompetent
+judge.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> M. Rutot had lately told us how the Negro race
+brought art and sculpture to pre-historic Europe. The bones of the
+European Negroids are almost without exception found in company
+with drawings and sculpture in high and low relief; some of their
+sculptures, like the Wellendorff &quot;Venus,&quot; are unusually well finished
+for primitive man. So, too, the painting and carving of the
+Bushmen and their forerunners in South Africa has drawn the admiration
+of students. The Negro has been prolific in the invention
+of musical instruments and has given a new and original music to
+the western world.</p>
+
+<p>Schweinfurth, who has preserved for us much of the industrial art
+of the Negroes, speaks of their delight in the production of works of
+art for the embellishment and convenience of life. Frobenius expressed
+his astonishment at the originality of the African in the Yoruba
+temple which he visited. &quot;The lofty veranda was divided from
+the passageway by fantastically carved and colored pillars. On the
+pillars were sculptured knights, men climbing trees, women, gods,
+and mythical beings. The dark chamber lying beyond showed a
+splendid red room with stone hatchets, wooden figures, cowry beads,
+and jars. The whole picture, the columns carved in colors in front
+of the colored altar, the old man sitting in the circle of those who
+reverenced him, the open scaffolding of ninety rafters, made a magnificent
+impression.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Germans have found, in Kamarun, towns built, castellated,
+and fortified in a manner that reminds one of the prehistoric cities
+of Crete. The buildings and fortifications of Zymbabwe have already
+been described and something has been said of the art of Benin,
+with its brass and bronze and ivory. All the work of Benin in bronze
+and brass was executed by casting, and by methods so complicated
+that it would be no easy task for a modern European craftsman to
+imitate them.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps no race has shown in its earlier development a more magnificent
+art impulse than the Negro, and the student must not forget
+how far Negro genius entered into the art in the valley of the
+Nile from Meroe and Nepata down to the great temples of Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>Frobenius has recently directed the world's attention to art in
+West Africa. Quartz and granite he found treated with great dexterity.
+But more magnificent than the stone monument is the proof
+that at some remote era glass was made and molded in Yorubaland
+and that the people here were brilliant in the production of terra-cotta
+images. The great mass of potsherds, lumps of glass, heaps of
+slag, etc., &quot;proves, at all events, that the glass industry flourished in
+this locality in ages past. It is plain that the glass beads found to
+have been so very common in Africa were not only not imported,
+but were actually manufactured in great quantities at home.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>The terra-cotta pieces are &quot;remains of another ancient and fine
+type of art&quot; and were &quot;eloquent of a symmetry, a vitality, a delicacy
+of form, and practically a reminiscence of the ancient Greeks.&quot; The
+antique bronze head Frobenius describes as &quot;a head of marvelous
+beauty, wonderfully cast,&quot; and &quot;almost equal in beauty and, at least,
+no less noble in form, and as ancient as the terra-cotta heads.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a></p>
+
+<p>In a park of monuments Frobenius saw the celebrated forge and
+hammer: a mighty mass of iron, like a falling drop in shape, and a
+block of quartz fashioned like a drum. Frobenius thinks these were
+relics dating from past ages of culture, when the manipulation of
+quartz and granite was thoroughly understood and when iron manipulation
+gave evidence of a skill not met with to-day.</p>
+
+<p>Even when we contemplate such revolting survivals of savagery
+as cannibalism we cannot jump too quickly at conclusions. Cannibalism
+is spread over many parts of Negro Africa, yet the very tribes
+who practice cannibalism show often other traits of industry and
+power. &quot;These cannibal Bassonga were, according to the types we
+met with, one of those rare nations of the African interior which
+can be classed with the most esthetic and skilled, most discreet and
+intelligent of all those generally known to us as the so-called natural
+races. Before the Arabic and European invasion they did not dwell
+in 'hamlets,' but in towns with twenty or thirty thousand inhabitants,
+in towns whose highways were shaded by avenues of splendid palms
+planted at regular intervals and laid out with the symmetry of
+colonnades. Their pottery would be fertile in suggestion to every
+art craftsman in Europe. Their weapons of iron were so perfectly
+fashioned that no industrial art from abroad could improve upon
+their workmanship. The iron blades were cunningly ornamented
+with damascened copper, and the hilts artistically inlaid with the
+same metal. Moreover, they were most industrious and capable husbandmen,
+whose careful tillage of the suburbs made them able competitors
+of any gardener in Europe. Their sexual and parental relations
+evidenced an amount of tact and delicacy of feelings unsurpassed
+among ourselves, either in the simplicity of the country or the
+refinements of the town. Originally their political and municipal
+system was organized on the lines of a representative republic. True,
+it is on record that these well-governed towns often waged an internecine
+warfare; but in spite of this it had been their invariable
+custom from time immemorial, even in times of strife, to keep the
+trade routes open and to allow their own and foreign merchants to
+go their ways unharmed. And the commerce of these nations ebbed
+and flowed along a road of unknown age, running from Itimbiri to
+Batubenge, about six hundred miles in length. This highway was
+destroyed by the 'missionaries of civilization' from Arabia only toward
+the close of the eighteenth century. But even in my own time
+there were still smiths who knew the names of places along that
+wonderful trade route driven through the heart of the 'impenetrable
+forests of the Congo.' For every scrap of imported iron was carried
+over it.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a></p>
+
+<p>In disposition the Negro is among the most lovable of men. Practically
+all the great travelers who have spent any considerable time in
+Africa testify to this and pay deep tribute to the kindness with
+which they were received. One has but to remember the classic
+story of Mungo Park, the strong expressions of Livingstone, the
+words of Stanley and hundreds of others to realize this.</p>
+
+<p>Ceremony and courtesy mark Negro life. Livingstone again and
+again reminds us of &quot;true African dignity.&quot; &quot;When Ilifian men or
+women salute each other, be it with a plain and easy curtsey (which
+is here the simplest form adopted), or kneeling down, or throwing
+oneself upon the ground, or kissing the dust with one's forehead, no
+matter which, there is yet a deliberateness, a majesty, a dignity, a
+devoted earnestness in the manner of its doing, which brings to light
+with every gesture, with every fold of clothing, the deep significance
+and essential import of every single action. Everyone may, without
+too greatly straining his attention, notice the very striking precision
+and weight with which the upper and lower native classes observe
+these niceties of intercourse.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a></p>
+
+<p>All this does not mean that the African Negro is not human with
+the all-too-well-known foibles of humanity. Primitive life among
+them is, after all, as bare and cruel as among primitive Germans or
+Chinese, but it is not more so, and the more we study the Negro the
+more we realize that we are dealing with a normal human stock
+which under reasonable conditions has developed and will develop
+in the same lines as other men. Why is it, then, that so much of
+misinformation and contempt is widespread concerning Africa and
+its people, not simply among the unthinking mass, but among men
+of education and knowledge?</p>
+
+<p>One reason lies undoubtedly in the connotation of the term
+&quot;Negro.&quot; In North America a Negro may be seven-eights white,
+since the term refers to any person of Negro descent. If we use the
+term in the same sense concerning the inhabitants of the rest of
+world, we may say truthfully that Negroes have been among the
+leaders of civilization in every age of the world's history from ancient
+Babylon to modern America; that they have contributed wonderful
+gifts in art, industry, political organization, and religion, and that
+they are doing the same to-day in all parts of the world.</p>
+
+<p>In sharp contrast to this usage the term &quot;Negro&quot; in Africa has
+been more and more restricted until some scientists, late in the last
+century, declared that the great mass of the black and brown
+people of Africa were not Negroes at all, and that the &quot;real&quot; Negro
+dwells in a small space between the Niger and the Senegal. Ratzel
+says, &quot;If we ask what justifies so narrow a limitation, we find that
+the hideous Negro type, which the fancy of observers once saw all
+over Africa, but which, as Livingstone says, is really to be seen only
+as a sign in front of tobacco shops, has on closer inspection evaporated
+from all parts of Africa, to settle no one knows how in just
+this region. If we understand that an extreme case may have been
+taken for the genuine and pure form, even so we do not comprehend
+the ground of its geographical limitation and location; for wherever
+dark, woolly-haired men dwell, this ugly type also crops up. We
+are here in the presence of a refinement of science which to an unprejudiced
+eye will hardly hold water.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a></p>
+
+<p>In this restricted sense the Negro has no history, culture, or
+ability, for the simple fact that such human beings as have history
+and evidence culture and ability are not Negroes! Between these
+two extreme definitions, with unconscious adroitness, the most
+extraordinary and contradictory conclusions have been reached.</p>
+
+<p>Let it therefore be said, once for all, that racial inferiority is not
+the cause of anti-Negro prejudice. Boaz, the anthropologist, says,
+&quot;An unbiased estimate of the anthropological evidence so far brought
+forward does not permit us to countenance the belief in a racial inferiority
+which would unfit an individual of the Negro race to take
+his part in modern civilization. We do not know of any demand
+made on the human body or mind in modern life that anatomical or
+ethnological evidence would prove to be beyond the powers of the
+Negro.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a></p>
+
+<p>&quot;We have every reason to suppose that all races are capable,
+under proper guidance, of being fitted into the complex scheme of
+our modern civilization, and the policy of artificially excluding them
+from its benefits is as unjustifiable scientifically as it is ethically abhorrent.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a>
+What is, then, this so-called &quot;instinctive&quot; modern prejudice
+against black folk?</p>
+
+<p>Lord Bryce says of the intermingling of blacks and whites in
+South America, &quot;The ease with which the Spaniards have intermingled
+by marriage with the Indian tribes&mdash;and the Portuguese
+have done the like, not only with the Indians, but with the more
+physically dissimilar Negroes&mdash;shows that race repugnance is no
+such constant and permanent factor in human affairs as members
+of the Teutonic peoples are apt to assume. Instead of being, as we
+Teutons suppose, the rule in the matter, we are rather the exception,
+for in the ancient world there seems to have been little race
+repulsion.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>In nearly every age and land men of Negro descent have distinguished
+themselves. In literature there is Terence in Rome,
+Nosseyeb and Antar in Arabia, Es-Sa'di in the Sudan, Pushkin in
+Russia, Dumas in France, Al Kanemi in Spain, Heredia in the West
+Indies, and Dunbar in the United States, not to mention the alleged
+Negro strain in &AElig;sop and Robert Browning. As rulers and warriors
+we remember such Negroes as Queen Nefertari and Amenhotep III
+among many others in Egypt; Candace and Ergamenes in Ethiopia;
+Mansa Musa, Sonni Ali, and Mohammed Askai in the Sudan; Diaz
+in Brazil, Toussaint L'Ouverture in Hayti, Hannivalov in Russia,
+Sakanouye Tamuramaro in Japan, the elder Dumas in France,
+Cazembe and Chaka among the Bantu, and Menelik, of Abyssinia;
+the numberless black leaders of India, and the mulatto strain of
+Alexander Hamilton. In music and art we recall Bridgewater, the
+friend of Beethoven, and the unexplained complexion of Beethoven's
+own father; Coleridge-Taylor in England, Tanner in America, Gomez
+in Spain; Ira Aldridge, the actor, and Johnson, Cook, and Burleigh,
+who are making the new American syncopated music. In the
+Church we know that Negro blood coursed in the veins of many of
+the Catholic African fathers, if not in certain of the popes; and
+there were in modern days Benoit of Palermo, St. Benedict, Bishop
+Crowther, the Mahdi who drove England from the Sudan, and
+Americans like Allen, Lot Carey, and Alexander Crummell. In science,
+discovery, and invention the Negroes claim Lislet Geoffroy of
+the French Academy, Latino and Amo, well known in European
+university circles; and in America the explorers Dorantes and Henson;
+Banneker, the almanac maker; Wood, the telephone improver;
+McCoy, inventor of modern lubrication; Matseliger, who revolutionized
+shoemaking. Here are names representing all degrees of
+genius and talent from the mediocre to the highest, but they are
+strong human testimony to the ability of this race.</p>
+
+<p>We must, then, look for the origin of modern color prejudice not
+to physical or cultural causes, but to historic facts. And we shall
+find the answer in modern Negro slavery and the slave trade.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> &quot;Some authors write that the Ethiopians paint the devil white, in disdain of
+our complexions.&quot;&mdash;Ludolf: <i>History of Ethiopia</i>, p. 72.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> Ripley: <i>Races of Europe</i>, pp. 58, 62.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> Denniker: <i>Races of Men</i>, p. 63.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> G. Finot: <i>Race Prejudice</i>. F. Herz: <i>Moderne Rassentheorien</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> Ratzel: quoted in Spiller: <i>Inter-Racial Problems</i>, p. 31.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> Spiller: <i>Inter-Racial Problems</i>, p. 35.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> Ratzel: <i>History of Mankind</i>, II, 380 ff.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> <i>Industrial Evolution</i>, p. 47.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> These and other references in this chapter are from Schneider: Culturf&auml;higkeit
+des Negers.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> Atlanta University Leaflet, No. 19.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> <i>Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute</i>, XLIII, 414, 415. Cf. also
+<i>The Crisis</i>, Vol. IX, p. 234.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> B&uuml;cher: <i>Industrial Revolution</i> (tr. by Wickett), pp. 57-58.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> Hayford: <i>Native Institutions</i>, pp. 95-96.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> Ratzel, II, 376.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> Hayford: <i>Native Institutions</i>, pp. 76 ff.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> <i>Impressions of South Africa</i>, 3d ed., p. 352.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> William Schneider.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> <i>West African Studies</i>, Chap. V.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> <i>Impressions of South Africa.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> Frobenius: <i>Voice of Africa</i>, Vol. I.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> <i>West African Studies</i>, p. 107.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> Nassau: <i>Fetishism in West Africa</i>, p. 36.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> <i>Encyclop&aelig;dia Britannica</i>, 9th ed., XX, 362.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> <i>The African Provinces</i>, II, 345.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> <i>Mediterranean Race</i>, p. 10.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> Stowe: <i>Native Races</i>, etc., pp. 553-554.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> Quoted in Schneider.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> Frobenius: <i>Voice of Africa</i>, Vol. I, Chap. XIV.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> Frobenius: <i>Voice of Africa</i>, Vol. I.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> Frobenius: <i>Voice of Africa</i>, I, 14-15.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> Frobenius: <i>Voice of Africa</i>, I, 272.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> Ratzel: <i>History of Mankind</i>, II, 313.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> Atlanta University Publications, No. 11.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> Robert Lowie in the <i>New Review</i>, Sept., 1914.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="IX_THE_TRADE_IN_MEN" id="IX_THE_TRADE_IN_MEN" />IX <br /><br />THE TRADE IN MEN</h2>
+
+
+<p>Color was never a badge of slavery in the ancient or medieval
+world, nor has it been in the modern world outside of Christian
+states. Homer sings of a black man, a &quot;reverend herald&quot;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span>Of visage solemn, sad, but sable hue,<br /></span>
+<span>Short, woolly curls, o'erfleeced his bending head,...<br /></span>
+<span>Eurybiates, in whose large soul alone,<br /></span>
+<span>Ulysses viewed an image of his own.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Greece and Rome had their chief supplies of slaves from Europe
+and Asia. Egypt enslaved races of all colors, and if there were more
+blacks than others among her slaves, there were also more blacks
+among her nobles and Pharaohs, and both facts are explained by her
+racial origin and geographical position. The fall of Rome led to a
+cessation of the slave trade, but after a long interval came the white
+slave trade of the Saracens and Moors, and finally the modern trade
+in Negroes.</p>
+
+<p>Slavery as it exists universally among primitive people is a system
+whereby captives in war are put to tasks about the homes and in the
+fields, thus releasing the warriors for systematic fighting and the
+women for leisure. Such slavery has been common among all peoples
+and was wide-spread in Africa. The relative number of African
+slaves under these conditions was small and the labor not hard; they
+were members of the family and might and did often rise to high
+position in the tribe.</p>
+
+<p>Remembering that in the fifteenth century there was no great disparity
+between the civilization of Negroland and that of Europe,
+what made the striking difference in subsequent development? European
+civilization, cut off by physical barriers from further incursions
+of barbaric races, settled more and more to systematic industry and
+to the domination of one religion; African culture and industries were
+threatened by powerful barbarians from the west and central regions
+of the continent and by the Moors in the north, and Islam had only
+partially converted the leading peoples.</p>
+
+<p>When, therefore, a demand for workmen arose in America, European
+exportation was limited by religious ties and economic stability.
+African exportation was encouraged not simply by the Christian attitude
+toward heathen, but also by the Moslem enmity toward the
+unconverted Negroes. Two great modern religions, therefore, agreed
+at least in the policy of enslaving heathen blacks, while the overthrow
+of black Askias by the Moors at Tenkadibou brought that
+economic chaos among the advanced Negro peoples and movement
+among the more barbarous tribes which proved of prime advantage
+to the development of a systematic trade in men.</p>
+
+<p>The modern slave trade began with the Mohammedan conquests
+in Africa, when heathen Negroes were seized to supply the harems,
+and as soldiers and servants. They were bought from the masters
+and seized in war, until the growing wealth and luxury of the conquerors
+demanded larger numbers. Then Negroes from the Egyptian
+Sudan, Abyssinia, and Zanzibar began to pass into Arabia, Persia,
+and India in increased numbers. As Negro kingdoms and tribes rose
+to power they found the slave trade lucrative and natural, since the
+raids in which slaves were captured were ordinary inter-tribal wars.
+It was not until the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries that the demand
+for slaves in Christian lands made slaves the object, and not
+the incident, of African wars.</p>
+
+<p>In Mohammedan countries there were gleams of hope in slavery.
+In fiction and in truth the black slave had a chance. Once converted
+to Islam, he became a brother to the best, and the brotherhood of the
+faith was not the sort of idle lie that Christian slave masters made
+it. In Arabia black leaders arose like Antar; in India black slaves
+carved out principalities where their descendants still rule.</p>
+
+<p>Some Negro slaves were brought to Europe by the Spaniards in
+the fourteenth century, and a small trade was continued by the Portuguese,
+who conquered territory from the &quot;tawny&quot; Moors of North
+Africa in the early fifteenth century. Later, after their severe repulse
+at Al-Kasr-Al-Kabu, the Portuguese began to creep down the west
+coast in quest of trade. They reached the River of Gold in 1441,
+and their story is that their leader seized certain free Moors and the
+next year exchanged them for ten black slaves, a target of hide,
+ostrich eggs, and some gold dust. The trade was easily justified on
+the ground that the Moors were Mohammedans and refused to be
+converted to Christianity, while heathen Negroes would be better
+subjects for conversion and stronger laborers. In the next few years
+a small number of Negroes continued to be imported into Spain
+and Portugal as servants. We find, for instance, in 1474, that Negro
+slaves were common in Seville. There is a letter from Ferdinand
+and Isabella in the year 1474 to a celebrated Negro, Juan de Valladolid,
+commonly called the &quot;Negro Count&quot; (El Conde Negro), nominating
+him to the office of &quot;mayoral of the Negroes&quot; in Seville.
+The slaves were apparently treated kindly, allowed to keep their
+own dances and festivals, and to have their own chief, who represented
+them in the courts, as against their own masters, and settled
+their private quarrels.</p>
+
+<p>Between 1455 and 1492 little mention is made of slaves in the
+trade with Africa. Columbus is said to have suggested Negroes for
+America, but Ferdinand and Isabella refused. Nevertheless, by 1501,
+we have the first incidental mention of Negroes going to America in
+a declaration that Negro slaves &quot;born in the power of Christians
+were to be allowed to pass to the Indies, and the officers of the royal
+revenue were to receive the money to be paid for their permits.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>About 1501 Ovando, Governor of Spanish America, was objecting
+to Negro slaves and &quot;solicited that no Negro slaves should be sent to
+Hispaniola, for they fled amongst the Indians and taught them bad
+customs, and never could be captured.&quot; Nevertheless a letter from
+the king to Ovando, dated Segovia, the fifteenth of September, 1505,
+says, &quot;I will send more Negro slaves as you request; I think there
+may be a hundred. At each time a trustworthy person will go with
+them who may have some share in the gold they may collect and
+may promise them ease if they work well.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> There is a record of a
+hundred slaves being sent out this very year, and Diego Columbus
+was notified of fifty to be sent from Seville for the mines in 1510.</p>
+
+<p>After this time frequent notices show that Negroes were common
+in the new world.<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> When Pizarro, for instance, had been slain in
+Peru, his body was dragged to the cathedral by two Negroes. After
+the battle of Anaquito the head of the viceroy was cut off by a Negro,
+and during the great earthquake in Guatemala a most remarkable
+figure was a gigantic Negro seen in various parts of the city.
+Nunez had thirty Negroes with him on the top of the Sierras, and
+there was rumor of an aboriginal tribe of Negroes in South America.
+One of the last acts of King Ferdinand was to urge that no more
+Negroes be sent to the West Indies, but under Charles V, Bishop
+Las Casas drew up a plan of assisted migration to America and asked
+in 1517 the right for immigrants to import twelve Negro slaves, in
+return for which the Indians were to be freed.</p>
+
+<p>Las Casas, writing in his old age, owns his error: &quot;This advice that
+license should be given to bring Negro slaves to these lands, the
+Clerigo Casas first gave, not considering the injustice with which
+the Portuguese take them and make them slaves; which advice,
+after he had apprehended the nature of the thing, he would not
+have given for all he had in the world. For he always held that
+they had been made slaves unjustly and tyrannically; for the same
+reason holds good of them as of the Indians<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a>.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>As soon as the plan was broached a Savoyard, Lorens de Gomenot,
+Governor of Bresa, obtained a monopoly of this proposed trade and
+shrewdly sold it to the Genoese for twenty-five thousand ducats.
+Other monopolies were granted in 1523, 1527, and 1528<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a>. Thus the
+American trade became established and gradually grew, passing successively
+into the hands of the Portuguese, the Dutch, the French,
+and the English.</p>
+
+<p>At first the trade was of the same kind and volume as that already
+passing northward over the desert routes. Soon, however, the American
+trade developed. A strong, unchecked demand for brute labor
+in the West Indies and on the continent of America grew until it
+culminated in the eighteenth century, when Negro slaves were
+crossing the Atlantic at the rate of fifty to one hundred thousand a
+year. This called for slave raiding on a scale that drew upon every
+part of Africa&mdash;upon the west coast, the western and Egyptian Sudan,
+the valley of the Congo, Abyssinia, the lake regions, the east
+coast, and Madagascar. Not simply the degraded and weaker types
+of Negroes were seized, but the strong Bantu, the Mandingo and
+Songhay, the Nubian and Nile Negroes, the Fula, and even the
+Asiatic Malay, were represented in the raids.</p>
+
+<p>There was thus begun in modern days a new slavery and slave
+trade. It was different from that of the past, because more and more
+it came in time to be founded on racial caste, and this caste was
+made the foundation of a new industrial system. For four hundred
+years, from 1450 to 1850, European civilization carried on a systematic
+trade in human beings of such tremendous proportions that
+the physical, economic, and moral effects are still plainly to be remarked
+throughout the world. To this must be added the large slave
+trade of Mussulman lands, which began with the seventh century
+and raged almost unchecked until the end of the nineteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>These were not days of decadence, but a period that gave the
+world Shakespeare, Martin Luther, and Raphael, Haroun-al-Raschid
+and Abraham Lincoln. It was the day of the greatest expansion of
+two of the world's most pretentious religions and of the beginnings
+of the modern organization of industry. In the midst of this advance
+and uplift this slave trade and slavery spread more human misery,
+inculcated more disrespect for and neglect of humanity, a greater
+callousness to suffering, and more petty, cruel, human hatred than
+can well be calculated. We may excuse and palliate it, and write
+history so as to let men forget it; it remains the most inexcusable
+and despicable blot on modern human history.</p>
+
+<p>The Portuguese built the first slave-trading fort at Elmina, on the
+Gold Coast, in 1482, and extended their trade down the west coast
+and up the east coast. Under them the abominable traffic grew
+larger and larger, until it became far the most important in money
+value of all the commerce of the Zambesi basin. There could be no
+extension of agriculture, no mining, no progress of any kind where
+it was so extensively carried on<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a>.</p>
+
+<p>It was the Dutch, however, who launched the oversea slave trade
+as a regular institution. They began their fight for freedom from
+Spain in 1579; in 1595, as a war measure against Spain, who at
+that time was dominating Portugal, they made their first voyage to
+Guinea. By 1621 they had captured Portugal's various slave forts
+on the west coast and they proceeded to open sixteen forts along
+the coast of the Gulf of Guinea. Ships sailed from Holland to
+Africa, got slaves in exchange for their goods, carried the slaves to
+the West Indies or Brazil, and returned home laden with sugar. In
+1621 the private companies trading in the west were all merged
+into the Dutch West India Company, which sent in four years
+fifteen thousand four hundred and thirty Negroes to Brazil, carried
+on war with Spain, supplied even the English plantations, and gradually
+became the great slave carrier of the day.</p>
+
+<p>The commercial supremacy of the Dutch early excited the envy
+and emulation of the English. The Navigation Ordinance of 1651
+was aimed at them, and two wars were necessary to wrest the slave
+trade from them and place it in the hands of the English. The final
+terms of peace, among other things, surrendered New Netherlands
+to England and opened the way for England to become henceforth
+the world's greatest slave trader.</p>
+
+<p>The English trade began with Sir John Hawkins' voyages in 1562
+and later, in which &quot;the Jesus, our chiefe shippe&quot; played a leading
+part. Desultory trade was kept up by the English until the middle
+of the seventeenth century, when English chartered slave-trading
+companies began to appear. In 1662 the &quot;Royal Adventurers,&quot; including
+the king, the queen dowager, and the Duke of York, invested
+in the trade, and finally the Royal African Company, which
+became the world's chief slave trader, was formed in 1672 and carried
+on a growing trade for a quarter of a century. Jamaica had
+finally been captured and held by Oliver Cromwell in 1655 and
+formed a West Indian base for the trade in men.</p>
+
+<p>The chief contract for trade in Negroes was the celebrated
+&quot;Asiento&quot; or agreement of the King of Spain to the importation of
+slaves into Spanish domains. The Pope's Bull or Demarkation, 1493,
+debarred Spain from African possessions, and compelled her to
+contract with other nations for slaves. This contract was in the
+hands of the Portuguese in 1600; in 1640 the Dutch received it,
+and in 1701 the French. The War of the Spanish Succession
+brought this monopoly to England.</p>
+
+<p>This Asiento of 1713 was an agreement between England and
+Spain by which the latter granted the former a monopoly of the
+Spanish colonial slave trade for thirty years, and England engaged
+to supply the colonies within that time with at least one hundred
+and forty-four thousand slaves at the rate of forty-eight hundred per
+year. The English counted this prize as the greatest result of the
+Treaty of Utrecht (1713), which ended the mighty struggle against
+the power of Louis XIV. The English held the monopoly until the
+Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748), although they had to go to war
+over it in 1739.</p>
+
+<p>From this agreement the slave traders reaped a harvest. The trade
+centered at Liverpool, and that city's commercial greatness was built
+largely on this foundation. In 1709 it sent out one slaver of
+thirty tons' burden; encouraged by Parliamentary subsidies which
+amounted to nearly half a million dollars between 1729 and 1750,
+the trade amounted to fifty-three ships in 1751; eighty-six in 1765,
+and at the beginning of the nineteenth century one hundred and
+eighty-five, which carried forty-nine thousand two hundred and
+thirteen slaves in one year.</p>
+
+<p>The slave trade thus begun by the Portuguese, enlarged by the
+Dutch, and carried to its culmination by the English centered on
+the west coast near the seat of perhaps the oldest and most interesting
+culture of Africa. It came at a critical time. The culture of
+Yoruba, Benin, Mossiland, and Nupe had exhausted itself in a
+desperate attempt to stem the on-coming flood of Mohammedan culture.
+It has succeeded in maintaining its small, loosely federated
+city-states suited to trade, industry, and art. It had developed strong
+resistance toward the Sudan state builders toward the north, as in
+the case of the fighting Mossi; but behind this warlike resistance lay
+the peaceful city life which gave industrial ideas to Byzantium and
+shared something of Ethiopian and Mediterranean culture.</p>
+
+<p>The first advent of the slave traders increased and encouraged
+native industry, as is evidenced by the bronze work of Benin; but
+soon this was pushed into the background, for it was not bronze
+metal but bronze flesh that Europe wanted. A new tyranny, blood-thirsty,
+cruel, and built on war, forced itself forward in the Niger
+delta. The powerful state of Dahomey arose early in the eighteenth
+century and became a devastating tyranny, reaching its highest
+power early in the nineteenth century. Ashanti, a similar kingdom,
+began its conquests in 1719 and grew with the slave trade. Thus
+state building in West Africa began to replace the city economy,
+but it was a state built on war and on war supported and encouraged
+largely for the sake of trade in human flesh. The native industries
+were changed and disorganized. Family ties and government were
+weakened. Far into the heart of Africa this devilish disintegration,
+coupled with Christian rum and Mohammedan raiding, penetrated.
+The face of Africa was turned south on these slave traders instead
+of northward toward the Mediterranean, where for two thousand
+years and more Europe and Africa had met in legitimate trade and
+mutual respect. The full significance of the battle of Tenkadibou,
+which overthrew the Askias, was now clear. Hereafter Africa for
+centuries was to appear before the world, not as the land of gold
+and ivory, of Mansa Musa and Meroe, but as a bound and captive
+slave, dumb and degraded.</p>
+
+<p>The natural desire to avoid a painful subject has led historians to
+gloss over the details of the slave trade and leave the impression that
+it was a local west-coast phenomenon and confined to a few years.
+It was, on the contrary, continent wide and centuries long and an
+economic, social, and political catastrophe probably unparalleled in
+human history.</p>
+
+<p>The exact proportions of the slave trade can be estimated only
+approximately. From 1680 to 1688 we know that the English African
+Company alone sent 249 ships to Africa, shipped there 60,783
+Negro slaves, and after losing 14,387 on the middle passage, delivered
+46,396 in America.</p>
+
+<p>It seems probable that 25,000 Negroes a year arrived in America
+between 1698 and 1707. After the Asiento of 1713 this number rose
+to 30,000 annually, and before the Revolutionary War it had reached
+at least 40,000 and perhaps 100,000 slaves a year.</p>
+
+<p>The total number of slaves imported is not known. Dunbar estimates
+that nearly 900,000 came to America in the sixteenth century,
+2,750,000 in the seventeenth, 7,000,000 in the eighteenth, and over
+4,000,000 in the nineteenth, perhaps 15,000,000 in all. Certainly it
+seems that at least 10,000,000 Negroes were expatriated. Probably
+every slave imported represented on the average five corpses in
+Africa or on the high seas. The American slave trade, therefore,
+meant the elimination of at least 60,000,000 Negroes from their fatherland.
+The Mohammedan slave trade meant the expatriation or
+forcible migration in Africa of nearly as many more. It would be
+conservative, then, to say that the slave trade cost Negro Africa
+100,000,000 souls. And yet people ask to-day the cause of the stagnation
+of culture in that land since 1600!</p>
+
+<p>Such a large number of slaves could be supplied only by organized
+slave raiding in every corner of Africa. The African continent gradually
+became revolutionized. Whole regions were depopulated,
+whole tribes disappeared; villages were built in caves and on hills
+or in forest fastnesses; the character of peoples like those of Benin
+developed their worst excesses of cruelty instead of the already
+flourishing arts of peace. The dark, irresistible grasp of fetish took
+firmer hold on men's minds.</p>
+
+<p>Further advances toward civilization became impossible. Not only
+was there the immense demand for slaves which had its outlet on the
+west coast, but the slave caravans were streaming up through the
+desert to the Mediterranean coast and down the valley of the Nile
+to the centers of Mohammedanism. It was a rape of a continent to
+an extent never paralleled in ancient or modern times.</p>
+
+<p>In the American trade there was not only the horrors of the slave
+raid, which lined the winding paths of the African jungles with
+bleached bones, but there was also the horrors of what was called
+the &quot;middle passage,&quot; that is, the voyage across the Atlantic. As Sir
+William Dolben said, &quot;The Negroes were chained to each other
+hand and foot, and stowed so close that they were not allowed above
+a foot and a half for each in breadth. Thus crammed together like
+herrings in a barrel, they contracted putrid and fatal disorders; so
+that they who came to inspect them in a morning had occasionally
+to pick dead slaves out of their rows, and to unchain their carcases
+from the bodies of their wretched fellow-sufferers to whom they had
+been fastened<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a>.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>It was estimated that out of every one hundred lot shipped from
+Africa only about fifty lived to be effective laborers across the sea,
+and among the whites more seamen died in that trade in one year
+than in the whole remaining trade of England in two. The full
+realization of the horrors of the slave trade was slow in reaching
+the ears and conscience of the modern world, just as to-day the
+treatment of dark natives in European colonies is brought to publicity
+with the greatest difficulty. The first move against the slave
+trade in England came in Parliament in 1776, but it was not until
+thirty-one years later, in 1807, that the trade was banned through
+the arduous labors of Clarkson, Wilberforce, Sharpe, and others.</p>
+
+<p>Denmark had already abolished the trade, and the United States
+attempted to do so the following year. Portugal and Spain were induced
+to abolish the trade between 1815 and 1830. Notwithstanding
+these laws, the contraband trade went on until the beginning
+of the Civil War in America. The reasons for this were the enormous
+profit of the trade and the continued demand of the American slave
+barons, who had no sympathy with the efforts to stop their source
+of cheap labor supply.</p>
+
+<p>However, philanthropy was not working alone to overthrow Negro
+slavery and the slave trade. It was seen, first in England and
+later in other countries, that slavery as an industrial system could
+not be made to work satisfactorily in modern times. Its cost was too
+great, and one of the causes of this cost was the slave insurrections
+from the very beginning, when the slaves rose on the plantation of
+Diego Columbus down to the Civil War in America. Actual and
+potential slave insurrection in the West Indies, in North and South
+America, kept the slave owners in apprehension and turmoil, or
+called for a police system difficult to maintain. In North America
+revolt finally took the form of organized running away to the North,
+and this, with the growing scarcity of suitable land and the moral
+revolt, led to the Civil War and the disappearance of the American
+slave trade.</p>
+
+<p>There was still, however, the Mohammedan slave trade to deal
+with, and this has been the work of the nineteenth and early twentieth
+centuries. In the last quarter of the nineteenth century ten
+thousand slaves annually were being distributed on the southern
+and eastern coast of the Mediterranean and at the great slave market
+in Bornu.</p>
+
+<p>On the east coast of Africa in 1862 nineteen thousand slaves were
+passed into Zanzibar and thence into Arabia and Persia. As late as
+1880, three thousand annually were being thus transplanted, but
+now the trade is about stopped. To-day the only centers of actual
+slave trading may be said to be the cocoa plantations of the Portuguese
+Islands on the west coast of Africa, and the Congo Free State.</p>
+
+<p>Such is the story of the Rape of Ethiopia&mdash;a sordid, pitiful, cruel
+tale. Raphael painted, Luther preached, Corneille wrote, and Milton
+sung; and through it all, for four hundred years, the dark captives
+wound to the sea amid the bleaching bones of the dead; for four
+hundred years the sharks followed the scurrying ships; for four hundred
+years America was strewn with the living and dying millions of
+a transplanted race; for four hundred years Ethiopia stretched forth
+her hands unto God.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> Cf. Helps: <i>Spanish Conquest</i>, IV, 401.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> Helps, <i>op. cit.</i>, I, 219-220.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> Helps, <i>op. cit.</i>, II, 18-19.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> Helps, <i>op. cit.</i>, III, 211-212.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> Theal: <i>History and Ethnography of South Africa before 1795</i>, I, 476.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> Ingram: <i>History of Slavery</i>, p. 152.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="X_THE_WEST_INDIES_AND_LATIN_AMERICA" id="X_THE_WEST_INDIES_AND_LATIN_AMERICA" />X <br /><br />THE WEST INDIES AND LATIN AMERICA</h2>
+
+
+<p>That was a wonderful century, the fifteenth, when men realized
+that beyond the scowling waste of western waters were dreams come
+true. Curious and yet crassly human it is that, with all this poetry
+and romance, arose at once the filthiest institution of the modern
+world and the costliest. For on Negro slavery in America was built,
+not simply the abortive cotton kingdom, but the foundations of that
+modern imperialism which is based on the despising of backward
+men.</p>
+
+<p>According to some accounts Alonzo, &quot;the Negro,&quot; piloted one of
+the ships of Columbus, and certainly there was Negro blood among
+his sailors. As early as 1528 there were nearly ten thousand Negroes
+in the new world. We hear of them in all parts. In Honduras, for
+instance, a Negro is sent to burn a native village; in 1555 the town
+council of Santiago de Chile voted to allow an enfranchised Negro
+possession of land in the town, and evidently treated him just as
+white applicants were treated. D'Allyon, who explored the coast of
+Virginia in the first quarter of the sixteenth century, used Negro
+slaves (who afterward revolted) to build his ships and help in exploration;
+Balboa had with him thirty Negroes, who, in 1513, helped
+to build the first ships on the Pacific coast; Cortez had three hundred
+Negro porters in 1522.</p>
+
+<p>Before 1530 there were enough Negroes in Mexico to lead to an
+insurrection, where the Negroes fought desperately, but were overcome
+and their ringleaders executed. Later the followers of another
+Negro insurgent, Bayano, were captured and sent back to Spain.
+Negroes founded the town of Santiago del Principe in 1570, and in
+1540 a Negro slave of Hernandez de Alarcon was the only one of
+the party to carry a message across the country to the Zunis of New
+Mexico. A Negro, Stephen Dorantes, discovered New Mexico. This
+Stephen or &quot;Estevanico&quot; was sent ahead by certain Spanish friars
+to the &quot;Seven Cities of Cibola.&quot; &quot;As soon as Stephen had left said
+friars, he determined to earn all the reputation and honor for himself,
+and that the boldness and daring of having alone discovered
+those villages of high stories so much spoken of throughout that
+country should be attributed to him; and carrying along with him
+the people who followed him, he endeavored to cross the wilderness
+which is between Cibola and the country he had gone through, and
+he was so far ahead of the friars that when they arrived at Chichilticalli,
+which is on the edge of the wilderness, he was already at
+Cibola, which is eighty leagues of wilderness beyond.&quot; But the Indians
+of the new and strange country took alarm and concluded that
+Stephen &quot;must be a spy or guide for some nations who intended to
+come and conquer them, because it seemed to them unreasonable
+for him to say that the people were white in the country from which
+he came, being black himself and being sent by them.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a></p>
+
+<p>Slaves imported under the Asiento treaties went to all parts of
+the Americas. Spanish America had by the close of the eighteenth
+century ten thousand in Santo Domingo, eighty-four thousand in
+Cuba, fifty thousand in Porto Rico, sixty thousand in Louisiana and
+Florida, and sixty thousand in Central and South America.</p>
+
+<p>The history of the Negro in Spanish America centered in Cuba,
+Venezuela, and Central America. In the sixteenth century slaves
+began to arrive in Cuba and Negroes joined many of the exploring
+expeditions from there to various parts of America. The slave trade
+greatly increased in the latter part of the eighteenth century, and
+after the revolution in Hayti large numbers of French emigrants
+from that island settled in Cuba. This and Spanish greed increased
+the harshness of slavery and eventually led to revolt among the
+Negroes. In 1844 Governor O'Donnell began a cruel persecution of
+the blacks on account of a plot discovered among them. Finally in
+1866 the Ten Years' War broke out in which Negro and white
+rebels joined. They demanded the abolition of slavery and equal
+political rights for natives and foreigners, whites and blacks. The
+war was cruel and bloody but ended in 1878 with the abolition of
+slavery, while a further uprising the following year secured civil
+rights for Negroes. Spanish economic oppression continued, however,
+and the leading chiefs of the Ten Years' War including such
+leaders as the mulatto, Antonio Maceo, with large numbers of
+Negro soldiers, took the field again in 1895. The result was the
+freeing of Cuba by the intervention of the United States. Negro
+regiments from the United States played here a leading role. A
+number of leaders in Cuba in political, industrial, and literary lines
+have been men of Negro descent.</p>
+
+<p>Slavery was abolished by Guatemala in 1824 and by Mexico in
+1829. Argentine, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Paraguay ceased to recognize
+it about 1825. Between 1840 and 1845 it came to an end in
+Colombia, Venezuela, and Ecquador. Bolivar, Paez, Sucre, and
+other South American leaders used Negro soldiers in fighting for
+freedom (1814-16), and Hayti twice at critical times rendered
+assistance and received Bolivar twice as a refugee.</p>
+
+<p>Brazil was the center of Portuguese slavery, but slaves were not
+introduced in large numbers until about 1720, when diamonds were
+discovered in the territory above Rio Janeiro. Gradually the seaboard
+from Pernambuco to Rio Janeiro and beyond became filled
+with Negroes, and although the slave trade north of the equator
+was theoretically abolished by Portugal in 1815 and south of the
+equator in 1830, and by Brazil in these regions in 1826 and 1830,
+nevertheless between 1825 and 1850 over a million and a quarter of
+Negroes were introduced. Not until Brazil abolished slavery in 1888
+did the importation wholly cease. Brazilian slavery allowed the slave
+to purchase his freedom, and the color line was not strict. Even in
+the eighteenth century there were black clergy and bishops; indeed
+the Negro clergy seem to have been on a higher moral level than the
+whites.</p>
+
+<p>Insurrection was often attempted, especially among the Mohammedan
+Negroes around Bahia. In 1695 a tribe of revolted slaves held
+out for a long time. In 1719 a widespread conspiracy failed, but
+many of the leaders fled to the forest. In 1828 a thousand rose in
+revolt at Bahia, and again in 1830. From 1831 to 1837 revolt was in
+the air, and in 1835 came the great revolt of the Mohammedans,
+who attempted to enthrone a queen. The Negroes fought with
+furious bravery, but were finally defeated.</p>
+
+<p>By 1872 the number of free Negroes had very greatly increased,
+so that emancipation did not come as a shock. While Mohammedan
+Negroes still gave trouble and were in some cases sent back to
+Africa, yet on the whole emancipation was peaceful, and whites,
+Negroes, and Indians are to-day amalgamating into a new race. &quot;At
+the present moment there is scarcely a lowly or a highly placed
+federal or provincial official at the head of or within any of the great
+departments of state that has not more or less Negro or Amer-Indian
+blood in his veins.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a></p>
+
+<p>Lord Bryce says, &quot;It is hardly too much to say that along the coast
+from Rio to Bahia and Pernambuco, as well as in parts of the interior
+behind these two cities, the black population predominates....
+The Brazilian lower class intermarries freely with the black
+people; the Brazilian middle class intermarries with mulattoes and
+Quadroons. Brazil is the one country in the world, besides the
+Portuguese colonies on the east and west coasts of Africa, in which
+a fusion of the European and African races is proceeding unchecked
+by law or custom. The doctrines of human equality and human
+solidarity have here their perfect work. The result is so far satisfactory
+that there is little or no class friction. The white man does not
+lynch or maltreat the Negro; indeed I have never heard of a lynching
+anywhere in South America except occasionally as part of a
+political convulsion. The Negro is not accused of insolence and does
+not seem to develop any more criminality than naturally belongs to
+any ignorant population with loose notions of morality and property.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;What ultimate effect the intermixture of blood will have on the
+European element in Brazil I will not venture to predict. If one may
+judge from a few remarkable cases, it will not necessarily reduce
+the intellectual standard. One of the ablest and most refined Brazilians
+I have known had some color; and other such cases have been
+mentioned to me. Assumptions and preconceptions must be eschewed,
+however plausible they may seem.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a></p>
+
+<p>A Brazilian writer said at the First Races Congress: &quot;The co&ouml;peration
+of the <i>metis</i><a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a> in the advance of Brazil is notorious and far from
+inconsiderable. They played the chief part during many years in
+Brazil in the campaign for the abolition of slavery. I could quote
+celebrated names of more than one of these <i>metis</i> who put themselves
+at the head of the literary movement. They fought with
+firmness and intrepidity in the press and on the platform. They faced
+with courage the gravest perils to which they were exposed in their
+struggle against the powerful slave owners, who had the protection
+of a conservative government. They gave evidence of sentiments of
+patriotism, self-denial, and appreciation during the long campaign
+in Paraguay, fighting heroically at the boarding of the ships in the
+naval battle of Riachuelo and in the attacks on the Brazilian army,
+on numerous occasions in the course of this long South American
+war. It was owing to their support that the republic was erected on
+the ruins of the empire.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_80_80" id="FNanchor_80_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Dutch brought the first slaves to the North American continent.
+John Rolfe relates that the last of August, 1619, there came
+to Virginia &quot;a Dutch man of warre that sold us twenty Negars.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_81_81" id="FNanchor_81_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a>
+This was probably one of the ships of the numerous private Dutch
+trading companies which early entered into the developed and the
+lucrative African slave trade. Although the Dutch thus commenced
+the continental slave trade they did not actually furnish a very large
+number of slaves to the English colonies outside the West Indies. A
+small trade had by 1698 brought a few thousand to New York and
+still fewer to New Jersey.</p>
+
+<p>The Dutch found better scope for slaves in Guiana, which they
+settled in 1616. Sugar cane became the staple crop, but the Negroes
+early began to revolt and the Dutch brought in East Indian coolies.
+The slaves were badly treated and the runaways joined the revolted
+Bush Negroes in the interior. From 1715 to 1775 there was continuous
+fighting with the Bush Negroes or insurrections, until at last
+in 1749 a formal treaty between sixteen hundred Negroes and the
+Dutch was made. Immediately a new group revolted under a Mohammedan,
+Arabi, and they obtained land and liberty. In 1763 the
+coast Negroes revolted. They were checked, but made terms and
+settled in the interior. The Bush Negroes fought against both French
+and English to save Guiana to the Dutch, but Guiana was eventually
+divided between the three. The Bush Negroes still maintain
+their independence and vigor.</p>
+
+<p>The French encouraged settlements in the West Indies in the
+seventeenth century, but at last, finding that French immigrants
+would not come, they began about 1642 to import Negroes. Owing
+to wars with England, slaves were supplied by the Dutch and Portuguese,
+although the Royal Senegal Company held the coveted Asiento
+from 1701 to 1713.</p>
+
+<p>It was in the island of Hayti, however, that French slavery centered.
+Pirates from many nations, but chiefly French, began to frequent
+the island, and in 1663 the French annexed the eastern part,
+thus dividing the island between France and Spain. By 1680 there
+were so many slaves and mulattoes that Louis XIV issued his celebrated
+Code Noir, which was notable in compelling bachelor masters,
+fathers of slave children, to marry their concubines. Children
+followed the condition of the mother as to slavery or freedom; they
+could have no property; harsh punishments were provided for, but
+families could not be separated by sale except in the case of grown
+children; emancipation with full civil rights was made possible for
+any slave twenty years of age or more. When Louisiana was settled
+and the Alabama coast, slaves were introduced there. Louisiana was
+transferred to Spain in 1762, against the resistance of both settlers
+and slaves, but Spain took possession in 1769 and introduced more
+Negroes.</p>
+
+<p>Later, in Hayti, a more liberal policy encouraged trade; war was
+over and capital and slaves poured in. Sugar, coffee, chocolate,
+indigo, dyes, and spices were raised. There were large numbers of
+mulattoes, many of whom were educated in France, and many masters
+married Negro women who had inherited large properties, just
+as in the United States to-day white men are marrying eagerly the
+landed Indian women in the West. When white immigration increased
+in 1749, however, prejudice arose against these mulattoes
+and severe laws were passed depriving them of civil rights, entrance
+into the professions, and the right to hold office; severe edicts were
+enforced as to clothing, names, and social intercourse. Finally, after
+1777, mulattoes were forbidden to come to France.</p>
+
+<p>When the French Revolution broke out, the Haytians managed
+to send two delegates to Paris. Nevertheless the planters maintained
+the upper hand, and one of the colored delegates, Oge, on returning,
+started a small rebellion. He and his companions were killed
+with great brutality. This led the French government to grant full
+civil rights to free Negroes, Immediately planters and free Negroes
+flew to arms against each other and then, suddenly, August 22, 1791,
+the black slaves, of whom there were four hundred and fifty-two
+thousand, arose in revolt to help the free Negroes.</p>
+
+<p>For many years runaway slaves had hidden in the mountains under
+their own chiefs. One of the earliest of these chiefs was Polydor, in
+1724, who was succeeded by Macandal. The great chief of these
+runaways or &quot;Maroons&quot; at the time of the slave revolt was Jean
+Fran&ccedil;ois, who was soon succeeded by Biassou.</p>
+
+<p>Pierre Dominic Toussaint, known as Toussaint L'Ouverture,
+joined these Maroon bands, where he was called &quot;the doctor of the
+armies of the king,&quot; and soon became chief aid to Jean Fran&ccedil;ois and
+Biassou. Upon their deaths Toussaint rose to the chief command. He
+acquired complete control over the blacks, not only in military matters,
+but in politics and social organization; &quot;the soldiers regarded
+him as a superior being, and the farmers prostrated themselves before
+him. All his generals trembled before him (Dessalines did not
+dare to look in his face), and all the world trembled before his
+generals.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_82_82" id="FNanchor_82_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a></p>
+
+<p>The revolt once started, blacks and mulattoes murdered whites
+without mercy and the whites retaliated. Commissioners were sent
+from France, who asked simply civil rights for freedmen, and not
+emancipation. Indeed that was all that Toussaint himself had as yet
+demanded. The planters intrigued with the British and this, together
+with the beheading of the king (an impious act in the eyes of Negroes),
+induced Toussaint to join the Spaniards. In 1793 British
+troops were landed and the French commissioners in desperation declared
+the slaves emancipated. This at once won back Toussaint from
+the Spaniards. He became supreme in the north, while Rigaud,
+leader of the mulattoes, held the south and the west. By 1798 the
+British, having lost most of their forces by yellow fever, surrendered
+Mole St. Nicholas to Toussaint and departed. Rigaud finally left for
+France, and Toussaint in 1800 was master of Hayti. He promulgated
+a constitution under which Hayti was to be a self-governing colony;
+all men were equal before the law, and trade was practically free.
+Toussaint was to be president for life, with the power to name his
+successor.</p>
+
+<p>Napoleon Bonaparte, master of France, had at this time dreams
+of a great American empire, and replied to Toussaint's new government
+by sending twenty-five thousand men under his brother-in-law
+to subdue the presumptuous Negroes, as a preliminary step to his
+occupation and development of the Mississippi valley. Fierce fighting
+and yellow fever decimated the French, but matters went hard
+with the Negroes too, and Toussaint finally offered to yield. He
+was courteously received with military honors and then, as soon as
+possible, treacherously seized, bound, and sent to France. He was
+imprisoned at Fort Joux and died, perhaps of poison, after studied
+humiliations, April 7, 1803.</p>
+
+<p>Thus perished the greatest of American Negroes and one of the
+great men of all time, at the age of fifty-six. A French planter said,
+&quot;God in his terrestrial globe did not commune with a purer spirit.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_83_83" id="FNanchor_83_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a>
+Wendell Phillips said, &quot;Some doubt the courage of the Negro. Go
+to Hayti and stand on those fifty thousand graves of the best soldiers
+France ever had and ask them what they think of the Negro's sword.
+I would call him Napoleon, but Napoleon made his way to empire
+over broken oaths and through a sea of blood. This man never broke
+his word. I would call him Cromwell, but Cromwell was only a
+soldier, and the state he founded went down with him into his
+grave. I would call him Washington, but the great Virginian held
+slaves. This man risked his empire rather than permit the slave
+trade in the humblest village of his dominions. You think me a
+fanatic, for you read history, not with your eyes, but with your
+prejudices. But fifty years hence, when Truth gets a hearing, the
+Muse of history will put Phocion for the Greek, Brutus for the
+Roman, Hampden for the English, La Fayette for France, choose
+Washington as the bright, consummate flower of our earlier civilization,
+then, dipping her pen in the sunlight, will write in the clear
+blue, above them all, the name of the soldier, the statesman, the
+martyr, Toussaint L'Ouverture.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>The treacherous killing of Toussaint did not conquer Hayti. In
+1802 and 1803 some forty thousand French soldiers died of war
+and fever. A new colored leader, Dessalines, arose and all the eight
+thousand remaining French surrendered to the blockading British
+fleet.</p>
+
+<p>The effect of all this was far-reaching. Napoleon gave up his
+dream of American empire and sold Louisiana for a song. &quot;Thus, all
+of Indian Territory, all of Kansas and Nebraska and Iowa and
+Wyoming and Montana and the Dakotas, and most of Colorado
+and Minnesota, and all of Washington and Oregon states, came to
+us as the indirect work of a despised Negro. Praise, if you will, the
+work of a Robert Livingstone or a Jefferson, but to-day let us not
+forget our debt to Toussaint L'Ouverture, who was indirectly the
+means of America's expansion by the Louisiana Purchase of 1803.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_84_84" id="FNanchor_84_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a></p>
+
+<p>With the freedom of Hayti in 1801 came a century of struggle
+to fit the people for the freedom they had won. They were yet slaves,
+crushed by a cruel servitude, without education or religious instruction.
+The Haytian leaders united upon Dessalines to maintain
+the independence of the republic. Dessalines, like Toussaint and
+his lieutenant Christophe, was noted in slavery days for his severity
+toward his fellows and the discipline which he insisted on. He had
+other characteristics of African chieftains. &quot;There were seasons
+when he broke through his natural sullenness and showed himself
+open, affable, and even generous. His vanity was excessive and
+manifested itself in singular perversities.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_85_85" id="FNanchor_85_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a> He was a man of great
+personal bravery and succeeded in maintaining the independence of
+Hayti, which had already cost the Frenchmen fifty thousand lives.</p>
+
+<p>On January 1, 1804, at the place whence Toussaint had been
+treacherously seized and sent to France, the independence of Hayti
+was declared by the military leaders. Dessalines was made governor-general
+for life and afterward proclaimed himself emperor. This
+was not an act of grandiloquence and mimicry. &quot;It is truer to say
+that in it both Dessalines and later Christophe were actuated by a
+clear insight into the social history and peculiarities of their people.
+There was nothing in the constitution which did not have its companion
+in Africa, where the organization of society was despotic,
+with elective hereditary chiefs, royal families, polygamic marriages,
+councils, and regencies.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_86_86" id="FNanchor_86_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a></p>
+
+<p>The population was divided into soldiers and laborers. The territory
+was parceled out to chiefs, and the laborers were bound to the
+soil and worked under rigorous inspection; part of the products were
+reserved for their support, and the rest went to the chiefs, the king,
+the general government, and the army. The army was under stern
+discipline and military service was compulsory. Women did much
+of the agricultural labor. Under Toussaint the administration of this
+system was committed to Dessalines, who carried it out with rigor;
+it was afterward followed by Christophe. The latter even imported
+four thousand Negroes from Africa, from whom he formed a national
+guard for patrolling the land. These regulations brought back
+for a time a large part of the former prosperity of the island.</p>
+
+<p>The severity with which Dessalines enforced the laws soon began
+to turn many against him. The educated mulattoes especially objected
+to submission to the savage African <i>mores</i>. Dessalines started
+to suppress their revolt, but was killed in ambush in October, 1806.</p>
+
+<p>Great Britain now began to intrigue for a protectorate over the
+island and the Spanish end of the island threatened attack. These
+difficulties were overcome, but at a cost of great internal strain. After
+the death of Dessalines it seemed that Hayti was about to dissolve
+into a number of petty subdivisions. At one time Christophe was
+ruling as king in the north, Petion as president at Port au Prince,
+Rigaud in the south, and a semi-brigand, Goman, in the extreme
+southwest. Very soon, however, the rivalry narrowed down to Petion
+and Christophe. Petion was a man of considerable ability and did
+much, not simply for Hayti, but for South America. Already as early
+as 1779, before the revolution in Hayti, the Haytian Negroes had
+helped the United States. The British had captured Savannah in
+1778. The French fleet appeared on the coast of Georgia late that
+year and was ordered to recruit men in Hayti. Eight hundred young
+freedmen, blacks and mulattoes, offered to take part in the expedition,
+and they fought valiantly in the siege and covered themselves
+with glory. It was this legion that made the charge on the British
+and saved the retreating American army. Among the men who
+fought there was Christophe.</p>
+
+<p>When Simon Bolivar, Commodore Aury, and many Venezuelan
+families were driven from their country in 1815, they and their ships
+took temporary refuge in Hayti. Notwithstanding the embarrassed
+condition of the republic, Petion received them and gave them four
+thousand rifles with ammunition, provisions, and last and best a
+printing press. He also settled some international quarrels among
+members of the groups, and Bolivar expressed himself afterward as
+being &quot;overwhelmed with magnanimous favors.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_87_87" id="FNanchor_87_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a></p>
+
+<p>Petion died in 1818 and was succeeded by his friend Boyer.
+Christophe committed suicide the following year and Boyer became
+not simply ruler of western Hayti, but also, by arrangement with
+the eastern end of the island, gained the mastery there, where they
+were afraid of Spanish aggression. Thus from 1822 to 1843 Boyer,
+a man of much ability, ruled the whole of the island and gained
+the recognition of Haytian independence from France and other
+nations.</p>
+
+<p>France, under Charles X, demanded an indemnity of thirty million
+dollars to reimburse the planters for confiscated lands and
+property. This Hayti tried to pay, but the annual installment was a
+tremendous burden to the impoverished country. Further negotiations
+were entered into. Finally in 1838 France recognized the independence
+of the republic and the indemnity was reduced to twelve
+million dollars. Even this was a large burden for Hayti, and the
+payment of it for years crippled the island.</p>
+
+<p>The United States and Great Britain in 1825-26 recognized the
+independence of Hayti. A concordat was arranged with the Pope
+for governing the church in Hayti, and finally in 1860 the church
+placed under the French hierarchy. Thus Boyer did unusually well;
+but his necessary concessions to France weakened his influence at
+home, and finally an earthquake, which destroyed several towns in
+1842, raised the superstitious of the populace against him. He resigned
+in 1843, leaving the treasury well filled; but with his withdrawal
+the Spanish portion of the island was lost to Hayti.</p>
+
+<p>The subsequent history of Hayti since 1843 has been the struggle
+of a small divided country to maintain political independence. The
+rich resources of the country called for foreign capital, but outside
+capital meant political influence from abroad, which the little nation
+rightly feared. Within, the old antagonism between the freedman
+and the slave settled into a color line between the mulatto and
+the black, which for a time meant the difference between educated
+liberalism and reactionary ignorance. This difference has largely disappeared,
+but some vestiges of the color line remain. The result has
+been reaction and savagery under Soulouque, Dominique, and Nord
+Alexis, and decided advance under presidents like Nissage-Saget,
+Solomon, Legitime, and Hyppolite.</p>
+
+<p>In political life Hayti is still in the sixteenth century; but in economic
+life she has succeeded in placing on their own little farms
+the happiest and most contented peasantry in the world, after raising
+them from a veritable hell of slavery. If modern capitalistic
+greed can be restrained from interference until the best elements of
+Hayti secure permanent political leadership the triumph of the
+revolution will be complete.</p>
+
+<p>In other parts of the French-American dominion the slaves
+achieved freedom also by insurrection. In Guadeloupe they helped
+the French drive out the British, and thus gained emancipation. In
+Martinique it took three revolts and a civil war to bring freedom.</p>
+
+<p>The English slave empire in America centered in the Bermudas,
+Barbadoes, Jamaica and the lesser islands, and in the United States.
