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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/15052-8.txt b/15052-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..1092c51 --- /dev/null +++ b/15052-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4820 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 832, +December 12, 1891, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 832, December 12, 1891 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: February 14, 2005 [EBook #15052] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the PG Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net. + + + + + +[Illustration] + + + + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 832 + + + + +NEW YORK, December 12, 1891. + +Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XXXII, No. 832. + +Scientific American established 1845 + +Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year. + +Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year. + + * * * * * + + + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS. + + +I. ARCHÆOLOGY.--Archæological Discoveries at Cadiz.--The discovery + of Phenician relics in Spain, with the possibility of future + important research in that region.--2 illustrations + + Prehistoric Horse in America.--Curious discovery of an aboriginal + drawing in Nicaragua.--1 illustration + +II. ASTRONOMY.--A Plea for the Common Telescope.--By G.E. + LUMSDEN.--The increasing interest in astronomy and instances of + work done by telescopes of moderate power, giving examples + from the work of celebrated observers + +III. BIOGRAPHY.--Alfred Tennyson.--Biographical note of the + great poet, now past his 80th year, with portrait.--1 illustration + + Fiftieth Year of the Prince of Wales.--The Prince of Wales + and his family, with notes of his life and habits.--1 illustration + +IV. CHEMISTRY.--American Association--Ninth Annual Report of + the Committee on Indexing Chemical Literature.--A very important + report upon the titular subject, with probabilities of future advance + in this line.--The chemical index of the SCIENTIFIC + AMERICAN and SUPPLEMENT + + Apparatus for the Estimation of Fat in Milk.--By E. MOLINARI.-- + Details of a method of determining fat in milk, with illustration + of the apparatus employed + + Further Researches upon the Element Fluorine.--By A.E. TUTTON.-- + Additional researches upon this element, following up + the work outlined by M. MOISSAN.--3 illustrations + + The Allotropic Conditions of Silver.--A recent letter from M. + CAREY LEA on this subject, with note of its presentation before + the French Academy by M. BERTHELOT + + The French Wine Law.--Recent enactment as to the adulterations + of wine + +V. CIVIL ENGINEERING.--Modern Methods of Quarrying.--A recent + paper of great value to all interested in exploiting quarries.--The + most recent methods described, tending now to replace the + cruder processes.--12 illustrations + + The Trotter Curve Ranger.--A surveying instrument for laying + off railroad curves, with full details of its theory, construction, + and use in the field.--4 illustrations + +VI. METALLURGY.--The Great Bell of the Basilica of the Sacred + Heart of Montmartre.--The founding of the great bell "La Savoyarde" + at the Paccard foundry in France.--Description of the + bell, its inscriptions, and decorations.--3 illustrations + +VII. MISCELLANEOUS.--Duck Hunting in Scotland.--A curious method of + approaching ducks under the guise of a donkey.--3 illustrations + +VIII. NAVAL ENGINEERING.--Hints to Shipmasters.--A very + practical view of the proper personal habits of the commander + of a merchant ship + + The British Cruiser Æolus.--Details of dimensions and armament + of this recently launched British ship + + Trials of H.M. Cruiser Blake.--Trial trip of this celebrated + cruiser.--Her horse power as developed, with the somewhat + disappointing results obtained as regards speed.--1 illustration + +IX. PHOTOGRAPHY.--Development with Sucrate of Lime.--Development + formulas, involving the use of sugar solution saturated + with lime.--Accelerating influences of certain chemicals + +X. RAILROAD ENGINEERING.--The Rail Spike and the Locomotive.--A + most interesting article on an old time railroad.--Curious + incidents in the construction of the Camden & Amboy Railroad, + by the celebrated Robert L. Stevens.--A most graphic account of + early difficulties + +XI. TECHNOLOGY--American Workshops.--The care of tools and practice + in American workshops, as viewed from an English standpoint + + New Sugar Items.--Interesting points in the cultivation of sugar + beets and manufacture of sugar therefrom in France, Germany, + and other countries + + * * * * * + + + + +THE GREAT BELL OF THE BASILICA OF THE SACRED HEART OF MONTMARTRE. + + +The main work on the basilica of the Sacred Heart is now completed and +the bell tower surmounts it. So we have now a few words to say about +"La Savoyarde"--the name of the great bell which is designed for it, +and which has just been cast at Annecy-le-Vieux, in Upper Savoy, in +the presence of Mgr. Leuilleux, Archbishop of Chambery, Mgr. Isoar, +Bishop of Annecy, and of all the clergy united, at the foundry of +Messrs. G. & F. Paccard, especially decorated for the occasion. + +[Illustration: INTERIOR OF THE BELL.] + +One of the Latin inscriptions that ornament the metal of "La +Savoyarde" at once explains to us its name and tells us why a bell +designed for the capital was cast at Annecy-le-Vieux. The following is +a translation of it: + + "In the year 1888, in the course of the solemnities of the + sacerdotal jubilee of the Sovereign Pontifex Leo XIII., I, + Frances Margaret of the Sacred Heart of Jesus, on the + initiative of Francis Albert Leuilleux, Archbishop of + Chambery, with the co-operation of the bishops of the + province, at the common expense of the clergy and upper and + lower classes of Savoy, was offered as a gift, as a + testimonial of piety toward the divine heart, in order to + repeat through the ages, from the top of the holy hill, to the + city, to the nation and to the entire world, 'Hail Jesus!'" + +Let us now witness the casting of the bell. + +Over there, at the back of the foundry, in the reverberatory furnace, +the alloy of copper and tin, in the proportions of 78 and 22 per +cent., is in fusion. From the huge crucible runs a conduit to the pit, +at the side of which the furnace is constructed, and in which is +placed the mould. A metallic plug intercepts communication. A quick +blow with an iron rod removes this plug and the tapping is effected. +This operation, which seems simple at first sight, is extremely +delicate in practice and requires a very skillful workman. A host of +technical words designates the dangers that it presents. Before the +tapping, it is necessary to calculate at a glance the function of the +gate pit. And what accidents afterward! But we need not dwell upon +these. After the cooling of the metal comes the cleaning, which is +done with scrapers and special instruments. + +The casting is preceded by two operations--the designing and the +moulding. The design rests upon a basis generally furnished by +experience, and which the founders have transmitted from generation to +generation. The thickness of the rim of the bell taken as unity +determines the diameters and dimensions. The outline most usually +followed gives 15 rims to the large diameter, 7½ to the upper part of +the bell, and 32 to the large radius that serves to trace the profiles +of the external sides. + +[Illustration: THE CASTING OF THE GREAT BELL OF THE BASILICA OF THE +SACRED HEART.] + +The moulding is done as follows: In the pit where the casting is to be +done there is constructed a core of bricks and a clay shell, separated +from each other by a thickness of earth, called false bell. This +occupies provisionally the place of the metal, and will be destroyed +at the moment of the casting. + +Now let us give a brief description of "La Savoyarde." Its total +weight is 25,000 kilogrammes, divided as follows: 16,500 kilogrammes +of bronze, 800 kilogrammes for the clapper, and the rest for the +suspension gear. + +Its height is 3.06 meters and its width at the base is 3.03. It is +therefore as high as it is wide, and, as may be seen from our +engraving, two men can easily seat themselves in its interior. In +weight, it exceeds the bell of Notre Dame, of Paris, which weighs +17,170 kilogrammes, that of the Cathedral of Sens, which weighs +16,230, and that of the Amiens bell, which weighs 11,000. But it +cannot be compared to the famous bell given by Eudes Rigauit, +Archbishop of Rouen, to the cathedral of that city, and which was so +big and heavy that it was necessary to give a copious supply of +stimulants to those who rang it, in order "to encourage" them. + +[Illustration: THE GREAT BELL OF THE BASILICA OF THE SACRED HEART.] + +"La Savoyarde" will appear small also if we compare it with some +celebrated bells, that of the Kremlin of Moscow, for example, which +weighs 201,216 kilogrammes. One detail in conclusion: "La Savoyarde" +sounds in counter C. This had been desired and foreseen. The number of +vibrations, that is to say, the _timbre_ of a bell, is in inverse +ratio of its diameter or of the cubic root of its weight, so that in +calculating the diameters and in designing "La Savoyarde" the _timbre_ +was calculated at the same time.--_L'Illustration._ + + * * * * * + +[FROM THE SUGAR BEET.] + + + + +NEW SUGAR ITEMS. + +FRANCE. + + +Water that has been used to wash frozen beets contains a small +percentage of sugar. As the washing period, in such cases, is longer +than with normal beets, the sugar in beet cells has time to pass +through the outer walls by osmosis. The sugar loss is said to be 0.66 +per cent. (?) of the weight of beets washed. + +Well conducted experiments show that in small but well ventilated +silos, beets lose considerable weight, but very little sugar. On the +other hand, in large silos with poor ventilation, the sugar loss +frequently represents four to six per cent. When fermentation +commences, the mass of roots is almost ruined. + +Sodic nitrate, if used upon soil late in the season, may overcome a +difficulty that has been recently noticed. Beet fields located near +swamps that are dry a portion of the year have suffered from a malady +that turns leaves from green to yellow, even before harvesting period; +such beets have lost a considerable amount of sugar. + +A new method for the analysis of saccharose and raffinose, when in the +presence of inverted sugar, is said to give accurate results. The +process consists in adding sulphate of copper and lime to hot +molasses, so that the oxide of copper is changed to a protoxide, and +the invert sugar becomes water and carbonic acid. The whole is +neutralized with phosphoric acid. There follow a great number of +precipitates; the exact volume of liquid in which these are found is +determined after two polariscopic observations. + +It has been constantly noticed that samples of carbonatated juice vary +in composition with the part of tank from which they are taken. If +some arrangement could be made assuring a thorough mixing during the +passage of carbonic acid, results would be more satisfactory than they +now are. If gas could be distributed in every part of the tank, the +lime combination could be made perfect. + +Notwithstanding the new law regulating quantity of sugar to be used in +wines, ciders, etc., there has been, during 1890, an increase of +nearly 13,000 tons, as compared with 1889. Consumption of sugar for +these special industries was 33,000 tons; alcohol thus added to wine +was about 71,000,000 gallons. + +Beets cultivated without extra fertilizers, and that are regular in +shape and in good condition, without bruises, are the ones which give +the best results in silos. It is recommended to construct silos of two +types; one which is to be opened before first frost, the other where +beets remain for several months and are protected against excessive +cold. Great care should be taken that a thorough ventilation be given +in the first mentioned type. In the other, more substantial silos, +ventilation must be watched, and all communication with the exterior +closed as soon as the temperature falls to or near freezing. + +During the last campaign many manufacturers experienced great +difficulty in keeping the blades of slicers sufficiently sharp to work +frozen beets. Sharpening of blades is an operation attended to by +special hands at the factory; and under ordinary circumstances there +need be no difficulty. However, it is now proposed to have central +stations that will make a specialty of blade sharpening. Under these +circumstances manufacturers located in certain districts need give the +matter no further thought, let the coming winter be as severe as it +may. + +Some success has been obtained by the use of sulphurous acid in vacuum +pans. Great care is required; the operation cannot be done by an +ordinary workman. It is claimed that graining thereby is more rapid +and better than is now possible. Chemists agree that the operation is +more effectual by bringing sulphurous acid in contact with sirups +rather than juices; it is in the sirups that the coloring pigments are +found. Sulphurous acid is run into the pan until the sirups cover the +second coil. In all cases the work must be done at a low temperature. + +Height of juice in carbonatating tanks is only three feet in France, +while in Austria it is frequently twelve feet. The question of a +change in existing methods is being discussed; it necessitates an +increase in the blowing capacity of machine; since carbonic acid gas +has a greater resistance to overcome in Austrian than in French +methods. Longer the period juices are in contact with carbonic acid, +greater will be the effect produced. + +Ferric sulphate has been very little used for refuse water +purification, owing to cost of its manufacture. If roasted pyrites, a +waste product of certain chemical factories, are sprinkled with +sulphuric acid of 66° B., and thoroughly mixed for several hours, at a +temperature of 100° to 156° F., the pyrites will soon be covered with +a white substance which is ferric sulphate. Precipitates from ferric +sulphate, unlike calcic compounds, do not subsequently enter into +putrefaction. + +Efforts are being made to convince manufacturers of the mistake in +using decanting vats, in connection with first and second +carbonatation. In Germany filter presses are used, decanting vats are +obsolete. The main objection to them is cooling of saccharine liquors, +which means an ultimate increase in fuel. Cooling is frequently +followed by partial fermentation. + +Further changes in the proposed combined baryta-soda method for juice +purification consist in using powdered soda carbonate 90-92°, upon +beet cossettes as they leave the slicer, before entering the diffusor. +The quantity of chemical to be used is 1/1000 of weight of beet slices +being treated. If a diffusor has a capacity of 2,500 lb., there would +be added 2.5 lb. soda carbonate. From the diffusor is subsequently +taken 316 gallons juice at 4-5° density, this is rapidly heated to +185°F., then 2.4 of a pure baryta solution is added; temperature is +kept at 185° F. for a short time; resulting precipitates fall to +bottom of tank; then 13 gallons milk of lime 25° B. are added. + +Other operations that follow are as usual. It is contended that the +cost of baryta is 10 cents per ton beets worked. The most important +advantage is gain in time; a factory working 20,000 during a 100-day +campaign, by the foregoing process can accomplish the same work in 80 +days, thus decreasing wear and tear of plant and diminishing +percentage of sugar lost in badly constructed silos. + +The exact influence of a low temperature upon beet cells has never +been satisfactorily settled. Considerable light has recently been +thrown upon the subject by a well known chemist. It is asserted that +living cells containing a saccharine liquid do not permit infiltration +from interior to exterior; this phenomenon occurs only when cell and +tissue are dead. It is necessary that the degree of cold should be +sufficiently intense, or that a thaw take place, under certain +conditions, to kill tissue of walls of said cells. An interesting fact +is that when cells are broken through the action of freezing, it is +not those containing sugar that are the first affected. The outer +cells containing very little sugar are the first to expand when +frozen, which expansion opens the central cells. + +Experiments to determine the action of lime upon soils apparently +prove that it does not matter in what form calcic salts are employed; +their effect, in all cases, is to increase the yield of roots to the +acre. On the other hand, very secondary results were obtained with +phosphoric and sulphuric acids. + +A micro-mushroom, a parasite that kills a white worm, enemy of the +beet, has been artificially cultivated. As soon as the worm is +attacked, the ravage continues until the entire body of the insect is +one mass of micro-organisms. Spores during this period are constantly +formed. If it were possible to spread this disease in districts +infected by the white worm, great service could be rendered to beet +cultivation. + +In sugar refining it is frequently desirable to determine the +viscosity of sirups, molasses, etc. Methods founded upon the rapidity +of flow through an orifice of a known size are not mathematical in +their results. A very simple plan, more accurate than any hitherto +thought of, is attracting some attention. Sensitive scales and a +thermometer suspended in a glass tube are all the apparatus necessary. +The exact weight of thermometer, with tube, is determined; they are +immersed in water and weighed for the second time; the difference in +weight before and afterward gives the weight of adhering water. If the +operation is repeated in molasses, we in the same way obtain the +weight of adhering liquid, which, if divided by the weight of adhering +water, gives the viscosity as compared with water. + +Sugar refineries located at Marseilles claim that it is cheaper for +them to purchase sugar in Java than beet sugar of northern Europe. On +the other hand, the argument of Paris refiners is just the reverse. +The total refined sugar consumed is 375,000 tons, the colonial and +indigenous production of raw sugar is nearly 1,000,000 tons more than +sufficient to meet the demands of the entire refining industry of the +country. There appears to have been considerable manipulation, foreign +sugar being imported with the view of producing a panic, followed by a +decline of market prices, after which Marseilles refiners would buy. +All sound arguments are in favor of protecting the home sugar +industry. + +It has been suggested that manufacturers weigh the fuel used more +carefully than hitherto; the extra trouble would soon lead to economy +for all interested in sugar production at ruinous cost. Some chemists +advocate that coal be purchased only after having been analyzed. +Efforts to have a unification in methods of analysis of all products +of factory is a move in the right direction; the Association of Sugar +Chemists have adopted a series of methods that are in the future to be +considered as standard. + +Copper solutions are destined to render great service in the +destruction of micro-organisms that attack the beet field. The liquid +used should be composed of 3 per cent. copper sulphate and 3 per cent. +lime, dissolved in water; fifty gallons are sufficient for one acre; +cost per acre, every item included, is 56 cents. The normal vitality +of the plant being restored, there follows an increased sugar +percentage. Ordinary liquid ammonia may be advantageously used to kill +white worms and insects that attack beets; two quarts of the diluted +chemical are used per square yard, and the cost is $12 per acre (?) + + +GERMANY. + +Calcic salt elimination from beet juices is a problem not yet +satisfactorily solved. Since the early history of beet sugar making, +it has been noticed that calcic salts render graining in the pan most +tedious; hence repeated efforts to reduce to a minimum percentage the +use of lime during defecation. In all cases it is essential to get rid +of inverted sugar. The difficulty from excess of lime is overcome by +adding it now and then during carbonatation; but other means are found +desirable; and phosphoric acid, magnesia, soda, etc., have been used +with success. Recent observations relating to the action of soda upon +calcic sulphates, calcic glucates, etc., are most important. Certain +citrates have a retarding influence upon calcic sulphates. + +An alarm contrivance to announce the passage of juices into condensing +pipes has rendered considerable service in beet sugar factories. + +A process for refining sugar in the factory, at less cost than it is +possible to make raw sugar by existing processes, deserves notice. +Sugars by this new method test 99.8, and sirups from the same have a +purity coefficient of 70. Weight of dry crystals obtained is said to +represent 66 per cent. of _masse cuite_ used. The additional cost of +the process is $30 to $40 per centrifugal. Concentrated juice or sirup +may be used as _cleare_ in centrifugals; this sirup should have a +density of 1.325 (36° B.) at 113° to 122° F., so as not to redissolve +the sugar. Sirup should not be used until all adhering sirup of _masse +cuite_ has been swung out. The sirup, after passing through +centrifugals, may be sent to second carbonatation tanks and mixed with +juices being treated. + +The larva of an insect, known as _sylpha_, has attacked beet fields in +several parts of Saxony. The effect upon the root is a decrease in +foliage, followed by late development of the beet, with corresponding +reduction in sugar percentage. Chickens may render excellent service, +as they eat these worms with considerable relish. A solution of +Schweinfurt green has been used with some success; its cost is $2.50 +per acre. None of the chemical remains on the leaves after a rain (?) +White worms have done some damage; they should be collected from the +fields during plowing. When they become beetles in the spring, they +may be destroyed by a solution of sulphide of carbon; $0.20 worth of +this chemical is sufficient to kill 10,000 of them. These beetles +contain 50 per cent of fatty and nitric elements; when pulverized they +may be used as good for pigs and chickens. If the ground mass of +beetles is sprinkled with sulphuric acid and a reasonable amount of +lime and earth be added, the combination forms an excellent fertilizer +for certain crops. A disease that blackens young beet leaves is found +to be due to a microscopic insect. If the beet seed be saturated in a +phenic solution before planting, the difficulty may be overcome. + +We are soon to have a new method for selecting mothers for seed +production. Details of the same are not yet public. It is claimed that +it will be possible to grow seed that will yield beets of a given +quality determined in advance, a problem which has hitherto been +thought impossible. + +It will surprise many of our readers to learn that if "tops" or even +half beets are planted, they will give seed, the quality of which is +about same; showing that as soon as seed stalks commence to appear, +the _role_ of the root proper is of secondary consideration, as it +serves simply as a medium between the beet and soil(?) + +Sprayed water may be used with considerable success in washing sugar +in centrifugals; it is claimed that this new process offers many +advantages over either steam, water, or use of _cleare_. White sugar +to be washed is thoroughly mixed with a sugar sirup supersaturated. +The whole is run into centrifugals. The sirup swung from the same is +used in next and following operations; when it becomes too thick it is +sent to the vacuum pan to be regrained. The operation of washing lasts +less than two minutes; three quarts of water are necessary for 200 lb. +sugar. The water spray at a pressure of 5 to 10 atmospheres is +produced by a very simple appliance. + +Total weight of refuse cossettes obtained during last campaign was +4,000,000 tons, about 700,000 tons of which were sold for $1,000,000; +if what remains is dried, it would be worth $5,000,000. + +Several sodic-baryta methods have been recently invented. Of these we +will mention one where 1/4000 to 1/2000 part of calcined soda is added +to the beet slices in diffusors. The juice when drawn from the battery +is heated to 154° F., and defecated with hydrate of baryta and milk of +lime. Nearly all foreign substances are thus eliminated. Carbonatation +then follows. + +Government taxation upon the sugar industry is destined within a few +years to be withdrawn. The new law recently put into operation no +longer taxes beets worked at factory, but the sugar manufactured. The +rate of taxation is about 2 cents per pound on all sugar made. + +Recent data from northeast Germany give the work during campaign +1890-91 of 54 associated beet sugar factories. They used 2,130,000 +tons beets, obtained from 142,602 acres of land, average yield 12 +tons. The total sugar amounted to 251,000 tons, of which 241,000 were +from beets and 10,000 tons from molasses worked by special processes. +The polarization of beet juices averaged 13.09; _masse cuite_, 14.31; +extraction of sugar of all grades, 11.79. It required 848 lb. beets to +produce 100 lb. sugar. + +In every center where beet sugar is made there exists some local +society; each year members from these societies meet to exchange views +upon the sugar situation of the empire. + +Of late, there has been a general complaint respecting quality of +sugar sold on the Magdeburg market. At one time the sugars averaged +more organic substances than ash; now there is more ash than organic +substances. Such sugars are most difficult to work, and cause much +loss of time in centrifugals. + +The most desirable temperature for diffusion batteries is not yet +definitely settled. Some manufacturers recommend 82° to 86° F. On the +other hand, satisfactory results have been obtained at 145° F., +followed by cold water in the diffusors. + +The use of hydrofluoric acid, even in small quantities to prevent +fermentation, should not be allowed. + +It is proposed to use hydrogen dioxide for saccharine juice +purification. The alkalinity of juice is reduced to 0.07 by a +judicious use of lime. Precaution must be taken to keep the +temperature at 87° F. After a preliminary filtration about 4 per cent. +hydrogen dioxide is added. The whole is then heated to the boiling +point, after which ½ to 1 per cent. lime is added. When alkalinity of +filtrate is 0.03 phosphoric acid and magnesia are added, in quantities +representing 0.03 per cent. of sugar in juice for magnesia, and 0.6 +per cent. for the phosphoric acid. In working beet juices hydrogen +dioxide may be used in the diffusor or during any phase of the sugar +manufacturing process, even upon sugars in centrifugals. In all cases +the results obtained are said to be most satisfactory. + +A method to crystallize the sugar contained in the mother liquor of a +_masse cuite_ consists in mixing during 24 hours the hot product, +direct from the pan, with low grade molasses. Gradual cooling follows. +The crystals of _masse cuite_ effect a crystallization of the +otherwise inactive product contained in the molasses. The separation +of crystals from adhering molasses is done in a special washing +appliance arranged in battery form. + +It has been frequently asked if the existing and accepted formula for +determining in advance the amount of refined sugar that may be +extracted from either beets, _masse cuite_ or raw sugar, is to be +considered exact, without special allowance being made for raffinose. +An intelligent discussion upon the subject shows that the sugar in +question, whether present or not, in no way influences the formula +under consideration. + + +AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. + +The committee on exhibition at Prague has issued several interesting +pamphlets, from which we learn that in Bohemia, in 1819, there existed +one beet sugar factory. In 1890 the total number of factories was 140; +last year 370,000 acres were planted in beets, and the yield was +3,700,000 tons; yield of sugar averaged 2,700 lb. per acre; 40,000 +hands were employed. During the past 24 years 17,900,000 tons of coal +have been consumed, and the working capacity per factory is now far +greater than formerly. There are at present seven sugar refineries in +Bohemia. + +Commercial arrangements with Germany having terminated favorably, +great pressure is being brought to bear upon Italy, Roumania, Servia +and Switzerland, to induce them to enter into a treaty. Sugars +imported by the country last named were 35,892 tons in 1889 and 43,300 +tons during 1890. + + +BELGIUM. + +If fresh cossettes are fed to cows, in quantities per diem +representing 20 per cent. of the animal's weight, they have a thinning +effect. When the refuse has been siloed for eight months, and 12 per +cent. of the animal's weight is used, there will follow a slight daily +increase in weight. Better results may be obtained from cossettes that +have been kept for two years; with the latter, if cows eat only 7 per +cent. of their weight, considerable fattening follows. Consequently, +while beet refuse, after long keeping, loses 50 per cent. of its +weight, it appears in the end to be more economical for feeding +purposes than fresh cossettes direct from the battery. + +During this period of keeping the percentage of water remains nearly +constant; fatty substances which were 0.08 per cent. become 0.74; and +the percentage of carbohydrates diminishes. Chemists are unable to +explain the changes that have taken place; if they are desirable, as +they appear to be, judging from the practical results just cited, +there is this question to be solved: What future have dried cossettes? +Evidently they offer advantages, as no one can doubt, such as a +decrease in weight and bulk, easy keeping for an indefinite time, etc. +At present, there is building a silo to contain 4,000 tons fresh +cossettes; this is to have the best possible system of drainage. +During the coming season it is proposed to analyze the water draining +from this mass of fermenting refuse; and we may then learn more than +we now know about the chemical changes above mentioned. + +A correspondent of M. Sachs asks why it is not possible to use live +steam in defecating tanks. A simple calculation shows that the water +to be subsequently evaporated would be increased 10 per cent. This +evaporation would cost more than cleaning of copper coils, etc., +combined with other difficulties existing appliances offer. + +The question as to the most desirable number of beets necessary to +analyze to obtain an average has been in part settled. Factories +working 500 tons per diem should make at least 200 analyses of beets +received, which work offers no difficulty by the rapid methods now +used. Several samples should be taken from every cart load delivered, +then make average selections from the same. + + +RUSSIA. + +Weak currents of electricity, 0.03 to 0.04 ampere, have been passed +through sirups for fourteen hours without any special increase in +purity coefficient. Experiments made upon diluted molasses or with raw +beet juices were not encouraging. + +Mixing of filter press scums with diffusion juices is said to offer +special advantages for the preliminary purification. Not over one to +two per cent. of scums should be used. If in too great quantity, the +raw juices will yield inferior results. During operations that follow, +experiments are not yet sufficiently advanced to determine with +certainty within what limits the refuse scum utilization process is to +be recommended. We have great doubts as to the wisdom of introducing +foreign elements, eliminated from other juices in a previous +operation, into a juice fresh from the battery. + + +OTHER COUNTRIES. + +The beet sugar factory in Japan is said to be working with +considerable success. + +This year in Europe over 3,000,000 acres are devoted to beet +cultivation. If the yield averages 12 tons, the crop of roots to be +worked during campaign 1891-92 will certainly not be less than +36,000,000 tons, with a total yield of first grade sugar of about +7,300,000,000 lb. + +Sugar sells for 9 cents per pound in Persia, where Russia has almost a +monopoly of that business. + +Finland imported, during 1889, 9,416 tons sugar, valued at $1,000,000. +Germany supplied two-thirds of this at cheaper rates than Russia, +owing to facilities of transportation. Two refineries are working; one +of these uses exclusively cane sugar, while the other employs both +cane and beet sugar. + +A beet sugar factory in England, that has been idle for many years, is +to resume operations under a new company, adopting the plan of growing +a sufficient quantity of beets for an average campaign, independently +of what all the farmers of the locality propose to do. + +Siberia is to have a beet sugar factory. Experiments in beet +cultivation have shown excellent beets may be raised there. Special +advantages are offered by the Russian government, and factories are to +be exempt from taxation daring a period of ten years. Sugar in Siberia +is now considered an article of luxury, owing to distance and +difficulties of transportation from manufacturing centers. + +A special delegation from Canada has been sent to Europe, to study and +subsequently report upon the true condition of the beet sugar +industry. + +A correspondent writes from Farnham, Canada, that the Canadian +government grants a bounty of 2 cents per pound on beet sugar during +campaign 1891-92. Duties on raw sugar were abolished last June. + + * * * * * + + + + +AMERICAN WORKSHOPS. + + +An interesting paper on some of the leading American workshops was +lately read before the members of the Manchester Association of +Engineers on Saturday by Mr. Hans Renold. After expressing his opinion +that the English people did not sufficiently look about them or try to +understand what other nations were doing, Mr. Renold stated that he +had visited that portion of America known as New England, and the +works he had inspected were among the best in the United States. Among +the many special features he had noticed he mentioned that in a Boston +establishment where milling machine cutters were made he had found +that £1 spent in wages produced as much as £30 to £40 worth of goods, +the cutters being made at the rate of about sixty-four per hour by +about a dozen men. Another noticeable feature was the exceptional care +taken in storing tools in American workshops. These, in fact, were +treated as if they were worth their weight in gold; they were stored +in safes much in the same manner as we in England stored our money. He +was, however, impressed by the fact that the mere understanding of the +method of American working would not enable them to do likewise in +England, because the American workmen had gone through a special +training, and a similar training would be necessary to enable English +workmen to adapt themselves to American machines. One very noticeable +feature in American engineering shops which he visited was that all +the machine men and turners were seated on blocks or stools at their +machines, and the question naturally arose in his mind what would +English engineers say if such a practice were adopted in their shops. +In other ways he was also struck by the special attention devoted to +the comfort of the workmen, and he was much impressed by the healthy +condition of the emery polishing shops as compared with similar shops +in this country. In England these shops in most cases were simply +deathtraps to the workmen, and he urged that the superior method of +ventilation carried out in the States should be adopted in this +country by introducing a fan to each wheel to take away the particles, +etc., which were so injurious. One very special feature in the United +States was that works were devoted to the manufacture of one +particular article to an almost inconceivable extent, and that heavy +machine tools complete and ready to be dispatched were kept in stock +in large numbers. American enterprise was not hampered as it too +frequently was in England by want of capital; while in England we were +ready to put our savings in South American railways or fictitious gold +mines, but very chary about investing capital which would assist an +engineer in bringing out an honest improvement, in America, on the +other hand, it was a common practice among the best firms to invest +their savings over and over again in their works, which were thus kept +in a high state of perfection. + +The above paper came in for some pretty severe criticism. Mr. John +Craven remarked that although Mr. Renold had gone over a wide field of +subjects, he had practically confined his remarks to Messrs. Brown & +Sharpe's establishment, and while he (Mr. Craven) was ready to admit +that so far as high class work and sanitary arrangements were +concerned, Messrs. Brown & Sharpe's were a model, they could not be +put forward as representative of American establishments generally. As +a matter of fact, many of the American workshops were not as good as a +large number of similar workshops in Manchester. Mr. Renold had +referred to the extensive use of gear cutters in the United States, +but he might point out that it was in Manchester that the milling +machine was first made. Mr. Samuel Dixon said he had certainly come to +the conclusion that no better work was done in America than could be +and was being done in this country; while as regards the enormous +production of milling cutters, that was simply an example of what +could be done where large firms devoted themselves to the production +of one specialty. With regard to the statement made by Mr. Renold that +the American thread was preferable to the Whitworth thread, he might +say he entirely disagreed with such a conclusion, and he might add +that after visiting a variety of Continental and American workshops he +should certainly not, if he were called upon to award the palm of +superiority in workmanship, go across the Atlantic for that purpose. +Mr. J. Nasmith remarked that whether English engineers were the +inventors of the milling machine or not, it must be admitted that it +was through this type of cutter being taken up by the Americans that +milling had become the success it was at the present time. English +engineers were very conservative, and it was only through the pressure +of circumstances that milling machines came into general use in this +country. When American inventions were brought to England they were +generally improved to the highest degree, but he thought the chief +fault of both American and Continental engineers was what one might +call "over-refinement;" there was such a thing as over-finishing an +object and overdoing it. If, however, American machinery was so much +superior to what we had in this country, as asserted by the reader of +the paper, how was it that cotton machinery, with all its intricacies, +could be sent to the United States, in the face of American +manufacturers, even though the cost was increased from 40 to 60 per +cent.? At the present time it was possible for English machinists to +secure contracts for the whole of the machinery in an American mill, +and inclusive of freight charges and high tariff, deliver and erect it +in America at a lower cost than American engineers with all the +advantages of their immeasurably superior tools were able to do. +Another speaker, Mr. Barstow, ridiculed the idea that the Americans +could be so pre-eminent in the manufacture of emery wheels as might be +inferred from Mr. Renold, when they had before them the fact that from +the neighborhood of Manchester thousands of emery wheels were every +year exported to the United States. + + * * * * * + + + + +MODERN METHODS OF QUARRYING. + + +Mr. Wm. L. Saunders, for many years the engineer of the Ingersoll Rock +Drill Co., and hence thoroughly familiar with modern quarrying +practice, read a paper before the last meeting of the American Society +of Civil Engineers on the above subject, containing many interesting +points, given in the _Engineering News_, from which we abstract as +follows. + +As a preliminary to describing the new Knox system of quarrying, which +even yet is not universally known among quarrymen, Mr. Saunders gives +the following in regard to older methods: + + The Knox system is a recent invention; no mention was made of + it in the tenth census, and no description has yet been given + of it in any publications on quarrying. The first work done by + this method was in 1885, and at the close of that year 2 + quarries had adopted it. In 1886 it was used in 20 quarries; + in 1887 in 44, in 1888 in upward of 100, and at the present + time about 300 quarries have adopted it. Its purpose is to + release dimension stone from its place in the bed, by so + directing an explosive force that it is made to cleave the + rock in a prescribed line without injury. The system is also + used for breaking up detached blocks of stone into smaller + sizes. + +Quarrymen have, ever since the introduction of blasting, tried to +direct the blast so as to save stock. Holes drilled by hand are seldom +round. The shape of the bit and their regular rotation while drilling +usually produce a hole of somewhat triangular section. It was +observed, many years ago, that when a blast was fired in a +hand-drilled hole the rock usually broke in three directions, +radiating from the points of the triangle in the hole. This led +quarrymen to look for a means by which the hole might be shaped in +accordance with a prescribed direction of cleavage. + +The oldest sandstone quarries in America are those at Portland, Conn. +It was from these quarries that great quantities of brownstone were +shipped for buildings in New York. The typical "brownstone front" is +all built of Portland stone. As the Portland quarries were carried to +great depths the thickness of bed increased, as it usually does in +quarries. With beds from 10 to 20 ft. deep, all of solid and valuable +brownstone, it became a matter of importance that some device should +be applied which would shear the stone from its bed without loss of +stock and without the necessity of making artificial beds at short +distances. A system was adopted and used successfully for a number of +years which comprised the drilling of deep holes from 10 to 12 in. in +diameter, and charging them with explosives placed in a canister of +peculiar shape. The drilling of this hole is so interesting as to +warrant a passing notice. The system was similar to that followed with +the old fashioned drop drill. The weight of the bit was the force +which struck the blow, and this bit was simply raised or lowered by a +crank turned by two men at the wheel. The bit resembled a broad ax in +shape, in that it was extremely broad, tapering to a sharp point, and +convex along the edge. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1] + +Fig. 1 illustrates in section one of the Portland drills, and a drill +hole with the canister containing the explosive in place. The canister +was made of two curved pieces of sheet tin with soldered edges, cloth +or paper being used at the ends. It was surrounded with sand or earth, +so that the effect of the blast was practically the same as though the +hole were drilled in the shape of the canister. In other words, the +old Portland system was to drill a large, round hole, put in a +canister, and then fill up a good part of the hole. Were it possible +to drill the hole in the shape of the canister, it would obviously +save a good deal of work which had to be undone. The Portland system +was, therefore, an extravagant one, but the results accomplished were +such as to fully warrant its use. Straight and true breaks were made, +following the line of the longer axis of the canister section, as in +Fig. 2. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2.] + +It was found that with the old Portland canister two breaks might be +made at right angles by a single blast, when using a canister shaped +like a square prism. In some of the larger blasts, where blocks +weighing in the neighborhood of 2,000 tons were sheared on the bed, +two holes as deep as 20 ft. were drilled close together. The core +between the holes was then clipped out and large canisters measuring 2 +ft. across from edge to edge were used. + +In regard to another of the older systems of blasting, known as +Lewising, Mr. Saunders says: + + A Lewis hole is made by drilling two or three holes close + together and parallel with each other, the partitions between + the holes being broken down by using what is known as a + broach. Thus a wide hole or groove is formed in which powder + is inserted, either by ramming it directly in the hole, or by + puling it in a canister, shaped somewhat like the Lewis hole + trench. A complex Lewis hole is the combination of 3 drill + holes, while a compound Lewis hole contains 4 holes. Lewising + is confined almost entirely to granite. In some cases a series + of Lewis holes is put in along the bench at distances of 10 + and 25 ft. apart, or even greater, each Lewis hole being + situated equidistant from the face of the bench. The holes are + blasted simultaneously by the electric battery. + +After noting another system used to a limited extent, and not to be +commended, viz., the use of inverted plugs and feathers (the plugs and +feathers being inserted as a sort of tamping which the blast drives +upward to split the rock), Mr. Saunders continues in substance as +follows: + + It is thus seen that the "state of the art" has been + progressive, though it was imperfect. Mr. Sperr, in his + reference to this subject, made in the report of the tenth + census, says: "The influence of the shape of the drill hole + upon the effects of the blast does not seem to be generally + known, and a great waste of material necessarily follows." + This was written but a few years before the introduction of + the new system, and it is doubtless true that attention was + thus widely directed to the conspicuous waste, due to a lack + of knowledge of the influence of the shape of a drill hole on + the effect of a blast. The system developed by Mr. Knox + practically does all and more than was done by the old + Portland system, and it does it at far less expense. It can + best be described by illustrations. + +[Illustrations: Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6] + +Fig. 3 is a round hole drilled either by hand or otherwise, preferably +otherwise, because an important point is to get it round. Fig. 4 is +the improved form of hole, and this is made by inserting a reamer, +Figs. 5 and 6, into the hole in the line of the proposed fracture, +thus cutting two V-shaped grooves into the walls of the hole. The +blacksmith tools for dressing the reamers are shown in Fig. 7. The +usual method of charging and tamping a hole in using the new system is +shown in Fig. 8. The charge of powder is shown at C, the air space at +B and the tamping at A. Fig. 9 is a special hole for use in thin beds +of rock. The charge of powder is shown at C, the rod to sustain +tamping at D, air space at BB, and tamping at A. + +[Illustration: Fig. 7] + +Let us assume that we have a bluestone quarry, in which we may +illustrate the simplest application of the new system. The sheet of +stone which we wish to shear from place has a bed running horizontally +at a depth of say 10 ft. One face is in front and a natural seam +divides the bed at each end at the walls of the quarry. We now have a +block of stone, say 50 ft. long, with all its faces free except +one--that opposite and corresponding with the bench. One or more of +the specially formed holes are put in at such depth and distance from +each other and from the bench as may be regulated by the thickness, +strength and character of the rock. No man is so good a judge of this +as the quarry foreman who has used and studied the effect of this +system in his quarry. Great care should be taken to drill the holes +round and in a straight line. In sandstone of medium hardness these +holes may be situated 10, 12 or 15 ft. apart. If the bed is a tight +one the hole should be run entirely through the sheet and to the bed; +but with an open free bed holes of less depth will suffice. + +[Illustration: Fig. 8, 9] + +The reamer should now be used and driven by hand. Several devices have +been applied to rock drills for reaming the hole by machinery while +drilling; that is, efforts have been made to combine the drill and the +reamer. Such efforts have met with only partial success. The perfect +alignment of the reamer is so important that where power is used this +point is apt to be neglected. It is also a well known fact that the +process of reaming by hand is not a difficult or a slow one. The +drilling of the hole requires the greatest amount of work. After this +has been done it is a simple matter to cut the V-shaped grooves. The +reamer should be applied at the center, that is, the grooves should be +cut on the axis or full diameter of the hole. The gauge of the reamer +should be at least 1½ diameters. Great care should be taken that the +reamer does not twist, as the break may be thereby deflected; and the +reaming must be done also to the full depth of the hole. + +The hole is now ready for charging. The powder should be a low +explosive, like black or Judson powder or other explosives which act +slowly. No definite rule can be laid down as to the amount of powder +to be used, but it should be as small as possible. Very little powder +is required in most rocks. Hard and fine grained stone requires less +powder than soft stone. Mr. Knox tells of a case which came under his +observation, where a block of granite "more than 400 tons weight, +split clear in two with 13 oz. of FF powder." He compares this with a +block of sandstone of less than 100 tons weight "barely started with +2½ lb. of the same grade of powder, and requiring a second shot to +remove it." + +It is obvious that enough powder must be inserted in the hole to +produce a force sufficient to move the entire mass of rock on its bed. +In some kinds of stone, notably sandstone, the material is so soft +that it will break when acted upon by the force necessary to shear the +block. In cases of this kind a number of holes should be drilled and +fired simultaneously by the electric battery. In such work it is usual +to put in the holes only 4 or 5 ft. apart. The powder must, of course, +be provided with a fuse or preferably a fulminating cap. It is well to +insert the cap at or near the bottom of the cartridge, as shown in +Figs. 8 and 9. + +After the charge the usual thing to do is to insert tamping. In the +improved form of hole the tamping should not he put directly upon the +powder, but an air space should be left, as shown at B, Fig. 8. The +best way to tamp, leaving an air space, is first to insert a wad, +which may be of oakum, hay, grass, paper or other similar material. +The tamping should be placed from 6 to 12 in. below the mouth of the +hole. In some kinds of stone a less distance will suffice, and as much +air space as practicable should intervene between the explosive and +the tamping. If several holes are used on a line they should be +connected in series and blasted by electricity. The effect of the +blast is to make a vertical seam connecting the holes, and the entire +mass of rock is sheared several inches or more. + +The philosophy of this new method of blasting is simple, though a +matter of some dispute. The following explanation has been given. See +Fig. 10. + +[Illustration: Fig. 10] + +"The two surfaces, _a_ and _b_, being of equal area, must receive an +equal amount of the force generated by the conversion of the explosive +into gas. These surfaces being smooth and presenting no angle between +the points, A and B, they furnish no starting point for a fracture, +but at these points the lines meet at a sharp angle including between +them a wedge-shaped space. The gas acting equally in all directions +from the center is forced into the two opposite wedge-shaped spaces, +and the impact being instantaneous the effect is precisely similar to +that of two solid wedges driven from the center by a force equally +prompt and energetic. All rocks possess the property of elasticity in +a greater or less degree, and this principle being excited to the +point of rupture at the points, A and B, the gas enters the crack and +the rock is split in a straight line simply because under the +circumstances it cannot split in any other way." + +Another theory which is much the same in substance is then given, and +after some general discussion of the theory of the action of the +forces under the several systems, the paper continues: + +The new form of hole is, therefore, almost identical in principle with +the old Portland canister, except that it has the greater advantage of +the V-shaped groove in the rock, which serves as a starting point for +the break. It is also more economical than the Portland canister, in +that it requires less drilling and the waste of stone is less. It is, +therefore, not only more economical than any other system of blasting, +but it is more certain, and in this respect it is vastly superior to +any other blasting system, because stone is valuable, and anything +which adds to the certainty of the break also adds to the profit of +the quarryman. + +It is doubtless true that, notwithstanding the greater area of +pressure in the new form of hole, the break would not invariably +follow the prescribed line but for the V-shaped groove which virtually +starts it. A bolt, when strained, will break in the thread whether +this be the smallest section or not, because the thread is the +starting point for the break. A rod of glass is broken with a slight +jar provided a groove has been filed in its surface. Numerous other +instances might be cited to prove the value of the groove. Elasticity +in rock is a pronounced feature, which varies to a greater or less +extent; but it is always more or less present. A sandstone has +recently been found which possesses the property of elasticity to such +an extent that it may be bent like a thin piece of steel. When a blast +is made in the new form of hole the stone is under high tension, and +being elastic it will naturally pull apart on such lines of weakness +as grooves, especially when they are made, as is usually the case in +this system, in a direction at right angles with the lines of least +resistance. + +Horizontal holes are frequently put in and artificial beds made by +"lofting." In such cases where the rock has a "rift" parallel with the +bed, one hole about half way through is sufficient for a block about +15 ft. square, but in "liver" rock the holes must be drilled nearly +through the block and the size of the block first reduced. + +A more difficult application of the system, and one requiring greater +care in its successful use, is where the block of stone is so situated +that both ends are not free, one of them being solidly fixed in the +quarry wall. A simple illustration of a case of this kind is a stone +step on a stairway which leads up and along a wall, Fig. 11. Each step +has one end fixed to the wall and the other free. Each step is also +free on top, on the bottom and on the face, but fixed at the back. We +now put one of the new form of holes in the corner at the junction of +the step and the wall. The shape of the hole is as shown in Fig. 12. + +[Illustration: FIG. 11.] + +It is here seen that the grooves are at right angles with each other, +and the block of stone is sheared by a break made opposite and +parallel with the bench, as in the previous case, and an additional +break made at right angles with the bench and at the fixed end of the +block. Sometimes a corner break is made by putting in two of the +regular V-shaped holes in the lines of the proposed break and without +the use of the corner hole. A useful application of this system is in +splitting up large masses of loose stone. For this purpose the +V-shaped grooves are sometimes cut in four positions and breaks are +made in four directions radiating from the center of the hole as shown +in Fig. 12. In this way a block is divided into four rectangular +pieces. + +[Illustration: FIG. 12.] + +Though the new system is especially adapted to the removal of heavy +masses of rock, yet it has been applied with success in cases where +several light beds overlie each other. In one such instance 10 sheets, +measuring in all only 6 ft., were broken by a blast, but in cases of +this kind the plug and feather process applies very well, and the new +system, when used, must be in the hands of an expert, or the loss will +be serious. + +Referring again to our stone step, let us imagine a case where this +stairway runs between two walls. We have here each step fixed at each +end and free only on the top, the bottom, and one face. Let us assume +that there is a back seam, that is, that the step is not fixed at the +back. In a quarry, this seam, unless a natural one, should be made by +a channeling machine. In order to throw this step put of place it must +be cut off at both ends, and for this purpose the V-shaped holes are +put in at right angles to the face. It is well, however, to put the +first two holes next the back seam in a position where the grooves +will converge at the back so as to form a sort of key, which serves a +useful purpose in removing the block after the blast. In quarries +where there are no horizontal beds a channeling machine should be used +to free the block on all sides and to a suitable depth, and then the +ledge may be "lofted" by holes placed horizontally. + +Where "pressure" exists in quarries, the new system has certain +limitations. After determining the line of "pressure" it is only +practicable to use the system directly on the line of thrust, or at +right angles to it. It is much better, however, to release the +"pressure" from the ledge by channeling, after which a single end may +be detached by a Knox blast. It is well to bear in mind that the holes +should invariably be of small diameter. In no case should the diameter +of a hole be over 1½ in. in any kind of rock. This being the case, the +blocks of stone are delivered to the market with but little loss in +measurement. It is a noticeable fact that stone quarried by the new +system shows very little evidence of drill marks, for the faces are +frequently as true as though cut with a machine. + +A further gain is the safety of the system. The blasting is light and +is confined entirely within the holes. No spalls or fragments are +thrown from the bast. + +The popular idea that the system is antagonistic to the channeling +process is a mistaken one. There are, of course, some quarries which +formerly used channeling machines without this system, but which now +do a large part of the work by blasting. Instances, however, are rare +where the system has replaced the channeler. The two go side by side, +and an intelligent use of the new system in most quarries requires a +channeling machine. There are those who may tell of stone that has +been destroyed by a blast on the new system, but investigation usually +shows that either the work was done by an inexperienced operator, or +an effort was made to do too much. + +A most interesting illustration of the value of this system, side by +side with the channeler, is shown in the northern Ohio sandstone +quarries. A great many channeling machines are in use there, working +around the new form of holes, and when used together in an intelligent +and careful manner, the stone is quarried more cheaply than by any +other process that has yet been devised. + +To a limited extent the system has been used in slate. The difficulty +is that most of the slate quarries are in solid ledges, where no free +faces or beds exist; but it has been used with success in a slate +quarry at Cherryville, Pa., since 1888. Among notable blasts made by +this system are the following: At the mica schist quarries, at +Conshohocken, Pa., a hole 1½ in. in diameter was drilled in a block +which was 27 ft. long, 15 ft. wide and 6 ft. thick. The blast broke +the stone across the "rift," only 8 oz. of black powder being used. At +the Portland, Conn., quarries a single blast was fired by electricity, +15 holes being drilled with 2 lb. of coarse No. C powder in each hole, +and a rock was removed 110 ft. long, 20 ft. wide and 11 ft. thick, +containing 24,200 cu. ft., or about 2,400 tons, the fracture being +perfectly straight. This large mass of stone was moved out about 2 in. +without injury to itself or the adjoining rock. + +Another blast at Portland removed 3,300 tons a distance of 4 in. +Seventeen holes were drilled, using 2 lb. of powder in each hole, the +size of the block being 150 × 20 × 11 ft. In a Lisbon, O., quarry a +block of sandstone 200 ft. long, 28 ft. wide and 15 ft. thick was +moved about ½ in. by a blast. This block was also afterward cut up by +this system in blocks 6 ft. square. A sandstone bowlder 70 ft. long, +average width 50 ft., average thickness 13 ft., was embedded in the +ground to a depth of about 7 ft. A single hole 8 ft. deep was charged +with 20 oz. of powder and the rock was split in a straight line from +end to end and entirely to the bottom. A ledge of sandstone open on +its face and two ends, 110 × 13 × 8 ft., was moved by a blast about 3 +in. without wasting a particle of rock, 8 holes being used, drilled by +three men in just one day, and 15 oz. of powder being used in each +hole. A sandstone ledge, open on the face and end only, 200 × 28 × 15 +ft., containing 84,000 cu. ft. stone, was moved ½ in. by 25 holes, +each containing 1 lb. of powder. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE TROTTER CURVE RANGER. + + +This little instrument was exhibited in a somewhat crude state at the +meeting of the British Association at Newcastle in 1889. It has since +been modified in several respects, and improvements suggested by +practical use have been introduced, bringing it into a practical form, +and enabling a much greater accuracy to be attained. The principle is +one which is occasionally employed for setting out circles with a +pocket sextant, viz., the property of a circle that the angle in a +segment is constant. The leading feature of the invention is the +arrangement of scales, which enables the operation of setting put +large curves for railway or other work to be carried out without +requiring any calculations, thereby enabling any intelligent man to +execute work which would otherwise call for a knowledge of the use of +a theodolite and the tables of tangential angles. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1--PERSPECTIVE VIEW OF INSTRUMENT MOUNTED ON A +STAFF.] + +The instrument is intended to be thoroughly portable; so much so, +indeed, that it is not necessary or even desirable to use a tripod. It +may be held in the hand like a sextant, or may be carried on a light +staff. The general appearance is shown in Fig. 1. It will be seen that +a metal plate, on which two scales are engraved, carries a mirror at +one end and an eye piece at the other. The mirror is mounted on a +metal plate, which is shaped to a peculiar curve. A clamp and slow +motion provide for rapid and for fine adjustment. The eye piece is set +at an angle, and contains a half silvered mirror, the upper portion +being transparent. This allows direct vision along the axis of the eye +piece, and at the same time vision in another direction, after two +reflections, one in the eye piece and the other at the adjustable +mirror. Fig. 2 is an outline plan of the instrument when closed. In +the first form of the instrument only one mirror was provided, but by +the double reflection in the improved pattern, any accidental twisting +of the rod or handle produces no displacement of the images, since the +inclination of one mirror neutralizes the equal and opposite +inclination of the other. No cross line is required with the new +arrangement, since it is only necessary that the two images should +coincide. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--OUTLINE OF INSTRUMENT SHOWING THE PATH OF THE +DIRECT AND OF THE REFLECTED RAY.] + +The dotted line A B represents the direct ray, and the line A C D the +reflected one. Fig. 3 shows the different geometrical and +trigonometrical elements of the curve, which can be read upon the +various scales, or to which the instrument may be set. An observer +standing at C sights the point B directly and the point A by +reflection. A staff being set up at each point, he will see them +simultaneously, and in coincidence if the instrument be properly set +for the curve. If any intermediate position be taken up on the curve, +both A and B will be seen in coincidence. If the two rods do not +appear superimposed, the operator must move to the right or the left +until this is the case. The instrument will then be over a point in +the curve. Any number of points at any regular or irregular distances +along the curve can thus be set out. One of the simplest elements +which can be taken as a datum is the ratio of the length of the chord +to the radius, AB/AO, Fig. 3. This being given, the value of the ratio +is found on the straight scale on the body of the instrument, and the +curved plate is moved until the beveled edge cuts the scale at the +desired point. The figure of this curve is a polar curve, whose +equation is _r_ = _a_ ± _b_ sin. 2 [theta], where _a_ is the distance +from the zero graduation to the axis of the mirror, and _b_ is the +length of the scale from zero to 2, and [theta] is the inclination of +the mirror. In the perspective view, Fig. 1, the curved edge cuts the +scale at 1. The instrument being thus set, the following elements may +be read either directly on the scales or by simple arithmetical +calculation: + +[Illustration: FIG. 3] + + The radius = 1. + + AB, the chord, read direct on the straight scale. + + AFB, the length of the arc, read direct on the back or under + surface of the plate. + + FH, the versed sine, read direct on the curved scale. + + ACB, the angle in the segment, read direct on the graduated + edge. + + EAB, the angle between the chord and the tangent, read direct + on the graduated edge. + + GAB, the tangential angle = 180 deg. - ACB. + + AOB, the angle at the center = 2GAB. + + AGB, the angle between the tangents = 180 deg. - AOB. + + OAB, the angle between the chord and the radius = EAB - 90 + deg. + + AH_{2} + GF = --------- - FH. + HO + + + +The foregoing elements are contained in a very simple diagram, Fig. 4, +which is engraved on the instrument, together with the following +references: + + B = 180 deg. - A. + C = 2B. + D = 180 deg. - C. + E = A - 90. + +Only one adjustment is necessary, and this is provided by means of the +screws which fix the inclination of the eyepiece. This is set at such +an angle that the instrument, when closed and reading 90° on the +divided limb, acts as an optical square. + +It is not necessary, as in the ordinary method with a theodolite, that +one end of the curve should be visible from the other. If an obstacle +intervenes, all that part of the curve which commands a view of both +ends can be set out, and a ranging rod can be set up at any point of +the curve so found, and the instrument may be reset to complete the +curve. + +To set out a tangent to the curve at A, Fig. 3, set up a rod at A and +another at any point C, and take up a position on the curve at some +point between them. Adjust the mirror until the rods are seen +superimposed. Then moving back to A, observe C direct, and set up a +rod at E in the line observed by reflection. Then A E is the tangent +required. Similarly, on completing the setting out of a curve, and +arriving at the end of the chord, the remote end being seen by +reflection, the direction observed along the axis of the eyepiece is +the new tangent. + +Any of the angles or other ratios already mentioned may be used for +setting the instrument, but if no data whatever are given, as in the +rough surveys for colonial railways where no previous surveys exist, +it is only necessary to select points through which the curve must +pass, to set up ranging rods either at the extremities of the desired +curve, or at any points thereon, to take up a position on the desired +curve between two rods, and to adjust the instrument until they are +seen in coincidence. The curve can then be set out, and fully marked, +and the elements of the curve can be read on the scales and recorded +for reference. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--DIAGRAM ENGRAVED ON THE INSTRUMENT.] + +Various other cases which may occur in practice can be rapidly met by +one or other of the various scales. Suppose the angle A G B between +the tangents be given, together with the middle point F on the curve, +Fig. 3. Subtract this angle from 180 deg., the difference gives the +angle at the center A O B. Take half this, and set the instrument to +the angle thus found. Walk along the tangent until a rod set up at +some point in the tangent, say E, is seen in coincidence with a rod +set up at B. The position of the instrument then marks the point of +departure A. A rod being placed at A, the first half of the curve may +be set out; or, if B is invisible, the instrument may be reset for the +angle E A B, and the whole curve set out up to B. No cutting of hedges +is necessary, as with theodolite work, for a curve can easily be taken +piece by piece. Inclination of the whole instrument introduces no +appreciable error. If the eye piece be pointed up or down hill, the +instrument is thrown a little to one side or other of the tip of the +staff, but in a plane tangent to the circle. Errors made in setting +out a curve with the Trotter curve ranger are not cumulative, as in +the method of tangential angles with a theodolite. No corrections for +inaccurate hitting of the final rod can occur, for the curve must +necessarily end at that point. It should be observed that the +instrument is not intended to supersede a theodolite, but it has the +great advantage over the older instrument that no assistant or chains +or trigonometrical tables or any knowledge of mathematics are +required. The data being given, by a theodolite or otherwise, an +intelligent platelayer can easily set out the curve, while the trained +engineer proceeds in advance with the theodolite. No time is lost; as +in chaining, since the marks may be made wherever and as often as +convenient. In work where high accuracy is required this instrument is +well adapted for filling in, and where a rough idea of the nature of a +given curve is required, the mirror being adjusted for any three +points upon it, the various elements may be read off on the scales. A +telescope is provided, but the errors not being cumulative, it is +rarely required. The curve ranger weighs 1 lb. 10 oz., and is +manufactured by Messrs. Elliott Bros., St. Martin's Lane, London. It +is the invention of Mr. Alex. P. Trotter, Westminster.--_The +Engineer._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE RAIL SPIKE AND THE LOCOMOTIVE.[1] + + [Footnote 1: Abstract from the History of the Camden and Amboy + Railroad. By J. Elfreth Watkins, of the National Museum, + Washington, D.C.] + + +Early in October, 1830, and shortly after the surveys of the Camden +and Amboy Railroad were completed, Robert L. Stevens (born 1787) +sailed for England, with instructions to order a locomotive and rails +for that road. + +At that time no rolling mill in America was able to take a contract +for rolling T rails. + +Robert Stevens advocated the use of an all-iron rail in preference to +the wooden rail or stone stringer plated with strap iron, then in use +on one or two short American railroads. At his suggestion, at the last +meeting held before he sailed, after due discussion, the Board of +Directors of the Camden and Amboy Railroad passed a special resolution +authorizing him to obtain the rails he advocated. + + +ROBERT L. STEVENS INVENTS THE AMERICAN RAIL AND SPIKE. + +During the voyage to Liverpool he whiled away the hours on shipboard +by whittling thin wood into shapes of imaginary cross sections until +he finally decided which one was best suited to the needs of the new +road. + +He was familiar with the Berkenshaw rail, with which the best English +roads were then being laid, but he saw that, as it required an +expensive chair to hold it in place, it was not adapted to our +country, where metal workers were scarce and iron was dear. He added +the base to the T rail, dispensing with the chair. He also designed +the "hook-headed" spike (which is substantially the railroad spike of +to-day) and the "iron tongue" (which has been developed into the fish +bar), and the rivets (which have been replaced by the bolt and nut) to +complete the joint. + +A fac-simile of the letter[2] which he addressed to the English iron +masters a short time after his arrival in London is preserved in the +United States National Museum. It contains a cross section, side +elevation and ground plan of the rail for which he requested bids. + +The base of the rail which he first proposed was to be wider where it +was to be attached to the supports than in the intervening spaces. +This was afterward modified, so that the base was made the same width +(three inches) throughout. + + [Footnote 2: This letter reads: + + LIVERPOOL, November 26th, 1830. + + GENTLEMEN,--At what rate will you contract to deliver at + Liverpool, say from 500 to 600 tons of railway, of the best + quality of iron rolled to the above pattern in 12 or 16 feet + lengths, to lap as shown in the drawing, with one hole at each + end, and the projections on the lower flange at every two + feet, cash on delivery? + + How soon could you make the first delivery, and at what rate + per month until the whole is complete? Should the terms suit + and the work give satisfaction a more extended order is likely + to follow, as this is but about one-sixth part of the quantity + required. Please to address your answer (as soon as + convenient) to the care of Francis B. Ogden, Consul of the + United States at Liverpool. + + I am + Your obedient servant, + ROBERT L. STEVENS, + _President and Engineer of the Camden and + South Amboy Railroad and Transportation Company._ ] + + +DIFFICULTY OF ROLLING THE AMERICAN RAIL. + +Mr. Stevens received no favorable answer to his proposals, but being +acquainted with Mr. Guest (afterward Sir John Guest), a member of +Parliament, proprietor of large iron works in Dowlais, Wales, he +prevailed upon him to have rails rolled at his works. Mr. Guest became +interested in the matter and accompanied Mr. Stevens to Wales, where +the latter gave his personal supervision to the construction of the +rolls. After the rolls were completed the Messrs. Guest hesitated to +have them used, through fear of damage to the mill machinery, upon +hearing which Mr. Stevens deposited a handsome sum guaranteeing the +expense of repairing the mill in case it was damaged. The receipt for +this deposit was preserved for many years among the archives of the +Camden and Amboy Company. As a matter of fact, the rolling apparatus +did break down several times. "At first," as Mr. Stevens in a letter +to his father, which I have seen, described it, "the rails came from +the rolls twisted and as crooked as snakes," and he was greatly +discouraged. At last, however, the mill men acquired the art of +straightening the rail while it cooled. + +The first shipment,[3] consisting of five hundred and fifty bars +eighteen feet long, thirty-six pounds to the yard, arrived in +Philadelphia on the ship Charlemagne, May 16, 1831. + +Over thirty miles of this rail was laid before the summer of 1832. + +A few years after, on much of the Stevens rail laid on the Camden and +Amboy Railroad, the rivets at the joints were discarded, and the bolt +with the screw thread and nut, similar to that now used, was adopted +as the standard. + +The rail was first designed to weigh thirty-six pounds per yard, but +it was almost immediately increased in weight to between forty and +forty-two pounds, and rolled in lengths of sixteen feet. It was then +three and a half inches high, two and one-eighth inches wide on the +head and three and a half inches wide at the base, the price paid in +England being £8 per ton. The import duty was $1.85. + +The first shipment of rail, having arrived in America, was transported +to Bordentown, and here, upon the ground on which we stand, and which +this monument is erected to mark forever, was laid the first piece of +track (about five-sixths of a mile long) in August, 1831. The Camden +and Amboy Company, following the example of the Manchester and +Liverpool Railroad, laid their first track upon stone blocks two feet +square and ten to thirteen inches deep. These blocks were purchased +from the prison authorities at Sing Sing, N.Y. Some of these stone +blocks have been used in constructing the foundation for this +monument. + + [Footnote 3: A list of the vessels chartered to transport the rails, + with dates, tonnage, etc., is given below: + + No. of Tonnage. Rate of + Date. Ship. Bars. tons. cwt. lb. Duty. + + May 16, 1831. Charlemagne 550 504 0 14 $1.85 + May 19, 1831. Salem 963 744 2 14 1.85 + April 7, 1832. Caledonia 38 63 3 07 1.85 + April 23, 1832. Armadilla 525 1,000 3 21 1.85 + May 4, 1832. George Clinton 624 986 2 14 1.85 + June 2-18, 1833. Henry Kneeland 204 377 3 21 1.85 + May 8, 1832. Cumberland 1,464 2,790 1 00 1.85 + June 2, 1832. Gardiner 601 1,136 0 00 1.85 + June 5, 1832. Globe 499 943 1 14 1.85 + June 6, 1832. Jubilee 70 130 0 21 1.85 + July 18, 1832. Hellen 1,080 2,004 3 21 1.85 + July 19, 1832. Nimrod 937 1,745 3 00 1.85 + Aug. 2, 1832. Emery 240 454 2 00 1.85 + Aug. 7, 1833. Ajax 364 700 0 21 1.85 + Aug. 13, 1832. Concordia 622 1,174 3 14 1.85 + Aug. 14, 1830. William Byrny 1,120 2,138 1 07 1.85 + Aug. 20, 1832. Mary Howland 932 1,755 3 07 1.85 + Aug. 23, 1832. Pulaski 488 924 1 00 1.85 + Aug. 24, 1832. Robert Morris 1,985 3,732 0 14 1.85 + Aug. 27, 1832. Ann 506 961 2 27 1.85 + Sept. 3, 1832. Montgomery 1,369 2,959 0 14 1.85 + Sept. 4, 1832. Marengo 534 1,004 2 07 1.85 + Oct. 12, 1832. Vestal 237 460 2 07 1.85 + + This iron proved to be of such superior quality that after it was + worn out in the track, the company's mechanics preferred it to new + iron in making repairs. Some of this rail is still in use in side + tracks. It is pronounced equal in durability to much of the steel + rail of to-day. ] + + +FIRST JOINT FIXTURES. + +Mr. Stevens ordered the first joint fixtures also from an English +mill, at the same time. The ends of the rails were designed to rest +upon wrought iron plates or flat cast plates. The rails were connected +at the stems by an iron "tongue" five inches long, two inches wide, +and five-eighths of an inch thick. A rivet, put on hot, passing +through the stem of each rail near the ends of the bar, fastened it to +the tongue and completed the joint. A hole oblong in shape, to allow +for expunctral contraction, was punched in the stem at each end of the +rail. + + +THE FIRST RAILROAD SPIKES. + +The first "spikes six inches long, with hooked heads," were also +ordered at the same time. These were undoubtedly the "first railroad +spikes" (as they are known to the trade) ever manufactured. + +Mr. Stevens neglected to obtain a patent for these inventions, +although urged to do so by Mr. Ogden, American Consul at Liverpool, +and the credit of being the inventor of the American rail was for a +time claimed for others, but the evidence brought forward in late +years fully established the fact that he was the originator of the +American system of railway construction. + +The "Stevens rail and spike" gradually found great favor everywhere in +America--all the roads being relaid with it as the original T or strap +rail became worn out. + +In England the T rail still continues to be used. The London and +Birmingham Railway, opened in 1838, was laid with Berkenshaw rails; +part with the straight and part with the fish-bellied rail, and the +remainder with reversible "bull-headed" rail, both types being +supported by chairs.[4] + + [Footnote 4: The experiment of laying the Stevens rail in chairs + was tried on the Albany and Schenectady road in 1837, on the + Hudson River Railroad 1848, but the chairs were soon afterward + discarded, nothing but spikes being used to attach the rail to the + tie.] + +Sixty years have elapsed since this rail was adopted by the Camden and +Amboy Company, and with the exception of slight alterations in the +proportions incident to increased weight, no radical change has been +made in the "Stevens rail," which is now in use on every railroad in +America. Many improvements have been made in the joint fixture, but +the "tongue" or fish plate improved into the angle splice bar is in +general use, and nothing has yet been found to take the place of the +"hook-headed" railroad spike which Robert Stevens then designed. + +The track upon which we stand was the first in the world that was laid +with the rail and spike now in general use. + + +MR. STEVENS EXAMINES ENGLISH LOCOMOTIVES. + +Mr. Stevens divided his time while abroad between arranging for the +manufacture of track material and examining the English locomotives +that were being constructed or had been in service. + +A year had elapsed since the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester +Railway, and the English mechanics had not been idle. The "Rocket," +although successful in the Rainhill contest, when put to work had +shown many defects that Stephenson & Co. were striving to correct in +subsequent locomotives. + +The "Planet," built by that firm, was tried in public December 4, +1830, shortly after Mr. Stevens arrived in England, and at that time +was undoubtedly the best locomotive in the world. + + +THE "JOHN BULL" ORDERED. + +Mr. Stevens was present at a trial when the "Planet" showed most +satisfactory properties, and he at once ordered a locomotive of +similar construction, from the same manufacturers, for the Camden and +Amboy Railroad. This engine, afterward called the "John Bull" and "No. +1," was completed in May and shipped by sailing vessel from +Newcastle-on-Tyne in June, 1831, arriving in Philadelphia about the +middle of August of that year. It was then transferred to a sloop at +Chestnut Street wharf, Philadelphia, whence it was taken to +Bordentown. + + +THE "JOHN BULL" ARRIVES AT BORDENTOWN. + +The following circumstances connected with the arrival of the engine +at Bordentown, N.J., are related by Isaac Dripps, Esq., for many years +master mechanic of the Camden and Am boy Railroad, and afterward +superintendent of motive power of the Pennsylvania Railroad, who is +now, after a busy life, enjoying a peaceable retirement at his +pleasant home in West Philadelphia. + +Mr. Dripps, who is now in the eighty-second year of his age, was +employed by Robert and Edwin Stevens in repairing and assisting with +their steamboats on the Delaware River and at Hoboken as early as +1829. When the "John Bull" arrived in Philadelphia he was detailed by +Robert Stevens to attend to the transportation of the engine to +Bordentown, where it was landed safely the last week in August, 1831. + +The boiler and cylinders were in place, but the loose parts--rods, +pistons, valves, etc.--were packed in boxes. No drawings or directions +for putting the engine together had come to hand, and young Dripps, +who had never seen a locomotive, found great difficulty in discovering +how to put the parts in place, alone and unassisted, as Robert +Stevens, who had returned from Europe, was absent at Hoboken at the +time attending to other matters. + + +DIMENSIONS OF ENGINE AND PARTS. + +The bronze bass-relief upon the monument, made from the working +drawing furnished by Mr. Dripps, is an exact representation of the +locomotive when it arrived in America. + +The engine originally weighed about ten tons. The boiler was thirteen +feet long and three feet six inches in diameter. The cylinders were +nine inches by twenty inches. There were four driving wheels, four +feet six inches in diameter, arranged with outside cranks for +connecting parallel rods, but owing to the sharp curves on the road +these rods were never used. The driving wheels were made with cast +iron hubs and wooden (locust) spokes and felloes. The tires were of +wrought iron, three quarters of an inch thick, the tread being five +inches and the depth of flange one and a half inches. The gauge was +originally five feet from center to center of rails. The boiler was +composed of sixty-two flues seven feet six inches long, two inches in +diameter; the furnace was three feet seven inches long and three feet +two inches high, for burning wood. The steam ports were one and +one-eighth inches by six and a half inches; the exhaust ports one and +one-eighth by six and a half inches; grate surface, ten feet eight +inches; fire box surface, thirty-six feet; flue surface, two hundred +and thirteen feet; weight, without fuel or water, twenty-two thousand +four hundred and twenty-five pounds. + +After the valves were in gear and the engine in motion, two levers on +the engineman's side moved back and forth continuously. When it was +necessary to put the locomotive on the turntable, enginemen who were +skilled in the handling of the engines first put the valves out of +gear by turning the handle down, and then worked the levers by hand, +thus moving the valves to the proper position and stopping the engine +at the exact point desired. + +The reversing gear was a very complicated affair. The two eccentrics +were secured to a sleeve or barrel, which fitted loosely on the crank +shaft, between the two cranks, so as to turn freely. A treadle was +used to change the position of this loose eccentric sleeve on the +shaft of the driving wheel (moving it to the right or left) when it +was necessary to reverse. Two carriers were secured firmly to the body +of this shaft (one on each side of the eccentrics); one carrier worked +the engine ahead, the other back. The small handle on the right side +of the boiler was used to lift the eccentric rod (which passed forward +to the rock shaft on the forward part of the engine) off the pin, and +thus put the valves out of gear before it was possible to shift the +sleeve and reverse the engine. + +Great similarity will be noticed in the American locomotives built for +many years after the arrival of the "John Bull," especially in the +matter of making the keys, brasses, etc., on the connecting rods, and +in the construction of valves, fire box and tubes. Even the old plan +of setting the ends of the exhaust nozzle high up in the smoke box, +which was discontinued when the petticoat pipe came in use, is now +again resorted to in connection with the extended smoke box of modern +locomotives. + + +FIRST TRIAL OF THE LOCOMOTIVE. + +Mr. Dripps informs me that, after many attempts, he succeeded in +putting the parts of the engine together, and when it was placed in +position upon the track he notified Robert Stevens of the fact. Mr. +Stevens came at once to Bordentown, as his anxiety to see it in +operation was very great. Upon his arrival the boiler was pumped full +of water, by hand, from the hogshead in which it was brought. Benjamin +Higgins made the fire with pine wood, and when the scale[5] showed +thirty pounds steam pressure, Isaac Dripps opened the throttle, Robert +Stevens standing by his side, and the first locomotive on this great +highway _moved_. It would be difficult to describe the feeling of +these three men as they stood upon the moving engine--the first human +freight drawn by steam on what was afterward destined to be the great +highway connecting the two most populous cities of the American +continent; a most important link in the chain of intercommunication +between the North and South and West. What possibilities must have +dawned upon them if they cared to lift the veil of the future! + + [Footnote 5: The dial gauge was not in use at that time.] + +During the next few days after this preliminary trial the engine was +again taken apart, and as a few of the parts needed modification some +time intervened before it was again in running order. It will be +remembered that young Dripps had never seen a locomotive before and +there were no "old engineers" to consult in regard to the construction +or management of the engine. + + +A TENDER IMPROVISED. + +As no tender came with the locomotive, one was improvised from a +four-wheel flat car that had been used on construction work, which was +soon equipped to carry water and wood. The water tank consisted of a +large whisky cask which was procured from a Bordentown storekeeper, +and this was securely fastened on the center of this four-wheeled car. +A hole was bored up through the car into the barrel and into it a +piece of two-inch tin pipe was fastened, projecting below the platform +of the car. It now became necessary to devise some plan to get the +water from the tank to the pump and into the boiler around the turns +under the cars, and as a series of rigid sections of pipe was not +practicable, young Dripps procured four sections of hose two feet +long, which he had made out of shoe leather by a Bordentown shoemaker. +These were attached to the pipes and securely fastened by bands of +waxed thread. The hogshead was filled with water, a supply of wood for +fuel was obtained, and the engine and tender were ready for work. + + +STEAM OR HORSE POWER? + +At that time the question whether the railroad should be operated by +steam locomotives or horse power had already become a political issue. +The farmers and other horse owners and dealers, who had made money by +selling hay and grain and horses to the stage and freight wagon lines, +were discussing the possibilities of loss of business. + + +TRIAL OF THE ENGINE BEFORE THE LEGISLATURE. + +Many of the members of the New Jersey Legislature were farmers. The +management of the Camden and Amboy Railroad was anxious to give these +gentlemen and other prominent citizens an opportunity to examine a +steam locomotive at work and to ride in a railway train. + +Sixty years ago to-day, on the 12th of November, 1831, by special +invitation, the members of the Legislature and other State officials +were driven from Trenton to Bordentown in stages to witness the trial. +Among them were John P. Jackson (father of the present general +superintendent of the United Railroads of New Jersey division of the +Pennsylvania Railroad, who afterward took a prominent part in the +affairs of the New Jersey Railroad, whose termini were at New +Brunswick and Jersey City); Benjamin Fish (director for fifty years +for the Camden and Amboy Railroad), afterward president of the +Freehold and Jamesburg Agricultural Railroad; Ashbel Welch, chief +engineer and superintendent of the Belvidere and Delaware Railroad for +many years, and president of the United Railroads of New Jersey during +the years immediately preceding the lease to the Pennsylvania +Railroad; Edwin A. and Robert L. Stevens, afterward managers of the +road. + + +FIRST CARS. + +Two coaches built so that they might be drawn by horses were attached +to the locomotive. These coaches were of the English pattern. They had +four wheels and resembled three carriage bodies joined together, with +seats in each facing each other. There were three doors at each side. +These cars were made by a firm of carriage manufacturers, M.P. and +M.E. Green, of Hoboken, and were thought to be very handsome. The New +Jersey law makers were somewhat dubious, it is said, about risking +their lives in this novel train, but at last they concluded to do so +and the train started and made many trips back and forth without +accident or delay. Madam Murat, wife of Prince Murat, a nephew of +Napoleon Bonaparte, who was then living in Bordentown, insisted on +being the first woman to ride on a train hauled by a steam locomotive +in the State. + +In the evening a grand entertainment was given to the Legislature by +the railroad company at Arnell's Hotel, Bordentown, and it has been +whispered that the festivities kept up until a late hour in the night. +Whether that be true or not, it is generally conceded that from that +time to this the Legislature of New Jersey have always been more or +less interested in the affairs of the Camden and Amboy Railroad and +its successors, or _vice versa_. + +This first movement of passengers by steam in the State of New Jersey +was regarded as a success from every point of view, and in +commemoration of the important events here enacted the boundaries of +this first piece of railway laid between New York and Philadelphia, +which were identified and staked out by Isaac Dripps a half century +afterward, have been definitely marked for all time by the +Pennsylvania Railroad Company, who have erected these handsome stones. + + +EARLY DIFFICULTIES. + +Among the earliest troubles of the young engineer and his employer, +Robert L. Stevens, was the fact that as there were only four wheels +under the engines, they were derailed frequently in going around +curves; so it was necessary to provide an appliance to prevent this. + + +THE FIRST PILOT. + +The first pilot was planned, 1832, by Robert L. Stevens. A frame made +of oak, eight by four feet, pinned together at the corners, was made. +Under one end of it a pair of wheels twenty-six inches in diameter +were placed in boxes, and the other end was fastened to an extension +of the axle outside of the forward driving wheels, it having been +found by experience that a play of about one inch on each side on the +pedestals of the front wheels of the pilot or engine was necessary in +order to get around the curves then in the tracks. For years afterward +there was very little change in constructing the pilots from that +originally applied to the "John Bull." + +The spiral spring, which held the front wheels of the pilot in place, +acted substantially as the center pin of a truck. The turntables in +use on the road were so short that it was necessary to unconnect and +take off these pilots before turning the engine. After the pilot was +adopted the forward large wheel on right of the engine was made loose +on the shaft in order to afford additional play in going around +curves. Other[6] changes and additions were also made in the +locomotive. + + [Footnote 6: Changes in the locomotive "John Bull" since date of + construction, 1830: + + Steam dome changed from rear of boiler forward to a part over what + was called the "man-hole," and throttle valve placed therein. + + Steam pipes changed to outside of boiler, connecting new dome with + smoke box, entering it on each side. + + In the beginning the reverse gear was changed from one single + eccentric rod on each side to two on each side, connecting on to + the same eccentric wheel, and the lifting rod, in pulling back, + lifted the forward gear hook off the rocker arm, and the back + motion hook then connecting on the rocker arm reversed the engine. + + Side rods were never used. + + Driver spring was changed from a bearing under the pedestal boxes + to a point over the boxes. + + The pilot was attached in this manner: + + Right forward wheel being loose, forward axle extended eight + inches beyond box on each side; to this was attached the beam of + the pilot, having play of about one inch between box and pedestal + plate to act while going around curves. The weight of forward part + of engine rested upon a cross brace of the two-wheel pilot, which + took bearing by a screw pin surrounded by a spring, by turning + which pin the weight on the drivers could be adjusted. + + A brace used as a hand rail was added on top of the frame, bracing + frame and acting as a guide to the driving springs. + + Water-cocks changed from right to left side of the boiler. + + Bell, whistle and headlight were added. + + Balance safety valve scale was changed forward to a point over + barrel of boiler, the secret valve being over the new dome.] + + +IMPROVEMENTS IN LOCOMOTIVE BUILDING. + +During 1831-35 the company's shops were located at Hoboken, N.J., and +during the winter of 1832-33, three locomotives were commenced at +these shops (two completed before March, 1833, the other in April), +the valves, cylinders, pistons, etc., coming from England, the boilers +being made under the direction of Robert L. Stevens. It was his +opinion that the "John Bull" was too heavy, and the new boilers were +built smaller and lighter, so that the engines, when completed, +weighed eight instead of ten tons. With these three engines, which +were delivered to the railroad company at South Amboy, the stone +blocks and other material for the permanent track was delivered along +the line of the road. + + +BALDWIN'S FIRST LOCOMOTIVES. + +The importation of the locomotive "John Bull" was destined to have a +far-reaching influence in moulding the types of early American +locomotives. + +After the demonstration of November 12, 1831, the engine was taken +from the track and stored in a shed constructed to protect it until +such time as the track should be completed. + +It was about this time that the proprietor of Peale's Museum, in +Philadelphia, applied to Matthias Baldwin, an ingenious mathematical +instrument maker, for a small locomotive to run upon a circular track +on the floor of the museum. Mr. Baldwin had heard of this locomotive. +He came to Bordentown and applied to Isaac Dripps for permission to +inspect it. Mr. Dripps tells me he remembers very well the day that he +explained to Mr. Baldwin the construction of the various working +parts. + +Mr. Baldwin built a toy engine for Mr. Peale, which was so successful, +that in 1832 he was called upon by the Philadelphia and Germantown +Railroad Company to construct the old "Ironsides,"[7] which was +similar in many ways to the "John Bull," as an examination of the +model preserved in the National Museum will show. The success of this +engine laid the foundation for the great Baldwin Locomotive Works, +which is in existence to-day, sending locomotives to every part of the +globe. + + [Footnote 7: A handsome model of the "Ironsides" was presented to + the United States National Museum by the Baldwin Locomotive + Company in 1888.] + + +THE LINE FROM BORDENTOWN TO SOUTH AMBOY. + +The Camden and Amboy Company having obtained control of the steamboat +routes between Philadelphia and Bordentown, and between South Amboy +and New York, directed their energies to completing the railway across +the State. + +Although the grading of the road from Bordentown to Camden had been +commenced in the summer of 1831, work on that end of the line was +abandoned for about two years, the entire construction force being put +on the work between Bordentown and South Amboy. + +The road from Bordentown to Hightstown was completed by the middle of +September, 1832, and from Hightstown to South Amboy in the December +following. The "deep cut" at South Amboy, and the curves of the track +there, gave the civil engineers great trouble. + + +THE FIRST AMERICAN STANDARD TRACK. + +The laying of the track through the "deep cut" led to an event of +great importance to future railway construction. The authorities at +Sing Sing having failed to deliver the stone blocks rapidly enough, +Mr. Stevens ordered hewn wooden cross ties to be laid temporarily, and +the rail to be directly spiked thereto. A number of these ties were +laid on the sharpest curves in the cut. They showed such satisfactory +properties when the road began to be operated that they were permitted +to remain, and the stone blocks already in the track were replaced by +wooden ties as rapidly as practicable. Without doubt the piece of +track in "deep cut" was the first in the world to be laid according to +the present American practice of spiking the rail directly to the +cross tie. + + +THE LINE OPENED BETWEEN BORDENTOWN AND SOUTH AMBOY. + +Among the memoranda compiled by Benjamin Fish, published in his +memoir, I find the following: + + "First cars were put on the Camden and Amboy Railroad + September 19, 1832. They were drawn by two horses. They took + the directors and a few friends from Bordentown to Hightstown + and back. + + "On December 17, 1832, the first passengers were taken from + Bordentown through to South Amboy. Fifty or sixty people went. + It was a rainy day. + + "On January 24, 1833, the first freight cars were put on the + railroad. There were three cars, drawn by one horse each, with + six or seven thousand pounds of freight on each car. + + "Freight came from New York by steam boat to South Amboy. I + drove the first car, John Twine drove the second car and + Edmund Page the third one. We came to the Sand Hills (near + Bordentown) by railroad, there loaded the goods on wagons (it + was winter, and the river was frozen over), arriving in + Philadelphia by sunrise next morning. The goods left New York + at 12 o'clock, noon. This was done by the old firm of Hill, + Fish & Abbe." + +Immediately after the road from Bordentown to South Amboy was +completed, and as late as the summer of 1833, passengers were brought +from Philadelphia to the wharf at White Hill by steamboat, and from +there were rapidly driven to Amboy. Two horses were hitched to each +car, and as they were driven continuously on the run, three changes of +horses were required, the finest horses obtainable being purchased for +this purpose. The time consumed in crossing the State (thirty-four +miles) was from two and a half to three hours. + +Early in September, 1833, the locomotive "John Bull" was put on the +train leaving Bordentown about 7 o'clock in the morning, and returning +leaving South Amboy at 4 P.M. This was the first passenger train +regularly run by steam on the route between New York and Philadelphia. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE BRITISH CRUISER ÆOLUS. + + +The new twin screw cruiser Æolus was launched from the Devonport +Dockyard on the 13th November. The first keel plate of the Æolus was +laid in position on the 10th March last year, and up to the present +time fully two thirds of the estimated weight has been worked into her +structure. Says _Industries_: She is built of steel, with large +phosphor bronze castings for stern post, shaft brackets, and stem, the +latter terminating in a formidable ram. The hull is sheathed with +wood, and will be covered with copper to enable her to keep the seas +for a lengthened period on remote stations, where there is a lack of +docking accommodation. All the vital portions, such as machinery, +boilers, magazines, and steering gear, are protected by a steel deck +running fore and aft, terminating forward in the ram, of which it +virtually forms a part. Subdivision has been made a special feature in +this type of vessel, and the hull under the upper deck is divided into +nearly 100 water tight compartments. Between perpendiculars the Æolus +measures 300 ft. in length, the extreme breadth being 43 ft. 8 in., +and moulded depth 22 ft. 9 in., with a displacement of 3,600 tons on a +mean draught of water of 17 ft. 6 in. She will be supplied by Messrs. +Hawthorn, Leslie & Co., of Newcastle on Tyne, with two sets of +vertical triple-expansion engines, capable of developing collectively +9,000 h.p., which is estimated to realize a speed of 19.75 knots. As +vertical engines have been adopted, the necessary protection of the +cylinders, which project above the steel protective deck, is obtained +by fitting an armored breastwork of steel 5 in. thick, supported by a +7 in. teak backing, around the engine hatchway. Provision is made for +a bunker coal capacity of 400 tons, and this is calculated to give a +radius of action of 8,000 knots at a reduced speed of 10 knots. The +armament of the ship will consist of two 6 in. breech-loading guns on +central pivot stands, one mounted on the poop and another on the +forecastle; six quick-firing 4.7 in. guns, mounted three on each +broadside; eight quick-firing 6-pounder guns, four on each broadside; +besides one 3-pounder Hotchkiss and four 5-barrel Nordenfeldt guns. In +addition four torpedo tubes are fitted, one forward, one aft, and one +on each broadside. All the necessary appliances for manipulating the +engines, guns, steering gear, etc., when in action, are placed in a +conning tower built of steel 3 in. thick, and situated at the after +end of the forecastle. The Æolus will be rigged with two pole mast, +carrying light fore and aft sails only. Her total cost is estimated at +£188,350, of which £100,000 is regarded as the cost of hull. When +complete she will be manned by a complement of 254 officers and men. +In the slipway vacated by the Æolus a second class cruiser, to be +named the Hermione, will be laid down forthwith. The Hermione may be +regarded as an enlarged Æolus, and will measure 320 ft. in length, 49 +ft. 6 in. in breadth, with a displacement of 4,360 tons, on a mean +draught of water of 19 ft. The new cruiser will be supplied with +propelling machinery of the same power as the Æolus, to be constructed +in the dockyard from Admiralty designs. The coal capacity of the +Hermione is to be 400 tons, and her estimated speed is 19.5 knots. + + * * * * * + + + + +TRIALS OF H.M. CRUISER BLAKE. + + +Special interest, says _Engineering_, attaches to the trials of the +protected cruiser Blake, in view of the assertion frequently made by +Admiralty authorities, from the first lord downward, to the effect +that with her sister ship Blenheim she would surpass anything hitherto +attempted. The condition of steaming continuously for long periods and +over great distances at 20 knots per hour was made a ruling condition +in the design, and with forced draught she was to be able to attain 22 +knots when occasion required. But all idea of getting these high +results has been abandoned. Our readers do not need to be reminded of +the frequent failure of boilers in the navy. Although in the newer +ships, profit has been gained by experience, larger boilers being +provided with separate combustion chambers for each furnace; the +Blake's boilers belong to the type of defective design, with the +result that, were they pressed under forced draught, the tubes would +leak. It was, therefore, decided some time ago to be content with +natural draught results, and on Wednesday, Nov. 18, the vessel was +taken out from Portsmouth, and ran for seven hours with satisfactory +results, considerably exceeding the contract power. But the speed was +but 19.12 knots, and 22 knots can never be attained, except, of +course, new boilers be provided, and when an expenditure of 5 or 6 per +cent. of the first cost of the vessel (433,755_l._) would give her new +boilers, it seems a pity to be content with the lesser speed, more +particularly as the vessel is well designed and the engines efficient. + +[Illustration: THE NEW BRITISH CRUISER BLAKE.] + +Before dealing with the engines and their trials, it may be stated +that the vessel is of 9000 tons displacement at 25 ft. 9 in. mean +draught. Her length is 375 ft. and her beam 65 ft. She was built at +Chatham, and the armament consists of two 92 in. 22-ton breech-loading +guns, ten 6-in. 5-ton guns and sixteen 3-pounder quick-firing, and +eight machine guns, with torpedo launching carriages and tubes. The +propelling engines were manufactured by Messrs. Maudslay Sons & Field, +Lambeth. They were designed to develop 13,000 horses with natural, and +20,000 with forced draught. They consist of four distinct sets of +triple expansion inverted cylinder engines, and occupy with boilers, +etc., nearly two-thirds of the length of the ship. They are placed in +four separate compartments, two sets being coupled together on the +starboard and port sides respectively for driving each screw. There +are four high pressure cylinders, 36 in. in diameter; four +intermediate cylinders, 52 in.; and four low pressure cylinders, 80 +in.; with a stroke of 4 ft. Each set of engines has an air pump 33 in. +in diameter and 2 ft. stroke, and a surface condenser having 12,800 +tubes and an aggregate surface of 2250 square feet, the length of the +tubes between the tube plates being 9 ft. There is also in each +compartment one centrifugal circulating pump driven by a small +independent engine, of the diameter of 3 ft. 9 in., and capable of +pumping from the bilge as well as the sea. The screw propellers are 18 +ft. 3 in. in diameter with a mean pitch of 24 ft. 6 in. + +Steam is furnished by six main double-ended boilers, having four +furnaces at each end, and one auxiliary boiler, with a heating surface +of 900 sq. ft., the dimensions of the former being 15 ft. 2 in. by 18 +ft., and of the latter 10 ft. by 9 ft. long. The total area of +firegrate surface is 863 sq. ft, and of heating surface 26.936 sq. ft. +Each engine room is kept cool by four 4 ft. 6 in. fans. Forced draught +is produced by twelve 5 ft. 6 in. fans, three being stationed in each +stokehold. The electric lighting machinery consists of three dynamos +of Siemens manufacture driven by a Willans engine, each of which is +capable of producing a current of 400 amperes. The after main engines +can be easily disconnected and worked separately for slow speeds. + +The Blake had her steering gear tested on Tuesday, Nov. 17. With both +engines going full power ahead and turning to starboard, with her helm +hard over 35 deg., she completed the circle in 4 min. 40 sec., the +port circle being completed in 5 min. 5 sec. The diameter was +estimated approximately to be about 575 yards. Forty-five seconds were +required to change from engine steering to steering by hand. By manual +gear the helm was moved from midships to hard a-starboard in 40 sec., +from starboard to hard a-port in 2 min. 10 sec., and from hard a-port +to midships in 2 min. 20 sec. The heavy balanced rudder and the speed +of the ship throwing great labor upon the crew manning the wheels, the +hand gear was afterward disconnected and the connection with the +steering engine completed in 40 sec. + +[Illustration: THE NEW BRITISH CRUISER BLAKE] + +On Nov. 18, when the vessel went on speed trials, the draught of the +vessel was 24 ft. 8 in. forward and 26 ft. 8 in. aft, which gave her +the mean load immersion provided for in her design. There was a +singular absence of vibration, said to be due to the space over which +the machinery is spread, but perhaps also due, in part at least, to +the number of cranks, as the cylinders deliver six throws throughout +the circle of revolution. The results of each hour's steaming are as +under: + +Hours. Revolutions. Steam. Power. +1st hour 86.86 120.6 13,568 +2d " 89.26 128.0 15,298 +3d " 88.55 125.0 14,251 +4th " 89.58 127.6 14,759 +5th " 89.40 125.0 14,394 +6th " 89.55 125.0 14,512 +7th " 89.15 126.0 14,893 + +The trial was originally intended to continue for eight hours, but at +the end of the seventh, as the light began to fade, and as, moreover, +the engines were working with a smoothness and efficiency that showed +no signs of flagging, it was considered expedient to terminate the +run. + +Steam pressure in boilers 125.5 lb. +Air pressure in stoke holds 0.42 in. +Revolutions per minute, starboard 88.41 +Revolutions per minute, port 89.39 + + | Starboard. | Port. | + +---------+--------+--------+--------| + | Forward| Aft | Forward| Aft | +Vacuum in condensers. | 27.85| 27.85| 28.1 | 29.1 | +Mean pressure in cylinders, high | 43.04| 38.95| 42.36| 42.45| +Mean pressure in cylinders, inter.| 31.49| 30.82| 30.17| 28.38| +Mean pressure in cylinders, low | 11.68| 12.4 | 12.85| 12.32| +Indicated horse power each engine | 3631.42| 3589.07| 3721.37| 3583.50| +Total | 7220.39 | 7304.88 | +Collectively | 14525.37 | + +As will be seen, the collective power exceeds the contract power under +natural draught by 1,525.37 horses, and was obtained with less than +the Admiralty limit of air pressure. The coal used on the occasion was +Harris' deep navigation, but no account was taken of the amount +consumed. Four runs were made on the measured mile with and against +the tide, the mean of means disclosing a speed of 19.12 knots. The +average speed of the seven hours' steaming, as measured by patent log, +was 19.28 knots. This fell short by over three-quarters of a knot of +what was anticipated in proportion to the power indicated by the +engines. Up to the limit of air pressure used the boilers answered +admirably. + + * * * * * + + + + +HINTS TO SHIPMASTERS. + + +A Master in charge of a tramp steamer in these days _must_, if he +wishes for any comfort in life, take good care of himself, for the +pressure and hurry which is inseparable from his position, combined +with the responsibilities and anxieties of his calling, put a very +great strain upon him, and will, in time, unless he takes special +care, have a serious effect on his health; this is more particularly +the case with men of the nervous temperament. It cannot be expected +that in this age, when so many thousands of people on shore fail from +overwork and "high pressure," steamship masters, who as a class, are +overworked and harrassed to a serious extent, should altogether +escape. Again, unless a shipmaster takes an interest in the health, +comfort, and well-being of his crew, he, in the first place, neglects +one of his duties, and, secondly, sows the seeds of discomfort and +annoyance to himself. Let us consider his duties to himself +personally. + +First, then, he must prepare himself to undergo, periodically, the +discomfort of want of proper rest and irregularity in times of meals; +he may, for instance, not be able to leave the bridge for over +forty-eight hours or more on a stretch, and, of course, any shipmaster +who may read this will know that this is no uncommon occurrence; +during this time he may be unable to get regular meals, and what he +does get may have to be eaten in a hurry and at an anxious time when +he cannot properly enjoy and digest it. + +A time like this may be followed by a period of rest, when the days +will hang heavily on his hands, and he will be tempted to long +afternoon sleeps merely to get through the weary hours. + +Now, as a course of this kind of thing is bound, unless care be +exercised, to act unfavorably on the digestion and bring on some form +of dyspepsia, so also the nights and days of great anxiety and moments +of great strain will, besides increasing the dyspeptic tendency, be +apt to bring on nervousness in some form or other. It is a fact that +in these times, and often from want of attention to health, nearly +every shipmaster long in harness is more or less nervous. + +There are people in the present day who have actually talked of making +their chief engineer (who exercises his special trade at sea or on +shore as suits himself and is in no sense _a seaman_) the master of +the vessel, and turning the shipmaster into a mere pilot. Those who +talk in this way forget that to do this the _responsibility_ must be +shifted on to the engineer. Of course such a change as this cannot +happen, the country would not stand it; but I merely mention it to +show the vast amount of ignorance there is, even among those who +should be well informed, as to the real strain and responsibility on +the modern shipmaster. + +The master then, if anxious to do the best for himself, should, if +possible, be a total abstainer, for two reasons: first, because, as he +will be obliged to be irregular in his feeding, alcohol in any form +will do him harm and tend to augment the dyspepsia. Secondly, because, +often in times of great mental strain, combined with exposure, a glass +of spirits will give _great temporary relief_ (which is of itself a +dangerous fact for a weak-minded man), but this will always be +followed by depression, and will in reality be doing great harm +instead of lasting good. Spirituous liquor may be necessary for a few, +but these should use it under medical advice if at all. It is a hard +thing for many men to give up their grog, but there is not a man of +any experience in the merchant service who has not seen its blasting +effects on many a master and officer. It is almost impossible to find +a substitute for it which shall recommend itself to anyone who has +really a liking for it, about the only things being coffee, lime +juice, or lemonade and ginger ale. So-called temperance drinks are all +of them very nasty stuff, besides containing a large percentage of +alcohol; rather than swallow these one had better not change his +habits. The master then, being an abstainer, should also give some +care to his diet. Very heavy meals of meat and strong food should not +be taken at sea, because there are no means of taking proper exercise, +and it is impossible to work them off properly. Again, long, heavy, +after-dinner sleeps should not be indulged in; a quiet nap of ten +minutes would in many cases be beneficial, but the long sleep up to +five o'clock is positively harmful to any man. One of the _best_ +things a master can do is to take up some work. No matter what it is +so long as he takes an interest in it, such as joiner work, fret work, +painting, writing, learning a musical instrument or a foreign +language, or anything of that sort. It will be of incalculable benefit +to both mind and body. + +On occasions when it is absolutely necessary to be on deck for long +periods, the steward ought to have orders to attend _himself +personally_ to the master's wants--to see that his meals are properly +cooked and brought up to him at regular intervals, and that there is +always a _well made_ cup of coffee to be had when wanted. The ordinary +cup of coffee as made at sea is generally a beastly mixture and not +worth drinking. The steward has an easy life and should not be spared +at these times, but should always be turned out when wanted, _night or +day_, and made to look after these things himself, and a man who +growls at having this to do or who will not take the proper trouble to +see things well cooked and served up nicely with cheerfulness should +_at once_ be discharged, and a good man, of whom there are plenty, +shipped in his place. The master, of course, should always be on the +bridge when required, and in fog certainly all the time; but many men +are over-cautious in this respect through sheer nervousness, and +oftentimes expose and fatigue themselves to no purpose, harass their +officers, and make them unreliable, so that when the time comes that +their presence on deck is absolutely necessary, they are, through +exhaustion of mind and body, in anything but a fit state to take +charge of the ship, or be cool and collected in a moment of sudden +emergency. Should a man feel that through hard work and exposure he is +becoming shaky, he should at once leave off _entirely_ the false +relief which drink gives and consult a physician. A _good_ man with +_experience_ will in almost any case be able to help him, and, besides +medicine, give him such hints for regulating his diet and mode of +living as will enable him to bear better than before the strain and +wear and tear of his life.[1] + + [Footnote 1: For the _fluttering_, unsteady feeling often felt, + the following, if not abused, will be found beneficial: Take as + much bromide of potassium as will lie, not heaped up, on a + shilling, and half a teaspoonful of sal volatile (aromatic spirits + of ammonia). Mix in a wine glass full of water; but this should + only be taken when absolutely necessary, and not habitually.] + +As to the crew. A master who has full command of himself ought to be +able to rule judiciously even the most unruly crew, but before he is +in a really _strong_ position to do this, he must treat them fairly +and honestly. In many cases a bad start is made with a new set of men +(of course this will not apply to the high class mail steamers, nor +perhaps to what are termed weekly boats). They come on board and find +their forecastle just as the last crew left it, full of a week's +filth,[2] possibly lumbered up with hauling lines and what-not, +wanting painting badly, and often showing unmistakable signs of +overhead leakage. This is quite enough to make a respectable man +discontented, and naturally so. In common fairness, the often wretched +place that the men have to occupy ought to be put in decent order to +receive the new crew. Again, they should be distinctly made to +understand, when signing articles, what their _food_ will be, and what +their pay and allowances will come to. It is to be feared that bad +feeding is the cause of much trouble in these days. From first coming +on board discipline should be _enforced_; many officers, both young +and old, are greatly remiss in enforcing this, with the consequence +that day by day it is harder to do, till at last it is impossible, and +anarchy reigns triumphant. If a seaman finds that he is _fairly_ +treated, and that he _must_ obey orders, he will in nine cases out of +ten conduct himself well, and give no trouble. The more high class +type of man the master is the better he will treat his men, and the +more exacting he will be in compelling discipline, both in his +officers and crew. + + [Footnote 2: This should not be. It is most decidedly one of the + master's duties to see that the men on _both_ sides of the + forecastle keep their places clean, and for this purpose it is a + very good plan to give them an hour or two every week, and it is + only right that if a crew fled a forecastle clean to receive them, + they should be made to leave it in the same state.] + +Engineers and firemen are often sources of annoyance in these days. +Firemen are a lower class generally than seamen, and more inclined to +insubordination; in many cases the engineers are quite incapable of +keeping them in proper order, and it sometimes happens that in an +engine room row it falls to the lot of the deck officers to restore +discipline. + +The master should remember that his engineers are officers of the +ship, with their own responsibility, that his chief engineer is of +some importance on board, and that it is necessary in the owner's +interests that they should work together amicably. In ordinary cargo +vessels, the engineer is often better educated than the master +himself, and should _never_ be treated as an inferior while he behaves +with proper respect to the master. To his own deck officers the master +should behave with ordinary courtesy, and, if he finds them +trustworthy, should not spoil them and render them unreliable by +always keeping on or about the bridge; an officer who is never left by +himself in charge will soon fancy himself incapable. It is to be +feared that many young officers are spoiled in this way. + +Familiarity with the men before the mast is always unwise. It is not a +good practice in ordinary vessels, where a new crew is shipped each +voyage, to begin by calling the men "Tom" and "Jack." An officer to +have any real command over the men _must_ keep himself apart from them +and show them the difference of their positions. A judicious +shipmaster will warn his young mates about this. + +The usual system of mess room for engineers, the officers messing in +the cabin with the master, is a good one, though it is a question +whether it would not be a _very_ good thing if the chief engineer +always messed with the master so long as he was a decent, respectable +man. It is often one of the causes of ill health in the master that he +keeps too much to himself, seldom if ever speaking to his officers +except on business connected with the ship. A man who does this has +far too much time to think, and if he has any trivial illness is apt +to brood over it and actually make himself ill. + +It is much wiser and better for all concerned that the master should, +within certain limits, be on friendly terms at any rate with his first +mate, if not with all his officers. Any man with common tact can +always find means for checking undue familiarity, and it will +generally be found that officers treated as equals instead, as is +often the case, as though they were an inferior race of beings, will +be much more inclined to do their work with zeal, and to back up the +master in all his troubles. Many men when they get command seem to +forget that they ever were officers themselves. It is the general +opinion that the strict ship is the most comfortable one, and as a +rule the master who will take the trouble to enforce proper discipline +fore and aft is just the very man who will also be considerate and +courteous to those who sail under his command--whatever be their rank. + +To govern others well a man _must_ first have learned to govern +himself. The first lesson for a young seaman to learn is obedience, +and unless he does learn this lesson he will not know how to enforce +it when he becomes an officer, and still less will he be fit for his +position when he obtains command. It is to be feared that many _never_ +learn this lesson, and that this is the cause of much of the +insubordination rife in these days. + +If the modern hard-driven shipmaster would exercise greater care as to +his health and habits, and would strive more after being a true +_master_ over his ship's company, and this is easier to be gained by +respect than fear, things would go on more smoothly, and when he did +get away for a time from all the petty annoyances of shore, which are +more especially felt in his home port, he would have a time of +comparative comfort, would live longer and happier, and, possibly, +escape the terrible attacks of nervous depression which have finished +the career of many a too finely strung _fin de siecle_ shipmaster. +--_Nautical Magazine._ + + * * * * * + + + + +ALFRED TENNYSON. + + +Alfred Tennyson, the poet laureate of England, was born at Sornersby, +Lincolnshire, April 9, 1810, and was the third of a large family of +children, eight of whom were boys and three girls. His father was a +clergyman, a man of remarkably fine abilities; his mother, as should +be the mother of a great poet, was a deeply religious woman with a +sensitive spirit that was keenly attuned to the aspects of nature. It +was from her that Tennyson inherited his poetic temperament combined +with the love of study that was a characteristic of his father. +Tennyson's brother, Charles, superintended the construction of his +younger brother's first poetic composition, which was written upon a +slate when the great laureate was a child of seven. Tennyson's parents +were people who had sufficient of this world's wealth to educate their +sons well, and Alfred was sent to Trinity College, where he as a mere +lad won the gold medal for a poem in blank verse entitled "Timbuctoo," +which is to be found in all the volumes of his collected works, though +many of the other poems produced in that period are not given place. + +[Illustration: ALFRED TENNYSON, POET LAUREATE OF ENGLAND.] + +His first volume of poems was published in 1827, and in them the +influence of Byron, whom he passionately admired, is everywhere +visible. In 1830 he issued another volume, which defined his position +as a poet of great promise, but which was criticised by Christopher +North with the most biting sarcasm, and which was held up to ridicule +by the great Lockhart. More than ten years followed in which the poet +wrote nothing, then he began a literary career which lifted him to the +highest place in the literary world, a place which he has since held, +and as a lyric poet he has never been equaled. + +In 1850 he issued that most wonderful production in any language, "In +Memoriam," which has enriched the English language by hundreds of +quotations and which in its delicate sentiment, its deep sorrow, its +reflective tenderness, has been the voice of many a soul similarly +bereft. + +Had Tennyson never written anything but "In Memoriam," his fame would +have been assured, but "The Idylls of the King," "Enoch Arden," "The +Princess," and other great compositions will stand forever to his +credit. Of Tennyson's personal character much has been said and +written. As pure and sweet as his poetry, beloved by a large circle of +friends, active still in literary work, it may be said of him that he +has always worn + + "without reproach + The grand old name of gentleman," + +and that his mellow old age is the ripening into fruit of "the white +flower of a blameless life."--_Chicago Graphic._ + + * * * * * + + + + +FIFTIETH YEAR OF THE PRINCE OF WALES. + + +In the case of a distinguished person whose public life has a claim to +be regarded with national and social interest, his fiftieth birthday +must be considered a jubilee; and Monday, Nov. 9, in the present year, +completing that number of anniversaries for the eldest son of her +Majesty the Queen, the heir apparent to the crown of the United +Kingdom, is manifestly an occasion demanding such congratulations as +must arise from sentiments of loyalty to the monarchical constitution +and of respect for the reigning family. His Royal Highness, it is +understood, has preferred to have it treated simply as a private and +domestic affair, entertaining a party of his personal friends, and not +inviting any formal addresses from the representatives of municipal +corporations or other public bodies. Nevertheless, it may be permitted +to journalists, taking note of this period in the life of so important +a contemporary personage, to express their continued good wishes for +his health and happiness, and to indulge in a few retrospective +observations on his past career. + +Born on Nov. 9, 1841, second of the offspring of Queen Victoria by her +marriage with the late Prince Consort, Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, +inherited the greatest blessing of humanity, that of having good +parents and wise guardians of his childhood and youth. His instruction +at home was, no doubt, wider in range of studies than that of ordinary +English boys, including an acquaintance with several European +languages and with modern history, needful to qualify him for the +duties of a prince. He was further educated at Christ Church, Oxford, +and at Trinity College, Cambridge; was enrolled a law student of the +Middle Temple and held a commission in the army. + +His earliest appearance in a leading part on any public occasion was +in 1858 or 1859, we think at the laying of the foundation stone of the +Lambeth School of Art at Vauxhall; but after the lamented death of his +father, in December, 1861, the Prince of Wales naturally became the +most eminent and desirable performer of all ceremonies in which +beneficent or useful undertakings were to be recognized by royal +approval. This work has occupied a very large share of his time during +thirty years; and we can all testify that it has been discharged with +such frank good will, cordiality, and unaffected graciousness, with +such patient attention, diligence, and punctuality, as to deserve the +gratitude of large numbers of her Majesty's subjects in almost every +part of the kingdom. No prince of any country in any age has ever +personally exerted himself more constantly and faithfully, in +rendering services of this kind to the community, than the Prince of +Wales. The multiplicity and variety of his engagements, on behalf of +local and special objects of utility, would make a surprising list, +and they must have involved a sacrifice of ease and leisure, and +endurance of self-imposed restraint, a submission to tedious +repetitions of similar acts and scenes, and to continual requests and +importunities, which few men of high rank would like to undergo. + +[Illustration: THE PRINCE OF WALES AND FAMILY--FROM THE PHOTOGRAPH OF +MESSRS. BYRNE, RICHMOND.] + +The marriage of his Royal Highness to Princess Alexandra of Denmark, +on March 10, 1863, was one of the happiest events within the memory of +this generation. It tended visibly, of course, to raise and confirm +his position as leader of English society, and as the active dispenser +of that encouragement which royalty can bestow on commendable public +objects. Charity, education, science, art, music, industry, +agriculture, and local improvements are in no small measure advanced +by this patronage. The Prince of Wales may not be so learned in some +of these matters as his accomplished father, but he has taken as much +trouble to assist the endless labors of the immediate agents, in doing +which he has shown good judgment and discretion, and a considerable +degree of business talent--notably, in the British preparations for +the Paris Exhibition of 1867, the Indian and Colonial Exhibition of +1886 in London, and the organization of the Imperial Institute. The +last-named institution and the Royal College of Music will be +permanent memorials of the directing energy of the Prince of Wales. + +These are but a few examples or slight indications of the work he has +actually done for us all. It is unnecessary to mention the incidental +salutary influences of his visits to Canada and to India, which have +left an abiding favorable impression of English royalty in those +provinces of the empire. Nor can it be requisite to observe the manner +in which the prince's country estate and mansion at Sandringham, with +his care of agricultural improvement, of stock breeding, studs, and +other rural concerns, has set an example to landowners, the value of +which is already felt. We refrain upon this occasion from speaking of +the Princess of Wales, or of the sons and daughters, whose lives, we +trust, will be always good and happy. It is on the personal merits and +services of the head of their illustrious house, with reference only +to public interests, that we have thought it needful to dwell, in view +of the fiftieth birthday of his Royal Highness; and very heartily to +wish him, in homely English phrase, "Many happy returns of the +day!"--_Illustrated London News._ + + * * * * * + + + + +DEVELOPMENT WITH SUCRATE OF LIME. + + +I have experimented with carbonate of lithia as an accelerator, and I +have obtained with it rather favorable results. However, in opposition +to Mr. Wickers, I have always found that carbonate of lithia, used +even in larger doses than those recommended by this author, was not +sufficiently active, and that development had to be too much prolonged +in order to obtain prints of good intensity. I have also observed that +the prints developed by this process were as often fogged as when I +made use of carbonate of potash. The oxides of alkaline metals or +their alkaline salts are not the only accelerators susceptible of +being used in pyro development. Two oxides of the earthy alkaline +metals, lime and hydrate of barytes, may also be used as accelerators. +I will not insist upon the second, which, although giving some +results, should be rejected from photographic practice on account of +its caustic properties, and of its too great affinity for the carbonic +acids in the air, which prevents the keeping of its solutions. This +objection does not obtain for the first, provided, however, that +ordinary lime water is not used, but a solution of succharate or +sucrate of lime. In my experiments I have made use of the following +solutions: + + _Solution A._ + +Pyrogallic acid. 10 grms. +Sulphite of soda. 20 " +Citric acid. 2 " +Water. 120 " + + _Solution B._ +Water. 1000 " +Sugar. sufficient quantity to triturate. + +To which add a sufficient quantity of pure lime to saturate the sugar +solution. + +In this manner we get a highly concentrated liquid, very alkaline, and +which keeps for a considerable time. To develop, I mix: + +Water. 80 cubic cent. +Solution A. 2 " " + +I throw this over the plate, and allow it to remain for a few moments, +agitating, then I add to this bath gradually and according to the +results obtained, from one to two cubic centimeters of the solution B. +These solutions should be made with a great deal of care and prudence, +as the sucrate of lime is an accelerator of very great energy. +Moreover, according as the plate has been more or less exposed, we may +add to the developing bath a few drops of a solution of citric acid, +or of a solution of an alkaline bromide. We obtain in this way very +soft prints, sometimes too soft, which, however, are not more free +from fogging than plates developed with hydrochinon (new bath), or +pyro having for accelerators ammonia, potash, soda, carbonate of +potash, of soda, or of lithia. I do not give this process with sucrate +of lime as perfect, but I give it as perfectable and susceptible of +application. If I have undertaken to write these few lines it is +because it has never been brought to my knowledge that up to the +present time the oxides and the alkaline salts of the earthy alkaline +metals have been studied from a photographic point of view.--_Leon +Degoix in Photo. Gazette._ + + * * * * * + + + + +DUCK HUNTING IN SCOTLAND. + + +The wild duck is a shy bird, apt to spread his wings and change his +quarters when a noble sportsman is seen approaching his habitation +with a fowling piece. You have heard of the ass who put on a lion's +skin, and wandered out into the wilderness and brayed. I have +elaborated a device of equal ingenuity and more convincing realism. It +is my habit during the duck-shooting season to put on the skin of a +Blondin donkey and so roam among the sedges bordering on the lakes +where wild ducks most do congregate. I have cut a hole in the face to +see through, and other holes in the legs to put my hands +through.--_London Graphic_ + +[Illustration: WILDFOWL SHOOTING IN SCOTLAND.] + + * * * * * + + + + +A PLEA FOR THE COMMON TELESCOPE.