+Barbadoes developed a savage slave code, and the result was attempted
+slave insurrections in 1674, 1692, and 1702. These were
+not successful, but a rising in 1816 destroyed much property under
+the leadership of a mulatto, Washington Franklin, and the repeal
+of bad laws and eventual enfranchisement of the colored people
+followed. One Barbadian mulatto, Sir Conrad Reeves, has held the
+position of chief justice in the island and was knighted. A Negro
+insurrection in Dominica under Farcel greatly exercised England in
+1791 and 1794 and delayed slave trade abolition; in 1844 and 1847
+further uprisings took place, and these continued from 1853 to
+1893.</p>
+
+<p>The chief island domain of English slavery was Jamaica. It was
+Oliver Cromwell who, in his zeal for God and the slave trade, sent
+an expedition to seize Hayti. His fleet, driven off there, took Jamaica
+in 1655. The English found the mountains already infested with
+runaway slaves known as &quot;Maroons,&quot; and more Negroes joined
+them when the English arrived. In 1663 the freedom of the Maroons
+was acknowledged, land was given them, and their leader, Juan de
+Bolas, was made a colonel in the militia. He was killed, however, in
+the following year, and from 1664 to 1738 the three thousand or
+more black Maroons fought the British Empire in guerrilla warfare.
+Soldiers, Indians, and dogs were sent against them, and finally in
+1738 Captain Cudjo and other chiefs made a formal treaty of peace
+with Governor Trelawney. They were granted twenty-five hundred
+acres and their freedom was recognized.</p>
+
+<p>The peace lasted until 1795, when they rebelled again and gave
+the British a severe drubbing, besides murdering planters. Bloodhounds
+again were imported. The Maroons offered to surrender on
+the express condition that none of their number should be deported
+from the island, as the legislature wished. General Walpole
+hesitated, but could get peace on no other terms and gave his word.
+The Maroons surrendered their arms, and immediately the whites
+seized six hundred of the ringleaders and transported them to the
+snows of Nova Scotia! The legislature then voted a sword worth
+twenty-five hundred dollars to General Walpole, which he indignantly
+refused to accept. Eventually these exiled Maroons found
+their way to Sierra Leone, West Africa, in time to save that colony
+to the British crown.<a name="FNanchor_88_88" id="FNanchor_88_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a></p>
+
+<p>The pressing desire for peace with the Maroons on the part of
+the white planters arose from the new sugar culture introduced in
+1673. A greatly increased demand for slaves followed, and between
+1700 and 1786 six hundred and ten thousand slaves were imported;
+nevertheless, so severely were they driven, that there were only three
+hundred thousand Negroes in Jamaica in the latter year.</p>
+
+<p>Despite the Moravian missions and other efforts late in the eighteenth
+century, unrest among the Jamaica slaves and freedmen grew
+and was increased by the anti-slavery agitation in England and the
+revolt in Hayti. There was an insurrection in 1796; and in 1831
+again the Negroes of northwest Jamaica, impatient because of the
+slow progress of the emancipation, arose in revolt and destroyed
+nearly three and a half million dollars' worth of property, well-nigh
+ruining the planters there. The next year two hundred and fifty-five
+thousand slaves were set free, for which the planters were paid
+nearly thirty million dollars. There ensued a discouraging condition
+of industry. The white officials sent out in these days were arbitrary
+and corrupt. Little was done for the mass of the people and there
+was outrageous over-taxation. Nevertheless the backwardness of the
+colony was attributed to the Negro. Governor Eyre complained in
+1865 that the young and strong were good for nothing and were
+filling the jails; but a simultaneous report by a missionary told the
+truth concerning the officials. This aroused the colored people, and
+a mulatto, George William Gordon, called a meeting. Other meetings
+were afterward held, and finally the Negro peasantry began
+a riot in 1861, in which eighteen people were killed, only a few of
+whom were white.</p>
+
+<p>The result was that Governor Eyre tried and executed by court-martial
+354 persons, and in addition to this killed without trial 85,
+a total of 439. One thousand Negro homes were burned to the
+ground and thousands of Negroes flogged or mutilated. Children
+had their brains dashed out, pregnant women were murdered, and
+Gordon was tried by court-martial and hanged. In fact the punishment
+was, as the royal commissioners said, &quot;reckless and positively
+barbarous.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_89_89" id="FNanchor_89_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a></p>
+
+<p>This high-handed act aroused England. Eyre was not punished,
+but the island was made a crown colony in 1866, and given representation
+in the legislature in 1886.</p>
+
+<p>In the island of St. Vincent, Indians first sought to enslave the
+fugitive Negroes wrecked there, but the Negroes took the Carib
+women and then drove the Indian men away. These &quot;black Caribs&quot;
+fought with Indians, English, and others for three quarters of a
+century, until the Indians were exterminated. The British took possession
+in 1763. The black Caribs resisted, and after hard fighting
+signed a treaty in 1773, receiving one-third of the island as their
+property. They afterward helped the French against the British, and
+were finally deported to the island of Ruatan, off Honduras. In
+Trinidad and British Guiana there have been mutinies and rioting
+of slaves and a curious mingling of races.</p>
+
+<p>Other parts of South America must be dismissed briefly, because
+of insufficient data. Colombia and Venezuela, with perhaps eight
+million people, have at least one-third of their population of Negro
+and Indian descent. Here Simon Bolivar with his Negro, mulatto,
+and Indian forces began the war that liberated South America. Central
+America has a smaller proportion of Negroids, perhaps one hundred
+thousand in all. Bolivia and Peru have small amounts of Negro
+blood, while Argentine and Uruguay have very little. The Negro
+population in these lands is everywhere in process of rapid amalgamation
+with whites and Indians.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> H.O. Flipper's translation of Castaneda de Nafera's narrative.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> Johnston: <i>Negro in the New World</i>, p. 109.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> Bryce: <i>South America</i>, pp. 479-480.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> I.e., mulattoes.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> <i>Inter-Racial Problems</i>, p. 381.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> Smith: <i>General History of Virginia</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_82_82" id="Footnote_82_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> La Croix: <i>M&eacute;moires sur la R&eacute;volution</i>, I, 253, 408.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_83_83" id="Footnote_83_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> Marquis d'Hermonas. Cf. Johnston: <i>Negro in the New World</i>, p. 158.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_84_84" id="Footnote_84_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> DeWitt Talmage, in Christian Herald, November 28, 1906.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_85_85" id="Footnote_85_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> Aimes: <i>African Institutions in America</i> (reprinted from <i>Journal of American
+Folk Lore</i>), p. 25.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_86_86" id="Footnote_86_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> Brown: <i>History of San Domingo</i>, II, 158-159.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_87_87" id="Footnote_87_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> See Leger: <i>Hayti</i>, Chap. XI.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_88_88" id="Footnote_88_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> Cf. Chapter V, p. 69.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_89_89" id="Footnote_89_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> Johnston: <i>Negro in the New World</i>.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="XI_THE_NEGRO_IN_THE_UNITED_STATES" id="XI_THE_NEGRO_IN_THE_UNITED_STATES" />XI <br /><br />THE NEGRO IN THE UNITED STATES</h2>
+
+
+<p>There were half a million slaves in the confines of the United States
+when the Declaration of Independence declared &quot;that all men are
+created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain
+unalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit
+of happiness.&quot; The land that thus magniloquently heralded its
+advent into the family of nations had supported the institution of
+human slavery for one hundred and fifty-seven years and was destined
+to cling to it eighty-seven years longer.</p>
+
+<p>The greatest experiment in Negro slavery as a modern industrial
+system was made on the mainland of North America and in the
+confines of the present United States. And this experiment was on
+such a scale and so long-continued that it is profitable for study and
+reflection. There were in the United States in its dependencies, in
+1910, 9,828,294 persons of acknowledged Negro descent, not including
+the considerable infiltration of Negro blood which is not
+acknowledged and often not known. To-day the number of persons
+called Negroes is probably about ten and a quarter million. These
+persons are almost entirely descendants of African slaves, brought to
+America in the sixteenth, seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth
+centuries.</p>
+
+<p>The importation of Negroes to the mainland of North America
+was small until the British got the coveted privilege of the Asiento
+in 1713. Before that Northern States like New York had received
+some slaves from the Dutch, and New England had early developed
+a trade by which she imported a number of house servants. Ships
+went out to the African coast with rum, sold the rum, and brought
+the slaves to the West Indies; there they exchanged the slaves for
+sugar and molasses and brought the molasses back to New England,
+to be made into rum for further exploits. After the Asiento treaty
+the Negro population increased in the eighteenth century from
+about 50,000 in 1710 to 220,000 in 1750 and to 462,000 in 1770.
+When the colonies became independent, the foreign slave trade was
+soon made illegal; but illicit trade, annexation of territory and
+natural increase enlarged the Negro population from a little over a
+million at the beginning of the nineteenth century to four and a
+half millions at the outbreak of the Civil War and to about ten
+and a quarter millions in 1914.</p>
+
+<p>The present so-called Negro population of the United States is:</p>
+
+<p>1. A mixture of the various African populations, Bantu, Sudanese,
+west-coast Negroes, some dwarfs, and some traces of Arab, Berber,
+and Semitic blood.</p>
+
+<p>2. A mixture of these strains with the blood of white Americans
+through a system of concubinage of colored women in slavery days,
+together with some legal intermarriage.</p>
+
+<p>The figures as to mulattoes<a name="FNanchor_90_90" id="FNanchor_90_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a> have been from time to time officially
+acknowledged to be understatements. Probably one-third of the
+Negroes of the United States have distinct traces of white blood.
+This blending of the races has led to interesting human types, but
+racial prejudice has hitherto prevented any scientific study of the
+matter. In general the Negro population in the United States is
+brown in color, darkening to almost black and shading off in the
+other direction to yellow and white, and is indistinguishable in
+some cases from the white population.</p>
+
+<p>Much has been written of the black man in America, but most
+of this has been from the point of view of the whites, so that we
+know of the effect of Negro slavery on the whites, the strife among
+the whites for and against abolition, and the consequent problem
+of the Negro so far as the white population is concerned.</p>
+
+<p>This chapter, however, is dealing with the matter more from the
+point of view of the Negro group itself, and seeking to show what
+slavery meant to them, how they reacted against it, what they did
+to secure their freedom, and what they are doing with their partial
+freedom to-day.</p>
+
+<p>The slaves landing from 1619 onward were received by the
+colonies at first as laborers, on the same plane as other laborers. For
+a long time there was in law no distinction between the indented white
+servant from England and the black servant from Africa, except in
+the term of their service. Even here the distinction was not always
+observed, some of the whites being kept beyond term of their service
+and Negroes now and then securing their freedom. Gradually
+the planters realized the advantage of laborers held for life, but they
+were met by certain moral difficulties. The opposition to slavery had
+from the first been largely stilled when it was stated that this was a
+method of converting the heathen to Christianity. The corollary was
+that when a slave was converted he became free. Up to 1660 or
+thereabouts it seemed accepted in most colonies and in the English
+West Indies that baptism into a Christian church would free a
+Negro slave. Masters therefore, were reluctant in the seventeenth
+century to have their slaves receive Christian instruction. Massachusetts
+first apparently legislated on this matter by enacting in 1641
+that slavery should be confined to captives in just wars &quot;and such
+strangers as willingly sell themselves or are sold to us,&quot;<a name="FNanchor_91_91" id="FNanchor_91_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a> meaning by
+&quot;strangers&quot; apparently heathen, but saying nothing as to the effect
+of conversion. Connecticut adopted similar legislation in 1650, and
+Virginia declared in 1661 that Negroes &quot;are incapable of making
+satisfaction&quot; for time lost in running away by lengthening their
+time of services, thus implying that they were slaves for life. Maryland
+declared in 1663 that Negro slaves should serve <i>durante vita</i>,
+but it was not until 1667 that Virginia finally plucked up courage
+to attack the issue squarely and declared by law: &quot;Baptism doth not
+alter the condition of the person as to his bondage or freedom, in
+order that diverse masters freed from this doubt may more carefully
+endeavor the propagation of Christianity.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_92_92" id="FNanchor_92_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a></p>
+
+<p>The transplanting of the Negro from his African clan life to the
+West Indian plantation was a social revolution. Marriage became
+geographical and transient, while women and girls were without
+protection.</p>
+
+<p>The private home as a self-protective, independent unit did not
+exist. That powerful institution, the polygamous African home, was
+almost completely destroyed, and in its place in America arose sexual
+promiscuity, a weak community life, with common dwelling, meals,
+and child nurseries. The internal slave trade tended further to
+weaken natural ties. A small number of favored house servants and
+artisans were raised above this&mdash;had their private homes, came in
+contact with the culture of the master class, and assimilated much
+of American civilization. This was, however, exceptional; broadly
+speaking, the greatest social effect of American slavery was to substitute
+for the polygamous Negro home a new polygamy less
+guarded, less effective, and less civilized.</p>
+
+<p>At first sight it would seem that slavery completely destroyed
+every vestige of spontaneous movement among the Negroes. This is
+not strictly true. The vast power of the priest in the African state is
+well known; his realm alone&mdash;the province of religion and medicine&mdash;remained
+largely unaffected by the plantation system. The Negro
+priest, therefore, early became an important figure on the plantation
+and found his function as the interpreter of the supernatural, the
+comforter of the sorrowing, and as the one who expressed, rudely
+but picturesquely, the longing and disappointment and resentment
+of a stolen people. From such beginnings arose and spread with marvelous
+rapidity the Negro church, the first distinctively Negro
+American social institution. It was not at first by any means a Christian
+church, but a mere adaptation of those rites of fetish which in
+America is termed obe worship, or &quot;voodooism.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_93_93" id="FNanchor_93_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a> Association and
+missionary effort soon gave these rites a veneer of Christianity and
+gradually, after two centuries, the church became Christian, with a
+simple Calvinistic creed, but with many of the old customs still
+clinging to the services. It is this historic fact, that the Negro church
+of to-day bases itself upon the sole surviving social institution of the
+African fatherland, that accounts for its extraordinary growth and
+vitality.</p>
+
+<p>The slave codes at first were really labor codes based on an attempt
+to reestablish in America the waning feudalism of Europe.
+The laborers were mainly black and were held for life. Above them
+came the artisans, free whites with a few blacks, and above them
+the master class. The feudalism called for the plantation system,
+and the plantation system as developed in America, and particularly
+in Virginia, was at first a feudal domain. On these plantations the
+master was practically supreme. The slave codes in early days were
+but moderately harsh, allowing punishment by the master, but restraining
+him in extreme cases and providing for care of the slaves
+and of the aged. With the power, however, solely in the hands of
+the master class, and with the master supreme on his own plantation,
+his power over the slave was practically what he wished it to
+be. In some cases the cruelty was as great as on the worst West
+Indian plantations. In other cases the rule was mild and paternal.</p>
+
+<p>Up through this American feudalism the Negro began to rise.
+He learned in the eighteenth century the English language, he
+began to be identified with the Christian church, he mingled his
+blood to a considerable extent with the master class. The house
+servants particularly were favored, in some cases receiving education,
+and the number of free Negroes gradually increased.</p>
+
+<p>Present-day students are often puzzled at the apparent contradictions
+of Southern slavery. One hears, on the one hand, of the staid
+and gentle patriarchy, the wide and sleepy plantations with lord and
+retainers, ease and happiness; on the other hand one hears of barbarous
+cruelty and unbridled power and wide oppression of men.
+Which is the true picture? The answer is simple: both are true.
+They are not opposite sides of the same shield; they are different
+shields. They are pictures, on the one hand, of house service in the
+great country seats and in the towns, and on the other hand of the
+field laborers who raised the great tobacco, rice, and cotton crops.
+We have thus not only carelessly mixed pictures of what were really
+different kinds of slavery, but of that which represented different
+degrees in the development of the economic system. House service
+was the older feudal idea of personal retainership, developed in Virginia
+and Carolina in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. It
+had all the advantages and disadvantages of such a system; the advantage
+of the strong personal tie and disadvantage of unyielding
+caste distinctions, with the resultant immoralities. At its worst, however,
+it was a matter primarily of human relationships.</p>
+
+<p>Out of this older type of slavery in the northern South there developed,
+during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, in the
+southern South the type of slavery which corresponds to the modern
+factory system in its worst conceivable form. It represented production
+of a staple product on a large scale; between the owner and
+laborer were interposed the overseer and the drivers. The slaves were
+whipped and driven to a mechanical task system. Wide territory
+was needed, so that at last absentee landlordship was common. It
+was this latter type of slavery that marked the cotton kingdom, and
+the extension of the area of this system southward and westward
+marked the aggressive world-conquering visions of the slave barons.
+On the other hand it was the milder and far different Virginia house
+service and the personal retainership of town life in which most
+white children grew up; it was this that impressed their imaginations
+and which they have so vividly portrayed. The Negroes, however,
+knew the other side, for it was under the harsher, heartless driving
+of the fields that fully nine-tenths of them lived.</p>
+
+<p>There early began to be some internal development and growth
+of self-consciousness among the Negroes: for instance, in New
+England towns Negro &quot;governors&quot; were elected. This was partly an
+African custom transplanted and partly an endeavor to put the regulation
+of the slaves into their own hands. Negroes voted in those
+days: for instance, in North Carolina until 1835 the Constitution
+extended the franchise to every freeman, and when Negroes were
+disfranchised in 1835, several hundred colored men were deprived
+of the vote. In fact, as Albert Bushnell Hart says, &quot;In the colonies
+freed Negroes, like freed indentured white servants, acquired property,
+founded families, and came into the political community if
+they had the energy, thrift, and fortune to get the necessary property.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_94_94" id="FNanchor_94_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a></p>
+
+<p>The humanitarian movement of the eighteenth century was active
+toward Negroes, because of the part which they played in the Revolutionary
+War. Negro regiments and companies were raised in Connecticut
+and Rhode Island, and a large number of Negroes were
+members of the continental armies elsewhere. Individual Negroes
+distinguished themselves. It is estimated that five thousand Negroes
+fought in the American armies.</p>
+
+<p>The mass of the Americans considered at the time of the adoption
+of the Constitution that Negro slavery was doomed. There soon
+came a series of laws emancipating slaves in the North: Vermont
+began in 1779, followed by judicial decision in Massachusetts in
+1780 and gradual emancipation in Pennsylvania beginning the same
+year; emancipation was accomplished in New Hampshire in 1783,
+and in Connecticut and Rhode Island in 1784. The momentous
+exclusion of slavery in the Northwest Territory took place in 1787,
+and gradual emancipation began in New York and New Jersey in
+1799 and 1804.</p>
+
+<p>Beneficial and insurance societies began to appear among colored
+people. Nearly every town of any size in Virginia in the early eighteenth
+century had Negro organizations for caring for the sick and
+burying the dead. As the number of free Negroes increased, particularly
+in the North, these financial societies began to be openly
+formed. One of the earliest was the Free African Society of Philadelphia.
+This eventually became the present African Methodist
+Church, which has to-day half a million members and over eleven
+million dollars' worth of property.</p>
+
+<p>Negroes began to be received into the white church bodies in
+separate congregations, and before 1807 there is the record of the
+formation of eight such Negro churches. This brought forth leaders
+who were usually preachers in these churches. Richard Allen, the
+founder of the African Methodist Church, was one; Lot Carey, one
+of the founders of Liberia, was another. In the South there was John
+Chavis, who passed through a regular course of studies at what is
+now Washington and Lee University. He started a school for young
+white men in North Carolina and had among his pupils a United
+States senator, sons of a chief justice of North Carolina, a governor
+of the state, and many others. He was a full-blooded Negro, but a
+Southern writer says that &quot;all accounts agree that John Chavis was
+a gentleman. He was received socially among the best whites and
+asked to table.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_95_95" id="FNanchor_95_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the war of 1812 thirty-three hundred Negroes helped Jackson
+win the battle of New Orleans, and numbers fought in New York
+State and in the navy under Perry, Channing, and others. Phyllis
+Wheatley, a Negro girl, wrote poetry, and the mulatto, Benjamin
+Banneker, published one of the first American series of almanacs.</p>
+
+<p>In fine, it seemed in the early years of the nineteenth century that
+slavery in the United States would gradually disappear and that the
+Negro would have, in time, a man's chance. A change came, however,
+between 1820 and 1830, and it is directly traceable to the industrial
+revolution of the nineteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>Between 1738 and 1830 there had come a remarkable series of
+inventions which revolutionized the methods of making cloth. This
+series included the invention of the fly shuttle, the carding machine,
+the steam engine, and the power loom. The world began to look
+about for a cheaper and larger supply of fiber for weaving. It was
+found in the cotton plant, and the southern United States was especially
+adapted to its culture. The invention of the cotton gin removed
+the last difficulties. The South now had a crop which could
+be attended to by unskilled labor and for which there was practically
+unlimited demand. There was land, and rich land, in plenty.
+The result was that the cotton crop in the United States increased
+from 8,000 bales in 1790 to 650,000 bales in 1820, to 2,500,000 bales
+in 1850, and to 4,000,000 bales in 1860.</p>
+
+<p>In this growth one sees the economic foundation of the new
+slavery in the United States, which rose in the second decade of the
+nineteenth century. Manifestly the fatal procrastination in dealing
+with slavery in the eighteenth century received in the nineteenth
+century its terrible reward. The change in the attitude toward slavery
+was manifest in various ways. The South no longer excused slavery,
+but began to defend it as an economic system. The enforcement of
+the slave trade laws became notoriously lax and there was a tendency
+to make slave codes harsher.</p>
+
+<p>This led to retaliation on the part of the Negroes. There had not
+been in the United States before this many attempts at insurrection.
+The slaves were distributed over a wide territory, and before they
+became intelligent enough to cooperate the chance of emancipation
+was held before them. Several small insurrections are alluded to in
+South Carolina early in the eighteenth century, and one by Cato at
+Stono in 1740 caused widespread alarm. The Negro plot in New
+York in 1712 put the city into hysterics. There was no further plotting
+on any scale until the Haytian revolt, when Gabriel in Virginia
+made an abortive attempt. In 1822 a free Negro, Denmark Vesey,
+in South Carolina, failed in a well-laid plot, and ten years after that,
+in 1831, Nat Turner led his insurrection in Virginia and killed
+fifty-one persons. The result of this insurrection was to crystallize
+tendencies toward harshness which the economic revolution was
+making advisable.</p>
+
+<p>A wave of legislation passed over the South, prohibiting the slaves
+from learning to read and write, forbidding Negroes to preach, and
+interfering with Negro religious meetings. Virginia declared in 1831
+that neither slaves nor free Negroes might preach, nor could they
+attend religious service at night without permission. In North Carolina
+slaves and free Negroes were forbidden to preach, exhort, or
+teach &quot;in any prayer meeting or other association for worship where
+slaves of different families are collected together&quot; on penalty of not
+more than thirty-nine lashes. Maryland and Georgia and other states
+had similar laws.</p>
+
+<p>The real effective revolt of the Negro against slavery was not,
+however, by fighting, but by running away, usually to the North,
+which had been recently freed from slavery. From the beginning of
+the nineteenth century slaves began to escape in considerable numbers.
+Four geographical paths were chiefly followed: one, leading
+southward, was the line of swamps along the coast from Norfolk,
+Virginia, to the northern border of Florida. This gave rise to the
+Negro element among the Indians in Florida and led to the two
+Seminole wars of 1817 and 1835. These wars were really slave raids
+to make the Indians give up the Negro and half-breed slaves domiciled
+among them. The wars cost the United States ten million
+dollars and two thousand lives.</p>
+
+<p>The great Appalachian range, with its abutting mountains, was
+the safest path northward. Through Tennessee and Kentucky and
+the heart of the Cumberland Mountains, using the limestone caverns,
+was the third route, and the valley of the Mississippi was the
+western tunnel.</p>
+
+<p>These runaways and the freedmen of the North soon began to
+form a group of people who sought to consider the problem of
+slavery and the destiny of the Negro in America. They passed
+through many psychological changes of attitude in the years from
+1700 to 1850. At first, in the early part of the eighteenth century,
+there was but one thought: revolt and revenge. The development
+of the latter half of the century brought an attitude of hope and
+adjustment and emphasized the differences between the slave and
+the free Negro. The first part of the nineteenth century brought
+two movements: among the free Negroes an effort at self-development
+and protection through organization; among slaves and recent
+fugitives a distinct reversion to the older idea of revolt.</p>
+
+<p>As the new industrial slavery, following the rise of the cotton
+kingdom, began to press harder, a period of storm and stress ensued
+in the black world, and in 1829 came the first full-voiced, almost
+hysterical protest of a Negro against slavery and the color line in
+David Walker's Appeal, which aroused Southern legislatures to
+action.</p>
+
+<p>The decade 1830-40 was a severe period of trial. Not only were
+the chains of slavery tighter in the South, but in the North the
+free Negro was beginning to feel the ostracism and competition of
+white workingmen, native and foreign. In Philadelphia, between
+1829 and 1849, six mobs of hoodlums and foreigners murdered and
+maltreated Negroes. In the Middle West harsh black laws which
+had been enacted in earlier days were hauled from their hiding places
+and put into effect. No Negro was allowed to settle in Ohio unless
+he gave bond within twenty days to the amount of five thousand
+dollars to guarantee his good behavior and support. Harboring or
+concealing fugitives was heavily fined, and no Negro could give
+evidence in any case where a white man was party. These laws
+began to be enforced in 1829 and for three days riots went on in
+Cincinnati and Negroes were shot and killed. Aroused, the Negroes
+sent a deputation to Canada where they were offered asylum. Fully
+two thousand migrated from Ohio. Later large numbers from other
+parts of the United States joined them.</p>
+
+<p>In 1830-31 the first Negro conventions were called in Philadelphia
+to consider the desperate condition of the Negro population,
+and in 1833 the convention met again and local societies were
+formed. The first Negro paper was issued in New York in 1827,
+while later emancipation in the British West Indies brought some
+cheer in the darkness.</p>
+
+<p>A system of separate Negro schools was established and the little
+band of abolitionists led by Garrison and others appeared. In spite
+of all the untoward circumstances, therefore, the internal development
+of the free Negro in the North went on. The Negro population
+increased twenty-three per cent between 1830 and 1840; Philadelphia
+had, in 1838, one hundred small beneficial societies, while
+Ohio Negroes had ten thousand acres of land. The slave mutiny on
+the Creole, the establishment of the Negro Odd Fellows, and the
+growth of the Negro churches all indicated advancement.</p>
+
+<p>Between 1830 and 1850 the concerted co&ouml;peration to assist fugitives
+came to be known as the Underground Railroad. It was an organization
+not simply of white philanthropists, but the co&ouml;peration of
+Negroes in the most difficult part of the work made it possible.
+Hundreds of Negroes visited the slave states to entice the slaves
+away, and the list of Underground Railroad operators given by
+Siebert contains one hundred and twenty-eight names of Negroes.
+In Canada and in the northern United States there was a secret
+society, known as the League of Freedom, which especially worked
+to help slaves run away. Harriet Tubman was one of the most
+energetic of these slave conductors and brought away several thousand
+slaves. William Lambert, a colored man, was reputed between
+1829 and 1862 to have aided in the escape of thirty thousand.</p>
+
+<p>The decade 1840-50 was a period of hope and uplift for the
+Negro group, with clear evidences of distinct self-assertion and advance.
+A few well-trained lawyers and physicians appeared, and
+colored men took their place among the abolition orators. The catering
+business in Philadelphia and other cities fell largely into their
+hands, and some small merchants arose here and there. Above all,
+Frederick Douglass made his first speech in 1841 and thereafter
+became one of the most prominent figures in the abolition crusade.
+A new series of national conventions began to assemble late in the
+forties, and the delegates were drawn from the artisans and higher
+servants, showing a great increase of efficiency in the rank and file
+of the free Negroes.</p>
+
+<p>By 1850 the Negroes had increased to three and a half million.
+Those in Canada were being organized in settlements and were
+accumulating property. The escape of fugitive slaves was systematized
+and some of the most representative conventions met. One
+particularly, in 1854, grappled frankly with the problem of emigration.
+It looked as though it was going to be impossible for Negroes
+to remain in the United States and be free. As early as 1788 a
+Negro union of Newport, Rhode Island, had proposed a general
+exodus to Africa. John and Paul Cuffe, after petitioning for the
+right to vote in 1780, started in 1815 for Africa, organizing an expedition
+at their own expense which cost four thousand dollars. Lot
+Carey organized the African Mission Society in 1813, and the first
+Negro college graduate went to Liberia in 1829 and became superintendent
+of public schools. The Colonization Society encouraged
+this migration, and the Negroes themselves had organized the Canadian
+exodus.</p>
+
+<p>The Rochester Negro convention in 1853 pronounced against
+migration, but nevertheless emissaries were sent in various directions
+to see what inducements could be offered. One went to the Niger
+valley, one to Central America, and one to Hayti. The Haytian trip
+was successful and about two thousand black emigrants eventually
+settled in Hayti.</p>
+
+<p>Delaney, who went to Africa, concluded a treaty with eight kings
+offering inducements to Negroes, but nothing came of it. In 1853
+Negroes like Purvis and Barbadoes helped in the formation of the
+American Anti-slavery society, and for a while colored men co&ouml;perated
+with John Brown and probably would have given him considerable
+help if they had thoroughly known his plans. As it was,
+six or seven of his twenty-two followers were Negroes.</p>
+
+<p>Meantime the slave power was impelled by the high price of slaves
+and the exhaustion of cotton land to make increased demands. Slavery
+was forced north of Mason and Dixon's line in 1820; a new slave
+empire with thousands of slaves was annexed in 1850, and a fugitive
+slave law was passed which endangered the liberty of every free
+Negro; finally a determined attempt was made to force slavery into
+the Northwest in competition with free white labor, and less effective
+but powerful movements arose to annex more slave territory to
+the south and to reopen the African slave trade.</p>
+
+<p>It looked like a triumphal march for the slave barons, but each
+step cost more than the last. Missouri gave rise to the early abolitionist
+movement. Mexico and the fugitive slave law aroused deep
+opposition in the North, and Kansas developed an attack upon the
+free labor system, not simply of the North, but of the civilized world.
+The result was war; but the war was not against slavery. It was
+fought to protect free white laborers against the competition of
+slaves, and it was thought possible to do this by segregating slavery.</p>
+
+<p>The first thing that vexed the Northern armies on Southern soil
+during the war was the question of the disposition of the fugitive
+slaves, who immediately began to arrive in increasing numbers.
+Butler confiscated them, Fremont freed them, and Halleck caught
+and returned them; but their numbers swelled to such large proportions
+that the mere economic problem of their presence overshadowed
+everything else, especially after the Emancipation Proclamation.
+Lincoln was glad to have them come after once he realized
+their strength to the Confederacy.</p>
+
+<p>The Emancipation Proclamation was forced, not simply by the
+necessity of paralyzing industry in the South, but also by the necessity
+of employing Negro soldiers. During the first two years of the
+war no one wanted Negro soldiers. It was declared to be a &quot;white
+man's war.&quot; General Hunter tried to raise a regiment in South
+Carolina, but the War Department disavowed the act. In Louisiana
+the Negroes were anxious to enlist, but were held off. In the meantime
+the war did not go as well as the North had hoped, and on
+the twenty-sixth of January, 1863, the Secretary of War authorized
+the Governor of Massachusetts to raise two regiments of Negro
+troops. Frederick Douglass and others began the work with enthusiasm,
+and in the end one hundred and eighty-seven thousand
+Negroes enlisted in the Northern armies, of whom seventy thousand
+were killed and wounded. The conduct of these troops was exemplary.
+They were indispensable in camp duties and brave on the
+field, where they fought in two hundred and thirteen battles. General
+Banks wrote, &quot;Their conduct was heroic. No troops could be more
+determined or more daring.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_96_96" id="FNanchor_96_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a></p>
+
+<p>The assault on Fort Wagner, led by a thousand black soldiers
+under the white Colonel Shaw, is one of the greatest deeds of desperate
+bravery on record. On the other hand the treatment of Negro
+soldiers when captured by the Confederates was barbarous. At Fort
+Pillow, after the surrender of the federal troops, the colored regiment
+was indiscriminately butchered and some of them were buried
+alive.</p>
+
+<p>Abraham Lincoln said, &quot;The slightest knowledge of arithmetic
+will prove to any man that the rebel armies cannot be destroyed
+with Democratic strategy. It would sacrifice all the white men of the
+North to do it. There are now in the service of the United States
+near two hundred thousand able-bodied colored men, most of them
+under arms, defending and acquiring Union territory.... Abandon
+all the posts now garrisoned by black men; take two hundred
+thousand men from our side and put them in the battlefield or cornfield
+against us, and we would be compelled to abandon the war in
+three weeks.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_97_97" id="FNanchor_97_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a> Emancipation thus came as a war measure to break
+the power of the Confederacy, preserve the Union, and gain the
+sympathy of the civilized world.</p>
+
+<p>However, two hundred and forty-four years of slavery could not be
+stopped by edict. There were legal difficulties, the whole slow problem
+of economic readjustment, and the subtle and far-reaching questions
+of future race relations.</p>
+
+<p>The peculiar circumstances of emancipation forced the legal and
+political difficulties to the front, and these were so striking that they
+have since obscured the others in the eyes of students. Quite unexpectedly
+and without forethought the nation had emancipated
+four million slaves. Once the deed was done, the majority of the
+nation was glad and recognized that this was, after all, the only
+result of a fearful four years' war which in any degree justified it.
+But how was the result to be secured for all time? There were three
+possibilities: (1) to declare the slave free and leave him at the
+mercy of his former masters; (2) to establish a careful government
+guardianship designed to guide the slave from legal to real economic
+freedom; (3) to give the Negro the political power to guard
+himself as well as he could during this development. It is very easy
+to forget that the United States government tried each one of these
+in succession and was literally forced to adopt the third, because
+the first had utterly failed and the second was thought too &quot;paternal&quot;
+and especially too costly. To leave the Negroes helpless after
+a paper edict of emancipation was manifestly impossible. It would
+have meant that the war had been fought in vain.</p>
+
+<p>Carl Schurz, who traversed the South just after the war, said, &quot;A
+veritable reign of terror prevailed in many parts of the South. The
+Negro found scant justice in the local courts against the white man.
+He could look for protection only to the military forces of the
+United States still garrisoning the states lately in rebellion and to
+the Freedmen's Bureau.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_98_98" id="FNanchor_98_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a> This Freedmen's Bureau was proposed
+by Charles Sumner. If it had been presented to-day instead of fifty
+years ago, it would have been regarded as a proposal far less revolutionary
+than the state insurance of England and Germany. A half
+century ago, however, and in a country which gave the <i>laisser faire</i>
+economics their extremest trial, the Freedmen's Bureau struck the
+whole nation as unthinkable, save as a very temporary expedient
+and to relieve the more pointed forms of distress following war. Yet
+the proposals of the Bureau were both simple and sensible:</p>
+
+<p>1. To oversee the making and enforcement of wage contracts for
+freedmen.</p>
+
+<p>2. To appear in the courts as the freedmen's best friend.</p>
+
+<p>3. To furnish the freedmen with a minimum of land and of
+capital.</p>
+
+<p>4. To establish schools.</p>
+
+<p>5. To furnish such institutions of relief as hospitals, outdoor relief
+stations, etc.</p>
+
+<p>How a sensible people could expect really to conduct a slave
+into freedom with less than this it is hard to see. Even with such
+tutelage extending over a period of two or three decades, the ultimate
+end had to be enfranchisement and political and social freedom
+for those freedmen who attained a certain set standard. Otherwise
+the whole training had neither object nor guarantee. Precisely
+on this account the former masters opposed the Freedmen's Bureau
+with all their influence. They did not want the Negro trained or
+really freed, and they criticized mercilessly the many mistakes of the
+new Bureau.</p>
+
+<p>The North at first thought to pay for the main cost of the Freedmen's
+Bureau by confiscating the property of former slave owners;
+but finding this not in accordance with law, they realized that they
+were embarking on an enterprise which bade fair to add many millions
+to the already staggering cost of the war. When, therefore,
+they saw that the abolition of slavery could not be left to the white
+South and could not be done by the North without time and money,
+they determined to put the responsibility on the Negro himself. This
+was without a doubt a tremendous experiment, but with all its
+manifest mistakes it succeeded to an astonishing degree. It made
+the immediate re&euml;stablishment of the old slavery impossible, and it
+was probably the only quick method of doing this. It gave the freedmen's
+sons a chance to begin their education. It diverted the energy
+of the white South slavery to the recovery of political power, and
+in this interval, small as it was, the Negro took his first steps toward
+economic freedom.</p>
+
+<p>The difficulties that stared reconstruction politicians in the face
+were these: (1) They must act quickly. (2) Emancipation had increased
+the political power of the South by one-sixth. Could this
+increased political power be put in the hands of those who, in defense
+of slavery, had disrupted the Union? (3) How was the abolition
+of slavery to be made effective? (4) What was to be the political
+position of the freedmen?</p>
+
+<p>The Freedmen's Bureau in its short life accomplished a great task.
+Carl Schurz, in 1865, felt warranted in saying that &quot;not half of the
+labor that has been done in the South this year, or will be done
+there next year, would have been or would be done but for the exertions
+of the Freedmen's Bureau.... No other agency except one
+placed there by the national government could have wielded that
+moral power whose interposition was so necessary to prevent Southern
+society from falling at once into the chaos of a general collision
+between its different elements.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_99_99" id="FNanchor_99_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a> Notwithstanding this the Bureau
+was temporary, was regarded as a makeshift, and soon abandoned.</p>
+
+<p>Meantime partial Negro suffrage seemed not only just, but almost
+inevitable. Lincoln, in 1864, &quot;cautiously&quot; suggested to Louisiana's
+private consideration &quot;whether some of the colored people
+may not be let in as, for instance, the very intelligent, and especially
+those who fought gallantly in our ranks. They would probably help
+in some trying time to come, to keep the jewel of liberty in the family
+of freedom.&quot; Indeed, the &quot;family of freedom&quot; in Louisiana being
+somewhat small just then, who else was to be intrusted with the
+&quot;jewel&quot;? Later and for different reasons Johnson, in 1865, wrote to
+Mississippi, &quot;If you could extend the elective franchise to all persons
+of color who can read the Constitution of the United States in English
+and write their name, and to all persons of color who own real
+estate valued at not less than two hundred and fifty dollars, and pay
+taxes thereon, you would completely disarm the adversary and set
+an example the other states will follow. This you can do with perfect
+safety, and you thus place the Southern States, in reference to
+free persons of color, upon the same basis with the free states. I hope
+and trust your convention will do this.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>The Negroes themselves began to ask for the suffrage. The
+Georgia convention in Augusta (1866) advocated &quot;a proposition to
+give those who could write and read well and possessed a certain
+property qualification the right of suffrage.&quot; The reply of the South
+to these suggestions was decisive. In Tennessee alone was any action
+attempted that even suggested possible Negro suffrage in the future,
+and that failed. In all other states the &quot;Black Codes&quot; adopted were
+certainly not reassuring to the friends of freedom. To be sure, it was
+not a time to look for calm, cool, thoughtful action on the part of
+the white South. Their economic condition was pitiable, their fear
+of Negro freedom genuine. Yet it was reasonable to expect from
+them something less than repression and utter reaction toward
+slavery. To some extent this expectation was fulfilled. The abolition
+of slavery was recognized on the statute book, and the civil rights of
+owning property and appearing as a witness in cases in which he
+was a party were generally granted the Negro; yet with these in
+many cases went harsh and unbearable regulations which largely
+neutralized the concessions and certainly gave ground for an assumption
+that, once free, the South would virtually reenslave the Negro.
+The colored people themselves naturally feared this, protesting, as in
+Mississippi, &quot;against the reactionary policy prevailing and expressing
+the fear that the legislature will pass such prescriptive laws as will
+drive the freedmen from the state, or practically re&euml;nslave them.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>The codes spoke for themselves. As Burgess says, &quot;Almost every
+act, word, or gesture of the Negro, not consonant with good taste
+and good manners as well as good morals, was made a crime or misdemeanor
+for which he could first be fined by the magistrates and
+then be consigned to a condition of almost slavery for an indefinite
+time, if he could not pay the bill.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_100_100" id="FNanchor_100_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a></p>
+
+<p>All things considered, it seems probable that, if the South had
+been permitted to have its way in 1865, the harshness of Negro
+slavery would have been mitigated so as to make slave trading difficult,
+and so as to make it possible for a Negro to hold property and
+appear in some cases in court; but that in most other respects the
+blacks would have remained in slavery.</p>
+
+<p>What could prevent this? A Freedmen's Bureau established for
+ten, twenty, or forty years, with a careful distribution of land and
+capital and a system of education for the children, might have prevented
+such an extension of slavery. But the country would not
+listen to such a comprehensive plan. A restricted grant of the suffrage
+voluntarily made by the states would have been a reassuring
+proof of a desire to treat the freedmen fairly and would have balanced
+in part, at least, the increased political power of the South.
+There was no such disposition evident.</p>
+
+<p>In Louisiana, for instance, under the proposed reconstruction &quot;not
+one Negro was allowed to vote, though at that very time the wealthy
+intelligent free colored people of the state paid taxes on property
+assessed at fifteen million dollars and many of them were well
+known for their patriotic zeal and love for the Union.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_101_101" id="FNanchor_101_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a></p>
+
+<p>Thus the arguments for universal Negro suffrage from the start
+were strong and are still strong, and no one would question their
+strength were it not for the assumption that the experiment failed.
+Frederick Douglass said to President Johnson, &quot;Your noble and
+humane predecessor placed in our hands the sword to assist in saving
+the nation, and we do hope that you, his able successor, will
+favorably regard the placing in our hands the ballot with which to
+save ourselves.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_102_102" id="FNanchor_102_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_102_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a></p>
+
+<p>Carl Schurz wrote, &quot;It is idle to say that it will be time to speak
+of Negro suffrage when the whole colored race will be educated, for
+the ballot may be necessary to him to secure his education.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_103_103" id="FNanchor_103_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_103_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a></p>
+
+<p>The granting of full Negro suffrage meant one of two alternatives
+to the South: (1) The uplift of the Negro for sheer self-preservation.
+This is what Schurz and the saner North expected. As one
+Southern school superintendent said, &quot;The elevation of this class is
+a matter of prime importance, since a ballot in the hands of a black
+citizen is quite as potent as in the hands of a white one.&quot; Or (2)
+Negro suffrage meant a determined concentration of Southern effort
+by actual force to deprive the Negro of the ballot or nullify its use.
+This last is what really happened. But even in this case, so much
+energy was taken in keeping the Negro from voting that the plan
+for keeping him in virtual slavery and denying him education partially
+failed. It took ten years to nullify Negro suffrage in part and
+twenty years to escape the fear of federal intervention. In these
+twenty years a vast number of Negroes had arisen so far as to escape
+slavery forever. Debt peonage could be fastened on part of the rural
+South and was; but even here the new Negro landholder appeared.
+Thus despite everything the Fifteenth Amendment, and that alone,
+struck the death knell of slavery.</p>
+
+<p>The steps toward the Fifteenth Amendment were taken slowly.
+First Negroes were allowed to take part in reconstructing the state
+governments. This was inevitable if loyal governments were to be
+obtained. Next the restored state governments were directed to enfranchise
+all citizens, black or white, or have their representation in
+Congress cut down proportionately. Finally the United States said
+the last word of simple justice: the states may regulate the suffrage,
+but no state may deprive a person of the right to vote simply because
+he is a Negro or has been a slave.</p>
+
+<p>For such reasons the Negro was enfranchised. What was the result?
+No language has been spared to describe these results as the
+worst imaginable. This is not true. There were bad results, and bad
+results arising from Negro suffrage; but those results were not so bad
+as usually painted, nor was Negro suffrage the prime cause of many
+of them. Let us not forget that the white South believed it to be of
+vital interest to its welfare that the experiment of Negro suffrage
+should fail ignominiously and that almost to a man the whites were
+willing to insure this failure either by active force or passive acquiescence;
+that besides this there were, as might be expected, men,
+black and white, Northern and Southern, only too eager to take
+advantage of such a situation for feathering their own nests. Much
+evil must result in such case; but to charge the evil to Negro suffrage
+is unfair. It may be charged to anger, poverty, venality, and ignorance,
+but the anger and poverty were the almost inevitable aftermath
+of war; the venality was much greater among whites than
+Negroes both North and South, and while ignorance was the curse
+of Negroes, the fault was not theirs and they took the initiative to
+correct it.</p>
+
+<p>The chief charges against the Negro governments are extravagance,
+theft, and incompetency of officials. There is no serious
+charge that these governments threatened civilization or the foundations
+of social order. The charge is that they threatened property and
+that they were inefficient. These charges are in part undoubtedly
+true, but they are often exaggerated. The South had been terribly
+impoverished and saddled with new social burdens. In other words,
+states with smaller resources were asked not only to do a work of
+restoration, but a larger social work. The property holders were
+aghast. They not only demurred, but, predicting ruin and revolution,
+they appealed to secret societies, to intimidation, force, and
+murder. They refused to believe that these novices in government
+and their friends were aught but scamps and fools. Under the circumstances
+occurring directly after the war, the wisest statesman
+would have been compelled to resort to increased taxation and would
+have, in turn, been execrated as extravagant, dishonest, and incompetent.
+It is easy, therefore, to see what flaming and incredible stories
+of Reconstruction governments could gain wide currency and belief.
+In fact the extravagance, although great, was not universal, and
+much of it was due to the extravagant spirit pervading the whole
+country in a day of inflated currency and speculation.</p>
+
+<p>That the Negroes led by the astute thieves, became at first tools
+and received some small share of the spoils is true. But two considerations
+must be added: much of the legislation which resulted in
+fraud was represented to the Negroes as good legislation, and thus
+their votes were secured by deliberate misrepresentation. Take, for
+instance, the land frauds of South Carolina. A wise Negro leader
+of that state, advocating the state purchase of farm lands, said, &quot;One
+of the greatest of slavery bulwarks was the infernal plantation system,
+one man owning his thousand, another his twenty, another
+fifty thousand acres of land. This is the only way by which we will
+break up that system, and I maintain that our freedom will be of no
+effect if we allow it to continue. What is the main cause of the
+prosperity of the North? It is because every man has his own farm
+and is free and independent. Let the lands of the South be similarly
+divided.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_104_104" id="FNanchor_104_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_104_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a></p>
+
+<p>From such arguments the Negroes were induced to aid a scheme
+to buy land and distribute it. Yet a large part of eight hundred thousand
+dollars appropriated was wasted and went to the white landholders'
+pockets.</p>
+
+<p>The most inexcusable cheating of the Negroes took place through
+the Freedmen's Bank. This bank was incorporated by Congress in
+1865 and had in its list of incorporators some of the greatest names
+in America including Peter Cooper, William Cullen Bryan and
+John Jay. Yet the bank was allowed to fail in 1874 owing the freedmen
+their first savings of over three millions of dollars. They have
+never been reimbursed.</p>
+
+<p>Many Negroes were undoubtedly venal, but more were ignorant
+and deceived. The question is: Did they show any signs of a disposition
+to learn to better things? The theory of democratic government
+is not that the will of the people is always right, but rather
+that normal human beings of average intelligence will, if given a
+chance, learn the right and best course by bitter experience. This
+is precisely what the Negro voters showed indubitable signs of
+doing. First they strove for schools to abolish ignorance, and second,
+a large and growing number of them revolted against the extravagance
+and stealing that marred the beginning of Reconstruction, and
+joined with the best elements to institute reform. The greatest stigma
+on the white South is not that it opposed Negro suffrage and resented
+theft and incompetence, but that, when it saw the reform
+movements growing and even in some cases triumphing, and a larger
+and larger number of black voters learning to vote for honesty and
+ability, it still preferred a Reign of Terror to a campaign of education
+and disfranchised Negroes instead of punishing rascals.</p>
+
+<p>No one has expressed this more convincingly than a Negro who
+was himself a member of the Reconstruction legislature of South
+Carolina, and who spoke at the convention which disfranchised
+him against one of the onslaughts of Tillman. &quot;We were eight years
+in power. We had built school houses, established charitable institutions,
+built and maintained the penitentiary system, provided for
+the education of the deaf and dumb, rebuilt the jails and court
+houses, rebuilt the bridges, and reestablished the ferries. In short,
+we had reconstructed the state and placed it upon the road to prosperity,
+and at the same time, by our acts of financial reform, transmitted
+to the Hampton government an indebtedness not greater by
+more than two and a half million dollars than was the bonded debt
+of the state in 1868, before the Republican Negroes and their white
+allies came into power.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_105_105" id="FNanchor_105_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_105_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a></p>
+
+<p>So, too, in Louisiana in 1872, and in Mississippi later, the better
+element of the Republicans triumphed at the polls and, joining with
+the Democrats, instituted reforms, repudiated the worst extravagance,
+and started toward better things. Unfortunately there was one thing
+that the white South feared more than Negro dishonesty, ignorance,
+and incompetency, and that was Negro honesty, knowledge, and
+efficiency.</p>
+
+<p>In the midst of all these difficulties the Negro governments in the
+South accomplished much of positive good. We may recognize three
+things which Negro rule gave to the South: (1) democratic government,
+(2) free public schools, (3) new social legislation.</p>
+
+<p>In general, the words of Judge Albion W. Tourgee, a white &quot;carpet
+bagger,&quot; are true when he says of the Negro governments,
+&quot;They obeyed the Constitution of the United States and annulled
+the bonds of states, counties, and cities which had been issued to
+carry on the War of Rebellion and maintain armies in the field
+against the Union. They instituted a public school system in a realm
+where public schools had been unknown. They opened the ballot
+box and the jury box to thousands of white men who had been
+debarred from them by a lack of earthly possessions. They introduced
+home rule into the South. They abolished the whipping post,
+the branding iron, the stocks, and other barbarous forms of punishment
+which had up to that time prevailed. They reduced capital
+felonies from about twenty to two or three. In an age of extravagance
+they were extravagant in the sums appropriated for public works.
+In all of that time no man's rights of persons were invaded under
+the forms of law. Every Democrat's life, home, fireside, and business
+were safe. No man obstructed any white man's way to the ballot
+box, interfered with his freedom of speech, or boycotted him on account
+of his political faith.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_106_106" id="FNanchor_106_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_106_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a></p>
+
+<p>A thorough study of the legislation accompanying these constitutions
+and its changes since shows the comparatively small amount
+of change in law and government which the overthrow of Negro
+rule brought about. There were sharp and often hurtful economies
+introduced, marking the return of property to power; there was a
+sweeping change of officials, but the main body of Reconstruction
+legislation stood. The Reconstruction democracy brought forth new
+leaders and definitely overthrew the old Southern aristocracy. Among
+these new men were Negroes of worth and ability. John R. Lynch,
+when Speaker of the Mississippi House of Representatives, was
+given a public testimonial by Republicans and Democrats, and the
+leading white paper said, &quot;His bearing in office had been so proper,
+and his rulings in such marked contrasts to the partisan conduct of
+the ignoble whites of his party who have aspired to be leaders of the
+blacks, that the conservatives cheerfully joined in the testimonial.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_107_107" id="FNanchor_107_107"></a><a href="#Footnote_107_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a></p>
+
+<p>Of the colored treasurer of South Carolina the white Governor
+Chamberlain said, &quot;I have never heard one word or seen one act of
+Mr. Cardoza's which did not confirm my confidence in his personal
+integrity and his political honor and zeal for the honest administration
+of the state government. On every occasion, and under all circumstances,
+he has been against fraud and robbery and in favor of
+good measures and good men.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_108_108" id="FNanchor_108_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_108_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a></p>
+
+<p>Jonathan C. Gibbs, a colored man and the first state superintendent
+of instruction in Florida, was a graduate of Dartmouth. He
+established the system and brought it to success, dying in harness
+in 1874. Such men&mdash;and there were others&mdash;ought not to be forgotten
+or confounded with other types of colored and white Reconstruction
+leaders.</p>
+
+<p>There is no doubt that the thirst of the black man for knowledge,
+a thirst which has been too persistent and durable to be mere
+curiosity or whim, gave birth to the public school system of the
+South. It was the question upon which black voters and legislators
+insisted more than anything else, and while it is possible to find
+some vestiges of free schools in some of the Southern States before
+the war, yet a universal, well-established system dates from the day
+that the black man got political power.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, in legislation covering property, the wider functions of
+the state, the punishment of crime and the like, it is sufficient to
+say that the laws on these points established by Reconstruction legislatures
+were not only different from and even revolutionary to the
+laws in the older South, but they were so wise and so well suited to
+the needs of the new South that, in spite of a retrogressive movement
+following the overthrow of the Negro governments, the mass
+of this legislation, with elaborations and development, still stands
+on the statute books of the South.<a name="FNanchor_109_109" id="FNanchor_109_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_109_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a></p>
+
+<p>The triumph of reaction in the South inaugurated a new era in
+which we may distinguish three phases: the renewed attempt to
+reduce the Negroes to serfdom, the rise of the Negro metayer, and
+the economic disfranchisement of the Southern working class.</p>
+
+<p>The attempt to replace individual slavery had been frustrated by
+the Freedmen's Bureau and the Fifteenth Amendment. The disfranchisement
+of 1876 was followed by the widespread rise of
+&quot;crime&quot; peonage. Stringent laws on vagrancy, guardianship, and
+labor contracts were enacted and large discretion given judge and
+jury in cases of petty crime. As a result Negroes were systematically
+arrested on the slightest pretext and the labor of convicts leased to
+private parties. This &quot;convict lease system&quot; was almost universal in
+the South until about 1890, when its outrageous abuses and cruelties
+aroused the whole country. It still survives over wide areas, and
+is not only responsible for the impression that the Negro is a natural
+criminal, but also for the inability of the Southern courts to
+perform their normal functions after so long a prostitution to ends
+far removed from justice.</p>
+
+<p>In more normal economic lines the employers began with the
+labor contract system. Before the war they owned labor, land, and
+subsistence. After the war they still held the land and subsistence.
+The laborer was hired and the subsistence &quot;advanced&quot; to him while
+the crop was growing. The fall of the Freedmen's Bureau hindered
+the transmutation of this system into a modern wage system, and
+allowed the laborers to be cheated by high interest charges on the
+subsistence advanced and actual cheating often in book accounts.</p>
+
+<p>The black laborers became deeply dissatisfied under this system
+and began to migrate from the country to the cities, where there was
+an increasing demand for labor. The employing farmers complained
+bitterly of the scarcity of labor and of Negro &quot;laziness,&quot; and secured
+the enactment of harsher vagrancy and labor contract laws, and
+statutes against the &quot;enticement&quot; of laborers. So severe were these
+laws that it was often impossible for a laborer to stop work without
+committing a felony. Nevertheless competition compelled the landholders
+to offer more inducements to the farm hand. The result was
+the rise of the black share tenant: the laborer securing better wages
+saved a little capital and began to hire land in parcels of forty to
+eighty acres, furnishing his own tools and seed and practically raising
+his own subsistence. In this way the whole face of the labor
+contract in the South was, in the decade 1880-90, in process of
+change from a nominal wage contract to a system of tenantry. The
+great plantations were apparently broken up into forty and eighty
+acre farms with black farmers. To many it seemed that emancipation
+was accomplished, and the black folk were especially filled with
+joy and hope.</p>
+
+<p>It soon was evident, however, that the change was only partial.
+The landlord still held the land in large parcels. He rented this in
+small farms to tenants, but retained direct control. In theory the
+laborer was furnishing capital, but in the majority of cases he was
+borrowing at least a part of this capital from some merchant.</p>
+
+<p>The retail merchant in this way entered on the scene as middle
+man between landlord and laborer. He guaranteed the landowner
+his rent and relieved him of details by taking over the furnishing of
+supplies to the laborer. He tempted the laborer by a larger stock of
+more attractive goods, made a direct contract with him, and took a
+mortgage on the growing crop. Thus he soon became the middle
+man to whom the profit of the transaction largely flowed, and he
+began to get rich.</p>
+
+<p>If the new system benefited the merchant and the landlord, it also
+brought some benefits to the black laborers. Numbers of these were
+still held in peonage, and the mass were laborers working for scant
+board and clothes; but above these began to rise a large number of
+independent tenants and farm owners.</p>
+
+<p>In 1890, therefore, the South was faced by this question: Are we
+willing to allow the Negro to advance as a free worker, peasant
+farmer, metayer, and small capitalist, with only such handicaps as
+naturally impede the poor and ignorant, or is it necessary to erect
+further artificial barriers to restrain the advance of the Negroes? The
+answer was clear and unmistakable. The advance of the freedmen
+had been too rapid and the South feared it; every effort must be
+made to &quot;keep the Negro in his place&quot; as a servile caste.</p>
+
+<p>To this end the South strove to make the disfranchisement of the
+Negroes effective and final. Up to this time disfranchisement was
+illegal and based on intimidation. The new laws passed between
+1890 and 1910 sought on their face to base the right to vote on
+property and education in such a way as to exclude poor and illiterate
+Negroes and admit all whites. In fact they could be administered
+so as to exclude nearly all Negroes. To this was added a series
+of laws designed publicly to humiliate and stigmatize Negro blood:
+as, for example, separate railway cars; separate seats in street cars,
+and the like; these things were added to the separation in schools
+and churches, and the denial of redress to seduced colored women,
+which had long been the custom in the South. All these new enactments
+meant not simply separation, but subordination, caste, humiliation,
+and flagrant injustice.</p>
+
+<p>To all this was added a series of labor laws making the exploitation
+of Negro labor more secure. All this legislation had to be accomplished
+in the face of the labor movement throughout the
+world, and particularly in the South, where it was beginning to enter
+among the white workers. This was accomplished easily, however,
+by an appeal to race prejudice. No method of inflaming the darkest
+passions of men was unused. The lynching mob was given its glut
+of blood and egged on by purposely exaggerated and often wholly
+invented tales of crime on the part of perhaps the most peaceful and
+sweet-tempered race the world has ever known. Under the flame
+of this outward noise went the more subtle and dangerous work.
+The election laws passed in the states where three-fourths of the
+Negroes live, were so ingeniously framed that a black university
+graduate could be prevented from voting and the most ignorant
+white hoodlum could be admitted to the polls. Labor laws were so
+arranged that imprisonment for debt was possible and leaving an
+employer could be made a penitentiary offense. Negro schools were
+cut off with small appropriations or wholly neglected, and a determined
+effort was made with wide success to see that no Negro had
+any voice either in the making or the administration of local, state,
+or national law.</p>
+
+<p>The acquiescence of the white labor vote of the South was further
+insured by throwing white and black laborers, so far as possible,
+into rival competing groups and making each feel that the one
+was the cause of the other's troubles. The neutrality of the white
+people of the North was secured through their fear for the safety of
+large investments in the South, and through the fatalistic attitude
+common both in America and Europe toward the possibility of real
+advance on the part of the darker nations.</p>
+
+<p>The reaction of the Negro Americans upon this wholesale and
+open attempt to reduce them to serfdom has been interesting. Naturally
+they began to organize and protest and in some cases to appeal
+to the courts. Then, to their astonishment, there arose a colored
+leader, Mr. Booker T. Washington, who advised them to yield to
+disfranchisement and caste and wait for greater economic strength
+and general efficiency before demanding full rights as American
+citizens. The white South naturally agreed with Mr. Washington,
+and the white North thought they saw here a chance for peace
+in the racial conflict and safety for their Southern investments.</p>
+
+<p>For a time the colored people hesitated. They respected Mr.
+Washington for shrewdness and recognized the wisdom of his
+homely insistence on thrift and hard work; but gradually they came
+to see more and more clearly that, stripped of political power and
+emasculated by caste, they could never gain sufficient economic
+strength to take their place as modern men. They also realized that
+any lull in their protests would be taken advantage of by Negro
+haters to push their caste program. They began, therefore, with
+renewed persistence to fight for their fundamental rights as American
+citizens. The struggle tended at first to bitter personal dissension
+within the group. But wiser counsels and the advice of white friends
+eventually prevailed and raised it to the broad level of a fight for the
+fundamental principles of democracy. The launching of the &quot;Niagara
+Movement&quot; by twenty-nine daring colored men in 1905, followed
+by the formation of the National Association for the Advancement
+of Colored People in 1910, marked an epoch in the advance
+of the Negro. This latter organization, with its monthly organ, <i>The
+Crisis</i>, is now waging a nation-wide fight for justice to Negroes.
+Other organizations, and a number of strong Negro weekly papers
+are aiding in this fight. What has been the net result of this struggle
+of half a century?</p>
+
+<p>In 1863 there were about five million persons of Negro descent in
+the United States. Of these, four million and more were just being
+released from slavery. These slaves could be bought and sold, could
+move from place to place only with permission, were forbidden to
+learn to read or write, and legally could never hold property or
+marry. Ninety per cent were totally illiterate, and only one adult in
+six was a nominal Christian.</p>
+
+<p>Fifty years later, in 1913, there were in the United States ten and
+a quarter million persons of Negro descent, an increase of one hundred
+and five per cent. Legal slavery has been abolished leaving,
+however, vestiges in debt slavery, peonage, and the convict lease
+system. The mass of the freedmen and their sons have</p>
+
+<p>1. Earned a living as free and partially free laborers.</p>
+
+<p>2. Shared the responsibilities of government.</p>
+
+<p>3. Developed the internal organization of their race.</p>
+
+<p>4. Aspired to spiritual self-expression.</p>
+
+<p>The Negro was freed as a penniless, landless, naked, ignorant
+laborer. There were a few free Negroes who owned property in the
+South, and a larger number who owned property in the North; but
+ninety-nine per cent of the race in the South were penniless field
+hands and servants.</p>
+
+<p>To-day there are two and a half million laborers, the majority of
+whom are efficient wage earners. Above these are more than a
+million servants and tenant farmers; skilled and semi-skilled workers
+make another million and at the top of the economic column are
+600,000 owners and managers of farms and businesses, cash tenants,
+officials, and professional men. This makes a total of 5,192,535
+colored breadwinners in 1910.</p>
+
+<p>More specifically these breadwinners include 218,972 farm owners
+and 319,346 cash farm tenants and managers. There were in all
+62,755 miners, 288,141 in the building and hand trades; 28,515
+workers in clay, glass, and stone; 41,739 iron and steel workers;
+134,102 employees on railways; 62,822 draymen, cab drivers, and
+liverymen; 133,245 in wholesale and retail trade; 32,170 in the public
+service; and 69,471 in professional service, including 29,750
+teachers, 17,495 clergymen, and 4,546 physicians, dentists, trained
+nurses, etc. Finally, we must not forget 2,175,000 Negro homes,
+with their housewives, and 1,620,000 children in school.</p>
+
+<p>Fifty years ago the overwhelming mass of these people were not
+only penniless, but were themselves assessed as real estate. By 1875
+the Negroes probably had gotten hold of something between 2,000,000
+and 4,000,000 acres of land through their bounties as soldiers
+and the low price of land after the war. By 1880 this was increased
+to about 6,000,000 acres; in 1890 to about 8,000,000 acres; in 1900
+to over 12,000,000 acres. In 1910 this land had increased to nearly
+20,000,000 acres, a realm as large as Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>The 120,738 farms owned by Negroes in 1890 increased to
+218,972 in 1910, or eighty-one per cent. The value of these farms
+increased from $179,796,639 in 1900 to $440,992,439 in 1910; Negroes
+owned in 1910 about 500,000 homes out of a total of 2,175,000.
+Their total property in 1900 was estimated at $300,000,000 by
+the American Economic Association. On the same basis of calculation
+it would be worth to-day not less than $800,000,000.</p>
+
+<p>Despite the disfranchisement of three-fourths of his voting population,
+the Negro to-day is a recognized part of the American government.
+He holds 7,500 offices in the executive service of the
+nation, besides furnishing four regiments in the army and a large
+number of sailors. In the state and municipal service he holds nearly
+20,000 other offices, and he furnishes 500,000 of the votes which
+rule the Union.</p>
+
+<p>In these same years the Negro has relearned the lost art of organization.
+Slavery was the almost absolute denial of initiative and
+responsibility. To-day Negroes have nearly 40,000 churches, with
+edifices worth at least $75,000,000 and controlling nearly 4,000,000
+members. They raise themselves $7,500,000 a year for these
+churches.</p>
+
+<p>There are 200 private schools and colleges managed and almost
+entirely supported by Negroes, and these and other public and
+private Negro schools have received in 40 years $45,000,000 of
+Negro money in taxes and donations. Five millions a year are raised
+by Negro secret and beneficial societies which hold at least $6,000,000
+in real estate. Negroes support wholly or in part over 100 old
+folks' homes and orphanages, 30 hospitals, and 500 cemeteries. Their
+organized commercial life is extending rapidly and includes over
+22,000 small retail businesses and 40 banks.</p>
+
+<p>Above and beyond this material growth has gone the spiritual
+uplift of a great human race. From contempt and amusement they
+have passed to the pity, perplexity, and fear on the part of their
+neighbors, while within their own souls they have arisen from
+apathy and timid complaint to open protest and more and more
+manly self-assertion. Where nine-tenths of them could not read or
+write in 1860, to-day over two-thirds can; they have 300 papers and
+periodicals, and their voice and expression are compelling attention.
+Already in poetry, literature, music, and painting the work of
+Americans of Negro descent has gained notable recognition. Instead
+of being led and defended by others, as in the past, American
+Negroes are gaining their own leaders, their own voices, their own
+ideals. Self-realization is thus coming slowly but surely to another
+of the world's great races, and they are to-day girding themselves to
+fight in the van of progress, not simply for their own rights as men,
+but for the ideals of the greater world in which they live: the
+emancipation of women, universal peace, democratic government,
+the socialization of wealth, and human brotherhood.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_90_90" id="Footnote_90_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a>
+
+The figures given by the census are as follows:<br />
+1850, mulattoes formed 11.2 per cent of the total Negro population.<br />
+1860, mulattoes formed 13.2 per cent of the total Negro population.<br />
+1870, mulattoes formed 12 per cent of the total Negro population.<br />
+1890, mulattoes formed 15.2 per cent of the total Negro population.<br />
+1910, mulattoes formed 20.9 per cent of the total Negro population.<br /><br />
+Or in actual numbers:<br />
+1850, 405,751 mulattoes.<br />
+1860, 588,352 mulattoes.<br />
+1870, 585,601 mulattoes.<br />
+1890, 1,132,060 mulattoes.<br />
+1910, 2,050,686 mulattoes.<br />
+</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_91_91" id="Footnote_91_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> Cf. &quot;The Spanish Jurist Solorzaris,&quot; quoted in Helps: <i>Spanish Conquest</i>,
+IV, 381.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_92_92" id="Footnote_92_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> Hurd: <i>Law of Freedom and Bondage</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_93_93" id="Footnote_93_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> &quot;Obi (Obeah, Obiah, or Obia) is the adjective; Obe or Obi, the noun. It is
+of African origin, probably connected with Egyptian Ob, Aub, or Obron, meaning
+'serpent.' Moses forbids Israelites ever to consult the demon Ob, i.e.,
+'Charmer, Wizard.' The Witch of Endor is called Oub or Ob. Oubaois is the
+name of the Baselisk or Royal Serpent, emblem of the Sun, and, according to
+Horus Appollo, 'the Ancient Deity of Africa.'&quot;&mdash;Edwards: <i>West Indies</i>, ed.
+1819, II. 106-119. Cf. Johnston: <i>Negro in the New World</i>, pp. 65-66; <i>also
+Atlanta University Publications</i>, No. 8, pp. 5-6.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_94_94" id="Footnote_94_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> <i>Boston Transcript</i>, March 24, 1906.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_95_95" id="Footnote_95_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> Bassett: <i>North Carolina</i>, pp. 73-76.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_96_96" id="Footnote_96_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> Cf. Wilson: <i>The Black Phalanx</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_97_97" id="Footnote_97_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> Wilson: <i>The Black Phalanx</i>, p. 108.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_98_98" id="Footnote_98_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> <i>American Historical Review</i>, Vol. XV.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_99_99" id="Footnote_99_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> Report to President Johnson.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_100_100" id="Footnote_100_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> <i>Reconstruction and the Constitution.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_101_101" id="Footnote_101_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a> Brewster: <i>Sketches</i>, etc.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_102_102" id="Footnote_102_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> McPherson: <i>Reconstruction</i>, p. 52.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_103_103" id="Footnote_103_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a> Report to the President, 1865.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_104_104" id="Footnote_104_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a> <i>American Historical Review</i>, Vol. XV, No. 4.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_105_105" id="Footnote_105_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a> <i>Occasional Papers</i>, American Negro Academy, No. 6.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_106_106" id="Footnote_106_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106_106"><span class="label">[106]</span></a> <i>Occasional Papers</i>, American Negro Academy, No. 6.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_107_107" id="Footnote_107_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_107_107"><span class="label">[107]</span></a> <i>Jackson (Miss.) Clarion</i>, April 24, 1873.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_108_108" id="Footnote_108_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_108_108"><span class="label">[108]</span></a> Allen: <i>Governor Chamberlain's Administration</i>, p. 82.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_109_109" id="Footnote_109_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109_109"><span class="label">[109]</span></a> Reconstruction Constitutions, practically unaltered, were kept in Florida,
+1868-85, seventeen years; Virginia, 1870-1902, thirty-two years; South Carolina,
+1868-95, twenty-seven years; Mississippi, 1868-90, twenty-two years.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="XII_THE_NEGRO_PROBLEMS" id="XII_THE_NEGRO_PROBLEMS" />XII <br /><br />THE NEGRO PROBLEMS</h2>
+
+
+<p>It is impossible to separate the population of the world accurately
+by race, since that is no scientific criterion by which to divide races.
+If we divide the world, however, roughly into African Negroes and
+Negroids, European whites, and Asiatic and American brown and
+yellow peoples, we have approximately 150,000,000 Negroes, 500,000,000
+whites, and 900,000,000 yellow and brown peoples. Of the
+150,000,000 Negroes, 121,000,000 live in Africa, 27,000,000<a name="FNanchor_110_110" id="FNanchor_110_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_110_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a> in the
+new world, and 2,000,000 in Asia.</p>
+
+<p>What is to be the future relation of the Negro race to the rest of
+the world? The visitor from Altruria might see here no peculiar
+problem. He would expect the Negro race to develop along the lines
+of other human races. In Africa his economic and political development
+would restore and eventually outrun the ancient glories of
+Egypt, Ethiopia, and Yoruba; overseas the West Indies would become
+a new and nobler Africa, built in the very pathway of the
+new highway of commerce between East and West&mdash;the real sea
+route to India; while in the United States a large part of its citizenship
+(showing for perhaps centuries their dark descent, but nevertheless
+equal sharers of and contributors to the civilization of the
+West) would be the descendants of the wretched victims of the
+seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth century slave trade.</p>
+
+<p>This natural assumption of a stranger finds, however, lodging in
+the minds of few present-day thinkers. On the contrary, such an
+outcome is usually dismissed summarily. Most persons have accepted
+that tacit but clear modern philosophy which assigns to the white
+race alone the hegemony of the world and assumes that other races,
+and particularly the Negro race, will either be content to serve the
+interests of the whites or die out before their all-conquering march.
+This philosophy is the child of the African slave trade and of the
+expansion of Europe during the nineteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>The Negro slave trade was the first step in modern world commerce,
+followed by the modern theory of colonial expansion. Slaves
+as an article of commerce were shipped as long as the traffic paid.
+When the Americas had enough black laborers for their immediate
+demand, the moral action of the eighteenth century had a chance
+to make its faint voice heard.</p>
+
+<p>The moral repugnance was powerfully re&euml;nforced by the revolt
+of the slaves in the West Indies and South America, and by the fact
+that North America early began to regard itself as the seat of advanced
+ideas in politics, religion, and humanity.</p>
+
+<p>Finally European capital began to find better investments than
+slave shipping and flew to them. These better investments were the
+fruit of the new industrial revolution of the nineteenth century,
+with its factory system; they were also in part the result of the
+cheapened price of gold and silver, brought about by slavery and
+the slave trade to the new world. Commodities other than gold, and
+commodities capable of manufacture and exploitation in Europe out
+of materials furnishable by America, became enhanced in value; the
+bottom fell out of the commercial slave trade and its suppression
+became possible.</p>
+
+<p>The middle of the nineteenth century saw the beginning of the
+rise of the modern working class. By means of political power the laborers
+slowly but surely began to demand a larger share in the
+profiting industry. In the United States their demand bade fair to
+be halted by the competition of slave labor. The labor vote, therefore,
+first confined slavery to limits in which it could not live, and
+when the slave power sought to exceed these territorial limits, it
+was suddenly and unintentionally abolished.</p>
+
+<p>As the emancipation of millions of dark workers took place in
+the West Indies, North and South America, and parts of Africa at
+this time, it was natural to assume that the uplift of this working
+class lay along the same paths with that of European and American
+whites. This was the <i>first</i> suggested solution of the Negro problem.
+Consequently these Negroes received partial enfranchisement, the
+beginnings of education, and some of the elementary rights of wage
+earners and property holders, while the independence of Liberia
+and Hayti was recognized. However, long before they were strong
+enough to assert the rights thus granted or to gather intelligence
+enough for proper group leadership, the new colonialism of the
+later nineteenth and twentieth centuries began to dawn. The new
+colonial theory transferred the reign of commercial privilege and
+extraordinary profit from the exploitation of the European working
+class to the exploitation of backward races under the political domination
+of Europe. For the purpose of carrying out this idea the
+European and white American working class was practically invited
+to share in this new exploitation, and particularly were flattered by
+popular appeals to their inherent superiority to &quot;Dagoes,&quot; &quot;Chinks,&quot;
+&quot;Japs,&quot; and &quot;Niggers.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>This tendency was strengthened by the fact that the new colonial
+expansion centered in Africa. Thus in 1875 something less than
+one-tenth of Africa was under nominal European control, but the
+Franco-Prussian War and the exploration of the Congo led to new
+and fateful things. Germany desired economic expansion and, being
+shut out from America by the Monroe Doctrine, turned to Africa.
+France, humiliated in war, dreamed of an African empire from the
+Atlantic to the Red Sea. Italy became ambitious for Tripoli and
+Abyssinia. Great Britain began to take new interest in her African
+realm, but found herself largely checkmated by the jealousy of all
+Europe. Portugal sought to make good her ancient claim to the
+larger part of the whole southern peninsula. It was Leopold of Belgium
+who started to make the exploration and civilization of Africa
+an international movement. This project failed, and the Congo Free
+State became in time simply a Belgian colony. While the project
+was under discussion, the international scramble for Africa began.
+As a result the Berlin Conference and subsequent wars and treaties
+gave Great Britain control of 2,101,411 square miles of African territory,
+in addition to Egypt and the Egyptian Sudan with 1,600,000
+square miles. This includes South Africa, Bechuanaland and Rhodesia,
+East Africa, Uganda and Zanzibar, Nigeria, and British
+West Africa. The French hold 4,106,950 square miles, including
+nearly all North Africa (except Tripoli) west of the Niger valley
+and Libyan Desert, and touching the Atlantic at four points. To
+this is added the Island of Madagascar. The Germans have 910,150
+square miles, principally in Southeast and South-west Africa and
+the Kamerun. The Portuguese retain 787,500 square miles in Southeast
+and Southwest Africa. The Belgians have 900,000 square miles,
+while Liberia (43,000 square miles) and Abyssinia (350,000 square
+miles) are independent. The Italians have about 600,000 square
+miles and the Spanish less than 100,000 square miles.</p>
+
+<p>This partition of Africa brought revision of the ideas of Negro
+uplift. Why was it necessary, the European investors argued, to
+push a continent of black workers along the paths of social uplift
+by education, trades-unionism, property holding, and the electoral
+franchise when the workers desired no change, and the rate of
+European profit would suffer?</p>
+
+<p>There quickly arose then the <i>second</i> suggestion for settling the
+Negro problem. It called for the virtual enslavement of natives in
+certain industries, as rubber and ivory collecting in the Belgian
+Congo, cocoa raising in Portuguese Angola, and diamond mining in
+South Africa. This new slavery or &quot;forced&quot; labor was stoutly defended
+as a necessary foundation for implanting modern industry
+in a barbarous land; but its likeness to slavery was too clear and it
+has been modified, but not wholly abolished.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>third</i> attempted solution of the Negro sought the result of
+the <i>second</i> by less direct methods. Negroes in Africa, the West
+Indies, and America were to be forced to work by land monopoly,
+taxation, and little or no education. In this way a docile industrial
+class working for low wages, and not intelligent enough to unite in
+labor unions, was to be developed. The peonage systems in parts of
+the United States and the labor systems of many of the African
+colonies of Great Britain and Germany illustrate this phase of solution.<a name="FNanchor_111_111" id="FNanchor_111_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_111_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a>
+It is also illustrated in many of the West Indian islands where
+we have a predominant Negro population, and this population freed
+from slavery and partially enfranchised. Land and capital, however,
+have for the most part been so managed and monopolized that the
+black peasantry have been reduced to straits to earn a living in one
+of the richest parts of the world. The problem is now going to be
+intensified when the world's commerce begins to sweep through
+the Panama Canal.</p>
+
+<p>All these solutions and methods, however, run directly counter to
+modern philanthropy, and have to be carried on with a certain concealment
+and half-hypocrisy which is not only distasteful in itself,
+but always liable to be discovered and exposed by some liberal or
+religious movement of the masses of men and suddenly overthrown.
+These solutions are, therefore, gradually merging into a <i>fourth</i>
+solution, which is to-day very popular. This solution says: Negroes
+differ from whites in their inherent genius and stage of development.
+Their development must not, therefore, be sought along European
+lines, but along their own native lines. Consequently the effort is
+made to-day in British Nigeria, in the French Congo and Sudan,
+in Uganda and Rhodesia to leave so far as possible the outward
+structure of native life intact; the king or chief reigns, the popular
+assemblies meet and act, the native courts adjudicate, and native
+social and family life and religion prevail. All this, however, is subject
+to the veto and command of a European magistracy supported
+by a native army with European officers. The advantage of this
+method is that on its face it carries no clue to its real working. Indeed
+it can always point to certain undoubted advantages: the
+abolition of the slave trade, the suppression of war and feud, the
+encouragement of peaceful industry. On the other hand, back of
+practically all these experiments stands the economic motive&mdash;the
+determination to use the organization, the land, and the people, not
+for their own benefit, but for the benefit of white Europe. For this
+reason education is seldom encouraged, modern religious ideas are
+carefully limited, sound political development is sternly frowned
+upon, and industry is degraded and changed to the demands of
+European markets. The most ruthless class of white mercantile exploiters
+is allowed large liberty, if not a free hand, and protected by
+a concerted attempt to deify white men as such in the eyes of the
+native and in their own imagination.<a name="FNanchor_112_112" id="FNanchor_112_112"></a><a href="#Footnote_112_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a></p>
+
+<p>White missionary societies are spending perhaps as much as five
+million dollars a year in Africa and accomplishing much good, but
+at the same time white merchants are sending at least twenty million
+dollars' worth of European liquor into Africa each year, and
+the debauchery of the almost unrestricted rum traffic goes far to
+neutralize missionary effort.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="i166" id="i166"></a>
+<img src="images/i166.png"
+alt="Distribution of Negro Blood, Ancient and Modern"
+title="Distribution of Negro Blood, Ancient and Modern" /><br /><br />
+<span class="caption">Distribution of Negro Blood, Ancient and Modern</span>
+</div>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p>Under this last mentioned solution of the Negro problems we
+may put the attempts at the segregation of Negroes and mulattoes
+in the United States and to some extent in the West Indies. Ostensibly
+this is &quot;separation&quot; of the races in society, civil rights, etc. In
+practice it is the subordination of colored people of all grades under
+white tutelage, and their separation as far as possible from contact
+with civilization in dwelling place, in education, and in public life.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand the economic significance of the Negro to-day
+is tremendous. Black Africa to-day exports annually nearly two
+hundred million dollars' worth of goods, and its economic development
+has scarcely begun. The black West Indies export nearly one
+hundred million dollars' worth of goods; to this must be added the
+labor value of Negroes in South Africa, Egypt, the West Indies,
+North, Central, and South America, where the result is blended
+in the common output of many races. The economic foundation of
+the Negro problem can easily be seen to be a matter of many hundreds
+of millions to-day, and ready to rise to the billions tomorrow.</p>
+
+<p>Such figures and facts give some slight idea of the economic
+meaning of the Negro to-day as a worker and industrial factor.
+&quot;Tropical Africa and its peoples are being brought more irrevocably
+every year into the vortex of the economic influences that sway the
+western world.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_113_113" id="FNanchor_113_113"></a><a href="#Footnote_113_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a></p>
+
+<p>What do Negroes themselves think of these their problems and
+the attitude of the world toward them? First and most significant,
+they are thinking. There is as yet no great single centralizing of
+thought or unification of opinion, but there are centers which are
+growing larger and larger and touching edges. The most significant
+centers of this new thinking are, perhaps naturally, outside Africa
+and in America: in the United States and in the West Indies; this
+is followed by South Africa and West Africa and then, more
+vaguely, by South America, with faint beginnings in East Central
+Africa, Nigeria, and the Sudan.</p>
+
+<p>The Pan-African movement when it comes will not, however, be
+merely a narrow racial propaganda. Already the more far-seeing
+Negroes sense the coming unities: a unity of the working classes
+everywhere, a unity of the colored races, a new unity of men. The
+proposed economic solution of the Negro problem in Africa and
+America has turned the thoughts of Negroes toward a realization of
+the fact that the modern white laborer of Europe and America has
+the key to the serfdom of black folk, in his support of militarism
+and colonial expansion. He is beginning to say to these workingmen
+that, so long as black laborers are slaves, white laborers cannot be
+free. Already there are signs in South Africa and the United States
+of the beginning of understanding between the two classes.</p>
+
+<p>In a conscious sense of unity among colored races there is to-day
+only a growing interest. There is slowly arising not only a curiously
+strong brotherhood of Negro blood throughout the world, but the
+common cause of the darker races against the intolerable assumptions
+and insults of Europeans has already found expression. Most men
+in this world are colored. A belief in humanity means a belief in
+colored men. The future world will, in all reasonable probability, be
+what colored men make it. In order for this colored world to come
+into its heritage, must the earth again be drenched in the blood of
+fighting, snarling human beasts, or will Reason and Good Will prevail?
+That such may be true, the character of the Negro race is the
+best and greatest hope; for in its normal condition it is at once the
+strongest and gentlest of the races of men: &quot;Semper novi quid ex
+Africa!&quot;<br /><br /></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_110_110" id="Footnote_110_110"></a><a href="#FNanchor_110_110"><span class="label">[110]</span></a> Sir Harry Johnston estimates 135,000,000 Negroes, of whom 24,591,000
+live in America. See <i>Inter-Racial Problems</i>, p. 335.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_111_111" id="Footnote_111_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_111_111"><span class="label">[111]</span></a> The South African natives, in an appeal to the English Parliament, show
+in an astonishing way the confiscation of their land by the English. They say
+that in the Union of South Africa 1,250,000 whites own 264,000,000 acres of
+land, while the 4,500,000 natives have only 21,000,000 acres. On top of this
+the Union Parliament has passed a law making even the future purchase of
+land by Negroes illegal save in restricted areas!</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_112_112" id="Footnote_112_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112_112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a> The traveler Glave writes in the <i>Century Magazine</i> (LIII, 913): &quot;Formerly
+[in the Congo Free State] an ordinary white man was merely called 'bwana' or
+'Mzunga'; now the merest insect of a pale face earns the title of 'bwana
+Mkubwa' [big master].&quot;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_113_113" id="Footnote_113_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_113_113"><span class="label">[113]</span></a> E.D. Morel, in the <i>Nineteenth Century</i>.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="SUGGESTIONS_FOR_FURTHER_READING" id="SUGGESTIONS_FOR_FURTHER_READING" />SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING</h2>
+
+
+<p>There is no general history of the Negro race. Perhaps Sir Harry
+H. Johnston, in his various works on Africa, has come as near covering
+the subject as any one writer, but his valuable books have
+puzzling inconsistencies and inaccuracies. Keane's <i>Africa</i> is a helpful
+compendium, despite the fact that whenever Keane discovers
+intelligence in an African he immediately discovers that its possessor
+is no &quot;Negro.&quot; The articles in the latest edition of the <i>Encyclop&aelig;dia
+Britannica</i> are of some value, except the ridiculous article on the
+&quot;Negro&quot; by T.A. Joyce. Frobenius' newly published <i>Voice of
+Africa</i> is broad-minded and informing, and Brown's <i>Story of Africa
+and its Explorers</i> brings together much material in readable form.
+The compendiums by Keltie and White, and Johnston's <i>Opening
+up of Africa</i> are the best among the shorter treatises.</p>
+
+<p>None of these authors write from the point of view of the Negro
+as a man, or with anything but incidental acknowledgment of the
+existence or value of his history. We may, however, set down certain
+books under the various subjects which the chapters have
+treated. These books will consist of (1) standard works for wider
+reading and (2) special works on which the author has relied for his
+statements or which amplify his point of view. <i>The latter are starred</i>.</p>
+
+<div><br /></div>
+<div><br /></div>
+<p><b>THE PHYSIOGRAPHY OF AFRICA</b></p>
+
+<p>
+A.S. White: <i>The Development of Africa</i>, 2d ed., 1892.<br />
+<br />
+Stanford's Compendium of Geography: <i>Africa</i>, by A.H. Keane, 2d ed., 1904-7.<br />
+<br />
+E. Reclus: <i>Universal Geography</i>, Vols. X-XIII.<br />
+</p>
+
+<div><br /></div>
+<div><br /></div>
+<p><b>RACIAL DIFFERENCES AND THE ORIGIN AND CHARACTERISTICS
+OF NEGROES</b></p>
+
+<p>
+J. Deniker: <i>The Races of Man</i>, etc., New York, 1904.<br />
+<br />
+*J. Finot: <i>Race Prejudice</i> (tr. by Wade-Evans), New York, 1907.<br />
+<br />
+*W.Z. Ripley: <i>The Races of Europe</i>, etc., New York, 1899.<br />
+<br />
+*Jacques Loeb: in <i>The Crisis</i>, Vol. VIII, p. 84, Vol. IX, p. 92.<br />
+<br />
+*<i>Papers on Inter-Racial Problems Communicated to the First Universal
+Races Congress</i>, etc. (ed. by G. Spiller), 1911.<br />
+<br />
+*G. Sergi: <i>The Mediterranean Race</i>, etc., London, 1901.<br />
+<br />
+*Franz Boas: <i>The Mind of Primitive Man</i>, New York, 1911.<br />
+<br />
+C.B. Davenport: <i>Heredity of Skin Color in Negro-White Crosses</i>, 1913.<br />
+</p>
+
+<div><br /></div>
+<div><br /></div>
+<p><b>EARLY MOVEMENTS OF THE NEGRO RACE</b></p>
+
+<p>
+*Sir Harry H. Johnston: <i>The Opening up of Africa</i> (Home University Library).<br />
+<br />
+---- <i>A History of the Colonization of Africa by Alien Races</i>, Cambridge, 1905.<br />
+<br />
+*G.W. Stowe: <i>The Native Races of South Africa</i> (ed. by G.M. Theal), London, 1910.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>(Consult also Johnston's other works on Africa, and his article in Vol.
+XLIII of the <i>Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great
+Britain and Ireland</i>; also <i>Inter-Racial Problems, and</i> Deniker, noted above.)</p>
+
+<div><br /></div>
+<div><br /></div>
+<p><b>NEGRO IN ETHIOPIA AND EGYPT</b></p>
+
+<p>(The works of Breasted and Petrie, Maspero, Budge and Newberry
+and Garstang are the standard books on Egypt. They mention the Negro,
+but incidentally and often slightingly.)</p>
+
+<p>
+*A.F. Chamberlain: &quot;The Contribution of the Negro to Human Civilization&quot;
+(<i>Journal of Race Development</i>, Vol. I, April, 1911).<br />
+<br />
+T.E.S. Scholes: <i>Glimpses of the Ages</i>, etc., London, 1905.<br />
+<br />
+W.H. Ferris: <i>The African Abroad</i>, etc., 2 vols., New Haven, 1913.<br />
+<br />
+E.A.W. Budge: <i>The Egyptian Sudan</i>, 2 vols., 1907.<br />
+<br />
+*<i>Archeological Survey of Nubia</i>.<br />
+<br />
+*A. Thompson and D. Randal McIver: <i>The Ancient Races of the Thebaid</i>, 1905.<br />
+</p>
+
+<div><br /></div>
+<div><br /></div>
+<p><b>ABYSSINIA</b></p>
+
+<p>
+Job Ludolphus: <i>A New History of Ethiopia</i> (tr. by Gent), London, 1682.<br />
+<br />
+W.S. Harris: <i>Highlands of &AElig;thiopia</i>, 3 vols., London, 1844.<br />
+<br />
+R.S. Whiteway: <i>The Portuguese Expedition to Abyssinia</i> ... as narrated
+by Castanhosa, etc., 1902.<br />
+</p>
+
+<div><br /></div>
+<div><br /></div>
+<p><b>THE NIGER RIVER AND ISLAM</b></p>
+
+<p>
+*F.L. Shaw (Lady Lugard): <i>A Tropical Dependency</i>, etc., London,
+1906.<br />
+<br />
+(The reader may dismiss as worthless Lady Lugard's definition of &quot;Negro.&quot;
+Otherwise her book is excellent.)<br />
+<br />
+*Es-Sa'di, Abderrahman Ben Abdallah, etc., translated into French by
+O. Houdas, Paris, 1900.<br />
+<br />
+*F. DuBois: <i>Timbuktu the Mysterious</i> (tr. by White), 1896.<br />
+<br />
+*W.D. Cooley: <i>The Negroland of the Arabs</i>, etc., 1841.<br />
+<br />
+*H. Barth: <i>Travels and Discoveries in North and Central Africa</i>, etc., 5
+vols., 1857-58.<br />
+<br />
+*Ibn Batuta: <i>Travels</i>, etc. (tr. by Lee), 1829.<br />
+<br />
+*Leo Africanus: <i>The History and Description of Africa</i>, etc. (tr. by Pory,
+ed. by R. Brown), 3 vols., 1896.<br />
+<br />
+*E.W. Blyden: <i>Christianity, Islam, and the Negro Race</i>.<br />
+<br />
+*Leo Frobenius: <i>The Voice of Africa</i> (tr. by Blind), 2 vols., 1913.<br />
+<br />
+Mungo Park: <i>Travels in the Interior Districts of Africa</i>, 1799.<br />
+</p>
+
+<div><br /></div>
+<div><br /></div>
+<p><b>THE NEGRO ON THE GUINEA COAST</b></p>
+
+<p>
+*Leo Frobenius (as above).<br />
+<br />
+Sir Harry H. Johnston: <i>Liberia</i>, 2 vols., New York, 1906.<br />
+<br />
+H.H. Foote: <i>Africa and the American Flag</i>, New York, 1859.<br />
+<br />
+T.H.T. McPherson: <i>A History of Liberia</i>, Baltimore, Johns Hopkins
+Studies.<br />
+<br />
+T.J. Alldridge: <i>A Transformed Colony</i> (Sierra Leone), London, 1910.<br />
+<br />
+E.D. Morel: <i>Affairs of West Africa</i>, 1902.<br />
+<br />
+H.L. Roth: <i>Great Benin and Its Customs</i>, 1903.<br />
+<br />
+*F. Starr: <i>Liberia</i>, 1913.<br />
+<br />
+W. Jay: <i>An Inquiry</i>, etc., 1835.<br />
+<br />
+*A.B. Ellis: <i>The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the Gold Coast</i>, 1887.<br />
+<br />
+---- <i>The Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast</i>, 1890.<br />
+<br />
+---- <i>The Yoruba-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast</i>, 1894.<br />
+<br />
+C.H. Read and O.M. Dalton: <i>Antiquities from the City of Benin</i>, etc.,
+1899.<br />
+<br />
+*M.H. Kingsley: <i>West African Studies</i>, 2d. ed., 1904.<br />
+<br />
+*G.W. Ellis: <i>Negro Culture in West Africa</i> (Vai-speaking peoples),
+1914.<br />
+</p>
+
+<div><br /></div>
+<div><br /></div>
+<p><b>THE CONGO VALLEY</b></p>
+
+<p>
+*G. Schweinfurth: <i>The Heart of Africa</i>, Vol. II, 1873.<br />
+<br />
+*H.M. Stanley: <i>Through the Dark Continent</i>, 2 vols., 1878.<br />
+<br />
+---- <i>In Darkest Africa</i>, 2 vols., 1890.<br />
+<br />
+---- <i>The Congo</i>, etc., 2 vols., London, 1885.<br />
+<br />
+H. von Wissman: <i>My Second Journey through Equatorial Africa</i>, 1891.<br />
+<br />
+*H.R. Fox-Bourne: <i>Civilization in Congoland</i>, 1903.<br />
+<br />
+Sir Harry H. Johnston: <i>George Grenfell and the Congo</i>, 2 vols., London,
+1908.<br />
+<br />
+*E.D. Morel: <i>Red Rubber</i>, London, 1906.<br />
+</p>
+
+<div><br /></div>
+<div><br /></div>
+<p><b>THE NEGRO IN THE REGION OF THE GREAT LAKES</b></p>
+
+<p>
+*Sir Harry H. Johnston: <i>The Uganda Protectorate</i>, 2d ed., 2 vols., 1904.<br />
+<br />
+---- <i>British Central Africa</i>, 1897.<br />
+<br />
+---- <i>The Nile Quest</i>, 1903.<br />
+<br />
+*D. Randal McIver: <i>Medi&aelig;val Rhodesia</i>, 1906.<br />
+<br />
+*<i>The Last Journals of David Livingstone in Central Africa</i> (ed. by
+H. Waller), 1874.<br />
+<br />
+J. Dos Santos: <i>Ethiopia Oriental</i> (Theal's <i>Records of South Africa</i>, Vol.
+VII).><br />
+<br />
+C. Peters: &quot;Ophir and Punt in South Africa&quot; (<i>African Society Journal</i>,
+Vol. I).<br />
+<br />
+De Barros: <i>De Asia</i>.<br />
+<br />
+R. Burton: <i>Lake Regions of Central Africa</i>, 1860.<br />
+<br />
+R.P. Ashe: <i>Chronicles of Uganda</i>, 1894.<br />
+<br />
+(See also Stanley's works, as above.)<br />
+</p>
+
+<div><br /></div>
+<div><br /></div>
+<p><b>THE NEGRO IN SOUTH AFRICA</b></p>
+
+<p>
+*G.M. Theal: <i>History and Ethnography of South Africa of the Zambesi
+to 1795</i>, 3 vols., 1907-10.<br />
+<br />
+---- <i>History of South Africa since September, 1795</i>, 5 vols., 1908.<br />
+<br />
+---- <i>Records of South Eastern Africa</i>, 9 vols., 1898-1903.<br />
+<br />
+*J. Bryce: <i>Impressions of South Africa</i>, 1897.<br />
+<br />
+D. Livingstone: <i>Missionary Travels in South Africa</i>, 1857.<br />
+<br />
+*South African Native Affairs Commission, 1903-5, <i>Reports</i>, etc., 5 vols.,
+Cape Town, 1904-5.><br />
+<br />
+G. Lagden: <i>The Basutos</i>, London, 1909.<br />
+<br />
+J. Stewart: <i>Lovedale</i>, 1884.<br />
+<br />
+(See also Stowe, as above.)<br />
+</p>
+
+<div><br /></div>
+<div><br /></div>
+<p><b>ON NEGRO CIVILIZATION</b></p>
+
+<p>
+J. Dowd: <i>The Negro Races</i>, 1907, 1914.<br />
+<br />
+*H. Gregoire: <i>An Inquiry concerning the Intellectual and Moral Faculties
+and Literature of Negroes</i>, etc. (tr. by Warden), Brooklyn,
+1810.<br />
+<br />
+C. B&uuml;cher: <i>Industrial Evolution</i> (tr. by Wickett), New York, 1904.<br />
+<br />
+*Franz Boas: &quot;The Real Race Problem&quot; (<i>The Crisis</i>, December, 1910).<br />
+<br />
+---- <i>Commencement Address</i> (Atlanta University Leaflet, No. 19).<br />
+<br />
+*F. Ratzel: <i>The History of Mankind</i> (tr. by Butler), 3 vols., 1904.<br />
+<br />
+C. Hayford: <i>Gold Coast Institutions</i>, 1903.<br />
+<br />
+A.B. Camphor: <i>Missionary Sketches and Folk Lore from Africa</i>, 1909.<br />
+<br />
+R.H. Nassau: <i>Fetishism in West Africa</i>, 1907.<br />
+<br />
+*William Schneider: <i>Die Culturf&auml;higkeit des Negers</i>, Frankfort, 1885.<br />
+<br />
+*G. Schweinfurth: <i>Artes Africanae</i>, etc., 1875.<br />
+<br />
+Duke of Mecklenburg: <i>From the Congo to the Niger and the Nile</i> (English
+tr.), Philadelphia, 1914.<br />
+<br />
+D. Crawford: <i>Thinking Black</i>.<br />
+<br />
+R.N. Cust: <i>Sketch of Modern Language of Africa</i>, 2 vols., 1883.<br />
+<br />
+H. Chatelain: <i>The Folk Lore of Angola</i>.<br />
+<br />
+D. Kidd: <i>The Essential Kaffir</i>, 1904.<br />
+<br />
+---- <i>Savage Childhood</i>, 1906.<br />
+<br />
+---- <i>Kaffir Socialism and the Dawn of Individualism</i>, 1908.<br />
+<br />
+M.H. Tongue: <i>Bushman Paintings</i>, Oxford, 1909.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>(See also the works of A.B. Ellis, Miss Kingsley, Sir Harry H. Johnston,
+Frobenius, Stowe, Theal, and Ibn Batuta; and particularly
+Chamberlain's article in the <i>Journal of Race Development</i>.)</p>
+
+<div><br /></div>
+<div><br /></div>
+<p><b>THE SLAVE TRADE</b></p>
+
+<p>
+T.K. Ingram: <i>History of Slavery and Serfdom</i>, London, 1895. (Same
+article revised in Encyclop&aelig;dia Britannica, 11th edition.)
+John R. Spears: The American Slave Trade, 1900.<br />
+<br />
+*T.F. Buxton: <i>The African Slave Trade and Its Remedy</i>, etc., 1896.<br />
+<br />
+T. Clarkson: <i>History ... of the Abolition of the African Slave Trade</i>,
+etc., 2 vols., 1808.<br />
+<br />
+R. Drake: <i>Revelations of a Slave Smuggler</i>, New York, 1860.<br />
+<br />
+*<i>Report of the Lords of the Committee of Council</i>, etc., London, 1789.<br />
+<br />
+*B. Mayer: <i>Captain Canot or Twenty Years of an African Slaver</i>, etc.,
+1854.<br />
+<br />
+W.E.B. DuBois: <i>The suppression of the African Slave-Trade to the
+U.S.A.</i>, 1896.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>(See also Bryan Edwards' <i>West Indies</i>.)</p>
+
+<div><br /></div>
+<div><br /></div>
+<p><b>THE WEST INDIES AND SOUTH AMERICA</b></p>
+
+<p>
+Fletcher and Kidder: <i>Brazil and the Brazilians</i>, 1879.<br />
+<br />
+*Bryan Edwards: <i>History ... of the British West Indies</i>, 5 editions,
+Vols. II-V, 1793-1819.<br />
+<br />
+*Sir Harry H. Johnston: <i>The Negro in the New World</i>, 1910.<br />
+<br />
+T.G. Steward: <i>The Haitian Revolution</i>, 1791-1804, 1914.<br />
+<br />
+J.N. Leger: <i>Haiti</i>, etc., 1907.<br />
+<br />
+J. Bryce: <i>South America</i>, etc., 1912.<br />
+<br />
+*J.B. de Lacerda: &quot;The Metis or Half-Breeds of Brazil&quot; (<i>Inter-Racial
+Problems</i>, etc.)<br />
+<br />
+A.K. Fiske: <i>History of the West Indies</i>, 1899.<br />
+</p>
+
+<div><br /></div>
+<div><br /></div>
+<p><b>THE NEGRO IN THE UNITED STATES</b></p>
+
+<p>
+*<i>Walker's Appeal</i>, 1829.<br />
+<br />
+*G.W. Williams: <i>History of the Negro Race in America</i>, 1619-1880,
+1882.<br />
+<br />
+B.G. Brawley: <i>A Short History of the American Negro</i>, 1913.<br />
+<br />
+B.T. Washington: <i>Up from Slavery</i>, 1901.<br />
+<br />
+---- <i>The Story of the Negro</i>, 2 vols., 1909.<br />
+<br />
+*<i>The Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man</i>, 1912.<br />
+<br />
+*G.E. Stroud: <i>Sketch of the Laws relating to Slavery</i>, etc., 1827.<br />
+<br />
+<i>The Human Way</i>: Addresses on Race Problems at the Southern Sociological
+Congress, Atlanta, 1913 (ed. by J.E. McCulloch).<br />
+<br />
+W.J. Simmons: <i>Men of Mark</i>, 1887.<br />
+<br />
+*J.R. Giddings: <i>The Exiles of Florida</i>, 1858.<br />
+<br />
+W.E. Nell: <i>The Colored Patriots of the American Revolution</i>, etc., 1855.<br />
+<br />
+C.W. Chesnutt: <i>The Marrow of Tradition</i>, 1901.<br />
+<br />
+P.L. Dunbar: <i>Lyrics of Lowly Life</i>, 1896.<br />
+<br />
+*<i>Life and Times of Frederick Douglass</i>, revised edition, 1892.<br />
+<br />
+*H.E. Kreihbel: <i>Afro-American Folk Songs</i>, etc., 1914.<br />
+<br />
+T.P. Fenner and others: <i>Cabin and Plantation Songs</i>, 3d ed., 1901.<br />
+<br />
+W.F. Allen and others: <i>Slave Songs of the United States</i>, 1867.<br />
+<br />
+W.E.B. DuBois: &quot;The Negro Race in the United States of America&quot;
+(<i>Inter-Racial Problems</i>, etc.).<br />
+<br />
+---- &quot;The Economics of Negro Emancipation&quot; (<i>Sociological Review</i>,
+October, 1911).<br />
+<br />
+---- <i>John Brown</i>.<br />
+<br />
+---- <i>The Philadelphia Negro</i>, 1899.<br />
+<br />
+W.E.B. DuBois: &quot;Reconstruction and its Benefits&quot; (<i>American Historical
+Review</i>, Vol. XV, No. 4).<br />
+<br />
+---- <i>editor</i>, The Crisis: A Record of the Darker Races, monthly, 1910.<br />
+<br />
+---- <i>editor</i>, The Atlanta University Studies:<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">No. 1. <i>Mortality Among Negroes in Cities</i>, 1896.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">No. 2. <i>Social and Physical Conditions of Negroes in Cities</i>, 1897.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">No. 3. <i>Some Efforts of Negroes for Social Betterment</i>, 1898.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">No. 4. <i>The Negro in Business</i>, 1899.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">No. 5. <i>The College Bred Negro</i>, 1900.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">No. 6. <i>The Negro Common School</i>, 1901.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">No. 7. <i>The Negro Artisan</i>, 1902.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">No. 8. <i>The Negro Church</i>, 1903.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">No. 9. <i>Notes on Negro Crime</i>, 1904.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">No. 10. <i>A Select Bibliography of the Negro American</i>, 1905.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">No. 11. <i>Health and Physique of the Negro American</i>, 1906.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">No. 12. <i>Economic Co-operation among Negro Americans</i>, 1907.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">No. 13. <i>The Negro American Family</i>, 1908.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">No. 14. <i>Efforts for Social Betterment among Negro Americans</i>, 1909.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">No. 15. <i>The College Bred Negro American</i>, 1910.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">No. 16. <i>The Common School and the Negro American</i>, 1911.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">No. 17. <i>The Negro American Artisan</i>, 1912.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">No. 18. <i>Morals and Manners among Negro Americans</i>, 1913.</span><br />
+<br />
+*G.W. Cable: <i>The Silent South</i>, etc., 1885.<br />
+<br />
+*J.R. Lynch: <i>The Facts of Reconstruction</i>, 1913.<br />
+<br />
+*J.T. Wilson: <i>The Black Phalanx</i>, 1897.<br />
+<br />
+William Goodell: <i>Slavery and Anti-Slavery</i>, 1852.<br />
+<br />
+G.S. Merriam: <i>The Negro and the Nation</i>, 1906.<br />
+<br />
+A.B. Hart: <i>The Southern South</i>, 1910.<br />
+<br />
+*G. Livermore: <i>An Historical Research respecting the Opinions of the
+Founders of the Republic on Negroes</i>, etc., 1862.<br />
+<br />
+Hartshorn and Penniman: <i>An Era of Progress and Promise</i>, 1910 (profusely
+illustrated).<br />
+<br />
+*James Brewster: <i>Sketches of Southern Mystery, Treason, and Murder</i>.<br />
+<br />
+Willcox and DuBois: <i>Negroes in the United States</i> (United States Census
+of 1900, Bulletin No. 8).><br />
+</p>
+
+<div><br /></div>
+<div><br /></div>
+<p><b>THE FUTURE OF THE NEGRO RACE</b></p>
+
+<p>
+*J.S. Keltie: <i>The Partition of Africa</i>, 2d ed., 1895.<br />
+<br />
+B.T. Washington: <i>The Future of the Negro</i>.<br />
+<br />
+W.E.B. DuBois: &quot;The Future of the Negro Race in America&quot; (<i>East
+and West</i>, Vol. II, No. 5).<br />
+<br />
+---- <i>Souls of Black Folk</i>, 1913.<br />
+<br />
+---- <i>Quest of the Silver Fleece</i>.<br />
+<br />
+Alexander Crummell: <i>The Future of Africa</i>, 2d ed., 1862.<br />
+<br />
+*Casely Hayford: <i>Ethiopia Unbound</i>, 1911.<br />
+<br />
+Kelly Miller: <i>Out of the House of Bondage</i>, 1914.<br />
+<br />
+---- <i>Race Adjustment</i>, 1908.<br />
+<br />
+*J. Royce: <i>Race Questions</i>, etc., 1908.<br />
+<br />
+*R.S. Baker: <i>Following the Color Line</i>, 1908.<br />
+<br />
+N.S. Shaler: <i>The Neighbor</i>.<br />
+<br />
+E.D. Morel: &quot;Free Labor in Tropical Africa&quot; (<i>Nineteenth Century and
+After</i>, 1914).<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>(See also Finot, Boas, <i>Inter-Racial Problems</i>, and White's <i>Development
+of Africa</i>.)</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Negro, by W.E.B. Du Bois
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Negro, by W.E.B. Du Bois
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Negro
+
+Author: W.E.B. Du Bois
+
+Release Date: March 14, 2005 [EBook #15359]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE NEGRO ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Suzanne Shell, Melissa Er-Raqabi and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net.
+
+
+
+
+
+THE NEGRO
+
+W.E.B. Du Bois
+
+
+
+
+New York: Holt, 1915
+
+[Transcriber's Notes for e-book versions:
+
+Hyphenation and accentuation are inconsistent, but are generally left as
+found in the edition used for transcription. This edition may or may not
+have completely replicated the 1915 edition of the book. Where changes
+have been made, they are noted below. If you are using this book for
+research, please verify any spelling or punctuation with another source.
+
+A missing quotation mark was inserted at the beginning of this
+paragraph: "It is difficult to imagine that Egypt should have obtained it
+from Europe where the oldest find (in Hallstadt) cannot be of an earlier
+period than 800 B.C., or from Asia, where iron is not known before 1000
+B.C., and where, in the times of Ashur Nazir Pal, it was still used
+concurrently with bronze, while iron beads have been only recently
+discovered by Messrs. G.A. Wainwright and Bushe Fox in a predynastic
+grave, and where a piece of this metal, possibly a tool, was found in the
+masonry of the great pyramid."]
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+     Preface
+   I Africa
+  II The Coming of Black Men
+ III Ethiopia and Egypt
+  IV The Niger and Islam
+   V Guinea and Congo
+  VI The Great Lakes and Zymbabwe
+ VII The War of Races at Land's End
+VIII African Culture
+  IX The Trade in Men
+   X The West Indies and Latin America
+  XI The Negro in the United States
+ XII The Negro Problems
+     Suggestions for Further Reading
+
+
+MAPS
+
+The Physical Geography of Africa
+Ancient Kingdoms of Africa
+Races in Africa
+Distribution of Negro Blood, Ancient and Modern
+
+
+
+
+THE NEGRO
+
+
+
+
+TO
+A FAITHFUL HELPER
+M.G.A.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+The time has not yet come for a complete history of the Negro
+peoples. Archaeological research in Africa has just begun, and many
+sources of information in Arabian, Portuguese, and other tongues are
+not fully at our command; and, too, it must frankly be confessed,
+racial prejudice against darker peoples is still too strong in so-called
+civilized centers for judicial appraisement of the peoples of Africa.
+Much intensive monographic work in history and science is needed
+to clear mooted points and quiet the controversialist who mistakes
+present personal desire for scientific proof.
+
+Nevertheless, I have not been able to withstand the temptation to
+essay such short general statement of the main known facts and their
+fair interpretation as shall enable the general reader to know as men
+a sixth or more of the human race. Manifestly so short a story must
+be mainly conclusions and generalizations with but meager indication
+of authorities and underlying arguments. Possibly, if the Public
+will, a later and larger book may be more satisfactory on these points.
+
+W.E. BURGHARDT DU BOIS.
+
+New York City, Feb. 1, 1915.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: The Physical Geography of Africa]
+
+
+
+
+I AFRICA
+
+                "Behold!
+The Sphinx is Africa. The bond
+Of Silence is upon her. Old
+And white with tombs, and rent and shorn;
+With raiment wet with tears and torn,
+And trampled on, yet all untamed."
+
+MILLER
+
+
+Africa is at once the most romantic and the most tragic of continents. Its
+very names reveal its mystery and wide-reaching influence. It is the
+"Ethiopia" of the Greek, the "Kush" and "Punt" of the Egyptian, and the
+Arabian "Land of the Blacks." To modern Europe it is the "Dark Continent"
+and "Land of Contrasts"; in literature it is the seat of the Sphinx and
+the lotus eaters, the home of the dwarfs, gnomes, and pixies, and the
+refuge of the gods; in commerce it is the slave mart and the source of
+ivory, ebony, rubber, gold, and diamonds. What other continent can rival
+in interest this Ancient of Days?
+
+There are those, nevertheless, who would write universal history and leave
+out Africa. But how, asks Ratzel, can one leave out the land of Egypt and
+Carthage? and Frobenius declares that in future Africa must more and more
+be regarded as an integral part of the great movement of world history.
+Yet it is true that the history of Africa is unusual, and its strangeness
+is due in no small degree to the physical peculiarities of the continent.
+With three times the area of Europe it has a coast line a fifth shorter.
+Like Europe it is a peninsula of Asia, curving southwestward around the
+Indian Sea. It has few gulfs, bays, capes, or islands. Even the rivers,
+though large and long, are not means of communication with the outer
+world, because from the central high plateau they plunge in rapids and
+cataracts to the narrow coastlands and the sea.
+
+The general physical contour of Africa has been likened to an inverted
+plate with one or more rows of mountains at the edge and a low coastal
+belt. In the south the central plateau is three thousand or more feet
+above the sea, while in the north it is a little over one thousand feet.
+Thus two main divisions of the continent are easily distinguished: the
+broad northern rectangle, reaching down as far as the Gulf of Guinea and
+Cape Guardafui, with seven million square miles; and the peninsula which
+tapers toward the south, with five million square miles.
+
+Four great rivers and many lesser streams water the continent. The
+greatest is the Congo in the center, with its vast curving and endless
+estuaries; then the Nile, draining the cluster of the Great Lakes and
+flowing northward "like some grave, mighty thought, threading a dream";
+the Niger in the northwest, watering the Sudan below the Sahara; and,
+finally, the Zambesi, with its greater Niagara in the southeast. Even
+these waters leave room for deserts both south and north, but the greater
+ones are the three million square miles of sand wastes in the north.
+
+More than any other land, Africa lies in the tropics, with a warm, dry
+climate, save in the central Congo region, where rain at all seasons
+brings tropical luxuriance. The flora is rich but not wide in variety,
+including the gum acacia, ebony, several dye woods, the kola nut, and
+probably tobacco and millet. To these many plants have been added in
+historic times. The fauna is rich in mammals, and here, too, many from
+other continents have been widely introduced and used.
+
+Primarily Africa is the Land of the Blacks. The world has always been
+familiar with black men, who represent one of the most ancient of human
+stocks. Of the ancient world gathered about the Mediterranean, they formed
+a part and were viewed with no surprise or dislike, because this world saw
+them come and go and play their part with other men. Was Clitus the
+brother-in-law of Alexander the Great less to be honored because he
+happened to be black? Was Terence less famous? The medieval European
+world, developing under the favorable physical conditions of the north
+temperate zone, knew the black man chiefly as a legend or occasional
+curiosity, but still as a fellow man--an Othello or a Prester John or an
+Antar.
+
+The modern world, in contrast, knows the Negro chiefly as a bond slave in
+the West Indies and America. Add to this the fact that the darker races in
+other parts of the world have, in the last four centuries, lagged behind
+the flying and even feverish footsteps of Europe, and we face to-day a
+widespread assumption throughout the dominant world that color is a mark
+of inferiority.
+
+The result is that in writing of this, one of the most ancient,
+persistent, and widespread stocks of mankind, one faces astounding
+prejudice. That which may be assumed as true of white men must be proven
+beyond peradventure if it relates to Negroes. One who writes of the
+development of the Negro race must continually insist that he is writing
+of a normal human stock, and that whatever it is fair to predicate of the
+mass of human beings may be predicated of the Negro. It is the silent
+refusal to do this which has led to so much false writing on Africa and
+of its inhabitants. Take, for instance, the answer to the apparently
+simple question "What is a Negro?" We find the most extraordinary
+confusion of thought and difference of opinion. There is a certain type in
+the minds of most people which, as David Livingstone said, can be found
+only in caricature and not in real life. When scientists have tried to
+find an extreme type of black, ugly, and woolly-haired Negro, they have
+been compelled more and more to limit his home even in Africa. At least
+nine-tenths of the African people do not at all conform to this type, and
+the typical Negro, after being denied a dwelling place in the Sudan, along
+the Nile, in East Central Africa, and in South Africa, was finally given a
+very small country between the Senegal and the Niger, and even there was
+found to give trace of many stocks. As Winwood Reade says, "The typical
+Negro is a rare variety even among Negroes."
+
+As a matter of fact we cannot take such extreme and largely fanciful stock
+as typifying that which we may fairly call the Negro race. In the case of
+no other race is so narrow a definition attempted. A "white" man may be of
+any color, size, or facial conformation and have endless variety of
+cranial measurement and physical characteristics. A "yellow" man is
+perhaps an even vaguer conception.
+
+In fact it is generally recognized to-day that no scientific definition of
+race is possible. Differences, and striking differences, there are between
+men and groups of men, but they fade into each other so insensibly that we
+can only indicate the main divisions of men in broad outlines. As Von
+Luschan says, "The question of the number of human races has quite lost
+its _raison d'etre_ and has become a subject rather of philosophic
+speculation than of scientific research. It is of no more importance now
+to know how many human races there are than to know how many angels can
+dance on the point of a needle. Our aim now is to find out how ancient and
+primitive races developed from others and how races changed or evolved
+through migration and inter-breeding."[1]
+
+The mulatto (using the term loosely to indicate either an intermediate
+type between white and black or a mingling of the two) is as typically
+African as the black man and cannot logically be included in the "white"
+race, especially when American usage includes the mulatto in the Negro
+race.
+
+It is reasonable, according to fact and historic usage, to include under
+the word "Negro" the darker peoples of Africa characterized by a brown
+skin, curled or "frizzled" hair, full and sometimes everted lips, a
+tendency to a development of the maxillary parts of the face, and a
+dolichocephalic head. This type is not fixed or definite. The color varies
+widely; it is never black or bluish, as some say, and it becomes often
+light brown or yellow. The hair varies from curly to a wool-like mass, and
+the facial angle and cranial form show wide variation.
+
+It is as impossible in Africa as elsewhere to fix with any certainty the
+limits of racial variation due to climate and the variation due to
+intermingling. In the past, when scientists assumed one unvarying Negro
+type, every variation from that type was interpreted as meaning mixture of
+blood. To-day we recognize a broader normal African type which, as
+Palgrave says, may best be studied "among the statues of the Egyptian
+rooms of the British Museum; the larger gentle eye, the full but not
+over-protruding lips, the rounded contour, and the good-natured, easy,
+sensuous expression. This is the genuine African model." To this race
+Africa in the main and parts of Asia have belonged since prehistoric
+times.