[1] + +By G.E. LUMSDEN. + + [Footnote 1: Paper read before the Astronomical and Physical + Society of Toronto, Canada, April 18, 1891.] + + +These are the palmiest days in the eventful history of physical and +observational astronomy. Along the whole line of professional and +amateur observation substantial progress is being made, but in certain +new directions, and in some old ones, too, the advance is very rapid. +As never before, public interest is alive to the attractions and value +of the work of astronomers. The science itself now appeals to a +constituency of students and readers daily increasing in numbers and +importance. Evidence of this gratifying fact is easily obtained. There +is at the libraries an ever-growing demand for standard astronomical +works, some of them by no means intended to be of a purely popular +character. Some of the most influential and conservative magazines on +both sides of the Atlantic now find it to be in their interest to +devote pages of space to the careful discussion of new theories, or to +the results of the latest work of professional observers. Even the +daily press in some cities has caught the infection, if infection it +may be called. There are in New York, Philadelphia, St. Louis, and +other centers of population on this continent leading newspapers +which, every week or so, publish columns of original matter +contributed by writers evidently able to place before their readers in +an attractive form articles dealing accurately, and yet in a popular +vein, with the many-sided subject of astronomy. In scientific matters +generally, there is abroad in this and other countries a spirit of +inquiry, never more apparent than at the present time. + +Readers and thinkers may, no doubt, be numbered by thousands. So far, +however, as astronomy is concerned, the majority of readers and +thinkers is composed of non-observers, most of whom believe they must +be content with studying the theoretical side of the subject only. +They labor under the false impression that unless they have telescopes +of large aperture and other costly apparatus, the pleasures attaching +to practical work are denied them. The great observatories, to which +every intelligent eye is directed, are, in a measure, though +innocently enough, responsible for this. Anticipation is ever on +tiptoe. People are naturally awaiting the latest news from the giant +refracting and reflecting telescopes of the day. Under these +circumstances, it may be that the services rendered, and capable of +being rendered, to science by smaller apertures may be overlooked, +and, therefore, I ask to be permitted to put in a modest plea for the +common telescope. What little I shall have to say will be addressed to +you more for the purpose of arousing interest in the subject than for +communicating to you any information of a novel or special character. + +When making use of the term "common telescope," I would like to be +understood as referring to good refractors with object glasses not +exceeding three or three and one-half inches in diameter. In some +works on the subject telescopes as large as five inches or even five +and one-half inches are included in the description "common," but +instruments of such apertures are not so frequently met with in this +country as to justify the classing of them with smaller ones, and, +perhaps, for my purpose, it is well that such is the fact, for the +expense connected with the purchase of first rate telescopes increases +very rapidly in proportion to the size of the object glass, and soon +becomes a serious matter. Should ever the larger apertures become +numerous on this continent, let us hope it shall be found to have been +as one of the results of societies like this, striving to make more +popular the study of astronomy. + +It is not by any means proposed to inflict upon you a history of the +telescope, but your indulgence is asked for a few moments while +reference is made to one or two matters connected with its invention, +or, rather, its accidental discovery and subsequent improvement. + +The opening years of the seventeenth century found the world without a +telescope, or, at least, such an instrument as was adapted for +astronomical work. It is true that long years before, Arabian and some +other eastern astronomers, for the purpose, possibly, of enabling them +to concentrate their gaze upon celestial objects and follow their +motions, had been accustomed to use a kind of tube consisting of a +long cylinder without glasses of any kind and open at both ends. For +magnifying purposes, this tube was of no value. Still, it must have +been of some kind of service, or else the first telescopes, as +constructed by the spectacle makers, who had stumbled upon the +principle involved, were exceedingly sorry affairs, for, soon after +their introduction, the illustrious Kepler, in his work on "Optics," +recommended the employment of plain apertures, without lenses, because +they were superior to the telescope on account of their freedom from +refraction. + +But as soon as the principle by which distant objects could, +apparently, be brought nearer the eye became known and its value +recognized by philosophers, telescopes ceased to be regarded as toys, +and underwent material improvements in the hands of such men as +Galilei, and, later, even of Kepler himself, Cassini, Huyghens, and +others. Galilei's first telescope magnified but three times, and his +best not much above thirty times. If I comprehend aright what has been +written upon the subject, I am justified in saying that this little +instrument in my hand, with an aperture of one inch and one-quarter, +and a focus, with an astronomical eye-piece, of about ten inches, is a +better magnifier than was Galilei's best. With it I can see the moons +of Jupiter, some spots on the sun, the phases of Venus, the +composition, in some places, of the Milky Way, the seas, the valleys, +the mountains, and, when in bold relief upon the terminator, even some +of the craters and cones of the moon. Indeed, I am of opinion I can +see even more than he could, for I can readily make out a considerable +portion of the Great Nebula in Orion, some double stars, and enough of +the Saturnian system to discern the disk of the planet and see that +there is something attached to its sides. + +For nearly one hundred and fifty years all refracting telescopes +labored under one serious difficulty. The images formed by them were +more or less confused by rainbow tints, due to the bending, or +refracting, by the object glass of the rays of light. To overcome this +obstacle to clear vision, and also to secure magnification, the focal +lengths of the instruments were greatly extended. Telescopes 38, 50, +78, 130, 160, 210, 400, and even 600 feet long were constructed. I +can, however, find nothing on record indicating that the object +glasses of these enormously attenuated instruments ever exceeded in +diameter two and one-half inches. Yet, with unwieldy and ungainly +telescopes, nearly always defining badly, wonders were accomplished by +the painstaking and indomitable observers of the time. + +In 1658, Huyghens, using a telescope twenty-three feet long and two +and one-third inches in diameter, with a power of 100, solved the +mystery of Saturn's rings, which had resisted all of Galilei's efforts +as well as his own with a shorter instrument, though he had discovered +Titan, Saturn's largest moon, and fixed correctly its period of +revolution at sixteen days. Fifteen years later, Ball, with a +telescope thirty-eight feet long, discovered the principal division in +the rings. Ten years still later, Cassini, with an instrument twenty +feet long and an object glass two and one-half inches in diameter, +rediscovered the division, which was named after him, rather than +after Ball, who had taken no pains to make widely known his discovery, +which, in the meantime, had been forgotten. Though we have no record, +there is no doubt that the lamented Horrocks and Crabtree, in England, +in 1639, with glasses no better than these, watched with exultant +emotions the first transit of Venus ever seen by human eyes. + +In 1722, Bradley, with a telescope 223¼ feet long, succeeded in +measuring the diameter of the same planet. Yet Grant assures us that, +in spite of all their difficulties, such was the industry of the +astronomers that when, at the commencement of this century, it became +possible to construct larger refracting telescopes, there was nothing +to be discovered that could have been discovered with the means at +their disposal. So far as we now know, a good three-inch telescope, +nay, a first-rate two inch one, will show far more than our +great-grandfathers ever saw, or dreamed of seeing, with their +refractors. + +Toward the middle of the seventeenth century the reflecting telescope +had been so much improved as nearly to crowd out its refracting rival, +but, just as its success seemed to be assured, Dollond, working along +lines partially followed up by Hall, found a combination of lenses by +which the chromatic aberration of the refractor could be very +perfectly corrected. While Dollond's invention was of immense value, +it remained that flint object glasses larger than two and one-half +inches in diameter could not, for some years, be manufactured, but +about the opening of the nineteenth century, Guinand, a Swiss, +discovered a process of making masses of optical flint glass +sufficiently large as to admit of the construction from them of +excellent lenses of sizes gradually increasing as time and +experimenting went on. The making of three-inch objectives, achromatic +and of short focus, wrought a revolution in telescopes and renewed the +demand for refractors, though prices, as compared with those of the +present day, were very great. But improvement was succeeded by +improvement. Larger and still larger objectives were made, yet +progress was not so rapid as not to justify Grant, in 1852, in +declaring to be a "munificent gift" the presentation, about 1838, to +Greenwhich Observatory, of a six and seven-tenths object glass alone, +and so it was esteemed by Mr. Airy, the astronomer royal. Improvement +is still the order of the day, and, as a result of keen competition, +very excellent telescopes of small aperture can be purchased at +reasonable prices. Great telescopes are enormously expensive, and will +probably be so until they are superseded by some simple invention +which shall be as superior to them as they are to the "mighty" +instruments which, from time to time, caused such sensations in the +days of Galilei, Cassini, Huyghens, Bradley, Dollond, and those who +came after them. + +But, notable as are the services rendered to science by giant +telescopes, it remains that by far the greater bulk of useful work has +been done by apertures of less than twelve inches in diameter. Indeed, +it may be asserted that most of such work has been done by instruments +of six inches or less in size. After referring with some detail to +this, Denning tells us that "nearly all the comets, planetoids, double +stars, etc., owe their detection to small instruments; that our +knowledge of sun spots, lunar and planetary features is also very +largely derived from similar sources; that there is no department +which is not indebted to the services of small telescopes, and that of +some thousands of drawings of celestial objects, made by observers +employing instruments from three to seventy-two inches in diameter, a +careful inspection shows that the smaller instruments have not been +outdone in this interesting field of observation, owing to their +excellent defining powers and the facility with which they are used." +Aperture for aperture, the record is more glorious for the "common +telescope" than for its great rivals. Let us for a moment recall +something of what has been done with instruments which may be embraced +under the designation "common" as such a statement may serve to remove +impressions that small telescopes are but of little use in +astronomical work. + +In his unrivaled book, Webb declares that his observations were +chiefly made with a telescope five and one-half feet long, carrying an +object glass of a diameter of three and seven-tenths inches. The +instrument was of "fair defining quality," and one has but to read his +delightful pages in order to form an idea of the countless pleasures +Webb derived from observation with it. Speaking of it, he says that +smaller ones will, of course, do less, especially with faint objects, +but are often very perfect and distinct, and that even diminutive +glasses, if good, will, at least, show something never seen without +them. He adds: "I have a little hand telescope twenty-two and +one-quarter inches long, when fully drawn out, with a focus of about +fourteen inches, and one and one-third inches aperture; this, with an +astronomical eye-piece, will show the _existence_ of sun spots, the +mountains in the moon, Jupiter's satellites and Saturn's ring." In +another place, speaking of the sun, he says that an object glass of +only two inches will exhibit a curdled or marbled appearance over the +whole solar disk, caused by the intermixture of spaces of different +brightness. And I may add here that Dawes recommends a small aperture +for sun work, including spectroscopic examinations, he himself, like +Mr. Miller, our librarian, preferring to use for that purpose a four +inch refractor. + +As you know, the North Star is a most beautiful double. Its companion +is of the ninth order of magnitude, that is, three magnitudes smaller +than the smallest star visible to the naked eye on a dark night. There +was a time when Polaris, as a double, was regarded as an excellent +test for a good three inch telescope; that is any three inch +instrument in which the companion could be seen was pronounced to be +first-class. But so persistently have instruments of small aperture +been improved that that star is no longer an absolute test for three +inch objectives of fine quality, or any first-rate objective exceeding +two inches for which Dawes proposed it as a standard of excellence, he +having found that if the eye and telescope be good, the companion to +Polaris may be seen with such an aperture armed with a power of +eighty. As a matter of fact, Dawes, who was, like Burnham, blessed +with most acute vision, saw the companion with an instrument no larger +than this small one in my hand--one inch and three-tenths. Ward saw it +with an inch and one-quarter objective, and Dawson with so small an +aperture as one inch. T.T. Smith has seen it with a reflector stopped +down to one inch and one-quarter, while in the instrument still known +as the "great Dorpat reflector," it has been seen in broad daylight. +This historic telescope has, I believe, a twelve inch object glass, +but the difficulty of seeing in sunshine so minute a star is such that +the fact may fairly be mentioned here. + +Another interesting feature is this. Objects once discovered, though +thought to be visible in large telescopes only, may often be seen in +much smaller ones. The first Herschel said truly that less optical +power will show an object than was required for its discovery. The +rifts, or canals, in the Great Nebula in Andromeda is a case in point, +but two better illustrations may be taken from the planets. Though +Saturn was for many years subjected to most careful scrutiny by +skilled astronomers using the most powerful telescopes in existence, +the crape ring eluded discovery until November, 1850, when it was +independently seen by Dawes, in England, and Bond, in the United +States. Both were capital observers and employed excellent instruments +of large aperture, and it was naturally presumed that only such +instruments could show the novel Saturnian feature. Not so. Once +brought to the attention of astronomers, Webb saw the new ring with +his three and seven-tenths telescope and Ross with an aperture not +exceeding three and three-eighths in diameter. Nay, I am permitted to +say that a venerable member of this society made drawings of it with a +three inch refractor. With a two inch objective, Grover not only saw +the crape ring, but Saturn's belts, as well, and the shadow cast by +the ball of the planet upon its system of rings. Titan, Saturn's +largest moon, is merely a point of light as compared with the planet, +as it appears in a telescope, yet it has been seen, so it is said, +with a one inch glass. The shadow of this satellite, while crossing +the face of Saturn, has been observed by Banks with a two and +seven-eighths objective. By hiding the glare of the planet behind an +occulting bar, some of Saturn's smallest moons were seen by Kitchener +with a two and seven-tenths aperture and by Capron with a two and +three-fourths one. Banks saw four of them with a three and +seven-eighths telescope, Grover two of them with a three and +three-quarter inch, and four inches of aperture will show five of +them, so Webb says. Rhea, Dione and Tethys are more minute than +Japetus, yet Cassini, with his inferior means, discerned them and +traced their periods. Take the instance of Mars next. It was long +believed that Mars had no satellites. But in 1877, during one of the +highly favorable oppositions of that planet which occur but once in +about sixteen years, the able Hall, using the great 26 inch refractor +at Washington, discovered two tiny moons which had never been seen +before. One of these, called Deimos, is only six miles in diameter, +the other, named Phobos, is only seven, and both are exceedingly close +to the primary and in rapid revolution. The diameter of these +satellites is really less than the distance from High Park, on the +west of Toronto, to Woodbine race course, on the east of the city. No +wonder these minute objects--seldom, if ever, nearer to us than about +forty millions of miles--are difficult to see at all. Newcomb and +Holden tell us that they are invisible save at the sixteen year +periods referred to, when it happens that the earth and Mars, in their +respective orbits, approach each other more nearly than at any other +time. But once discovered, the rule held good even in the case of the +satellites of Mars. Pratt has seen Deimos, the outermost moon, with an +eight and one-seventh inch telescope; Erek has seen it with a seven +and one-third inch achromatic; Trouvellot, the innermost one, with a +six and three-tenths glass, while Common believes that any one who can +make out Enceladus, one of Saturn's smallest moons, can see those of +Mars by hiding the planet at or near the elongations, and that even +our own moonlight does not prevent the observations being made. It +chances for the benefit of observers, in the northern hemisphere +especially, that one of the sixteen year periods will culminate in +1893, when Mars will be most advantageously situated for close +examination. No doubt every one will avail himself of the opportunity, +and may we not reasonably hope that scores of amateur observers +throughout the United States and Canada will experience the delight of +seeing and studying the tiny moons of our ruddy neighbor? + +And so I might proceed until I had wearied you with illustrations +showing what can be done with telescopes so small that they may fairly +be classed as "common," Webb says that such apertures, with somewhat +high powers, will reveal stars down to the eleventh magnitude. The +interesting celestial objects more conspicuous than stars of that +magnitude are sufficiently numerous to exhaust much more time than any +amateur can give to observing. Indeed, the lot of the amateur is a +happy one. With a good, though small, telescope, he may have for +subjects of investigation the sun with his spots, his faculæ, his +prominences and spectra; the moon, a most superb object in nearly +every optical instrument, with her mountains, valleys, seas, craters, +cones, and ever-changing aspects renewed every month, her occupations +of stars, her eclipses, and all that; the planets, some with phases, +and other with markings, belts, rings, and moons with scores of +occupations, eclipses and transits due to their easily observed +rotation around their primaries; the nebulæ, the double, triple and +multiple stars with sometimes beautifully contrasted colors, and a +thousand and one other means of amusing and instructing himself. +Nature has opened in the heavens as interesting a volume as she has +opened on the earth, and with but little trouble any one may learn to +read in it. + +I trust it has been shown that expensive telescopes are not +necessarily required for practical work. My advice to an intending +purchaser would be to put into the objective for a refractor, or into +the mirror for a reflector, all the money he feels warranted in +spending, leaving the mounting to be done in the cheapest possible +manner consistent with accuracy of adjustment, because it is in the +objective or in the mirror that the _value_ of the telescope alone +resides. In the shops may be found many telescopes gorgeous in +polished tubes and brass mountings which, for effective work, are +absolutely worthless. On this subject, I consulted the most eminent of +all discoverers of double stars, an observer who, even as an amateur, +made a glorious reputation by the work done with a six inch telescope. +I refer to Mr. S.W. Burnham, of the Lick Observatory, who, in reply, +kindly wrote: "You will certainly have no difficulty in making out a +strong case in favor of the use of small telescopes in many +departments of important astronomical work. Most of the early +telescopic work was done with instruments which would now be +considered as inferior to modern instruments, in quality as well as in +size. You are doubtless familiar with much of the amateur work, in +this country and elsewhere, done with comparatively small apertures. +_The most important condition is to have the refractor_, whatever its +size may be, _of the highest optical perfection_, and then the rest +will depend on the zeal and industry of the observer." The italics are +mine. + +Incidentally, it may be mentioned that much most interesting work may +be done even with an opera glass, as a few minutes' systematic +observation on any fine night will prove. Newcomb and Holden assure us +that "if Hipparchus had had even such an optical instrument, mankind +need not have waited two thousand years to know the nature of the +Milky Way, nor would it have required a Galilei to discover the phases +of Venus or the spots on the sun." To amplify the thought, if that +mighty geometer and observer and some of his contemporaries had +possessed but the "common telescope," is it not probable that in the +science of astronomy the world would have been to-day two thousand +years in advance of its present position? + + * * * * * + + + + +ARCHÆOLOGICAL DISCOVERIES AT CADIZ. + + +Those who have had the good fortune to visit Andalusia, that +privileged land of the sun, of light, songs, dances, beautiful girls, +and bull fighters, preserve, among many other poetical and pleasing +recollections, that of election to antique and smiling Cadiz--the +"pearl of the ocean and the silver cup," as the Andalusians say in +their harmonious and imaginative language. There is, in fact, nothing +exaggerated in these epithets, for they translate a true impression. +Especially if we arrive by sea, there is nothing so thrilling as the +dazzling silhouette which, from afar, is reflected all white from the +mirror of a gulf almost always blue. + +The Cadiz peninsula has for centuries been legitimately renowned, for, +turn by turn, Phenicians, properly so called, Carthaginians, Romans, +Goths, Arabs and Spaniards have made of it the preferred seat of their +business and pleasure. In his so often unsparing verses, Martial, +even, celebrates with an erotic rapture the undulating suppleness of +the ballet dancers of _Gades_, who are continued in our day by the +_majas_ and _chulas_. + +[Illustration: PHENICIAN TOMBS DISCOVERED AT CADIZ.] + +For an epoch anterior to that of the Latin poet, we have the +testimony, among others, of Strabo, who describes the splendors, +formerly and for a long time famous, of the temple of Hercules, and +who gives many details, whose accuracy can still be verified, +concerning various questions of topography or ethnography. Thus the +superb tree called _Dracæna draco_ is mentioned as growing in the +vicinity of _Gadeira_, the Greek name of the city. Now, some of these +trees still exist in certain public and private gardens, and attract +so much the more attention in that they are not met with in any other +European country. However, although historically Cadiz finds her title +to nobility on every page of the Greek and Latin authors, and although +her Phenician origin is averred, nowhere has such origin, in a +monumental and epigraphic sense, left fewer traces than in the +Andalusian peninsula. A few short legends, imperfectly read upon +either silver or bronze coins, and that was all, at least up to recent +times. Such penury as this distressed savants and even put them into +pretty bad humor with the Cadiz archæologists. + +To-day, it seems that the ancient Semitic civilization, which has +remained mute for so long in the Iberic territory, is finally willing +to yield up her secret, as is proved by the engravings which we +present to our readers from photographs taken _in situ_. It is +necessary for us to enter into some details. + +In 1887 there were met with at the gates of Cadiz, at about five +meters beneath the surface of the earth, three rude tombs of shelly +limestone, in which were found some skeletons, a few small bronze +instruments and some trinkets--the latter of undoubted oriental +manufacture. + +In one of these tombs was also inclosed a monolithic sarcophagus of +white marble of the form called anthropoid and measuring 2.15 m. in +length by 0.67 in width. This sarcophagus is now preserved in the +local museum, whose director is the active, intelligent and +disinterested Father Vera. Although this is not the place to furnish +technical or scientific explanations, it will be permitted us to point +out the fact that although it is of essentially oriental manufacture, +our anthropoid has undoubtedly undergone the Hellenistic influence, +which implies an epoch posterior to that of Pericles, who died in 429 +B.C. The personage represented, a man of mature age with noble +lineaments and aquiline nose, has thick hair corned up on the forehead +in the form of a crown, and a beard plaited in the Asiatic fashion. As +for the head, which is almost entirely executed in round relief, that +denotes in an undoubted manner the Hellenistic influence, united, +however, with the immutable and somewhat hierarchical traditions of +Phenician art. The arms are naked as far as to the elbow, and the +feet, summarily indicated, emerge from a long sheath-form robe. As for +the arms and hands, they project slightly and are rather outlined than +sculptured. The left hand grasps a fruit, the emblem of fecundity, +while the right held a painted crown, the traces of which have now +entirely disappeared. It suffices to look at this sarcophagus to +recognize the exclusively Phenician character of it, and the complete +analogy with the monuments of the same species met with in Phenicia, +in Cyprus, in Sicily, in Malta, in Sardinia, and everywhere where were +established those of Tyre and Sidon, but never until now in Spain. + +On another hand, for those of our readers who are interested in +archæology, we believe it our duty to point out as a source of +information a memoir published last year by our National Society of +Antiquaries. Let us limit ourselves, therefore, to fixing attention +upon one important point: The marble anthropoid was protected by a +tomb absolutely like the rude tombs contiguous to it. + +The successive discoveries since the third of last January at nearly +the same place, and at a depth of from 3 to 6 meters beneath the +surface, of numerous _Inculi_ absolutely identical as to material and +structure with those of which we have just spoken, is therefore a +scientific event of high importance. Those discoveries, which were +purely accidental, were brought about by the work on the foundations +of the Maritime Arsenal now in course of construction at the gates of +Cadiz. Our Fig. 1 represents the unearthing of the _loculi_ on the +14th of April, and on the value of which there is no need to dwell. As +to the dimensions, it is easy to judge of these, since the laborer +standing to the left of the spectator holds in his hand a meter +measure serving as a scale. It will suffice to state that the depth of +each tomb is about two meters, and that upon the lower part of three +of the parallelopipeds there exist pavements of crucial appearance. +Finally, nothing denoted externally the existence of these sarcophagi +jealously hidden from investigation according to a usage that is +established especially by the imprecations graven upon the basaltic +casket now preserved in the Museum of the Louvre, and which contained +the ashes of Eshmanazar, King of Sidon. + +[Illustration: ANTHROPOID SARCOPHAGUS DISCOVERED AT CADIZ.] + +Space is wanting to furnish ampler information. Our object is simply +to call attention to a zone which is somewhat neglected from a +scientific point of view, and which, however, seems as if it ought to +offer a valuable field of investigation to students of things Semitic, +among whom, as well known, our compatriots hold a rank apart, since it +is to them that falls the laborious and very honorable duty of +collecting and editing the inscriptions in Semitic languages. + +On another hand, although in the beginning the sepulchers were taken +to pieces and carried away (two of them imperfectly reconstructed may +be seen in the garden of the Cadizian Museum), there will be an +opportunity of making prevail the system of maintaining _in situ_ the +various monuments that may hereafter be discovered. Thus only could +one, at a given moment, obtain an accurate idea of what the Phenician +necropolis of Cadiz was, and allow the structures that compose it to +preserve their imposing stamp of rustic indestructibility. + +The excavation is being carried on at this very moment, and a bronze +statuette of an oriental god and various trinkets of more or less +value have just enriched the municipal collection. Let us hope, then, +as was recently predicted by Mr. Clermont Ganneau, of the Institute, +that some day or another some Semitic inscription will throw a last +ray of light upon the past, which is at present so imperfectly known, +of Phenician Cadiz.--_L'Illustration._ + + * * * * * + + + + +PREHISTORIC HORSE IN AMERICA. + + +_To the Editor of the Scientific American_: + +Apropos to Professor Cope's remarks before the A.A.A.S. at Washington, +reported in SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, September 12, inclose sketch of a +mounted man, whether on a horse or some other mammal, is a question +open to criticism. + +[Illustration: Height, 43 in.; length, 63 in. San Rafiel del Sur, 1878 +Drawn for and forwarded to Peabody Museum--No. 53.] + +The figure seems incomplete--whether a cloven foot or toes were +intended, cannot say. + +A large fossil horse was exhumed in the marsh north of Granada, when +ditching in 1863. Then Lake Managua's outlet at Fipitapa ceased its +usual supply of water to Lake Nicaragua. When notified of the +discovery the spot was under water. Only one of the very large teeth +was given to me, which was forwarded to Prof. Baird, of +Smithsonian--Private No. 34. + +When Lake Nicaragua was an ocean inlet, its track extended to foot +hills northward. Its waterworn pebbles and small bowlders were +subsequently covered by lake deposit, during the time between the +inclosure and break out at San Carlos. In this deposit around the lake +(now dry) fossil bones occur--elephas, megatherium, horse, etc. The +large alluvium plains north of lake, cut through by rivers, allow +these bones to settle on their rocky beds. This deposit is of greater +depth in places west of lake. + +Now, if we suppose these animals were exterminated in glacial times, +it remains for us to show when this was consummated. + +Subsequent to the lake deposit and exposure no new proofs of its +continuance are found. + +1. This deposit occurred after the coast range was elevated. + +2. Elevation was caused by a volcanic ash eruption, 5 or 6 of a +series. (Geologically demonstrated in my letters to _Antiquarian_ and +_Science_.) + +3. Coast hills inclosed sea sediment, now rock containing fossil +leaves. + +4. Wash from this sediment, carried with care, formed layers of +sandstone, up to ceiling. + +5. This ceiling was covered with elaborate inscriptions. + +6. The inscription sent you was a near neighbor to cave. + +7. Another representing a saurian reptile on large granite bowlder is +also a neighbor (a glacial dropping). + +8. Old river emptying into Lake Managua reveals fossil bones; moraines +east of it are found. + +From these data we see the glacial action was prior to the sedimentary +rock here, and had spent its force when elevation of coast range +occurred. No nearer estimate is possible. + +As the fossil horse occurs here, our mounted man may have domesticated +him, and afterward slaughtered for food like the modern Frenchman. +Unfortunately Prof. Cope did not find a similar inscription. + +EARL FLINT. +Rivas, Nicaragua, October 27, 1891. + + * * * * * + + + + +FURTHER RESEARCHES UPON THE ELEMENT FLUORINE. + +By A.E. TUTTON. + + +Since the publication by M. Moissan of his celebrated paper in the +_Annales de Chimîe et de Physique_ for December, 1887, describing the +manner in which he had succeeded in isolating this remarkable gaseous +element, a considerable amount of additional information has been +acquired concerning the chemical behavior of fluorine, and important +additions and improvements have been introduced in the apparatus +employed for preparing and experimenting with the gas. M. Moissan now +gathers together the results of these subsequent researches--some of +which have been published by him from time to time as contributions to +various French scientific journals, while others have not hitherto +been made known--and publishes them in a long but most interesting +paper in the October number of the _Annales de Chimîe et de Physique._ +Inasmuch as the experiments described are of so extraordinary a +nature, owing to the intense chemical activity of fluorine, and are so +important as filling a long existing vacancy in our chemical +literature, readers of _Nature_ will doubtless be interested in a +brief account of them. + + +IMPROVED APPARATUS FOR PREPARING FLUORINE. + +In his paper of 1887, the main outlines of which were given in +_Nature_ at the time (1887, vol. xxxvii., p. 179), M. Moissan showed +that pure hydrofluoric acid readily dissolves the double fluoride of +potassium and hydrogen, and that the liquid thus obtained is a good +conductor of electricity, rendering electrolysis possible. It will be +remembered that, by passing a strong current of electricity through +this liquid contained in a platinum apparatus, free gaseous fluorine +was obtained at the positive pole and hydrogen at the negative pole. +The amount of hydrofluoric acid employed in these earlier experiments +was about fifteen grms., about six grms. of hydrogen potassium +fluoride, HF.KF, being added in order to render it a conductor. Since +the publication of that memoir a much larger apparatus has been +constructed, in order to obtain the gas in greater quantity for the +study of its reactions, and important additions have been made, by +means of which the fluorine is delivered in a pure state, free from +admixed vapor of the very volatile hydrofluoric acid. As much as a +hundred cubic centimeters of hydrofluoric acid, together with twenty +grms. of the dissolved double fluoride, are submitted to electrolysis +in this new apparatus, and upward of four liters of pure fluorine is +delivered by it per hour. + +This improved form of the apparatus is shown in the accompanying +figure (Fig. 1), which is reproduced from the memoir of M. Moissan. It +consists essentially of two parts--the electrolysis apparatus and the +purifying vessels. The electrolysis apparatus, a sectional view of +which is given in Fig. 2, is similar in form to that described in the +paper of 1887, but much larger. + +The U-tube of platinum has a capacity of 160 c.c. It is fitted with +two lateral delivery tubes of platinum, as in the earlier form, and +with stoppers of fluorspar, F, inserted in cylinders of platinum, _p_, +carrying screw threads, which engage with similar threads upon the +interior surfaces of the limbs of the U-tube. A key of brass, E, +serves to screw or unscrew the stoppers, and between the flange of +each stopper and the top of each branch of the U-tube a ring of lead +is compressed, by which means hermetic closing is effected. These +fluorspar stoppers, which are covered with a coating of gum lac during +the electrolysis, carry the electrode rods, _t_, which are thus +perfectly insulated. M. Moissan now employs electrodes of pure +platinum instead of irido-platinum, and the interior end of each is +thickened into a club shape in order the longer to withstand +corrosion. The apparatus is immersed during the electrolysis in a bath +of liquid methyl chloride, maintained in tranquil ebullition at -23°. +In order to preserve the methyl chloride as long as possible, the +cylinder containing it is placed in an outer glass cylinder containing +fragments of calcium chloride; by this means it is surrounded with a +layer of dry air, a bad conductor of heat. + +The purifying vessels are three in number. The first consists of a +platinum spiral worm-tube of about 40 c.c. capacity, immersed also in +a bath of liquid methyl chloride, maintained at as low a temperature +as possible, about -50°. As hydrofluoric acid boils at 19.5° +(Moissan), almost the whole of the vapor of this substance which is +carried away in the stream of issuing fluorine is condensed and +retained at the bottom of the worm. To remove the last traces of +hydrofluoric acid, advantage is taken of the fact that fused sodium +fluoride combines with the free acid with great energy to form the +double fluoride HF.NaF. Sodium fluoride also possesses the advantage +of not attracting moisture. After traversing the worm condenser, +therefore, the fluorine is caused to pass through two platinum tubes +filled with fragments of fused sodium fluoride, from which it issues +in an almost perfect state of purity. The junctions between the +various parts of the apparatus are effected by means of screw joints, +between the nuts and flanges of which collars of lead are compressed. +During the electrolysis these leaden collars become, where exposed to +the gaseous fluorine, rapidly converted into lead fluoride, which +being greater in bulk causes the joints to become hermetically sealed. +In order to effect the electrolysis, twenty-six to twenty-eight Bunsen +elements are employed, arranged in series. An ampere meter and a +commutator are introduced between the battery and the electrolysis +apparatus; the former affording an excellent indication of the +progress of the electrolysis. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--FLUORINE APPARATUS.] + +As the U-tube contains far more hydrofluoric acid than can be used in +one day, each lateral delivery tube is fitted with a metallic screw +stopper, so that the experiments may be discontinued at any time, and +the apparatus closed. The whole electrolysis vessel is then placed +under a glass bell jar containing dry air, and kept in a refrigerator +until again required for use. In this way it may be preserved full of +acid for several weeks, ready at any time for the preparation of the +gas. Considerable care requires to be exercised not to admit the vapor +of methyl chloride into the U-tube, as otherwise violent detonations +are liable to occur. When the liquid methyl chloride is being +introduced into the cylinder, the whole apparatus becomes surrounded +with an atmosphere of its vapor, and as the platinum U-tube is at the +same instant suddenly cooled the vapor is liable to enter by the +abducting tubes. Consequently, as soon as the current is allowed to +pass and fluorine is liberated within the U-tube, an explosion occurs. +Fluorine instantly decomposes methyl chloride, with production of +flame and formation of fluorides of hydrogen and carbon, liberation of +chlorine, and occasionally deposition of carbon. In order to avoid +this unpleasant occurrence, when the methyl chloride is being +introduced the ends of the lateral delivery tubes are attached to long +lengths of caoutchoue tubing, supplied at their ends with calcium +chloride drying tubes, so as to convey dry air from outside the +atmosphere of methyl chloride vapor. If great care is taken to obtain +the minimum temperature, this difficulty may be even more simply +overcome by employing a mixture of well pounded ice and salt instead +of methyl chloride; but there is the counterbalancing disadvantage to +be considered, that such a cooling bath requires much more frequent +renewal. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + + +CHEMICAL REACTIONS OCCURRING DURING THE ELECTROLYSIS. + +In the paper of 1887, M. Moissan adopted the view that the first +action of the electric current was to effect the decomposition of the +potassium fluoride contained in solution in the hydrofluoric acid, +fluorine being liberated at the positive pole and potassium at the +negative terminal. This liberated potassium would at once regenerate +potassium fluoride in presence of hydrofluoric acid, and liberate its +equivalent of hydrogen: + + KF = K + F. + K + HF = KF + H. + +But when the progress of the electrolysis is carefully followed, by +consulting the indications of the amperemeter placed in circuit, it is +found to be by no means as regular as the preceding formulæ would +indicate. With the new apparatus, the decomposition is quite irregular +at first, and does not attain regularity until it has been proceeding +for upward of two hours. Upon stopping the current and unmounting the +apparatus, the platinum rod upon which the fluorine was liberated is +found to be largely corroded, and at the bottom of the U-tube a +quantity of a black, finely divided substance is observed. This black +substance, which was taken at first to be metallic platinum, is a +complex compound containing one equivalent of potassium to one +equivalent of platinum, together with a considerable proportion of +fluorine. + +Moreover, the hydrofluoric acid is found to contain a small quantity +of platinum fluoride in solution. The electrolytic reaction is +probably therefore much more complicated than was at first considered +to be the case. The mixture of acid and alkaline fluoride furnishes +fluorine at the positive terminal rod, but this intensely active gas, +in its nascent state, attacks the platinum and produces platinum +tetrafluoride, PtF_{4}; this probably unites with the potassium +fluoride to form a double salt, possibly 2Kl.PtF_{4}, analogous to the +well known platinochloride 2KCl.PtCl_{4}; and it is only when the +liquid contains this double salt that the electrolysis proceeds in a +regular manner, yielding free fluorine at the positive pole, and +hydrogen and the complex black compound at the negative pole. + + +PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUORINE. + +Fluorine possesses an odor which M. Moissan compares to a mixture of +hypochlorous acid and nitrogen peroxide, but this odor is usually +masked by that of the ozone which it always produces in moist air, +owing to its decomposition of the water vapor. It produces most +serious irritation of the bronchial tubes and mucous membrane of the +nasal cavities, the effects of which are persistent for quite a +fortnight. + +When examined in a thickness of one meter, it is seen to possess a +greenish yellow color, but paler, and containing more of yellow, than +that of chlorine. In such a layer, fluorine does not present any +absorption bands. Its spectrum exhibits thirteen bright, lines in the +red, between wave lengths 744 and 623. Their positions and relative +intensities are as follows: + +[lambda] = 744 very feeble. | [lambda] = 685.5 feeble + 740 " | 683.5 " + 734 " | 677 strong + 714 feeble. | 640.5 " + 704 " | 634 " + 691 " | 623 " + 687.5 " | + +At a temperature of -95° at ordinary atmospheric pressure, fluorine +remains gaseous, no sign of liquefaction having been observed. + + +METHODS OF EXPERIMENTING WITH FLUORINE. + +When it is desired to determine the action of fluorine upon a solid +substance, the following method of procedure is adopted. A preliminary +experiment is first made, in order to obtain some idea as to the +degree of energy of the reaction, by bringing a little of the solid, +placed upon the lid of a platinum crucible held in a pair of tongs, +near the mouth of the delivery tube of the preparation apparatus. If a +gaseous or liquid product results, and it is desirable to collect it +for examination, small fragments of the solid are placed in a platinum +tube connected to the delivery tube by flexible platinum tubing or by +a screw joint, and the resulting gas may be collected over water or +mercury, or the liquid condensed in a cooled cylinder of platinum. In +this manner the action of fluorine upon sulphur and iodine has been +studied. If the solid, phosphorus for instance, attacks platinum, or +the temperature of the reaction is sufficiently high to determine the +combination of platinum and fluorine (toward 500°), a tube of +fluorspar is substituted for the platinum tube. The fluorspar tubes +employed by M. Moissan for the study of the action of phosphorus were +about twelve to fourteen centimeters long, and were terminated by +platinum ends furnished with flanges and screw threads in order to be +able to connect them with the preparation apparatus. If it is required +to heat the fluorspar tubes, they are surrounded by a closely wound +copper spiral, which may be heated by a Bunsen flame. + +In experimenting upon liquids, great care is necessary, as the +reaction frequently occurs with explosive violence. A preliminary +experiment is therefore always made, by allowing the fluorine delivery +tube to dip just beneath the surface of the liquid contained in a +small glass cylinder. When the liquid contains water, or when +hydrofluoric acid is a product of the reaction, cylinders of platinum +or of fluorspar are employed. If it is required to collect and examine +the product, the liquid is placed along the bottom of a horizontal +tube of platinum or fluorspar, as in case of solids, connected +directly with the preparation apparatus, and the product is collected +over water or mercury if a gas, or in a cooled platinum receiver if a +liquid. + +During the examination of liquids a means has accidentally been +discovered by which a glass tube may be filled with fluorine gas. A +few liquids, one of which is carbon tetrachloride, react only very +slowly with fluorine at the ordinary temperature. By filling a glass +tube with such a liquid, and inverting it over a platinum capsule also +containing the liquid, it is possible to displace the liquid by +fluorine, which, as the walls are wet, does not attack the glass. Or +the glass tube may be filled with the liquid, and then the latter +poured out, leaving the walls wet; the tube may then be filled with +fluorine gas, which being slightly heavier than air, remains in the +tube for some time. In one experiment, in which a glass test tube had +been filled with fluorine over carbon tetrachloride, it was attempted +to transfer it to a graduated tube over mercury, but in inclining the +test tube for this purpose the mercury suddenly came in contact with +the fluorine, and absorbed it so instantaneously and with such a +violent detonation that both the test tube and the graduated tube were +shattered into fragments. Indeed, owing to the powerful affinity of +mercury for fluorine, it is a most dangerous experiment to transfer a +tube containing fluorine gas, filled according to either the first or +second method, to the mercury trough; the tube is always shattered if +the mercury comes in contact with the gas, and generally with a loud +detonation. Fluorine may, however, be preserved for some time in tubes +over mercury, provided a few drops of the non-reacting liquid are kept +above the mercury meniscus. + +For studying the action of fluorine on gases, a special piece of +apparatus, shown in Fig. 3, has been constructed. It is composed of a +tube of platinum, fifteen centimeters long, closed by two plates of +clear, transparent, and colorless fluorspar, and carrying three +lateral narrower tubes also of platinum. Two of these tubes face each +other in the center of the apparatus, and serve one for the conveyance +of the fluorine and the other of the gas to be experimented upon. The +third, which is of somewhat greater diameter than the other two, +serves as exit tube for the product or products of the reaction, and +may be placed in connection with a trough containing either water or +mercury. + +The apparatus is first filled with the gas to be experimented upon, +then the fluorine is allowed to enter, and an observation of what +occurs may be made through the fluorspar windows. One most important +precaution to take in collecting the gaseous products over mercury is +not to permit the platinum delivery tube to dip more than two or at +most three millimeters under the mercury, as otherwise the levels of +the liquid in the two limbs of the electrolysis U-tube become so +different, owing to the pressure, that the fluorine from one side +mixes with the hydrogen evolved upon the other, and there is a violent +explosion. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.] + + +ACTION OF FLUORINE UPON THE NON-METALLIC ELEMENTS. + +_Hydrogen._--As just described, hydrogen combines with fluorine, even +at -23° and in the dark, with explosive force. This is the only case +in which two elementary gases unite directly without the intervention +of extraneous energy. If the end of the tube delivering fluorine is +placed in an atmosphere of hydrogen, a very hot blue flame, bordered +with red, at once appears at the mouth of the tube, and vapor of +hydrofluoric acid is produced. + +_Oxygen._--Fluorine has not been found capable of uniting with oxygen +up to a temperature of 500°. On ozone, however, it appears to exert +some action, as will be evident from the following experiment. It was +shown in 1887 that fluorine decomposes water, forming hydrofluoric +acid, and liberating oxygen in the form of ozone. When a few drops of +water are placed in the apparatus shown in Fig. 3, and fluorine +allowed to enter, the water is instantly decomposed, and on looking +through the fluorspar ends a thick dark cloud is seen over the spot +where each drop of water had previously been. This cloud soon +diminishes in intensity, and is eventually replaced by a beautiful +blue gas--ozone in a state of considerable density. If the product is +chased out by a stream of nitrogen as soon as the dense cloud is +formed, a very strong odor is perceived, different from that of either +fluorine or ozone, but which soon gives place to the unmistakable odor +of ozone. It appears as if there is at first produced an unstable +oxide of fluorine, which rapidly decomposes into fluorine and ozone. + +_Nitrogen_ and _chlorine_ appear not to react with fluorine. + +_Sulphur._--In contact with fluorine gas, sulphur rapidly melts and +inflames. A gaseous fluoride of sulphur is formed, which possesses a +most penetrating odor, somewhat resembling that of chloride of +sulphur. The gas is incombustible, even in oxygen. When warmed in a +glass vessel, the latter becomes etched, owing to the formation of +silicon tetrafluoride, SiF_{4}. Selenium and tellurium behave +similarly, but form crystalline solid fluorides. + +_Bromine_ vapor combines with fluorine in the cold with production of +a very bright but low temperature dame. If the fluorine is evolved in +the midst of pure dry liquid bromine, the combination is immediate, +and occurs without flame. + +_Iodine._--When fluorine is passed over a fragment of iodine contained +in the horizontal tube, combination occurs, with production of a pale +flame. A very heavy liquid, colorless when free from dissolved iodine, +and fuming strongly in the air, condenses in the cooled receiver. This +liquid fluoride of iodine attacks glass with great energy and +decomposes water when dropped into that liquid with a noise like that +produced by red-hot iron. Its properties agree with those of the +fluoride of iodine prepared by Gore by the action of iodine on silver +fluoride. + +_Phosphorus._--Immediately phosphorus, either the ordinary yellow +variety or red phosphorus, comes in contact with fluorine, a most +lively action occurs, accompanied by vivid incandescence. If the +fluorine is in excess, a fuming gas is evolved, which gives up its +excess of fluorine on collecting over mercury, and is soluble in +water. This gas is phosphorus pentafluoride, PF_{5}, prepared some +years ago by Prof. Thorpe. If, on the contrary, the phosphorus is in +excess, a gaseous mixture of this pentafluoride with a new fluoride, +the trifluoride, PF_{3}, a gas insoluble in water, but which may be +absorbed by caustic potash, is obtained. The trifluoride, in turn, +combines with more fluorine to form the pentafluoride, the reaction +being accompanied by the appearance of a flame of comparatively low +temperature. + +_Arsenic_ combines with fluorine at the ordinary temperature with +incandescence. If the current of fluorine is fairly rapid, a colorless +fuming liquid condenses in the receiver, which is mainly arsenic +trifluoride, AsF_{3}, but which appears also to contain a new +fluoride, the pentafluoride, AsF_{5}, inasmuch as the solution in +water yields the reactions of both arsenious and arsenic acids. + +_Carbon._--Chlorine does not unite with carbon even at the high +temperature of the electric arc, but fluorine reacts even at the +ordinary temperature with finely divided carbon. Purified lampblack +inflames instantly with great brilliancy, as do also the lighter +varieties of wood charcoal. A curious phenomenon is noticed with wood +charcoal; it appears at first to absorb and condense the fluorine, +then quite suddenly it bursts into flame with bright scintillations. +The denser varieties of charcoal require warming to 50° or 60° before +they inflame, but it once the combustion is started at any point it +rapidly propagates itself throughout the entire piece. Graphite must +be heated to just below dull redness in order to effect combination; +while the diamond has not yet been attacked by fluorine, even at the +temperature of the Bunsen flame. A mixture of gaseous fluorides of +carbon are produced whenever carbon of any variety is acted upon by +fluorine, the predominating constituent being the tetrafluoride, +CF_{4}. + +_Boron._--The amorphous variety of boron inflames instantly in +fluorine, with projection of brilliant sparks and liberation of dense +fumes of boron trifluoride, BF_{3}. The adamantine modification +behaves similarly if powdered. When the experiment is performed in the +fluorspar tube, the gaseous fluoride may be collected over mercury. +The gas fumes strongly in the air, and is instantly decomposed by +water. + +_Silicon._--The reaction between fluorine and silicon is one of the +most beautiful of all these extraordinary manifestations of chemical +activity. The cold crystals become immediately white-hot, and the +silicon burns with a very hot flame, scattering showers of star-like, +white-hot particles in all directions. If the action is stopped before +all the silicon is consumed, the residue is found to be fused. As +crystalline silicon only melts at a temperature superior to 1,200°, +the heat evolved must be very great. If the reaction is performed in +the fluorspar tube, the resulting gaseous silicon tetrafluoride, +SiF_{4}, may be collected over mercury. + +Amorphous silicon likewise burns with great energy in fluorine. + + +ACTION OF FLUORINE UPON METALS. + +_Sodium_ and _potassium_ combine with fluorine with great vigor at +ordinary temperatures, becoming incandescent, and forming their +respective fluorides, which may be obtained crystallized from water in +cubes. Metallic _calcium_ also burns in fluorine gas, forming the +fused fluoride, and occasionally minute crystals of fluorspar. +_Thallium_ is rapidly converted to fluoride at ordinary temperatures, +the temperature rising until the metal melts and finally becomes red +hot. Powdered _magnesium_ burns with great brilliancy. _Iron_, reduced +by hydrogen, combines in the cold with immediate incandescence, and +formation of an anhydrous, readily soluble, white fluoride. +_Aluminum_, on heating to low redness, gives a very beautiful +luminosity, as do also _chromium_ and _manganese_. The combustion of +slightly warmed zinc in fluorine is particularly pretty as an +experiment, the flame being of a most dazzling whiteness. _Antimony_ +takes fire at the ordinary temperature, and forms a solid white +fluoride. _Lead_ and _mercury_ are attacked in the cold, as previously +described, the latter with great rapidity. _Copper_ reacts at low +redness, but in a strangely feeble manner, and the white fumes formed +appear to combine with a further quantity of fluorine to form a +perfluoride. The main product is a volatile white fluoride. _Silver_ +is only slowly attacked in the cold. When heated, however, to 100°, +the metal commences to be covered with a yellow coat of anhydrous +fluoride, and on heating to low redness combination occurs, with +incandescence, and the resulting fluoride becomes fused, and afterward +presents a satin-like aspect. _Gold_ becomes converted into a yellow +deliquescent volatile fluoride when heated to low redness, and at a +slightly higher temperature the fluoride is dissociated into metallic +gold and fluorine gas. + +The action of fluorine on _platinum_ has been studied with special +care. It is evident, in view of the corrosion of the positive platinum +terminal of the electrolysis apparatus, that nascent fluorine rapidly +attacks platinum at a temperature of -23°. At 100°, however, fluorine +gas appears to be without action on platinum. At 500°-600° it is +attacked strongly, with formation of the tetrafluoride. PtF_{4}, and a +small quantity of the protofluoride, PtF_{2}. If the fluorine is +admixed with vapor of hydrofluoric acid, the reaction is much more +vigorous, as if a fluorhydrate of the tetrafluoride, perhaps +2HF.PtF_{4}, were formed. The tetrafluoride is generally found in the +form of deep-red fused masses, or small yellow crystals resembling +those of anhydrous platinum chloride. The salt is volatile and very +hygroscopic. Its behavior with water is peculiar. With a small +quantity of water a brownish yellow solution is formed, which, +however, in a very short time becomes warm and the fluoride +decomposes; platinic hydrate is precipitated, and free hydrofluoric +acid remains in solution. If the quantity of water is greater, the +solution may be preserved for some minutes without decomposition. If +the liquid is boiled, it decomposes instantly. At a red heat platinic +fluoride decomposes into metallic platinum and fluorine, which is +evolved in the free state. This reaction can therefore be employed as +a ready means of preparing fluorine, the fluoride only requiring to be +heated rapidly to redness in a platinum tube closed at one end, when +crystallized silicon held at the open end will be found to immediately +take fire in the escaping fluorine. The best mode of obtaining the +fluoride of platinum for this purpose is to heat a bundle of platinum +wires to low redness in the fluorspar reaction tube in a rapid stream +of fluorine. As soon as sufficient fluoride is formed on the wires, +they are transferred to a well stoppered dry glass tube, until +required for the preparation of fluorine. + + +ACTION OF FLUORINE UPON NON-METALLIC COMPOUNDS. + +_Sulphureted Hydrogen._--When the horizontal tube shown in Fig. 3 is +filled with sulphureted hydrogen gas and fluorine is allowed to enter, +a blue flame is observed on looking through the fluorspar windows +playing around the spot where the fluorine is being admitted. The +decomposition continues until the whole of the hydrogen sulphide is +converted into gaseous fluorides of hydrogen and sulphur. + +_Sulphur dioxide_ is likewise decomposed in the cold, with production +of a yellow flame and formation of fluoride of sulphur. + +_Hydrochloric acid_ gas is also decomposed at ordinary temperatures +with flame, and, if there is not a large excess of hydrochloric acid +present, with detonation. Hydrofluoric acid and free chlorine are the +products. + +Gaseous _hydrobromic_ and _hydriodic acids_ react with fluorine in a +similar manner, with production of flame and formation of hydrofluoric +acid. Inasmuch, however, as bromine and iodine combine with fluorine, +as previously described, these halogens do not escape, but burn up to +their respective fluorides. When fluorine is delivered into an aqueous +solution of hydriodic acid, each bubble as it enters produces a flash +of flame, and if the fluorine is being evolved fairly rapidly there is +a series of very violent detonations. A curious reaction also occurs +when fluorine is similarly passed into a 50 per cent. aqueous solution +of hydrofluoric acid itself, a flame being produced in the middle of +the liquid, accompanied by a series of detonations. + +_Nitric acid_ vapor reacts with great violence with fluorine, a loud +explosion resulting. If fluorine is passed into the ordinary liquid +acid, each bubble as it enters produces a flame in the liquid. + +_Ammonia gas_ is decomposed by fluorine with formation of a yellow +flame, forming hydrofluoric acid and liberating nitrogen. With a +solution of the gas in water, each bubble of fluorine produces an +explosion and flame, as in case of hydriodic acid. + +_Phosphoric anhydride_, when heated to low redness, burns with a pale +flame in fluorine, forming a gaseous mixture of fluorides and +oxyfluoride of phosphorus. _Pentachloride and trichloride of +phosphorus_ both react most energetically with fluorine, instantly +producing a brilliant flame, and evolving a mixture of phosphorus +pentafluoride and free chlorine. + +_Arsenious anhydride_ also affords a brilliant combustion, forming the +liquid trifluoride of arsenic, AsF_{3}. This liquid in turn appears to +react with more fluorine with considerable evolution of heat, probably +forming the pentafluoride, AsF_{5}. _Chloride of arsenic_, AsCl_{3}, +is converted with considerable energy to the trifluoride, free +chlorine being liberated. + +_Carbon bisulphide_ inflames in the cold in contact with fluorine, and +if the fluorine is led into the midst of the liquid a similar +production of flame occurs under the surface of the liquid, as in case +of nitric acid. No carbon is deposited, both the carbon and sulphur +being entirely converted into gaseous fluorides. + +_Carbon tetrachloride_, as previously mentioned, reacts only very +slowly with fluorine. The liquid may be saturated with gaseous +fluorine at 15°, but on boiling this liquid a gaseous mixture is +evolved, one constituent of which is carbon tetrafluoride, CF_{4}, a +gas readily capable of absorption by alcoholic potash. The remainder +consists of another fluoride of carbon, incapable of absorption by +potash and chlorine. A mixture of the vapors of carbon tetrachloride +and fluorine inflames spontaneously with detonation, and chlorine is +liberated without deposition of carbon. + +_Boric anhydride_ is raised to a most vivid incandescence by fluorine, +the experiment being rendered very beautiful by the abundant white +fumes of the trifluoride which are liberated. + +_Silicon dioxide_, one of the most inert of substances at the ordinary +temperature, takes fire in the cold in contact with fluorine, becoming +instantly white-hot, and rapidly disappearing in the form of silicon +tetrafluoride. The _chlorides_ of both _boron_ and _silicon_ are +decomposed by fluorine, with formation of fluorides and liberation of +chlorine, the reaction being accompanied by the production of flame. + + +ACTION OF FLUORINE UPON METALLIC COMPOUNDS. + +_Chlorides_ of the metals are instantly decomposed by fluorine, +generally at the ordinary temperature, and in certain cases, antimony +trichloride for instance, with the appearance of flame. Chlorine is in +each case liberated, and a fluoride of the metal formed. A few require +heating, when a similar decomposition occurs, often accompanied by +incandescence, as in case of chromium sesquichloride. + +_Bromides_ and _iodides_ are decomposed with even greater energy, and +the liberated bromine and iodine burn in the fluorine with formation +of their respective fluorides. + +_Cyanides_ react in a most beautiful manner with fluorine, the +displaced cyanogen burning with a purple flame. Potassium ferrocyanide +in particular affords a very pretty experiment, and reacts in the +cold. Ordinary potassium cyanide requires slightly warming in order to +start the combustion. + +Fused _potash_ yields potassium fluoride and ozone. Aqueous potash +does not form potassium hypofluorite when fluorine is bubbled into it, +but only potassium fluoride. _Lime_ becomes most brilliantly +incandescent, owing partly to the excess being raised to a very high +temperature by the heat developed during the decomposition, and partly +to the phosphorescence of the calcium fluoride formed. + +_Sulphides_ of the alkalies and alkaline earths are also immediately +rendered incandescent, fluorides of the metal and sulphur being +respectively formed. + +_Boron nitride_ behaves in an exceedingly beautiful manner, being +attacked in the cold, and emitting a brilliant blue light which is +surrounded by a halo of the fumes of boron fluoride. + +_Sulphates_, _nitrates_ and _phosphates_ generally require the +application of more or less heat, when they too are rapidly and +energetically decomposed. Calcium phosphate is attacked in the cold +like lime, giving out a brilliant white light, and producing calcium +fluoride and gaseous oxyfluoride of phosphorus, POF_{3}. _Calcium +carbonate_ also becomes raised to brilliant incandescence when exposed +to fluorine gas, as does also normal _sodium carbonate_; but curiously +enough the bicarbonates of the alkalies do not react with fluorine +even at red heat. Perhaps this may be explained by the fact that +fluorine has no action at available temperatures upon carbon dioxide. + + +ACTION OF FLUORINE UPON A FEW ORGANIC COMPOUNDS. + +_Chloroform._--When chloroform is saturated with fluorine, and +subsequently boiled, carbon tetrafluoride, hydrofluoric acid and +chlorine are evolved. If a drop of chloroform is agitated in a glass +tube with excess of fluorine, a violent explosion suddenly occurs, +accompanied by a flash of flame, and the tube is shattered to pieces. +The reaction is very lively when fluorine is evolved in the midst of a +quantity of chloroform, a persistent flame burns beneath the surface +of the liquid, carbon is deposited, and fluorides of hydrogen and +carbon are evolved together with chlorine. + +_Methyl chloride_ is decomposed by fluorine, even at -23°, with +production of a yellow flame, deposition of carbon, and liberation of +fluorides of hydrogen and carbon and free chlorine. With the vapor of +methyl chloride, as pointed out in the description of the +electrolysis, violent explosions occur. + +_Ethyl alcohol_ vapor at once takes fire in fluorine gas, and the +liquid is decomposed with explosive violence without deposition of +carbon. Aldehyde is formed to a considerable extent during the +reaction. + +_Acetic acid_ and _benzene_ are both decomposed with violence, their +cold vapors burn in fluorine, and when the latter is bubbled through +the liquids themselves, flashes of flame, and often most dangerous +explosions, occur. In the case of benzene, carbon is deposited, and +with both liquids fluorides of hydrogen and carbon are evolved. +_Aniline_ likewise takes fire in fluorine, and deposits a large +quantity of carbon, which, however, if the fluorine is in excess, +burns away completely to carbon tetrafluoride. + +Such are the main outlines of these later researches of M. Moissan, +and they cannot fail to impress those who read them with the +prodigious nature of the forces associated with those minutest of +entities, the chemical atoms, as exhibited at their maximum, in so far +as our knowledge at present goes, in the case of the element +fluorine.--_Nature._ + + * * * * * + + + + +APPARATUS FOR THE ESTIMATION OF FAT IN MILK. + +By E. MOLISABI. + + +[Illustration] + +The author, after criticising the various methods for estimating fat +in milk which have been proposed from time to time, agrees with Stokes +(_Analyst_, 1885, p. 48), Eustace Hill (_Analyst_, 1891, p. 67), and +Bondzynsky (_Landwirth Jahrb. der Schweiz_, 1889), that the method of +Werner Schmid is the simplest, most rapid, and convenient hitherto +introduced. The conditions tending to inaccuracy are: The employment +of ether containing alcohol; boiling the mixture of milk and acid too +long, when a caramel-like body is formed, soluble in ether; the +difficulty of reading off the volume of ether left in the tube, owing +to the gradations of the instrument being obscured by the flocculent +layer of casein; when only a portion of the ether is used, fat may be +left behind in the acid mixture, as shown by Allen (_Chem. Zeit._, +1891, p. 331). The author believes that by the invention of the simple +apparatus represented in the accompanying figure, he has rendered the +process both accurate and convenient. This consists of a flask B of +about 75 c.c. capacity, which has a glass tap fused on, with two +capillary tubes attached, the one passing upward, the other downward. +The neck of flask B is ground into the neck of flask A, which holds +about 90 c.c. Either of the flasks can be placed in communication with +the external air by the opening _a_. The ether must be previously +washed with one or two tenths of its volume of water, to remove traces +of alcohol. The operation is performed as follows: 10 c.c. of well +mixed milk are weighed in (or measured into) flask A, 10 c.c. of +hydrochloric acid added, and the mixture heated to boiling on an +asbestos sheet. The boiling must not exceed a minute and a half, the +fluid being shaken from time to time, and not allowed to become of a +deeper color than a dark brown [not black]. The flask is cooled, and +25 c.c. of ether added. The two flasks are connected as shown in the +figure, the tap closed, and the whole shaken for a few minutes, the +flask being vented two or three times by the opening _a_. The +apparatus is now inverted, allowed to stand five or six minutes, the +tap turned, and the dark acid liquid drawn off into flask B. By a +little shaking of the ether the whole of the acid liquid may be easily +got into the lower flask. The apparatus is again inverted, then +separated, 10 c.c. of ether are introduced into the flask B, the tap +closed, and the fluids well shaken. When the ether layer is distinct, +the acid liquor is run off, and the ether solution transferred to A. +The whole of the ether solution is washed in the apparatus two or +three times with a little water, the flask A removed to the water +bath, the ether driven off, the last traces of ether and water being +removed by placing the flask in a drying oven heated from 107 to 110° +C., where it must remain at least twenty minutes. The usual cooling in +the exsiccator and weighing concludes the operation. Examples are +given showing its concordance with the Adams and other recognized +processes. Sour milk, which must be weighed in the flask, can be +conveniently analyzed; also cream, using 5 grammes cream and 10 c.c. +hydrochloric acid. (_Berichte Deutsch. Chem. Gesell._, 24, p. +2204).--_The Analyst._ + + * * * * * + + + + +AMERICAN ASSOCIATION--NINTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON INDEXING +CHEMICAL LITERATURE.[1] + + [Footnote 1: From advance proof sheets of the Proceedings of the + American Association for the Advancement of Science; Washington + meeting, 1891.] + + +The Committee on Indexing Chemical Literature respectfully presents to +the Chemical Section its ninth annual report. + +Since our last meeting the following bibliographies have been printed: + +1. A Bibliography of Geometrical Isomerism. Accompanying an address on +this subject to the Chemical Section of the American Association for +the Advancement of Science at Indianapolis, August, 1890, by Professor +Robert B. Warder, Vice President. Proceedings A.A.A.S., vol. xxxix. +Salem, 1890. 8vo. + +2. A Bibliography of the Chemical Influence of Light, by Alfred +Tuckerman. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections No. 785. Washington, +D.C., 1891. Pp. 22. 8vo. + +3. A Bibliography of Analytical Chemistry for the year 1890, by H. +Carrington Bolton. J. Anal. Appl. Chem., v., No. 3. March, 1891. + +We chronicle the publication of the following important bibliography: + +4. A Guide to the Literature of Sugar. A book of reference for +chemists, botanists, librarians, manufacturers and planters, with +comprehensive subject index. By H. Ling Roth. London: Kegan Paul, +Trench, Trubner & Co. Limited. 1890. 8vo. Pp xvi-159. + +This work contains more than 1,200 titles of books, pamphlets, and +papers relating to sugar. Many of the titles are supplemented with +brief abstracts. The alphabetical author catalogue is followed by a +chronological table and an analytical subject index. The compilation +extends to the beginning of the year 1885, and the author promises a +supplement and possibly an annual guide. + +The ambitious work is useful but very incomplete. It does not include +glucose. The author gives a list of fifteen periodicals devoted to +sugar, and omits exactly fifteen more recorded in Bolton's _Catalogue +of Scientific and Technical Periodicals_ (1665-1882). Angelo Sala's +_Saccharologia_ is not named, though mentioned in Roscoe and +Schorlemmer and elsewhere. + +Notwithstanding some blemishes, this work is indispensable to chemists +desirous of becoming familiar with the literature of sugar. It is to +be hoped that a second edition brought down to date may be issued by +the author. + +5. A Bibliography of Ptomaines accompanies Professor Victor C. +Vaughan's work, Ptomaines and Leucomaines. Philadelphia, 1888. (Pages +296-814.) 8vo. + +Chemists will hail with pleasure the announcement that a new +dictionary of solubilities is in progress by a competent hand. +Professor Arthur M. Comey, of Tufts College, College Hill, Mass., +writes that the work he has undertaken will be as complete as +possible. "The very old matter which forms so large a part of Storer's +Dictionary will be referred to, and in important cases fully given. +Abbreviations will be freely used and formulæ will be given instead of +the chemical names of substances, in the body of the book. This is +found to be absolutely necessary in order to bring the work into a +convenient size for use ..., The arrangement will be strictly +alphabetical. References to original papers will be given in all cases +..." + +Professor Comey estimates his work will contain over +70,000 entries, and will make a volume of 1,500-1,700 pages. + +The following letter from Mr. Howard L. Prince, Librarian of the +United States Patent Office, explains itself: + + WASHINGTON, D.C., February 11, 1891 + + _Dr. H Carrington Bolton._ + _University Club, New York, N.Y._: + + DEAR SIR--In response to your request I take pleasure in + giving you the following information regarding the past + accomplishments and plans for the future of the Scientific + Library in the matter of technological indexing. + + The work of indexing periodicals has been carried on in the + library for some years in a somewhat desultory fashion, taking + up one journal after another, the object being, apparently, more + to supply clerks with work than the pursuance of any well + defined plan. However, one important work has been substantially + completed, viz., a general index to the whole set of the + SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN and SUPPLEMENT from 1846 to date. + + It is unnecessary for me to point out to you the importance of + this work, embracing a collection which has held the leading + place in the line of general information on invention and + progress, the labor of compiling which has been so formidable + that no movement in that direction has been attempted by the + publishers except in regard to the SUPPLEMENT only, and that + very imperfectly. This index embraces now 184,600 cards, not + punched, and at present stored in shallow drawers and fastened + by rubber bands, and of course they are at present unavailable + for use. There is little prospect of printing this index, and + I have been endeavoring for some time to throw the index open + to the public by punching the cards and fastening them with + guard rods, but as yet have made no perceptible impression + upon the authorities, although the expense of preparation + would be only about $70. + + There has also been completed an index to the English journal + _Engineering_, comprising 84,000 cards, from the beginning to + date. + + An index to Dingler's _Polytechnisches Journal_ was also + commenced as long ago as 1878, carried on for six or seven + years and then dropped. I hope, however, at no remote date, to + bring this forward to the present time. + + On taking charge of the library I was at once impressed with + the immense value of the periodical literature on our shelves + and the great importance of making it more readily accessible, + and have had in contemplation for some time the beginning of a + card index to all our periodicals on the same general plan as + that of Rieth's Repertorium. I have, however, been unable to + obtain sufficient force to cover the whole ground, but have + selected about one hundred and fifty journals, notably those + upon the subjects of chemistry, electricity and engineering, + both in English and foreign languages, the indexing of which + has been in progress since the first of January. This number + includes substantially all the valuable material in our + possession in the English language, not only journals, but + transactions of societies, all the electrical journals and + nearly all the chemical in foreign languages. This index will + be kept open to the public as soon as sufficient material has + accumulated. In general plan it will be alphabetical, + following nearly the arrangement of the periodical portion of + the surgeon general's catalogue. I shall depart from the + strictly alphabetical plan sufficiently to group under such + important subjects as chemistry, electricity, engineering, + railroads, etc., all the subdivisions of the art, so that the + electrical investigator, for instance, will not be obliged to + travel from one end of the alphabet to the other to find the + divisions of generators, conductors, dynamos, telephones, + telegraphs, etc., and in the grouping of the classes of + applied science the office classification of inventions will, + as a rule, be adhered to, the subdivisions being, of course, + arranged in alphabetical order under their general head and + the title of the several articles also arranged alphabetically + by authors or principal words. + + With many thanks for the kind interest and valuable + information afforded me, I remain, very truly yours, + + HOWARD L. PRINCE, + Librarian Scientific Library. + +The committee much prefers to record completed work than to mention +projects, as the latter sometimes fail. It is satisfactory, however, +to announce that the indefatigable indexer, Dr. Alfred Tuckerman, is +engaged on an extensive Bibliography of Mineral Waters. The chairman +of the committee expects to complete the MS. of a Select Bibliography +of Chemistry during the year, visiting the chief libraries of Europe +for the purpose this summer. + + H. CARRINGTON BOLTON, Chairman. + F.W. CLARKE, + ALBERT R. LEEDS, + ALEXIS A. JULIEN, + JOHN W. LANGLEY, + ALBERT B. PRESCOTT. + +[Dr. Alfred Tuckerman was added to the committee at the Washington +meeting to fill a vacancy.] + + * * * * * + + + + +THE FRENCH WINE LAW. + + +The French wine law (_Journ. Officiel_, July 11, 1891) includes the +following provisions: + +Sect. 1. The product of fermentation of the husks of grapes from which +the must has been extracted with water, with or without the addition +of sugar, or mixed with wine in whatever proportion, may only be sold, +or offered for sale, under the name of husk wine or sugared wine. + +Sect. 2. The addition of the following substances to wine, husk wine, +sugared wine, or raisin wine will be considered an adulteration: + +1. Coloring matters of all descriptions. + +2. Sulphuric, nitric, hydrochloric, salicylic, boric acid, or similar +substances. + +3. Sodium chloride beyond one gramme per liter. + +Sect. 3. The sale of plastered wines, containing more than two grammes +of potassium, or sodium sulphate, is prohibited. + +Offenders are subject to a fine of 16 to 500 francs, or to +imprisonment from six days to three months, according to +circumstances. + +Barrels or vessels containing plastered wine must have affixed a +notice to that effect in large letters, and the books, invoices, and +bills of lading must likewise bear such notice. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ALLOTROPIC CONDITIONS OF SILVER. + + +M. Berthelot recently called the attention of the Academy (Paris) to +the memoirs of Carey Lea on the allotropic states of silver, and +exhibited specimens of the color of gold and others of a purple color +sent him by the author. He explained the importance of these results, +which remind us of the work of the ancient alchemists, but he reserved +the question whether these substances are really isomeric states of +silver or complex and condensed compounds, sharing the properties of +the element which constituted the principal mass (97-98 per cent.), +conformably to the facts known in the history of the various carbons, +of the derivatives of red phosphorus, and especially of the varieties +of iron and steel. Between these condensed compounds and the pure +elements the continuous transition of the physical and chemical +properties is often effected by insensible degrees, by a mixture of +definite compounds. + +The following letter appears in a recent number of the _Chemical +News_. + +_Sir_: In a recently published lecture, Mr. Meldola seems to call in +question the existence of allotropic silver. This opinion does not +appear, however, to be based on any adequate study of the subject, but +to be somewhat conjectural in its nature. No experimental support of +any sort is given, and the only argument offered (if such it can be +called) is that this altered form of silver is analogous to that of +metals whose properties have been greatly changed by being _alloyed_ +with small quantities of other metals. Does, then, Mr. Meldola suppose +that a silver alloy can be formed by precipitating silver in the +presence of another metal from an aqueous solution, or that one can +argue from alloys, which are solutions, to molecular compounds or +lakes? Moreover, he has overlooked the fact that allotropic silver can +be obtained in the absence of any metal with which silver is capable +of combining, as in the case of its formation by the action of soda +and dextrine. Silver cannot be alloyed with sodium. + +Mr. Meldola cites Prange as having shown that allotropic silver +obtained with the aid of ferrous citrate contains traces of iron, a +fact which was published by me several years earlier, with an +analytical determination of the amount of iron found. Mr. Prange +repeated and confirmed this fact of the presence of iron (in this +particular case), and my other observations generally, and was fully +convinced of the existence of both soluble and insoluble allotropic +silver. Mr. Meldola's quotation of Mr. Prange would not convey this +impression to the reader. + +Of the many forms of allotropic silver, two of the best marked are the +blue and the yellow. + +Blue allotropic silver is formed in many reactions with the aid of +many wholly different reagents. To suppose that each of these many +substances is capable of uniting in minute quantity with silver to +produce in all cases an identical result, the same product with +identical color and properties, would be an absurdity. + +Gold-colored allotropic silver in thin films is converted by the +slightest pressure to normal silver. A glass rod drawn over it with a +gentle pressure leaves a gray line behind it of ordinary silver. If +the film is then plunged into solution of potassium ferricyanide it +becomes red or blue, while the lines traced show by their different +reaction that they consist of ordinary silver. Heat, electricity, and +contact with strong acids produce a similar change to ordinary gray +silver. + +These reactions afford the clearest proof that the silver is in an +allotropic form. To account for them on suppositions like Mr. +Meldola's would involve an exceedingly forced interpretation, such as +no one who carefully repeated my work could possibly entertain. + +I am, etc., + + M. CAREY LEA. + Philadelphia, October 22, 1891. + + * * * * * + + +THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN + +Architects and Builders Edition. + +$2.50 a Year. Single Copies, 25 cts. + +This is a Special Edition of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, issued +monthly--on the first day of the month. Each number contains about +forty large quarto pages, equal to about two hundred ordinary book +pages, forming, practically, a large and splendid MAGAZINE OF +ARCHITECTURE, richly adorned with _elegant plates in colors_ and with +fine engravings, illustrating the most interesting examples of modern +Architectural Construction and allied subjects. + +A special feature is the presentation in each number of a variety of +the latest and best plans for private residences, city and country, +including those of very moderate cost as well as the more expensive. +Drawings in perspective and in color are given, together with full +Plans, Specifications, Costs, Bills of Estimate, and Sheets of +Details. + +No other building paper contains so many plans, details, and +specifications regularly presented as the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN. +Hundreds of dwellings have already been erected on the various plans +we have issued during the past year, and many others are in process of +construction. + +Architects, Builders, and Owners will find this work valuable in +furnishing fresh and useful suggestions. All who contemplate building +or improving homes, or erecting structures of any kind, have before +them in this work an almost _endless series of the latest and best +examples_ from which to make selections, thus saving time and money. + +Many other subjects, including Sewerage, Piping, Lighting, Warming, +Ventilating, Decorating, Laying out of Grounds, etc., are illustrated. +An extensive Compendium of Manufacturers' Announcements is also given, +in which the most reliable and approved Building Materials, Goods, +Machines, Tools, and Appliances are described and illustrated, with +addresses of the makers, etc. + +The fullness, richness, cheapness, and convenience of this work have +won for it the LARGEST CIRCULATION of any Architectural publication +in the world. + +A Catalogue of valuable books on Architecture, Building, Carpentry, +Masonry, Heating, Warming, Lighting, Ventilation, and all branches of +industry pertaining to the art of Building, is supplied free of +charge, sent to any address. + + MUNN & CO., PUBLISHERS, + 361 BROADWAY, NEW YORK. + + * * * * * + + +THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN + +Cyclopedia of Receipts, + +NOTES AND QUERIES. + +---------------------------------------- + +650 PAGES. PRICE $5. + +---------------------------------------- + +This splendid work contains a careful compilation of the most useful +Receipts and Replies given in the Notes and Queries of correspondents +as published in the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN during nearly half a century +past; together with many valuable and important additions. + +OVER TWELVE THOUSAND selected receipts are here collected; Nearly +every branch of the useful arts being represented. It is by far the +most comprehensive volume of the kind ever placed before the public. + +The work may be regarded as the product of the studies and practical +experience of the ablest chemists and workers in all parts of the +world; the information given being of the highest value, arranged and +condensed in concise form, convenient for ready use. + +Almost every inquiry that can be thought of, relating to formulæ used +in the various manufacturing industries, will here be found answered. + +Instructions for working many different processes in the arts are +given. How to make and prepare many different articles and goods are +set forth. + +Those who are engaged in any branch of industry probably will find in +this book much that is of practical value in their respective +callings. + +Those who are in search of independent business or employment, +relating to the manufacture and sale of useful articles, will find in +it hundreds of most excellent suggestions. + +MUNN & CO., PUBLISHERS, 361 BROADWAY, NEW YORK. + + * * * * * + + +THE +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. + +PUBLISHED WEEKLY. + +Terms of Subscription, $5 a year. + +Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the +United States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any +foreign country. + +All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement, January +1, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each. + +All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise be supplied. Two +volumes are issued yearly. Price of each volume, $2.50 stitched in +paper, or $3.50 bound in stiff covers. + +COMBINED RATES.--One copy of SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN and one copy of +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, one year, postpaid, $7.00. + +A liberal discount to booksellers, news agents, and canvassers. + +MUNN & CO., PUBLISHERS, +361 BROADWAY, NEW YORK, N.Y. + + * * * * * + + +A New Catalogue of Valuable Papers + +Contained in SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT during the past ten years, +sent _free of charge_ to any address. MUNN & CO., 361 Broadway, New +York. + + * * * * * + + +Useful Engineering Books + +Manufacturers, Agriculturists, Chemists, Engineers, Mechanics, +Builders, men of leisure, and professional men, of all classes, need +good books in the line of their respective callings. Our post office +department permits the transmission of books through the mails at very +small cost. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 832, December 12, 1891 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: February 14, 2005 [EBook #15052] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the PG Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net. + + + + + + +</pre> + +<a href="./images/title.png"><img class="full" src="./images/title_th.png" alt="" /></a> + +<h1>SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 832</h1> +<h2>NEW YORK, December 12, 1891</h2> +<h4>Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XXXII, No. 832.</h4> +<h4>Scientific American established 1845</h4> +<h4>Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.</h4> +<h4>Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.</h4> +<hr /> + +<table summary="Contents" border="0" cellspacing="5"> +<tr> +<td valign="top">I.</td><td><a href="#ART01">ARCHÆOLOGY.—Archæological Discoveries at Cadiz.—The discovery +of Phenician relics in Spain, with the possibility of future +important research in that region.—2 illustrations</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td><td><a href="#ART02">Prehistoric Horse in America.—Curious discovery of an aboriginal +drawing in Nicaragua.—1 illustration</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">II.</td><td><a href="#ART03">ASTRONOMY.—A Plea for the Common Telescope.—By G.E. +LUMSDEN.—The increasing interest in astronomy and instances of +work done by telescopes of moderate power, giving examples +from the work of celebrated observers</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">III.</td><td><a href="#ART04">BIOGRAPHY.—Alfred Tennyson.—Biographical note of the +great poet, now past his 80th year, with portrait.—1 illustration</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td><td><a href="#ART05">Fiftieth Year of the Prince of Wales.—The Prince of Wales +and his family, with notes of his life and habits.—1 illustration</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">IV.</td><td><a href="#ART06">CHEMISTRY.—American Association—Ninth Annual Report of +the Committee on Indexing Chemical Literature.—A very important +report upon the titular subject, with probabilities of future advance +in this line.—The chemical index of the SCIENTIFIC +AMERICAN and SUPPLEMENT</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td><td><a href="#ART07">Apparatus for the Estimation of Fat in Milk.—By E. MOLINARI.—Details + of a method of determining fat in milk, with illustration +of the apparatus employed</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td><td><a href="#ART08">Further Researches upon the Element Fluorine.—By A.E. TUTTON.—Additional researches upon this element, following up +the work outlined by M. MOISSAN.—3 illustrations</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td><td><a href="#ART09">The Allotropic Conditions of Silver.—A recent letter from M. +CAREY LEA on this subject, with note of its presentation before +the French Academy by M. BERTHELOT</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td><td><a href="#ART10">The French Wine Law.—Recent enactment as to the adulterations +of wine</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">V.</td><td><a href="#ART11">CIVIL ENGINEERING.—Modern Methods of Quarrying.—A recent +paper of great value to all interested in exploiting quarries.—The +most recent methods described, tending now to replace the +cruder processes.—12 illustrations</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td><td><a href="#ART12">The Trotter Curve Ranger.—A surveying instrument for laying +off railroad curves, with full details of its theory, construction, +and use in the field.—4 illustrations</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + +<td valign="top">VI.</td><td><a href="#ART13">METALLURGY.—The Great Bell of the Basilica of the Sacred +Heart of Montmartre.—The founding of the great bell "La Savoyarde" +at the Paccard foundry in France.—Description of the +bell, its inscriptions, and decorations.—3 illustrations</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + +<td valign="top">VII.</td><td><a href="#ART14">MISCELLANEOUS.—Duck Hunting in Scotland.—A curious method of +approaching ducks under the guise of a donkey.—3 illustrations</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + +<td valign="top">VIII.</td><td><a href="#ART15">NAVAL ENGINEERING.—Hints to Shipmasters.—A very +practical view of the proper personal habits of the commander +of a merchant ship</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td><td><a href="#ART16">The British Cruiser Æolus.—Details of dimensions and armament +of this recently launched British ship</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td><td><a href="#ART17">Trials of H.M. Cruiser Blake.—Trial trip of this celebrated +cruiser.—Her horse power as developed, with the somewhat +disappointing results obtained as regards speed.—1 illustration</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + +<td valign="top">IX.</td><td><a href="#ART18">PHOTOGRAPHY.—Development with Sucrate of Lime.—Development +formulas, involving the use of sugar solution saturated +with lime.—Accelerating influences of certain chemicals</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + +<td valign="top">X.</td><td><a href="#ART19">RAILROAD ENGINEERING.—The Rail Spike and the Locomotive.—A +most interesting article on an old time railroad.—Curious +incidents in the construction of the Camden & Amboy Railroad, +by the celebrated Robert L. Stevens.—A most graphic account of +early difficulties</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + +<td valign="top">XI.</td><td><a href="#ART20">TECHNOLOGY—American Workshops.—The care of tools and practice +in American workshops, as viewed from an English standpoint</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td><td><a href="#ART21">New Sugar Items.—Interesting points in the cultivation of sugar +beets and manufacture of sugar therefrom in France, Germany, +and other countries</a></td></tr> +</table> +<hr /> + + +<h2><a name="ART13"></a>THE GREAT BELL OF THE BASILICA OF THE SACRED HEART OF +MONTMARTRE.</h2> + +<p>The main work on the basilica of the Sacred Heart is now completed and +the bell tower surmounts it. So we have now a few words to say about +"La Savoyarde"—the name of the great bell which is designed for it, +and which has just been cast at Annecy-le-Vieux, in Upper Savoy, in +the presence of Mgr. Leuilleux, Archbishop of Chambery, Mgr. Isoar, +Bishop of Annecy, and of all the clergy united, at the foundry of +Messrs. G. & F. Paccard, especially decorated for the occasion.</p> + + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/01-1.png" alt="INTERIOR OF BELL." /><br /> +INTERIOR OF THE BELL.</p> + +<p>One of the Latin inscriptions that ornament the metal of "La +Savoyarde" at once explains to us its name and tells us why a bell +designed for the capital was cast at Annecy-le-Vieux. The following is +a translation of it:</p> + +<blockquote> + "In the year 1888, in the course of the solemnities of the + sacerdotal jubilee of the Sovereign Pontifex Leo XIII., I, + Frances Margaret of the Sacred Heart of Jesus, on the + initiative of Francis Albert Leuilleux, Archbishop of + Chambery, with the co-operation of the bishops of the + province, at the common expense of the clergy and upper and + lower classes of Savoy, was offered as a gift, as a + testimonial of piety toward the divine heart, in order to + repeat through the ages, from the top of the holy hill, to the + city, to the nation and to the entire world, 'Hail Jesus!'" +</blockquote> + +<p>Let us now witness the casting of the bell.</p> + +<p>Over there, at the back of the foundry, in the reverberatory furnace, +the alloy of copper and tin, in the proportions of 78 and 22 per +cent., is in fusion. From the huge crucible runs a conduit to the pit, +at the side of which the furnace is constructed, and in which is +placed the mould. A metallic plug intercepts communication. A quick +blow with an iron rod removes this plug and the tapping is effected. +This operation, which seems simple at first sight, is extremely +delicate in practice and requires a very skillful workman. A host of +technical words designates the dangers that it presents. Before the +tapping, it is necessary to calculate at a glance the function of the +gate pit. And what accidents afterward! But we need not dwell upon +these. After the cooling of the metal comes the cleaning, which is +done with scrapers and special instruments.</p> + +<p>The casting is preceded by two operations—the designing and the +moulding. The design rests upon a basis generally furnished by +experience, and which the founders have transmitted from generation to +generation. The thickness of the rim of the bell taken as unity +determines the diameters and dimensions. The outline most usually +followed gives 15 rims to the large diameter, 7½ to the upper part of +the bell, and 32 to the large radius that serves to trace the profiles +of the external sides.