+
+The color of this variety of man, as the color of other varieties, is due
+to climate. Conditions of heat, cold, and moisture, working for thousands
+of years through the skin and other organs, have given men their
+differences of color. This color pigment is a protection against sunlight
+and consequently varies with the intensity of the sunlight. Thus in Africa
+we find the blackest men in the fierce sunlight of the desert, red pygmies
+in the forest, and yellow Bushmen on the cooler southern plateau.
+
+Next to the color, the hair is the most distinguishing characteristic of
+the Negro, but the two characteristics do not vary with each other. Some
+of the blackest of the Negroes have curly rather than woolly hair, while
+the crispest, most closely curled hair is found among the yellow
+Hottentots and Bushmen. The difference between the hair of the lighter and
+darker races is a difference of degree, not of kind, and can be easily
+measured. If the hair follicles of a China-man, a European, and a Negro
+are cut across transversely, it will be found that the diameter of the
+first is 100 by 77 to 85, the second 100 by 62 to 72, while that of the
+Negro is 100 by 40 to 60. This elliptical form of the Negro's hair causes
+it to curl more or less tightly.
+
+There have been repeated efforts to discover, by measurements of various
+kinds, further and more decisive differences which would serve as really
+scientific determinants of race. Gradually these efforts have been given
+up. To-day we realize that there are no hard and fast racial types among
+men. Race is a dynamic and not a static conception, and the typical races
+are continually changing and developing, amalgamating and differentiating.
+In this little book, then, we are studying the history of the darker part
+of the human family, which is separated from the rest of mankind by no
+absolute physical line, but which nevertheless forms, as a mass, a social
+group distinct in history, appearance, and to some extent in spiritual
+gift.
+
+We cannot study Africa without, however, noting some of the other races
+concerned in its history, particularly the Asiatic Semites. The
+intercourse of Africa with Arabia and other parts of Asia has been so
+close and long-continued that it is impossible to-day to disentangle the
+blood relationships. Negro blood certainly appears in strong strain among
+the Semites, and the obvious mulatto groups in Africa, arising from
+ancient and modern mingling of Semite and Negro, has given rise to the
+term "Hamite," under cover of which millions of Negroids have been
+characteristically transferred to the "white" race by some eager
+scientists.
+
+The earliest Semites came to Africa across the Red Sea. The Phoenicians
+came along the northern coasts a thousand years before Christ and began
+settlements which culminated in Carthage and extended down the Atlantic
+shores of North Africa nearly to the Gulf of Guinea.
+
+From the earliest times the Greeks have been in contact with Africa as
+visitors, traders, and colonists, and the Persian influence came with
+Cambyses and others. Roman Africa was bounded by the desert, but at times
+came into contact with the blacks across the Sahara and in the valley of
+the Nile. After the breaking up of the Roman Empire the Greek and Latin
+Christians filtered through Africa, followed finally by a Germanic
+invasion in 429 A.D.
+
+In the seventh century the All-Mother, Asia, claimed Africa again for her
+own and blew a cloud of Semitic Mohammedanism all across North Africa,
+veiling the dark continent from Europe for a thousand years and converting
+vast masses of the blacks to Islam. The Portuguese began to raise the veil
+in the fifteenth century, sailing down the Atlantic coast and initiating
+the modern slave trade. The Spanish, French, Dutch, and English followed
+them, but as traders in men rather than explorers.
+
+The Portuguese explored the coasts of the Gulf of Guinea, visiting the
+interior kingdoms, and then passing by the mouth of the Congo proceeded
+southward. Eventually they rounded the Cape of Good Hope and pursued their
+explorations as far as the mountains of Abyssinia. This began the modern
+exploration of Africa, which is a curious fairy tale, and recalls to us
+the great names of Livingstone, Burton, Speke, Stanley, Barth,
+Schweinfurth, and many others. In this way Africa has been made known to
+the modern world.
+
+The difficulty of this modern lifting of the veil of centuries emphasizes
+two physical facts that underlie all African history: the peculiar
+inaccessibility of the continent to peoples from without, which made it so
+easily possible for the great human drama played here to hide itself from
+the ears of other worlds; and, on the other hand, the absence of interior
+barriers--the great stretch of that central plateau which placed
+practically every budding center of culture at the mercy of barbarism,
+sweeping a thousand miles, with no Alps or Himalayas or Appalachians to
+hinder.
+
+With this peculiarly uninviting coast line and the difficulties in
+interior segregation must be considered the climate of Africa. While there
+is much diversity and many salubrious tracts along with vast barren
+wastes, yet, as Sir Harry Johnston well remarks, "Africa is the chief
+stronghold of the real Devil--the reactionary forces of Nature hostile to
+the uprise of Humanity. Here Beelzebub, King of the Flies, marshals his
+vermiform and arthropod hosts--insects, ticks, and nematode worms--which
+more than in other continents (excepting Negroid Asia) convey to the skin,
+veins, intestines, and spinal marrow of men and other vertebrates the
+microorganisms which cause deadly, disfiguring, or debilitating diseases,
+or themselves create the morbid condition of the persecuted human being,
+beasts, bird, reptile, frog, or fish."[2] The inhabitants of this land
+have had a sheer fight for physical survival comparable with that in no
+other great continent, and this must not be forgotten when we consider
+their history.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Von Luschan: in _Inter-Racial Problems_, p. 16.
+
+[2] Johnston: _Negro in the New World_, pp. 14-15.
+
+
+
+
+II THE COMING OF BLACK MEN
+
+
+The movements of prehistoric man can be seen as yet but dimly in the
+uncertain mists of time. This is the story that to-day seems most
+probable: from some center in southern Asia primitive human beings began
+to differentiate in two directions. Toward the south appeared the
+primitive Negro, long-headed and with flattened hair follicle. He spread
+along southern Asia and passed over into Africa, where he survives to-day
+as the reddish dwarfs of the center and the Bushmen of South Africa.
+
+Northward and eastward primitive man became broader headed and
+straight-haired and spread over eastern Asia, forming the Mongolian type.
+Either through the intermingling of these two types or, as some prefer to
+think, by the direct prolongation of the original primitive man, a third
+intermediate type of human being appeared with hair and cranial
+measurement intermediate between the primitive Negro and Mongolian. All
+these three types of men intermingled their blood freely and developed
+variations according to climate and environment.
+
+Other and older theories and legends of the origin and spread of mankind
+are of interest now only because so many human beings have believed them
+in the past. The biblical story of Shem, Ham, and Japheth retains the
+interest of a primitive myth with its measure of allegorical truth,[3] but
+has, of course, no historic basis.
+
+The older "Aryan" theory assumed the migration into Europe of one dominant
+Asiatic race of civilized conquerors, to whose blood and influence all
+modern culture was due. To this "white" race Semitic Asia, a large part of
+black Africa, and all Europe was supposed to belong. This "Aryan" theory
+has been practically abandoned in the light of recent research, and it
+seems probable now that from the primitive Negroid stock evolved in Asia
+the Semites either by local variation or intermingling with other stocks;
+later there developed the Mediterranean race, with Negroid
+characteristics, and the modern Negroes. The blue-eyed, light-haired
+Germanic people may have arisen as a modern variation of the mixed peoples
+produced by the mingling of Asiatic and African elements. The last word on
+this development has not yet been said, and there is still much to learn
+and explain; but it is certainly proved to-day beyond doubt that the
+so-called Hamites of Africa, the brown and black curly and frizzly-haired
+inhabitants of North and East Africa, are not "white" men if we draw the
+line between white and black in any logical way.
+
+The primitive Negroid race of men developed in Asia wandered eastward as
+well as westward. They entered on the one hand Burmah and the South Sea
+Islands, and on the other hand they came through Mesopotamia and gave
+curly hair and a Negroid type to Jew, Syrian, and Assyrian. Ancient
+statues of Indian divinities show the Negro type with black face and
+close-curled hair, and early Babylonian culture was Negroid. In Arabia the
+Negroes may have divided, and one stream perhaps wandered into Europe by
+way of Syria. Traces of these Negroes are manifest not only in skeletons,
+but in the brunette type of all South Europe. The other branch proceeded
+to Egypt and tropical Africa. Another, but perhaps less probable, theory
+is that ancient Negroes may have entered Africa from Europe, since the
+most ancient skulls of Algeria are Negroid.
+
+The primitive African was not an extreme type. One may judge from modern
+pygmy and Bushmen that his color was reddish or yellow, and his skull was
+sometimes round like the Mongolian. He entered Africa not less than fifty
+thousand years ago and settled eventually in the broad region between Lake
+Chad and the Great Lakes and remained there long stretches of years.
+
+After a lapse of perhaps thirty thousand years there entered Africa a
+further migration of Asiatic people, Negroid in many characteristics, but
+lighter and straighter haired than the primitive Negroes. From this
+Mediterranean race was developed the modern inhabitants of the shores of
+the Mediterranean in Europe, Asia, and Africa and, by mingling with the
+primitive Negroes, the ancient Egyptians and modern Negroid races of
+Africa.
+
+As we near historic times the migrations of men became more frequent from
+Asia and from Europe, and in Africa came movements and minglings which
+give to the whole of Africa a distinct mulatto character. The primitive
+Negro stock was "mulatto" in the sense of being not widely differentiated
+from the dark, original Australoid stock. As the earlier yellow Negro
+developed in the African tropics to the bigger, blacker type, he was
+continually mingling his blood with similar types developed in temperate
+climes to sallower color and straighter hair.
+
+We find therefore, in Africa to-day, every degree of development in
+Negroid stocks and every degree of intermingling of these developments,
+both among African peoples and between Africans, Europeans, and Asiatics.
+The mistake is continually made of considering these types as transitions
+between absolute Caucasians and absolute Negroes. No such absolute type
+ever existed on either side. Both were slowly differentiated from a common
+ancestry and continually remingled their blood while the differentiating
+was progressing. From prehistoric times down to to-day Africa is, in this
+sense, primarily the land of the mulatto. So, too, was earlier Europe and
+Asia; only in these countries the mulatto was early bleached by the
+climate, while in Africa he was darkened.
+
+It is not easy to summarize the history of these dark African peoples,
+because so little is known and so much is still in dispute. Yet, by
+avoiding the real controversies and being unafraid of mere questions of
+definition, we may trace a great human movement with considerable
+definiteness.
+
+Three main Negro types early made their appearance: the lighter and
+smaller primitive stock; the larger forest Negro in the center and on the
+west coast, and the tall, black Nilotic Negro in the eastern Sudan. In the
+earliest times we find the Negroes in the valley of the Nile, pressing
+downward from the interior. Here they mingled with Semitic types, and
+after a lapse of millenniums there arose from this mingling the culture of
+Ethiopia and Egypt, probably the first of higher human cultures.
+
+To the west of the Nile the Negroes expanded straight across the continent
+to the Atlantic. Centers of higher culture appeared very early along the
+Gulf of Guinea and curling backward met Egyptian, Ethiopian, and even
+European and Asiatic influences about Lake Chad. To the southeast, nearer
+the primitive seats of the earliest African immigrants and open to
+Egyptian and East Indian influences, the Negro culture which culminated at
+Zymbabwe arose, and one may trace throughout South Africa its wide
+ramifications.
+
+All these movements gradually aroused the central tribes to unrest. They
+beat against the barriers north, northeast, and west, but gradually
+settled into a great southeastward migration. Calling themselves proudly
+La Bantu (The People), they grew by agglomeration into a warlike nation,
+speaking one language. They eventually conquered all Africa south of the
+Gulf of Guinea and spread their influence to the northward.
+
+While these great movements were slowly transforming Africa, she was also
+receiving influences from beyond her shores and sending influences out.
+With mulatto Egypt black Africa was always in closest touch, so much so
+that to some all evidence of Negro uplift seem Egyptian in origin. The
+truth is, rather, that Egypt was herself always palpably Negroid, and from
+her vantage ground as almost the only African gateway received and
+transmitted Negro ideals.
+
+Phoenician, Greek, and Roman came into touch more or less with black
+Africa. Carthage, that North African city of a million men, had a large
+caravan trade with Negroland in ivory, metals, cloth, precious stones, and
+slaves. Black men served in the Carthaginian armies and marched with
+Hannibal on Rome. In some of the North African kingdoms the infiltration
+of Negro blood was very large and kings like Massinissa and Jugurtha were
+Negroid. By way of the Atlantic the Carthaginians reached the African west
+coast. Greek and Roman influences came through the desert, and the
+Byzantine Empire and Persia came into communication with Negroland by way
+of the valley of the Nile. The influence of these trade routes, added to
+those of Egypt, Ethiopia, Benin, and Yoruba, stimulated centers of culture
+in the central and western Sudan, and European and African trade early
+reached large volume.
+
+Negro soldiers were used largely in the armies that enabled the
+Mohammedans to conquer North Africa and Spain. Beginning in the tenth
+century and slowly creeping across the desert into Negroland, the new
+religion found an already existent culture and came, not a conqueror, but
+as an adapter and inspirer. Civilization received new impetus and a wave
+of Mohammedanism swept eastward, erecting the great kingdoms of Melle, the
+Songhay, Bornu, and the Hausa states. The older Negro culture was not
+overthrown, but, like a great wedge, pushed upward and inward from Yoruba,
+and gave stubborn battle to the newer culture for seven or eight
+centuries.
+
+Then it was, in the fifteenth century, that the heart disease of Africa
+developed in its most virulent form. There is a modern theory that black
+men are and always have been naturally slaves. Nothing is further from the
+truth. In the ancient world Africa was no more a slave hunting ground than
+Europe or Asia, and both Greece and Rome had much larger numbers of white
+slaves than of black. It was natural that a stream of black slaves should
+have poured into Egypt, because the chief line of Egyptian conquest and
+defense lay toward the heart of Africa. Moreover, the Egyptians,
+themselves of Negro descent, had not only Negro slaves but Negroes among
+their highest nobility and even among their Pharaohs. Mohammedan
+conquerors enslaved peoples of all colors in Europe, Asia, and Africa, but
+eventually their empire centered in Asia and Africa and their slaves came
+principally from these countries. Asia submitted to Islam except in the
+Far East, which was self-protecting. Negro Africa submitted only
+partially, and the remaining heathen were in small states which could not
+effectively protect themselves against the Mohammedan slave trade. In this
+wise the slave trade gradually began to center in Africa, for religious
+and political rather than for racial reasons.
+
+The typical African culture was the culture of family, town, and small
+tribe. Hence domestic slavery easily developed a slave trade through war
+and commerce. Only the integrating force of state building could have
+stopped this slave trade. Was this failure to develop the great state a
+racial characteristic? This does not seem a fair conclusion. In four great
+centers state building began in Africa. In Ethiopia several large states
+were built up, but they tottered before the onslaughts of Egypt, Persia,
+Rome, and Byzantium, on the one hand, and finally fell before the
+turbulent Bantu warriors from the interior. The second attempt at empire
+building began in the southeast, but the same Bantu hordes, pressing now
+slowly, now fiercely, from the congested center of the continent,
+gradually overthrew this state and erected on its ruins a series of
+smaller and more transient kingdoms.
+
+The third attempt at state building arose on the Guinea coast in Benin and
+Yoruba. It never got much beyond a federation of large industrial cities.
+Its expansion toward the Congo valley was probably a prime cause of the
+original Bantu movements to the southeast. Toward the north and northeast,
+on the other hand, these city-states met the Sudanese armed with the new
+imperial Mohammedan idea. Just as Latin Rome gave the imperial idea to the
+Nordic races, so Islam brought this idea to the Sudan.
+
+In the consequent attempts at imperialism in the western Sudan there
+arose the largest of the African empires. Two circumstances, however,
+militated against this empire building: first, the fierce resistance of
+the heathen south made war continuous and slaves one of the articles of
+systematic commerce. Secondly, the highways of legitimate African commerce
+had for millenniums lain to the north. These were suddenly closed by the
+Moors in the sixteenth century, and the Negro empires were thrown into the
+turmoil of internal war.
+
+It was then that the European slave traders came from the southwest. They
+found partially disrupted Negro states on the west coast and falling
+empires in the Sudan, together with the old unrest of over-population and
+migration in the valley of the Congo. They not only offered a demand for
+the usual slave trade, but they increased it to an enormous degree, until
+their demand, added to the demand of the Mohammedan in Africa and Asia,
+made human beings the highest priced article of commerce in Africa. Under
+such circumstances there could be but one end: the virtual uprooting of
+ancient African culture, leaving only misty reminders of the ruin in the
+customs and work of the people. To complete this disaster came the
+partition of the continent among European nations and the modern attempt
+to exploit the country and the natives for the economic benefit of the
+white world, together with the transplanting of black nations to the new
+western world and their rise and self-assertion there.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[3] Ham is probably the Egyptian word "Khem" (black), the native name of
+Egypt. In the original myth Canaan and not Ham was Noah's third son.
+
+The biblical story of the "curse of Canaan" (Genesis IX, 24-25) has been
+the basis of an astonishing literature which has to-day only a
+psychological interest. It is sufficient to remember that for several
+centuries leaders of the Christian Church gravely defended Negro slavery
+and oppression as the rightful curse of God upon the descendants of a son
+who had been disrespectful to his drunken father! Cf. Bishop Hopkins:
+_Bible Views of Slavery_, p. 7.
+
+
+
+
+III ETHIOPIA AND EGYPT
+
+
+Having viewed now the land and movements of African people in main
+outline, let us scan more narrowly the history of five main centers of
+activity and culture, namely: the valleys of the Nile and of the Congo,
+the borders of the great Gulf of Guinea, the Sudan, and South Africa.
+These divisions do not cover all of Negro Africa, but they take in the
+main areas and the main lines in development.
+
+First, we turn to the valley of the Nile, perhaps the most ancient of
+known seats of civilization in the world, and certainly the oldest in
+Africa, with a culture reaching back six or eight thousand years. Like all
+civilizations it drew largely from without and undoubtedly arose in the
+valley of the Nile, because that valley was so easily made a center for
+the meeting of men of all types and from all parts of the world. At the
+same time Egyptian civilization seems to have been African in its
+beginnings and in its main line of development, despite strong influences
+from all parts of Asia. Of what race, then, were the Egyptians? They
+certainly were not white in any sense of the modern use of that
+word--neither in color nor physical measurement, in hair nor countenance,
+in language nor social customs. They stood in relationship nearest the
+Negro race in earliest times, and then gradually through the infiltration
+of Mediterranean and Semitic elements became what would be described in
+America as a light mulatto stock of Octoroons or Quadroons. This stock was
+varied continually; now by new infiltration of Negro blood from the south,
+now by Negroid and Semitic blood from the east, now by Berber types from
+the north and west.
+
+Egyptian monuments show distinctly Negro and mulatto faces. Herodotus, in
+an incontrovertible passage, alludes to the Egyptians as "black and
+curly-haired"[4]--a peculiarly significant statement from one used to the
+brunette Mediterranean type; in another passage, concerning the fable of
+the Dodonian Oracle, he again alludes to the swarthy color of the
+Egyptians as exceedingly dark and even black. AEschylus, mentioning a boat
+seen from the shore, declares that its crew are Egyptians, because of
+their black complexions.
+
+Modern measurements, with all their admitted limitations, show that in the
+Thebaid from one-seventh to one-third of the Egyptian population were
+Negroes, and that of the predynastic Egyptians less than half could be
+classed as non-Negroid. Judging from measurements in the tombs of nobles
+as late as the eighteenth dynasty, Negroes form at least one-sixth of the
+higher class.[5]
+
+Such measurements are by no means conclusive, but they are apt to be
+under rather than over statements of the prevalence of Negro blood. Head
+measurements of Negro Americans would probably place most of them in the
+category of whites. The evidence of language also connects Egypt with
+Africa and the Negro race rather than with Asia, while religious
+ceremonies and social customs all go to strengthen this evidence.
+
+The ethnic history of Northeast Africa would seem, therefore, to have been
+this: predynastic Egypt was settled by Negroes from Ethiopia. They were of
+varied type: the broad-nosed, woolly-haired type to which the word "Negro"
+is sometimes confined; the black, curly-haired, sharper featured type,
+which must be considered an equally Negroid variation. These Negroes met
+and mingled with the invading Mediterranean race from North Africa and
+Asia. Thus the blood of the sallower race spread south and that of the
+darker race north. Black priests appear in Crete three thousand years
+before Christ, and Arabia is to this day thoroughly permeated with Negro
+blood. Perhaps, as Chamberlain says, "one of the prime reasons why no
+civilization of the type of that of the Nile arose in other parts of the
+continent, if such a thing were at all possible, was that Egypt acted as a
+sort of channel by which the genius of Negro-land was drafted off into the
+service of Mediterranean and Asiatic culture."[6]
+
+To one familiar with the striking and beautiful types arising from the
+mingling of Negro with Latin and Germanic types in America, the puzzle of
+the Egyptian type is easily solved. It was unlike any of its neighbors and
+a unique type until one views the modern mulatto; then the faces of
+Rahotep and Nefert, of Khafra and Amenemhat I, of Aahmes and Nefertari,
+and even of the great Ramessu II, become curiously familiar.
+
+The history of Egypt is a science in itself. Before the reign of the first
+recorded king, five thousand years or more before Christ, there had
+already existed in Egypt a culture and art arising by long evolution from
+the days of paleolithic man, among a distinctly Negroid people. About 4777
+B.C. Aha-Mena began the first of three successive Egyptian empires. This
+lasted two thousand years, with many Pharaohs, like Khafra of the Fourth
+Dynasty, of a strongly Negroid cast of countenance.
+
+At the end of the period the empire fell apart into Egyptian and Ethiopian
+halves, and a silence of three centuries ensued. It is quite possible that
+an incursion of conquering black men from the south poured over the land
+in these years and dotted Egypt in the next centuries with monuments on
+which the full-blooded Negro type is strongly and triumphantly impressed.
+The great Sphinx at Gizeh, so familiar to all the world, the Sphinxes of
+Tanis, the statue from the Fayum, the statue of the Esquiline at Rome,
+and the Colossi of Bubastis all represent black, full-blooded Negroes and
+are described by Petrie as "having high cheek bones, flat cheeks, both in
+one plane, a massive nose, firm projecting lips, and thick hair, with an
+austere and almost savage expression of power."[7]
+
+Blyden, the great modern black leader of West Africa, said of the Sphinx
+at Gizeh: "Her features are decidedly of the African or Negro type, with
+'expanded nostrils.' If, then, the Sphinx was placed here--looking out in
+majestic and mysterious silence over the empty plain where once stood the
+great city of Memphis in all its pride and glory, as an 'emblematic
+representation of the king'--is not the inference clear as to the peculiar
+type or race to which that king belonged?"[8]
+
+The middle empire arose 3064 B.C. and lasted nearly twenty-four centuries.
+Under Pharaohs whose Negro descent is plainly evident, like Amenemhat I
+and III and Usertesen I, the ancient glories of Egypt were restored and
+surpassed. At the same time there is strong continuous pressure from the
+wild and unruly Negro tribes of the upper Nile valley, and we get some
+idea of the fear which they inspired throughout Egypt when we read of the
+great national rejoicing which followed the triumph of Usertesen III (c.
+2660-22) over these hordes. He drove them back and attempted to confine
+them to the edge of the Nubian Desert above the Second Cataract. Hemmed in
+here, they set up a state about this time and founded Nepata.
+
+Notwithstanding this repulse of black men, less than one hundred years
+later a full-blooded Negro from the south, Ra Nehesi, was seated on the
+throne of the Pharaohs and was called "The king's eldest son." This may
+mean that an incursion from the far south had placed a black conqueror on
+the throne. At any rate, the whole empire was in some way shaken, and two
+hundred years later the invasion of the Hyksos began. The domination of
+Hyksos kings who may have been Negroids from Asia[9] lasted for five
+hundred years.
+
+The redemption of Egypt from these barbarians came from Upper Egypt, led
+by the mulatto Aahmes. He founded in 1703 B.C. the new empire, which
+lasted fifteen hundred years. His queen, Nefertari, "the most venerated
+figure of Egyptian history,"[10] was a Negress of great beauty, strong
+personality, and of unusual administrative force. She was for many years
+joint ruler with her son, Amenhotep I, who succeeded his father.[11]
+
+The new empire was a period of foreign conquest and internal splendor and
+finally of religious dispute and overthrow. Syria was conquered in these
+reigns and Asiatic civilization and influences poured in upon Egypt. The
+great Tahutmes III, whose reign was "one of the grandest and most eventful
+in Egyptian history,"[12] had a strong Negroid countenance, as had also
+Queen Hatshepsut, who sent the celebrated expedition to reopen ancient
+trade with the Hottentots of Punt. A new strain of Negro blood came to the
+royal line through Queen Mutemua about 1420 B.C., whose son, Amenhotep
+III, built a great temple at Luqsor and the Colossi at Memnon.
+
+The whole of the period in a sense culminated in the great Ramessu II, the
+oppressor of the Hebrews, who with his Egyptian, Libyan, and Negro armies
+fought half the world. His reign, however, was the beginning of decline,
+and foes began to press Egypt from the white north and the black south.
+The priests transferred their power at Thebes, while the Assyrians under
+Nimrod overran Lower Egypt. The center of interest is now transferred to
+Ethiopia, and we pass to the more shadowy history of that land.
+
+The most perfect example of Egyptian poetry left to us is a celebration of
+the prowess of Usertesen III in confining the turbulent Negro tribes to
+the territory below the Second Cataract of the Nile. The Egyptians called
+this territory Kush, and in the farthest confines of Kush lay Punt, the
+cradle of their race. To the ancient Mediterranean world Ethiopia (i.e.,
+the Land of the Black-faced) was a region of gods and fairies. Zeus and
+Poseidon feasted each year among the "blameless Ethiopians," and Black
+Memnon, King of Ethiopia, was one of the greatest of heroes.
+
+"The Ethiopians conceive themselves," says Diodorus Siculus (Lib. III),
+"to be of greater antiquity than any other nation; and it is probable
+that, born under the sun's path, its warmth may have ripened them earlier
+than other men. They suppose themselves also to be the inventors of divine
+worship, of festivals, of solemn assemblies, of sacrifices, and every
+religious practice. They affirm that the Egyptians are one of their
+colonies."
+
+The Egyptians themselves, in later days, affirmed that they and their
+civilization came from the south and from the black tribes of Punt, and
+certainly "at the earliest period in which human remains have been
+recovered Egypt and Lower Nubia appear to have formed culturally and
+racially one land."[13]
+
+The forging ahead of Egypt in culture was mainly from economic causes.
+Ethiopia, living in a much poorer land with limited agricultural
+facilities, held to the old arts and customs, and at the same time lost
+the best elements of its population to Egypt, absorbing meantime the
+oncoming and wilder Negro tribes from the south and west. Under the old
+empire, therefore, Ethiopia remained in comparative poverty, except as
+some of its tribes invaded Egypt with their handicrafts.
+
+As soon as the civilization below the Second Cataract reached a height
+noticeably above that of Ethiopia, there was continued effort to protect
+that civilization against the incursion of barbarians. Hundreds of
+campaigns through thousands of years repeatedly subdued or checked the
+blacks and brought them in as captives to mingle their blood with the
+Egyptian nation; but the Egyptian frontier was not advanced.
+
+A separate and independent Ethiopian culture finally began to arise during
+the middle empire of Egypt and centered at Nepata and Meroe. Widespread
+trade in gold, ivory, precious stones, skins, wood, and works of
+handicraft arose.[14] The Negro began to figure as the great trader of
+Egypt.
+
+This new wealth of Ethiopia excited the cupidity of the Pharaohs and led
+to aggression and larger intercourse, until at last, when the dread Hyksos
+appeared, Ethiopia became both a physical and cultural refuge for
+conquered Egypt. The legitimate Pharaohs moved to Thebes, nearer the
+boundaries of Ethiopia, and from here, under Negroid rulers, Lower Egypt
+was redeemed.
+
+The ensuing new empire witnessed the gradual incorporation of Ethiopia
+into Egypt, although the darker kingdom continued to resist. Both mulatto
+Pharaohs, Aahmes and Amenhotep I, sent expeditions into Ethiopia, and in
+the latter's day sons of the reigning Pharaoh began to assume the title of
+"Royal Son of Kush" in some such way as the son of the King of England
+becomes the Prince of Wales.
+
+Trade relations were renewed with Punt under circumstances which lead us
+to place that land in the region of the African lakes. The Sudanese tribes
+were aroused by these and other incursions, until the revolts became
+formidable in the fourteenth century before Christ.
+
+Egyptian culture, however, gradually conquered Ethiopia where her armies
+could not, and Egyptian religion and civil rule began to center in the
+darker kingdom. When, therefore, Shesheng I, the Libyan, usurped the
+throne of the Pharaohs in the tenth century B.C., the Egyptian legitimate
+dynasty went to Nepata as king priests and established a theocratic
+monarchy. Gathering strength, the Ethiopian kingdom under this dynasty
+expanded north about 750 B.C. and for a century ruled all Egypt.
+
+The first king, Pankhy, was Egyptian bred and not noticeably Negroid, but
+his successors showed more and more evidence of Negro blood--Kashta the
+Kushite, Shabaka, Tarharqa, and Tanutamen. During the century of Ethiopian
+rule a royal son was appointed to rule Egypt, just as formerly a royal
+Egyptian had ruled Kush. In many ways this Ethiopian kingdom showed its
+Negro peculiarities: first, in its worship of distinctly Sudanese gods;
+secondly, in the rigid custom of female succession in the kingdom, and
+thirdly, by the election of kings from the various royal claimants to the
+throne. "It was the heyday of the Negro. For the greater part of the
+century ... Egypt itself was subject to the blacks, just as in the new
+empire the Sudan had been subject to Egypt."[15]
+
+Egypt now began to fall into the hands of Asia and was conquered first by
+the Assyrians and then by the Persians, but the Ethiopian kings kept their
+independence. Aspeluta, whose mother and sister are represented as
+full-blooded Negroes, ruled from 630 to 600 B.C. Horsiatef (560-525 B.C.)
+made nine expeditions against the warlike tribes south of Meroe, and his
+successor, Nastosenen (525-500 B.C.) was the one who repelled Cambyses. He
+also removed the capital from Nepata to Meroe, although Nepata continued
+to be the religious capital and the Ethiopian kings were still crowned on
+its golden throne.
+
+From the fifth to the second century B.C. we find the wild Sudanese tribes
+pressing in from the west and Greek culture penetrating from the east.
+King Arg-Amen (Ergamenes) showed strong Greek influences and at the same
+time began to employ the Ethiopian speech in writing and used a new
+Ethiopian alphabet.
+
+While the Ethiopian kings were still crowned at Nepata, Meroe gradually
+became the real capital and supported at one time four thousand artisans
+and two hundred thousand soldiers. It was here that the famous Candaces
+reigned as queens. Pliny tells us that one Candace of the time of Nero had
+had forty-four predecessors on the throne, while another Candace figures
+in the New Testament.[16]
+
+It was probably this latter Candace who warred against Rome at the time of
+Augustus and received unusual consideration from her formidable foe. The
+prestige of Ethiopia at this time was considerable throughout the world.
+Pseudo-Callisthenes tells an evidently fabulous story of the visit of
+Alexander the Great to Candace, Queen of Meroe, which nevertheless
+illustrates her fame: Candace will not let him enter Ethiopia and says he
+is not to scorn her people because they are black, for they are whiter in
+soul than his white folk. She sent him gold, maidens, parrots, sphinxes,
+and a crown of emeralds and pearls. She ruled eighty tribes, who were
+ready to punish those who attacked her.
+
+The Romans continued to have so much trouble with their Ethiopian frontier
+that finally, when Semitic mulattoes appeared in the east, the Emperor
+Diocletian invited the wild Sudanese tribe of Nubians (Nobadae) from the
+west to repel them. These Nubians eventually embraced Christianity, and
+northern Ethiopia came to be known in time as Nubia.
+
+The Semitic mulattoes from the east came from the highlands bordering the
+Red Sea and Asia. On both sides of this sea Negro blood is strongly in
+evidence, predominant in Africa and influential in Asia. Ludolphus,
+writing in the seventeenth century, says that the Abyssinians "are
+generally black, which [color] they most admire." Trade and war united the
+two shores, and merchants have passed to and fro for thirty centuries.
+
+In this way Arabian, Jewish, Egyptian, Greek, and Roman influences spread
+slowly upon the Negro foundation. Early legendary history declares that a
+queen, Maqueda, or Nikaula of Sheba, a state of Central Abyssinia, visited
+Solomon in 1050 B.C. and had her son Menelik educated in Jerusalem. This
+was the supposed beginning of the Axumite kingdom, the capital of which,
+Axume, was a flourishing center of trade. Ptolemy Evergetes and his
+successors did much to open Abyssinia to the world, but most of the
+population of that day was nomadic. In the fourth century Byzantine
+influences began to be felt, and in 330 St. Athanasius of Alexandria
+consecrated Fromentius as Bishop of Ethiopia. He tutored the heir to the
+Abyssinian kingdom and began its gradual christianization. By the early
+part of the sixth century Abyssinia was trading with India and Byzantium
+and was so far recognized as a Christian country that the Emperor
+Justinian appealed to King Kaleb to protect the Christians in southwestern
+Arabia. Kaleb conquered Yemen in 525 and held it fifty years.
+
+Eventually a Jewish princess, Judith, usurped the Axumite throne; the
+Abyssinians were expelled from Arabia, and a long period begins when as
+Gibbon says, "encompassed by the enemies of their religion, the Ethiopians
+slept for nearly a thousand years, forgetful of the world by whom they
+were forgotten." Throughout the middle ages, however, the legend of a
+great Christian kingdom hidden away in Africa persisted, and the search
+for Prester John became one of the world quests.
+
+It was the expanding power of Abyssinia that led Rome to call in the
+Nubians from the western desert. The Nubians had formed a strong league of
+tribes, and as the ancient kingdom of Ethiopia declined they drove back
+the Abyssinians, who had already established themselves at Meroe.
+
+In the sixth century the Nubians were converted to Christianity by a
+Byzantine priest, and they immediately began to develop. A new capital,
+Dongola, replaced Nepata and Meroe, and by the twelfth century churches
+and brick dwellings had appeared. As the Mohammedan flood pressed up the
+Nile valley it was the Nubians that held it back for two centuries.
+
+Farther south other wild tribes pushed out of the Sudan and began a
+similar development. Chief among these were the Fung, who fixed their
+capital at Senaar, at the junction of the White and Blue Nile. When the
+Mohammedan flood finally passed over Nubia, the Fung diverted it by
+declaring themselves Moslems. This left the Fung as the dominant power in
+the fifteenth century from the Three Cataracts to Fazogli and from the Red
+Sea at Suakin to the White Nile. Islam then swept on south in a great
+circle, skirted the Great Lakes, and then curled back to Somaliland,
+completely isolating Abyssinia.
+
+Between the thirteenth and sixteenth centuries the Egyptian Sudan became a
+congeries of Mohammedan kingdoms with Arab, mulatto, and Negro kings. Far
+to the west, near Lake Chad, arose in 1520 the sultanate of Baghirmi,
+which reached its highest power in the seventh century. This dynasty was
+overthrown by the Negroid Mabas, who established Wadai to the eastward
+about 1640. South of Wadai lay the heathen and cannibals of the Congo
+valley, against which Islam never prevailed. East of Wadai and nearer the
+Nile lay the kindred state of Darfur, a Nubian nation whose sultans
+reigned over two hundred years and which reached great prosperity in the
+early seventeenth century under Soliman Solon.
+
+Before the Mohammedan power reached Abyssinia the Portuguese pioneers had
+entered the country from the east and begun to open the country again to
+European knowledge. Without doubt, in the centuries of silence, a
+civilization of some height had flourished in Abyssinia, but all authentic
+records were destroyed by fire in the tenth century. When the Portuguese
+came, the older Axumite kingdom had fallen and had been succeeded by a
+number of petty states.
+
+The Sudanese kingdoms of the Sudan resisted the power of the Mameluke beys
+in Egypt, and later the power of the Turks until the nineteenth century,
+when the Sudan was made nominally a part of Egypt. Continuous upheaval,
+war, and conquest had by this time done their work, and little of ancient
+Ethiopian culture survived except the slave trade.
+
+The entrance of England into Egypt, after the building of the Suez Canal,
+stirred up eventually revolt in the Sudan, for political, economic, and
+religious reasons. Led by a Sudanese Negro, Mohammed Ahmad, who claimed to
+be the Messiah (Mahdi), the Sudan arose in revolt in 1881, determined to
+resist a hated religion, foreign rule, and interference with their chief
+commerce, the trade in slaves. The Sudan was soon aflame, and the able
+mulatto general, Osman Digna, aided by revolt among the heathen Dinka,
+drove Egypt and England out of the Sudan for sixteen years. It was not
+until 1898 that England reentered the Sudan and in petty revenge
+desecrated the bones of the brave, even if misguided, prophet.
+
+Meantime this Mahdist revolt had delayed England's designs on Abyssinia,
+and the Italians, replacing her, attempted a protectorate. Menelik of
+Shoa, one of the smaller kingdoms of Abyssinia, was a shrewd man of
+predominantly Negro blood, and had been induced to make a treaty with the
+Italians after King John had been killed by the Mahdists. The exact terms
+of the treaty were disputed, but undoubtedly the Italians tried by this
+means to reduce Menelik to vassalage. Menelik stoutly resisted, and at the
+great battle of Adua, one of the decisive battles of the modern world, the
+Abyssinians on March 1, 1896, inflicted a crushing defeat on the Italians,
+killing four thousand of them and capturing two thousand prisoners. The
+empress, Taitou, a full-blooded Negress, led some of the charges. By this
+battle Abyssinia became independent.
+
+Such in vague and general outline is the strange story of the valley of
+the Nile--of Egypt, the motherland of human culture and
+
+"That starr'd Ethiop Queen that strove To set her beauty's praise above
+The sea nymphs."
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[4] [Greek: "autos de eikasa tede kai hote melanchroes eisi kai
+oulotriches."] Liber II, Cap. 104.
+
+[5] Cf. Maciver and Thompson: _Ancient Races of the Thebaid_.
+
+[6] _Journal of Race Development_, I, 484.
+
+[7] Petrie: _History of Egypt_, I, 51, 237.
+
+[8] _From West Africa to Palestine_, p. 114.
+
+[9] Depending partly on whether the so-called Hyksos sphinxes belong to
+the period of the Hyksos kings or to an earlier period (cf. Petrie, I,
+52-53, 237). That Negroids largely dominated in the early history of
+western Asia is proven by the monuments.
+
+[10] Petrie: _History of Egypt_, II, 337.
+
+[11] Chamberlain: _Journal of Race Development_, April, 1911.
+
+[12] Petrie: _History of Egypt_, II, 337.
+
+[13] Reisner: _Archeological Survey of Nubia_, I, 319.
+
+[14] Hoskins declares that the arch had its origin in Ethiopia.
+
+[15] Maciver and Wooley: _Areika_, p. 2.
+
+[16] Acts VIII, 27.
+
+
+
+
+IV THE NIGER AND ISLAM
+
+
+The Arabian expression "Bilad es Sudan" (Land of the Blacks) was applied
+to the whole region south of the Sahara, from the Atlantic to the Nile. It
+is a territory some thirty-five hundred miles by six hundred miles,
+containing two million square miles, and has to-day a population of
+perhaps eighty million. It is thus two-thirds the size of the United
+States and quite as thickly settled. In the western Sudan the Niger plays
+the same role as the Nile in the east. In this chapter we follow the
+history of the Niger.
+
+The history of this part of Africa was probably something as follows:
+primitive man, entering Africa from Arabia, found the Great Lakes, spread
+in the Nile valley, and wandered westward to the Niger. Herodotus tells of
+certain youths who penetrated the desert to the Niger and found there a
+city of black dwarfs. Succeeding migrations of Negroes and Negroids pushed
+the dwarfs gradually into the inhospitable forests and occupied the Sudan,
+pushing on to the Atlantic. Here the newcomers, curling northward, met the
+Mediterranean race coming down across the western desert, while to the
+southward the Negro came to the Gulf of Guinea and the thick forests of
+the Congo valley. Indigenous civilizations arose on the west coast in
+Yoruba and Benin, and contact of these with the Mediterranean race in the
+desert, and with Egyptian and Arab from the east, gave rise to centers of
+Negro culture in the Sudan at Ghana and Melle and in Songhay, Nupe, the
+Hausa states, and Bornu.
+
+The history of the Sudan thus leads us back again to Ethiopia, that
+strange and ancient center of world civilization whose inhabitants in the
+ancient world were considered to be the most pious and the oldest of men.
+From this center the black originators of African culture, and to a large
+degree of world culture, wandered not simply down the Nile, but also
+westward. These Negroes developed the original substratum of culture which
+later influences modified but never displaced.
+
+We know that Egyptian Pharaohs in several cases ventured into the western
+Sudan and that Egyptian influences are distinctly traceable. Greek and
+Byzantine culture and Phoenician and Carthaginian trade also penetrated,
+while Islam finally made this whole land her own. Behind all these
+influences, however, stood from the first an indigenous Negro culture. The
+stone figures of Sherbro, the megaliths of Gambia, the art and industry of
+the west coast are all too deep and original evidences of civilization to
+be merely importations from abroad.
+
+Nor was the Sudan the inert recipient of foreign influence when it came.
+According to credible legend, the "Great King" at Byzantium imported
+glass, tin, silver, bronze, cut stones, and other treasure from the Sudan.
+Embassies were sent and states like Nupe recognized the suzerainty of the
+Byzantine emperor. The people of Nupe especially were filled with pride
+when the Byzantine people learned certain kinds of work in bronze and
+glass from them, and this intercourse was only interrupted by the
+Mohammedan conquest.
+
+To this ancient culture, modified somewhat by Byzantine and Christian
+influences, came Islam. It approached from the northwest, coming
+stealthily and slowly and being handed on particularly by the Mandingo
+Negroes. About 1000-1200 A.D. the situation was this: Ghana was on the
+edge of the desert in the north, Mandingoland between the Niger and the
+Senegal in the south and the western Sahara, Djolof was in the west on the
+Senegal, and the Songhay on the Niger in the center. The Mohammedans came
+chiefly as traders and found a trade already established. Here and there
+in the great cities were districts set aside for these new merchants, and
+the Mohammedans gave frequent evidence of their respect for these black
+nations.
+
+Islam did not found new states, but modified and united Negro states
+already ancient; it did not initiate new commerce, but developed a
+widespread trade already established. It is, as Frobenius says, "easily
+proved from chronicles written in Arabic that Islam was only effective in
+fact as a fertilizer and stimulant. The essential point is the
+resuscitative and invigorative concentration of Negro power in the service
+of a new era and a Moslem propaganda, as well as the reaction thereby
+produced."[17]
+
+Early in the eighth century Islam had conquered North Africa and converted
+the Berbers. Aided by black soldiers, the Moslems crossed into Spain; in
+the following century Berber and Arab armies crossed the west end of the
+Sahara and came to Negroland. Later in the eleventh century Arabs
+penetrated the Sudan and Central Africa from the east, filtering through
+the Negro tribes of Darfur, Kanem, and neighboring regions. The Arabs were
+too nearly akin to Negroes to draw an absolute color line. Antar, one of
+the great pre-Islamic poets of Arabia, was the son of a black woman, and
+one of the great poets at the court of Haroun al Raschid was black. In the
+twelfth century a learned Negro poet resided at Seville, and Sidjilmessa,
+the last town in Lower Morocco toward the desert, was founded in 757 by a
+Negro who ruled over the Berber inhabitants. Indeed, many towns in the
+Sudan and the desert were thus ruled, and felt no incongruity in this
+arrangement. They say, to be sure, that the Moors destroyed Audhoghast
+because it paid tribute to the black town of Ghana, but this was because
+the town was heathen and not because it was black. On the other hand,
+there is a story that a Berber king overthrew one of the cities of the
+Sudan and all the black women committed suicide, being too proud to allow
+themselves to fall into the hands of white men.
+
+In the west the Moslems first came into touch with the Negro kingdom of
+Ghana. Here large quantities of gold were gathered in early days, and we
+have names of seventy-four rulers before 300 A.D. running through
+twenty-one generations. This would take us back approximately a thousand
+years to 700 B.C., or about the time that Pharaoh Necho of Egypt sent out
+the Phoenician expedition which circumnavigated Africa, and possibly
+before the time when Hanno, the Carthaginian, explored the west coast of
+Africa.
+
+By the middle of the eleventh century Ghana was the principal kingdom in
+the western Sudan. Already the town had a native and a Mussulman quarter,
+and was built of wood and stone with surrounding gardens. The king had an
+army of two hundred thousand and the wealth of the country was great. A
+century later the king had become Mohammedan in faith and had a palace
+with sculptures and glass windows. The great reason for this development
+was the desert trade. Gold, skins, ivory, kola nuts, gums, honey, wheat,
+and cotton were exported, and the whole Mediterranean coast traded in the
+Sudan. Other and lesser black kingdoms like Tekrou, Silla, and Masina
+surrounded Ghana.
+
+In the early part of the thirteenth century the prestige of Ghana began to
+fall before the rising Mandingan kingdom to the west. Melle, as it was
+called, was founded in 1235 and formed an open door for Moslem and Moorish
+traders. The new kingdom, helped by its expanding trade, began to grow,
+and Islam slowly surrounded the older Negro culture west, north, and east.
+However, a great mass of the older heathen culture, pushing itself upward
+from the Guinea coast, stood firmly against Islam down to the nineteenth
+century.
+
+Steadily Mohammedanism triumphed in the growing states which almost
+encircled the protagonists of ancient Atlantic culture. Mandingan Melle
+eventually supplanted Ghana in prestige and power, after Ghana had been
+overthrown by the heathen Su Su from the south.
+
+The territory of Melle lay southeast of Ghana and some five hundred miles
+north of the Gulf of Guinea. Its kings were known by the title of Mansa,
+and from the middle of the thirteenth century to the middle of the
+fourteenth the Mellestine, as its dominion was called, was the leading
+power in the land of the blacks. Its greatest king, Mari Jalak (Mansa
+Musa), made his pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324, with a caravan of sixty
+thousand persons, including twelve thousand young slaves gowned in figured
+cotton and Persian silk. He took eighty camel loads of gold dust (worth
+about five million dollars) to defray his expenses, and greatly impressed
+the people of the East with his magnificence.
+
+On his return he found that Timbuktu had been sacked by the Mossi, but he
+rebuilt the town and filled the new mosque with learned blacks from the
+University of Fez. Mansa Musa reigned twenty-five years and "was
+distinguished by his ability and by the holiness of his life. The justice
+of his administration was such that the memory of it still lives."[18] The
+Mellestine preserved its preeminence until the beginning of the sixteenth
+century, when the rod of Sudanese empire passed to Songhay, the largest
+and most famous of the black empires.
+
+The known history of Songhay covers a thousand years and three dynasties
+and centers in the great bend of the Niger. There were thirty kings of the
+First Dynasty, reigning from 700 to 1335. During the reign of one of these
+the Songhay kingdom became the vassal kingdom of Melle, then at the height
+of its glory. In addition to this the Mossi crossed the valley, plundered
+Timbuktu in 1339, and separated Jenne, the original seat of the Songhay,
+from the main empire. The sixteenth king was converted to Mohammedanism in
+1009, and after that all the Songhay princes were Mohammedans. Mansa Musa
+took two young Songhay princes to the court of Melle to be educated in
+1326. These boys when grown ran away and founded a new dynasty in Songhay,
+that of the Sonnis, in 1355. Seventeen of these kings reigned, the last
+and greatest being Sonni Ali, who ascended the throne in 1464. Melle was
+at this time declining, other cities like Jenne, with its seven thousand
+villages, were rising, and the Tuaregs (Berbers with Negro blood) had
+captured Timbuktu.
+
+Sonni Ali was a soldier and began his career with the conquest of Timbuktu
+in 1469. He also succeeded in capturing Jenne and attacked the Mossi and
+other enemies on all sides. Finally he concentrated his forces for the
+destruction of Melle and subdued nearly the whole empire on the west bend
+of the Niger. In summing up Sonni Ali's military career the chronicle says
+of him, "He surpassed all his predecessors in the numbers and valor of his
+soldiery. His conquests were many and his renown extended from the rising
+to the setting of the sun. If it is the will of God, he will be long
+spoken of."[19]
+
+Sonni Ali was a Songhay Negro whose father was a Berber. He was succeeded
+by a full-blooded black, Mohammed Abou Bekr, who had been his prime
+minister. Mohammed was hailed as "Askia" (usurper) and is best known as
+Mohammed Askia. He was strictly orthodox where Ali was rather a scoffer,
+and an organizer where Ali was a warrior. On his pilgrimage to Mecca in
+1495 there was nothing of the barbaric splendor of Mansa Musa, but a
+brilliant group of scholars and holy men with a small escort of fifteen
+hundred soldiers and nine hundred thousand dollars in gold. He stopped and
+consulted with scholars and politicians and studied matters of taxation,
+weights and measures, trade, religious tolerance, and manners. In Cairo,
+where he was invested by the reigning caliph of Egypt, he may have heard
+of the struggle of Europe for the trade of the Indies, and perhaps of the
+parceling of the new world between Portugal and Spain. He returned to the
+Sudan in 1497, instituted a standing army of slaves, undertook a holy war
+against the indomitable Mossi, and finally marched against the Hausa. He
+subdued these cities and even imposed the rule of black men on the Berber
+town of Agades, a rich city of merchants and artificers with stately
+mansions. In fine Askia, during his reign, conquered and consolidated an
+empire two thousand miles long by one thousand wide at its greatest
+diameters; a territory as large as all Europe. The territory was divided
+into four vice royalties, and the system of Melle, with its
+semi-independent native dynasties, was carried out. His empire extended
+from the Atlantic to Lake Chad and from the salt mines of Tegazza and the
+town of Augila in the north to the 10th degree of north latitude toward
+the south.
+
+It was a six months' journey across the empire and, it is said, "he was
+obeyed with as much docility on the farthest limits of the empire as he
+was in his own palace, and there reigned everywhere great plenty and
+absolute peace."[20] The University of Sankore became a center of learning
+in correspondence with Egypt and North Africa and had a swarm of black
+Sudanese students. Law, literature, grammar, geography and surgery were
+studied. Askia the Great reigned thirty-six years, and his dynasty
+continued on the throne until after the Moorish conquest in 1591.
+
+Meanwhile, to the eastward, two powerful states appeared. They never
+disputed the military supremacy of Songhay, but their industrial
+development was marvelous. The Hausa states were formed by seven original
+cities, of which Kano was the oldest and Katsena the most famous. Their
+greatest leaders, Mohammed Rimpa and Ahmadu Kesoke, arose in the fifteenth
+and early sixteenth centuries. The land was subject to the Songhay, but
+the cities became industrious centers of smelting, weaving, and dyeing.
+Katsena especially, in the middle of the sixteenth century, is described
+as a place thirteen or fourteen miles in circumference, divided into
+quarters for strangers, for visitors from various other states, and for
+the different trades and industries, as saddlers, shoemakers, dyers, etc.
+
+Beyond the Hausa states and bordering on Lake Chad was Bornu. The people
+of Bornu had a large infiltration of Berber blood, but were predominantly
+Negro. Berber mulattoes had been kings in early days, but they were soon
+replaced by black men. Under the early kings, who can be traced back to
+the third century, these people had ruled nearly all the territory between
+the Nile and Lake Chad. The country was known as Kanem, and the pagan
+dynasty of Dugu reigned there from the middle of the ninth to the end of
+the eleventh century. Mohammedanism was introduced from Egypt at the end
+of the eleventh century, and under the Mohammedan kings Kanem became one
+of the first powers of the Sudan. By the end of the twelfth century the
+armies of Kanem were very powerful and its rulers were known as "Kings of
+Kanem and Lords of Bornu." In the thirteenth century the kings even dared
+to invade the southern country down toward the valley of the Congo.
+
+Meantime great things were happening in the world beyond the desert, the
+ocean, and the Nile. Arabian Mohammedanism had succumbed to the wild
+fanaticism of the Seljukian Turks. These new conquerors were not only
+firmly planted at the gates of Vienna, but had swept the shores of the
+Mediterranean and sent all Europe scouring the seas for their lost trade
+connections with the riches of India. Religious zeal, fear of conquest,
+and commercial greed inflamed Europe against the Mohammedan and led to the
+discovery of a new world, the riches of which poured first on Spain.
+Oppression of the Moors followed, and in 1502 they were driven back into
+Africa, despoiled and humbled. Here the Spaniards followed and harassed
+them and here the Turks, fighting the Christians, captured the
+Mediterranean ports and cut the Moors off permanently from Europe. In the
+slow years that followed, huddled in Northwest Africa, they became a
+decadent people and finally cast their eyes toward Negroland.
+
+The Moors in Morocco had come to look upon the Sudan as a gold mine, and
+knew that the Sudan was especially dependent upon salt. In 1545 Morocco
+claimed the principal salt mines at Tegazza, but the reigning Askia
+refused to recognize the claim.
+
+When the Sultan Elmansour came to the throne of Morocco, he increased the
+efficiency of his army by supplying it with fire arms and cannon.
+Elmansour determined to attack the Sudan and sent four hundred men under
+Pasha Djouder, who left Morocco in 1590. The Songhay, with their bows and
+arrows, were helpless against powder and shot, and they were defeated at
+Tenkadibou April 12, 1591. Askia Ishak, the king, offered terms, and
+Djouder Pasha referred them to Morocco. The sultan, angry with his
+general's delay, deposed him and sent another, who crushed and
+treacherously murdered the king and set up a puppet. Thereafter there were
+two Askias, one under the Moors at Timbuktu and one who maintained himself
+in the Hausa states, which the Moors could not subdue. Anarchy reigned in
+Songhay. The Moors tried to put down disorder with a high hand, drove out
+and murdered the distinguished men of Timbuktu, and as a result let loose
+a riot of robbery and decadence throughout the Sudan. Pasha now succeeded
+pasha with revolt and misrule until in 1612 the soldiers elected their own
+pasha and deliberately shut themselves up in the Sudan by cutting off
+approach from the north.
+
+Hausaland and Bornu were still open to Turkish and Mohammedan influence
+from the east, and the Gulf of Guinea to the slave trade from the south,
+but the face of the finest Negro civilization the modern world had ever
+produced was veiled from Europe and given to the defilement of wild
+Moorish soldiers. In 1623 it is written "excesses of every kind are now
+committed unchecked by the soldiery," and "the country is profoundly
+convulsed and oppressed."[21] The Tuaregs marched down from the desert and
+deprived the Moors of many of the principal towns. The rest of the empire
+of the Songhay was by the end of the eighteenth century divided among
+separate Moorish chiefs, who bought supplies from the Negro peasantry and
+were "at once the vainest, proudest, and perhaps the most bigoted,
+ferocious, and intolerant of all the nations of the south."[22] They lived
+a nomadic life, plundering the Negroes. To such depths did the mighty
+Songhay fall.
+
+As the Songhay declined a new power arose in the nineteenth century, the
+Fula. The Fula, who vary in race from Berber mulattoes to full-blooded
+Negroes, may be the result of a westward migration of some people like the
+"Leukoaethiopi" of Pliny, or they may have arisen from the migration of
+Berber mulattoes in the western oases, driven south by Romans and Arabs.
+
+These wandering herdsmen lived on the Senegal River and the ocean in very
+early times and were not heard of until the nineteenth century. By this
+time they had changed to a Negro or dark mulatto people and lived
+scattered in small communities between the Atlantic and Darfur. They were
+without political union or national sentiment, but were all Mohammedans.
+Then came a sudden change, and led by a religious fanatic, these despised
+and persecuted people became masters of the central Sudan. They were the
+ones who at last broke down that great wedge of resisting Atlantic
+culture, after it had been undermined and disintegrated by the American
+slave trade.
+
+Thus Islam finally triumphed in the Sudan and the ancient culture combined
+with the new. In the Sudan to-day one may find evidences of the union of
+two classes of people. The representatives of the older civilization dwell
+as peasants in small communities, carrying on industries and speaking a
+large number of different languages. With them or above them is the ruling
+Mohammedan caste, speaking four main languages: Mandingo, Hausa, Fula, and
+Arabic. These latter form the state builders. Negro blood predominates
+among both classes, but naturally there is more Berber blood among the
+Mohammedan invaders.
+
+Europe during the middle ages had some knowledge of these movements in the
+Sudan and Africa. Melle and Songhay appear on medieval maps. In literature
+we have many allusions: the mulatto king, Feirifis, was one of Wolfram von
+Eschenbach's heroes; Prester John furnished endless lore; Othello, the
+warrior, and the black king represented by medieval art as among the three
+wise men, and the various black Virgin Marys' all show legendary knowledge
+of what African civilization was at that time doing.
+
+It is a curious commentary on modern prejudice that most of this splendid
+history of civilization and uplift is unknown to-day, and men confidently
+assert that Negroes have no history.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[17] Frobenius: _Voice of Africa_, II, 359-360.
+
+[18] Ibn Khaldun, quoted in Lugard, p. 128.
+
+[19] Quoted in Lugard, p. 180.
+
+[20] Es-Sa 'di, quoted by Lugard, p. 199.
+
+[21] Lugard, p. 373.
+
+[22] Mungo Park, quoted in Lugard, p. 374.
+
+
+
+
+V GUINEA AND CONGO
+
+
+One of the great cities of the Sudan was Jenne. The chronicle says "that
+its markets are held every day of the week and its populations are very
+enormous. Its seven thousand villages are so near to one another that the
+chief of Jenne has no need of messengers. If he wishes to send a note to
+Lake Dibo, for instance, it is cried from the gate of the town and
+repeated from village to village, by which means it reaches its
+destination almost instantly."[23]
+
+
+
+From the name of this city we get the modern name Guinea, which is used
+to-day to designate the country contiguous to the great gulf of that
+name--a territory often referred to in general as West Africa. Here,
+reaching from the mouth of the Gambia to the mouth of the Niger, is a
+coast of six hundred miles, where a marvelous drama of world history has
+been enacted. The coast and its hinterland comprehends many well-known
+names. First comes ancient Guinea, then, modern Sierra Leone and Liberia;
+then follow the various "coasts" of ancient traffic--the grain, ivory,
+gold, and slave coasts--with the adjoining territories of Ashanti,
+Dahomey, Lagos, and Benin, and farther back such tribal and territorial
+names as those of the Mandingoes, Yorubas, the Mossi, Nupe, Borgu, and
+others.
+
+Recent investigation makes it certain that an ancient civilization existed
+on this coast which may have gone back as far as three thousand years
+before Christ. Frobenius, perhaps fancifully, identified this African
+coast with the Atlantis of the Greeks and as part of that great western
+movement in human culture, "beyond the pillars of Hercules," which
+thirteen centuries before Christ strove with Egypt and the East. It is, at
+any rate, clear that ancient commerce reached down the west coast. The
+Phoenicians, 600 B.C., and the Carthaginians, a century or more later,
+record voyages, and these may have been attempted revivals of still more
+ancient intercourse.