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/01-2.png"><img src="./images/01-2_th.png" alt="CASTING OF BELL." /></a><br /> +THE CASTING OF THE GREAT BELL OF THE BASILICA OF THE SACRED HEART.</p> + +<p>The moulding is done as follows: In the pit where the casting is to be +done there is constructed a core of bricks and a clay shell, separated +from each other by a thickness of earth, called false bell. This +occupies provisionally the place of the metal, and will be destroyed +at the moment of the casting.</p> + +<p>Now let us give a brief description of "La Savoyarde." Its total +weight is 25,000 kilogrammes, divided as follows: 16,500 kilogrammes +of bronze, 800 kilogrammes for the clapper, and the rest for the +suspension gear.</p> + +<p>Its height is 3.06 meters and its width at the base is 3.03. It is +therefore as high as it is wide, and, as may be seen from our +engraving, two men can easily seat themselves in its interior. In +weight, it exceeds the bell of Notre Dame, of Paris, which weighs +17,170 kilogrammes, that of the Cathedral of Sens, which weighs +16,230, and that of the Amiens bell, which weighs 11,000. But it +cannot be compared to the famous bell given by Eudes Rigauit, +Archbishop of Rouen, to the cathedral of that city, and which was so +big and heavy that it was necessary to give a copious supply of +stimulants to those who rang it, in order "to encourage" them.</p> + +<p>"La Savoyarde" will appear small also if we compare it with some +celebrated bells, that of the Kremlin of Moscow, for example, which +weighs 201,216 kilogrammes. One detail in conclusion: "La Savoyarde" +sounds in counter C. This had been desired and foreseen. The number of +vibrations, that is to say, the <i>timbre</i> of a bell, is in inverse +ratio of its diameter or of the cubic root of its weight, so that in +calculating the diameters and in designing "La Savoyarde" the <i>timbre</i> +was calculated at the same time.—<i>L'Illustration.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="ctr">[FROM THE SUGAR BEET.]</p> + +<h2><a name="ART21"></a>NEW SUGAR ITEMS.</h2> + +<h3>FRANCE.</h3> + +<p>Water that has been used to wash frozen beets contains a small +percentage of sugar. As the washing period, in such cases, is longer +than with normal beets, the sugar in beet cells has time to pass +through the outer walls by osmosis. The sugar loss is said to be 0.66 +per cent. (?) of the weight of beets washed.</p> + +<p>Well conducted experiments show that in small but well ventilated +silos, beets lose considerable weight, but very little sugar. On the +other hand, in large silos with poor ventilation, the sugar loss +frequently represents four to six per cent. When fermentation +commences, the mass of roots is almost ruined.</p> + +<p>Sodic nitrate, if used upon soil late in the season, may overcome a +difficulty that has been recently noticed. Beet fields located near +swamps that are dry a portion of the year have suffered from a malady +that turns leaves from green to yellow, even before harvesting period; +such beets have lost a considerable amount of sugar.</p> + +<p>A new method for the analysis of saccharose and raffinose, when in the +presence of inverted sugar, is said to give accurate results. The +process consists in adding sulphate of copper and lime to hot +molasses, so that the oxide of copper is changed to a protoxide, and +the invert sugar becomes water and carbonic acid. The whole is +neutralized with phosphoric acid. There follow a great number of +precipitates; the exact volume of liquid in which these are found is +determined after two polariscopic observations.</p> + +<p>It has been constantly noticed that samples of carbonatated juice vary +in composition with the part of tank from which they are taken. If +some arrangement could be made assuring a thorough mixing during the +passage of carbonic acid, results would be more satisfactory than they +now are. If gas could be distributed in every part of the tank, the +lime combination could be made perfect.</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding the new law regulating quantity of sugar to be used in +wines, ciders, etc., there has been, during 1890, an increase of +nearly 13,000 tons, as compared with 1889. Consumption of sugar for +these special industries was 33,000 tons; alcohol thus added to wine +was about 71,000,000 gallons.</p> + +<p>Beets cultivated without extra fertilizers, and that are regular in +shape and in good condition, without bruises, are the ones which give +the best results in silos. It is recommended to construct silos of two +types; one which is to be opened before first frost, the other where +beets remain for several months and are protected against excessive +cold. Great care should be taken that a thorough ventilation be given +in the first mentioned type. In the other, more substantial silos, +ventilation must be watched,and all communication with the exterior +closed as soon as the temperature falls to or near freezing.</p> + +<p>During the last campaign many manufacturers experienced great +difficulty in keeping the blades of slicers sufficiently sharp to work +frozen beets. Sharpening of blades is an operation attended to by +special hands at the factory; and under ordinary circumstances there +need be no difficulty. However, it is now proposed to have central +stations that will make a specialty of blade sharpening. Under these +circumstances manufacturers located in certain districts need give the +matter no further thought, let the coming winter be as severe as it +may.</p> + +<p>Some success has been obtained by the use of sulphurous acid in vacuum +pans. Great care is required; the operation cannot be done by an +ordinary workman. It is claimed that graining thereby is more rapid +and better than is now possible. Chemists agree that the operation is +more effectual by bringing sulphurous acid in contact with sirups +rather than juices; it is in the sirups that the coloring pigments are +found. Sulphurous acid is run into the pan until the sirups cover the +second coil. In all cases the work must be done at a low temperature.</p> + +<p>Height of juice in carbonatating tanks is only three feet in France, +while in Austria it is frequently twelve feet. The question of a +change in existing methods is being discussed; it necessitates an +increase in the blowing capacity of machine; since carbonic acid gas +has a greater resistance to overcome in Austrian than in French +methods. Longer the period juices are in contact with carbonic acid, +greater will be the effect produced.</p> + +<p>Ferric sulphate has been very little used for refuse water +purification, owing to cost of its manufacture. If roasted pyrites, a +waste product of certain chemical factories, are sprinkled with +sulphuric acid of 66° B., and thoroughly mixed for several hours, at a +temperature of 100° to 156° F., the pyrites will soon be covered with +a white substance which is ferric sulphate. Precipitates from ferric +sulphate, unlike calcic compounds, do not subsequently enter into +putrefaction.</p> + +<p>Efforts are being made to convince manufacturers of the mistake in +using decanting vats, in connection with first and second +carbonatation. In Germany filter presses are used, decanting vats are +obsolete. The main objection to them is cooling of saccharine liquors, +which means an ultimate increase in fuel. Cooling is frequently +followed by partial fermentation.</p> + +<p>Further changes in the proposed combined baryta-soda method for juice +purification consist in using powdered soda carbonate 90-92°, upon +beet cossettes as they leave the slicer, before entering the diffusor. +The quantity of chemical to be used is 1/1000 of weight of beet slices +being treated. If a diffusor has a capacity of 2,500 lb., there would +be added 2.5 lb. soda carbonate. From the diffusor is subsequently +taken 316 gallons juice at 4-5° density, this is rapidly heated to +185°F., then 2.4 of a pure baryta solution is added; temperature is +kept at 185° F. for a short time; resulting precipitates fall to +bottom of tank; then 13 gallons milk of lime 25° B. are added.</p> + +<p>Other operations that follow are as usual. It is contended that the +cost of baryta is 10 cents per ton beets worked. The most important +advantage is gain in time; a factory working 20,000 during a 100-day +campaign, by the foregoing process can accomplish the same work in 80 +days, thus decreasing wear and tear of plant and diminishing +percentage of sugar lost in badly constructed silos.</p> + +<p>The exact influence of a low temperature upon beet cells has never +been satisfactorily settled. Considerable light has recently been +thrown upon the subject by a well known chemist. It is asserted that +living cells containing a saccharine liquid do not permit infiltration +from interior to exterior; this phenomenon occurs only when cell and +tissue are dead. It is necessary that the degree of cold should be +sufficiently intense, or that a thaw take place, under certain +conditions, to kill tissue of walls of said cells. An interesting fact +is that when cells are broken through the action of freezing, it is +not those containing sugar that are the first affected. The outer +cells containing very little sugar are the first to expand when +frozen, which expansion opens the central cells.</p> + +<p>Experiments to determine the action of lime upon soils apparently +prove that it does not matter in what form calcic salts are employed; +their effect, in all cases, is to increase the yield of roots to the +acre. On the other hand, very secondary results were obtained with +phosphoric and sulphuric acids.</p> + +<p>A micro-mushroom, a parasite that kills a white worm, enemy of the +beet, has been artificially cultivated. As soon as the worm is +attacked, the ravage continues until the entire body of the insect is +one mass of micro-organisms. Spores during this period are constantly +formed. If it were possible to spread this disease in districts +infected by the white worm, great service could be rendered to beet +cultivation.</p> + +<p>In sugar refining it is frequently desirable to determine the +viscosity of sirups, molasses, etc. Methods founded upon the rapidity +of flow through an orifice of a known size are not mathematical in +their results. A very simple plan, more accurate than any hitherto +thought of, is attracting some attention. Sensitive scales and a +thermometer suspended in a glass tube are all the apparatus necessary. +The exact weight of thermometer, with tube, is determined; they are +immersed in water and weighed for the second time; the difference in +weight before and afterward gives the weight of adhering water. If the +operation is repeated in molasses, we in the same way obtain the +weight of adhering liquid, which, if divided by the weight of adhering +water, gives the viscosity as compared with water.</p> + +<p>Sugar refineries located at Marseilles claim that it is cheaper for +them to purchase sugar in Java than beet sugar of northern Europe. On +the other hand, the argument of Paris refiners is just the reverse. +The total refined sugar consumed is 375,000 tons, the colonial and +indigenous production of raw sugar is nearly 1,000,000 tons more than +sufficient to meet the demands of the entire refining industry of the +country. There appears to have been considerable manipulation, foreign +sugar being imported with the view of producing a panic, followed by a +decline of market prices, after which Marseilles refiners would buy. +All sound arguments are in favor of protecting the home sugar +industry.</p> + +<p>It has been suggested that manufacturers weigh the fuel used more +carefully than hitherto; the extra trouble would soon lead to economy +for all interested in sugar production at ruinous cost. Some chemists +advocate that coal be purchased only after having been analyzed. +Efforts to have a unification in methods of analysis of all products +of factory is a move in the right direction; the Association of Sugar +Chemists have adopted a series of methods that are in the future to be +considered as standard.</p> + +<p>Copper solutions are destined to render great service in the +destruction of micro-organisms that attack the beet field. The liquid +used should be composed of 3 per cent. copper sulphate and 3 per cent. +lime, dissolved in water; fifty gallons are sufficient for one acre; +cost per acre, every item included, is 56 cents. The normal vitality +of the plant being restored, there follows an increased sugar +percentage. Ordinary liquid ammonia may be advantageously used to kill +white worms and insects that attack beets; two quarts of the diluted +chemical are used per square yard, and the cost is $12 per acre (?)</p> + +<h3>GERMANY.</h3> + +<p>Calcic salt elimination from beet juices is a problem not yet +satisfactorily solved. Since the early history of beet sugar making, +it has been noticed that calcic salts render graining in the pan most +tedious; hence repeated efforts to reduce to a minimum percentage the +use of lime during defecation. In all cases it is essential to get rid +of inverted sugar. The difficulty from excess of lime is overcome by +adding it now and then during carbonatation; but other means are found +desirable; and phosphoric acid, magnesia, soda, etc., have been used +with success. Recent observations relating to the action of soda upon +calcic sulphates, calcic glucates, etc., are most important. Certain +citrates have a retarding influence upon calcic sulphates.</p> + +<p>An alarm contrivance to announce the passage of juices into condensing +pipes has rendered considerable service in beet sugar factories.</p> + +<p>A process for refining sugar in the factory, at less cost than it is +possible to make raw sugar by existing processes, deserves notice. +Sugars by this new method test 99.8, and sirups from the same have a +purity coefficient of 70. Weight of dry crystals obtained is said to +represent 66 per cent. of <i>masse cuite</i> used. The additional cost of +the process is $30 to $40 per centrifugal. Concentrated juice or sirup +may be used as <i>cleare</i> in centrifugals; this sirup should have a +density of 1.325 (36° B.) at 113° to 122° F., so as not to redissolve +the sugar. Sirup should not be used until all adhering sirup of <i>masse +cuite</i> has been swung out. The sirup, after passing through +centrifugals, may be sent to second carbonatation tanks and mixed with +juices being treated.</p> + +<p>The larva of an insect, known as <i>sylpha</i>, has attacked beet fields in +several parts of Saxony. The effect upon the root is a decrease in +foliage, followed by late development of the beet, with corresponding +reduction in sugar percentage. Chickens may render excellent service, +as they eat these worms with considerable relish. A solution of +Schweinfurt green has been used with some success; its cost is $2.50 +per acre. None of the chemical remains on the leaves after a rain (?) +White worms have done some damage; they should be collected from the +fields during plowing. When they become beetles in the spring, they +may be destroyed by a solution of sulphide of carbon; $0.20 worth of +this chemical is sufficient to kill 10,000 of them. These beetles +contain 50 per cent of fatty and nitric elements; when pulverized they +may be used as good for pigs and chickens. If the ground mass of +beetles is sprinkled with sulphuric acid and a reasonable amount of +lime and earth be added, the combination forms an excellent fertilizer +for certain crops. A disease that blackens young beet leaves is found +to be due to a microscopic insect. If the beet seed be saturated in a +phenic solution before planting, the difficulty may be overcome.</p> + +<p>We are soon to have a new method for selecting mothers for seed +production. Details of the same are not yet public. It is claimed that +it will be possible to grow seed that will yield beets of a given +quality determined in advance, a problem which has hitherto been +thought impossible.</p> + +<p>It will surprise many of our readers to learn that if "tops" or even +half beets are planted, they will give seed, the quality of which is +about same; showing that as soon as seed stalks commence to appear, +the <i>role</i> of the root proper is of secondary consideration, as it +serves simply as a medium between the beet and soil(?)</p> + +<p>Sprayed water may be used with considerable success in washing sugar +in centrifugals; it is claimed that this new process offers many +advantages over either steam, water, or use of <i>cleare</i>. White sugar +to be washed is thoroughly mixed with a sugar sirup supersaturated. +The whole is run into centrifugals. The sirup swung from the same is +used in next and following operations; when it becomes too thick it is +sent to the vacuum pan to be regrained. The operation of washing lasts +less than two minutes; three quarts of water are necessary for 200 lb. +sugar. The water spray at a pressure of 5 to 10 atmospheres is +produced by a very simple appliance.</p> + +<p>Total weight of refuse cossettes obtained during last campaign was +4,000,000 tons, about 700,000 tons of which were sold for $1,000,000; +if what remains is dried, it would be worth $5,000,000.</p> + +<p>Several sodic-baryta methods have been recently invented. Of these we +will mention one where 1/4000 to 1/2000 part of calcined soda is added +to the beet slices in diffusors. The juice when drawn from the battery +is heated to 154° F., and defecated with hydrate of baryta and milk of +lime. Nearly all foreign substances are thus eliminated. Carbonatation +then follows.</p> + +<p>Government taxation upon the sugar industry is destined within a few +years to be withdrawn. The new law recently put into operation no +longer taxes beets worked at factory, but the sugar manufactured. The +rate of taxation is about 2 cents per pound on all sugar made.</p> + +<p>Recent data from northeast Germany give the work during campaign +1890-91 of 54 associated beet sugar factories. They used 2,130,000 +tons beets, obtained from 142,602 acres of land, average yield 12 +tons. The total sugar amounted to 251,000 tons, of which 241,000 were +from beets and 10,000 tons from molasses worked by special processes. +The polarization of beet juices averaged 13.09; <i>masse cuite</i>, 14.31; +extraction of sugar of all grades, 11.79. It required 848 lb. beets to +produce 100 lb. sugar.</p> + +<p>In every center where beet sugar is made there exists some local +society; each year members from these societies meet to exchange views +upon the sugar situation of the empire.</p> + +<p>Of late, there has been a general complaint respecting quality of +sugar sold on the Magdeburg market. At one time the sugars averaged +more organic substances than ash; now there is more ash than organic +substances. Such sugars are most difficult to work, and cause much +loss of time in centrifugals.</p> + +<p>The most desirable temperature for diffusion batteries is not yet +definitely settled. Some manufacturers recommend 82° to 86° F. On the +other hand, satisfactory results have been obtained at 145° F., +followed by cold water in the diffusors.</p> + +<p>The use of hydrofluoric acid, even in small quantities to prevent +fermentation, should not be allowed.</p> + +<p>It is proposed to use hydrogen dioxide for saccharine juice +purification. The alkalinity of juice is reduced to 0.07 by a +judicious use of lime. Precaution must be taken to keep the +temperature at 87° F. After a preliminary filtration about 4 per cent. +hydrogen dioxide is added. The whole is then heated to the boiling +point, after which ½ to 1 per cent. lime is added. When alkalinity of +filtrate is 0.03 phosphoric acid and magnesia are added, in quantities +representing 0.03 per cent. of sugar in juice for magnesia, and 0.6 +per cent. for the phosphoric acid. In working beet juices hydrogen +dioxide may be used in the diffusor or during any phase of the sugar +manufacturing process, even upon sugars in centrifugals. In all cases +the results obtained are said to be most satisfactory.</p> + +<p>A method to crystallize the sugar contained in the mother liquor of a +<i>masse cuite</i> consists in mixing during 24 hours the hot product, +direct from the pan, with low grade molasses. Gradual cooling follows. +The crystals of <i>masse cuite</i> effect a crystallization of the +otherwise inactive product contained in the molasses. The separation +of crystals from adhering molasses is done in a special washing +appliance arranged in battery form.</p> + +<p>It has been frequently asked if the existing and accepted formula for +determining in advance the amount of refined sugar that may be +extracted from either beets, <i>masse cuite</i> or raw sugar, is to be +considered exact, without special allowance being made for raffinose. +An intelligent discussion upon the subject shows that the sugar in +question, whether present or not, in no way influences the formula +under consideration.</p> + +<h3>AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.</h3> + +<p>The committee on exhibition at Prague has issued several interesting +pamphlets, from which we learn that in Bohemia, in 1819, there existed +one beet sugar factory. In 1890 the total number of factories was 140; +last year 370,000 acres were planted in beets, and the yield was +3,700,000 tons; yield of sugar averaged 2,700 lb. per acre; 40,000 +hands were employed. During the past 24 years 17,900,000 tons of coal +have been consumed, and the working capacity per factory is now far +greater than formerly. There are at present seven sugar refineries in +Bohemia.</p> + +<p>Commercial arrangements with Germany having terminated favorably, +great pressure is being brought to bear upon Italy, Roumania, Servia +and Switzerland, to induce them to enter into a treaty. Sugars +imported by the country last named were 35,892 tons in 1889 and 43,300 +tons during 1890.</p> + +<h3>BELGIUM.</h3> + +<p>If fresh cossettes are fed to cows, in quantities per diem +representing 20 per cent. of the animal's weight, they have a thinning +effect. When the refuse has been siloed for eight months, and 12 per +cent. of the animal's weight is used, there will follow a slight daily +increase in weight. Better results may be obtained from cossettes that +have been kept for two years; with the latter, if cows eat only 7 per +cent. of their weight, considerable fattening follows. Consequently, +while beet refuse, after long keeping, loses 50 per cent. of its +weight, it appears in the end to be more economical for feeding +purposes than fresh cossettes direct from the battery.</p> + +<p>During this period of keeping the percentage of water remains nearly +constant; fatty substances which were 0.08 per cent. become 0.74; and +the percentage of carbohydrates diminishes. Chemists are unable to +explain the changes that have taken place; if they are desirable, as +they appear to be, judging from the practical results just cited, +there is this question to be solved: What future have dried cossettes? +Evidently they offer advantages, as no one can doubt, such as a +decrease in weight and bulk, easy keeping for an indefinite time, etc. +At present, there is building a silo to contain 4,000 tons fresh +cossettes; this is to have the best possible system of drainage. +During the coming season it is proposed to analyze the water draining +from this mass of fermenting refuse; and we may then learn more than +we now know about the chemical changes above mentioned.</p> + +<p>A correspondent of M. Sachs asks why it is not possible to use live +steam in defecating tanks. A simple calculation shows that the water +to be subsequently evaporated would be increased 10 per cent. This +evaporation would cost more than cleaning of copper coils, etc., +combined with other difficulties existing appliances offer.</p> + +<p>The question as to the most desirable number of beets necessary to +analyze to obtain an average has been in part settled. Factories +working 500 tons per diem should make at least 200 analyses of beets +received, which work offers no difficulty by the rapid methods now +used. Several samples should be taken from every cart load delivered, +then make average selections from the same.</p> + +<h3>RUSSIA.</h3> + +<p>Weak currents of electricity, 0.03 to 0.04 ampere, have been passed +through sirups for fourteen hours without any special increase in +purity coefficient. Experiments made upon diluted molasses or with raw +beet juices were not encouraging.</p> + +<p>Mixing of filter press scums with diffusion juices is said to offer +special advantages for the preliminary purification. Not over one to +two per cent. of scums should be used. If in too great quantity, the +raw juices will yield inferior results. During operations that follow, +experiments are not yet sufficiently advanced to determine with +certainty within what limits the refuse scum utilization process is to +be recommended. We have great doubts as to the wisdom of introducing +foreign elements, eliminated from other juices in a previous +operation, into a juice fresh from the battery.</p> + +<h3>OTHER COUNTRIES.</h3> + +<p>The beet sugar factory in Japan is said to be working with +considerable success.</p> + +<p>This year in Europe over 3,000,000 acres are devoted to beet +cultivation. If the yield averages 12 tons, the crop of roots to be +worked during campaign 1891-92 will certainly not be less than +36,000,000 tons, with a total yield of first grade sugar of about +7,300,000,000 lb.</p> + +<p>Sugar sells for 9 cents per pound in Persia, where Russia has almost a +monopoly of that business.</p> + +<p>Finland imported, during 1889, 9,416 tons sugar, valued at $1,000,000. +Germany supplied two-thirds of this at cheaper rates than Russia, +owing to facilities of transportation. Two refineries are working; one +of these uses exclusively cane sugar, while the other employs both +cane and beet sugar.</p> + +<p>A beet sugar factory in England, that has been idle for many years, is +to resume operations under a new company, adopting the plan of growing +a sufficient quantity of beets for an average campaign, independently +of what all the farmers of the locality propose to do.</p> + +<p>Siberia is to have a beet sugar factory. Experiments in beet +cultivation have shown excellent beets may be raised there. Special +advantages are offered by the Russian government, and factories are to +be exempt from taxation daring a period of ten years. Sugar in +Siberia is now considered an article of luxury, owing to distance and +difficulties of transportation from manufacturing centers.</p> + +<p>A special delegation from Canada has been sent to Europe, to study and +subsequently report upon the true condition of the beet sugar +industry.</p> + +<p>A correspondent writes from Farnham, Canada, that the Canadian +government grants a bounty of 2 cents per pound on beet sugar during +campaign 1891-92. Duties on raw sugar were abolished last June.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="ART20"></a>AMERICAN WORKSHOPS.</h2> + +<p>An interesting paper on some of the leading American workshops was +lately read before the members of the Manchester Association of +Engineers on Saturday by Mr. Hans Renold. After expressing his opinion +that the English people did not sufficiently look about them or try to +understand what other nations were doing, Mr. Renold stated that he +had visited that portion of America known as New England, and the +works he had inspected were among the best in the United States. Among +the many special features he had noticed he mentioned that in a Boston +establishment where milling machine cutters were made he had found +that £1 spent in wages produced as much as £30 to £40 worth of goods, +the cutters being made at the rate of about sixty-four per hour by +about a dozen men. Another noticeable feature was the exceptional care +taken in storing tools in American workshops. These, in fact, were +treated as if they were worth their weight in gold; they were stored +in safes much in the same manner as we in England stored our money. He +was, however, impressed by the fact that the mere understanding of the +method of American working would not enable them to do likewise in +England, because the American workmen had gone through a special +training, and a similar training would be necessary to enable English +workmen to adapt themselves to American machines. One very noticeable +feature in American engineering shops which he visited was that all +the machine men and turners were seated on blocks or stools at their +machines, and the question naturally arose in his mind what would +English engineers say if such a practice were adopted in their shops. +In other ways he was also struck by the special attention devoted to +the comfort of the workmen, and he was much impressed by the healthy +condition of the emery polishing shops as compared with similar shops +in this country. In England these shops in most cases were simply +deathtraps to the workmen, and he urged that the superior method of +ventilation carried out in the States should be adopted in this +country by introducing a fan to each wheel to take away the particles, +etc., which were so injurious. One very special feature in the United +States was that works were devoted to the manufacture of one +particular article to an almost inconceivable extent, and that heavy +machine tools complete and ready to be dispatched were kept in stock +in large numbers. American enterprise was not hampered as it too +frequently was in England by want of capital; while in England we were +ready to put our savings in South American railways or fictitious gold +mines, but very chary about investing capital which would assist an +engineer in bringing out an honest improvement, in America, on the +other hand, it was a common practice among the best firms to invest +their savings over and over again in their works, which were thus kept +in a high state of perfection.</p> + +<p>The above paper came in for some pretty severe criticism. Mr. John +Craven remarked that although Mr. Renold had gone over a wide field of +subjects, he had practically confined his remarks to Messrs. Brown & +Sharpe's establishment, and while he (Mr. Craven) was ready to admit +that so far as high class work and sanitary arrangements were +concerned, Messrs. Brown & Sharpe's were a model, they could not be +put forward as representative of American establishments generally. As +a matter of fact, many of the American workshops were not as good as a +large number of similar workshops in Manchester. Mr. Renold had +referred to the extensive use of gear cutters in the United States, +but he might point out that it was in Manchester that the milling +machine was first made. Mr. Samuel Dixon said he had certainly come to +the conclusion that no better work was done in America than could be +and was being done in this country; while as regards the enormous +production of milling cutters, that was simply an example of what +could be done where large firms devoted themselves to the production +of one specialty. With regard to the statement made by Mr. Renold that +the American thread was preferable to the Whitworth thread, he might +say he entirely disagreed with such a conclusion, and he might add +that after visiting a variety of Continental and American workshops he +should certainly not, if he were called upon to award the palm of +superiority in workmanship, go across the Atlantic for that purpose. +Mr. J. Nasmith remarked that whether English engineers were the +inventors of the milling machine or not, it must be admitted that it +was through this type of cutter being taken up by the Americans that +milling had become the success it was at the present time. English +engineers were very conservative, and it was only through the pressure +of circumstances that milling machines came into general use in this +country. When American inventions were brought to England they were +generally improved to the highest degree, but he thought the chief +fault of both American and Continental engineers was what one might +call "over-refinement;" there was such a thing as over-finishing an +object and overdoing it. If, however, American machinery was so much +superior to what we had in this country, as asserted by the reader of +the paper, how was it that cotton machinery, with all its intricacies, +could be sent to the United States, in the face of American +manufacturers, even though the cost was increased from 40 to 60 per +cent.? At the present time it was possible for English machinists to +secure contracts for the whole of the machinery in an American mill, +and inclusive of freight charges and high tariff, deliver and erect it +in America at a lower cost than American engineers with all the +advantages of their immeasurably superior tools were able to do. +Another speaker, Mr. Barstow, ridiculed the idea that the Americans +could be so pre-eminent in the manufacture of emery wheels as might +be inferred from Mr. Renold, when they had before them the fact that +from the neighborhood of Manchester thousands of emery wheels were +every year exported to the United States.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="ART11"></a>MODERN METHODS OF QUARRYING.</h2> + +<p>Mr. Wm. L. Saunders, for many years the engineer of the Ingersoll Rock +Drill Co., and hence thoroughly familiar with modern quarrying +practice, read a paper before the last meeting of the American Society +of Civil Engineers on the above subject, containing many interesting +points, given in the <i>Engineering News</i>, from which we abstract as +follows.</p> + +<p>As a preliminary to describing the new Knox system of quarrying, which +even yet is not universally known among quarrymen, Mr. Saunders gives +the following in regard to older methods:</p> + +<blockquote> + The Knox system is a recent invention; no mention was made of + it in the tenth census, and no description has yet been given + of it in any publications on quarrying. The first work done by + this method was in 1885, and at the close of that year 2 + quarries had adopted it. In 1886 it was used in 20 quarries; + in 1887 in 44, in 1888 in upward of 100, and at the present + time about 300 quarries have adopted it. Its purpose is to + release dimension stone from its place in the bed, by so + directing an explosive force that it is made to cleave the + rock in a prescribed line without injury. The system is also + used for breaking up detached blocks of stone into smaller + sizes. +</blockquote> + +<p>Quarrymen have, ever since the introduction of blasting, tried to +direct the blast so as to save stock. Holes drilled by hand are seldom +round. The shape of the bit and their regular rotation while drilling +usually produce a hole of somewhat triangular section. It was +observed, many years ago, that when a blast was fired in a +hand-drilled hole the rock usually broke in three directions, +radiating from the points of the triangle in the hole. This led +quarrymen to look for a means by which the hole might be shaped in +accordance with a prescribed direction of cleavage.</p> + +<p>The oldest sandstone quarries in America are those at Portland, Conn. +It was from these quarries that great quantities of brownstone were +shipped for buildings in New York. The typical "brownstone front" is +all built of Portland stone. As the Portland quarries were carried to +great depths the thickness of bed increased, as it usually does in +quarries. With beds from 10 to 20 ft. deep, all of solid and valuable +brownstone, it became a matter of importance that some device should +be applied which would shear the stone from its bed without loss of +stock and without the necessity of making artificial beds at short +distances. A system was adopted and used successfully for a number of +years which comprised the drilling of deep holes from 10 to 12 in. in +diameter, and charging them with explosives placed in a canister of +peculiar shape. The drilling of this hole is so interesting as to +warrant a passing notice. The system was similar to that followed with +the old fashioned drop drill. The weight of the bit was the force +which struck the blow, and this bit was simply raised or lowered by a +crank turned by two men at the wheel. The bit resembled a broad ax in +shape, in that it was extremely broad, tapering to a sharp point, and +convex along the edge.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/04-fig1.png" alt="Fig. 1" title="" /><br /> +FIG. 1</p> + +<p>Fig. 1 illustrates in section one of the Portland drills, and a drill +hole with the canister containing the explosive in place. The canister +was made of two curved pieces of sheet tin with soldered edges, cloth +or paper being used at the ends. It was surrounded with sand or earth, +so that the effect of the blast was practically the same as though the +hole were drilled in the shape of the canister. In other words, the +old Portland system was to drill a large, round hole, put in a +canister, and then fill up a good part of the hole. Were it possible +to drill the hole in the shape of the canister, it would obviously +save a good deal of work which had to be undone. The Portland system +was, therefore, an extravagant one, but the results accomplished were +such as to fully warrant its use. Straight and true breaks were made, +following the line of the longer axis of the canister section, as in +Fig. 2.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/04-fig2.png" alt="Fig. 2" title="" /><br /> +FIG. 2</p> + +<p>It was found that with the old Portland canister two breaks might be +made at right angles by a single blast, when using a canister shaped +like a square prism. In some of the larger blasts, where blocks +weighing in the neighborhood of 2,000 tons were sheared on the bed, +two holes as deep as 20 ft. were drilled close together. The core +between the holes was then clipped out and large canisters measuring 2 +ft. across from edge to edge were used.</p> + +<p>In regard to another of the older systems of blasting, known as +Lewising, Mr. Saunders says:</p> + +<blockquote> +A Lewis hole is made by drilling two or three holes close +together and parallel with each other, the partitions between +the holes being broken down by using what is known as a +broach. Thus a wide hole or groove is formed in which powder +is inserted, either by ramming it directly in the hole, or by +puling it in a canister, shaped somewhat like the Lewis hole +trench. A complex Lewis hole is the combination of 3 drill +holes, while a compound Lewis hole contains 4 holes. Lewising +is confined almost entirely to granite. In some cases a +series of Lewis holes is put in along the bench at distances +of 10 and 25 ft. apart, or even greater, each Lewis hole being +situated equidistant from the face of the bench. The holes are +blasted simultaneously by the electric battery. +</blockquote> + +<p>After noting another system used to a limited extent, and not to be +commended, viz., the use of inverted plugs and feathers (the plugs and +feathers being inserted as a sort of tamping which the blast drives +upward to split the rock), Mr. Saunders continues in substance as +follows:</p> + +<blockquote> + It is thus seen that the "state of the art" has been + progressive, though it was imperfect. Mr. Sperr, in his + reference to this subject, made in the report of the tenth + census, says: "The influence of the shape of the drill hole + upon the effects of the blast does not seem to be generally + known, and a great waste of material necessarily follows." + This was written but a few years before the introduction of + the new system, and it is doubtless true that attention was + thus widely directed to the conspicuous waste, due to a lack + of knowledge of the influence of the shape of a drill hole on + the effect of a blast. The system developed by Mr. Knox + practically does all and more than was done by the old + Portland system, and it does it at far less expense. It can + best be described by illustrations. +</blockquote> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/04-fig3-6.png" alt="Fig. 3, 4, 5, and 6" title="" /><br /> +FIG. 3, 4, 5 and 6</p> + +<p>Fig. 3 is a round hole drilled either by hand or otherwise, preferably +otherwise, because an important point is to get it round. Fig. 4 is +the improved form of hole, and this is made by inserting a reamer, +Figs. 5 and 6, into the hole in the line of the proposed fracture, +thus cutting two V-shaped grooves into the walls of the hole. The +blacksmith tools for dressing the reamers are shown in Fig. 7. The +usual method of charging and tamping a hole in using the new system is +shown in Fig. 8. The charge of powder is shown at C, the air space at +B and the tamping at A. Fig. 9 is a special hole for use in thin beds +of rock. The charge of powder is shown at C, the rod to sustain +tamping at D, air space at BB, and tamping at A.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/04-fig7.png" alt="Fig. 7" title="" /><br /> +FIG. 7</p> + +<p>Let us assume that we have a bluestone quarry, in which we may +illustrate the simplest application of the new system. The sheet of +stone which we wish to shear from place has a bed running horizontally +at a depth of say 10 ft. One face is in front and a natural seam +divides the bed at each end at the walls of the quarry. We now have a +block of stone, say 50 ft. long, with all its faces free except +one—that opposite and corresponding with the bench. One or more of +the specially formed holes are put in at such depth and distance from +each other and from the bench as may be regulated by the thickness, +strength and character of the rock. No man is so good a judge of this +as the quarry foreman who has used and studied the effect of this +system in his quarry. Great care should be taken to drill the holes +round and in a straight line. In sandstone of medium hardness these +holes may be situated 10, 12 or 15 ft. apart. If the bed is a tight +one the hole should be run entirely through the sheet and to the bed; +but with an open free bed holes of less depth will suffice.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/04-fig8-9.png" alt="Fig. 8 and 9" title="" /><br /> +FIG. 8 and 9</p> + +<p>The reamer should now be used and driven by hand. Several devices have +been applied to rock drills for reaming the hole by machinery while +drilling; that is, efforts have been made to combine the drill and the +reamer. Such efforts have met with only partial success. The perfect +alignment of the reamer is so important that where power is used this +point is apt to be neglected. It is also a well known fact that the +process of reaming by hand is not a difficult or a slow one. The +drilling of the hole requires the greatest amount of work. After this +has been done it is a simple matter to cut the V-shaped grooves. The +reamer should be applied at the center, that is, the grooves should be +cut on the axis or full diameter of the hole. The gauge of the reamer +should be at least 1½ diameters. Great care should be taken that the +reamer does not twist, as the break may be thereby deflected; and the +reaming must be done also to the full depth of the hole.</p> + +<p>The hole is now ready for charging. The powder should be a low +explosive, like black or Judson powder or other explosives which act +slowly. No definite rule can be laid down as to the amount of powder +to be used, but it should be as small as possible. Very little powder +is required in most rocks. Hard and fine grained stone requires less +powder than soft stone. Mr. Knox tells of a case which came under his +observation, where a block of granite "more than 400 tons weight, +split clear in two with 13 oz. of FF powder." He compares this with a +block of sandstone of less than 100 tons weight "barely started with +2½ lb. of the same grade of powder, and requiring a second shot to +remove it."</p> + +<p>It is obvious that enough powder must be inserted in the hole to +produce a force sufficient to move the entire mass of rock on its bed. +In some kinds of stone, notably sandstone, the material is so soft +that it will break when acted upon by the force necessary to shear the +block. In cases of this kind a number of holes should be drilled and +fired simultaneously by the electric battery. In such work it is usual +to put in the holes only 4 or 5 ft. apart. The powder must, of course, +be provided with a fuse or preferably a fulminating cap. It is well to +insert the cap at or near the bottom of the cartridge, as shown in +Figs. 8 and 9.</p> + +<p>After the charge the usual thing to do is to insert tamping. In the +improved form of hole the tamping should not he put directly upon the +powder, but an air space should be left, as shown at B, Fig. 8. The +best way to tamp, leaving an air space, is first to insert a wad, +which may be of oakum, hay, grass, paper or other similar material. +The tamping should be placed from 6 to 12 in. below the mouth of the +hole. In some kinds of stone a less distance will suffice, and as much +air space as practicable should intervene between the explosive and +the tamping. If several holes are used on a line they should be +connected in series and blasted by electricity. The effect of the +blast is to make a vertical seam connecting the holes, and the entire +mass of rock is sheared several inches or more.</p> + +<p>The philosophy of this new method of blasting is simple, though a +matter of some dispute. The following explanation has been given. See +Fig. 10.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/04-fig10.png" alt="Fig. 10" title="" /><br /> +FIG. 11</p> + +<p>"The two surfaces, <i>a</i> and <i>b</i>, being of equal area, must receive an +equal amount of the force generated by the conversion of the explosive +into gas. These surfaces being smooth and presenting no angle between +the points, A and B, they furnish no starting point for a fracture, +but at these points the lines meet at a sharp angle including between +them a wedge-shaped space. The gas acting equally in all directions +from the center is forced into the two opposite wedge-shaped spaces, +and the impact being instantaneous the effect is precisely similar to +that of two solid wedges driven from the center by a force equally +prompt and energetic. All rocks possess the property of elasticity in +a greater or less degree, and this principle being excited to the +point of rupture at the points, A and B, the gas enters the crack and +the rock is split in a straight line simply because under the +circumstances it cannot split in any other way."</p> + +<p>Another theory which is much the same in substance is then given, and +after some general discussion of the theory of the action of the +forces under the several systems, the paper continues:</p> + +<p>The new form of hole is, therefore, almost identical in principle with +the old Portland canister, except that it has the greater advantage of +the V-shaped groove in the rock, which serves as a starting point for +the break. It is also more economical than the Portland canister, in +that it requires less drilling and the waste of stone is less. It is, +therefore, not only more economical than any other system of blasting, +but it is more certain, and in this respect it is vastly superior to +any other blasting system, because stone is valuable, and anything +which adds to the certainty of the break also adds to the profit of +the quarryman.