+
+These coasts at some unknown prehistoric period were peopled from the
+Niger plateau toward the north and west by the black West African type of
+Negro, while along the west end of the desert these Negroes mingled with
+the Berbers, forming various Negroid races.
+
+Movement and migration is evident along this coast in ancient and modern
+times. The Yoruba-Benin-Dahomey peoples were among the earliest arrivals,
+with their remarkable art and industry, which places them in some lines of
+technique abreast with the modern world. Behind them came the Mossi from
+the north, and many other peoples in recent days have filtered through,
+like the Limba and Temni of Sierra Leone and the Agni-Ashanti, who moved
+from Borgu some two thousand years ago to the Gold and Ivory coasts.
+
+We have already noted in the main the history of black men along the
+wonderful Niger and seen how, pushing up from the Gulf of Guinea, a
+powerful wedge of ancient culture held back Islam for a thousand years,
+now victorious, now stubbornly disputing every inch of retreat. The center
+of this culture lay probably, in oldest times, above the Bight of Benin,
+along the Slave Coast, and reached east, west, and north. We trace it
+to-day not only in the remarkable tradition of the natives, but in stone
+monuments, architecture, industrial and social organization, and works of
+art in bronze, glass, and terra cotta.
+
+Benin art has been practiced without interruption for centuries, and Von
+Luschan says that it is "of extraordinary significance that by the
+sixteenth and seventeenth centuries a local and monumental art had been
+learned in Benin which in many respects equaled European art and developed
+a technique of the very highest accomplishment."[24]
+
+Summing up Yoruban civilization, Frobenius concluded that "the technical
+summit of that civilization was reached in the terra-cotta industry, and
+that the most important achievements in art were not expressed in stone,
+but in fine clay baked in the furnace; that hollow casting was thoroughly
+known, too, and practiced by these people; that iron was mainly used for
+decoration; that, whatever their purpose, they kept their glass beads in
+stoneware urns within their own locality, and that they manufactured both
+earthen and glass ware; that the art of weaving was highly developed among
+them; that the stone monuments, it is true, show some dexterity in
+handling and are so far instructive, but in other respects evidence a
+cultural condition insufficiently matured to grasp the utility of stone
+monumental material; and, above all, that the then great and significant
+idea of the universe as imaged in the Templum was current in those
+days."[25]
+
+Effort has naturally been made to ascribe this civilization to white
+people. First it was ascribed to Portuguese influence, but much of it is
+evidently older than the Portuguese discovery. Egypt and India have been
+evoked and Greece and Carthage. But all these explanations are
+far-fetched. If ever a people exhibited unanswerable evidence of
+indigenous civilization, it is the west-coast Africans. Undoubtedly they
+adapted much that came to them, utilized new ideas, and grew from contact.
+But their art and culture is Negro through and through.
+
+Yoruba forms one of the three city groups of West Africa; another is
+around Timbuktu, and a third in the Hausa states. The Timbuktu cities have
+from five to fifteen hundred towns, while the Yoruba cities have one
+hundred and fifty thousand inhabitants and more. The Hausa cities are many
+of them important, but few are as large as the Yoruba cities and they lie
+farther apart. AH three centers, however, are connected with the Niger,
+and the group nearest the coast--that is, the Yoruba cities--has the
+greatest numbers of towns, the most developed architectural styles, and
+the oldest institutions.
+
+The Yoruba cities are not only different from the Sudanese in population,
+but in their social relations. The Sudanese cities were influenced from
+the desert and the Mediterranean, and form nuclei of larger surrounding
+monarchial states. The Yoruba cities, on the other hand, remained
+comparatively autonomous organizations down to modern times, and their
+relative importance changed from time to time without developing an
+imperialistic idea or subordinating the group to one overpowering city.
+
+This social and industrial state of the Yorubas formerly spread and
+wielded great influence. We find Yoruba reaching out and subduing states
+like Nupe toward the northward. But the industrial democracy and city
+autonomy of Yoruba lent itself indifferently to conquest, and the state
+fell eventually a victim to the fanatical Fula Mohammedans and was made a
+part of the modern sultanate of Gando.
+
+West of Yoruba on the lower courses of the Niger is Benin, an ancient
+state which in 1897 traced its twenty-three kings back one thousand years;
+some legends even named a line of sixty kings. It seems probable that
+Benin developed the imperial idea and once extended its rule into the
+Congo valley. Later and also to the west of the Yoruba come two states
+showing a fiercer and ruder culture, Dahomey and Ashanti. The state of
+Dahomey was founded by Tacondomi early in the seventeenth century, and
+developed into a fierce and bloody tyranny with wholesale murder. The king
+had a body of two thousand to five thousand Amazons renowned for their
+bravery and armed with rifles. The kingdom was overthrown by the French in
+1892-93. Under Sai Tutu, Ashanti arose to power in the seventeenth
+century. A military aristocracy with cruel blood sacrifices was formed. By
+1816 the king had at his disposal two hundred thousand soldiers. The
+Ashanti power was crushed by the English in the war of 1873-74.
+
+In these states and in later years in Benin the whole character of
+west-coast culture seems to change. In place of the Yoruban culture, with
+its city democracy, its elevated religious ideas, its finely organized
+industry, and its noble art, came Ashanti and Dahomey. What was it that
+changed the character of the west coast from this to the orgies of war and
+blood sacrifice which we read of later in these lands?
+
+There can be but one answer: the slave trade. Not simply the sale of men,
+but an organized traffic of such proportions and widely organized
+ramifications as to turn the attention and energies of men from nearly all
+other industries, encourage war and all the cruelest passions of war, and
+concentrate this traffic in precisely that part of Africa farthest from
+the ancient Mediterranean lines of trade.
+
+We need not assume that the cultural change was sudden or absolute.
+Ancient Yoruba had the cruelty of a semi-civilized land, but it was not
+dominant or tyrannical. Modern Benin and Dahomey showed traces of skill,
+culture, and industry along with inexplicable cruelty and
+bloodthirstiness. But it was the slave trade that turned the balance and
+set these lands backward. Dahomey was the last word in a series of human
+disasters which began with the defeat of the Askias at Tenkadibou.[26]
+
+From the middle of the fifteenth to the last half of the nineteenth
+centuries the American slave trade centered in Guinea and devastated the
+coast morally, socially, and physically. European rum and fire arms were
+traded for human beings, and it was not until 1787 that any measures were
+taken to counteract this terrible scourge. In that year the idea arose of
+repatriating stolen Negroes on that coast and establishing civilized
+centers to supplant the slave trade. About four hundred Negroes from
+England were sent to Sierra Leone, to whom the promoters considerately
+added sixty white prostitutes as wives. The climate on the low coast,
+however, was so deadly that new recruits were soon needed. An American
+Negro, Thomas Peters, who had served as sergeant under Sir Henry Clinton
+in the British army in America, went to England seeking an allotment of
+land for his fellows. The Sierra Leone Company welcomed him and offered
+free passage and land in Sierra Leone to the Negroes of Nova Scotia. As a
+result fifteen vessels sailed with eleven hundred and ninety Negroes in
+1792. Arriving in Africa, they found the chief white man in control there
+so drunk that he soon died of delirium tremens. John Clarkson, however,
+brother of Thomas Clarkson, the abolitionist, eventually took the lead,
+founded Freetown, and the colony began its checkered career. In 1896 the
+colony was saved from insurrection by the exiled Maroon Negroes from
+Jamaica. After 1833, when emancipation in English colonies took place,
+severer measures against the slave trade was possible and the colony began
+to grow. To-day its imports and exports amount to fifteen million dollars
+a year.
+
+Liberia was a similar American experiment. In 1816 American
+philanthropists decided that slavery was bound to die out, but that the
+problem lay in getting rid of the freed Negroes, of which there were then
+two hundred thousand in the United States. Accordingly the American
+Colonization Society was proposed this year and founded January 1, 1817,
+with Bushrod Washington as President. It was first thought to encourage
+migration to Sierra Leone, and eighty-eight Negroes were sent, but they
+were not welcomed. As a result territory was bought in the present
+confines of Liberia, December 15, 1821, and colonists began to arrive. A
+little later an African depot for recaptured slaves taken in the
+contraband slave trade, provided for in the Act of 1819, was established
+and an agent was sent to Africa to form a settlement. Gradually this
+settlement was merged with the settlement of the Colonization Society, and
+from this union Liberia was finally evolved.
+
+The last white governor of Liberia died in 1841 and was succeeded by the
+first colored governor, Joseph J. Roberts, a Virginian. The total
+population in 1843 was about twenty-seven hundred and ninety, and with
+this as a beginning in 1847 Governor Roberts declared the independence of
+the state. The recognition of Liberian independence by all countries
+except the United States followed in 1849. The United States, not wishing
+to receive a Negro minister, did not recognize Liberia until 1862.
+
+No sooner was the independence of Liberia announced than England and
+France began a long series of aggressions to limit her territory and
+sovereignty. Considerable territory was lost by treaty, and in the effort
+to get capital to develop the rest, Liberia was saddled with a debt of
+four hundred thousand dollars, of which she received less than one hundred
+thousand dollars in actual cash. Finally the Liberians turned to the
+United States for capital and protection. As a result the Liberian customs
+have been put under international control and Major Charles Young, the
+ranking Negro officer in the United States army, with several colored
+assistants, has been put in charge of the making of roads and drilling a
+constabulary to keep order in the interior.
+
+To-day Liberia has an area of forty thousand square miles, about three
+hundred and fifty miles of coast line, and an estimated total population
+of two million of which fifty thousand are civilized. The revenue amounted
+in 1913 to $531,500. The imports in 1912 were $1,667,857 and the exports
+$1,199,152. The latter consisted chiefly of rubber, palm oil and kernels,
+coffee, piassava fiber, ivory, ginger, camwood, and arnotto.
+
+Perhaps Liberia's greatest citizen was the late Edward Wilmot Blyden, who
+migrated in early life from the Danish West Indies and became a prophet of
+the renaissance of the Negro race.
+
+Turning now from Guinea we pass down the west coast. In 1482 Diego Cam of
+Portugal, sailing this coast, set a stone at the mouth of a great river
+which he called "The Mighty," but which eventually came to be known by the
+name of the powerful Negro kingdom through which it flowed--the Congo.
+
+We must think of the valley of the Congo with its intricate interlacing of
+water routes and jungle of forests as a vast caldron shut away at first
+from the African world by known and unknown physical hindrances. Then it
+was penetrated by the tiny red dwarfs and afterward horde after horde of
+tall black men swirled into the valley like a maelstrom, moving usually
+from north to east and from south to west.
+
+The Congo valley became, therefore, the center of the making of what we
+know to-day as the Bantu nations. They are not a unified people, but a
+congeries of tribes of considerable physical diversity, united by the
+compelling bond of language and other customs imposed on the conquered by
+invading conquerors.
+
+The history or these invasions we must to-day largely imagine. Between two
+and three thousand years ago the wilder tribes of Negroes began to move
+out of the region south or southeast of Lake Chad. This was always a land
+of shadows and legends, where fearful cannibals dwelt and where no
+Egyptian or Ethiopian or Sudanese armies dared to go. It is possible,
+however, that pressure from civilization in the Nile valley and rising
+culture around Lake Chad was at this time reenforced by expansion of the
+Yoruba-Benin culture on the west coast. Perhaps, too, developing culture
+around the Great Lakes in the east beckoned or the riotous fertility of
+the Congo valleys became known. At any rate the movement commenced, now by
+slow stages, now in wild forays. There may have been a preliminary
+movement from east to west to the Gulf of Guinea. The main movement,
+however, was eastward, skirting the Congo forests and passing down by the
+Victoria Nyanza and Lake Tanganyika. Here two paths beckoned: the lakes
+and the sea to the east, the Congo to the west. A great stream of men
+swept toward the ocean and, dividing, turned northward and fought its way
+down the Nile valley and into the Abyssinian highlands; another branch
+turned south and approached the Zambesi, where we shall meet it again.
+
+Another horde of invaders turned westward and entered the valley of the
+Congo in three columns. The northern column moved along the Lualaba and
+Congo rivers to the Cameroons; the second column became the industrial and
+state-building Luba and Lunda peoples in the southern Congo valley and
+Angola; while the third column moved into Damaraland and mingled with
+Bushman and Hottentot.
+
+In the Congo valley the invaders settled in village and plain, absorbed
+such indigenous inhabitants as they found or drove them deeper into the
+forest, and immediately began to develop industry and political
+organization. They became skilled agriculturists, raising in some
+localities a profusion of cereals, fruit, and vegetables such as manioc,
+maize, yams, sweet potatoes, ground nuts, sorghum, gourds, beans, peas,
+bananas, and plantains. Everywhere they showed skill in mining and the
+welding of iron, copper, and other metals. They made weapons, wire and
+ingots, cloth, and pottery, and a widespread system of trade arose. Some
+tribes extracted rubber from the talamba root; others had remarkable
+breeds of fowl and cattle, and still others divided their people by crafts
+into farmers, smiths, boat builders, warriors, cabinet makers, armorers,
+and speakers. Women here and there took part in public assemblies and were
+rulers in some cases. Large towns were built, some of which required hours
+to traverse from end to end.
+
+Many tribes developed intelligence of a high order. Wissmann called the Ba
+Luba "a nation of thinkers." Bateman found them "thoroughly and
+unimpeachably honest, brave to foolhardiness, and faithful to each other
+and to their superiors." One of their kings, Calemba, "a really princely
+prince," Bateman says would "amongst any people be a remarkable and indeed
+in many respects a magnificent man."[27]
+
+These beginnings of human culture were, however, peculiarly vulnerable to
+invading hosts of later comers. There were no natural protecting barriers
+like the narrow Nile valley or the Kong mountains or the forests below
+Lake Chad. Once the pathways to the valley were open and for hundreds of
+years the newcomers kept arriving, especially from the welter of tribes
+south of the Sudan and west of the Nile, which rising culture beyond kept
+in unrest and turmoil.
+
+Against these intruders there was but one defense, the State. State
+building was thus forced on the Congo valley. How early it started we
+cannot say, but when the Portuguese arrived in the fifteenth century,
+there had existed for centuries a large state among the Ba-Congo, with its
+capital at the city now known as San Salvador.
+
+The Negro Mfumu, or emperor, was eventually induced to accept
+Christianity. His sons and many young Negroes of high birth were taken to
+Portugal to be educated. There several were raised to the Catholic
+priesthood and one became bishop; others distinguished themselves at the
+universities. Thus suddenly there arose a Catholic kingdom south of the
+valley of the Congo, which lasted three centuries, but was partially
+overthrown by invading barbarians from the interior in the seventeenth
+century. A king of Congo still reigns as pensioner of Portugal, and on the
+coast to-day are the remains of the kingdom in the civilized blacks and
+mulattoes, who are intelligent traders and boat builders.
+
+Meantime the Luba-Lunda people to the eastward founded Kantanga and other
+states, and in the sixteenth century the larger and more ambitious realm
+of the Mwata Yamvo. The last of the fourteen rulers of this line was
+feudal lord of about three hundred chiefs, who paid him tribute in ivory,
+skins, corn, cloth, and salt. His territory included about one hundred
+thousand square miles and two million or more inhabitants. Eventually this
+state became torn by internal strife and revolt, especially by attacks
+from the south across the Congo-Zambesi divide.
+
+Farther north, among the Ba-Lolo and the Ba-Songo, the village policy
+persisted and the cannibals of the northeast pressed down on the more
+settled tribes. The result was a curious blending of war and industry,
+artistic tastes and savage customs.
+
+The organized slave trade of the Arabs penetrated the Congo valley in the
+sixteenth century and soon was aiding all the forces of unrest and
+turmoil. Industry was deranged and many tribes forced to take refuge in
+caves and other hiding places.
+
+Here, as on the west coast, disintegration and retrogression followed, for
+as the American traffic lessened, the Arabian traffic increased. When,
+therefore, Stanley opened the Congo valley to modern knowledge, Leopold II
+of Belgium conceived the idea of founding here a free international state
+which was to bring civilization to the heart of Africa. Consequently there
+was formed in 1878 an international committee to study the region. Stanley
+was finally commissioned to inquire as to the best way of introducing
+European trade and culture. "I am charged," he said, "to open and keep
+open, if possible, all such districts and countries as I may explore, for
+the benefit of the commercial world. The mission is supported by a
+philanthropic society, which numbers nobleminded men of several nations.
+It is not a religious society, but my instructions are entirely of that
+spirit. No violence must be used, and wherever rejected, the mission must
+withdraw to seek another field."[28]
+
+The Bula Matadi or Stone Breaker, as the natives called Stanley, threw
+himself energetically into the work and had by 1881 built a road past the
+falls to the plateau, where thousands of miles of river navigation were
+thus opened. Stations were established, and by 1884 Stanley returned armed
+with four hundred and fifty "treaties" with the native chiefs, and the new
+"State" appealed to the world for recognition.
+
+The United States first recognized the "Congo Free State," which was at
+last made a sovereign power under international guarantees by the Congress
+of Berlin in the year 1885, and Leopold II was chosen its king. The state
+had an area of about nine hundred thousand square miles, with a population
+of about thirty million.
+
+One of the first tasks before the new state was to check the Arab slave
+traders. The Arabs had hitherto acted as traders and middlemen along the
+upper Congo, and when the English and Congo state overthrew Mzidi, the
+reigning king in the Kantanga country, a general revolt of the Arabs and
+mulattoes took place. For a time, 1892-93, the whites were driven out, but
+in a year or two the Arabs and their allies were subdued.
+
+Humanity and commerce, however, did not replace the Arab slave traders.
+Rather European greed and serfdom were substituted. The land was
+confiscated by the state and farmed out to private Belgian corporations.
+The wilder cannibal tribes were formed into a militia to prey on the
+industrious, who were taxed with specific amounts of ivory and rubber, and
+scourged and mutilated if they failed to pay. Harris declares that King
+Leopold's regime meant the death of twelve million natives.
+
+"Europe was staggered at the Leopoldian atrocities, and they were terrible
+indeed; but what we, who were behind the scenes, felt most keenly was the
+fact that the real catastrophe in the Congo was the desolation and murder
+in the larger sense. The invasion of family life, the ruthless destruction
+of every social barrier, the shattering of every tribal law, the
+introduction of criminal practices which struck the chiefs of the people
+dumb with horror--in a word, a veritable avalanche of filth and immorality
+overwhelmed the Congo tribes."[29]
+
+So notorious did the exploitation and misrule become that Leopold was
+forced to take measures toward reform, and finally in 1909 the Free State
+became a Belgian colony. Some reforms have been inaugurated and others may
+follow, but the valley of the Congo will long stand as a monument of shame
+to Christianity and European civilization.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[23] Quoted in Du Bois: _Timbuktu_.
+
+[24] Von Luschan: _Verhandlungen der berliner Gesellschaft fuer
+Anthropologie_, etc., 1898.
+
+[25] Frobenius: _Voice of Africa_, Vol. I.
+
+[26] Cf. p. 58.
+
+[27] Keane: _Africa_, II, 117-118.
+
+[28] _The Congo_, I, Chap. III.
+
+[29] Harris: _Dawn in Africa_.
+
+
+
+
+VI THE GREAT LAKES AND ZYMBABWE
+
+
+We have already seen how a branch of the conquering Bantus turned eastward
+by the Great Lakes and thus reached the sea and eventually both the Nile
+and South Africa.
+
+This brought them into the ancient and mysterious land far up the Nile,
+south of Ethiopia. Here lay the ancient Punt of the Egyptians (whether we
+place it in Somaliland or, as seems far more likely, around the Great
+Lakes) and here, as the Egyptians thought, their civilization began. The
+earliest inhabitants of the land were apparently of the Bushman or
+Hottentot type of Negro. These were gradually pushed southward and
+westward by the intrusion of the Nilotic Negroes. Five thousand years
+before Christ the mulatto Egyptians were in the Nile valley below the
+First Cataract. The Negroes were in the Nile valley down as far as the
+Second Cataract and between the First and Second Cataracts were Negroes
+into whose veins Semitic blood had penetrated more or less. These mixed
+elements became the ancestors of the modern Somali, Gala, Bishari, and
+Beja and spread Negro blood into Arabia beyond the Red Sea. The Nilotic
+Negroes to the south early became great traders in ivory, gold, leopard
+skins, gums, beasts, birds, and slaves, and they opened up systematic
+trade between Egypt and the Great Lakes.
+
+The result was endless movement and migration both in ancient and modern
+days, which makes the cultural history of the Great Lakes region very
+difficult to understand. Three great elements are, however, clear: first,
+the Egyptian element, by the northward migration of the Negro ancestors of
+predynastic Egypt and the southern conquests and trade of dynastic Egypt;
+second, the Semitic influence from Arabia and Persia; third, the Negro
+influences from western and central Africa.
+
+The migration of the Bantu is the first clearly defined movement of modern
+times. As we have shown, they began to move southward at least a thousand
+years before Christ, skirting the Congo forests and wandering along the
+Great Lakes and down to the Zambesi. What did they find in this land?
+
+We do not know certainly, but from what we do know we may reconstruct the
+situation in this way: the primitive culture of the Hottentots of Punt had
+been further developed by them and by other stronger Negro stocks until it
+reached a highly developed culture. Widespread agriculture, and mining of
+gold, silver, and precious stones started a trade that penetrated to Asia
+and North Africa. This may have been the source of the gold of the Ophir.
+
+The state that thus arose became in time strongly organized; it employed
+slave labor in crushing the hard quartz, sinking pits, and carrying
+underground galleries; it carried out a system of irrigation and built
+stone buildings and fortifications. There exists to-day many remains of
+these building operations in the Kalahari desert and in northern Rhodesia.
+Five hundred groups, covering over an area of one hundred and fifty
+thousand square miles, lie between the Limpopo and Zambesi rivers. Mining
+operations have been carried on in these plains for generations, and one
+estimate is that at least three hundred and seventy-five million dollars'
+worth of gold had been extracted. Some have thought that the older
+workings must date back to one or even three thousand years before the
+Christian era.
+
+"There are other mines," writes De Barros in the seventeenth century,[30]
+"in a district called Toroa, which is otherwise known as the kingdom of
+Butua, whose ruler is a prince, by name Burrow, a vassal of Benomotapa.
+This land is near the other which we said consisted of extensive plains,
+and those ruins are the oldest that are known in that region. They are all
+in a plain, in the middle of which stands a square fortress, all of
+dressed stones within and without, well wrought and of marvelous size,
+without any lime showing the joinings, the walls of which are over
+twenty-five hands thick, but the height is not so great compared to the
+thickness. And above the gateway of that edifice is an inscription which
+some Moorish [Arab] traders who were there could not read, nor say what
+writing it was. All these structures the people of this country call
+Symbaoe [Zymbabwe], which with them means a court, for every place where
+Benomotapa stays is so called."
+
+Later investigation has shown that these buildings were in many cases
+carefully planned and built fortifications. At Niekerk, for instance, nine
+or ten hills are fortified on concentric walls thirty to fifty feet in
+number, with a place for the village at the top. The buildings are forts,
+miniature citadels, and also workshops and cattle kraals. Iron implements
+and handsome pottery were found here, and close to the Zambesi there are
+extraordinary fortifications. Farther south at Inyanga there is less
+strong defense, and at Umtali there are no fortifications, showing that
+builders feared invasion from the north.
+
+These people worked in gold, silver, tin, copper, and bronze and made
+beautiful pottery. There is evidence of religious significance in the
+buildings, and what is called the temple was the royal residence and
+served as a sort of acropolis. The surrounding residences in the valley
+were evidently occupied by wealthy traders and were not fortified. Here
+the gold was received from surrounding districts and bartered with
+traders.
+
+As usual there have been repeated attempts to find an external and
+especially an Asiatic origin for this culture. So far, however,
+archeological research seems to confirm its African origin. The
+implements, weapons, and art are characteristically African and there is
+no evident connection with outside sources. How far back this civilization
+dates it is difficult to say, a great deal depending upon the dating of
+the iron age in South Africa. If it was the same as in the Mediterranean
+regions, the earliest limit was 1000 B.C.; it might, however, have been
+much earlier, especially if, as seems probable, the use of iron originated
+in Africa. On the other hand the culmination of this culture has been
+placed by some as late as the modern middle ages.
+
+What was it that overthrew this civilization? Undoubtedly the same sort of
+raids of barbarous warriors that we have known in our day. For instance,
+in 1570 there came upon the country of Mozambique, farther up the coast,
+"such an inundation of pagans that they could not be numbered. They came
+from that part of Monomotapa where is the great lake from which spring
+these great rivers. They left no other signs of the towns they passed but
+the heaps of ruins and the bones of inhabitants." So, too, it is told how
+the Zimbas came, "a strange people never before seen there, who, leaving
+their own country, traversed a great part of this Ethiopia like a scourge
+of God, destroying every living thing they came across. They were twenty
+thousand strong and marched without children or women," just as four
+hundred years later the Zulu impi marched. Again in 1602 a horde of people
+came from the interior called the Cabires, or cannibals. They entered the
+kingdom of Monomotapa, and the reigning king, being weak, was in great
+terror. Thus gradually the Monomotapa fell, and its power was scattered
+until the Kaffir-Zulu raids of our day.[31]
+
+The Arab writer, Macoudi, in the tenth century visited the East African
+coast somewhere north of the equator. He found the Indian Sea at that time
+frequented by Arab and Persian vessels, but there were no Asiatic
+settlements on the African shore. The Bantu, or as he calls them, Zenji,
+inhabited the country as far south as Sofala, where they bordered upon the
+Bushmen. These Bantus were under a ruler with the dynastic title of
+Waklimi. He was paramount over all the other tribes of the north and could
+put three hundred thousand men in the field. They used oxen as beasts of
+burden and the country produced gold in abundance, while panther skin was
+largely used for clothing. Ivory was sold to Asia and the Bantu used iron
+for personal adornment instead of gold or silver. They rode on their oxen,
+which ran with great speed, and they ate millet and honey and the flesh of
+animals.
+
+Inland among the Bantu arose later the line of rulers called the
+Monomotapa among the gifted Makalanga. Their state was very extensive,
+ranging from the coast far into the interior and from Mozambique down to
+the Limpopo. It was strongly organized, with feudatory allied states, and
+carried on an extensive commerce by means of the traders on the coast. The
+kings were converted to nominal Christianity by the Portuguese.
+
+There are indications of trade between Nupe in West Africa and Sofala on
+the east coast, and certainly trade between Asia and East Africa is
+earlier than the beginning of the Christian era. The Asiatic traders
+settled on the coast and by means of mulatto and Negro merchants brought
+Central Africa into contact with Arabia, India, China, and Malaysia.
+
+The coming of the Asiatics was in this wise: Zaide, great-grandson of Ali,
+nephew and son-in-law of Mohammed, was banished from Arabia as a heretic.
+He passed over to Africa and formed temporary settlements. His people
+mingled with the blacks, and the resulting mulatto traders, known as the
+Emoxaidi, seem to have wandered as far south as the equator. Soon other
+Arabian families came over on account of oppression and founded the towns
+of Magadosho and Brava, both not far north of the equator. The first town
+became a place of importance and other settlements were made. The
+Emoxaidi, whom the later immigrants regarded as heretics, were driven
+inland and became the interpreting traders between the coast and the
+Bantu. Some wanderers from Magadosho came into the Port of Sofala and
+there learned that gold could be obtained. This led to a small Arab
+settlement at that place.
+
+Seventy years later, and about fifty years before the Norman conquest of
+England, certain Persians settled at Kilwa in East Africa, led by Ali, who
+had been despised in his land because he was the son of a black Abyssinian
+slave mother. Kilwa, because of this, eventually became the most important
+commercial station on the East African coast, and in this and all these
+settlements a very large mulatto population grew up, so that very soon the
+whole settlement was indistinguishable in color from the Bantu.
+
+In 1330 Ibn Batuta visited Kilwa. He found an abundance of ivory and some
+gold and heard that the inhabitants of Kilwa had gained victories over the
+Zenji or Bantu. Kilwa had at that time three hundred mosques and was
+"built of handsome houses of stone and lime, and very lofty, with their
+windows like those of the Christians; in the same way it has streets, and
+these houses have got terraces, and the wood-work is with the masonry,
+with plenty of gardens, in which there are many fruit trees and much
+water."[32] Kilwa after a time captured Sofala, seizing it from Magadosho.
+Eventually Kilwa became mistress of the island of Zanzibar, of Mozambique,
+and of much other territory. The forty-third ruler of Kilwa after Ali was
+named Abraham, and he was ruling when the Portuguese arrived. The latter
+reported that these people cultivated rice and cocoa, built ships, and had
+considerable commerce with Asia. All the people, of whatever color, were
+Mohammedans, and the richer were clothed in gorgeous robes of silk and
+velvet. They traded with the inland Bantus and met numerous tribes,
+receiving gold, ivory, millet, rice, cattle, poultry, and honey.
+
+On the islands the Asiatics were independent, but on the main lands south
+of Kilwa the sheiks ruled only their own people, under the overlordship of
+the Bantus, to whom they were compelled to pay large tribute each year.
+
+Vasco da Gama doubled the Cape of Good Hope in 1497 and went north on the
+east coast as far as India. In the next ten years the Portuguese had
+occupied more than six different points on that coast, including
+Sofala.[33]
+
+Thus civilization waxed and waned in East Africa among prehistoric
+Negroes, Arab and Persian mulattoes on the coast, in the Zend or Zeng
+empire of Bantu Negroes, and later in the Bantu rule of the Monomotapa.
+And thus, too, among later throngs of the fiercer, warlike Bantu, the
+ancient culture of the land largely died. Yet something survived, and in
+the modern Bantu state, language, and industry can be found clear links
+that establish the essential identity of the absorbed peoples with the
+builders of Zymbabwe.
+
+So far we have traced the history of the lands into which the southward
+stream of invading Bantus turned, and have followed them to the Limpopo
+River. We turn now to the lands north from Lake Nyassa.
+
+The aboriginal Negroes sustained in prehistoric time invasions from the
+northeast by Negroids of a type like the ancient Egyptians and like the
+modern Gallas, Masai, and Somalis. To these migrations were added attacks
+from the Nile Negroes to the north and the Bantu invaders from the south.
+This has led to great differences among the groups of the population and
+in their customs. Some are fierce mountaineers, occupying hilly plateaus
+six thousand feet above the sea level; others, like the Wa Swahili, are
+traders on the coast. There are the Masai, chocolate-colored and
+frizzly-haired, organized for war and cattle lifting; and Negroids like
+the Gallas, who, blending with the Bantus, have produced the race of
+modern Uganda.
+
+It was in this region that the kingdom of Kitwara was founded by the Galla
+chief, Kintu. About the beginning of the nineteenth century the empire was
+dismembered, the largest share falling to Uganda. The ensuing history of
+Uganda is of great interest. When King Mutesa came to the throne in 1862,
+he found Mohammedan influences in his land and was induced to admit
+English Protestants and French Catholics. Uganda thereupon became an
+extraordinary religious battlefield between these three beliefs. Mutesa's
+successor, Mwanga, caused an English bishop to be killed in 1885,
+believing (as has since proven quite true) that the religion he offered
+would be used as a cloak for conquest. The final result was that, after
+open war between the religions, Uganda was made an English protectorate in
+1894.
+
+The Negroes of Uganda are an intelligent people who had organized a
+complex feudal state. At the head stood the king, and under him twelve
+feudal lords. The present king, Daudi Chua, is the young grandson of
+Mutesa and rules under the overlordship of England.
+
+Many things show the connection between Egypt and this part of Africa. The
+same glass beads are found in Uganda and Upper Egypt, and similar canoes
+are built. Harps and other instruments bear great resemblance. Finally the
+Bahima, as the Galla invaders are called, are startlingly Egyptian in
+type; at the same time they are undoubtedly Negro in hair and color.
+Perhaps we have here the best racial picture of what ancient Egyptian and
+upper Nile regions were in predynastic times and later.
+
+Thus in outline was seen the mission of The People--La Bantu as they
+called themselves. They migrated, they settled, they tore down, and they
+learned, and they in turn were often overthrown by succeeding tribes of
+their own folk. They rule with their tongue and their power all Africa
+south of the equator, save where the Europeans have entered. They have
+never been conquered, although the gold and diamond traders have sought to
+debauch them, and the ivory and rubber capitalists have cruelly wronged
+their weaker groups. They are the Africans with whom the world of
+to-morrow must reckon, just as the world of yesterday knew them to its
+cost.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[30] Quoted in Bent: _Ruined Cities of Mashonaland_, pp. 203 ff.
+
+[31] Cf. "Ethiopia Oriental," by J. Dos Santos, in Theal's _Records of
+South Africa_, Vol. VII.
+
+[32] Barbosa, quoted in Keane, II, 482.
+
+[33] It was called Sofala, from an Arabic word, and may be associated with
+the Ophir of Solomon. So, too, the river Sabi, a little off Sofala, may be
+associated with the name of the Queen of Sheba, whose lineage was supposed
+to be perpetuated in the powerful Monomotapa as well as the Abyssinians.
+
+
+
+
+VII THE WAR OF RACES AT LAND'S END
+
+
+Primitive man in Africa is found in the interior jungles and down at
+Land's End in South Africa. The Pygmy people in the jungles represent
+to-day a small survival from the past, but a survival of curious interest,
+pushed aside by the torrent of conquest. Also pushed on by these waves of
+Bantu conquest, moved the ancient Abatwa or Bushmen. They are small in
+stature, yellow in color, with crisp-curled hair. The traditions of the
+Bushmen say that they came southward from the regions of the Great Lakes,
+and indeed the king and queen of Punt, as depicted by the Egyptians, were
+Bushmen or Hottentots.
+
+Their tribes may be divided, in accordance with their noticeable artistic
+talents, into the painters and the sculptors. The sculptors entered South
+Africa by moving southward through the more central portions of the
+country, crossing the Zambesi, and coming down to the Cape. The painters,
+on the other hand, came through Damaraland on the west coast; when they
+came to the great mountain regions, they turned eastward and can be traced
+as far as the mountains opposite Delagoa Bay. The mass of them settled
+down in the lower part of the Cape and in the Kalahari desert. The
+painters were true cave dwellers, but the sculptors lived in large
+communities on the stony hills, which they marked with their carvings.
+
+These Bushmen believed in an ancient race of people who preceded them in
+South Africa. They attributed magic power to these unknown folk, and said
+that some of them had been translated as stars to the sky. Before their
+groups were dispersed the Bushmen had regular government. Tribes with
+their chiefs occupied well-defined tracts of country and were subdivided
+into branch tribes under subsidiary chiefs. The great cave represented the
+dignity and glory of the entire tribe.
+
+The Bushmen suffered most cruelly in the succeeding migrations and
+conquests of South Africa. They fought desperately in self-defense; they
+saw their women and children carried into bondage and they themselves
+hunted like wild beasts. Both savage and civilized men appropriated their
+land. Still they were brave people. "In this struggle for existence their
+bitterest enemies, of whatever shade of color they might be, were forced
+to make an unqualified acknowledgement of the courage and daring they so
+invariably exhibited."[34]
+
+Here, to a remote corner of the world, where, as one of their number said,
+they had supposed that the only beings in the world were Bushmen and
+lions, came a series of invaders. It was the outer ripples of civilization
+starting far away, the indigenous and external civilizations of Africa
+beating with great impulse among the Ethiopians and the Egyptian mulattoes
+and Sudanese Negroes and Yorubans, and driving the Bantu race southward.
+The Bantus crowded more and more upon the primitive Bushmen, and probably
+a mingling of the Bushmen and the Bantus gave rise to the Hottentots.
+
+The Hottentots, or as they called themselves, Khoi Khoin (Men of Men),
+were physically a stronger race than the Abatwa and gave many evidences of
+degeneration from a high culture, especially in the "phenomenal
+perfection" of a language which "is so highly developed, both in its rich
+phonetic system, as represented by a very delicately graduated series of
+vowels and diphthongs, and in its varied grammatical structure, that
+Lepsius sought for its affinities in the Egyptian at the other end of the
+continent."
+
+When South Africa was first discovered there were two distinct types of
+Hottentot. The more savage Hottentots were simply large, strong Bushmen,
+using weapons superior to the Bushmen, without domestic cattle or sheep.
+Other tribes nearer the center of South Africa were handsomer in
+appearance and raised an Egyptian breed of cattle which they rode.
+
+In general the Hottentots were yellow, with close-curled hair, high cheek
+bones, and somewhat oblique eyes. Their migration commenced about the end
+of the fourteenth century and was, as is usual in such cases, a scattered,
+straggling movement. The traditions of the Hottentots point to the lake
+country of Central Africa as their place of origin, whence they were
+driven by the Bechuana tribes of the Bantu. They fled westward to the
+ocean and then turned south and came upon the Bushmen, whom they had only
+partially subdued when the Dutch arrived as settlers in 1652.
+
+The Dutch "Boers" began by purchasing land from the Hottentots and then,
+as they grew more powerful, they dispossessed the dark men and tried to
+enslave them. There grew up a large Dutch-Hottentot class. Indeed the
+filtration of Negro blood noticeable in modern Boers accounts for much
+curious history. Soon after the advent of the Dutch some of the
+Hottentots, of whom there were not more than thirty or forty thousand, led
+by the Korana clans, began slowly to retreat northward, followed by the
+invading Dutch and fighting the Dutch, each other, and the wretched
+Bushmen. In the latter part of the eighteenth century the Hottentots had
+reached the great interior plain and met the on-coming outposts of the
+Bantu nations.
+
+The Bechuana, whom the Hottentots first met, were the most advanced of the
+Negro tribes of Central Africa. They had crossed the Zambesi in the
+fourteenth or fifteenth century; their government was a sort of feudal
+system with hereditary chiefs and vassals; they were careful
+agriculturists, laid out large towns with great regularity, and were the
+most skilled of smiths. They used stone in building, carved on wood, and
+many of them, too, were keen traders. These tribes, coming southward,
+occupied the east-central part of South Africa comprising modern
+Bechuanaland. Apparently they had started from the central lake country
+somewhere late in the fifteenth century, and by the middle of the
+eighteenth century one of their great chiefs, Tao, met the on-coming
+Hottentots.
+
+The Hottentots compelled Tao to retreat, but the mulatto Gricquas arrived
+from the south, and, allying themselves with the Bechuana, stopped the
+rout. The Gricquas sprang from and took their name from an old Hottentot
+tribe. They were led by Kok and Barends, and by adding other elements they
+became, partly through their own efforts and partly through the efforts of
+the missionaries, a community of fairly well civilized people. In
+Gricqualand West the mulatto Gricquas, under their chiefs Kok and
+Waterboer, lived until the discovery of diamonds.
+
+The Griquas and Bechuana tribes were thus gradually checking the
+Hottentots when, in the nineteenth century, there came two new
+developments: first, the English took possession of Cape Colony, and the
+Dutch began to move in larger numbers toward the interior; secondly, a
+newer and fiercer element of the Bantu tribes, the Zulu-Kaffirs, appeared.
+The Kaffirs, or as they called themselves, the Amazosas, claimed descent
+from Zuide, a great chief of the fifteenth century in the lake country.
+They are among the tallest people in the world, averaging five feet ten
+inches, and are slim, well-proportioned, and muscular. The more warlike
+tribes were usually clothed in leopard or ox skins. Cattle formed their
+chief wealth, stock breeding and hunting and fighting their main pursuits.
+Mentally they were men of tact and intelligence, with a national religion
+based upon ancestor worship, while their government was a patriarchal
+monarchy limited by an aristocracy and almost feudal in character. The
+common law which had grown up from the decisions of the chiefs made the
+head of the family responsible for the conduct of its branches, a village
+for all its residents, and the clan for all its villages. Finally there
+was a paramount chief, who was the civil and military father of his
+people. These people laid waste to the coast regions and in 1779 came in
+contact with the Dutch. A series of Dutch-Kaffir wars ensued between 1779
+and 1795 in which the Dutch were hard pressed.
+
+In 1806 the English took final possession of Cape Colony. At that time
+there were twenty-five thousand Boers, twenty-five thousand pure and mixed
+Hottentots, and twenty-five thousand slaves secured from the east coast.
+Between 1811 and 1877 there were six Kaffir-English wars. One of these in
+1818 grew out of the ignorant interference of the English with the Kaffir
+tribal system; then there came a terrible war between 1834 and 1835,
+followed by the annexation of all the country as far as the Kei River. The
+war of the Axe (1846-48) led to further annexation by the British.
+
+Hostilities broke out again in 1856 and 1863. In the former year,
+despairing of resistance to invading England, a prophet arose who advised
+the wholesale destruction of all Kaffir property except weapons, in order
+that this faith might bring back their dead heroes. The result was that
+almost a third of the nation perished from hunger. Fresh troubles occurred
+in 1877, when the Ama-Xosa confederacy was finally broken up, and to-day
+gradually these tribes are passing from independence to a state of mild
+vassalage to the British.
+
+Meantime the more formidable part of the Zulu-Kaffirs had been united
+under the terrible Chief Chaka. He had organized a military system, not a
+new one by any means, but one of which we hear rumors back in the lake
+regions in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. McDonald says, "There
+has probably never been a more perfect system of discipline than that by
+which Chaka ruled his army and kingdom. At a review an order might be
+given in the most unexpected manner, which meant death to hundreds. If the
+regiment hesitated or dared to remonstrate, so perfect was the discipline
+and so great the jealousy that another was ready to cut them down. A
+warrior returning from battle without his arms was put to death without
+trial. A general returning unsuccessful in the main purpose of his
+expedition shared the same fate. Whoever displeased the king was
+immediately executed. The traditional courts practically ceased to exist
+so far as the will and action of the tyrant was concerned." With this army
+Chaka fell on tribe after tribe. The Bechuana fled before him and some
+tribes of them were entirely destroyed. The Hottentots suffered severely
+and one of his rival Zulu tribes under Umsilikatsi fled into Matabililand,
+pushing back the Bechuana. By the time the English came to Port Natal,
+Chaka was ruling over the whole southeastern seaboard, from the Limpopo
+River to Cape Colony, including the Orange and Transvaal states and the
+whole of Natal. Chaka was killed in 1828 and was eventually succeeded by
+his brother Dingan, who reigned twelve years. It was during Dingan's reign
+that England tried to abolish slavery in Cape Colony, but did not pay
+promptly for the slaves, as she had promised; the result was the so-called
+"Great Trek," about 1834, when thousands of Boers went into the interior
+across the Orange and Vaal rivers.
+
+Dingan and these Boers were soon engaged in a death struggle in which the
+Zulus were repulsed and Dingan replaced by Panda. Under this chief there
+was something like repose for sixteen years, but in 1856 civil war broke
+out between his sons, one of whom, Cetewayo, succeeded his father in 1882.
+He fell into border disputes with the English, and the result was one of
+the fiercest clashes of Europe and Africa in modern days. The Zulus fought
+desperately, annihilating at one time a whole detachment and killing the
+young prince Napoleon. But after all it was assagais against machine guns,
+and the Zulus were finally defeated at Ulundi, July 4, 1879. Thereupon
+Zululand was divided among thirteen semi-independent chiefs and became a
+British protectorate.
+
+[Illustration: Ancient Kingdom of Africa]
+
+Since then the best lands have been gradually reoccupied by a large number
+of tribes--Kaffirs from the south and Zulus from the north. The tribal
+organization, without being actually broken up, has been deprived of its
+dangerous features by appointing paid village headmen and transforming the
+hereditary chief into a British government official. In Natal there are
+about one hundred and seventy tribal chiefs, and nearly half of these have
+been appointed by the governor.
+
+Umsilikatsi, who had been driven into Matabililand by the terrible Chaka
+in 1828 and defeated by the Dutch in 1837, had finally reestablished his
+headquarters in Rhodesia in 1838. Here he introduced the Zulu military
+system and terrorized the peaceful and industrious Bechuana populations.
+Lobengula succeeded Umsilikatsi in 1870 and, realizing that his power was
+waning, began to retreat northward toward the Zambesi. He was finally
+defeated by the British and native forces in 1893 and the land was
+incorporated into South Central Africa.
+
+The result of all these movements was to break the inhabitants of
+Bechuanaland into numerous fragments. There were small numbers of mulatto
+Gricquas in the southwest and similar Bastaards in the northwest. The
+Hottentots and Bushmen were dispersed into groups and seem doomed to
+extinction, the last Hottentot chief being deposed in 1810 and replaced by
+an English magistrate. Partially civilized Hottentots still live grouped
+together in their kraals and are members of Christian churches. The
+Bechuana hold their own in several centers; one is in Basutoland, west of
+Natal, where a number of tribes were welded together under the far-sighted
+Moshesh into a modern and fairly well civilized nation. In the north part
+of Bechuanaland are the self-governing Bamangwato and the Batwana, the
+former ruled by Khama, one of the canniest of modern rulers in Africa.
+
+Meantime, in Portuguese territory south of the Zambesi, there arose Gaza,
+a contemporary and rival of Chaka. His son, Manikus, was deputed by
+Dingan, Chaka's successor, to drive out the Portuguese. This Manikus
+failed to do, and to escape vengeance he migrated north of the Limpopo.
+Here he established his military kraal in a district thirty-six hundred
+and fifty feet above the sea and one hundred and twenty miles inland from
+Sofala. From this place his soldiery nearly succeeded in driving the
+Portuguese out of East Africa. He was succeeded by his son, Umzila, and
+Umzila's brother, Guzana (better known as Gungunyana), who exercised for a
+time joint authority. Gungunyana was finally overthrown in November, 1895,
+captured, and removed to the Azores.
+
+[Illustration: Races in Africa]
+
+North of the Zambesi, in British territory, the chief role in recent times
+has been played by the Bechuana, the first of the Bantu to return
+northward after the South African migration. Livingstone found there the
+Makolo, who with other tribes had moved northward on account of the
+pressure of the Dutch and Zulus below, and by conquering various tribes
+in the Zambesi region had established a strong power. This kingdom was
+nearly overthrown by the rebellion of the Barotse, and in 1875 the Barotse
+kingdom comprised a large territory. To-day their king, Lewanika, rules
+directly and indirectly fifty thousand square miles, with a population
+between one and two and a half million. They are under a protectorate of
+the British.
+
+In Southwest Africa, Hottentot mulattoes crossing from the Cape caused
+widespread change. They were strong men and daring fighters and soon
+became dominant in what is now German Southwest Africa, where they fought
+fiercely with the Bantu Ova-Hereros. Armed with fire arms, these Namakwa
+Hottentots threatened Portuguese West Africa, but Germany intervened,
+ostensibly to protect missionaries. By spending millions of dollars and
+thousands of soldiers Germany has nearly exterminated these brave men.
+
+Thus we have between the years 1400 and 1900 a great period of migration
+up to 1750, when Bushmen, Hottentot, Bantu, and Dutch appeared in
+succession at Land's End. In the latter part of the eighteenth century we
+have the clash of the Hottentots and Bechuana, followed in the nineteenth
+century by the terrible wars of Chaka, the Kaffirs, and Matabili. Finally,
+in the latter half of the nineteenth century, we see the gradual
+subjection of the Kaffir-Zulus and the Bechuana under the English and the
+final conquest of the Dutch. The resulting racial problem in South Africa
+is one of great intricacy.
+
+To the racial problem has been added the tremendous problem of modern
+capital brought by the discovery of gold and diamond mines, so that the
+future of the Negro race is peculiarly bound up in developments here at
+Land's End, where the ship of the Flying Dutchman beats back and forth on
+its endless quest.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[34] Stowe: Native Races of South Africa, pp. 215-216.
+
+
+
+
+VIII AFRICAN CULTURE
+
+
+We have followed the history of mankind in Africa down the valley of the
+Nile, past Ethiopia to Egypt; we have seen kingdoms arise along the great
+bend of the Niger and strive with the ancient culture at its mouth. We
+have seen the remnants of mankind at Land's End, the ancient culture at
+Punt and Zymbabwe, and followed the invading Bantu east, south, and west
+to their greatest center in the vast jungle of the Congo valleys.
+
+We must now gather these threads together and ask what manner of men these
+were and how far and in what way they progressed on the road of human
+culture.
+
+That Negro peoples were the beginners of civilization along the Ganges,
+the Euphrates, and the Nile seems proven. Early Babylon was founded by a
+Negroid race. Hammurabi's code, the most ancient known, says "Anna and Bel
+called me, Hammurabi the exalted prince, the worshiper of the gods; to
+cause justice to prevail in the land, to destroy the wicked, to prevent
+the strong from oppressing the weak, to go forth like the sun over the
+black-head race, to enlighten the land, and to further the welfare of the
+people." The Assyrians show a distinct Negroid strain and early Egypt was
+predominantly Negro. These earliest of cultures were crude and primitive,
+but they represented the highest attainment of mankind after tens of
+thousands of years in unawakened savagery.
+
+It has often been assumed that the Negro is physically inferior to other
+races and markedly distinguishable from them; modern science gives no
+authority for such an assumption. The supposed inferiority cannot rest on
+color,[35] for that is "due to the combined influences of a great number
+of factors of environment working through physiological processes," and
+"however marked the contrasts may be, there is no corresponding difference
+in anatomical structure discoverable."[36] So, too, difference in texture
+of hair is a matter of degree, not kind, and is caused by heat, moisture,
+exposure, and the like.
+
+The bony skeleton presents no distinctly racial lines of variation.
+Prognathism "presents too many individual varieties to be taken as a
+distinctive character of race."[37] Difference in physical measurements
+does not show the Negro to be a more primitive evolutionary form.
+Comparative ethnology to-day affords "no support to the view which sees in
+the so-called lower races of mankind a transition stage from beast to
+man."[38]
+
+Much has been made of the supposed smaller brain of the Negro race; but
+this is as yet an unproved assumption, based on the uncritical measurement
+of less than a thousand Negro brains as compared with eleven thousand or
+more European brains. Even if future measurement prove the average Negro
+brain lighter, the vast majority of Negro brain weights fall within the
+same limits as the whites; and finally, "neither size nor weight of the
+brain seems to be of importance" as an index of mental capacity. We may,
+therefore, say with Ratzel, "There is only one species of man. The
+variations are numerous, but do not go deep."[39]
+
+To this we may add the word of the Secretary of the First Races Congress:
+"We are, then, under the necessity of concluding that an impartial
+investigator would be inclined to look upon the various important peoples
+of the world as to all intents and purposes essentially equal in
+intellect, enterprise, morality, and physique."[40]
+
+If these conclusions are true, we should expect to see in Africa the
+human drama play itself out much as in other lands, and such has actually
+been the fact. At the same time we must expect peculiarities arising from
+the physiography of the land--its climate, its rainfall, its deserts, and
+the peculiar inaccessibility of the coast.
+
+Three principal zones of habitation appear: first, the steppes and deserts
+around the Sahara in the north and the Kalahari desert in the south;
+secondly, the grassy highlands bordering the Great Lakes and connecting
+these two regions; thirdly, the forests and rivers of Central and West
+Africa. In the deserts are the nomads, and the Pygmies are in the forest
+fastnesses. Herdsmen and their cattle cover the steppes and highlands,
+save where the tsetse fly prevents. In the open forests and grassy
+highlands are the agriculturists.
+
+Among the forest farmers the village is the center of life, while in the
+open steppes political life tends to spread into larger political units.
+Political integration is, however, hindered by an ease of internal
+communication almost as great as the difficulty of reaching outer worlds
+beyond the continent. The narrow Nile valley alone presented physical
+barriers formidable enough to keep back the invading barbarians of the
+south, and even then with difficulty. Elsewhere communication was all too
+easy. For a while the Congo forests fended away the restless, but this
+only temporarily.
+
+On the whole Africa from the Sahara to the Cape offered no great physical
+barrier to the invader, and we continually have whirlwinds of invading
+hosts rushing now southward, now northward, from the interior to the coast
+and from the coast inland, and hurling their force against states,
+kingdoms, and cities. Some resisted for generations, some for centuries,
+some but a few years. It is, then, this sudden change and the fear of it
+that marks African culture, particularly in its political aspects, and
+which makes it so difficult to trace this changing past. Nevertheless
+beneath all change rests the strong substructure of custom, religion,
+industry, and art well worth the attention of students.
+
+Starting with agriculture, we learn that "among all the great groups of
+the 'natural' races, the Negroes are the best and keenest tillers of the
+ground. A minority despise agriculture and breed cattle; many combine both
+occupations. Among the genuine tillers the whole life of the family is
+taken up in agriculture, and hence the months are by preference called
+after the operations which they demand. Constant clearings change forests
+to fields, and the ground is manured with the ashes of the burnt thicket.
+In the middle of the fields rise the light watch-towers, from which a
+watchman scares grain-eating birds and other thieves. An African
+cultivated landscape is incomplete without barns. The rapidity with which,
+when newly imported, the most various forms of cultivation spread in
+Africa says much for the attention which is devoted to this branch of
+economy. Industries, again, which may be called agricultural, like the
+preparation of meal from millet and other crops, also from cassava, the
+fabrication of fermented drinks from grain, or the manufacture of cotton,
+are widely known and sedulously fostered."[41]
+
+Buecher reminds us of the deep impression made upon travelers when they
+sight suddenly the well-attended fields of the natives on emerging from
+the primeval forests. "In the more thickly populated parts of Africa these
+fields often stretch for many a mile, and the assiduous care of the Negro
+women shines in all the brighter light when we consider the insecurity of
+life, the constant feuds and pillages, in which no one knows whether he
+will in the end be able to harvest what he has sown. Livingstone gives
+somewhere a graphic description of the devastations wrought by slave
+hunts; the people were lying about slain, the dwellings were demolished;
+in the fields, however, the grain was ripening and there was none to
+harvest it."[42]
+
+Sheep, goat, and chickens are domestic animals all over Africa, and Von
+Franzius considers Africa the home of the house cattle and the Negro as
+the original tamer. Northeastern Africa especially is noted for
+agriculture, cattle raising, and fruit culture. In the eastern Sudan, and
+among the great Bantu tribes extending from the Sudan down toward the
+south, cattle are evidences of wealth; one tribe, for instance, having so
+many oxen that each village had ten or twelve thousand head. Lenz (1884),
+Bouet-Williaumez (1848), Hecquard (1854), Bosman (1805), and Baker (1868)
+all bear witness to this, and Schweinfurth (1878) tells us of great cattle
+parks with two to three thousand head and of numerous agricultural and
+cattle-raising tribes. Von der Decken (1859-61) described the paradise of
+the dwellers about Kilimanjaro--the bananas, fruit, beans and peas, cattle
+raising with stall feed, the fertilizing of the fields, and irrigation.
+The Negroid Gallas have seven or eight cattle to each inhabitant.
+Livingstone bears witness to the busy cattle raising of the Bantus and
+Kaffirs. Hulub (1881) and Chapman (1868) tell of agriculture and fruit
+raising in South Africa. Shutt (1884) found the tribes in the southwestern
+basin of the Congo with sheep, swine, goats, and cattle. On this
+agricultural and cattle-raising economic foundation has arisen the
+organized industry of the artisan, the trader, and the manufacturer.
+
+While the Pygmies, still living in the age of wood, make no iron or stone
+implements, they seem to know how to make bark cloth and fiber baskets and
+simple outfits for hunting and fishing. Among the Bushmen the art of
+making weapons and working in hides is quite common. The Hottentots are
+further advanced in the industrial arts, being well versed in the
+manufacture of clothing, weapons, and utensils. In the dressing of skins
+and furs, as well as in the plaiting of cords and the weaving of mats, we
+find evidences of their workmanship. In addition they are good workers in
+iron and copper, using the sheepskin bellows for this purpose. The
+Ashantis of the Gold Coast know how to make "cotton fabrics, turn and
+glaze earthenware, forge iron, fabricate instruments and arms, embroider
+rugs and carpets, and set gold and precious stones."[43] Among the people
+of the banana zone we find rough basket work, coarse pottery, grass cloth,
+and spoons made of wood and ivory. The people of the millet zone, because
+of uncertain agricultural resources, quite generally turn to
+manufacturing. Charcoal is prepared by the smiths, iron is smelted, and
+numerous implements are manufactured. Among them we find axes, hatchets,
+hoes, knives, nails, scythes, and other hardware. Cloaks, shoes, sandals,
+shields, and water and oil vessels are made from leather which the natives
+have dressed. Soap is manufactured in the Bautschi district, glass is
+made, formed, and colored by the people of Nupeland, and in almost every
+city cotton is spun and woven and dyed. Barth tells us that the weaving of
+cotton was known in the Sudan as early as the eleventh century. There is
+also extensive manufacture of wooden ware, tools, implements, and
+utensils.
+
+In describing particular tribes, Baker and Felkin tell of smiths of
+wonderful adroitness, goatskins prepared better than a European tanner
+could do, drinking cups and kegs of remarkable symmetry, and polished clay
+floors. Schweinfurth says, "The arrow and the spear heads are of the
+finest and most artistic work; their bristlelike barbs and points are
+baffling when one knows how few tools these smiths have." Excellent wood
+carving is found among the Bongo, Ovambo, and Makololo. Pottery and
+basketry and careful hut building distinguish many tribes. Cameron (1877)
+tells of villages so clean, with huts so artistic, that, save in book
+knowledge, the people occupied no low plane of civilization. The Mangbettu
+work both iron and copper. "The masterpieces of the Monbutto [Mangbettu]
+smiths are the fine chains worn as ornaments, and which in perfection of
+form and fineness compare well with our best steel chains." Shubotz in
+1911 called the Mangbettu "a highly cultivated people" in architecture and
+handicraft. Barth found copper exported from Central Africa in competition
+with European copper at Kano.
+
+Nor is the iron industry confined to the Sudan. About the Great Lakes and
+other parts of Central Africa it is widely distributed. Thornton says,
+"This iron industry proves that the East Africans stand by no means on so
+low a plane of culture as many travelers would have us think. It is
+unnecessary to be reminded what a people without instruction, and with the
+rudest tools to do such skilled work, could do if furnished with steel
+tools." Arrows made east of Lake Nyanza were found to be nearly as good as
+the best Swedish iron in Birmingham. From Egypt to the Cape, Livingstone
+assures us that the mortar and pestle, the long-handled axe, the goatskin
+bellows, etc., have the same form, size, etc., pointing to a migration
+southwestward. Holub (1879), on the Zambesi, found fine workers in iron
+and bronze. The Bantu huts contain spoons, wooden dishes, milk pails,
+calabashes, handmills, and axes.
+
+Kaffirs and Zulus, in the extreme south, are good smiths, and the latter
+melt copper and tin together and draw wire from it, according to Kranz
+(1880). West of the Great Lakes, Stanley (1878) found wonderful examples
+of smith work: figures worked out of brass and much work in copper.