</p> + +<p>It is doubtless true that, notwithstanding the greater area of +pressure in the new form of hole, the break would not invariably +follow the prescribed line but for the V-shaped groove which virtually +starts it. A bolt, when strained, will break in the thread whether +this be the smallest section or not, because the thread is the +starting point for the break. A rod of glass is broken with a slight +jar provided a groove has been filed in its surface. Numerous other +instances might be cited to prove the value of the groove. Elasticity +in rock is a pronounced feature, which varies to a greater or less +extent; but it is always more or less present. A sandstone has +recently been found which possesses the property of elasticity to such +an extent that it may be bent like a thin piece of steel. When a blast +is made in the new form of hole the stone is under high tension, and +being elastic it will naturally pull apart on such lines of weakness +as grooves, especially when they are made, as is usually the case in +this system, in a direction at right angles with the lines of least +resistance.</p> + +<p>Horizontal holes are frequently put in and artificial beds made by +"lofting." In such cases where the rock has a "rift" parallel with the +bed, one hole about half way through is sufficient for a block about +15 ft. square, but in "liver" rock the holes must be drilled nearly +through the block and the size of the block first reduced.</p> + +<p>A more difficult application of the system, and one requiring greater +care in its successful use, is where the block of stone is so situated +that both ends are not free, one of them being solidly fixed in the +quarry wall. A simple illustration of a case of this kind is a stone +step on a stairway which leads up and along a wall, Fig. 11. Each +step has one end fixed to the wall and the other free. Each step is +also free on top, on the bottom and on the face, but fixed at the +back. We now put one of the new form of holes in the corner at the +junction of the step and the wall. The shape of the hole is as shown +in Fig. 12.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/05-fig11.png" alt="Fig. 11" title="" /><br /> +FIG. 11</p> + +<p>It is here seen that the grooves are at right angles with each other, +and the block of stone is sheared by a break made opposite and +parallel with the bench, as in the previous case, and an additional +break made at right angles with the bench and at the fixed end of the +block. Sometimes a corner break is made by putting in two of the +regular V-shaped holes in the lines of the proposed break and without +the use of the corner hole. A useful application of this system is in +splitting up large masses of loose stone. For this purpose the +V-shaped grooves are sometimes cut in four positions and breaks are +made in four directions radiating from the center of the hole as shown +in Fig. 12. In this way a block is divided into four rectangular +pieces.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/05-fig12.png" alt="Fig. 12" title="" /><br /> +FIG. 12</p> + +<p>Though the new system is especially adapted to the removal of heavy +masses of rock, yet it has been applied with success in cases where +several light beds overlie each other. In one such instance 10 sheets, +measuring in all only 6 ft., were broken by a blast, but in cases of +this kind the plug and feather process applies very well, and the new +system, when used, must be in the hands of an expert, or the loss will +be serious.</p> + +<p>Referring again to our stone step, let us imagine a case where this +stairway runs between two walls. We have here each step fixed at each +end and free only on the top, the bottom, and one face. Let us assume +that there is a back seam, that is, that the step is not fixed at the +back. In a quarry, this seam, unless a natural one, should be made by +a channeling machine. In order to throw this step put of place it must +be cut off at both ends, and for this purpose the V-shaped holes are +put in at right angles to the face. It is well, however, to put the +first two holes next the back seam in a position where the grooves +will converge at the back so as to form a sort of key, which serves a +useful purpose in removing the block after the blast. In quarries +where there are no horizontal beds a channeling machine should be used +to free the block on all sides and to a suitable depth, and then the +ledge may be "lofted" by holes placed horizontally.</p> + +<p>Where "pressure" exists in quarries, the new system has certain +limitations. After determining the line of "pressure" it is only +practicable to use the system directly on the line of thrust, or at +right angles to it. It is much better, however, to release the +"pressure" from the ledge by channeling, after which a single end may +be detached by a Knox blast. It is well to bear in mind that the holes +should invariably be of small diameter. In no case should the diameter +of a hole be over 1½ in. in any kind of rock. This being the case, the +blocks of stone are delivered to the market with but little loss in +measurement. It is a noticeable fact that stone quarried by the new +system shows very little evidence of drill marks, for the faces are +frequently as true as though cut with a machine.</p> + +<p>A further gain is the safety of the system. The blasting is light and +is confined entirely within the holes. No spalls or fragments are +thrown from the bast.</p> + +<p>The popular idea that the system is antagonistic to the channeling +process is a mistaken one. There are, of course, some quarries which +formerly used channeling machines without this system, but which now +do a large part of the work by blasting. Instances, however, are rare +where the system has replaced the channeler. The two go side by side, +and an intelligent use of the new system in most quarries requires a +channeling machine. There are those who may tell of stone that has +been destroyed by a blast on the new system, but investigation usually +shows that either the work was done by an inexperienced operator, or +an effort was made to do too much.</p> + +<p>A most interesting illustration of the value of this system, side by +side with the channeler, is shown in the northern Ohio sandstone +quarries. A great many channeling machines are in use there, working +around the new form of holes, and when used together in an intelligent +and careful manner, the stone is quarried more cheaply than by any +other process that has yet been devised.</p> + +<p>To a limited extent the system has been used in slate. The difficulty +is that most of the slate quarries are in solid ledges, where no free +faces or beds exist; but it has been used with success in a slate +quarry at Cherryville, Pa., since 1888. Among notable blasts made by +this system are the following: At the mica schist quarries, at +Conshohocken, Pa., a hole 1½ in. in diameter was drilled in a block +which was 27 ft. long, 15 ft. wide and 6 ft. thick. The blast broke +the stone across the "rift," only 8 oz. of black powder being used. +At the Portland, Conn., quarries a single blast was fired by +electricity, 15 holes being drilled with 2 lb. of coarse No. C powder +in each hole, and a rock was removed 110 ft. long, 20 ft. wide and 11 +ft. thick, containing 24,200 cu. ft., or about 2,400 tons, the +fracture being perfectly straight. This large mass of stone was moved +out about 2 in. without injury to itself or the adjoining rock.</p> + +<p>Another blast at Portland removed 3,300 tons a distance of 4 in. +Seventeen holes were drilled, using 2 lb. of powder in each hole, the +size of the block being 150 × 20 × 11 ft. In a Lisbon, O., quarry a +block of sandstone 200 ft. long, 28 ft. wide and 15 ft. thick was +moved about ½ in. by a blast. This block was also afterward cut up by +this system in blocks 6 ft. square. A sandstone bowlder 70 ft. long, +average width 50 ft., average thickness 13 ft., was embedded in the +ground to a depth of about 7 ft. A single hole 8 ft. deep was charged +with 20 oz. of powder and the rock was split in a straight line from +end to end and entirely to the bottom. A ledge of sandstone open on +its face and two ends, 110 × 13 × 8 ft., was moved by a blast about 3 +in. without wasting a particle of rock, 8 holes being used, drilled by +three men in just one day, and 15 oz. of powder being used in each +hole. A sandstone ledge, open on the face and end only, 200 × 28 × 15 +ft., containing 84,000 cu. ft. stone, was moved ½ in. by 25 holes, +each containing 1 lb. of powder.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="ART12"></a>THE TROTTER CURVE RANGER.</h2> + +<p>This little instrument was exhibited in a somewhat crude state at the +meeting of the British Association at Newcastle in 1889. It has since +been modified in several respects, and improvements suggested by +practical use have been introduced, bringing it into a practical form, +and enabling a much greater accuracy to be attained. The principle is +one which is occasionally employed for setting out circles with a +pocket sextant, viz., the property of a circle that the angle in a +segment is constant. The leading feature of the invention is the +arrangement of scales, which enables the operation of setting put +large curves for railway or other work to be carried out without +requiring any calculations, thereby enabling any intelligent man to +execute work which would otherwise call for a knowledge of the use of +a theodolite and the tables of tangential angles.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/05-fig1.png" alt="Fig. 1" title="" /><br /> +FIG. 1—PERSPECTIVE VIEW OF INSTRUMENT MOUNTED ON A STAFF.</p> + +<p>The instrument is intended to be thoroughly portable; so much so, +indeed, that it is not necessary or even desirable to use a tripod. It +may be held in the hand like a sextant, or may be carried on a light +staff. The general appearance is shown in Fig. 1. It will be seen that +a metal plate, on which two scales are engraved, carries a mirror at +one end and an eye piece at the other. The mirror is mounted on a +metal plate, which is shaped to a peculiar curve. A clamp and slow +motion provide for rapid and for fine adjustment. The eye piece is set +at an angle, and contains a half silvered mirror, the upper portion +being transparent. This allows direct vision along the axis of the eye +piece, and at the same time vision in another direction, after two +reflections, one in the eye piece and the other at the adjustable +mirror. Fig. 2 is an outline plan of the instrument when closed. In +the first form of the instrument only one mirror was provided, but by +the double reflection in the improved pattern, any accidental twisting +of the rod or handle produces no displacement of the images, since the +inclination of one mirror neutralizes the equal and opposite +inclination of the other. No cross line is required with the new +arrangement, since it is only necessary that the two images should +coincide.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/05-fig2.png" alt="Fig. 2" title="" /><br /> +FIG. 2.—OUTLINE OF INSTRUMENT SHOWING THE PATH OF THE +DIRECT AND OF THE REFLECTED RAY.</p> + +<p>The dotted line A B represents the direct ray, and the line A C D the +reflected one. Fig. 3 shows the different geometrical and +trigonometrical elements of the curve, which can be read upon the +various scales, or to which the instrument may be set. An observer +standing at C sights the point B directly and the point A by +reflection. A staff being set up at each point, he will see them +simultaneously, and in coincidence if the instrument be properly set +for the curve. If any intermediate position be taken up on the curve, +both A and B will be seen in coincidence. If the two rods do not +appear superimposed, the operator must move to the right or the left +until this is the case. The instrument will then be over a point in +the curve. Any number of points at any regular or irregular distances +along the curve can thus be set out. One of the simplest elements +which can be taken as a datum is the ratio of the length of the chord +to the radius, AB/AO, Fig. 3. This being given, the value of the ratio +is found on the straight scale on the body of the instrument, and the +curved plate is moved until the beveled edge cuts the scale at the +desired point. The figure of this curve is a polar curve, whose +equation is <i>r</i> = <i>a</i> ± <i>b</i> sin. 2 θ, where <i>a</i> is the distance +from the zero graduation to the axis of the mirror, and <i>b</i> is the +length of the scale from zero to 2, and θ is the inclination of +the mirror. In the perspective view, Fig. 1, the curved edge cuts the +scale at 1. The instrument being thus set, the following elements may +be read either directly on the scales or by simple arithmetical +calculation:</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/05-fig3.png" alt="Fig. 3" title="" /><br /> +FIG. 3</p> + +<blockquote> +<p>The radius = 1.</p> + +<p>AB, the chord, read direct on the straight scale.</p> + +<p>AFB, the length of the arc, read direct on the back or under surface of the plate.</p> + +<p>FH, the versed sine, read direct on the curved scale.</p> + +<p>ACB, the angle in the segment, read direct on the graduated edge.</p> + +<p>EAB, the angle between the chord and the tangent, read direct on the graduated edge.</p> + +<p>GAB, the tangential angle = 180 deg. - ACB.</p> + +<p>AOB, the angle at the center = 2GAB.</p> + +<p>AGB, the angle between the tangents = 180 deg. - AOB.</p> + +<p>OAB, the angle between the chord and the radius = EAB - 90 deg.</p> + +<div class="ctr"> +<table align="center" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td>AH<sub>2</sub></td></tr> +<tr><td>GF =</td><td> ——</td><td>- FH.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td>HO</td></tr> +</table> +</div> +</blockquote> + +<p>The foregoing elements are contained in a very simple diagram, Fig. 4, +which is engraved on the instrument, together with the following +references:</p> + +<div class="ind"> +<p>B = 180 deg. - A.</p> +<p>C = 2B.</p> +<p>D = 180 deg. - C.</p> +<p>E = A - 90.</p> +</div> + +<p>Only one adjustment is necessary, and this is provided by means of the +screws which fix the inclination of the eyepiece. This is set at such +an angle that the instrument, when closed and reading 90° on the +divided limb, acts as an optical square.</p> + +<p>It is not necessary, as in the ordinary method with a theodolite, that +one end of the curve should be visible from the other. If an obstacle +intervenes, all that part of the curve which commands a view of both +ends can be set out, and a ranging rod can be set up at any point of +the curve so found, and the instrument may be reset to complete the +curve.</p> + +<p>To set out a tangent to the curve at A, Fig. 3, set up a rod at A and +another at any point C, and take up a position on the curve at some +point between them. Adjust the mirror until the rods are seen +superimposed. Then moving back to A, observe C direct, and set up a +rod at E in the line observed by reflection. Then A E is the tangent +required. Similarly, on completing the setting out of a curve, and +arriving at the end of the chord, the remote end being seen by +reflection, the direction observed along the axis of the eyepiece is +the new tangent.</p> + +<p>Any of the angles or other ratios already mentioned may be used for +setting the instrument, but if no data whatever are given, as in the +rough surveys for colonial railways where no previous surveys exist, +it is only necessary to select points through which the curve must +pass, to set up ranging rods either at the extremities of the desired +curve, or at any points thereon, to take up a position on the desired +curve between two rods, and to adjust the instrument until they are +seen in coincidence. The curve can then be set out, and fully marked, +and the elements of the curve can be read on the scales and recorded +for reference.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/06-fig4.png" alt="Fig. 4" title="" /><br /> +FIG. 4.—DIAGRAM ENGRAVED ON THE INSTRUMENT.</p> + +<p>Various other cases which may occur in practice can be rapidly met by +one or other of the various scales. Suppose the angle A G B between +the tangents be given, together with the middle point F on the curve, +Fig. 3. Subtract this angle from 180 deg., the difference gives the +angle at the center A O B. Take half this, and set the instrument to +the angle thus found. Walk along the tangent until a rod set up at +some point in the tangent, say E, is seen in coincidence with a rod +set up at B. The position of the instrument then marks the point of +departure A. A rod being placed at A, the first half of the curve may +be set out; or, if B is invisible, the instrument may be reset for the +angle E A B, and the whole curve set out up to B. No cutting of hedges +is necessary, as with theodolite work, for a curve can easily be taken +piece by piece. Inclination of the whole instrument introduces no +appreciable error. If the eye piece be pointed up or down hill, the +instrument is thrown a little to one side or other of the tip of the +staff, but in a plane tangent to the circle. Errors made in setting +out a curve with the Trotter curve ranger are not cumulative, as in +the method of tangential angles with a theodolite. No corrections for +inaccurate hitting of the final rod can occur, for the curve must +necessarily end at that point. It should be observed that the +instrument is not intended to supersede a theodolite, but it has the +great advantage over the older instrument that no assistant or chains +or trigonometrical tables or any knowledge of mathematics are +required. The data being given, by a theodolite or otherwise, an +intelligent platelayer can easily set out the curve, while the trained +engineer proceeds in advance with the theodolite. No time is lost; as +in chaining, since the marks may be made wherever and as often as +convenient. In work where high accuracy is required this instrument is +well adapted for filling in, and where a rough idea of the nature of a +given curve is required, the mirror being adjusted for any three +points upon it, the various elements may be read off on the scales. A +telescope is provided, but the errors not being cumulative, it is +rarely required. The curve ranger weighs 1 lb. 10 oz., and is +manufactured by Messrs. Elliott Bros., St. Martin's Lane, London. It +is the invention of Mr. Alex. P. Trotter, Westminster.—<i>The +Engineer.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="ART19"></a>THE RAIL SPIKE AND THE LOCOMOTIVE.<a name="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1"><sup>1</sup></a></h2> + +<p>Early in October, 1830, and shortly after the surveys of the Camden +and Amboy Railroad were completed, Robert L. Stevens (born 1787) +sailed for England, with instructions to order a locomotive and rails +for that road.</p> + +<p>At that time no rolling mill in America was able to take a contract +for rolling T rails.</p> + +<p>Robert Stevens advocated the use of an all-iron rail in preference to +the wooden rail or stone stringer plated with strap iron, then in use +on one or two short American railroads. At his suggestion, at the last +meeting held before he sailed, after due discussion, the Board of +Directors of the Camden and Amboy Railroad passed a special resolution +authorizing him to obtain the rails he advocated.</p> + +<h3>ROBERT L. STEVENS INVENTS THE AMERICAN RAIL AND SPIKE.</h3> + +<p>During the voyage to Liverpool he whiled away the hours on shipboard +by whittling thin wood into shapes of imaginary cross sections until +he finally decided which one was best suited to the needs of the new +road.</p> + +<p>He was familiar with the Berkenshaw rail, with which the best English +roads were then being laid, but he saw that, as it required an +expensive chair to hold it in place, it was not adapted to our +country, where metal workers were scarce and iron was dear. He added +the base to the T rail, dispensing with the chair. He also designed +the "hook-headed" spike (which is substantially the railroad spike of +to-day) and the "iron tongue" (which has been developed into the fish +bar), and the rivets (which have been replaced by the bolt and nut) to +complete the joint.</p> + +<p>A fac-simile of the letter<a name="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2"><sup>2</sup></a> which he addressed to the English iron +masters a short time after his arrival in London is preserved in the +United States National Museum. It contains a cross section, side +elevation and ground plan of the rail for which he requested bids.</p> + +<p>The base of the rail which he first proposed was to be wider where it +was to be attached to the supports than in the intervening spaces. +This was afterward modified, so that the base was made the same width +(three inches) throughout.</p> + +<h3>DIFFICULTY OF ROLLING THE AMERICAN RAIL.</h3> + +<p>Mr. Stevens received no favorable answer to his proposals, but being +acquainted with Mr. Guest (afterward Sir John Guest), a member of +Parliament, proprietor of large iron works in Dowlais, Wales, he +prevailed upon him to have rails rolled at his works. Mr. Guest became +interested in the matter and accompanied Mr. Stevens to Wales, where +the latter gave his personal supervision to the construction of the +rolls. After the rolls were completed the Messrs. Guest hesitated to +have them used, through fear of damage to the mill machinery, upon +hearing which Mr. Stevens deposited a handsome sum guaranteeing the +expense of repairing the mill in case it was damaged. The receipt for +this deposit was preserved for many years among the archives of the +Camden and Amboy Company. As a matter of fact, the rolling apparatus +did break down several times. "At first," as Mr. Stevens in a letter +to his father, which I have seen, described it, "the rails came from +the rolls twisted and as crooked as snakes," and he was greatly +discouraged. At last, however, the mill men acquired the art of +straightening the rail while it cooled.</p> + +<p>The first shipment,<a name="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3"><sup>3</sup></a> consisting of five hundred and fifty bars +eighteen feet long, thirty-six pounds to the yard, arrived in +Philadelphia on the ship Charlemagne, May 16, 1831.</p> + +<p>Over thirty miles of this rail was laid before the summer of 1832.</p> + +<p>A few years after, on much of the Stevens rail laid on the Camden and +Amboy Railroad, the rivets at the joints were discarded, and the bolt +with the screw thread and nut, similar to that now used, was adopted +as the standard.</p> + +<p>The rail was first designed to weigh thirty-six pounds per yard, but +it was almost immediately increased in weight to between forty and +forty-two pounds, and rolled in lengths of sixteen feet. It was then +three and a half inches high, two and one-eighth inches wide on the +head and three and a half inches wide at the base, the price paid in +England being £8 per ton. The import duty was $1.85.</p> + +<p>The first shipment of rail, having arrived in America, was transported +to Bordentown, and here, upon the ground on which we stand, and which +this monument is erected to mark forever, was laid the first piece of +track (about five-sixths of a mile long) in August, 1831. The Camden +and Amboy Company, following the example of the Manchester and +Liverpool Railroad, laid their first track upon stone blocks two feet +square and ten to thirteen inches deep. These blocks were purchased +from the prison authorities at Sing Sing, N.Y. Some of these stone +blocks have been used in constructing the foundation for this +monument.</p> + +<h3>FIRST JOINT FIXTURES.</h3> + +<p>Mr. Stevens ordered the first joint fixtures also from an English +mill, at the same time. The ends of the rails were designed to rest +upon wrought iron plates or flat cast plates. The rails were connected +at the stems by an iron "tongue" five inches long, two inches wide, +and five-eighths of an inch thick. A rivet, put on hot, passing +through the stem of each rail near the ends of the bar, fastened it to +the tongue and completed the joint. A hole oblong in shape, to allow +for expunctral contraction, was punched in the stem at each end of the +rail.</p> + +<h3>THE FIRST RAILROAD SPIKES.</h3> + +<p>The first "spikes six inches long, with hooked heads," were also +ordered at the same time. These were undoubtedly the "first railroad +spikes" (as they are known to the trade) ever manufactured.</p> + +<p>Mr. Stevens neglected to obtain a patent for these inventions, +although urged to do so by Mr. Ogden, American Consul at Liverpool, +and the credit of being the inventor of the American rail was for a +time claimed for others, but the evidence brought forward in late +years fully established the fact that he was the originator of the +American system of railway construction.</p> + +<p>The "Stevens rail and spike" gradually found great favor everywhere in +America—all the roads being relaid with it as the original T or strap +rail became worn out.</p> + +<p>In England the T rail still continues to be used. The London and +Birmingham Railway, opened in 1838, was laid with Berkenshaw rails; +part with the straight and part with the fish-bellied rail, and the +remainder with reversible "bull-headed" rail, both types being +supported by chairs.<a name="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4"><sup>4</sup></a></p> + +<p>Sixty years have elapsed since this rail was adopted by the Camden and +Amboy Company, and with the exception of slight alterations in the +proportions incident to increased weight, no radical change has been +made in the "Stevens rail," which is now in use on every railroad in +America. Many improvements have been made in the joint fixture, but +the "tongue" or fish plate improved into the angle splice bar is in +general use, and nothing has yet been found to take the place of the +"hook-headed" railroad spike which Robert Stevens then designed.</p> + +<p>The track upon which we stand was the first in the world that was laid +with the rail and spike now in general use.</p> + +<h3>MR. STEVENS EXAMINES ENGLISH LOCOMOTIVES.</h3> + +<p>Mr. Stevens divided his time while abroad between arranging for the +manufacture of track material and examining the English locomotives +that were being constructed or had been in service.</p> + +<p>A year had elapsed since the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester +Railway, and the English mechanics had not been idle. The "Rocket," +although successful in the Rainhill contest, when put to work had +shown many defects that Stephenson & Co. were striving to correct in +subsequent locomotives.</p> + +<p>The "Planet," built by that firm, was tried in public December 4, +1830, shortly after Mr. Stevens arrived in England, and at that time +was undoubtedly the best locomotive in the world.</p> + +<h3>THE "JOHN BULL" ORDERED.</h3> + +<p>Mr. Stevens was present at a trial when the "Planet" showed most +satisfactory properties, and he at once ordered a locomotive of +similar construction, from the same manufacturers, for the Camden and +Amboy Railroad. This engine, afterward called the "John Bull" and "No. +1," was completed in May and shipped by sailing vessel from +Newcastle-on-Tyne in June, 1831, arriving in Philadelphia about the +middle of August of that year. It was then transferred to a sloop at +Chestnut Street wharf, Philadelphia, whence it was taken to +Bordentown.</p> + +<h3>THE "JOHN BULL" ARRIVES AT BORDENTOWN.</h3> + +<p>The following circumstances connected with the arrival of the engine +at Bordentown, N.J., are related by Isaac Dripps, Esq., for many years +master mechanic of the Camden and Am boy Railroad, and afterward +superintendent of motive power of the Pennsylvania Railroad, who is +now, after a busy life, enjoying a peaceable retirement at his +pleasant home in West Philadelphia.</p> + +<p>Mr. Dripps, who is now in the eighty-second year of his age, was +employed by Robert and Edwin Stevens in repairing and assisting with +their steamboats on the Delaware River and at Hoboken as early as +1829. When the "John Bull" arrived in Philadelphia he was detailed by +Robert Stevens to attend to the transportation of the engine to +Bordentown, where it was landed safely the last week in August, 1831.</p> + +<p>The boiler and cylinders were in place, but the loose parts—rods, +pistons, valves, etc.—were packed in boxes. No drawings or directions +for putting the engine together had come to hand, and young Dripps, +who had never seen a locomotive, found great difficulty in discovering +how to put the parts in place, alone and unassisted, as Robert +Stevens, who had returned from Europe, was absent at Hoboken at the +time attending to other matters.</p> + +<h3>DIMENSIONS OF ENGINE AND PARTS.</h3> + +<p>The bronze bass-relief upon the monument, made from the working +drawing furnished by Mr. Dripps, is an exact representation of the +locomotive when it arrived in America.</p> + +<p>The engine originally weighed about ten tons. The boiler was thirteen +feet long and three feet six inches in diameter. The cylinders were +nine inches by twenty inches. There were four driving wheels, four +feet six inches in diameter, arranged with outside cranks for +connecting parallel rods, but owing to the sharp curves on the road +these rods were never used. The driving wheels were made with cast +iron hubs and wooden (locust) spokes and felloes. The tires were of +wrought iron, three quarters of an inch thick, the tread being five +inches and the depth of flange one and a half inches. The gauge was +originally five feet from center to center of rails. The boiler was +composed of sixty-two flues seven feet six inches long, two inches in +diameter; the furnace was three feet seven inches long and three feet +two inches high, for burning wood. The steam ports were one and +one-eighth inches by six and a half inches; the exhaust ports one and +one-eighth by six and a half inches; grate surface, ten feet eight +inches; fire box surface, thirty-six feet; flue surface, two hundred +and thirteen feet; weight, without fuel or water, twenty-two thousand +four hundred and twenty-five pounds.</p> + +<p>After the valves were in gear and the engine in motion, two levers on +the engineman's side moved back and forth continuously. When it was +necessary to put the locomotive on the turntable, enginemen who were +skilled in the handling of the engines first put the valves out of +gear by turning the handle down, and then worked the levers by hand, +thus moving the valves to the proper position and stopping the engine +at the exact point desired.</p> + +<p>The reversing gear was a very complicated affair. The two eccentrics +were secured to a sleeve or barrel, which fitted loosely on the crank +shaft, between the two cranks, so as to turn freely. A treadle was +used to change the position of this loose eccentric sleeve on the +shaft of the driving wheel (moving it to the right or left) when it +was necessary to reverse. Two carriers were secured firmly to the body +of this shaft (one on each side of the eccentrics); one carrier worked +the engine ahead, the other back. The small handle on the right side +of the boiler was used to lift the eccentric rod (which passed forward +to the rock shaft on the forward part of the engine) off the pin, and +thus put the valves out of gear before it was possible to shift the +sleeve and reverse the engine.</p> + +<p>Great similarity will be noticed in the American locomotives built for +many years after the arrival of the "John Bull," especially in the +matter of making the keys, brasses, etc., on the connecting rods, and +in the construction of valves, fire box and tubes. Even the old plan +of setting the ends of the exhaust nozzle high up in the smoke box, +which was discontinued when the petticoat pipe came in use, is now +again resorted to in connection with the extended smoke box of modern +locomotives.</p> + +<h3>FIRST TRIAL OF THE LOCOMOTIVE.</h3> + +<p>Mr. Dripps informs me that, after many attempts, he succeeded in +putting the parts of the engine together, and when it was placed in +position upon the track he notified Robert Stevens of the fact. Mr. +Stevens came at once to Bordentown, as his anxiety to see it in +operation was very great. Upon his arrival the boiler was pumped full +of water, by hand, from the hogshead in which it was brought. Benjamin +Higgins made the fire with pine wood, and when the scale<a name="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5"><sup>5</sup></a> showed +thirty pounds steam pressure, Isaac Dripps opened the throttle, Robert +Stevens standing by his side, and the first locomotive on this great +highway <i>moved</i>. It would be difficult to describe the feeling of +these three men as they stood upon the moving engine—the first human +freight drawn by steam on what was afterward destined to be the great +highway connecting the two most populous cities of the American +continent; a most important link in the chain of intercommunication +between the North and South and West. What possibilities must have +dawned upon them if they cared to lift the veil of the future!</p> + +<p>During the next few days after this preliminary trial the engine was +again taken apart, and as a few of the parts needed modification some +time intervened before it was again in running order. It will be +remembered that young Dripps had never seen a locomotive before and +there were no "old engineers" to consult in regard to the construction +or management of the engine.</p> + +<h3>A TENDER IMPROVISED.</h3> + +<p>As no tender came with the locomotive, one was improvised from a +four-wheel flat car that had been used on construction work, which was +soon equipped to carry water and wood. The water tank consisted of a +large whisky cask which was procured from a Bordentown storekeeper, +and this was securely fastened on the center of this four-wheeled car. +A hole was bored up through the car into the barrel and into it a +piece of two-inch tin pipe was fastened, projecting below the platform +of the car. It now became necessary to devise some plan to get the +water from the tank to the pump and into the boiler around the turns +under the cars, and as a series of rigid sections of pipe was not +practicable, young Dripps procured four sections of hose two feet +long, which he had made out of shoe leather by a Bordentown shoemaker. +These were attached to the pipes and securely fastened by bands of +waxed thread. The hogshead was filled with water, a supply of wood for +fuel was obtained, and the engine and tender were ready for work.</p> + + +<h3>STEAM OR HORSE POWER?</h3> + +<p>At that time the question whether the railroad should be operated by +steam locomotives or horse power had already become a political issue. +The farmers and other horse owners and dealers, who had made money by +selling hay and grain and horses to the stage and freight wagon lines, +were discussing the possibilities of loss of business.</p> + + +<h3>TRIAL OF THE ENGINE BEFORE THE LEGISLATURE.</h3> + +<p>Many of the members of the New Jersey Legislature were farmers. The +management of the Camden and Amboy Railroad was anxious to give these +gentlemen and other prominent citizens an opportunity to examine a +steam locomotive at work and to ride in a railway train.</p> + +<p>Sixty years ago to-day, on the 12th of November, 1831, by special +invitation, the members of the Legislature and other State officials +were driven from Trenton to Bordentown in stages to witness the trial. +Among them were John P. Jackson (father of the present general +superintendent of the United Railroads of New Jersey division of the +Pennsylvania Railroad, who afterward took a prominent part in the +affairs of the New Jersey Railroad, whose termini were at New +Brunswick and Jersey City); Benjamin Fish (director for fifty years +for the Camden and Amboy Railroad), afterward president of the +Freehold and Jamesburg Agricultural Railroad; Ashbel Welch, chief +engineer and superintendent of the Belvidere and Delaware Railroad for +many years, and president of the United Railroads of New Jersey during +the years immediately preceding the lease to the Pennsylvania +Railroad; Edwin A. and Robert L. Stevens, afterward managers of the +road.</p> + + +<h3>FIRST CARS.</h3> + +<p>Two coaches built so that they might be drawn by horses were attached +to the locomotive. These coaches were of the English pattern. They had +four wheels and resembled three carriage bodies joined together, with +seats in each facing each other. There were three doors at each side. +These cars were made by a firm of carriage manufacturers, M.P. and +M.E. Green, of Hoboken, and were thought to be very handsome. The New +Jersey law makers were somewhat dubious, it is said, about risking +their lives in this novel train, but at last they concluded to do so +and the train started and made many trips back and forth without +accident or delay. Madam Murat, wife of Prince Murat, a nephew of +Napoleon Bonaparte, who was then living in Bordentown, insisted on +being the first woman to ride on a train hauled by a steam locomotive +in the State.</p> + +<p>In the evening a grand entertainment was given to the Legislature by +the railroad company at Arnell's Hotel, Bordentown, and it has been +whispered that the festivities kept up until a late hour in the night. +Whether that be true or not, it is generally conceded that from that +time to this the Legislature of New Jersey have always been more or +less interested in the affairs of the Camden and Amboy Railroad and +its successors, or <i>vice versa</i>.</p> + +<p>This first movement of passengers by steam in the State of New Jersey +was regarded as a success from every point of view, and in +commemoration of the important events here enacted the boundaries of +this first piece of railway laid between New York and Philadelphia, +which were identified and staked out by Isaac Dripps a half century +afterward, have been definitely marked for all time by the +Pennsylvania Railroad Company, who have erected these handsome stones.</p> + + +<h3>EARLY DIFFICULTIES.</h3> + +<p>Among the earliest troubles of the young engineer and his employer, +Robert L. Stevens, was the fact that as there were only four wheels +under the engines, they were derailed frequently in going around +curves; so it was necessary to provide an appliance to prevent this.</p> + + +<h3>THE FIRST PILOT.</h3> + +<p>The first pilot was planned, 1832, by Robert L. Stevens. A frame made +of oak, eight by four feet, pinned together at the corners, was made. +Under one end of it a pair of wheels twenty-six inches in diameter +were placed in boxes, and the other end was fastened to an extension +of the axle outside of the forward driving wheels, it having been +found by experience that a play of about one inch on each side on the +pedestals of the front wheels of the pilot or engine was necessary in +order to get around the curves then in the tracks. For years afterward +there was very little change in constructing the pilots from that +originally applied to the "John Bull."</p> + +<p>The spiral spring, which held the front wheels of the pilot in place, +acted substantially as the center pin of a truck. The turntables in +use on the road were so short that it was necessary to unconnect and +take off these pilots before turning the engine. After the pilot was +adopted the forward large wheel on right of the engine was made loose +on the shaft in order to afford additional play in going around +curves. Other<a name="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6"><sup>6</sup></a> changes and additions were also made in the +locomotive.</p> + +<h3>IMPROVEMENTS IN LOCOMOTIVE BUILDING.</h3> + +<p>During 1831-35 the company's shops were located at Hoboken, N.J., and +during the winter of 1832-33, three locomotives were commenced at +these shops (two completed before March, 1833, the other in April), +the valves, cylinders, pistons, etc., coming from England, the boilers +being made under the direction of Robert L. Stevens. It was his +opinion that the "John Bull" was too heavy, and the new boilers were +built smaller and lighter, so that the engines, when completed, +weighed eight instead of ten tons. With these three engines, which +were delivered to the railroad company at South Amboy, the stone +blocks and other material for the permanent track was delivered along +the line of the road.</p> + +<h3>BALDWIN'S FIRST LOCOMOTIVES.</h3> + +<p>The importation of the locomotive "John Bull" was destined to have a +far-reaching influence in moulding the types of early American +locomotives.</p> + +<p>After the demonstration of November 12, 1831, the engine was taken +from the track and stored in a shed constructed to protect it until +such time as the track should be completed.</p> + +<p>It was about this time that the proprietor of Peale's Museum, in +Philadelphia, applied to Matthias Baldwin, an ingenious mathematical +instrument maker, for a small locomotive to run upon a circular track +on the floor of the museum. Mr. Baldwin had heard of this locomotive. +He came to Bordentown and applied to Isaac Dripps for permission to +inspect it. Mr. Dripps tells me he remembers very well the day that he +explained to Mr. Baldwin the construction of the various working +parts.</p> + +<p>Mr. Baldwin built a toy engine for Mr. Peale, which was so successful, +that in 1832 he was called upon by the Philadelphia and Germantown +Railroad Company to construct the old "Ironsides,"<a name="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7"><sup>7</sup></a> which was +similar in many ways to the "John Bull," as an examination of the +model preserved in the National Museum will show. The success of this +engine laid the foundation for the great Baldwin Locomotive Works, +which is in existence to-day, sending locomotives to every part of the +globe.</p> + + +<h3>THE LINE FROM BORDENTOWN TO SOUTH AMBOY.</h3> + +<p>The Camden and Amboy Company having obtained control of the steamboat +routes between Philadelphia and Bordentown, and between South Amboy +and New York, directed their energies to completing the railway across +the State.</p> + +<p>Although the grading of the road from Bordentown to Camden had been +commenced in the summer of 1831, work on that end of the line was +abandoned for about two years, the entire construction force being put +on the work between Bordentown and South Amboy.</p> + +<p>The road from Bordentown to Hightstown was completed by the middle of +September, 1832, and from Hightstown to South Amboy in the December +following. The "deep cut" at South Amboy, and the curves of the track +there, gave the civil engineers great trouble.</p> + + +<h3>THE FIRST AMERICAN STANDARD TRACK.</h3> + +<p>The laying of the track through the "deep cut" led to an event of +great importance to future railway construction. The authorities at +Sing Sing having failed to deliver the stone blocks rapidly enough, +Mr. Stevens ordered hewn wooden cross ties to be laid temporarily, and +the rail to be directly spiked thereto. A number of these ties were +laid on the sharpest curves in the cut. They showed such satisfactory +properties when the road began to be operated that they were permitted +to remain, and the stone blocks already in the track were replaced by +wooden ties as rapidly as practicable. Without doubt the piece of +track in "deep cut" was the first in the world to be laid according to +the present American practice of spiking the rail directly to the +cross tie.</p> + + +<h3>THE LINE OPENED BETWEEN BORDENTOWN AND SOUTH AMBOY.</h3> + +<p>Among the memoranda compiled by Benjamin Fish, published in his +memoir, I find the following:</p> + +<blockquote> +<p>"First cars were put on the Camden and Amboy Railroad +September 19, 1832. They were drawn by two horses. They took +the directors and a few friends from Bordentown to Hightstown +and back.</p> + +<p>"On December 17, 1832, the first passengers were taken from +Bordentown through to South Amboy. Fifty or sixty people went. +It was a rainy day.</p> + +<p>"On January 24, 1833, the first freight cars were put on the +railroad. There were three cars, drawn by one horse each, with +six or seven thousand pounds of freight on each car.</p> + +<p>"Freight came from New York by steam boat to South Amboy. I +drove the first car, John Twine drove the second car and +Edmund Page the third one. We came to the Sand Hills (near +Bordentown) by railroad, there loaded the goods on wagons (it +was winter, and the river was frozen over), arriving in +Philadelphia by sunrise next morning. The goods left New York +at 12 o'clock, noon. This was done by the old firm of Hill, +Fish & Abbe."</p> +</blockquote> + +<p>Immediately after the road from Bordentown to South Amboy was +completed, and as late as the summer of 1833, passengers were brought +from Philadelphia to the wharf at White Hill by steamboat, and from +there were rapidly driven to Amboy. Two horses were hitched to each +car, and as they were driven continuously on the run, three changes of +horses were required, the finest horses obtainable being purchased for +this purpose. The time consumed in crossing the State (thirty-four +miles) was from two and a half to three hours.</p> + +<p>Early in September, 1833, the locomotive "John Bull" was put on the +train leaving Bordentown about 7 o'clock in the morning, and returning +leaving South Amboy at 4 P.M. This was the first passenger train +regularly run by steam on the route between New York and Philadelphia.</p> + + +<a name="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1">[1]</a><div class="note"> +<p>Abstract from the History of the Camden and Amboy +Railroad. By J. Elfreth Watkins, of the National Museum, Washington, +D.C.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2">[2]</a><div class="note"> +<p>This letter reads:</p> + +<blockquote> +<p>LIVERPOOL, November 26th, 1830.</p> + +<p>GENTLEMEN,—At what rate will you contract to deliver at +Liverpool, say from 500 to 600 tons of railway, of the best +quality of iron rolled to the above pattern in 12 or 16 feet +lengths, to lap as shown in the drawing, with one hole at each +end, and the projections on the lower flange at every two +feet, cash on delivery?</p> + +<p>How soon could you make the first delivery, and at what rate +per month until the whole is complete? Should the terms suit +and the work give satisfaction a more extended order is likely +to follow, as this is but about one-sixth part of the quantity +required. Please to address your answer (as soon as +convenient) to the care of Francis B. Ogden, Consul of the +United States at Liverpool.</p> + +<div class="ind"><p>I am</p> +<p>Your obedient servant,</p> +<div class="ind"><p>ROBERT L. STEVENS,</p> +<p><i>President and Engineer of the Camden and South Amboy Railroad and Transportation Company.</i></p> +</div></div> +</blockquote> +</div> + +<a name="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3">[3]</a><div class="note"><p>A list of the vessels chartered to transport the rails, +with dates, tonnage, etc., is given below:</p> + +<div class="ctr"> +<table border="0" width="100%" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<colgroup span="7"><col align="left" span="2"><col span="5" align="right"></colgroup> +<tr><td colspan="3"> </td><td colspan="3" align="center"></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3"> </td><th align="center" colspan="3">Tonnage.