+Cameron (1878) saw vases made near Lake Tanganyika which reminded him of
+the amphorae in the Villa of Diomedes, Pompeii. Horn (1882) praises tribes
+here for iron and copper work. Livingstone (1871) passed thirty smelting
+houses in one journey, and Cameron came across bellows with valves, and
+tribes who used knives in eating. He found tribes which no Europeans had
+ever visited, who made ingots of copper in the form of the St. Andrew's
+cross, which circulated even to the coast. In the southern Congo basin
+iron and copper are worked; also wood and ivory carving and pottery making
+are pursued. In equatorial West Africa, Lenz and Du Chaillu (1861) found
+iron workers with charcoal, and also carvers of bone and ivory. Near Cape
+Lopez, Huebbe-Schleiden found tribes making ivory needles inlaid with
+ebony, while the arms and dishes of the Osaka are found among many tribes
+even as far as the Atlantic Ocean. Wilson (1856) found natives in West
+Africa who could repair American watches.
+
+Gold Coast Negroes make gold rings and chains, forming the metal into all
+kinds of forms. Soyaux says, "The works in relief which natives of Lower
+Guinea carve with their own knives out of ivory and hippopotamus teeth are
+really entitled to be called works of art, and many wooden figures of
+fetishes in the Ethnographical Museum of Berlin show some understanding of
+the proportions of the human body." Great Bassam is called by Hecquard the
+"Fatherland of Smiths." The Mandingo in the northwest are remarkable
+workers in iron, silver, and gold, we are told by Mungo Park (1800), while
+there is a mass of testimony as to the work in the north-west of Africa in
+gold, tin, weaving, and dyeing. Caille found the Negroes in Bambana
+manufacturing gunpowder (1824-28), and the Hausa make soap; so, too,
+Negroes in Uganda and other parts have made guns after seeing European
+models.
+
+So marked has been the work of Negro artisans and traders in the
+manufacture and exchange of iron implements that a growing number of
+archeologists are disposed to-day to consider the Negro as the originator
+of the art of smelting iron. Gabriel de Mortillet (1883) declared Negroes
+the only iron users among primitive people. Some would, therefore, argue
+that the Negro learned it from other folk, but Andree declares that the
+Negro developed his own "Iron Kingdom." Schweinfurth, Von Luschan, Boaz,
+and others incline to the belief that the Negroes invented the smelting of
+iron and passed it on to the Egyptians and to modern Europe.
+
+Boaz says, "It seems likely that at a time when the European was still
+satisfied with rude stone tools, the African had invented or adopted the
+art of smelting iron. Consider for a moment what this invention has meant
+for the advance of the human race. As long as the hammer, knife, saw,
+drill, the spade, and the hoe had to be chipped out of stone, or had to be
+made of shell or hard wood, effective industrial work was not impossible,
+but difficult. A great progress was made when copper found in large
+nuggets was hammered out into tools and later on shaped by melting, and
+when bronze was introduced; but the true advancement of industrial life
+did not begin until the hard iron was discovered. It seems not unlikely
+that the people who made the marvelous discovery of reducing iron ores by
+smelting were the African Negroes. Neither ancient Europe, nor ancient
+western Asia, nor ancient China knew the iron, and everything points to
+its introduction from Africa. At the time of the great African discoveries
+toward the end of the past century, the trade of the blacksmith was found
+all over Africa, from north to south and from east to west. With his
+simple bellows and a charcoal fire he reduced the ore that is found in
+many parts of the continent and forged implements of great usefulness and
+beauty."[44]
+
+Torday has argued recently, "I feel convinced by certain arguments that
+seem to prove to my satisfaction that we are indebted to the Negro for the
+very keystone of our modern civilization and that we owe him the discovery
+of iron. That iron could be discovered by accident in Africa seems beyond
+doubt: if this is so in other parts of the world, I am not competent to
+say. I will only remind you that Schweinfurth and Petherick record the
+fact that in the northern part of East Africa smelting furnaces are worked
+without artificial air current and, on the other hand, Stuhlmann and
+Kollmann found near Victoria Nyanza that the natives simply mixed powdered
+ore with charcoal and by introduction of air currents obtained the metal.
+These simple processes make it simple that iron should have been
+discovered in East or Central Africa. No bronze implements have ever been
+found in black Africa; had the Africans received iron from the Egyptians,
+bronze would have preceded this metal and all traces of it would not have
+disappeared. Black Africa was for a long time an exporter of iron, and
+even in the twelfth century exports to India and Java are recorded by
+Idrisi.
+
+"It is difficult to imagine that Egypt should have obtained it from
+Europe where the oldest find (in Hallstadt) cannot be of an earlier period
+than 800 B.C., or from Asia, where iron is not known before 1000 B.C., and
+where, in the times of Ashur Nazir Pal, it was still used concurrently
+with bronze, while iron beads have been only recently discovered by
+Messrs. G.A. Wainwright and Bushe Fox in a predynastic grave, and where a
+piece of this metal, possibly a tool, was found in the masonry of the
+great pyramid."[45]
+
+The Negro is a born trader. Lenz says, "our sharpest European merchants,
+even Jews and Armenians, can learn much of the cunning and trade of the
+Negroes." We know that the trade between Central Africa and Egypt was in
+the hands of Negroes for thousands of years, and in early days the cities
+of the Sudan and North Africa grew rich through Negro trade.
+
+Leo Africanus, writing of Timbuktu in the sixteenth century, said, "It is
+a wonder to see what plentie of Merchandize is daily brought hither and
+how costly and sumptuous all things be.... Here are many shops of
+artificers and merchants and especially of such as weave linnen and
+cloth."
+
+Long before cotton weaving was a British industry, West Africa and the
+Sudan were supplying a large part of the world with cotton cloth. Even
+to-day cities like Kuka on the west shore of Lake Chad and Sokota are
+manufacturing centers where cotton is spun and woven, skins tanned,
+implements and iron ornaments made.
+
+"Travelers," says Buecher, "have often observed this tribal or local
+development of industrial technique. 'The native villages,' relates a
+Belgian observer of the Lower Congo, 'are often situated in groups. Their
+activities are based upon reciprocality, and they are to a certain extent
+the complements of one another. Each group has its more or less strongly
+defined specialty. One carries on fishing; another produces palm wine; a
+third devotes itself to trade and is broker for the others, supplying the
+community with all products from outside; another has reserved to itself
+work in iron and copper, making weapons for war and hunting, various
+utensils, etc. None may, however, pass beyond the sphere of its own
+specialty without exposing itself to the risk of being universally
+proscribed.'"
+
+From the Loango Coast, Bastian tells of a great number of centers for
+special products of domestic industry. "Loango excels in mats and fishing
+baskets, while the carving of elephants' tusks is specially followed in
+Chilungo. The so-called Mafooka hats with raised patterns are drawn
+chiefly from the bordering country of Kakongo and Mayyume. In Bakunya are
+made potter's wares, which are in great demand; in Basanza, excellent
+swords; in Basundi, especially beautiful ornamented copper rings; on the
+Congo, clever wood and tablet carvings; in Loango, ornamented clothes and
+intricately designed mats; in Mayumbe, clothing of finely woven mat-work;
+in Kakongo, embroidered hats and also burnt clay pitchers; and among the
+Bayakas and Mantetjes, stuffs of woven grass."[46]
+
+A native Negro student tells of the development of trade among the
+Ashanti. "It was a part of the state system of Ashanti to encourage trade.
+The king once in every forty days, at the Adai custom, distributed among a
+number of chiefs various sums of gold dust with a charge to turn the same
+to good account. These chiefs then sent down to the coast caravans of
+tradesmen, some of whom would be their slaves, sometimes some two or three
+hundred strong, to barter ivory for European goods, or buy such goods with
+gold dust, which the king obtained from the royal alluvial workings. Down
+to 1873 a constant stream of Ashanti traders might be seen daily wending
+their way to the merchants of the coast and back again, yielding more
+certain wealth and prosperity to the merchants of the Gold Coast and Great
+Britain than may be expected for some time yet to come from the mining
+industry and railway development put together. The trade chiefs would, in
+due time, render a faithful account to the king's stewards, being allowed
+to retain a fair portion of the profit. In the king's household, too, he
+would have special men who directly traded for him. Important chiefs
+carried on the same system of trading with the coast as did the king. Thus
+every member of the state, from the king downward, took an active interest
+in the promotion of trade and in the keeping open of trade routes into the
+interior."[47]
+
+The trade thus encouraged and carried on in various parts of West Africa
+reached wide areas. From the Fish River to Kuka, and from Lagos to
+Zanzibar, the markets have become great centers of trade, the leading
+implement to civilization. Permanent markets are found in places like
+Ujiji and Nyangwe, where everything can be bought and sold from
+earthenware to wives; from the one to three thousand traders flocked here.
+
+"How like is the market traffic, with all its uproar and sound of human
+voices, to one of our own markets! There is the same rivalry in praising
+the goods, the violent, brisk movements, the expressive gesture, the
+inquiring, searching glance, the changing looks of depreciation or
+triumph, of apprehension, delight, approbation. So says Stanley. Trade
+customs are not everywhere alike. If when negotiating with the Bangalas of
+Angola you do not quickly give them what they want, they go away and do
+not come back. Then perhaps they try to get possession of the coveted
+object by means of theft. It is otherwise with the Songos and Kiokos, who
+let you deal with them in the usual way. To buy even a small article you
+must go to the market; people avoid trading anywhere else. If a man says
+to another; 'Sell me this hen' or 'that fruit,' the answer as a rule will
+be, 'Come to the market place.' The crowd gives confidence to individuals,
+and the inviolability of the visitor to the market, and of the market
+itself, looks like an idea of justice consecrated by long practice. Does
+not this remind us of the old Germanic 'market place'?"[48]
+
+Turning now to Negro family and social life we find, as among all
+primitive peoples, polygamy and marriage by actual or simulated purchase.
+Out of the family develops the typical African village organization, which
+is thus described in Ashanti by a native Gold Coast writer: "The headman,
+as his name implies, is the head of a village community, a ward in a
+township, or of a family. His position is important, inasmuch as he has
+directly to deal with the composite elements of the general bulk of the
+people.
+
+"It is the duty of the head of a family to bring up the members thereof in
+the way they should go; and by 'family' you must understand the entire
+lineal descendants of a materfamilias, if I may coin a convenient phrase.
+It is expected of him by the state to bring up his charge in the knowledge
+of matters political and traditional. It is his work to train up his wards
+in the ways of loyalty and obedience to the powers that be. He is held
+responsible for the freaks of recalcitrant members of his family, and he
+is looked to to keep them within bounds and to insist upon conformity of
+their party with the customs, laws, and traditional observances of the
+community. In early times he could send off to exile by sale a troublesome
+relative who would not observe the laws of the community.
+
+"It is a difficult task that he is set to, but in this matter he has
+all-powerful helpers in the female members of the family, who will be
+either the aunts, or the sisters, or the cousins, or the nieces of the
+headman; and as their interests are identical with his in every
+particular, the good women spontaneously train up their children to
+implicit obedience to the headman, whose rule in the family thus becomes a
+simple and an easy matter. 'The hand that rocks the cradle rules the
+world.' What a power for good in the native state system would the mothers
+of the Gold Coast and Ashanti become by judicious training upon native
+lines!
+
+"The headman is par excellence the judge of his family or ward. Not only
+is he called upon to settle domestic squabbles, but frequently he sits
+judge over more serious matters arising between one member of the ward and
+another; and where he is a man of ability and influence, men from other
+wards bring him their disputes to settle. When he so settles disputes, he
+is entitled to a hearing fee, which, however, is not so much as would be
+payable in the regular court of the king or chief.
+
+"The headman is naturally an important member of his company and often is
+a captain thereof. When he combines the two offices of headman and
+captain, he renders to the community a very important service. For in
+times of war, where the members of the ward would not serve cordially
+under a stranger, they would in all cases face any danger with their own
+kinsman as their leader. The headman is always succeeded by his uterine
+brother, cousin, or nephew--the line of succession, that is to say,
+following the customary law."[49]
+
+We may contrast this picture with the more warlike Bantus of Southeast
+Africa. Each tribe lived by itself in a town with from five to fifteen
+thousand inhabitants, surrounded by gardens of millet, beans, and
+watermelon. Beyond these roamed their cattle, sheep, and goats. Their
+religion was ancestor worship with sacrifice to spirits and the dead, and
+some of the tribes made mummies of the corpses and clothed them for
+burial. They wove cloth of cotton and bark, they carved wood and built
+walls of unhewn stone. They had a standing military organization, and the
+tribes had their various totems, so that they were known as the Men of
+Iron, the Men of the Sun, the Men of the Serpents, Sons of the Corn
+Cleaners, and the like. Their system of common law was well conceived and
+there were organized tribunals of justice. In difficult cases precedents
+were sought and learned antiquaries consulted. At the age of fifteen or
+sixteen the boys were circumcised and formed into guilds. The land was
+owned by the tribe and apportioned to the chief by each family, and the
+main wealth of the tribe was in its cattle.
+
+In general, among the African clans the idea of private property was but
+imperfectly developed and never included land. The main mass of visible
+wealth belonged to the family and clan rather than to the individual; only
+in the matter of weapons and ornaments was exclusive private ownership
+generally recognized.
+
+The government, vested in fathers and chiefs, varied in different tribes
+from absolute despotisms to limited monarchies, almost republican. Viewing
+the Basuto National Assembly in South Africa, Lord Bryce recently wrote,
+"The resemblance to the primary assemblies of the early peoples of Europe
+is close enough to add another to the arguments which discredit the theory
+that there is any such thing as an Aryan type of institutions."[50]
+
+While women are sold into marriage throughout Africa, nevertheless their
+status is far removed from slavery. In the first place the tracing of
+relationships through the female line, which is all but universal in
+Africa, gives the mother great influence. Parental affection is very
+strong, and throughout Negro Africa the mother is the most influential
+councilor, even in cases of tyrants like Chaka or Mutesa.
+
+"No mother can love more tenderly or be more deeply beloved than the Negro
+mother. Robin tells of a slave in Martinique who, with his savings, freed
+his mother instead of himself. 'Everywhere in Africa,' writes Mungo Park,
+'I have noticed that no greater affront can be offered a Negro than
+insulting his mother. 'Strike me,' cried a Mandingo to his enemy, 'but
+revile not my mother!' ... The Herero swears 'By my mother's tears!'.. The
+Angola Negroes have a saying, 'As a mist lingers on the swamps, so lingers
+the love of father and mother.'"[51]
+
+Black queens have often ruled African tribes. Among the Ba-Lolo, we are
+told, women take part in public assemblies where all-important questions
+are discussed. The system of educating children among such tribes as the
+Yoruba is worthy of emulation by many more civilized peoples.
+
+Close knit with the family and social organization comes the religious
+life of the Negro. The religion of Africa is the universal animism or
+fetishism of primitive peoples, rising to polytheism and approaching
+monotheism chiefly, but not wholly, as a result of Christian and Islamic
+missions. Of fetishism there is much misapprehension. It is not mere
+senseless degradation. It is a philosophy of life. Among primitive Negroes
+there can be, as Miss Kingsley reminds us, no such divorce of religion
+from practical life as is common in civilized lands. Religion is life, and
+fetish an expression of the practical recognition of dominant forces in
+which the Negro lives. To him all the world is spirit. Miss Kingsley says,
+"If you want, for example, to understand the position of man in nature
+according to fetish, there is, as far as I know, no clearer statement of
+it made than is made by Goethe in his superb 'Prometheus.'"[52] Fetish is
+a severely logical way of accounting for the world in terms of good and
+malignant spirits.
+
+"It is this power of being able logically to account for everything that
+is, I believe, at the back of the tremendous permanency of fetish in
+Africa, and the cause of many of the relapses into it by Africans
+converted to other religions; it is also the explanation of the fact that
+white men who live in the districts where death and danger are everyday
+affairs, under a grim pall of boredom, are liable to believe in fetish,
+though ashamed of so doing. For the African, whose mind has been soaked in
+fetish during his early and most impressionable years, the voice of fetish
+is almost irresistible when affliction comes to him."[53]
+
+Ellis tells us of the spirit belief of the Ewe people, who believe that
+men and all nature have the indwelling "Kra," which is immortal; that the
+man himself after death may exist as a ghost, which is often conceived of
+as departed from the "Kra," a shadowy continuing of the man. Bryce,
+speaking of the Kaffirs of South Africa, says, "To the Kaffirs, as to the
+most savage races, the world was full of spirits--spirits of the rivers,
+the mountains, and the woods. Most important were the ghosts of the dead,
+who had power to injure or help the living, and who were, therefore,
+propitiated by offerings at stated periods, as well as on occasions when
+their aid was especially desired. This kind of worship, the worship once
+most generally diffused throughout the world, and which held its ground
+among the Greeks and Italians in the most flourishing period of ancient
+civilization, as it does in China and Japan to-day, was, and is, virtually
+the religion of the Kaffirs."[54]
+
+African religion does not, however, stop with fetish, but, as in the case
+of other peoples, tends toward polytheism and monotheism. Among the
+Yoruba, for instance, Frobenius shows that religion and city-state go hand
+in hand.
+
+"The first experienced glance will here detect the fact that this nation
+originally possessed a clear and definite organization so duly ordered and
+so logical that we but seldom meet with its like among all the peoples of
+the earth. And the basic idea of every clan's progeniture is a powerful
+God; the legitimate order in which the descendants of a particular clan
+unite in marriage to found new families, the essential origin of every
+new-born babe's descent in the founder of its race and its consideration
+as a part of the God in Chief; the security with which the newly wedded
+wife not only may, but should, minister to her own God in an unfamiliar
+home."[55]
+
+The Yoruba have a legend of a dying divinity. "This people ... give
+evidence of a generalized system; a theocratic scheme, a well-conceived
+perceptible organization, reared in rhythmically proportioned manner."
+
+Miss Kingsley says, "The African has a great Over God."[56] Nassau, the
+missionary, declares, "After more than forty years' residence among these
+tribes, fluently using their language, conversant with their customs,
+dwelling intimately in their huts, associating with them in the various
+relations of teacher, pastor, friend, master, fellow-traveler, and guest,
+and in my special office as missionary, searching after their religious
+thought (and therefore being allowed a deeper entrance into the arcana of
+their soul than would be accorded to a passing explorer), I am able
+unhesitatingly to say that among all the multitude of degraded ones with
+whom I have met, I have seen or heard of none whose religious thought was
+only a superstition.
+
+"Standing in the village street, surrounded by a company whom their chief
+has courteously summoned at my request, when I say to him, 'I have come to
+speak to your people,' I do not need to begin by telling them that there
+is a God. Looking on that motley assemblage of villagers,--the bold, gaunt
+cannibal with his armament of gun, spear, and dagger; the artisan with
+rude adze in hand, or hands soiled at the antique bellows of the village
+smithy; women who have hasted from their kitchen fire with hands white
+with the manioc dough or still grasping the partly scaled fish; and
+children checked in their play with tiny bow and arrow or startled from
+their dusty street pursuit of dog or goat,--I have yet to be asked, 'Who
+is God?'"[57]
+
+The basis of Egyptian religion was "of a purely Nigritian character,"[58]
+and in its developed form Sudanese tribal gods were invoked and venerated
+by the priests. In Upper Egypt, near the confines of Ethiopia, paintings
+repeatedly represent black priests conferring on red Egyptian priests the
+instruments and symbols of priesthood. In the Sudan to-day Frobenius
+distinguishes four principal religions: first, earthly ancestor worship;
+next, the social cosmogony of the Atlantic races; third, the religion of
+the Bori, and fourth, Islam. The Bori religion spreads from Nubia as far
+as the Hausa, and from Lake Chad in the Niger as far as the Yoruba. It is
+the religion of possession and has been connected by some with Asiatic
+influences.
+
+From without have come two great religious influences, Islam and
+Christianity. Islam came by conquest, trade, and proselytism. As a
+conqueror it reached Egypt in the seventh century and had by the end of
+the fourteenth century firm footing in the Egyptian Sudan. It overran the
+central Sudan by the close of the seventeenth century, and at the
+beginning of the nineteenth century had swept over Senegambia and the
+whole valley of the Niger down to the Gulf of Guinea. On the east Islam
+approached as a trader in the eighth century; it spread into Somaliland
+and overran Nubia in the fourteenth century. To-day Islam dominates Africa
+north of ten degrees north latitude and is strong between five and ten
+degrees north latitude. In the east it reaches below the Victoria Nyanza.
+
+Christianity early entered Africa; indeed, as Mommsen says, "It was
+through Africa that Christianity became the religion of the world.
+Tertullian and Cyprian were from Carthage, Arnobius from Sicca Veneria,
+Lactantius, and probably in like manner Minucius Felix, in spite of their
+Latin names, were natives of Africa, and not less so Augustine. In Africa
+the Church found its most zealous confessors of the faith and its most
+gifted defenders."[59]
+
+The Africa referred to here, however, was not Negroland, but Africa above
+the desert, where Negro blood was represented in the ancient Mediterranean
+race and by intercourse across the desert. On the other hand Christianity
+was early represented in the valley of the Nile under "the most holy pope
+and patriarch of the great city of Alexandria and of all of the land of
+Egypt, of Jerusalem, the holy city, of Nubia, Abyssinia, and Pentapolis,
+and all the preaching of St. Mark." This patriarchate had a hundred
+bishoprics in the fourth century and included thousands of black
+Christians. Through it the Cross preceded the Crescent in some of the
+remotest parts of black Africa.
+
+All these beginnings were gradually overthrown by Islam except among the
+Copts in Egypt, and in Abyssinia. The Portuguese in the sixteenth century
+began to replant the Christian religion and for a while had great success,
+both on the east and west coasts. Roman Catholic enterprise halted in the
+eighteenth century and the Protestants began. To-day the west coast is
+studded with English and German missions, South Africa is largely
+Christian through French and English influence, and the region about the
+Great Lakes is becoming christianized. The Roman Catholics have lately
+increased their activities, and above all the Negroes of America have
+entered with their own churches and with the curiously significant
+"Ethiopian" movement.
+
+Coming now to other spiritual aspects of African culture, we can speak at
+present only in a fragmentary way. Roughly speaking, Africa can be divided
+into two language zones: north of the fifth degree of north latitude is
+the zone of diversity, with at least a hundred groups of widely divergent
+languages; south of the line there is one minor language
+(Bushman-Hottentot), spoken by less than fifty thousand people, and
+elsewhere the predominant Bantu tongue with its various dialects, spoken
+by at least fifty million. The Bantu tongue, which thus rules all Central,
+West, and South Africa, is an agglutinative tongue which makes especial
+use of prefixes. The hundreds of Negro tongues or dialects in the north
+represent most probably the result of war and migration and the breaking
+up of ancient centers of culture. In Abyssinia and the great horn of East
+Africa the influence of Semitic tongues is noted. Despite much effort on
+the part of students, it has been impossible to show any Asiatic origin
+for the Egyptian language. As Sergi maintains, "everything favors an
+African origin."[60] The most brilliant suggestion of modern days links
+together the Egyptian of North Africa and the Hottentot and Bushmen
+tongues of South Africa.
+
+Language was reduced to writing among the Egyptians and Ethiopians and to
+some extent elsewhere in Africa. Over 100 manuscripts of Ethiopian and
+Ethiopic-Arabian literature are extant, including a version of the Bible
+and historical chronicles. The Arabic was used as the written tongue of
+the Sudan, and Negroland has given us in this tongue many chronicles and
+other works of black authors. The greatest of these, the Epic of the Sudan
+(Tarikh-es-Soudan), deserves to be placed among the classics of all
+literature. In other parts of Africa there was no written language, but
+there was, on the other hand, an unusual perfection of oral tradition
+through bards, and extraordinary efficiency in telegraphy by drum and
+horn.
+
+The folklore and proverbs of the African tribes are exceedingly rich. Some
+of these have been made familiar to English writers through the work of
+"Uncle Remus." Others have been collected by Johnston, Ellis, and Theal.
+
+A black bard of our own day has described the onslaught of the Matabili in
+poetry of singular force and beauty:
+
+  They saw the clouds ascend from the plains:
+  It was the smoke of burning towns.
+    The confusion of the whirlwind
+Was in the heart of the great chief of the blue-colored cattle.
+      The shout was raised,
+        "They are friends!"
+      But they shouted again,
+        "They are foes!"
+Till their near approach proclaimed them Matabili.
+      The men seized their arms,
+And rushed out as if to chase the antelope.
+    The onset was as the voice of lightning,
+And their javelins as the shaking of the forest in the autumn storm.[61]
+
+There can be no doubt of the Negro's deep and delicate sense of beauty in
+form, color, and sound. Soyaux says of African industry, "Whoever denies
+to them independent invention and individual taste in their work either
+shuts his eyes intentionally before perfectly evident facts, or lack of
+knowledge renders him an incompetent judge."[62] M. Rutot had lately told
+us how the Negro race brought art and sculpture to pre-historic Europe.
+The bones of the European Negroids are almost without exception found in
+company with drawings and sculpture in high and low relief; some of their
+sculptures, like the Wellendorff "Venus," are unusually well finished for
+primitive man. So, too, the painting and carving of the Bushmen and their
+forerunners in South Africa has drawn the admiration of students. The
+Negro has been prolific in the invention of musical instruments and has
+given a new and original music to the western world.
+
+Schweinfurth, who has preserved for us much of the industrial art of the
+Negroes, speaks of their delight in the production of works of art for the
+embellishment and convenience of life. Frobenius expressed his
+astonishment at the originality of the African in the Yoruba temple which
+he visited. "The lofty veranda was divided from the passageway by
+fantastically carved and colored pillars. On the pillars were sculptured
+knights, men climbing trees, women, gods, and mythical beings. The dark
+chamber lying beyond showed a splendid red room with stone hatchets,
+wooden figures, cowry beads, and jars. The whole picture, the columns
+carved in colors in front of the colored altar, the old man sitting in the
+circle of those who reverenced him, the open scaffolding of ninety
+rafters, made a magnificent impression."[63]
+
+The Germans have found, in Kamarun, towns built, castellated, and
+fortified in a manner that reminds one of the prehistoric cities of Crete.
+The buildings and fortifications of Zymbabwe have already been described
+and something has been said of the art of Benin, with its brass and bronze
+and ivory. All the work of Benin in bronze and brass was executed by
+casting, and by methods so complicated that it would be no easy task for a
+modern European craftsman to imitate them.
+
+Perhaps no race has shown in its earlier development a more magnificent
+art impulse than the Negro, and the student must not forget how far Negro
+genius entered into the art in the valley of the Nile from Meroe and
+Nepata down to the great temples of Egypt.
+
+Frobenius has recently directed the world's attention to art in West
+Africa. Quartz and granite he found treated with great dexterity. But more
+magnificent than the stone monument is the proof that at some remote era
+glass was made and molded in Yorubaland and that the people here were
+brilliant in the production of terra-cotta images. The great mass of
+potsherds, lumps of glass, heaps of slag, etc., "proves, at all events,
+that the glass industry flourished in this locality in ages past. It is
+plain that the glass beads found to have been so very common in Africa
+were not only not imported, but were actually manufactured in great
+quantities at home."
+
+The terra-cotta pieces are "remains of another ancient and fine type of
+art" and were "eloquent of a symmetry, a vitality, a delicacy of form, and
+practically a reminiscence of the ancient Greeks." The antique bronze head
+Frobenius describes as "a head of marvelous beauty, wonderfully cast," and
+"almost equal in beauty and, at least, no less noble in form, and as
+ancient as the terra-cotta heads."[64]
+
+In a park of monuments Frobenius saw the celebrated forge and hammer: a
+mighty mass of iron, like a falling drop in shape, and a block of quartz
+fashioned like a drum. Frobenius thinks these were relics dating from past
+ages of culture, when the manipulation of quartz and granite was
+thoroughly understood and when iron manipulation gave evidence of a skill
+not met with to-day.
+
+Even when we contemplate such revolting survivals of savagery as
+cannibalism we cannot jump too quickly at conclusions. Cannibalism is
+spread over many parts of Negro Africa, yet the very tribes who practice
+cannibalism show often other traits of industry and power. "These cannibal
+Bassonga were, according to the types we met with, one of those rare
+nations of the African interior which can be classed with the most
+esthetic and skilled, most discreet and intelligent of all those generally
+known to us as the so-called natural races. Before the Arabic and European
+invasion they did not dwell in 'hamlets,' but in towns with twenty or
+thirty thousand inhabitants, in towns whose highways were shaded by
+avenues of splendid palms planted at regular intervals and laid out with
+the symmetry of colonnades. Their pottery would be fertile in suggestion
+to every art craftsman in Europe. Their weapons of iron were so perfectly
+fashioned that no industrial art from abroad could improve upon their
+workmanship. The iron blades were cunningly ornamented with damascened
+copper, and the hilts artistically inlaid with the same metal. Moreover,
+they were most industrious and capable husbandmen, whose careful tillage
+of the suburbs made them able competitors of any gardener in Europe. Their
+sexual and parental relations evidenced an amount of tact and delicacy of
+feelings unsurpassed among ourselves, either in the simplicity of the
+country or the refinements of the town. Originally their political and
+municipal system was organized on the lines of a representative republic.
+True, it is on record that these well-governed towns often waged an
+internecine warfare; but in spite of this it had been their invariable
+custom from time immemorial, even in times of strife, to keep the trade
+routes open and to allow their own and foreign merchants to go their ways
+unharmed. And the commerce of these nations ebbed and flowed along a road
+of unknown age, running from Itimbiri to Batubenge, about six hundred
+miles in length. This highway was destroyed by the 'missionaries of
+civilization' from Arabia only toward the close of the eighteenth century.
+But even in my own time there were still smiths who knew the names of
+places along that wonderful trade route driven through the heart of the
+'impenetrable forests of the Congo.' For every scrap of imported iron was
+carried over it."[65]
+
+In disposition the Negro is among the most lovable of men. Practically all
+the great travelers who have spent any considerable time in Africa testify
+to this and pay deep tribute to the kindness with which they were
+received. One has but to remember the classic story of Mungo Park, the
+strong expressions of Livingstone, the words of Stanley and hundreds of
+others to realize this.
+
+Ceremony and courtesy mark Negro life. Livingstone again and again reminds
+us of "true African dignity." "When Ilifian men or women salute each
+other, be it with a plain and easy curtsey (which is here the simplest
+form adopted), or kneeling down, or throwing oneself upon the ground, or
+kissing the dust with one's forehead, no matter which, there is yet a
+deliberateness, a majesty, a dignity, a devoted earnestness in the manner
+of its doing, which brings to light with every gesture, with every fold of
+clothing, the deep significance and essential import of every single
+action. Everyone may, without too greatly straining his attention, notice
+the very striking precision and weight with which the upper and lower
+native classes observe these niceties of intercourse."[66]
+
+All this does not mean that the African Negro is not human with the
+all-too-well-known foibles of humanity. Primitive life among them is,
+after all, as bare and cruel as among primitive Germans or Chinese, but it
+is not more so, and the more we study the Negro the more we realize that
+we are dealing with a normal human stock which under reasonable conditions
+has developed and will develop in the same lines as other men. Why is it,
+then, that so much of misinformation and contempt is widespread concerning
+Africa and its people, not simply among the unthinking mass, but among men
+of education and knowledge?
+
+One reason lies undoubtedly in the connotation of the term "Negro." In
+North America a Negro may be seven-eights white, since the term refers to
+any person of Negro descent. If we use the term in the same sense
+concerning the inhabitants of the rest of world, we may say truthfully
+that Negroes have been among the leaders of civilization in every age of
+the world's history from ancient Babylon to modern America; that they have
+contributed wonderful gifts in art, industry, political organization, and
+religion, and that they are doing the same to-day in all parts of the
+world.
+
+In sharp contrast to this usage the term "Negro" in Africa has been more
+and more restricted until some scientists, late in the last century,
+declared that the great mass of the black and brown people of Africa were
+not Negroes at all, and that the "real" Negro dwells in a small space
+between the Niger and the Senegal. Ratzel says, "If we ask what justifies
+so narrow a limitation, we find that the hideous Negro type, which the
+fancy of observers once saw all over Africa, but which, as Livingstone
+says, is really to be seen only as a sign in front of tobacco shops, has
+on closer inspection evaporated from all parts of Africa, to settle no one
+knows how in just this region. If we understand that an extreme case may
+have been taken for the genuine and pure form, even so we do not
+comprehend the ground of its geographical limitation and location; for
+wherever dark, woolly-haired men dwell, this ugly type also crops up. We
+are here in the presence of a refinement of science which to an
+unprejudiced eye will hardly hold water."[67]
+
+In this restricted sense the Negro has no history, culture, or ability,
+for the simple fact that such human beings as have history and evidence
+culture and ability are not Negroes! Between these two extreme
+definitions, with unconscious adroitness, the most extraordinary and
+contradictory conclusions have been reached.
+
+Let it therefore be said, once for all, that racial inferiority is not the
+cause of anti-Negro prejudice. Boaz, the anthropologist, says, "An
+unbiased estimate of the anthropological evidence so far brought forward
+does not permit us to countenance the belief in a racial inferiority which
+would unfit an individual of the Negro race to take his part in modern
+civilization. We do not know of any demand made on the human body or mind
+in modern life that anatomical or ethnological evidence would prove to be
+beyond the powers of the Negro."[68]
+
+"We have every reason to suppose that all races are capable, under proper
+guidance, of being fitted into the complex scheme of our modern
+civilization, and the policy of artificially excluding them from its
+benefits is as unjustifiable scientifically as it is ethically
+abhorrent."[69] What is, then, this so-called "instinctive" modern
+prejudice against black folk?
+
+Lord Bryce says of the intermingling of blacks and whites in South
+America, "The ease with which the Spaniards have intermingled by marriage
+with the Indian tribes--and the Portuguese have done the like, not only
+with the Indians, but with the more physically dissimilar Negroes--shows
+that race repugnance is no such constant and permanent factor in human
+affairs as members of the Teutonic peoples are apt to assume. Instead of
+being, as we Teutons suppose, the rule in the matter, we are rather the
+exception, for in the ancient world there seems to have been little race
+repulsion."
+
+In nearly every age and land men of Negro descent have distinguished
+themselves. In literature there is Terence in Rome, Nosseyeb and Antar in
+Arabia, Es-Sa'di in the Sudan, Pushkin in Russia, Dumas in France, Al
+Kanemi in Spain, Heredia in the West Indies, and Dunbar in the United
+States, not to mention the alleged Negro strain in AEsop and Robert
+Browning. As rulers and warriors we remember such Negroes as Queen
+Nefertari and Amenhotep III among many others in Egypt; Candace and
+Ergamenes in Ethiopia; Mansa Musa, Sonni Ali, and Mohammed Askai in the
+Sudan; Diaz in Brazil, Toussaint L'Ouverture in Hayti, Hannivalov in
+Russia, Sakanouye Tamuramaro in Japan, the elder Dumas in France, Cazembe
+and Chaka among the Bantu, and Menelik, of Abyssinia; the numberless black
+leaders of India, and the mulatto strain of Alexander Hamilton. In music
+and art we recall Bridgewater, the friend of Beethoven, and the
+unexplained complexion of Beethoven's own father; Coleridge-Taylor in
+England, Tanner in America, Gomez in Spain; Ira Aldridge, the actor, and
+Johnson, Cook, and Burleigh, who are making the new American syncopated
+music. In the Church we know that Negro blood coursed in the veins of many
+of the Catholic African fathers, if not in certain of the popes; and there
+were in modern days Benoit of Palermo, St. Benedict, Bishop Crowther, the
+Mahdi who drove England from the Sudan, and Americans like Allen, Lot
+Carey, and Alexander Crummell. In science, discovery, and invention the
+Negroes claim Lislet Geoffroy of the French Academy, Latino and Amo, well
+known in European university circles; and in America the explorers
+Dorantes and Henson; Banneker, the almanac maker; Wood, the telephone
+improver; McCoy, inventor of modern lubrication; Matseliger, who
+revolutionized shoemaking. Here are names representing all degrees of
+genius and talent from the mediocre to the highest, but they are strong
+human testimony to the ability of this race.
+
+We must, then, look for the origin of modern color prejudice not to
+physical or cultural causes, but to historic facts. And we shall find the
+answer in modern Negro slavery and the slave trade.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[35] "Some authors write that the Ethiopians paint the devil white, in
+disdain of our complexions."--Ludolf: _History of Ethiopia_, p. 72.
+
+[36] Ripley: _Races of Europe_, pp. 58, 62.
+
+[37] Denniker: _Races of Men_, p. 63.
+
+[38] G. Finot: _Race Prejudice_. F. Herz: _Moderne Rassentheorien_.
+
+[39] Ratzel: quoted in Spiller: _Inter-Racial Problems_, p. 31.
+
+[40] Spiller: _Inter-Racial Problems_, p. 35.
+
+[41] Ratzel: _History of Mankind_, II, 380 ff.
+
+[42] _Industrial Evolution_, p. 47.
+
+[43] These and other references in this chapter are from Schneider:
+Culturfaehigkeit des Negers.
+
+[44] Atlanta University Leaflet, No. 19.
+
+[45] _Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute_, XLIII, 414, 415.
+Cf. also _The Crisis_, Vol. IX, p. 234.
+
+[46] Buecher: _Industrial Revolution_ (tr. by Wickett), pp. 57-58.
+
+[47] Hayford: _Native Institutions_, pp. 95-96.
+
+[48] Ratzel, II, 376.
+
+[49] Hayford: _Native Institutions_, pp. 76 ff.
+
+[50] _Impressions of South Africa_, 3d ed., p. 352.
+
+[51] William Schneider.
+
+[52] _West African Studies_, Chap. V.
+
+[53] _Op. cit._
+
+[54] _Impressions of South Africa._
+
+[55] Frobenius: _Voice of Africa_, Vol. I.
+
+[56] _West African Studies_, p. 107.
+
+[57] Nassau: _Fetishism in West Africa_, p. 36.
+
+[58] _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, 9th ed., XX, 362.
+
+[59] _The African Provinces_, II, 345.
+
+[60] _Mediterranean Race_, p. 10.
+
+[61] Stowe: _Native Races_, etc., pp. 553-554.
+
+[62] Quoted in Schneider.
+
+[63] Frobenius: _Voice of Africa_, Vol. I, Chap. XIV.
+
+[64] Frobenius: _Voice of Africa_, Vol. I.
+
+[65] Frobenius: _Voice of Africa_, I, 14-15.
+
+[66] Frobenius: _Voice of Africa_, I, 272.
+
+[67] Ratzel: _History of Mankind_, II, 313.
+
+[68] Atlanta University Publications, No. 11.
+
+[69] Robert Lowie in the _New Review_, Sept., 1914.
+
+
+
+
+IX THE TRADE IN MEN
+
+
+Color was never a badge of slavery in the ancient or medieval world, nor
+has it been in the modern world outside of Christian states. Homer sings
+of a black man, a "reverend herald"
+
+    Of visage solemn, sad, but sable hue,
+    Short, woolly curls, o'erfleeced his bending head,...
+    Eurybiates, in whose large soul alone,
+    Ulysses viewed an image of his own.
+
+Greece and Rome had their chief supplies of slaves from Europe and Asia.
+Egypt enslaved races of all colors, and if there were more blacks than
+others among her slaves, there were also more blacks among her nobles and
+Pharaohs, and both facts are explained by her racial origin and
+geographical position. The fall of Rome led to a cessation of the slave
+trade, but after a long interval came the white slave trade of the
+Saracens and Moors, and finally the modern trade in Negroes.
+
+Slavery as it exists universally among primitive people is a system
+whereby captives in war are put to tasks about the homes and in the
+fields, thus releasing the warriors for systematic fighting and the women
+for leisure. Such slavery has been common among all peoples and was
+wide-spread in Africa. The relative number of African slaves under these
+conditions was small and the labor not hard; they were members of the
+family and might and did often rise to high position in the tribe.
+
+Remembering that in the fifteenth century there was no great disparity
+between the civilization of Negroland and that of Europe, what made the
+striking difference in subsequent development? European civilization, cut
+off by physical barriers from further incursions of barbaric races,
+settled more and more to systematic industry and to the domination of one
+religion; African culture and industries were threatened by powerful
+barbarians from the west and central regions of the continent and by the
+Moors in the north, and Islam had only partially converted the leading
+peoples.
+
+When, therefore, a demand for workmen arose in America, European
+exportation was limited by religious ties and economic stability. African
+exportation was encouraged not simply by the Christian attitude toward
+heathen, but also by the Moslem enmity toward the unconverted Negroes. Two
+great modern religions, therefore, agreed at least in the policy of
+enslaving heathen blacks, while the overthrow of black Askias by the Moors
+at Tenkadibou brought that economic chaos among the advanced Negro peoples
+and movement among the more barbarous tribes which proved of prime
+advantage to the development of a systematic trade in men.
+
+The modern slave trade began with the Mohammedan conquests in Africa, when
+heathen Negroes were seized to supply the harems, and as soldiers and
+servants. They were bought from the masters and seized in war, until the
+growing wealth and luxury of the conquerors demanded larger numbers. Then
+Negroes from the Egyptian Sudan, Abyssinia, and Zanzibar began to pass
+into Arabia, Persia, and India in increased numbers. As Negro kingdoms and
+tribes rose to power they found the slave trade lucrative and natural,
+since the raids in which slaves were captured were ordinary inter-tribal
+wars. It was not until the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries that the
+demand for slaves in Christian lands made slaves the object, and not the
+incident, of African wars.
+
+In Mohammedan countries there were gleams of hope in slavery. In fiction
+and in truth the black slave had a chance. Once converted to Islam, he
+became a brother to the best, and the brotherhood of the faith was not the
+sort of idle lie that Christian slave masters made it. In Arabia black
+leaders arose like Antar; in India black slaves carved out principalities
+where their descendants still rule.
+
+Some Negro slaves were brought to Europe by the Spaniards in the
+fourteenth century, and a small trade was continued by the Portuguese, who
+conquered territory from the "tawny" Moors of North Africa in the early
+fifteenth century. Later, after their severe repulse at Al-Kasr-Al-Kabu,
+the Portuguese began to creep down the west coast in quest of trade. They
+reached the River of Gold in 1441, and their story is that their leader
+seized certain free Moors and the next year exchanged them for ten black
+slaves, a target of hide, ostrich eggs, and some gold dust. The trade was
+easily justified on the ground that the Moors were Mohammedans and refused
+to be converted to Christianity, while heathen Negroes would be better
+subjects for conversion and stronger laborers. In the next few years a
+small number of Negroes continued to be imported into Spain and Portugal
+as servants. We find, for instance, in 1474, that Negro slaves were common
+in Seville. There is a letter from Ferdinand and Isabella in the year 1474
+to a celebrated Negro, Juan de Valladolid, commonly called the "Negro
+Count" (El Conde Negro), nominating him to the office of "mayoral of the
+Negroes" in Seville. The slaves were apparently treated kindly, allowed to
+keep their own dances and festivals, and to have their own chief, who
+represented them in the courts, as against their own masters, and settled
+their private quarrels.
+
+Between 1455 and 1492 little mention is made of slaves in the trade with
+Africa. Columbus is said to have suggested Negroes for America, but
+Ferdinand and Isabella refused. Nevertheless, by 1501, we have the first
+incidental mention of Negroes going to America in a declaration that Negro
+slaves "born in the power of Christians were to be allowed to pass to the
+Indies, and the officers of the royal revenue were to receive the money to
+be paid for their permits."
+
+About 1501 Ovando, Governor of Spanish America, was objecting to Negro
+slaves and "solicited that no Negro slaves should be sent to Hispaniola,
+for they fled amongst the Indians and taught them bad customs, and never
+could be captured." Nevertheless a letter from the king to Ovando, dated
+Segovia, the fifteenth of September, 1505, says, "I will send more Negro
+slaves as you request; I think there may be a hundred. At each time a
+trustworthy person will go with them who may have some share in the gold
+they may collect and may promise them ease if they work well."[70] There
+is a record of a hundred slaves being sent out this very year, and Diego
+Columbus was notified of fifty to be sent from Seville for the mines in
+1510.
+
+After this time frequent notices show that Negroes were common in the new
+world.[71] When Pizarro, for instance, had been slain in Peru, his body
+was dragged to the cathedral by two Negroes. After the battle of Anaquito
+the head of the viceroy was cut off by a Negro, and during the great
+earthquake in Guatemala a most remarkable figure was a gigantic Negro seen
+in various parts of the city. Nunez had thirty Negroes with him on the top
+of the Sierras, and there was rumor of an aboriginal tribe of Negroes in
+South America. One of the last acts of King Ferdinand was to urge that no
+more Negroes be sent to the West Indies, but under Charles V, Bishop Las
+Casas drew up a plan of assisted migration to America and asked in 1517
+the right for immigrants to import twelve Negro slaves, in return for
+which the Indians were to be freed.
+
+Las Casas, writing in his old age, owns his error: "This advice that
+license should be given to bring Negro slaves to these lands, the Clerigo
+Casas first gave, not considering the injustice with which the Portuguese
+take them and make them slaves; which advice, after he had apprehended the
+nature of the thing, he would not have given for all he had in the world.
+For he always held that they had been made slaves unjustly and
+tyrannically; for the same reason holds good of them as of the
+Indians[72]."
+
+As soon as the plan was broached a Savoyard, Lorens de Gomenot, Governor
+of Bresa, obtained a monopoly of this proposed trade and shrewdly sold it
+to the Genoese for twenty-five thousand ducats. Other monopolies were
+granted in 1523, 1527, and 1528[73]. Thus the American trade became
+established and gradually grew, passing successively into the hands of the
+Portuguese, the Dutch, the French, and the English.
+
+At first the trade was of the same kind and volume as that already passing
+northward over the desert routes. Soon, however, the American trade
+developed. A strong, unchecked demand for brute labor in the West Indies
+and on the continent of America grew until it culminated in the eighteenth
+century, when Negro slaves were crossing the Atlantic at the rate of fifty
+to one hundred thousand a year. This called for slave raiding on a scale
+that drew upon every part of Africa--upon the west coast, the western and
+Egyptian Sudan, the valley of the Congo, Abyssinia, the lake regions, the
+east coast, and Madagascar. Not simply the degraded and weaker types of
+Negroes were seized, but the strong Bantu, the Mandingo and Songhay, the
+Nubian and Nile Negroes, the Fula, and even the Asiatic Malay, were
+represented in the raids.
+
+There was thus begun in modern days a new slavery and slave trade. It was
+different from that of the past, because more and more it came in time to
+be founded on racial caste, and this caste was made the foundation of a
+new industrial system. For four hundred years, from 1450 to 1850, European
+civilization carried on a systematic trade in human beings of such
+tremendous proportions that the physical, economic, and moral effects are
+still plainly to be remarked throughout the world. To this must be added
+the large slave trade of Mussulman lands, which began with the seventh
+century and raged almost unchecked until the end of the nineteenth
+century.
+
+These were not days of decadence, but a period that gave the world
+Shakespeare, Martin Luther, and Raphael, Haroun-al-Raschid and Abraham
+Lincoln. It was the day of the greatest expansion of two of the world's
+most pretentious religions and of the beginnings of the modern
+organization of industry. In the midst of this advance and uplift this
+slave trade and slavery spread more human misery, inculcated more
+disrespect for and neglect of humanity, a greater callousness to
+suffering, and more petty, cruel, human hatred than can well be
+calculated. We may excuse and palliate it, and write history so as to let
+men forget it; it remains the most inexcusable and despicable blot on
+modern human history.
+
+The Portuguese built the first slave-trading fort at Elmina, on the Gold
+Coast, in 1482, and extended their trade down the west coast and up the
+east coast. Under them the abominable traffic grew larger and larger,
+until it became far the most important in money value of all the commerce
+of the Zambesi basin. There could be no extension of agriculture, no
+mining, no progress of any kind where it was so extensively carried
+on[74].
+
+It was the Dutch, however, who launched the oversea slave trade as a
+regular institution. They began their fight for freedom from Spain in
+1579; in 1595, as a war measure against Spain, who at that time was
+dominating Portugal, they made their first voyage to Guinea. By 1621 they
+had captured Portugal's various slave forts on the west coast and they
+proceeded to open sixteen forts along the coast of the Gulf of Guinea.
+Ships sailed from Holland to Africa, got slaves in exchange for their
+goods, carried the slaves to the West Indies or Brazil, and returned home
+laden with sugar. In 1621 the private companies trading in the west were
+all merged into the Dutch West India Company, which sent in four years
+fifteen thousand four hundred and thirty Negroes to Brazil, carried on war
+with Spain, supplied even the English plantations, and gradually became
+the great slave carrier of the day.
+
+The commercial supremacy of the Dutch early excited the envy and emulation
+of the English. The Navigation Ordinance of 1651 was aimed at them, and
+two wars were necessary to wrest the slave trade from them and place it in
+the hands of the English. The final terms of peace, among other things,
+surrendered New Netherlands to England and opened the way for England to
+become henceforth the world's greatest slave trader.
+
+The English trade began with Sir John Hawkins' voyages in 1562 and later,
+in which "the Jesus, our chiefe shippe" played a leading part. Desultory
+trade was kept up by the English until the middle of the seventeenth
+century, when English chartered slave-trading companies began to appear.
+In 1662 the "Royal Adventurers," including the king, the queen dowager,
+and the Duke of York, invested in the trade, and finally the Royal African
+Company, which became the world's chief slave trader, was formed in 1672
+and carried on a growing trade for a quarter of a century. Jamaica had
+finally been captured and held by Oliver Cromwell in 1655 and formed a
+West Indian base for the trade in men.
+
+The chief contract for trade in Negroes was the celebrated "Asiento" or
+agreement of the King of Spain to the importation of slaves into Spanish
+domains. The Pope's Bull or Demarkation, 1493, debarred Spain from African
+possessions, and compelled her to contract with other nations for slaves.
+This contract was in the hands of the Portuguese in 1600; in 1640 the
+Dutch received it, and in 1701 the French. The War of the Spanish
+Succession brought this monopoly to England.
+
+This Asiento of 1713 was an agreement between England and Spain by which
+the latter granted the former a monopoly of the Spanish colonial slave
+trade for thirty years, and England engaged to supply the colonies within
+that time with at least one hundred and forty-four thousand slaves at the
+rate of forty-eight hundred per year. The English counted this prize as
+the greatest result of the Treaty of Utrecht (1713), which ended the
+mighty struggle against the power of Louis XIV. The English held the
+monopoly until the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748), although they had to
+go to war over it in 1739.
+
+From this agreement the slave traders reaped a harvest. The trade centered
+at Liverpool, and that city's commercial greatness was built largely on
+this foundation. In 1709 it sent out one slaver of thirty tons' burden;
+encouraged by Parliamentary subsidies which amounted to nearly half a
+million dollars between 1729 and 1750, the trade amounted to fifty-three
+ships in 1751; eighty-six in 1765, and at the beginning of the nineteenth
+century one hundred and eighty-five, which carried forty-nine thousand two
+hundred and thirteen slaves in one year.
+
+The slave trade thus begun by the Portuguese, enlarged by the Dutch, and
+carried to its culmination by the English centered on the west coast near
+the seat of perhaps the oldest and most interesting culture of Africa. It
+came at a critical time. The culture of Yoruba, Benin, Mossiland, and Nupe
+had exhausted itself in a desperate attempt to stem the on-coming flood of
+Mohammedan culture. It has succeeded in maintaining its small, loosely
+federated city-states suited to trade, industry, and art. It had developed
+strong resistance toward the Sudan state builders toward the north, as in
+the case of the fighting Mossi; but behind this warlike resistance lay the
+peaceful city life which gave industrial ideas to Byzantium and shared
+something of Ethiopian and Mediterranean culture.
+
+The first advent of the slave traders increased and encouraged native
+industry, as is evidenced by the bronze work of Benin; but soon this was
+pushed into the background, for it was not bronze metal but bronze flesh
+that Europe wanted. A new tyranny, blood-thirsty, cruel, and built on war,
+forced itself forward in the Niger delta. The powerful state of Dahomey
+arose early in the eighteenth century and became a devastating tyranny,
+reaching its highest power early in the nineteenth century. Ashanti, a
+similar kingdom, began its conquests in 1719 and grew with the slave
+trade. Thus state building in West Africa began to replace the city
+economy, but it was a state built on war and on war supported and
+encouraged largely for the sake of trade in human flesh. The native
+industries were changed and disorganized. Family ties and government were
+weakened. Far into the heart of Africa this devilish disintegration,
+coupled with Christian rum and Mohammedan raiding, penetrated. The face of
+Africa was turned south on these slave traders instead of northward toward
+the Mediterranean, where for two thousand years and more Europe and Africa
+had met in legitimate trade and mutual respect. The full significance of
+the battle of Tenkadibou, which overthrew the Askias, was now clear.
+Hereafter Africa for centuries was to appear before the world, not as the
+land of gold and ivory, of Mansa Musa and Meroe, but as a bound and
+captive slave, dumb and degraded.
+
+The natural desire to avoid a painful subject has led historians to gloss
+over the details of the slave trade and leave the impression that it was a
+local west-coast phenomenon and confined to a few years. It was, on the
+contrary, continent wide and centuries long and an economic, social, and
+political catastrophe probably unparalleled in human history.
+
+The exact proportions of the slave trade can be estimated only
+approximately. From 1680 to 1688 we know that the English African Company
+alone sent 249 ships to Africa, shipped there 60,783 Negro slaves, and
+after losing 14,387 on the middle passage, delivered 46,396 in America.
+
+It seems probable that 25,000 Negroes a year arrived in America between
+1698 and 1707. After the Asiento of 1713 this number rose to 30,000
+annually, and before the Revolutionary War it had reached at least 40,000
+and perhaps 100,000 slaves a year.
+
+The total number of slaves imported is not known. Dunbar estimates that
+nearly 900,000 came to America in the sixteenth century, 2,750,000 in the
+seventeenth, 7,000,000 in the eighteenth, and over 4,000,000 in the
+nineteenth, perhaps 15,000,000 in all. Certainly it seems that at least
+10,000,000 Negroes were expatriated. Probably every slave imported
+represented on the average five corpses in Africa or on the high seas. The
+American slave trade, therefore, meant the elimination of at least
+60,000,000 Negroes from their fatherland. The Mohammedan slave trade meant
+the expatriation or forcible migration in Africa of nearly as many more.
+It would be conservative, then, to say that the slave trade cost Negro
+Africa 100,000,000 souls. And yet people ask to-day the cause of the
+stagnation of culture in that land since 1600!
+
+Such a large number of slaves could be supplied only by organized slave
+raiding in every corner of Africa. The African continent gradually became
+revolutionized. Whole regions were depopulated, whole tribes disappeared;
+villages were built in caves and on hills or in forest fastnesses; the
+character of peoples like those of Benin developed their worst excesses of
+cruelty instead of the already flourishing arts of peace. The dark,
+irresistible grasp of fetish took firmer hold on men's minds.
+
+Further advances toward civilization became impossible. Not only was there
+the immense demand for slaves which had its outlet on the west coast, but
+the slave caravans were streaming up through the desert to the
+Mediterranean coast and down the valley of the Nile to the centers of
+Mohammedanism. It was a rape of a continent to an extent never paralleled
+in ancient or modern times.
+
+In the American trade there was not only the horrors of the slave raid,
+which lined the winding paths of the African jungles with bleached bones,
+but there was also the horrors of what was called the "middle passage,"
+that is, the voyage across the Atlantic. As Sir William Dolben said, "The
+Negroes were chained to each other hand and foot, and stowed so close that
+they were not allowed above a foot and a half for each in breadth. Thus
+crammed together like herrings in a barrel, they contracted putrid and
+fatal disorders; so that they who came to inspect them in a morning had
+occasionally to pick dead slaves out of their rows, and to unchain their
+carcases from the bodies of their wretched fellow-sufferers to whom they
+had been fastened[75]."
+
+It was estimated that out of every one hundred lot shipped from Africa
+only about fifty lived to be effective laborers across the sea, and among
+the whites more seamen died in that trade in one year than in the whole
+remaining trade of England in two. The full realization of the horrors of
+the slave trade was slow in reaching the ears and conscience of the modern
+world, just as to-day the treatment of dark natives in European colonies
+is brought to publicity with the greatest difficulty. The first move
+against the slave trade in England came in Parliament in 1776, but it was
+not until thirty-one years later, in 1807, that the trade was banned
+through the arduous labors of Clarkson, Wilberforce, Sharpe, and others.
+
+Denmark had already abolished the trade, and the United States attempted
+to do so the following year. Portugal and Spain were induced to abolish
+the trade between 1815 and 1830. Notwithstanding these laws, the
+contraband trade went on until the beginning of the Civil War in America.
+The reasons for this were the enormous profit of the trade and the
+continued demand of the American slave barons, who had no sympathy with
+the efforts to stop their source of cheap labor supply.
+
+However, philanthropy was not working alone to overthrow Negro slavery and
+the slave trade. It was seen, first in England and later in other
+countries, that slavery as an industrial system could not be made to work
+satisfactorily in modern times. Its cost was too great, and one of the
+causes of this cost was the slave insurrections from the very beginning,
+when the slaves rose on the plantation of Diego Columbus down to the Civil
+War in America. Actual and potential slave insurrection in the West
+Indies, in North and South America, kept the slave owners in apprehension
+and turmoil, or called for a police system difficult to maintain. In North
+America revolt finally took the form of organized running away to the
+North, and this, with the growing scarcity of suitable land and the moral
+revolt, led to the Civil War and the disappearance of the American slave
+trade.
+
+There was still, however, the Mohammedan slave trade to deal with, and
+this has been the work of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. In
+the last quarter of the nineteenth century ten thousand slaves annually
+were being distributed on the southern and eastern coast of the
+Mediterranean and at the great slave market in Bornu.
+
+On the east coast of Africa in 1862 nineteen thousand slaves were passed
+into Zanzibar and thence into Arabia and Persia. As late as 1880, three
+thousand annually were being thus transplanted, but now the trade is about
+stopped. To-day the only centers of actual slave trading may be said to be
+the cocoa plantations of the Portuguese Islands on the west coast of
+Africa, and the Congo Free State.
+
+Such is the story of the Rape of Ethiopia--a sordid, pitiful, cruel tale.
+Raphael painted, Luther preached, Corneille wrote, and Milton sung; and
+through it all, for four hundred years, the dark captives wound to the sea
+amid the bleaching bones of the dead; for four hundred years the sharks
+followed the scurrying ships; for four hundred years America was strewn
+with the living and dying millions of a transplanted race; for four
+hundred years Ethiopia stretched forth her hands unto God.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[70] Cf. Helps: _Spanish Conquest_, IV, 401.
+
+[71] Helps, _op. cit._, I, 219-220.
+
+[72] Helps, _op. cit._, II, 18-19.
+
+[73] Helps, _op. cit._, III, 211-212.
+
+[74] Theal: _History and Ethnography of South Africa before 1795_, I, 476.
+
+[75] Ingram: _History of Slavery_, p. 152.
+
+
+
+
+X THE WEST INDIES AND LATIN AMERICA
+
+
+That was a wonderful century, the fifteenth, when men realized that beyond
+the scowling waste of western waters were dreams come true. Curious and
+yet crassly human it is that, with all this poetry and romance, arose at
+once the filthiest institution of the modern world and the costliest. For
+on Negro slavery in America was built, not simply the abortive cotton
+kingdom, but the foundations of that modern imperialism which is based on
+the despising of backward men.
+
+According to some accounts Alonzo, "the Negro," piloted one of the ships
+of Columbus, and certainly there was Negro blood among his sailors. As
+early as 1528 there were nearly ten thousand Negroes in the new world. We
+hear of them in all parts. In Honduras, for instance, a Negro is sent to
+burn a native village; in 1555 the town council of Santiago de Chile voted
+to allow an enfranchised Negro possession of land in the town, and
+evidently treated him just as white applicants were treated. D'Allyon, who
+explored the coast of Virginia in the first quarter of the sixteenth
+century, used Negro slaves (who afterward revolted) to build his ships and
+help in exploration; Balboa had with him thirty Negroes, who, in 1513,
+helped to build the first ships on the Pacific coast; Cortez had three
+hundred Negro porters in 1522.
+
+Before 1530 there were enough Negroes in Mexico to lead to an
+insurrection, where the Negroes fought desperately, but were overcome and
+their ringleaders executed. Later the followers of another Negro
+insurgent, Bayano, were captured and sent back to Spain. Negroes founded
+the town of Santiago del Principe in 1570, and in 1540 a Negro slave of
+Hernandez de Alarcon was the only one of the party to carry a message
+across the country to the Zunis of New Mexico. A Negro, Stephen Dorantes,
+discovered New Mexico. This Stephen or "Estevanico" was sent ahead by
+certain Spanish friars to the "Seven Cities of Cibola." "As soon as
+Stephen had left said friars, he determined to earn all the reputation and
+honor for himself, and that the boldness and daring of having alone
+discovered those villages of high stories so much spoken of throughout
+that country should be attributed to him; and carrying along with him the
+people who followed him, he endeavored to cross the wilderness which is
+between Cibola and the country he had gone through, and he was so far
+ahead of the friars that when they arrived at Chichilticalli, which is on
+the edge of the wilderness, he was already at Cibola, which is eighty
+leagues of wilderness beyond." But the Indians of the new and strange
+country took alarm and concluded that Stephen "must be a spy or guide for
+some nations who intended to come and conquer them, because it seemed to
+them unreasonable for him to say that the people were white in the country
+from which he came, being black himself and being sent by them."[76]
+
+Slaves imported under the Asiento treaties went to all parts of the
+Americas. Spanish America had by the close of the eighteenth century ten
+thousand in Santo Domingo, eighty-four thousand in Cuba, fifty thousand in
+Porto Rico, sixty thousand in Louisiana and Florida, and sixty thousand in
+Central and South America.
+
+The history of the Negro in Spanish America centered in Cuba, Venezuela,
+and Central America. In the sixteenth century slaves began to arrive in
+Cuba and Negroes joined many of the exploring expeditions from there to
+various parts of America. The slave trade greatly increased in the latter
+part of the eighteenth century, and after the revolution in Hayti large
+numbers of French emigrants from that island settled in Cuba. This and
+Spanish greed increased the harshness of slavery and eventually led to
+revolt among the Negroes. In 1844 Governor O'Donnell began a cruel
+persecution of the blacks on account of a plot discovered among them.
+Finally in 1866 the Ten Years' War broke out in which Negro and white
+rebels joined. They demanded the abolition of slavery and equal political
+rights for natives and foreigners, whites and blacks. The war was cruel
+and bloody but ended in 1878 with the abolition of slavery, while a
+further uprising the following year secured civil rights for Negroes.
+Spanish economic oppression continued, however, and the leading chiefs of
+the Ten Years' War including such leaders as the mulatto, Antonio Maceo,
+with large numbers of Negro soldiers, took the field again in 1895. The
+result was the freeing of Cuba by the intervention of the United States.
+Negro regiments from the United States played here a leading role. A
+number of leaders in Cuba in political, industrial, and literary lines
+have been men of Negro descent.
+
+Slavery was abolished by Guatemala in 1824 and by Mexico in 1829.
+Argentine, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Paraguay ceased to recognize it about
+1825. Between 1840 and 1845 it came to an end in Colombia, Venezuela, and
+Ecquador. Bolivar, Paez, Sucre, and other South American leaders used
+Negro soldiers in fighting for freedom (1814-16), and Hayti twice at
+critical times rendered assistance and received Bolivar twice as a
+refugee.
+
+Brazil was the center of Portuguese slavery, but slaves were not
+introduced in large numbers until about 1720, when diamonds were
+discovered in the territory above Rio Janeiro. Gradually the seaboard from
+Pernambuco to Rio Janeiro and beyond became filled with Negroes, and
+although the slave trade north of the equator was theoretically abolished
+by Portugal in 1815 and south of the equator in 1830, and by Brazil in
+these regions in 1826 and 1830, nevertheless between 1825 and 1850 over a
+million and a quarter of Negroes were introduced. Not until Brazil
+abolished slavery in 1888 did the importation wholly cease. Brazilian
+slavery allowed the slave to purchase his freedom, and the color line was
+not strict. Even in the eighteenth century there were black clergy and
+bishops; indeed the Negro clergy seem to have been on a higher moral level
+than the whites.
+
+Insurrection was often attempted, especially among the Mohammedan Negroes
+around Bahia. In 1695 a tribe of revolted slaves held out for a long time.
+In 1719 a widespread conspiracy failed, but many of the leaders fled to
+the forest. In 1828 a thousand rose in revolt at Bahia, and again in 1830.
+From 1831 to 1837 revolt was in the air, and in 1835 came the great revolt
+of the Mohammedans, who attempted to enthrone a queen. The Negroes fought
+with furious bravery, but were finally defeated.
+
+By 1872 the number of free Negroes had very greatly increased, so that
+emancipation did not come as a shock. While Mohammedan Negroes still gave
+trouble and were in some cases sent back to Africa, yet on the whole
+emancipation was peaceful, and whites, Negroes, and Indians are to-day
+amalgamating into a new race. "At the present moment there is scarcely a
+lowly or a highly placed federal or provincial official at the head of or
+within any of the great departments of state that has not more or less
+Negro or Amer-Indian blood in his veins."[77]
+
+Lord Bryce says, "It is hardly too much to say that along the coast from
+Rio to Bahia and Pernambuco, as well as in parts of the interior behind
+these two cities, the black population predominates.... The Brazilian
+lower class intermarries freely with the black people; the Brazilian
+middle class intermarries with mulattoes and Quadroons. Brazil is the one
+country in the world, besides the Portuguese colonies on the east and west
+coasts of Africa, in which a fusion of the European and African races is
+proceeding unchecked by law or custom. The doctrines of human equality and
+human solidarity have here their perfect work. The result is so far
+satisfactory that there is little or no class friction. The white man does
+not lynch or maltreat the Negro; indeed I have never heard of a lynching
+anywhere in South America except occasionally as part of a political
+convulsion. The Negro is not accused of insolence and does not seem to
+develop any more criminality than naturally belongs to any ignorant
+population with loose notions of morality and property.
+
+"What ultimate effect the intermixture of blood will have on the European
+element in Brazil I will not venture to predict. If one may judge from a
+few remarkable cases, it will not necessarily reduce the intellectual
+standard. One of the ablest and most refined Brazilians I have known had
+some color; and other such cases have been mentioned to me. Assumptions
+and preconceptions must be eschewed, however plausible they may
+seem."[78]
+
+A Brazilian writer said at the First Races Congress: "The cooperation of
+the _metis_[79] in the advance of Brazil is notorious and far from
+inconsiderable. They played the chief part during many years in Brazil in
+the campaign for the abolition of slavery. I could quote celebrated names
+of more than one of these _metis_ who put themselves at the head of the
+literary movement. They fought with firmness and intrepidity in the press
+and on the platform. They faced with courage the gravest perils to which
+they were exposed in their struggle against the powerful slave owners, who
+had the protection of a conservative government. They gave evidence of
+sentiments of patriotism, self-denial, and appreciation during the long
+campaign in Paraguay, fighting heroically at the boarding of the ships in
+the naval battle of Riachuelo and in the attacks on the Brazilian army, on
+numerous occasions in the course of this long South American war. It was
+owing to their support that the republic was erected on the ruins of the
+empire."[80]
+
+The Dutch brought the first slaves to the North American continent. John
+Rolfe relates that the last of August, 1619, there came to Virginia "a
+Dutch man of warre that sold us twenty Negars."[81] This was probably one
+of the ships of the numerous private Dutch trading companies which early
+entered into the developed and the lucrative African slave trade. Although
+the Dutch thus commenced the continental slave trade they did not actually
+furnish a very large number of slaves to the English colonies outside the
+West Indies. A small trade had by 1698 brought a few thousand to New York
+and still fewer to New Jersey.
+
+The Dutch found better scope for slaves in Guiana, which they settled in
+1616. Sugar cane became the staple crop, but the Negroes early began to
+revolt and the Dutch brought in East Indian coolies. The slaves were badly
+treated and the runaways joined the revolted Bush Negroes in the interior.
+From 1715 to 1775 there was continuous fighting with the Bush Negroes or
+insurrections, until at last in 1749 a formal treaty between sixteen
+hundred Negroes and the Dutch was made. Immediately a new group revolted
+under a Mohammedan, Arabi, and they obtained land and liberty. In 1763 the
+coast Negroes revolted. They were checked, but made terms and settled in
+the interior. The Bush Negroes fought against both French and English to
+save Guiana to the Dutch, but Guiana was eventually divided between the
+three. The Bush Negroes still maintain their independence and vigor.
+
+The French encouraged settlements in the West Indies in the seventeenth
+century, but at last, finding that French immigrants would not come, they
+began about 1642 to import Negroes. Owing to wars with England, slaves
+were supplied by the Dutch and Portuguese, although the Royal Senegal
+Company held the coveted Asiento from 1701 to 1713.
+
+It was in the island of Hayti, however, that French slavery centered.
+Pirates from many nations, but chiefly French, began to frequent the
+island, and in 1663 the French annexed the eastern part, thus dividing the
+island between France and Spain. By 1680 there were so many slaves and
+mulattoes that Louis XIV issued his celebrated Code Noir, which was
+notable in compelling bachelor masters, fathers of slave children, to
+marry their concubines. Children followed the condition of the mother as
+to slavery or freedom; they could have no property; harsh punishments were
+provided for, but families could not be separated by sale except in the
+case of grown children; emancipation with full civil rights was made
+possible for any slave twenty years of age or more. When Louisiana was
+settled and the Alabama coast, slaves were introduced there. Louisiana was
+transferred to Spain in 1762, against the resistance of both settlers and
+slaves, but Spain took possession in 1769 and introduced more Negroes.
+
+Later, in Hayti, a more liberal policy encouraged trade; war was over and
+capital and slaves poured in. Sugar, coffee, chocolate, indigo, dyes, and
+spices were raised. There were large numbers of mulattoes, many of whom
+were educated in France, and many masters married Negro women who had
+inherited large properties, just as in the United States to-day white men
+are marrying eagerly the landed Indian women in the West. When white
+immigration increased in 1749, however, prejudice arose against these
+mulattoes and severe laws were passed depriving them of civil rights,
+entrance into the professions, and the right to hold office; severe edicts
+were enforced as to clothing, names, and social intercourse. Finally,
+after 1777, mulattoes were forbidden to come to France.
+
+When the French Revolution broke out, the Haytians managed to send two
+delegates to Paris. Nevertheless the planters maintained the upper hand,
+and one of the colored delegates, Oge, on returning, started a small
+rebellion. He and his companions were killed with great brutality. This
+led the French government to grant full civil rights to free Negroes,
+Immediately planters and free Negroes flew to arms against each other and
+then, suddenly, August 22, 1791, the black slaves, of whom there were four
+hundred and fifty-two thousand, arose in revolt to help the free Negroes.
+
+For many years runaway slaves had hidden in the mountains under their own
+chiefs. One of the earliest of these chiefs was Polydor, in 1724, who was
+succeeded by Macandal. The great chief of these runaways or "Maroons" at
+the time of the slave revolt was Jean Francois, who was soon succeeded by
+Biassou.
+
+Pierre Dominic Toussaint, known as Toussaint L'Ouverture, joined these
+Maroon bands, where he was called "the doctor of the armies of the king,"
+and soon became chief aid to Jean Francois and Biassou. Upon their deaths
+Toussaint rose to the chief command. He acquired complete control over the
+blacks, not only in military matters, but in politics and social
+organization; "the soldiers regarded him as a superior being, and the
+farmers prostrated themselves before him. All his generals trembled before
+him (Dessalines did not dare to look in his face), and all the world
+trembled before his generals."[82]
+
+The revolt once started, blacks and mulattoes murdered whites without
+mercy and the whites retaliated. Commissioners were sent from France, who
+asked simply civil rights for freedmen, and not emancipation. Indeed that
+was all that Toussaint himself had as yet demanded. The planters intrigued
+with the British and this, together with the beheading of the king (an
+impious act in the eyes of Negroes), induced Toussaint to join the
+Spaniards. In 1793 British troops were landed and the French commissioners
+in desperation declared the slaves emancipated. This at once won back
+Toussaint from the Spaniards. He became supreme in the north, while
+Rigaud, leader of the mulattoes, held the south and the west. By 1798 the
+British, having lost most of their forces by yellow fever, surrendered
+Mole St. Nicholas to Toussaint and departed. Rigaud finally left for
+France, and Toussaint in 1800 was master of Hayti. He promulgated a
+constitution under which Hayti was to be a self-governing colony; all men
+were equal before the law, and trade was practically free. Toussaint was
+to be president for life, with the power to name his successor.
+
+Napoleon Bonaparte, master of France, had at this time dreams of a great
+American empire, and replied to Toussaint's new government by sending
+twenty-five thousand men under his brother-in-law to subdue the
+presumptuous Negroes, as a preliminary step to his occupation and
+development of the Mississippi valley. Fierce fighting and yellow fever
+decimated the French, but matters went hard with the Negroes too, and
+Toussaint finally offered to yield. He was courteously received with
+military honors and then, as soon as possible, treacherously seized,
+bound, and sent to France. He was imprisoned at Fort Joux and died,
+perhaps of poison, after studied humiliations, April 7, 1803.
+
+Thus perished the greatest of American Negroes and one of the great men of
+all time, at the age of fifty-six. A French planter said, "God in his
+terrestrial globe did not commune with a purer spirit."[83] Wendell
+Phillips said, "Some doubt the courage of the Negro. Go to Hayti and stand
+on those fifty thousand graves of the best soldiers France ever had and
+ask them what they think of the Negro's sword. I would call him Napoleon,
+but Napoleon made his way to empire over broken oaths and through a sea of
+blood. This man never broke his word. I would call him Cromwell, but
+Cromwell was only a soldier, and the state he founded went down with him
+into his grave. I would call him Washington, but the great Virginian held
+slaves. This man risked his empire rather than permit the slave trade in
+the humblest village of his dominions. You think me a fanatic, for you
+read history, not with your eyes, but with your prejudices. But fifty
+years hence, when Truth gets a hearing, the Muse of history will put
+Phocion for the Greek, Brutus for the Roman, Hampden for the English, La
+Fayette for France, choose Washington as the bright, consummate flower of
+our earlier civilization, then, dipping her pen in the sunlight, will
+write in the clear blue, above them all, the name of the soldier, the
+statesman, the martyr, Toussaint L'Ouverture."
+
+The treacherous killing of Toussaint did not conquer Hayti. In 1802 and
+1803 some forty thousand French soldiers died of war and fever. A new
+colored leader, Dessalines, arose and all the eight thousand remaining
+French surrendered to the blockading British fleet.
+
+The effect of all this was far-reaching. Napoleon gave up his dream of
+American empire and sold Louisiana for a song. "Thus, all of Indian
+Territory, all of Kansas and Nebraska and Iowa and Wyoming and Montana and
+the Dakotas, and most of Colorado and Minnesota, and all of Washington and
+Oregon states, came to us as the indirect work of a despised Negro.
+Praise, if you will, the work of a Robert Livingstone or a Jefferson, but
+to-day let us not forget our debt to Toussaint L'Ouverture, who was
+indirectly the means of America's expansion by the Louisiana Purchase of
+1803."[84]
+
+With the freedom of Hayti in 1801 came a century of struggle to fit the
+people for the freedom they had won. They were yet slaves, crushed by a
+cruel servitude, without education or religious instruction. The Haytian
+leaders united upon Dessalines to maintain the independence of the
+republic. Dessalines, like Toussaint and his lieutenant Christophe, was
+noted in slavery days for his severity toward his fellows and the
+discipline which he insisted on. He had other characteristics of African
+chieftains. "There were seasons when he broke through his natural
+sullenness and showed himself open, affable, and even generous. His vanity
+was excessive and manifested itself in singular perversities."[85] He was
+a man of great personal bravery and succeeded in maintaining the
+independence of Hayti, which had already cost the Frenchmen fifty thousand
+lives.
+
+On January 1, 1804, at the place whence Toussaint had been treacherously
+seized and sent to France, the independence of Hayti was declared by the
+military leaders. Dessalines was made governor-general for life and
+afterward proclaimed himself emperor. This was not an act of
+grandiloquence and mimicry. "It is truer to say that in it both Dessalines
+and later Christophe were actuated by a clear insight into the social
+history and peculiarities of their people. There was nothing in the
+constitution which did not have its companion in Africa, where the
+organization of society was despotic, with elective hereditary chiefs,
+royal families, polygamic marriages, councils, and regencies."[86]
+
+The population was divided into soldiers and laborers. The territory was
+parceled out to chiefs, and the laborers were bound to the soil and worked
+under rigorous inspection; part of the products were reserved for their
+support, and the rest went to the chiefs, the king, the general
+government, and the army. The army was under stern discipline and
+military service was compulsory. Women did much of the agricultural labor.
+Under Toussaint the administration of this system was committed to
+Dessalines, who carried it out with rigor; it was afterward followed by
+Christophe. The latter even imported four thousand Negroes from Africa,
+from whom he formed a national guard for patrolling the land. These
+regulations brought back for a time a large part of the former prosperity
+of the island.
+
+The severity with which Dessalines enforced the laws soon began to turn
+many against him. The educated mulattoes especially objected to submission
+to the savage African _mores_. Dessalines started to suppress their
+revolt, but was killed in ambush in October, 1806.
+
+Great Britain now began to intrigue for a protectorate over the island and
+the Spanish end of the island threatened attack. These difficulties were
+overcome, but at a cost of great internal strain. After the death of
+Dessalines it seemed that Hayti was about to dissolve into a number of
+petty subdivisions. At one time Christophe was ruling as king in the
+north, Petion as president at Port au Prince, Rigaud in the south, and a
+semi-brigand, Goman, in the extreme southwest. Very soon, however, the
+rivalry narrowed down to Petion and Christophe. Petion was a man of
+considerable ability and did much, not simply for Hayti, but for South
+America. Already as early as 1779, before the revolution in Hayti, the
+Haytian Negroes had helped the United States. The British had captured
+Savannah in 1778. The French fleet appeared on the coast of Georgia late
+that year and was ordered to recruit men in Hayti. Eight hundred young
+freedmen, blacks and mulattoes, offered to take part in the expedition,
+and they fought valiantly in the siege and covered themselves with glory.
+It was this legion that made the charge on the British and saved the
+retreating American army. Among the men who fought there was Christophe.
+
+When Simon Bolivar, Commodore Aury, and many Venezuelan families were
+driven from their country in 1815, they and their ships took temporary
+refuge in Hayti. Notwithstanding the embarrassed condition of the
+republic, Petion received them and gave them four thousand rifles with
+ammunition, provisions, and last and best a printing press. He also
+settled some international quarrels among members of the groups, and
+Bolivar expressed himself afterward as being "overwhelmed with magnanimous
+favors."[87]
+
+Petion died in 1818 and was succeeded by his friend Boyer. Christophe
+committed suicide the following year and Boyer became not simply ruler of
+western Hayti, but also, by arrangement with the eastern end of the
+island, gained the mastery there, where they were afraid of Spanish
+aggression. Thus from 1822 to 1843 Boyer, a man of much ability, ruled the
+whole of the island and gained the recognition of Haytian independence
+from France and other nations.
+
+France, under Charles X, demanded an indemnity of thirty million dollars
+to reimburse the planters for confiscated lands and property. This Hayti
+tried to pay, but the annual installment was a tremendous burden to the
+impoverished country. Further negotiations were entered into. Finally in
+1838 France recognized the independence of the republic and the indemnity
+was reduced to twelve million dollars. Even this was a large burden for
+Hayti, and the payment of it for years crippled the island.
+
+The United States and Great Britain in 1825-26 recognized the independence
+of Hayti. A concordat was arranged with the Pope for governing the church
+in Hayti, and finally in 1860 the church placed under the French
+hierarchy. Thus Boyer did unusually well; but his necessary concessions to
+France weakened his influence at home, and finally an earthquake, which
+destroyed several towns in 1842, raised the superstitious of the populace
+against him. He resigned in 1843, leaving the treasury well filled; but
+with his withdrawal the Spanish portion of the island was lost to Hayti.
+
+The subsequent history of Hayti since 1843 has been the struggle of a
+small divided country to maintain political independence. The rich
+resources of the country called for foreign capital, but outside capital
+meant political influence from abroad, which the little nation rightly
+feared. Within, the old antagonism between the freedman and the slave
+settled into a color line between the mulatto and the black, which for a
+time meant the difference between educated liberalism and reactionary
+ignorance. This difference has largely disappeared, but some vestiges of
+the color line remain. The result has been reaction and savagery under
+Soulouque, Dominique, and Nord Alexis, and decided advance under
+presidents like Nissage-Saget, Solomon, Legitime, and Hyppolite.
+
+In political life Hayti is still in the sixteenth century; but in
+economic life she has succeeded in placing on their own little farms the
+happiest and most contented peasantry in the world, after raising them
+from a veritable hell of slavery. If modern capitalistic greed can be
+restrained from interference until the best elements of Hayti secure
+permanent political leadership the triumph of the revolution will be
+complete.
+
+In other parts of the French-American dominion the slaves achieved freedom
+also by insurrection. In Guadeloupe they helped the French drive out the
+British, and thus gained emancipation. In Martinique it took three revolts
+and a civil war to bring freedom.
+
+The English slave empire in America centered in the Bermudas, Barbadoes,
+Jamaica and the lesser islands, and in the United States. Barbadoes
+developed a savage slave code, and the result was attempted slave
+insurrections in 1674, 1692, and 1702. These were not successful, but a
+rising in 1816 destroyed much property under the leadership of a mulatto,
+Washington Franklin, and the repeal of bad laws and eventual
+enfranchisement of the colored people followed. One Barbadian mulatto, Sir
+Conrad Reeves, has held the position of chief justice in the island and
+was knighted. A Negro insurrection in Dominica under Farcel greatly
+exercised England in 1791 and 1794 and delayed slave trade abolition; in
+1844 and 1847 further uprisings took place, and these continued from 1853
+to 1893.
+
+The chief island domain of English slavery was Jamaica. It was Oliver
+Cromwell who, in his zeal for God and the slave trade, sent an expedition
+to seize Hayti. His fleet, driven off there, took Jamaica in 1655. The
+English found the mountains already infested with runaway slaves known as
+"Maroons," and more Negroes joined them when the English arrived. In 1663
+the freedom of the Maroons was acknowledged, land was given them, and
+their leader, Juan de Bolas, was made a colonel in the militia. He was
+killed, however, in the following year, and from 1664 to 1738 the three
+thousand or more black Maroons fought the British Empire in guerrilla
+warfare. Soldiers, Indians, and dogs were sent against them, and finally
+in 1738 Captain Cudjo and other chiefs made a formal treaty of peace with
+Governor Trelawney. They were granted twenty-five hundred acres and their
+freedom was recognized.
+
+The peace lasted until 1795, when they rebelled again and gave the
+British a severe drubbing, besides murdering planters. Bloodhounds again
+were imported. The Maroons offered to surrender on the express condition
+that none of their number should be deported from the island, as the
+legislature wished. General Walpole hesitated, but could get peace on no
+other terms and gave his word. The Maroons surrendered their arms, and
+immediately the whites seized six hundred of the ringleaders and
+transported them to the snows of Nova Scotia! The legislature then voted a
+sword worth twenty-five hundred dollars to General Walpole, which he
+indignantly refused to accept. Eventually these exiled Maroons found their
+way to Sierra Leone, West Africa, in time to save that colony to the
+British crown.[88]
+
+The pressing desire for peace with the Maroons on the part of the white
+planters arose from the new sugar culture introduced in 1673. A greatly
+increased demand for slaves followed, and between 1700 and 1786 six
+hundred and ten thousand slaves were imported; nevertheless, so severely
+were they driven, that there were only three hundred thousand Negroes in
+Jamaica in the latter year.
+
+Despite the Moravian missions and other efforts late in the eighteenth
+century, unrest among the Jamaica slaves and freedmen grew and was
+increased by the anti-slavery agitation in England and the revolt in
+Hayti. There was an insurrection in 1796; and in 1831 again the Negroes of
+northwest Jamaica, impatient because of the slow progress of the
+emancipation, arose in revolt and destroyed nearly three and a half
+million dollars' worth of property, well-nigh ruining the planters there.
+The next year two hundred and fifty-five thousand slaves were set free,
+for which the planters were paid nearly thirty million dollars. There
+ensued a discouraging condition of industry. The white officials sent out
+in these days were arbitrary and corrupt. Little was done for the mass of
+the people and there was outrageous over-taxation. Nevertheless the
+backwardness of the colony was attributed to the Negro. Governor Eyre
+complained in 1865 that the young and strong were good for nothing and
+were filling the jails; but a simultaneous report by a missionary told the
+truth concerning the officials. This aroused the colored people, and a
+mulatto, George William Gordon, called a meeting. Other meetings were
+afterward held, and finally the Negro peasantry began a riot in 1861, in
+which eighteen people were killed, only a few of whom were white.
+
+The result was that Governor Eyre tried and executed by court-martial 354
+persons, and in addition to this killed without trial 85, a total of 439.
+One thousand Negro homes were burned to the ground and thousands of
+Negroes flogged or mutilated. Children had their brains dashed out,
+pregnant women were murdered, and Gordon was tried by court-martial and
+hanged. In fact the punishment was, as the royal commissioners said,
+"reckless and positively barbarous."[89]
+
+This high-handed act aroused England. Eyre was not punished, but the
+island was made a crown colony in 1866, and given representation in the
+legislature in 1886.
+
+In the island of St. Vincent, Indians first sought to enslave the fugitive
+Negroes wrecked there, but the Negroes took the Carib women and then drove
+the Indian men away. These "black Caribs" fought with Indians, English,
+and others for three quarters of a century, until the Indians were
+exterminated. The British took possession in 1763. The black Caribs
+resisted, and after hard fighting signed a treaty in 1773, receiving
+one-third of the island as their property. They afterward helped the
+French against the British, and were finally deported to the island of
+Ruatan, off Honduras. In Trinidad and British Guiana there have been
+mutinies and rioting of slaves and a curious mingling of races.
+
+Other parts of South America must be dismissed briefly, because of
+insufficient data. Colombia and Venezuela, with perhaps eight million
+people, have at least one-third of their population of Negro and Indian
+descent. Here Simon Bolivar with his Negro, mulatto, and Indian forces
+began the war that liberated South America. Central America has a smaller
+proportion of Negroids, perhaps one hundred thousand in all. Bolivia and
+Peru have small amounts of Negro blood, while Argentine and Uruguay have
+very little. The Negro population in these lands is everywhere in process
+of rapid amalgamation with whites and Indians.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[76] H.O. Flipper's translation of Castaneda de Nafera's narrative.
+
+[77] Johnston: _Negro in the New World_, p. 109.
+
+[78] Bryce: _South America_, pp. 479-480.
+
+[79] I.e., mulattoes.
+
+[80] _Inter-Racial Problems_, p. 381.
+
+[81] Smith: _General History of Virginia_.
+
+[82] La Croix: _Memoires sur la Revolution_, I, 253, 408.
+
+[83] Marquis d'Hermonas. Cf. Johnston: _Negro in the New World_, p. 158.
+
+[84] DeWitt Talmage, in Christian Herald, November 28, 1906.
+
+[85] Aimes: _African Institutions in America_ (reprinted from _Journal of
+American Folk Lore_), p. 25.
+
+[86] Brown: _History of San Domingo_, II, 158-159.
+
+[87] See Leger: _Hayti_, Chap. XI.
+
+[88] Cf. Chapter V, p. 69.
+
+[89] Johnston: _Negro in the New World_.
+
+
+
+
+XI THE NEGRO IN THE UNITED STATES
+
+
+There were half a million slaves in the confines of the United States when
+the Declaration of Independence declared "that all men are created equal;
+that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights;
+that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness." The
+land that thus magniloquently heralded its advent into the family of
+nations had supported the institution of human slavery for one hundred and
+fifty-seven years and was destined to cling to it eighty-seven years
+longer.
+
+The greatest experiment in Negro slavery as a modern industrial system was
+made on the mainland of North America and in the confines of the present
+United States. And this experiment was on such a scale and so
+long-continued that it is profitable for study and reflection. There were
+in the United States in its dependencies, in 1910, 9,828,294 persons of
+acknowledged Negro descent, not including the considerable infiltration of
+Negro blood which is not acknowledged and often not known. To-day the
+number of persons called Negroes is probably about ten and a quarter
+million. These persons are almost entirely descendants of African slaves,
+brought to America in the sixteenth, seventeenth, eighteenth, and
+nineteenth centuries.
+
+The importation of Negroes to the mainland of North America was small
+until the British got the coveted privilege of the Asiento in 1713. Before
+that Northern States like New York had received some slaves from the
+Dutch, and New England had early developed a trade by which she imported a
+number of house servants. Ships went out to the African coast with rum,
+sold the rum, and brought the slaves to the West Indies; there they
+exchanged the slaves for sugar and molasses and brought the molasses back
+to New England, to be made into rum for further exploits. After the
+Asiento treaty the Negro population increased in the eighteenth century
+from about 50,000 in 1710 to 220,000 in 1750 and to 462,000 in 1770. When
+the colonies became independent, the foreign slave trade was soon made
+illegal; but illicit trade, annexation of territory and natural increase
+enlarged the Negro population from a little over a million at the
+beginning of the nineteenth century to four and a half millions at the
+outbreak of the Civil War and to about ten and a quarter millions in 1914.
+
+The present so-called Negro population of the United States is:
+
+1. A mixture of the various African populations, Bantu, Sudanese,
+west-coast Negroes, some dwarfs, and some traces of Arab, Berber, and
+Semitic blood.
+
+2. A mixture of these strains with the blood of white Americans through a
+system of concubinage of colored women in slavery days, together with some
+legal intermarriage.
+
+The figures as to mulattoes[90] have been from time to time officially
+acknowledged to be understatements. Probably one-third of the Negroes of
+the United States have distinct traces of white blood. This blending of
+the races has led to interesting human types, but racial prejudice has
+hitherto prevented any scientific study of the matter. In general the
+Negro population in the United States is brown in color, darkening to
+almost black and shading off in the other direction to yellow and white,
+and is indistinguishable in some cases from the white population.
+
+Much has been written of the black man in America, but most of this has
+been from the point of view of the whites, so that we know of the effect
+of Negro slavery on the whites, the strife among the whites for and
+against abolition, and the consequent problem of the Negro so far as the
+white population is concerned.
+
+This chapter, however, is dealing with the matter more from the point of
+view of the Negro group itself, and seeking to show what slavery meant to
+them, how they reacted against it, what they did to secure their freedom,
+and what they are doing with their partial freedom to-day.
+
+The slaves landing from 1619 onward were received by the colonies at first
+as laborers, on the same plane as other laborers. For a long time there
+was in law no distinction between the indented white servant from England
+and the black servant from Africa, except in the term of their service.
+Even here the distinction was not always observed, some of the whites
+being kept beyond term of their service and Negroes now and then securing
+their freedom. Gradually the planters realized the advantage of laborers
+held for life, but they were met by certain moral difficulties. The
+opposition to slavery had from the first been largely stilled when it was
+stated that this was a method of converting the heathen to Christianity.
+The corollary was that when a slave was converted he became free. Up to
+1660 or thereabouts it seemed accepted in most colonies and in the English
+West Indies that baptism into a Christian church would free a Negro slave.
+Masters therefore, were reluctant in the seventeenth century to have their
+slaves receive Christian instruction. Massachusetts first apparently
+legislated on this matter by enacting in 1641 that slavery should be
+confined to captives in just wars "and such strangers as willingly sell
+themselves or are sold to us,"[91] meaning by "strangers" apparently
+heathen, but saying nothing as to the effect of conversion. Connecticut
+adopted similar legislation in 1650, and Virginia declared in 1661 that
+Negroes "are incapable of making satisfaction" for time lost in running
+away by lengthening their time of services, thus implying that they were
+slaves for life. Maryland declared in 1663 that Negro slaves should serve
+_durante vita_, but it was not until 1667 that Virginia finally plucked up
+courage to attack the issue squarely and declared by law: "Baptism doth
+not alter the condition of the person as to his bondage or freedom, in
+order that diverse masters freed from this doubt may more carefully
+endeavor the propagation of Christianity."[92]
+
+The transplanting of the Negro from his African clan life to the West
+Indian plantation was a social revolution. Marriage became geographical
+and transient, while women and girls were without protection.
+
+The private home as a self-protective, independent unit did not exist.
+That powerful institution, the polygamous African home, was almost
+completely destroyed, and in its place in America arose sexual
+promiscuity, a weak community life, with common dwelling, meals, and child
+nurseries. The internal slave trade tended further to weaken natural ties.
+A small number of favored house servants and artisans were raised above
+this--had their private homes, came in contact with the culture of the
+master class, and assimilated much of American civilization. This was,
+however, exceptional; broadly speaking, the greatest social effect of
+American slavery was to substitute for the polygamous Negro home a new
+polygamy less guarded, less effective, and less civilized.
+
+At first sight it would seem that slavery completely destroyed every
+vestige of spontaneous movement among the Negroes. This is not strictly
+true. The vast power of the priest in the African state is well known; his
+realm alone--the province of religion and medicine--remained largely
+unaffected by the plantation system. The Negro priest, therefore, early
+became an important figure on the plantation and found his function as the
+interpreter of the supernatural, the comforter of the sorrowing, and as
+the one who expressed, rudely but picturesquely, the longing and
+disappointment and resentment of a stolen people. From such beginnings
+arose and spread with marvelous rapidity the Negro church, the first
+distinctively Negro American social institution. It was not at first by
+any means a Christian church, but a mere adaptation of those rites of
+fetish which in America is termed obe worship, or "voodooism."[93]
+Association and missionary effort soon gave these rites a veneer of
+Christianity and gradually, after two centuries, the church became
+Christian, with a simple Calvinistic creed, but with many of the old
+customs still clinging to the services. It is this historic fact, that the
+Negro church of to-day bases itself upon the sole surviving social
+institution of the African fatherland, that accounts for its extraordinary
+growth and vitality.
+
+The slave codes at first were really labor codes based on an attempt to
+reestablish in America the waning feudalism of Europe. The laborers were
+mainly black and were held for life. Above them came the artisans, free
+whites with a few blacks, and above them the master class. The feudalism
+called for the plantation system, and the plantation system as developed
+in America, and particularly in Virginia, was at first a feudal domain. On
+these plantations the master was practically supreme. The slave codes in
+early days were but moderately harsh, allowing punishment by the master,
+but restraining him in extreme cases and providing for care of the slaves
+and of the aged. With the power, however, solely in the hands of the
+master class, and with the master supreme on his own plantation, his power
+over the slave was practically what he wished it to be. In some cases the
+cruelty was as great as on the worst West Indian plantations. In other
+cases the rule was mild and paternal.
+
+Up through this American feudalism the Negro began to rise. He learned in
+the eighteenth century the English language, he began to be identified
+with the Christian church, he mingled his blood to a considerable extent
+with the master class. The house servants particularly were favored, in
+some cases receiving education, and the number of free Negroes gradually
+increased.
+
+Present-day students are often puzzled at the apparent contradictions of
+Southern slavery. One hears, on the one hand, of the staid and gentle
+patriarchy, the wide and sleepy plantations with lord and retainers, ease
+and happiness; on the other hand one hears of barbarous cruelty and
+unbridled power and wide oppression of men. Which is the true picture? The
+answer is simple: both are true. They are not opposite sides of the same
+shield; they are different shields. They are pictures, on the one hand, of
+house service in the great country seats and in the towns, and on the
+other hand of the field laborers who raised the great tobacco, rice, and
+cotton crops. We have thus not only carelessly mixed pictures of what were
+really different kinds of slavery, but of that which represented different
+degrees in the development of the economic system. House service was the
+older feudal idea of personal retainership, developed in Virginia and
+Carolina in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. It had all the
+advantages and disadvantages of such a system; the advantage of the strong
+personal tie and disadvantage of unyielding caste distinctions, with the
+resultant immoralities. At its worst, however, it was a matter primarily
+of human relationships.
+
+Out of this older type of slavery in the northern South there developed,
+during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, in the southern South the
+type of slavery which corresponds to the modern factory system in its
+worst conceivable form. It represented production of a staple product on a
+large scale; between the owner and laborer were interposed the overseer
+and the drivers. The slaves were whipped and driven to a mechanical task
+system. Wide territory was needed, so that at last absentee landlordship
+was common. It was this latter type of slavery that marked the cotton
+kingdom, and the extension of the area of this system southward and
+westward marked the aggressive world-conquering visions of the slave
+barons. On the other hand it was the milder and far different Virginia
+house service and the personal retainership of town life in which most
+white children grew up; it was this that impressed their imaginations and
+which they have so vividly portrayed. The Negroes, however, knew the other
+side, for it was under the harsher, heartless driving of the fields that
+fully nine-tenths of them lived.
+
+There early began to be some internal development and growth of
+self-consciousness among the Negroes: for instance, in New England towns
+Negro "governors" were elected. This was partly an African custom
+transplanted and partly an endeavor to put the regulation of the slaves
+into their own hands. Negroes voted in those days: for instance, in North
+Carolina until 1835 the Constitution extended the franchise to every
+freeman, and when Negroes were disfranchised in 1835, several hundred
+colored men were deprived of the vote. In fact, as Albert Bushnell Hart
+says, "In the colonies freed Negroes, like freed indentured white
+servants, acquired property, founded families, and came into the political
+community if they had the energy, thrift, and fortune to get the necessary
+property."[94]
+
+The humanitarian movement of the eighteenth century was active toward
+Negroes, because of the part which they played in the Revolutionary War.
+Negro regiments and companies were raised in Connecticut and Rhode Island,
+and a large number of Negroes were members of the continental armies
+elsewhere. Individual Negroes distinguished themselves. It is estimated
+that five thousand Negroes fought in the American armies.
+
+The mass of the Americans considered at the time of the adoption of the
+Constitution that Negro slavery was doomed. There soon came a series of
+laws emancipating slaves in the North: Vermont began in 1779, followed by
+judicial decision in Massachusetts in 1780 and gradual emancipation in
+Pennsylvania beginning the same year; emancipation was accomplished in New
+Hampshire in 1783, and in Connecticut and Rhode Island in 1784. The
+momentous exclusion of slavery in the Northwest Territory took place in
+1787, and gradual emancipation began in New York and New Jersey in 1799
+and 1804.
+
+Beneficial and insurance societies began to appear among colored people.
+Nearly every town of any size in Virginia in the early eighteenth century
+had Negro organizations for caring for the sick and burying the dead. As
+the number of free Negroes increased, particularly in the North, these
+financial societies began to be openly formed. One of the earliest was the
+Free African Society of Philadelphia. This eventually became the present
+African Methodist Church, which has to-day half a million members and over
+eleven million dollars' worth of property.
+
+Negroes began to be received into the white church bodies in separate
+congregations, and before 1807 there is the record of the formation of
+eight such Negro churches. This brought forth leaders who were usually
+preachers in these churches. Richard Allen, the founder of the African
+Methodist Church, was one; Lot Carey, one of the founders of Liberia, was
+another. In the South there was John Chavis, who passed through a regular
+course of studies at what is now Washington and Lee University. He started
+a school for young white men in North Carolina and had among his pupils a
+United States senator, sons of a chief justice of North Carolina, a
+governor of the state, and many others. He was a full-blooded Negro, but a
+Southern writer says that "all accounts agree that John Chavis was a
+gentleman. He was received socially among the best whites and asked to
+table."[95]
+
+In the war of 1812 thirty-three hundred Negroes helped Jackson win the
+battle of New Orleans, and numbers fought in New York State and in the
+navy under Perry, Channing, and others. Phyllis Wheatley, a Negro girl,
+wrote poetry, and the mulatto, Benjamin Banneker, published one of the
+first American series of almanacs.
+
+In fine, it seemed in the early years of the nineteenth century that
+slavery in the United States would gradually disappear and that the Negro
+would have, in time, a man's chance. A change came, however, between 1820
+and 1830, and it is directly traceable to the industrial revolution of the
+nineteenth century.
+
+Between 1738 and 1830 there had come a remarkable series of inventions
+which revolutionized the methods of making cloth. This series included the
+invention of the fly shuttle, the carding machine, the steam engine, and
+the power loom. The world began to look about for a cheaper and larger
+supply of fiber for weaving. It was found in the cotton plant, and the
+southern United States was especially adapted to its culture. The
+invention of the cotton gin removed the last difficulties. The South now
+had a crop which could be attended to by unskilled labor and for which
+there was practically unlimited demand. There was land, and rich land, in
+plenty. The result was that the cotton crop in the United States increased
+from 8,000 bales in 1790 to 650,000 bales in 1820, to 2,500,000 bales in
+1850, and to 4,000,000 bales in 1860.
+
+In this growth one sees the economic foundation of the new slavery in the
+United States, which rose in the second decade of the nineteenth century.
+Manifestly the fatal procrastination in dealing with slavery in the
+eighteenth century received in the nineteenth century its terrible reward.
+The change in the attitude toward slavery was manifest in various ways.
+The South no longer excused slavery, but began to defend it as an economic
+system. The enforcement of the slave trade laws became notoriously lax
+and there was a tendency to make slave codes harsher.
+
+This led to retaliation on the part of the Negroes. There had not been in
+the United States before this many attempts at insurrection. The slaves
+were distributed over a wide territory, and before they became intelligent
+enough to cooperate the chance of emancipation was held before them.
+Several small insurrections are alluded to in South Carolina early in the
+eighteenth century, and one by Cato at Stono in 1740 caused widespread
+alarm. The Negro plot in New York in 1712 put the city into hysterics.
+There was no further plotting on any scale until the Haytian revolt, when
+Gabriel in Virginia made an abortive attempt. In 1822 a free Negro,
+Denmark Vesey, in South Carolina, failed in a well-laid plot, and ten
+years after that, in 1831, Nat Turner led his insurrection in Virginia and
+killed fifty-one persons. The result of this insurrection was to
+crystallize tendencies toward harshness which the economic revolution was
+making advisable.
+
+A wave of legislation passed over the South, prohibiting the slaves from
+learning to read and write, forbidding Negroes to preach, and interfering
+with Negro religious meetings. Virginia declared in 1831 that neither
+slaves nor free Negroes might preach, nor could they attend religious
+service at night without permission. In North Carolina slaves and free
+Negroes were forbidden to preach, exhort, or teach "in any prayer meeting
+or other association for worship where slaves of different families are
+collected together" on penalty of not more than thirty-nine lashes.
+Maryland and Georgia and other states had similar laws.
+
+The real effective revolt of the Negro against slavery was not, however,
+by fighting, but by running away, usually to the North, which had been
+recently freed from slavery. From the beginning of the nineteenth century
+slaves began to escape in considerable numbers. Four geographical paths
+were chiefly followed: one, leading southward, was the line of swamps
+along the coast from Norfolk, Virginia, to the northern border of Florida.
+This gave rise to the Negro element among the Indians in Florida and led
+to the two Seminole wars of 1817 and 1835. These wars were really slave
+raids to make the Indians give up the Negro and half-breed slaves
+domiciled among them. The wars cost the United States ten million dollars
+and two thousand lives.
+
+The great Appalachian range, with its abutting mountains, was the safest
+path northward. Through Tennessee and Kentucky and the heart of the
+Cumberland Mountains, using the limestone caverns, was the third route,
+and the valley of the Mississippi was the western tunnel.
+
+These runaways and the freedmen of the North soon began to form a group of
+people who sought to consider the problem of slavery and the destiny of
+the Negro in America. They passed through many psychological changes of
+attitude in the years from 1700 to 1850. At first, in the early part of
+the eighteenth century, there was but one thought: revolt and revenge. The
+development of the latter half of the century brought an attitude of hope
+and adjustment and emphasized the differences between the slave and the
+free Negro. The first part of the nineteenth century brought two
+movements: among the free Negroes an effort at self-development and
+protection through organization; among slaves and recent fugitives a
+distinct reversion to the older idea of revolt.
+
+As the new industrial slavery, following the rise of the cotton kingdom,
+began to press harder, a period of storm and stress ensued in the black
+world, and in 1829 came the first full-voiced, almost hysterical protest
+of a Negro against slavery and the color line in David Walker's Appeal,
+which aroused Southern legislatures to action.
+
+The decade 1830-40 was a severe period of trial. Not only were the chains
+of slavery tighter in the South, but in the North the free Negro was
+beginning to feel the ostracism and competition of white workingmen,
+native and foreign. In Philadelphia, between 1829 and 1849, six mobs of
+hoodlums and foreigners murdered and maltreated Negroes. In the Middle
+West harsh black laws which had been enacted in earlier days were hauled
+from their hiding places and put into effect. No Negro was allowed to
+settle in Ohio unless he gave bond within twenty days to the amount of
+five thousand dollars to guarantee his good behavior and support.
+Harboring or concealing fugitives was heavily fined, and no Negro could
+give evidence in any case where a white man was party. These laws began to
+be enforced in 1829 and for three days riots went on in Cincinnati and
+Negroes were shot and killed. Aroused, the Negroes sent a deputation to
+Canada where they were offered asylum. Fully two thousand migrated from
+Ohio. Later large numbers from other parts of the United States joined
+them.
+
+In 1830-31 the first Negro conventions were called in Philadelphia to
+consider the desperate condition of the Negro population, and in 1833 the
+convention met again and local societies were formed. The first Negro
+paper was issued in New York in 1827, while later emancipation in the
+British West Indies brought some cheer in the darkness.
+
+A system of separate Negro schools was established and the little band of
+abolitionists led by Garrison and others appeared. In spite of all the
+untoward circumstances, therefore, the internal development of the free
+Negro in the North went on. The Negro population increased twenty-three
+per cent between 1830 and 1840; Philadelphia had, in 1838, one hundred
+small beneficial societies, while Ohio Negroes had ten thousand acres of
+land. The slave mutiny on the Creole, the establishment of the Negro Odd
+Fellows, and the growth of the Negro churches all indicated advancement.
+
+Between 1830 and 1850 the concerted cooperation to assist fugitives came
+to be known as the Underground Railroad. It was an organization not simply
+of white philanthropists, but the cooperation of Negroes in the most
+difficult part of the work made it possible. Hundreds of Negroes visited
+the slave states to entice the slaves away, and the list of Underground
+Railroad operators given by Siebert contains one hundred and twenty-eight
+names of Negroes. In Canada and in the northern United States there was a
+secret society, known as the League of Freedom, which especially worked to
+help slaves run away. Harriet Tubman was one of the most energetic of
+these slave conductors and brought away several thousand slaves. William
+Lambert, a colored man, was reputed between 1829 and 1862 to have aided in
+the escape of thirty thousand.
+
+The decade 1840-50 was a period of hope and uplift for the Negro group,
+with clear evidences of distinct self-assertion and advance. A few
+well-trained lawyers and physicians appeared, and colored men took their
+place among the abolition orators. The catering business in Philadelphia
+and other cities fell largely into their hands, and some small merchants
+arose here and there. Above all, Frederick Douglass made his first speech
+in 1841 and thereafter became one of the most prominent figures in the
+abolition crusade. A new series of national conventions began to assemble
+late in the forties, and the delegates were drawn from the artisans and
+higher servants, showing a great increase of efficiency in the rank and
+file of the free Negroes.
+
+By 1850 the Negroes had increased to three and a half million. Those in
+Canada were being organized in settlements and were accumulating property.
+The escape of fugitive slaves was systematized and some of the most
+representative conventions met. One particularly, in 1854, grappled
+frankly with the problem of emigration. It looked as though it was going
+to be impossible for Negroes to remain in the United States and be free.
+As early as 1788 a Negro union of Newport, Rhode Island, had proposed a
+general exodus to Africa. John and Paul Cuffe, after petitioning for the
+right to vote in 1780, started in 1815 for Africa, organizing an
+expedition at their own expense which cost four thousand dollars. Lot
+Carey organized the African Mission Society in 1813, and the first Negro
+college graduate went to Liberia in 1829 and became superintendent of
+public schools. The Colonization Society encouraged this migration, and
+the Negroes themselves had organized the Canadian exodus.
+
+The Rochester Negro convention in 1853 pronounced against migration, but
+nevertheless emissaries were sent in various directions to see what
+inducements could be offered. One went to the Niger valley, one to Central
+America, and one to Hayti. The Haytian trip was successful and about two
+thousand black emigrants eventually settled in Hayti.
+
+Delaney, who went to Africa, concluded a treaty with eight kings offering
+inducements to Negroes, but nothing came of it. In 1853 Negroes like
+Purvis and Barbadoes helped in the formation of the American Anti-slavery
+society, and for a while colored men cooperated with John Brown and
+probably would have given him considerable help if they had thoroughly
+known his plans. As it was, six or seven of his twenty-two followers were
+Negroes.
+
+Meantime the slave power was impelled by the high price of slaves and the
+exhaustion of cotton land to make increased demands. Slavery was forced
+north of Mason and Dixon's line in 1820; a new slave empire with thousands
+of slaves was annexed in 1850, and a fugitive slave law was passed which
+endangered the liberty of every free Negro; finally a determined attempt
+was made to force slavery into the Northwest in competition with free
+white labor, and less effective but powerful movements arose to annex more
+slave territory to the south and to reopen the African slave trade.
+
+It looked like a triumphal march for the slave barons, but each step cost
+more than the last. Missouri gave rise to the early abolitionist movement.
+Mexico and the fugitive slave law aroused deep opposition in the North,
+and Kansas developed an attack upon the free labor system, not simply of
+the North, but of the civilized world. The result was war; but the war was
+not against slavery. It was fought to protect free white laborers against
+the competition of slaves, and it was thought possible to do this by
+segregating slavery.
+
+The first thing that vexed the Northern armies on Southern soil during the
+war was the question of the disposition of the fugitive slaves, who
+immediately began to arrive in increasing numbers. Butler confiscated
+them, Fremont freed them, and Halleck caught and returned them; but their
+numbers swelled to such large proportions that the mere economic problem
+of their presence overshadowed everything else, especially after the
+Emancipation Proclamation. Lincoln was glad to have them come after once
+he realized their strength to the Confederacy.
+
+The Emancipation Proclamation was forced, not simply by the necessity of
+paralyzing industry in the South, but also by the necessity of employing
+Negro soldiers. During the first two years of the war no one wanted Negro
+soldiers. It was declared to be a "white man's war." General Hunter tried
+to raise a regiment in South Carolina, but the War Department disavowed
+the act. In Louisiana the Negroes were anxious to enlist, but were held
+off. In the meantime the war did not go as well as the North had hoped,
+and on the twenty-sixth of January, 1863, the Secretary of War authorized
+the Governor of Massachusetts to raise two regiments of Negro troops.
+Frederick Douglass and others began the work with enthusiasm, and in the
+end one hundred and eighty-seven thousand Negroes enlisted in the Northern
+armies, of whom seventy thousand were killed and wounded. The conduct of
+these troops was exemplary. They were indispensable in camp duties and
+brave on the field, where they fought in two hundred and thirteen battles.
+General Banks wrote, "Their conduct was heroic. No troops could be more
+determined or more daring."[96]
+
+The assault on Fort Wagner, led by a thousand black soldiers under the
+white Colonel Shaw, is one of the greatest deeds of desperate bravery on
+record. On the other hand the treatment of Negro soldiers when captured by
+the Confederates was barbarous. At Fort Pillow, after the surrender of the
+federal troops, the colored regiment was indiscriminately butchered and
+some of them were buried alive.
+
+Abraham Lincoln said, "The slightest knowledge of arithmetic will prove to
+any man that the rebel armies cannot be destroyed with Democratic
+strategy. It would sacrifice all the white men of the North to do it.
+There are now in the service of the United States near two hundred
+thousand able-bodied colored men, most of them under arms, defending and
+acquiring Union territory.... Abandon all the posts now garrisoned by
+black men; take two hundred thousand men from our side and put them in the
+battlefield or cornfield against us, and we would be compelled to abandon
+the war in three weeks."[97] Emancipation thus came as a war measure to
+break the power of the Confederacy, preserve the Union, and gain the
+sympathy of the civilized world.
+
+However, two hundred and forty-four years of slavery could not be stopped
+by edict. There were legal difficulties, the whole slow problem of
+economic readjustment, and the subtle and far-reaching questions of future
+race relations.
+
+The peculiar circumstances of emancipation forced the legal and political
+difficulties to the front, and these were so striking that they have since
+obscured the others in the eyes of students. Quite unexpectedly and
+without forethought the nation had emancipated four million slaves. Once
+the deed was done, the majority of the nation was glad and recognized that
+this was, after all, the only result of a fearful four years' war which in
+any degree justified it. But how was the result to be secured for all
+time? There were three possibilities: (1) to declare the slave free and
+leave him at the mercy of his former masters; (2) to establish a careful
+government guardianship designed to guide the slave from legal to real
+economic freedom; (3) to give the Negro the political power to guard
+himself as well as he could during this development. It is very easy to
+forget that the United States government tried each one of these in
+succession and was literally forced to adopt the third, because the first
+had utterly failed and the second was thought too "paternal" and
+especially too costly. To leave the Negroes helpless after a paper edict
+of emancipation was manifestly impossible. It would have meant that the
+war had been fought in vain.
+
+Carl Schurz, who traversed the South just after the war, said, "A
+veritable reign of terror prevailed in many parts of the South. The Negro
+found scant justice in the local courts against the white man. He could
+look for protection only to the military forces of the United States still
+garrisoning the states lately in rebellion and to the Freedmen's
+Bureau."[98] This Freedmen's Bureau was proposed by Charles Sumner. If it
+had been presented to-day instead of fifty years ago, it would have been
+regarded as a proposal far less revolutionary than the state insurance of
+England and Germany. A half century ago, however, and in a country which
+gave the _laisser faire_ economics their extremest trial, the Freedmen's
+Bureau struck the whole nation as unthinkable, save as a very temporary
+expedient and to relieve the more pointed forms of distress following war.
+Yet the proposals of the Bureau were both simple and sensible:
+
+1. To oversee the making and enforcement of wage contracts for freedmen.
+
+2. To appear in the courts as the freedmen's best friend.
+
+3. To furnish the freedmen with a minimum of land and of capital.
+
+4. To establish schools.
+
+5. To furnish such institutions of relief as hospitals, outdoor relief
+stations, etc.
+
+How a sensible people could expect really to conduct a slave into freedom
+with less than this it is hard to see. Even with such tutelage extending
+over a period of two or three decades, the ultimate end had to be
+enfranchisement and political and social freedom for those freedmen who
+attained a certain set standard. Otherwise the whole training had neither
+object nor guarantee. Precisely on this account the former masters opposed
+the Freedmen's Bureau with all their influence. They did not want the
+Negro trained or really freed, and they criticized mercilessly the many
+mistakes of the new Bureau.
+
+The North at first thought to pay for the main cost of the Freedmen's
+Bureau by confiscating the property of former slave owners; but finding
+this not in accordance with law, they realized that they were embarking on
+an enterprise which bade fair to add many millions to the already
+staggering cost of the war. When, therefore, they saw that the abolition
+of slavery could not be left to the white South and could not be done by
+the North without time and money, they determined to put the
+responsibility on the Negro himself. This was without a doubt a tremendous
+experiment, but with all its manifest mistakes it succeeded to an
+astonishing degree. It made the immediate reestablishment of the old
+slavery impossible, and it was probably the only quick method of doing
+this. It gave the freedmen's sons a chance to begin their education. It
+diverted the energy of the white South slavery to the recovery of
+political power, and in this interval, small as it was, the Negro took his
+first steps toward economic freedom.
+
+The difficulties that stared reconstruction politicians in the face were
+these: (1) They must act quickly. (2) Emancipation had increased the
+political power of the South by one-sixth. Could this increased political
+power be put in the hands of those who, in defense of slavery, had
+disrupted the Union? (3) How was the abolition of slavery to be made
+effective? (4) What was to be the political position of the freedmen?
+
+The Freedmen's Bureau in its short life accomplished a great task. Carl
+Schurz, in 1865, felt warranted in saying that "not half of the labor that
+has been done in the South this year, or will be done there next year,
+would have been or would be done but for the exertions of the Freedmen's
+Bureau.... No other agency except one placed there by the national
+government could have wielded that moral power whose interposition was so
+necessary to prevent Southern society from falling at once into the chaos
+of a general collision between its different elements."[99]
+Notwithstanding this the Bureau was temporary, was regarded as a
+makeshift, and soon abandoned.
+
+Meantime partial Negro suffrage seemed not only just, but almost
+inevitable. Lincoln, in 1864, "cautiously" suggested to Louisiana's
+private consideration "whether some of the colored people may not be let
+in as, for instance, the very intelligent, and especially those who fought
+gallantly in our ranks. They would probably help in some trying time to
+come, to keep the jewel of liberty in the family of freedom." Indeed, the
+"family of freedom" in Louisiana being somewhat small just then, who else
+was to be intrusted with the "jewel"? Later and for different reasons
+Johnson, in 1865, wrote to Mississippi, "If you could extend the elective
+franchise to all persons of color who can read the Constitution of the
+United States in English and write their name, and to all persons of color
+who own real estate valued at not less than two hundred and fifty dollars,
+and pay taxes thereon, you would completely disarm the adversary and set
+an example the other states will follow. This you can do with perfect
+safety, and you thus place the Southern States, in reference to free
+persons of color, upon the same basis with the free states. I hope and
+trust your convention will do this."
+
+The Negroes themselves began to ask for the suffrage. The Georgia
+convention in Augusta (1866) advocated "a proposition to give those who
+could write and read well and possessed a certain property qualification
+the right of suffrage." The reply of the South to these suggestions was
+decisive. In Tennessee alone was any action attempted that even suggested
+possible Negro suffrage in the future, and that failed. In all other
+states the "Black Codes" adopted were certainly not reassuring to the
+friends of freedom. To be sure, it was not a time to look for calm, cool,
+thoughtful action on the part of the white South. Their economic condition
+was pitiable, their fear of Negro freedom genuine. Yet it was reasonable
+to expect from them something less than repression and utter reaction
+toward slavery. To some extent this expectation was fulfilled. The
+abolition of slavery was recognized on the statute book, and the civil
+rights of owning property and appearing as a witness in cases in which he
+was a party were generally granted the Negro; yet with these in many cases
+went harsh and unbearable regulations which largely neutralized the
+concessions and certainly gave ground for an assumption that, once free,
+the South would virtually reenslave the Negro. The colored people
+themselves naturally feared this, protesting, as in Mississippi, "against
+the reactionary policy prevailing and expressing the fear that the
+legislature will pass such prescriptive laws as will drive the freedmen
+from the state, or practically reenslave them."
+
+The codes spoke for themselves. As Burgess says, "Almost every act, word,
+or gesture of the Negro, not consonant with good taste and good manners as
+well as good morals, was made a crime or misdemeanor for which he could
+first be fined by the magistrates and then be consigned to a condition of
+almost slavery for an indefinite time, if he could not pay the bill."[100]
+
+All things considered, it seems probable that, if the South had been
+permitted to have its way in 1865, the harshness of Negro slavery would
+have been mitigated so as to make slave trading difficult, and so as to
+make it possible for a Negro to hold property and appear in some cases in
+court; but that in most other respects the blacks would have remained in
+slavery.
+
+What could prevent this? A Freedmen's Bureau established for ten, twenty,
+or forty years, with a careful distribution of land and capital and a
+system of education for the children, might have prevented such an
+extension of slavery. But the country would not listen to such a
+comprehensive plan. A restricted grant of the suffrage voluntarily made by
+the states would have been a reassuring proof of a desire to treat the
+freedmen fairly and would have balanced in part, at least, the increased
+political power of the South. There was no such disposition evident.
+
+In Louisiana, for instance, under the proposed reconstruction "not one
+Negro was allowed to vote, though at that very time the wealthy
+intelligent free colored people of the state paid taxes on property
+assessed at fifteen million dollars and many of them were well known for
+their patriotic zeal and love for the Union."[101]
+
+Thus the arguments for universal Negro suffrage from the start were strong
+and are still strong, and no one would question their strength were it not
+for the assumption that the experiment failed. Frederick Douglass said to
+President Johnson, "Your noble and humane predecessor placed in our hands
+the sword to assist in saving the nation, and we do hope that you, his
+able successor, will favorably regard the placing in our hands the ballot
+with which to save ourselves."[102]
+
+Carl Schurz wrote, "It is idle to say that it will be time to speak of
+Negro suffrage when the whole colored race will be educated, for the
+ballot may be necessary to him to secure his education."[103]
+
+The granting of full Negro suffrage meant one of two alternatives to the
+South: (1) The uplift of the Negro for sheer self-preservation. This is
+what Schurz and the saner North expected. As one Southern school
+superintendent said, "The elevation of this class is a matter of prime
+importance, since a ballot in the hands of a black citizen is quite as
+potent as in the hands of a white one." Or (2) Negro suffrage meant a
+determined concentration of Southern effort by actual force to deprive the
+Negro of the ballot or nullify its use. This last is what really happened.
+But even in this case, so much energy was taken in keeping the Negro from
+voting that the plan for keeping him in virtual slavery and denying him
+education partially failed. It took ten years to nullify Negro suffrage in
+part and twenty years to escape the fear of federal intervention. In these
+twenty years a vast number of Negroes had arisen so far as to escape
+slavery forever. Debt peonage could be fastened on part of the rural South
+and was; but even here the new Negro landholder appeared. Thus despite
+everything the Fifteenth Amendment, and that alone, struck the death knell
+of slavery.
+
+The steps toward the Fifteenth Amendment were taken slowly. First Negroes
+were allowed to take part in reconstructing the state governments. This
+was inevitable if loyal governments were to be obtained. Next the restored
+state governments were directed to enfranchise all citizens, black or
+white, or have their representation in Congress cut down proportionately.
+Finally the United States said the last word of simple justice: the states
+may regulate the suffrage, but no state may deprive a person of the right
+to vote simply because he is a Negro or has been a slave.
+
+For such reasons the Negro was enfranchised. What was the result? No
+language has been spared to describe these results as the worst
+imaginable. This is not true. There were bad results, and bad results
+arising from Negro suffrage; but those results were not so bad as usually
+painted, nor was Negro suffrage the prime cause of many of them. Let us
+not forget that the white South believed it to be of vital interest to its
+welfare that the experiment of Negro suffrage should fail ignominiously
+and that almost to a man the whites were willing to insure this failure
+either by active force or passive acquiescence; that besides this there
+were, as might be expected, men, black and white, Northern and Southern,
+only too eager to take advantage of such a situation for feathering their
+own nests. Much evil must result in such case; but to charge the evil to
+Negro suffrage is unfair. It may be charged to anger, poverty, venality,
+and ignorance, but the anger and poverty were the almost inevitable
+aftermath of war; the venality was much greater among whites than Negroes
+both North and South, and while ignorance was the curse of Negroes, the
+fault was not theirs and they took the initiative to correct it.
+
+The chief charges against the Negro governments are extravagance, theft,
+and incompetency of officials. There is no serious charge that these
+governments threatened civilization or the foundations of social order.
+The charge is that they threatened property and that they were
+inefficient. These charges are in part undoubtedly true, but they are
+often exaggerated. The South had been terribly impoverished and saddled
+with new social burdens. In other words, states with smaller resources
+were asked not only to do a work of restoration, but a larger social
+work. The property holders were aghast. They not only demurred, but,
+predicting ruin and revolution, they appealed to secret societies, to
+intimidation, force, and murder. They refused to believe that these
+novices in government and their friends were aught but scamps and fools.
+Under the circumstances occurring directly after the war, the wisest
+statesman would have been compelled to resort to increased taxation and
+would have, in turn, been execrated as extravagant, dishonest, and
+incompetent. It is easy, therefore, to see what flaming and incredible
+stories of Reconstruction governments could gain wide currency and belief.
+In fact the extravagance, although great, was not universal, and much of
+it was due to the extravagant spirit pervading the whole country in a day
+of inflated currency and speculation.
+
+That the Negroes led by the astute thieves, became at first tools and
+received some small share of the spoils is true. But two considerations
+must be added: much of the legislation which resulted in fraud was
+represented to the Negroes as good legislation, and thus their votes were
+secured by deliberate misrepresentation. Take, for instance, the land
+frauds of South Carolina. A wise Negro leader of that state, advocating
+the state purchase of farm lands, said, "One of the greatest of slavery
+bulwarks was the infernal plantation system, one man owning his thousand,
+another his twenty, another fifty thousand acres of land. This is the only
+way by which we will break up that system, and I maintain that our freedom
+will be of no effect if we allow it to continue. What is the main cause of
+the prosperity of the North? It is because every man has his own farm and
+is free and independent. Let the lands of the South be similarly
+divided."[104]
+
+From such arguments the Negroes were induced to aid a scheme to buy land
+and distribute it. Yet a large part of eight hundred thousand dollars
+appropriated was wasted and went to the white landholders' pockets.
+
+The most inexcusable cheating of the Negroes took place through the
+Freedmen's Bank. This bank was incorporated by Congress in 1865 and had in
+its list of incorporators some of the greatest names in America including
+Peter Cooper, William Cullen Bryan and John Jay. Yet the bank was allowed
+to fail in 1874 owing the freedmen their first savings of over three
+millions of dollars. They have never been reimbursed.
+
+Many Negroes were undoubtedly venal, but more were ignorant and deceived.
+The question is: Did they show any signs of a disposition to learn to
+better things? The theory of democratic government is not that the will of
+the people is always right, but rather that normal human beings of average
+intelligence will, if given a chance, learn the right and best course by
+bitter experience. This is precisely what the Negro voters showed
+indubitable signs of doing. First they strove for schools to abolish
+ignorance, and second, a large and growing number of them revolted against
+the extravagance and stealing that marred the beginning of Reconstruction,
+and joined with the best elements to institute reform. The greatest stigma
+on the white South is not that it opposed Negro suffrage and resented
+theft and incompetence, but that, when it saw the reform movements growing
+and even in some cases triumphing, and a larger and larger number of black
+voters learning to vote for honesty and ability, it still preferred a
+Reign of Terror to a campaign of education and disfranchised Negroes
+instead of punishing rascals.
+
+No one has expressed this more convincingly than a Negro who was himself a
+member of the Reconstruction legislature of South Carolina, and who spoke
+at the convention which disfranchised him against one of the onslaughts of
+Tillman. "We were eight years in power. We had built school houses,
+established charitable institutions, built and maintained the penitentiary
+system, provided for the education of the deaf and dumb, rebuilt the jails
+and court houses, rebuilt the bridges, and reestablished the ferries. In
+short, we had reconstructed the state and placed it upon the road to
+prosperity, and at the same time, by our acts of financial reform,
+transmitted to the Hampton government an indebtedness not greater by more
+than two and a half million dollars than was the bonded debt of the state
+in 1868, before the Republican Negroes and their white allies came into
+power."[105]
+
+So, too, in Louisiana in 1872, and in Mississippi later, the better
+element of the Republicans triumphed at the polls and, joining with the
+Democrats, instituted reforms, repudiated the worst extravagance, and
+started toward better things. Unfortunately there was one thing that the
+white South feared more than Negro dishonesty, ignorance, and
+incompetency, and that was Negro honesty, knowledge, and efficiency.
+
+In the midst of all these difficulties the Negro governments in the South
+accomplished much of positive good. We may recognize three things which
+Negro rule gave to the South: (1) democratic government, (2) free public
+schools, (3) new social legislation.
+
+In general, the words of Judge Albion W. Tourgee, a white "carpet bagger,"
+are true when he says of the Negro governments, "They obeyed the
+Constitution of the United States and annulled the bonds of states,
+counties, and cities which had been issued to carry on the War of
+Rebellion and maintain armies in the field against the Union. They
+instituted a public school system in a realm where public schools had been
+unknown. They opened the ballot box and the jury box to thousands of white
+men who had been debarred from them by a lack of earthly possessions. They
+introduced home rule into the South. They abolished the whipping post, the
+branding iron, the stocks, and other barbarous forms of punishment which
+had up to that time prevailed. They reduced capital felonies from about
+twenty to two or three. In an age of extravagance they were extravagant in
+the sums appropriated for public works. In all of that time no man's
+rights of persons were invaded under the forms of law. Every Democrat's
+life, home, fireside, and business were safe. No man obstructed any white
+man's way to the ballot box, interfered with his freedom of speech, or
+boycotted him on account of his political faith."[106]
+
+A thorough study of the legislation accompanying these constitutions and
+its changes since shows the comparatively small amount of change in law
+and government which the overthrow of Negro rule brought about. There were
+sharp and often hurtful economies introduced, marking the return of
+property to power; there was a sweeping change of officials, but the main
+body of Reconstruction legislation stood. The Reconstruction democracy
+brought forth new leaders and definitely overthrew the old Southern
+aristocracy. Among these new men were Negroes of worth and ability. John
+R. Lynch, when Speaker of the Mississippi House of Representatives, was
+given a public testimonial by Republicans and Democrats, and the leading
+white paper said, "His bearing in office had been so proper, and his
+rulings in such marked contrasts to the partisan conduct of the ignoble
+whites of his party who have aspired to be leaders of the blacks, that the
+conservatives cheerfully joined in the testimonial."[107]
+
+Of the colored treasurer of South Carolina the white Governor Chamberlain
+said, "I have never heard one word or seen one act of Mr. Cardoza's which
+did not confirm my confidence in his personal integrity and his political
+honor and zeal for the honest administration of the state government. On
+every occasion, and under all circumstances, he has been against fraud and
+robbery and in favor of good measures and good men."[108]
+
+Jonathan C. Gibbs, a colored man and the first state superintendent of
+instruction in Florida, was a graduate of Dartmouth. He established the
+system and brought it to success, dying in harness in 1874. Such men--and
+there were others--ought not to be forgotten or confounded with other
+types of colored and white Reconstruction leaders.
+
+There is no doubt that the thirst of the black man for knowledge, a thirst
+which has been too persistent and durable to be mere curiosity or whim,
+gave birth to the public school system of the South. It was the question
+upon which black voters and legislators insisted more than anything else,
+and while it is possible to find some vestiges of free schools in some of
+the Southern States before the war, yet a universal, well-established
+system dates from the day that the black man got political power.
+
+Finally, in legislation covering property, the wider functions of the
+state, the punishment of crime and the like, it is sufficient to say that
+the laws on these points established by Reconstruction legislatures were
+not only different from and even revolutionary to the laws in the older
+South, but they were so wise and so well suited to the needs of the new
+South that, in spite of a retrogressive movement following the overthrow
+of the Negro governments, the mass of this legislation, with elaborations
+and development, still stands on the statute books of the South.[109]
+
+The triumph of reaction in the South inaugurated a new era in which we may
+distinguish three phases: the renewed attempt to reduce the Negroes to
+serfdom, the rise of the Negro metayer, and the economic disfranchisement
+of the Southern working class.
+
+The attempt to replace individual slavery had been frustrated by the
+Freedmen's Bureau and the Fifteenth Amendment. The disfranchisement of
+1876 was followed by the widespread rise of "crime" peonage. Stringent
+laws on vagrancy, guardianship, and labor contracts were enacted and large
+discretion given judge and jury in cases of petty crime. As a result
+Negroes were systematically arrested on the slightest pretext and the
+labor of convicts leased to private parties. This "convict lease system"
+was almost universal in the South until about 1890, when its outrageous
+abuses and cruelties aroused the whole country. It still survives over
+wide areas, and is not only responsible for the impression that the Negro
+is a natural criminal, but also for the inability of the Southern courts
+to perform their normal functions after so long a prostitution to ends far
+removed from justice.
+
+In more normal economic lines the employers began with the labor contract
+system. Before the war they owned labor, land, and subsistence. After the
+war they still held the land and subsistence. The laborer was hired and
+the subsistence "advanced" to him while the crop was growing. The fall of
+the Freedmen's Bureau hindered the transmutation of this system into a
+modern wage system, and allowed the laborers to be cheated by high
+interest charges on the subsistence advanced and actual cheating often in
+book accounts.
+
+The black laborers became deeply dissatisfied under this system and began
+to migrate from the country to the cities, where there was an increasing
+demand for labor. The employing farmers complained bitterly of the
+scarcity of labor and of Negro "laziness," and secured the enactment of
+harsher vagrancy and labor contract laws, and statutes against the
+"enticement" of laborers. So severe were these laws that it was often
+impossible for a laborer to stop work without committing a felony.
+Nevertheless competition compelled the landholders to offer more
+inducements to the farm hand. The result was the rise of the black share
+tenant: the laborer securing better wages saved a little capital and began
+to hire land in parcels of forty to eighty acres, furnishing his own tools
+and seed and practically raising his own subsistence. In this way the
+whole face of the labor contract in the South was, in the decade 1880-90,
+in process of change from a nominal wage contract to a system of tenantry.
+The great plantations were apparently broken up into forty and eighty acre
+farms with black farmers. To many it seemed that emancipation was
+accomplished, and the black folk were especially filled with joy and hope.
+
+It soon was evident, however, that the change was only partial. The
+landlord still held the land in large parcels. He rented this in small
+farms to tenants, but retained direct control. In theory the laborer was
+furnishing capital, but in the majority of cases he was borrowing at
+least a part of this capital from some merchant.
+
+The retail merchant in this way entered on the scene as middle man between
+landlord and laborer. He guaranteed the landowner his rent and relieved
+him of details by taking over the furnishing of supplies to the laborer.
+He tempted the laborer by a larger stock of more attractive goods, made a
+direct contract with him, and took a mortgage on the growing crop. Thus he
+soon became the middle man to whom the profit of the transaction largely
+flowed, and he began to get rich.
+
+If the new system benefited the merchant and the landlord, it also brought
+some benefits to the black laborers. Numbers of these were still held in
+peonage, and the mass were laborers working for scant board and clothes;
+but above these began to rise a large number of independent tenants and
+farm owners.
+
+In 1890, therefore, the South was faced by this question: Are we willing
+to allow the Negro to advance as a free worker, peasant farmer, metayer,
+and small capitalist, with only such handicaps as naturally impede the
+poor and ignorant, or is it necessary to erect further artificial barriers
+to restrain the advance of the Negroes? The answer was clear and
+unmistakable. The advance of the freedmen had been too rapid and the South
+feared it; every effort must be made to "keep the Negro in his place" as a
+servile caste.
+
+To this end the South strove to make the disfranchisement of the Negroes
+effective and final. Up to this time disfranchisement was illegal and
+based on intimidation. The new laws passed between 1890 and 1910 sought on
+their face to base the right to vote on property and education in such a
+way as to exclude poor and illiterate Negroes and admit all whites. In
+fact they could be administered so as to exclude nearly all Negroes. To
+this was added a series of laws designed publicly to humiliate and
+stigmatize Negro blood: as, for example, separate railway cars; separate
+seats in street cars, and the like; these things were added to the
+separation in schools and churches, and the denial of redress to seduced
+colored women, which had long been the custom in the South. All these new
+enactments meant not simply separation, but subordination, caste,
+humiliation, and flagrant injustice.
+
+To all this was added a series of labor laws making the exploitation of
+Negro labor more secure. All this legislation had to be accomplished in
+the face of the labor movement throughout the world, and particularly in
+the South, where it was beginning to enter among the white workers. This
+was accomplished easily, however, by an appeal to race prejudice. No
+method of inflaming the darkest passions of men was unused. The lynching
+mob was given its glut of blood and egged on by purposely exaggerated and
+often wholly invented tales of crime on the part of perhaps the most
+peaceful and sweet-tempered race the world has ever known. Under the flame
+of this outward noise went the more subtle and dangerous work. The
+election laws passed in the states where three-fourths of the Negroes
+live, were so ingeniously framed that a black university graduate could be
+prevented from voting and the most ignorant white hoodlum could be
+admitted to the polls. Labor laws were so arranged that imprisonment for
+debt was possible and leaving an employer could be made a penitentiary
+offense. Negro schools were cut off with small appropriations or wholly
+neglected, and a determined effort was made with wide success to see that
+no Negro had any voice either in the making or the administration of
+local, state, or national law.
+
+The acquiescence of the white labor vote of the South was further insured
+by throwing white and black laborers, so far as possible, into rival
+competing groups and making each feel that the one was the cause of the
+other's troubles. The neutrality of the white people of the North was
+secured through their fear for the safety of large investments in the
+South, and through the fatalistic attitude common both in America and
+Europe toward the possibility of real advance on the part of the darker
+nations.
+
+The reaction of the Negro Americans upon this wholesale and open attempt
+to reduce them to serfdom has been interesting. Naturally they began to
+organize and protest and in some cases to appeal to the courts. Then, to
+their astonishment, there arose a colored leader, Mr. Booker T.
+Washington, who advised them to yield to disfranchisement and caste and
+wait for greater economic strength and general efficiency before demanding
+full rights as American citizens. The white South naturally agreed with
+Mr. Washington, and the white North thought they saw here a chance for
+peace in the racial conflict and safety for their Southern investments.
+
+For a time the colored people hesitated. They respected Mr. Washington for
+shrewdness and recognized the wisdom of his homely insistence on thrift
+and hard work; but gradually they came to see more and more clearly that,
+stripped of political power and emasculated by caste, they could never
+gain sufficient economic strength to take their place as modern men. They
+also realized that any lull in their protests would be taken advantage of
+by Negro haters to push their caste program. They began, therefore, with
+renewed persistence to fight for their fundamental rights as American
+citizens. The struggle tended at first to bitter personal dissension
+within the group. But wiser counsels and the advice of white friends
+eventually prevailed and raised it to the broad level of a fight for the
+fundamental principles of democracy. The launching of the "Niagara
+Movement" by twenty-nine daring colored men in 1905, followed by the
+formation of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored
+People in 1910, marked an epoch in the advance of the Negro. This latter
+organization, with its monthly organ, _The Crisis_, is now waging a
+nation-wide fight for justice to Negroes. Other organizations, and a
+number of strong Negro weekly papers are aiding in this fight. What has
+been the net result of this struggle of half a century?
+
+In 1863 there were about five million persons of Negro descent in the
+United States. Of these, four million and more were just being released
+from slavery. These slaves could be bought and sold, could move from place
+to place only with permission, were forbidden to learn to read or write,
+and legally could never hold property or marry. Ninety per cent were
+totally illiterate, and only one adult in six was a nominal Christian.
+
+Fifty years later, in 1913, there were in the United States ten and a
+quarter million persons of Negro descent, an increase of one hundred and
+five per cent. Legal slavery has been abolished leaving, however, vestiges
+in debt slavery, peonage, and the convict lease system. The mass of the
+freedmen and their sons have
+
+1. Earned a living as free and partially free laborers.
+
+2. Shared the responsibilities of government.
+
+3. Developed the internal organization of their race.
+
+4. Aspired to spiritual self-expression.
+
+The Negro was freed as a penniless, landless, naked, ignorant laborer.
+There were a few free Negroes who owned property in the South, and a
+larger number who owned property in the North; but ninety-nine per cent of
+the race in the South were penniless field hands and servants.
+
+To-day there are two and a half million laborers, the majority of whom are
+efficient wage earners. Above these are more than a million servants and
+tenant farmers; skilled and semi-skilled workers make another million and
+at the top of the economic column are 600,000 owners and managers of farms
+and businesses, cash tenants, officials, and professional men. This makes
+a total of 5,192,535 colored breadwinners in 1910.
+
+More specifically these breadwinners include 218,972 farm owners and
+319,346 cash farm tenants and managers. There were in all 62,755 miners,
+288,141 in the building and hand trades; 28,515 workers in clay, glass,
+and stone; 41,739 iron and steel workers; 134,102 employees on railways;
+62,822 draymen, cab drivers, and liverymen; 133,245 in wholesale and
+retail trade; 32,170 in the public service; and 69,471 in professional
+service, including 29,750 teachers, 17,495 clergymen, and 4,546
+physicians, dentists, trained nurses, etc. Finally, we must not forget
+2,175,000 Negro homes, with their housewives, and 1,620,000 children in
+school.
+
+Fifty years ago the overwhelming mass of these people were not only
+penniless, but were themselves assessed as real estate. By 1875 the
+Negroes probably had gotten hold of something between 2,000,000 and
+4,000,000 acres of land through their bounties as soldiers and the low
+price of land after the war. By 1880 this was increased to about 6,000,000
+acres; in 1890 to about 8,000,000 acres; in 1900 to over 12,000,000 acres.
+In 1910 this land had increased to nearly 20,000,000 acres, a realm as
+large as Ireland.
+
+The 120,738 farms owned by Negroes in 1890 increased to 218,972 in 1910,
+or eighty-one per cent. The value of these farms increased from
+$179,796,639 in 1900 to $440,992,439 in 1910; Negroes owned in 1910 about
+500,000 homes out of a total of 2,175,000. Their total property in 1900
+was estimated at $300,000,000 by the American Economic Association. On the
+same basis of calculation it would be worth to-day not less than
+$800,000,000.
+
+Despite the disfranchisement of three-fourths of his voting population,
+the Negro to-day is a recognized part of the American government. He holds
+7,500 offices in the executive service of the nation, besides furnishing
+four regiments in the army and a large number of sailors. In the state and
+municipal service he holds nearly 20,000 other offices, and he furnishes
+500,000 of the votes which rule the Union.
+
+In these same years the Negro has relearned the lost art of organization.
+Slavery was the almost absolute denial of initiative and responsibility.
+To-day Negroes have nearly 40,000 churches, with edifices worth at least
+$75,000,000 and controlling nearly 4,000,000 members. They raise
+themselves $7,500,000 a year for these churches.
+
+There are 200 private schools and colleges managed and almost entirely
+supported by Negroes, and these and other public and private Negro schools
+have received in 40 years $45,000,000 of Negro money in taxes and
+donations. Five millions a year are raised by Negro secret and beneficial
+societies which hold at least $6,000,000 in real estate. Negroes support
+wholly or in part over 100 old folks' homes and orphanages, 30 hospitals,
+and 500 cemeteries. Their organized commercial life is extending rapidly
+and includes over 22,000 small retail businesses and 40 banks.
+
+Above and beyond this material growth has gone the spiritual uplift of a
+great human race. From contempt and amusement they have passed to the
+pity, perplexity, and fear on the part of their neighbors, while within
+their own souls they have arisen from apathy and timid complaint to open
+protest and more and more manly self-assertion. Where nine-tenths of them
+could not read or write in 1860, to-day over two-thirds can; they have 300
+papers and periodicals, and their voice and expression are compelling
+attention. Already in poetry, literature, music, and painting the work of
+Americans of Negro descent has gained notable recognition. Instead of
+being led and defended by others, as in the past, American Negroes are
+gaining their own leaders, their own voices, their own ideals.
+Self-realization is thus coming slowly but surely to another of the
+world's great races, and they are to-day girding themselves to fight in
+the van of progress, not simply for their own rights as men, but for the
+ideals of the greater world in which they live: the emancipation of women,
+universal peace, democratic government, the socialization of wealth, and
+human brotherhood.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[90]
+
+The figures given by the census are as follows:
+1850, mulattoes formed 11.2 per cent of the total Negro population.
+1860, mulattoes formed 13.2 per cent of the total Negro population.
+1870, mulattoes formed 12 per cent of the total Negro population.
+1890, mulattoes formed 15.2 per cent of the total Negro population.
+1910, mulattoes formed 20.9 per cent of the total Negro population.
+
+Or in actual numbers:
+1850, 405,751 mulattoes.
+1860, 588,352 mulattoes.
+1870, 585,601 mulattoes.
+1890, 1,132,060 mulattoes.
+1910, 2,050,686 mulattoes.
+
+[91] Cf. "The Spanish Jurist Solorzaris," quoted in Helps: _Spanish
+Conquest_, IV, 381.
+
+[92] Hurd: _Law of Freedom and Bondage_.
+
+[93] "Obi (Obeah, Obiah, or Obia) is the adjective; Obe or Obi, the noun.
+It is of African origin, probably connected with Egyptian Ob, Aub, or
+Obron, meaning 'serpent.' Moses forbids Israelites ever to consult the
+demon Ob, i.e., 'Charmer, Wizard.' The Witch of Endor is called Oub or Ob.
+Oubaois is the name of the Baselisk or Royal Serpent, emblem of the Sun,
+and, according to Horus Appollo, 'the Ancient Deity of Africa.'"--Edwards:
+_West Indies_, ed. 1819, II. 106-119. Cf. Johnston: _Negro in the New
+World_, pp. 65-66; _also Atlanta University Publications_, No. 8, pp. 5-6.
+
+[94] _Boston Transcript_, March 24, 1906.
+
+[95] Bassett: _North Carolina_, pp. 73-76.
+
+[96] Cf. Wilson: _The Black Phalanx_.
+
+[97] Wilson: _The Black Phalanx_, p. 108.
+
+[98] _American Historical Review_, Vol. XV.
+
+[99] Report to President Johnson.
+
+[100] _Reconstruction and the Constitution._
+
+[101] Brewster: _Sketches_, etc.
+
+[102] McPherson: _Reconstruction_, p. 52.
+
+[103] Report to the President, 1865.
+
+[104] _American Historical Review_, Vol. XV, No. 4.
+
+[105] _Occasional Papers_, American Negro Academy, No. 6.
+
+[106] _Occasional Papers_, American Negro Academy, No. 6.
+
+[107] _Jackson (Miss.) Clarion_, April 24, 1873.
+
+[108] Allen: _Governor Chamberlain's Administration_, p. 82.
+
+[109] Reconstruction Constitutions, practically unaltered, were kept in
+Florida, 1868-85, seventeen years; Virginia, 1870-1902, thirty-two years;
+South Carolina, 1868-95, twenty-seven years; Mississippi, 1868-90,
+twenty-two years.
+
+
+
+
+XII THE NEGRO PROBLEMS
+
+
+It is impossible to separate the population of the world accurately by
+race, since that is no scientific criterion by which to divide races. If
+we divide the world, however, roughly into African Negroes and Negroids,
+European whites, and Asiatic and American brown and yellow peoples, we
+have approximately 150,000,000 Negroes, 500,000,000 whites, and
+900,000,000 yellow and brown peoples. Of the 150,000,000 Negroes,
+121,000,000 live in Africa, 27,000,000[110] in the new world, and
+2,000,000 in Asia.
+
+What is to be the future relation of the Negro race to the rest of the
+world? The visitor from Altruria might see here no peculiar problem. He
+would expect the Negro race to develop along the lines of other human
+races. In Africa his economic and political development would restore and
+eventually outrun the ancient glories of Egypt, Ethiopia, and Yoruba;
+overseas the West Indies would become a new and nobler Africa, built in
+the very pathway of the new highway of commerce between East and West--the
+real sea route to India; while in the United States a large part of its
+citizenship (showing for perhaps centuries their dark descent, but
+nevertheless equal sharers of and contributors to the civilization of the
+West) would be the descendants of the wretched victims of the seventeenth,
+eighteenth, and nineteenth century slave trade.
+
+This natural assumption of a stranger finds, however, lodging in the minds
+of few present-day thinkers. On the contrary, such an outcome is usually
+dismissed summarily. Most persons have accepted that tacit but clear
+modern philosophy which assigns to the white race alone the hegemony of
+the world and assumes that other races, and particularly the Negro race,
+will either be content to serve the interests of the whites or die out
+before their all-conquering march. This philosophy is the child of the
+African slave trade and of the expansion of Europe during the nineteenth
+century.
+
+The Negro slave trade was the first step in modern world commerce,
+followed by the modern theory of colonial expansion. Slaves as an article
+of commerce were shipped as long as the traffic paid. When the Americas
+had enough black laborers for their immediate demand, the moral action of
+the eighteenth century had a chance to make its faint voice heard.
+
+The moral repugnance was powerfully reenforced by the revolt of the slaves
+in the West Indies and South America, and by the fact that North America
+early began to regard itself as the seat of advanced ideas in politics,
+religion, and humanity.
+
+Finally European capital began to find better investments than slave
+shipping and flew to them. These better investments were the fruit of the
+new industrial revolution of the nineteenth century, with its factory
+system; they were also in part the result of the cheapened price of gold
+and silver, brought about by slavery and the slave trade to the new world.
+Commodities other than gold, and commodities capable of manufacture and
+exploitation in Europe out of materials furnishable by America, became
+enhanced in value; the bottom fell out of the commercial slave trade and
+its suppression became possible.
+
+The middle of the nineteenth century saw the beginning of the rise of the
+modern working class. By means of political power the laborers slowly but
+surely began to demand a larger share in the profiting industry. In the
+United States their demand bade fair to be halted by the competition of
+slave labor. The labor vote, therefore, first confined slavery to limits
+in which it could not live, and when the slave power sought to exceed
+these territorial limits, it was suddenly and unintentionally abolished.
+
+As the emancipation of millions of dark workers took place in the West
+Indies, North and South America, and parts of Africa at this time, it was
+natural to assume that the uplift of this working class lay along the same
+paths with that of European and American whites. This was the _first_
+suggested solution of the Negro problem. Consequently these Negroes
+received partial enfranchisement, the beginnings of education, and some of
+the elementary rights of wage earners and property holders, while the
+independence of Liberia and Hayti was recognized. However, long before
+they were strong enough to assert the rights thus granted or to gather
+intelligence enough for proper group leadership, the new colonialism of
+the later nineteenth and twentieth centuries began to dawn. The new
+colonial theory transferred the reign of commercial privilege and
+extraordinary profit from the exploitation of the European working class
+to the exploitation of backward races under the political domination of
+Europe. For the purpose of carrying out this idea the European and white
+American working class was practically invited to share in this new
+exploitation, and particularly were flattered by popular appeals to their
+inherent superiority to "Dagoes," "Chinks," "Japs," and "Niggers."
+
+This tendency was strengthened by the fact that the new colonial expansion
+centered in Africa. Thus in 1875 something less than one-tenth of Africa
+was under nominal European control, but the Franco-Prussian War and the
+exploration of the Congo led to new and fateful things. Germany desired
+economic expansion and, being shut out from America by the Monroe
+Doctrine, turned to Africa. France, humiliated in war, dreamed of an
+African empire from the Atlantic to the Red Sea. Italy became ambitious
+for Tripoli and Abyssinia. Great Britain began to take new interest in her
+African realm, but found herself largely checkmated by the jealousy of all
+Europe. Portugal sought to make good her ancient claim to the larger part
+of the whole southern peninsula. It was Leopold of Belgium who started to
+make the exploration and civilization of Africa an international movement.
+This project failed, and the Congo Free State became in time simply a
+Belgian colony. While the project was under discussion, the international
+scramble for Africa began. As a result the Berlin Conference and
+subsequent wars and treaties gave Great Britain control of 2,101,411
+square miles of African territory, in addition to Egypt and the Egyptian
+Sudan with 1,600,000 square miles. This includes South Africa,
+Bechuanaland and Rhodesia, East Africa, Uganda and Zanzibar, Nigeria, and
+British West Africa. The French hold 4,106,950 square miles, including
+nearly all North Africa (except Tripoli) west of the Niger valley and
+Libyan Desert, and touching the Atlantic at four points. To this is added
+the Island of Madagascar. The Germans have 910,150 square miles,
+principally in Southeast and South-west Africa and the Kamerun. The
+Portuguese retain 787,500 square miles in Southeast and Southwest Africa.
+The Belgians have 900,000 square miles, while Liberia (43,000 square
+miles) and Abyssinia (350,000 square miles) are independent. The Italians
+have about 600,000 square miles and the Spanish less than 100,000 square
+miles.
+
+This partition of Africa brought revision of the ideas of Negro uplift.
+Why was it necessary, the European investors argued, to push a continent
+of black workers along the paths of social uplift by education,
+trades-unionism, property holding, and the electoral franchise when the
+workers desired no change, and the rate of European profit would suffer?
+
+There quickly arose then the _second_ suggestion for settling the Negro
+problem. It called for the virtual enslavement of natives in certain
+industries, as rubber and ivory collecting in the Belgian Congo, cocoa
+raising in Portuguese Angola, and diamond mining in South Africa. This new
+slavery or "forced" labor was stoutly defended as a necessary foundation
+for implanting modern industry in a barbarous land; but its likeness to
+slavery was too clear and it has been modified, but not wholly abolished.
+
+The _third_ attempted solution of the Negro sought the result of the
+_second_ by less direct methods. Negroes in Africa, the West Indies, and
+America were to be forced to work by land monopoly, taxation, and little
+or no education. In this way a docile industrial class working for low
+wages, and not intelligent enough to unite in labor unions, was to be
+developed. The peonage systems in parts of the United States and the labor
+systems of many of the African colonies of Great Britain and Germany
+illustrate this phase of solution.[111] It is also illustrated in many of
+the West Indian islands where we have a predominant Negro population, and
+this population freed from slavery and partially enfranchised. Land and
+capital, however, have for the most part been so managed and monopolized
+that the black peasantry have been reduced to straits to earn a living in
+one of the richest parts of the world. The problem is now going to be
+intensified when the world's commerce begins to sweep through the Panama
+Canal.
+
+All these solutions and methods, however, run directly counter to modern
+philanthropy, and have to be carried on with a certain concealment and
+half-hypocrisy which is not only distasteful in itself, but always liable
+to be discovered and exposed by some liberal or religious movement of the
+masses of men and suddenly overthrown. These solutions are, therefore,
+gradually merging into a _fourth_ solution, which is to-day very popular.
+This solution says: Negroes differ from whites in their inherent genius
+and stage of development. Their development must not, therefore, be sought
+along European lines, but along their own native lines. Consequently the
+effort is made to-day in British Nigeria, in the French Congo and Sudan,
+in Uganda and Rhodesia to leave so far as possible the outward structure
+of native life intact; the king or chief reigns, the popular assemblies
+meet and act, the native courts adjudicate, and native social and family
+life and religion prevail. All this, however, is subject to the veto and
+command of a European magistracy supported by a native army with European
+officers. The advantage of this method is that on its face it carries no
+clue to its real working. Indeed it can always point to certain undoubted
+advantages: the abolition of the slave trade, the suppression of war and
+feud, the encouragement of peaceful industry. On the other hand, back of
+practically all these experiments stands the economic motive--the
+determination to use the organization, the land, and the people, not for
+their own benefit, but for the benefit of white Europe. For this reason
+education is seldom encouraged, modern religious ideas are carefully
+limited, sound political development is sternly frowned upon, and industry
+is degraded and changed to the demands of European markets. The most
+ruthless class of white mercantile exploiters is allowed large liberty, if
+not a free hand, and protected by a concerted attempt to deify white men
+as such in the eyes of the native and in their own imagination.[112]
+
+White missionary societies are spending perhaps as much as five million
+dollars a year in Africa and accomplishing much good, but at the same time
+white merchants are sending at least twenty million dollars' worth of
+European liquor into Africa each year, and the debauchery of the almost
+unrestricted rum traffic goes far to neutralize missionary effort.
+
+[Illustration: Distribution of Negro Blood, Ancient and Modern]
+
+Under this last mentioned solution of the Negro problems we may put the
+attempts at the segregation of Negroes and mulattoes in the United States
+and to some extent in the West Indies. Ostensibly this is "separation" of
+the races in society, civil rights, etc. In practice it is the
+subordination of colored people of all grades under white tutelage, and
+their separation as far as possible from contact with civilization in
+dwelling place, in education, and in public life.
+
+On the other hand the economic significance of the Negro to-day is
+tremendous. Black Africa to-day exports annually nearly two hundred
+million dollars' worth of goods, and its economic development has scarcely
+begun. The black West Indies export nearly one hundred million dollars'
+worth of goods; to this must be added the labor value of Negroes in South
+Africa, Egypt, the West Indies, North, Central, and South America, where
+the result is blended in the common output of many races. The economic
+foundation of the Negro problem can easily be seen to be a matter of many
+hundreds of millions to-day, and ready to rise to the billions tomorrow.
+
+Such figures and facts give some slight idea of the economic meaning of
+the Negro to-day as a worker and industrial factor. "Tropical Africa and
+its peoples are being brought more irrevocably every year into the vortex
+of the economic influences that sway the western world."[113]
+
+What do Negroes themselves think of these their problems and the attitude
+of the world toward them? First and most significant, they are thinking.
+There is as yet no great single centralizing of thought or unification of
+opinion, but there are centers which are growing larger and larger and
+touching edges. The most significant centers of this new thinking are,
+perhaps naturally, outside Africa and in America: in the United States and
+in the West Indies; this is followed by South Africa and West Africa and
+then, more vaguely, by South America, with faint beginnings in East
+Central Africa, Nigeria, and the Sudan.
+
+The Pan-African movement when it comes will not, however, be merely a
+narrow racial propaganda. Already the more far-seeing Negroes sense the
+coming unities: a unity of the working classes everywhere, a unity of the
+colored races, a new unity of men. The proposed economic solution of the
+Negro problem in Africa and America has turned the thoughts of Negroes
+toward a realization of the fact that the modern white laborer of Europe
+and America has the key to the serfdom of black folk, in his support of
+militarism and colonial expansion. He is beginning to say to these
+workingmen that, so long as black laborers are slaves, white laborers
+cannot be free. Already there are signs in South Africa and the United
+States of the beginning of understanding between the two classes.
+
+In a conscious sense of unity among colored races there is to-day only a
+growing interest. There is slowly arising not only a curiously strong
+brotherhood of Negro blood throughout the world, but the common cause of
+the darker races against the intolerable assumptions and insults of
+Europeans has already found expression. Most men in this world are
+colored. A belief in humanity means a belief in colored men. The future
+world will, in all reasonable probability, be what colored men make it. In
+order for this colored world to come into its heritage, must the earth
+again be drenched in the blood of fighting, snarling human beasts, or will
+Reason and Good Will prevail? That such may be true, the character of the
+Negro race is the best and greatest hope; for in its normal condition it
+is at once the strongest and gentlest of the races of men: "Semper novi
+quid ex Africa!"
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[110] Sir Harry Johnston estimates 135,000,000 Negroes, of whom 24,591,000
+live in America. See _Inter-Racial Problems_, p. 335.
+
+[111] The South African natives, in an appeal to the English Parliament,
+show in an astonishing way the confiscation of their land by the English.
+They say that in the Union of South Africa 1,250,000 whites own
+264,000,000 acres of land, while the 4,500,000 natives have only
+21,000,000 acres. On top of this the Union Parliament has passed a law
+making even the future purchase of land by Negroes illegal save in
+restricted areas!
+
+[112] The traveler Glave writes in the _Century Magazine_ (LIII, 913):
+"Formerly [in the Congo Free State] an ordinary white man was merely
+called 'bwana' or 'Mzunga'; now the merest insect of a pale face earns the
+title of 'bwana Mkubwa' [big master]."
+
+[113] E.D. Morel, in the _Nineteenth Century_.
+
+
+
+
+SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING
+
+
+There is no general history of the Negro race. Perhaps Sir Harry H.
+Johnston, in his various works on Africa, has come as near covering the
+subject as any one writer, but his valuable books have puzzling
+inconsistencies and inaccuracies. Keane's _Africa_ is a helpful
+compendium, despite the fact that whenever Keane discovers intelligence in
+an African he immediately discovers that its possessor is no "Negro." The
+articles in the latest edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ are of
+some value, except the ridiculous article on the "Negro" by T.A. Joyce.
+Frobenius' newly published _Voice of Africa_ is broad-minded and
+informing, and Brown's _Story of Africa and its Explorers_ brings together
+much material in readable form. The compendiums by Keltie and White, and
+Johnston's _Opening up of Africa_ are the best among the shorter
+treatises.
+
+None of these authors write from the point of view of the Negro as a man,
+or with anything but incidental acknowledgment of the existence or value
+of his history. We may, however, set down certain books under the various
+subjects which the chapters have treated. These books will consist of (1)
+standard works for wider reading and (2) special works on which the author
+has relied for his statements or which amplify his point of view. _The
+latter are starred_.
+
+
+THE PHYSIOGRAPHY OF AFRICA
+
+A.S. White: _The Development of Africa_, 2d ed., 1892.
+
+Stanford's Compendium of Geography: _Africa_, by A.H. Keane, 2d ed.,
+1904-7.
+
+E. Reclus: _Universal Geography_, Vols. X-XIII.
+
+
+RACIAL DIFFERENCES AND THE ORIGIN AND CHARACTERISTICS OF NEGROES
+
+J. Deniker: _The Races of Man_, etc., New York, 1904.
+
+*J. Finot: _Race Prejudice_ (tr. by Wade-Evans), New York, 1907.
+
+*W.Z. Ripley: _The Races of Europe_, etc., New York, 1899.
+
+*Jacques Loeb: in _The Crisis_, Vol. VIII, p. 84, Vol. IX, p. 92.
+
+*_Papers on Inter-Racial Problems Communicated to the First Universal
+Races Congress_, etc. (ed. by G. Spiller), 1911.
+
+*G. Sergi: _The Mediterranean Race_, etc., London, 1901.
+
+*Franz Boas: _The Mind of Primitive Man_, New York, 1911.
+
+C.B. Davenport: _Heredity of Skin Color in Negro-White Crosses_, 1913.
+
+
+EARLY MOVEMENTS OF THE NEGRO RACE
+
+*Sir Harry H. Johnston: _The Opening up of Africa_ (Home University
+Library).
+
+---- _A History of the Colonization of Africa by Alien Races_, Cambridge,
+1905.
+
+*G.W. Stowe: _The Native Races of South Africa_ (ed. by G.M. Theal),
+London, 1910.
+
+(Consult also Johnston's other works on Africa, and his article in Vol.
+XLIII of the _Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great
+Britain and Ireland_; also _Inter-Racial Problems, and_ Deniker, noted
+above.)
+
+
+NEGRO IN ETHIOPIA AND EGYPT
+
+(The works of Breasted and Petrie, Maspero, Budge and Newberry and
+Garstang are the standard books on Egypt. They mention the Negro, but
+incidentally and often slightingly.)
+
+*A.F. Chamberlain: "The Contribution of the Negro to Human Civilization"
+(_Journal of Race Development_, Vol. I, April, 1911).
+
+T.E.S. Scholes: _Glimpses of the Ages_, etc., London, 1905.
+
+W.H. Ferris: _The African Abroad_, etc., 2 vols., New Haven, 1913.
+
+E.A.W. Budge: _The Egyptian Sudan_, 2 vols., 1907.
+
+*_Archeological Survey of Nubia_.
+
+*A. Thompson and D. Randal McIver: _The Ancient Races of the Thebaid_,
+1905.
+
+
+ABYSSINIA
+
+Job Ludolphus: _A New History of Ethiopia_ (tr. by Gent), London, 1682.
+
+W.S. Harris: _Highlands of AEthiopia_, 3 vols., London, 1844.
+
+R.S. Whiteway: _The Portuguese Expedition to Abyssinia_ ... as narrated by
+Castanhosa, etc., 1902.
+
+
+THE NIGER RIVER AND ISLAM *F.L. Shaw (Lady Lugard): _A Tropical
+Dependency_, etc., London, 1906.
+
+(The reader may dismiss as worthless Lady Lugard's definition of "Negro."
+Otherwise her book is excellent.)
+
+*Es-Sa'di, Abderrahman Ben Abdallah, etc., translated into French by O.
+Houdas, Paris, 1900.
+
+*F. DuBois: _Timbuktu the Mysterious_ (tr. by White), 1896.
+
+*W.D. Cooley: _The Negroland of the Arabs_, etc., 1841.
+
+*H. Barth: _Travels and Discoveries in North and Central Africa_, etc., 5
+vols., 1857-58.
+
+*Ibn Batuta: _Travels_, etc. (tr. by Lee), 1829.
+
+*Leo Africanus: _The History and Description of Africa_, etc. (tr. by
+Pory, ed. by R. Brown), 3 vols., 1896.
+
+*E.W. Blyden: _Christianity, Islam, and the Negro Race_.
+
+*Leo Frobenius: _The Voice of Africa_ (tr. by Blind), 2 vols., 1913.
+
+Mungo Park: _Travels in the Interior Districts of Africa_, 1799.
+
+
+THE NEGRO ON THE GUINEA COAST
+
+*Leo Frobenius (as above).
+
+Sir Harry H. Johnston: _Liberia_, 2 vols., New York, 1906.
+
+H.H. Foote: _Africa and the American Flag_, New York, 1859.
+
+T.H.T. McPherson: _A History of Liberia_, Baltimore, Johns Hopkins
+Studies.
+
+T.J. Alldridge: _A Transformed Colony_ (Sierra Leone), London, 1910.
+
+E.D. Morel: _Affairs of West Africa_, 1902.
+
+H.L. Roth: _Great Benin and Its Customs_, 1903.
+
+*F. Starr: _Liberia_, 1913.
+
+W. Jay: _An Inquiry_, etc., 1835.
+
+*A.B. Ellis: _The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the Gold Coast_, 1887.
+
+---- _The Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast_, 1890.
+
+---- _The Yoruba-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast_, 1894.
+
+C.H. Read and O.M. Dalton: _Antiquities from the City of Benin_, etc.,
+1899.
+
+*M.H. Kingsley: _West African Studies_, 2d. ed., 1904.
+
+*G.W. Ellis: _Negro Culture in West Africa_ (Vai-speaking peoples), 1914.
+
+
+
+THE CONGO VALLEY
+
+*G. Schweinfurth: _The Heart of Africa_, Vol. II, 1873.
+
+*H.M. Stanley: _Through the Dark Continent_, 2 vols., 1878.
+
+---- _In Darkest Africa_, 2 vols., 1890.
+
+---- _The Congo_, etc., 2 vols., London, 1885.
+
+H. von Wissman: _My Second Journey through Equatorial Africa_, 1891.
+
+*H.R. Fox-Bourne: _Civilization in Congoland_, 1903.
+
+Sir Harry H. Johnston: _George Grenfell and the Congo_, 2 vols., London,
+1908.
+
+*E.D. Morel: _Red Rubber_, London, 1906.
+
+
+THE NEGRO IN THE REGION OF THE GREAT LAKES
+
+*Sir Harry H. Johnston: _The Uganda Protectorate_, 2d ed., 2 vols., 1904.
+
+---- _British Central Africa_, 1897.
+
+---- _The Nile Quest_, 1903.
+
+*D. Randal McIver: _Mediaeval Rhodesia_, 1906.
+
+*_The Last Journals of David Livingstone in Central Africa_ (ed. by H.
+Waller), 1874.
+
+J. Dos Santos: _Ethiopia Oriental_ (Theal's _Records of South Africa_,
+Vol. VII).
+
+C. Peters: "Ophir and Punt in South Africa" (_African Society Journal_,
+Vol. I).
+
+De Barros: _De Asia_.
+
+R. Burton: _Lake Regions of Central Africa_, 1860.
+
+R.P. Ashe: _Chronicles of Uganda_, 1894.
+
+(See also Stanley's works, as above.)
+
+
+THE NEGRO IN SOUTH AFRICA
+
+*G.M. Theal: _History and Ethnography of South Africa of the Zambesi to
+1795_, 3 vols., 1907-10.
+
+---- _History of South Africa since September, 1795_, 5 vols., 1908.
+
+---- _Records of South Eastern Africa_, 9 vols., 1898-1903.
+
+*J. Bryce: _Impressions of South Africa_, 1897.
+
+D. Livingstone: _Missionary Travels in South Africa_, 1857.
+
+*South African Native Affairs Commission, 1903-5, _Reports_, etc., 5
+vols., Cape Town, 1904-5.
+
+G. Lagden: _The Basutos_, London, 1909.
+
+J. Stewart: _Lovedale_, 1884.
+
+(See also Stowe, as above.)
+
+
+ON NEGRO CIVILIZATION
+
+J. Dowd: _The Negro Races_, 1907, 1914.
+
+*H. Gregoire: _An Inquiry concerning the Intellectual and Moral Faculties
+and Literature of Negroes_, etc. (tr. by Warden), Brooklyn, 1810.
+
+C. Buecher: _Industrial Evolution_ (tr. by Wickett), New York, 1904.
+
+*Franz Boas: "The Real Race Problem" (_The Crisis_, December, 1910).
+
+---- _Commencement Address_ (Atlanta University Leaflet, No. 19).
+
+*F. Ratzel: _The History of Mankind_ (tr. by Butler), 3 vols., 1904.
+
+C. Hayford: _Gold Coast Institutions_, 1903.
+
+A.B. Camphor: _Missionary Sketches and Folk Lore from Africa_, 1909.
+
+R.H. Nassau: _Fetishism in West Africa_, 1907.
+
+*William Schneider: _Die Culturfaehigkeit des Negers_, Frankfort, 1885.
+
+*G. Schweinfurth: _Artes Africanae_, etc., 1875.
+
+Duke of Mecklenburg: _From the Congo to the Niger and the Nile_ (English
+tr.), Philadelphia, 1914.
+
+D. Crawford: _Thinking Black_.
+
+R.N. Cust: _Sketch of Modern Language of Africa_, 2 vols., 1883.
+
+H. Chatelain: _The Folk Lore of Angola_.
+
+D. Kidd: _The Essential Kaffir_, 1904.
+
+---- _Savage Childhood_, 1906.
+
+---- _Kaffir Socialism and the Dawn of Individualism_, 1908.
+
+M.H. Tongue: _Bushman Paintings_, Oxford, 1909.
+
+(See also the works of A.B. Ellis, Miss Kingsley, Sir Harry H. Johnston,
+Frobenius, Stowe, Theal, and Ibn Batuta; and particularly Chamberlain's
+article in the _Journal of Race Development_.)
+
+
+THE SLAVE TRADE
+
+T.K. Ingram: _History of Slavery and Serfdom_, London, 1895. (Same article
+revised in Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th edition.)
+
+John R. Spears: The American Slave Trade, 1900.
+
+*T.F. Buxton: _The African Slave Trade and Its Remedy_, etc., 1896.
+
+T. Clarkson: _History ... of the Abolition of the African Slave Trade_,
+etc., 2 vols., 1808.
+
+R. Drake: _Revelations of a Slave Smuggler_, New York, 1860.
+
+*_Report of the Lords of the Committee of Council_, etc., London, 1789.
+
+*B. Mayer: _Captain Canot or Twenty Years of an African Slaver_, etc.,
+1854.
+
+W.E.B. DuBois: _The suppression of the African Slave-Trade to the U.S.A._,
+1896.
+
+(See also Bryan Edwards' _West Indies_.)
+
+
+THE WEST INDIES AND SOUTH AMERICA
+
+Fletcher and Kidder: _Brazil and the Brazilians_, 1879.
+
+*Bryan Edwards: _History ... of the British West Indies_, 5 editions,
+Vols. II-V, 1793-1819.
+
+*Sir Harry H. Johnston: _The Negro in the New World_, 1910.
+
+T.G. Steward: _The Haitian Revolution_, 1791-1804, 1914.
+
+J.N. Leger: _Haiti_, etc., 1907.
+
+J. Bryce: _South America_, etc., 1912.
+
+*J.B. de Lacerda: "The Metis or Half-Breeds of Brazil" (_Inter-Racial
+Problems_, etc.)
+
+A.K. Fiske: _History of the West Indies_, 1899.
+
+
+THE NEGRO IN THE UNITED STATES
+
+*_Walker's Appeal_, 1829.
+
+*G.W. Williams: _History of the Negro Race in America_, 1619-1880, 1882.
+
+B.G. Brawley: _A Short History of the American Negro_, 1913.
+
+B.T. Washington: _Up from Slavery_, 1901.
+
+---- _The Story of the Negro_, 2 vols., 1909.
+
+*_The Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man_, 1912.
+
+*G.E. Stroud: _Sketch of the Laws relating to Slavery_, etc., 1827.
+
+_The Human Way_: Addresses on Race Problems at the Southern Sociological
+Congress, Atlanta, 1913 (ed. by J.E. McCulloch).
+
+W.J. Simmons: _Men of Mark_, 1887.
+
+*J.R. Giddings: _The Exiles of Florida_, 1858.
+
+W.E. Nell: _The Colored Patriots of the American Revolution_, etc., 1855.
+
+C.W. Chesnutt: _The Marrow of Tradition_, 1901.
+
+P.L. Dunbar: _Lyrics of Lowly Life_, 1896.
+
+*_Life and Times of Frederick Douglass_, revised edition, 1892.
+
+*H.E. Kreihbel: _Afro-American Folk Songs_, etc., 1914.
+
+T.P. Fenner and others: _Cabin and Plantation Songs_, 3d ed., 1901.
+
+W.F. Allen and others: _Slave Songs of the United States_, 1867.
+
+W.E.B. DuBois: "The Negro Race in the United States of America"
+(_Inter-Racial Problems_, etc.).
+
+---- "The Economics of Negro Emancipation" (_Sociological Review_,
+October, 1911).
+
+---- _John Brown_.
+
+---- _The Philadelphia Negro_, 1899.
+
+W.E.B. DuBois: "Reconstruction and its Benefits" (_American Historical
+Review_, Vol. XV, No. 4).
+
+---- _editor_, The Crisis: A Record of the Darker Races, monthly, 1910.
+
+---- _editor_, The Atlanta University Studies:
+  No. 1. _Mortality Among Negroes in Cities_, 1896.
+  No. 2. _Social and Physical Conditions of Negroes in Cities_, 1897.
+  No. 3. _Some Efforts of Negroes for Social Betterment_, 1898.
+  No. 4. _The Negro in Business_, 1899.
+  No. 5. _The College Bred Negro_, 1900.
+  No. 6. _The Negro Common School_, 1901.
+  No. 7. _The Negro Artisan_, 1902.
+  No. 8. _The Negro Church_, 1903.
+  No. 9. _Notes on Negro Crime_, 1904.
+  No. 10. _A Select Bibliography of the Negro American_, 1905.
+  No. 11. _Health and Physique of the Negro American_, 1906.
+  No. 12. _Economic Co-operation among Negro Americans_, 1907.
+  No. 13. _The Negro American Family_, 1908.
+  No. 14. _Efforts for Social Betterment among Negro Americans_, 1909.
+  No. 15. _The College Bred Negro American_, 1910.
+  No. 16. _The Common School and the Negro American_, 1911.
+  No. 17. _The Negro American Artisan_, 1912.
+  No. 18. _Morals and Manners among Negro Americans_, 1913.
+
+*G.W. Cable: _The Silent South_, etc., 1885.
+
+*J.R. Lynch: _The Facts of Reconstruction_, 1913.
+
+*J.T. Wilson: _The Black Phalanx_, 1897.
+
+William Goodell: _Slavery and Anti-Slavery_, 1852.
+
+G.S. Merriam: _The Negro and the Nation_, 1906.
+
+A.B. Hart: _The Southern South_, 1910.
+
+*G. Livermore: _An Historical Research respecting the Opinions of the
+Founders of the Republic on Negroes_, etc., 1862.
+
+Hartshorn and Penniman: _An Era of Progress and Promise_, 1910 (profusely
+illustrated).
+
+*James Brewster: _Sketches of Southern Mystery, Treason, and Murder_.
+
+Willcox and DuBois: _Negroes in the United States_ (United States Census
+of 1900, Bulletin No. 8).
+
+
+THE FUTURE OF THE NEGRO RACE
+
+*J.S. Keltie: _The Partition of Africa_, 2d ed., 1895.
+
+B.T. Washington: _The Future of the Negro_.
+
+W.E.B. DuBois: "The Future of the Negro Race in America" (_East and West_,
+Vol. II, No. 5).
+
+---- _Souls of Black Folk_, 1913.
+
+---- _Quest of the Silver Fleece_.
+
+Alexander Crummell: _The Future of Africa_, 2d ed., 1862.
+
+*Casely Hayford: _Ethiopia Unbound_, 1911.
+
+Kelly Miller: _Out of the House of Bondage_, 1914.
+
+---- _Race Adjustment_, 1908.
+
+*J. Royce: _Race Questions_, etc., 1908.
+
+*R.S. Baker: _Following the Color Line_, 1908.
+
+N.S. Shaler: _The Neighbor_.
+
+E.D. Morel: "Free Labor in Tropical Africa" (_Nineteenth Century and
+After_, 1914).
+
+(See also Finot, Boas, _Inter-Racial Problems_, and White's _Development
+of Africa_.)
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Negro, by W.E.B. Du Bois
+
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