</th></tr> +<tr><th>Date.</th><th>Ship.</th><th>No. of Bars.</th><th>tons.</th><th>cwt.</th><th>lb.</th><th>Rate of Duty.</th></tr> +<tr><td>May 16, 1831.</td><td>Charlemagne</td><td>550</td><td>504</td><td>0</td><td>14</td><td>$1.85</td></tr> +<tr><td>May 19, 1831.</td><td>Salem</td><td>963</td><td>744</td><td>2</td><td>14</td><td>1.85</td></tr> +<tr><td>April 7, 1832.</td><td>Caledonia</td><td>38</td><td>63</td><td>3</td><td>07</td><td>1.85</td></tr> +<tr><td>April 23, 1832.</td><td>Armadilla</td><td>525</td><td>1,000</td><td>3</td><td>21</td><td>1.85</td></tr> +<tr><td>May 4, 1832.</td><td>George Clinton</td><td>624</td><td>986</td><td>2</td><td>14</td><td>1.85</td></tr> +<tr><td>June 2-18, 1833.</td><td>Henry Kneeland</td><td>204</td><td>377</td><td>3</td><td>21</td><td>1.85</td></tr> +<tr><td>May 8, 1832.</td><td>Cumberland</td><td>1,464</td><td>2,790</td><td>1</td><td>00</td><td>1.85</td></tr> +<tr><td>June 2, 1832.</td><td>Gardiner</td><td>601</td><td>1,136</td><td>0</td><td>00</td><td>1.85</td></tr> +<tr><td>June 5, 1832.</td><td>Globe</td><td>499</td><td>943</td><td>1</td><td>14</td><td>1.85</td></tr> +<tr><td>June 6, 1832.</td><td>Jubilee</td><td>70</td><td>130</td><td>0</td><td>21</td><td>1.85</td></tr> +<tr><td>July 18, 1832.</td><td>Hellen</td><td>1,080</td><td>2,004</td><td>3</td><td>21</td><td>1.85</td></tr> +<tr><td>July 19, 1832.</td><td>Nimrod</td><td>937</td><td>1,745</td><td>3</td><td>00</td><td>1.85</td></tr> +<tr><td>Aug. 2, 1832.</td><td>Emery</td><td>240</td><td>454</td><td>2</td><td>00</td><td>1.85</td></tr> +<tr><td>Aug. 7, 1833.</td><td>Ajax</td><td>364</td><td>700</td><td>0</td><td>21</td><td>1.85</td></tr> +<tr><td>Aug. 13, 1832.</td><td>Concordia</td><td>622</td><td>1,174</td><td>3</td><td>14</td><td>1.85</td></tr> +<tr><td>Aug. 14, 1830.</td><td>William Byrny</td><td>1,120</td><td>2,138</td><td>1</td><td>07</td><td>1.85</td></tr> +<tr><td>Aug. 20, 1832.</td><td>Mary Howland</td><td>932</td><td>1,755</td><td>3</td><td>07</td><td>1.85</td></tr> +<tr><td>Aug. 23, 1832.</td><td>Pulaski</td><td>488</td><td>924</td><td>1</td><td>00</td><td>1.85</td></tr> +<tr><td>Aug. 24, 1832.</td><td>Robert Morris 1,985</td><td>3,732</td><td>0</td><td>14</td><td>1.85</td></tr> +<tr><td>Aug. 27, 1832.</td><td>Ann</td><td>506</td><td>961</td><td>2</td><td>27</td><td>1.85</td></tr> +<tr><td>Sept. 3, 1832.</td><td>Montgomery</td><td>1,369</td><td>2,959</td><td>0</td><td>14</td><td>1.85</td></tr> +<tr><td>Sept. 4, 1832.</td><td>Marengo</td><td>534</td><td>1,004</td><td>2</td><td>07</td><td>1.85</td></tr> +<tr><td>Oct. 12, 1832.</td><td>Vestal</td><td>237</td><td>460</td><td>2</td><td>07</td><td>1.85</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>This iron proved to be of such superior quality that after it was worn +out in the track, the company's mechanics preferred it to new iron in +making repairs. Some of this rail is still in use in side tracks. It +is pronounced equal in durability to much of the steel rail of to-day.</p> +</div> + +<a name="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4">[4]</a><div class="note"><p>The experiment of laying the Stevens rail in chairs was +tried on the Albany and Schenectady road in 1837, on the Hudson River +Railroad 1848, but the chairs were soon afterward discarded, nothing +but spikes being used to attach the rail to the tie.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5">[5]</a><div class="note"> +<p>The dial gauge was not in use at that time.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6">[6]</a><div class="note"><p>Changes in the locomotive "John Bull" since date of +construction, 1830:</p> + +<p>Steam dome changed from rear of boiler forward to a part over what was +called the "man-hole," and throttle valve placed therein.</p> + +<p>Steam pipes changed to outside of boiler, connecting new dome with +smoke box, entering it on each side.</p> + +<p>In the beginning the reverse gear was changed from one single +eccentric rod on each side to two on each side, connecting on to the +same eccentric wheel, and the lifting rod, in pulling back, lifted the +forward gear hook off the rocker arm, and the back motion hook then +connecting on the rocker arm reversed the engine.</p> + +<p>Side rods were never used.</p> + +<p>Driver spring was changed from a bearing under the pedestal boxes to a +point over the boxes.</p> + +<p>The pilot was attached in this manner:</p> + +<p>Right forward wheel being loose, forward axle extended eight inches +beyond box on each side; to this was attached the beam of the pilot, +having play of about one inch between box and pedestal plate to act +while going around curves. The weight of forward part of engine rested +upon a cross brace of the two-wheel pilot, which took bearing by a +screw pin surrounded by a spring, by turning which pin the weight on +the drivers could be adjusted.</p> + +<p>A brace used as a hand rail was added on top of the frame, bracing +frame and acting as a guide to the driving springs.</p> + +<p>Water-cocks changed from right to left side of the boiler.</p> + +<p>Bell, whistle and headlight were added.</p> + +<p>Balance safety valve scale was changed forward to a point over barrel +of boiler, the secret valve being over the new dome.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7">[7]</a><div class="note"><p>A handsome model of the "Ironsides" was presented to the +United States National Museum by the Baldwin Locomotive Company in +1888.</p></div> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="ART16"></a>THE BRITISH CRUISER ÆOLUS.</h2> + +<p>The new twin screw cruiser Æolus was launched from the Devonport +Dockyard on the 13th November. The first keel plate of the Æolus was +laid in position on the 10th March last year, and up to the present +time fully two thirds of the estimated weight has been worked into her +structure. Says <i>Industries</i>: She is built of steel, with large +phosphor bronze castings for stern post, shaft brackets, and stem, the +latter terminating in a formidable ram. The hull is sheathed with +wood, and will be covered with copper to enable her to keep the seas +for a lengthened period on remote stations, where there is a lack of +docking accommodation. All the vital portions, such as machinery, +boilers, magazines, and steering gear, are protected by a steel deck +running fore and aft, terminating forward in the ram, of which it +virtually forms a part. Subdivision has been made a special feature in +this type of vessel, and the hull under the upper deck is divided into +nearly 100 water tight compartments. Between perpendiculars the Æolus +measures 300 ft. in length, the extreme breadth being 43 ft. 8 in., +and moulded depth 22 ft. 9 in., with a displacement of 3,600 tons on a +mean draught of water of 17 ft. 6 in. She will be supplied by Messrs. +Hawthorn, Leslie & Co., of Newcastle on Tyne, with two sets of +vertical triple-expansion engines, capable of developing collectively +9,000 h.p., which is estimated to realize a speed of 19.75 knots. As +vertical engines have been adopted, the necessary protection of the +cylinders, which project above the steel protective deck, is obtained +by fitting an armored breastwork of steel 5 in. thick, supported by a +7 in. teak backing, around the engine hatchway. Provision is made for +a bunker coal capacity of 400 tons, and this is calculated to give a +radius of action of 8,000 knots at a reduced speed of 10 knots. The +armament of the ship will consist of two 6 in. breech-loading guns on +central pivot stands, one mounted on the poop and another on the +forecastle; six quick-firing 4.7 in. guns, mounted three on each +broadside; eight quick-firing 6-pounder guns, four on each broadside; +besides one 3-pounder Hotchkiss and four 5-barrel Nordenfeldt guns. In +addition four torpedo tubes are fitted, one forward, one aft, and one +on each broadside. All the necessary appliances for manipulating the +engines, guns, steering gear, etc., when in action, are placed in a +conning tower built of steel 3 in. thick, and situated at the after +end of the forecastle. The Æolus will be rigged with two pole mast, +carrying light fore and aft sails only. Her total cost is estimated at +£188,350, of which £100,000 is regarded as the cost of hull. When +complete she will be manned by a complement of 254 officers and men. +In the slipway vacated by the Æolus a second class cruiser, to be +named the Hermione, will be laid down forthwith. The Hermione may be +regarded as an enlarged Æolus, and will measure 320 ft. in length, 49 +ft. 6 in. in breadth, with a displacement of 4,360 tons, on a mean +draught of water of 19 ft. The new cruiser will be supplied with +propelling machinery of the same power as the Æolus, to be constructed +in the dockyard from Admiralty designs. The coal capacity of the +Hermione is to be 400 tons, and her estimated speed is 19.5 knots.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="ART17"></a>TRIALS OF H.M. CRUISER BLAKE.</h2> + +<p>Special interest, says <i>Engineering</i>, attaches to the trials of the +protected cruiser Blake, in view of the assertion frequently made by +Admiralty authorities, from the first lord downward, to the effect +that with her sister ship Blenheim she would surpass anything hitherto +attempted. The condition of steaming continuously for long periods and +over great distances at 20 knots per hour was made a ruling condition +in the design, and with forced draught she was to be able to attain 22 +knots when occasion required. But all idea of getting these high +results has been abandoned. Our readers do not need to be reminded of +the frequent failure of boilers in the navy. Although in the newer +ships, profit has been gained by experience, larger boilers being +provided with separate combustion chambers for each furnace; the +Blake's boilers belong to the type of defective design, with the +result that, were they pressed under forced draught, the tubes would +leak. It was, therefore, decided some time ago to be content with +natural draught results, and on Wednesday, Nov. 18, the vessel was +taken out from Portsmouth, and ran for seven hours with satisfactory +results, considerably exceeding the contract power. But the speed was +but 19.12 knots, and 22 knots can never be attained, except, of +course, new boilers be provided, and when an expenditure of 5 or 6 per +cent. of the first cost of the vessel (433,755<i>l.</i>) would give her new +boilers, it seems a pity to be content with the lesser speed, more +particularly as the vessel is well designed and the engines efficient.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/08-blake.png" alt="British Cruiser Blake" title="" /><br /> +THE NEW BRITISH CRUISER BLAKE.</p> + +<p>Before dealing with the engines and their trials, it may be stated +that the vessel is of 9000 tons displacement at 25 ft. 9 in. mean +draught. Her length is 375 ft. and her beam 65 ft. She was built at +Chatham, and the armament consists of two 92 in. 22-ton breech-loading +guns, ten 6-in. 5-ton guns and sixteen 3-pounder quick-firing, and +eight machine guns, with torpedo launching carriages and tubes. The +propelling engines were manufactured by Messrs. Maudslay Sons & Field, +Lambeth. They were designed to develop 13,000 horses with natural, and +20,000 with forced draught. They consist of four distinct sets of +triple expansion inverted cylinder engines, and occupy with boilers, +etc., nearly two-thirds of the length of the ship. They are placed in +four separate compartments, two sets being coupled together on the +starboard and port sides respectively for driving each screw. There +are four high pressure cylinders, 36 in. in diameter; four +intermediate cylinders, 52 in.; and four low pressure cylinders, 80 +in.; with a stroke of 4 ft. Each set of engines has an air pump 33 in. +in diameter and 2 ft. stroke, and a surface condenser having 12,800 +tubes and an aggregate surface of 2250 square feet, the length of the +tubes between the tube plates being 9 ft. There is also in each +compartment one centrifugal circulating pump driven by a small +independent engine, of the diameter of 3 ft. 9 in., and capable of +pumping from the bilge as well as the sea. The screw propellers are 18 +ft. 3 in. in diameter with a mean pitch of 24 ft. 6 in.</p> + +<p>Steam is furnished by six main double-ended boilers, having four +furnaces at each end, and one auxiliary boiler, with a heating surface +of 900 sq. ft., the dimensions of the former being 15 ft. 2 in. by 18 +ft., and of the latter 10 ft. by 9 ft. long. The total area of +firegrate surface is 863 sq. ft, and of heating surface 26.936 sq. ft. +Each engine room is kept cool by four 4 ft. 6 in. fans. Forced draught +is produced by twelve 5 ft. 6 in. fans, three being stationed in each +stokehold. The electric lighting machinery consists of three dynamos +of Siemens manufacture driven by a Willans engine, each of which is +capable of producing a current of 400 amperes. The after main engines +can be easily disconnected and worked separately for slow speeds.</p> + +<p>The Blake had her steering gear tested on Tuesday, Nov. 17. With both +engines going full power ahead and turning to starboard, with her helm +hard over 35 deg., she completed the circle in 4 min. 40 sec., the +port circle being completed in 5 min. 5 sec. The diameter was +estimated approximately to be about 575 yards. Forty-five seconds were +required to change from engine steering to steering by hand. By manual +gear the helm was moved from midships to hard a-starboard in 40 sec., +from starboard to hard a-port in 2 min. 10 sec., and from hard a-port +to midships in 2 min. 20 sec. The heavy balanced rudder and the speed +of the ship throwing great labor upon the crew manning the wheels, the +hand gear was afterward disconnected and the connection with the +steering engine completed in 40 sec.</p> + +<p>On Nov. 18, when the vessel went on speed trials, the draught of the +vessel was 24 ft. 8 in. forward and 26 ft. 8 in. aft, which gave her +the mean load immersion provided for in her design. There was a +singular absence of vibration, said to be due to the space over which +the machinery is spread, but perhaps also due, in part at least, to +the number of cranks, as the cylinders deliver six throws throughout +the circle of revolution. The results of each hour's steaming are as +under:</p> + +<div class="ctr"> +<table border="0" width="75%" summary=""> +<colgroup span="5"><col span="2" align="center"><col span="3" align="right"></colgroup> +<tr><th>Hours.</th><th></th><th>Revolutions.</th><th>Steam.</th><th>Power.</th></tr> +<tr><td>1st</td><td>hour</td><td>86.86</td><td>120.6</td><td>13,568</td></tr> +<tr><td>2d</td><td>"</td><td>89.26</td><td>128.0</td><td>15,298</td></tr> +<tr><td>3d</td><td>"</td><td>88.55</td><td>125.0</td><td>14,251</td></tr> +<tr><td>4th</td><td>"</td><td>89.58</td><td>127.6</td><td>14,759</td></tr> +<tr><td>5th</td><td>"</td><td>89.40</td><td>125.0</td><td>14,394</td></tr> +<tr><td>6th</td><td>"</td><td>89.55</td><td>125.0</td><td>14,512</td></tr> +<tr><td>7th</td><td>"</td><td>89.15</td><td>126.0</td><td>14,893</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The trial was originally intended to continue for eight hours, but at +the end of the seventh, as the light began to fade, and as, moreover, +the engines were working with a smoothness and efficiency that showed +no signs of flagging, it was considered expedient to terminate the +run.</p> + +<div class="ctr"><table border="0" width="40%" summary=""> +<colgroup span="3"><col align="left"><col align="right"><col align="center"></colgroup> +<tr><td>Steam pressure in boilers</td><td>125.50</td><td>lb.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Air pressure in stoke holds</td><td>0.42</td><td>in.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Revolutions per minute, starboard</td><td>88.41</td></tr> +<tr><td>Revolutions per minute, port</td><td>89.39</td></tr> +</table> + +<p> </p> + +<table border="1" summary=""> +<colgroup span="3"><col align="left"><col span="4" align="right"></colgroup> +<tr><th></th><th align="center" colspan="2">Starboard.</th><th align="center" colspan="2">Port.</th></tr> +<tr><th></th><th align="center">Forward</th><th align="center">Aft</th><th align="center">Forward</th><th align="center">Aft</th></tr> +<tr><td>Mean pressure in cylinders, high</td><td>43.04</td><td>38.95</td><td>42.36</td><td>42.45</td></tr> +<tr><td>Mean pressure in cylinders, inter.</td><td>31.49</td><td>30.82</td><td>30.17</td><td>28.38</td></tr> +<tr><td>Mean pressure in cylinders, low</td><td>11.68</td><td>12.4</td><td>12.85</td><td>12.32</td></tr> +<tr><td>Indicated horse power each engine</td><td>3631.42</td><td>3589.07</td><td>3721.37</td><td>3583.50</td></tr> +<tr><td>Total</td><td align="center" colspan="2">7220.39</td><td align="center" colspan="2"> 7304.88</td></tr> +<tr><td>Collectively</td><td colspan="4" align="center">14525.37</td></tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p>As will be seen, the collective power exceeds the contract power under +natural draught by 1,525.37 horses, and was obtained with less than +the Admiralty limit of air pressure. The coal used on the occasion was +Harris' deep navigation, but no account was taken of the amount +consumed. Four runs were made on the measured mile with and against +the tide, the mean of means disclosing a speed of 19.12 knots. The +average speed of the seven hours' steaming, as measured by patent log, +was 19.28 knots. This fell short by over three-quarters of a knot of +what was anticipated in proportion to the power indicated by the +engines. Up to the limit of air pressure used the boilers answered +admirably.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="ART15"></a>HINTS TO SHIPMASTERS.</h2> + +<p>A Master in charge of a tramp steamer in these days <i>must</i>, if he +wishes for any comfort in life, take good care of himself, for the +pressure and hurry which is inseparable from his position, combined +with the responsibilities and anxieties of his calling, put a very +great strain upon him, and will, in time, unless he takes special +care, have a serious effect on his health; this is more particularly +the case with men of the nervous temperament. It cannot be expected +that in this age, when so many thousands of people on shore fail from +overwork and "high pressure," steamship masters, who as a class, are +overworked and harrassed to a serious extent, should altogether +escape. Again, unless a shipmaster takes an interest in the health, +comfort, and well-being of his crew, he, in the first place, neglects +one of his duties, and, secondly, sows the seeds of discomfort and +annoyance to himself. Let us consider his duties to himself +personally.</p> + +<p>First, then, he must prepare himself to undergo, periodically, the +discomfort of want of proper rest and irregularity in times of meals; +he may, for instance, not be able to leave the bridge for over +forty-eight hours or more on a stretch, and, of course, any shipmaster +who may read this will know that this is no uncommon occurrence; +during this time he may be unable to get regular meals, and what he +does get may have to be eaten in a hurry and at an anxious time when +he cannot properly enjoy and digest it.</p> + +<p>A time like this may be followed by a period of rest, when the days +will hang heavily on his hands, and he will be tempted to long +afternoon sleeps merely to get through the weary hours.</p> + +<p>Now, as a course of this kind of thing is bound, unless care be +exercised, to act unfavorably on the digestion and bring on some form +of dyspepsia, so also the nights and days of great anxiety and moments +of great strain will, besides increasing the dyspeptic tendency, be +apt to bring on nervousness in some form or other. It is a fact that +in these times, and often from want of attention to health, nearly +every shipmaster long in harness is more or less nervous.</p> + +<p>There are people in the present day who have actually talked of making +their chief engineer (who exercises his special trade at sea or on +shore as suits himself and is in no sense <i>a seaman</i>) the master of +the vessel, and turning the shipmaster into a mere pilot. Those who +talk in this way forget that to do this the <i>responsibility</i> must be +shifted on to the engineer. Of course such a change as this cannot +happen, the country would not stand it; but I merely mention it to +show the vast amount of ignorance there is, even among those who +should be well informed, as to the real strain and responsibility on +the modern shipmaster.</p> + +<p>The master then, if anxious to do the best for himself, should, if +possible, be a total abstainer, for two reasons: first, because, as he +will be obliged to be irregular in his feeding, alcohol in any form +will do him harm and tend to augment the dyspepsia. Secondly, because, +often in times of great mental strain, combined with exposure, a glass +of spirits will give <i>great temporary relief</i> (which is of itself a +dangerous fact for a weak-minded man), but this will always be +followed by depression, and will in reality be doing great harm +instead of lasting good. Spirituous liquor may be necessary for a few, +but these should use it under medical advice if at all. It is a hard +thing for many men to give up their grog, but there is not a man of +any experience in the merchant service who has not seen its blasting +effects on many a master and officer. It is almost impossible to find +a substitute for it which shall recommend itself to anyone who has +really a liking for it, about the only things being coffee, lime +juice, or lemonade and ginger ale. So-called temperance drinks are all +of them very nasty stuff, besides containing a large percentage of +alcohol; rather than swallow these one had better not change his +habits. The master then, being an abstainer, should also give some +care to his diet. Very heavy meals of meat and strong food should not +be taken at sea, because there are no means of taking proper exercise, +and it is impossible to work them off properly. Again, long, heavy, +after-dinner sleeps should not be indulged in; a quiet nap of ten +minutes would in many cases be beneficial, but the long sleep up to +five o'clock is positively harmful to any man. One of the <i>best</i> +things a master can do is to take up some work. No matter what it is +so long as he takes an interest in it, such as joiner work, fret work, +painting, writing, learning a musical instrument or a foreign +language, or anything of that sort. It will be of incalculable benefit +to both mind and body.</p> + +<p>On occasions when it is absolutely necessary to be on deck for long +periods, the steward ought to have orders to attend <i>himself +personally</i> to the master's wants—to see that his meals are properly +cooked and brought up to him at regular intervals, and that there is +always a <i>well made</i> cup of coffee to be had when wanted. The ordinary +cup of coffee as made at sea is generally a beastly mixture and not +worth drinking. The steward has an easy life and should not be spared +at these times, but should always be turned out when wanted, <i>night or +day</i>, and made to look after these things himself, and a man who +growls at having this to do or who will not take the proper trouble to +see things well cooked and served up nicely with cheerfulness should +<i>at once</i> be discharged, and a good man, of whom there are plenty, +shipped in his place. The master, of course, should always be on the +bridge when required, and in fog certainly all the time; but many men +are over-cautious in this respect through sheer nervousness, and +oftentimes expose and fatigue themselves to no purpose, harass their +officers, and make them unreliable, so that when the time comes that +their presence on deck is absolutely necessary, they are, through +exhaustion of mind and body, in anything but a fit state to take +charge of the ship, or be cool and collected in a moment of sudden +emergency. Should a man feel that through hard work and exposure he is +becoming shaky, he should at once leave off <i>entirely</i> the false +relief which drink gives and consult a physician. A <i>good</i> man with +<i>experience</i> will in almost any case be able to help him, and, besides +medicine, give him such hints for regulating his diet and mode of +living as will enable him to bear better than before the strain and +wear and tear of his life.<a name="FNanchor_1_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_8"><sup>1</sup></a></p> + +<p>As to the crew. A master who has full command of himself ought to be +able to rule judiciously even the most unruly crew, but before he is +in a really <i>strong</i> position to do this, he must treat them fairly +and honestly. In many cases a bad start is made with a new set of men +(of course this will not apply to the high class mail steamers, nor +perhaps to what are termed weekly boats). They come on board and find +their forecastle just as the last crew left it, full of a week's +filth,<a name="FNanchor_2_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_9"><sup>2</sup></a> possibly lumbered up with hauling lines and what-not, +wanting painting badly, and often showing unmistakable signs of +overhead leakage. This is quite enough to make a respectable man +discontented, and naturally so. In common fairness, the often wretched +place that the men have to occupy ought to be put in decent order to +receive the new crew. Again, they should be distinctly made to +understand, when signing articles, what their <i>food</i> will be, and what +their pay and allowances will come to. It is to be feared that bad +feeding is the cause of much trouble in these days. From first coming +on board discipline should be <i>enforced</i>; many officers, both young +and old, are greatly remiss in enforcing this, with the consequence +that day by day it is harder to do, till at last it is impossible, +and anarchy reigns triumphant. If a seaman finds that he is <i>fairly</i> +treated, and that he <i>must</i> obey orders, he will in nine cases out of +ten conduct himself well, and give no trouble. The more high class +type of man the master is the better he will treat his men, and the +more exacting he will be in compelling discipline, both in his +officers and crew.</p> + +<p>Engineers and firemen are often sources of annoyance in these days. +Firemen are a lower class generally than seamen, and more inclined to +insubordination; in many cases the engineers are quite incapable of +keeping them in proper order, and it sometimes happens that in an +engine room row it falls to the lot of the deck officers to restore +discipline.</p> + +<p>The master should remember that his engineers are officers of the +ship, with their own responsibility, that his chief engineer is of +some importance on board, and that it is necessary in the owner's +interests that they should work together amicably. In ordinary cargo +vessels, the engineer is often better educated than the master +himself, and should <i>never</i> be treated as an inferior while he behaves +with proper respect to the master. To his own deck officers the master +should behave with ordinary courtesy, and, if he finds them +trustworthy, should not spoil them and render them unreliable by +always keeping on or about the bridge; an officer who is never left by +himself in charge will soon fancy himself incapable. It is to be +feared that many young officers are spoiled in this way.</p> + +<p>Familiarity with the men before the mast is always unwise. It is not a +good practice in ordinary vessels, where a new crew is shipped each +voyage, to begin by calling the men "Tom" and "Jack." An officer to +have any real command over the men <i>must</i> keep himself apart from them +and show them the difference of their positions. A judicious +shipmaster will warn his young mates about this.</p> + +<p>The usual system of mess room for engineers, the officers messing in +the cabin with the master, is a good one, though it is a question +whether it would not be a <i>very</i> good thing if the chief engineer +always messed with the master so long as he was a decent, respectable +man. It is often one of the causes of ill health in the master that he +keeps too much to himself, seldom if ever speaking to his officers +except on business connected with the ship. A man who does this has +far too much time to think, and if he has any trivial illness is apt +to brood over it and actually make himself ill.</p> + +<p>It is much wiser and better for all concerned that the master should, +within certain limits, be on friendly terms at any rate with his first +mate, if not with all his officers. Any man with common tact can +always find means for checking undue familiarity, and it will +generally be found that officers treated as equals instead, as is +often the case, as though they were an inferior race of beings, will +be much more inclined to do their work with zeal, and to back up the +master in all his troubles. Many men when they get command seem to +forget that they ever were officers themselves. It is the general +opinion that the strict ship is the most comfortable one, and as a +rule the master who will take the trouble to enforce proper discipline +fore and aft is just the very man who will also be considerate and +courteous to those who sail under his command—whatever be their rank.</p> + +<p>To govern others well a man <i>must</i> first have learned to govern +himself. The first lesson for a young seaman to learn is obedience, +and unless he does learn this lesson he will not know how to enforce +it when he becomes an officer, and still less will he be fit for his +position when he obtains command. It is to be feared that many <i>never</i> +learn this lesson, and that this is the cause of much of the +insubordination rife in these days.</p> + +<p>If the modern hard-driven shipmaster would exercise greater care as to +his health and habits, and would strive more after being a true +<i>master</i> over his ship's company, and this is easier to be gained by +respect than fear, things would go on more smoothly, and when he did +get away for a time from all the petty annoyances of shore, which are +more especially felt in his home port, he would have a time of +comparative comfort, would live longer and happier, and, possibly, +escape the terrible attacks of nervous depression which have finished +the career of many a too finely strung <i>fin de siecle</i> +shipmaster.—<i>Nautical Magazine.</i></p> + +<a name="Footnote_1_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_8">[1]</a><div class="note"> +<p>For the <i>fluttering</i>, unsteady feeling often felt, the +following, if not abused, will be found beneficial: Take as much +bromide of potassium as will lie, not heaped up, on a shilling, and +half a teaspoonful of sal volatile (aromatic spirits of ammonia). Mix +in a wine glass full of water; but this should only be taken when +absolutely necessary, and not habitually.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_2_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_9">[2]</a><div class="note"><p>This should not be. It is most decidedly one of the +master's duties to see that the men on <i>both</i> sides of the forecastle +keep their places clean, and for this purpose it is a very good plan +to give them an hour or two every week, and it is only right that if a +crew fled a forecastle clean to receive them, they should be made to +leave it in the same state.</p></div> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="ART04"></a>ALFRED TENNYSON.</h2> + +<p>Alfred Tennyson, the poet laureate of England, was born at Sornersby, +Lincolnshire, April 9, 1810, and was the third of a large family of +children, eight of whom were boys and three girls. His father was a +clergyman, a man of remarkably fine abilities; his mother, as should +be the mother of a great poet, was a deeply religious woman with a +sensitive spirit that was keenly attuned to the aspects of nature. It +was from her that Tennyson inherited his poetic temperament combined +with the love of study that was a characteristic of his father. +Tennyson's brother, Charles, superintended the construction of his +younger brother's first poetic composition, which was written upon a +slate when the great laureate was a child of seven. Tennyson's parents +were people who had sufficient of this world's wealth to educate their +sons well, and Alfred was sent to Trinity College, where he as a mere +lad won the gold medal for a poem in blank verse entitled "Timbuctoo," +which is to be found in all the volumes of his collected works, though +many of the other poems produced in that period are not given place.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/09-tennyson.png" alt="Tennyson" title="" /><br /> +ALFRED TENNYSON, POET LAUREATE OF ENGLAND.</p> + +<p>His first volume of poems was published in 1827, and in them the +influence of Byron, whom he passionately admired, is everywhere +visible. In 1830 he issued another volume, which defined his position +as a poet of great promise, but which was criticised by Christopher +North with the most biting sarcasm, and which was held up to ridicule +by the great Lockhart. More than ten years followed in which the poet +wrote nothing, then he began a literary career which lifted him to the +highest place in the literary world, a place which he has since held, +and as a lyric poet he has never been equaled.</p> + +<p>In 1850 he issued that most wonderful production in any language, "In +Memoriam," which has enriched the English language by hundreds of +quotations and which in its delicate sentiment, its deep sorrow, its +reflective tenderness, has been the voice of many a soul similarly +bereft.</p> + +<p>Had Tennyson never written anything but "In Memoriam," his fame would +have been assured, but "The Idylls of the King," "Enoch Arden," "The +Princess," and other great compositions will stand forever to his +credit. Of Tennyson's personal character much has been said and +written. As pure and sweet as his poetry, beloved by a large circle +of friends, active still in literary work, it may be said of him that +he has always worn</p> + +<p class="ind">"without reproach<br /> +The grand old name of gentleman," +</p> + +<p>and that his mellow old age is the ripening into fruit of "the white +flower of a blameless life."—<i>Chicago Graphic.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="ART05"></a>FIFTIETH YEAR OF THE PRINCE OF WALES.</h2> + +<p>In the case of a distinguished person whose public life has a claim to +be regarded with national and social interest, his fiftieth birthday +must be considered a jubilee; and Monday, Nov. 9, in the present year, +completing that number of anniversaries for the eldest son of her +Majesty the Queen, the heir apparent to the crown of the United +Kingdom, is manifestly an occasion demanding such congratulations as +must arise from sentiments of loyalty to the monarchical constitution +and of respect for the reigning family. His Royal Highness, it is +understood, has preferred to have it treated simply as a private and +domestic affair, entertaining a party of his personal friends, and not +inviting any formal addresses from the representatives of municipal +corporations or other public bodies. Nevertheless, it may be permitted +to journalists, taking note of this period in the life of so important +a contemporary personage, to express their continued good wishes for +his health and happiness, and to indulge in a few retrospective +observations on his past career.</p> + +<p>Born on Nov. 9, 1841, second of the offspring of Queen Victoria by her +marriage with the late Prince Consort, Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, +inherited the greatest blessing of humanity, that of having good +parents and wise guardians of his childhood and youth. His instruction +at home was, no doubt, wider in range of studies than that of ordinary +English boys, including an acquaintance with several European +languages and with modern history, needful to qualify him for the +duties of a prince. He was further educated at Christ Church, Oxford, +and at Trinity College, Cambridge; was enrolled a law student of the +Middle Temple and held a commission in the army.</p> + +<p>His earliest appearance in a leading part on any public occasion was +in 1858 or 1859, we think at the laying of the foundation stone of the +Lambeth School of Art at Vauxhall; but after the lamented death of his +father, in December, 1861, the Prince of Wales naturally became the +most eminent and desirable performer of all ceremonies in which +beneficent or useful undertakings were to be recognized by royal +approval. This work has occupied a very large share of his time +during thirty years; and we can all testify that it has been +discharged with such frank good will, cordiality, and unaffected +graciousness, with such patient attention, diligence, and punctuality, +as to deserve the gratitude of large numbers of her Majesty's subjects +in almost every part of the kingdom. No prince of any country in any +age has ever personally exerted himself more constantly and +faithfully, in rendering services of this kind to the community, than +the Prince of Wales. The multiplicity and variety of his engagements, +on behalf of local and special objects of utility, would make a +surprising list, and they must have involved a sacrifice of ease and +leisure, and endurance of self-imposed restraint, a submission to +tedious repetitions of similar acts and scenes, and to continual +requests and importunities, which few men of high rank would like to +undergo.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/10-royals.png"> +<img src="images/10-royals_th.png" alt="ROYAL FAMILY" title="" /></a><br /> +THE PRINCE OF WALES AND FAMILY—FROM THE PHOTOGRAPH OF +MESSRS. BYRNE, RICHMOND.</p> + +<p>The marriage of his Royal Highness to Princess Alexandra of Denmark, +on March 10, 1863, was one of the happiest events within the memory of +this generation. It tended visibly, of course, to raise and confirm +his position as leader of English society, and as the active dispenser +of that encouragement which royalty can bestow on commendable public +objects. Charity, education, science, art, music, industry, +agriculture, and local improvements are in no small measure advanced +by this patronage. The Prince of Wales may not be so learned in some +of these matters as his accomplished father, but he has taken as much +trouble to assist the endless labors of the immediate agents, in doing +which he has shown good judgment and discretion, and a considerable +degree of business talent—notably, in the British preparations for +the Paris Exhibition of 1867, the Indian and Colonial Exhibition of +1886 in London, and the organization of the Imperial Institute. The +last-named institution and the Royal College of Music will be +permanent memorials of the directing energy of the Prince of Wales.</p> + +<p>These are but a few examples or slight indications of the work he has +actually done for us all. It is unnecessary to mention the incidental +salutary influences of his visits to Canada and to India, which have +left an abiding favorable impression of English royalty in those +provinces of the empire. Nor can it be requisite to observe the manner +in which the prince's country estate and mansion at Sandringham, with +his care of agricultural improvement, of stock breeding, studs, and +other rural concerns, has set an example to landowners, the value of +which is already felt. We refrain upon this occasion from speaking of +the Princess of Wales, or of the sons and daughters, whose lives, we +trust, will be always good and happy. It is on the personal merits and +services of the head of their illustrious house, with reference only +to public interests, that we have thought it needful to dwell, in view +of the fiftieth birthday of his Royal Highness; and very heartily to +wish him, in homely English phrase, "Many happy returns of the +day!"—<i>Illustrated London News.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="ART18"></a>DEVELOPMENT WITH SUCRATE OF LIME.</h2> + +<p>I have experimented with carbonate of lithia as an accelerator, and I +have obtained with it rather favorable results. However, in opposition +to Mr. Wickers, I have always found that carbonate of lithia, used +even in larger doses than those recommended by this author, was not +sufficiently active, and that development had to be too much prolonged +in order to obtain prints of good intensity. I have also observed that +the prints developed by this process were as often fogged as when I +made use of carbonate of potash. The oxides of alkaline metals or +their alkaline salts are not the only accelerators susceptible of +being used in pyro development. Two oxides of the earthy alkaline +metals, lime and hydrate of barytes, may also be used as accelerators. +I will not insist upon the second, which, although giving some +results, should be rejected from photographic practice on account of +its caustic properties, and of its too great affinity for the carbonic +acids in the air, which prevents the keeping of its solutions. This +objection does not obtain for the first, provided, however, that +ordinary lime water is not used, but a solution of succharate or +sucrate of lime. In my experiments I have made use of the following +solutions:</p> + +<div class="ctr"><table summary=""> +<colgroup span="3"><col align="left"><col align="right"><col align="center"></colgroup> +<tr><th colspan="2" align="center"><i>Solution A.</i></th> +<tr><td>Pyrogallic acid.</td><td>10</td><td>grms.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Sulphite of soda.</td><td>20</td><td>"</td></tr> +<tr><td>Citric acid.</td><td>2</td><td>"</td></tr> +<tr><td>Water.</td><td>120</td><td>"</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><th colspan="2" align="center"><i>Solution B.</i></th> +<tr><td>Water.</td><td>1000</td><td>"</td></tr> +<tr><td>Sugar.</td><td>sufficient quantity to triturate.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>To which add a sufficient quantity of pure lime to saturate the sugar +solution.</p> + +<p>In this manner we get a highly concentrated liquid, very alkaline, and +which keeps for a considerable time. To develop, I mix:</p> + +<div class="ctr"><table width="35%" summary=""> +<colgroup span="3"><col align="left"><col align="right"><col align="center"></colgroup> +<tr><td>Water.</td><td>80</td><td>cubic cent.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Solution A.</td><td>2</td><td>"</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>I throw this over the plate, and allow it to remain for a few moments, +agitating, then I add to this bath gradually and according to the +results obtained, from one to two cubic centimeters of the solution B. +These solutions should be made with a great deal of care and prudence, +as the sucrate of lime is an accelerator of very great energy. +Moreover, according as the plate has been more or less exposed, we may +add to the developing bath a few drops of a solution of citric acid, +or of a solution of an alkaline bromide. We obtain in this way very +soft prints, sometimes too soft, which, however, are not more free +from fogging than plates developed with hydrochinon (new bath), or +pyro having for accelerators ammonia, potash, soda, carbonate of +potash, of soda, or of lithia. I do not give this process with sucrate +of lime as perfect, but I give it as perfectable and susceptible of +application. If I have undertaken to write these few lines it is +because it has never been brought to my knowledge that up to the +present time the oxides and the alkaline salts of the earthy alkaline +metals have been studied from a photographic point of view.—<i>Leon +Degoix in Photo. Gazette.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="ART14"></a>DUCK HUNTING IN SCOTLAND.</h2> + +<p>The wild duck is a shy bird, apt to spread his wings and change his +quarters when a noble sportsman is seen approaching his habitation +with a fowling piece. You have heard of the ass who put on a lion's +skin, and wandered out into the wilderness and brayed. I have +elaborated a device of equal ingenuity and more convincing realism. It +is my habit during the duck-shooting season to put on the skin of a +Blondin donkey and so roam among the sedges bordering on the lakes +where wild ducks most do congregate. I have cut a hole in the face to +see through, and other holes in the legs to put my hands +through.—<i>London Graphic</i></p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/11-shoot.png" alt="WILDFOWL SHOOTING" title="" /><br /> +WILDFOWL SHOOTING IN SCOTLAND.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="ART03"></a>A PLEA FOR THE COMMON TELESCOPE.<a name="FNanchor_1_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_10"><sup>1</sup></a></h2> + +<h3>By G.E. LUMSDEN.</h3> + +<p>These are the palmiest days in the eventful history of physical and +observational astronomy. Along the whole line of professional and +amateur observation substantial progress is being made, but in certain +new directions, and in some old ones, too, the advance is very rapid. +As never before, public interest is alive to the attractions and value +of the work of astronomers. The science itself now appeals to a +constituency of students and readers daily increasing in numbers and +importance. Evidence of this gratifying fact is easily obtained. There +is at the libraries an ever-growing demand for standard astronomical +works, some of them by no means intended to be of a purely popular +character. Some of the most influential and conservative magazines on +both sides of the Atlantic now find it to be in their interest to +devote pages of space to the careful discussion of new theories, or to +the results of the latest work of professional observers. Even the +daily press in some cities has caught the infection, if infection it +may be called. There are in New York, Philadelphia, St. Louis, and +other centers of population on this continent leading newspapers +which, every week or so, publish columns of original matter +contributed by writers evidently able to place before their readers in +an attractive form articles dealing accurately, and yet in a popular +vein, with the many-sided subject of astronomy. In scientific matters +generally, there is abroad in this and other countries a spirit of +inquiry, never more apparent than at the present time.</p> + +<p>Readers and thinkers may, no doubt, be numbered by thousands. So far, +however, as astronomy is concerned, the majority of readers and +thinkers is composed of non-observers, most of whom believe they must +be content with studying the theoretical side of the subject only. +They labor under the false impression that unless they have telescopes +of large aperture and other costly apparatus, the pleasures attaching +to practical work are denied them. The great observatories, to which +every intelligent eye is directed, are, in a measure, though +innocently enough, responsible for this. Anticipation is ever on +tiptoe. People are naturally awaiting the latest news from the giant +refracting and reflecting telescopes of the day. Under these +circumstances, it may be that the services rendered, and capable of +being rendered, to science by smaller apertures may be overlooked, +and, therefore, I ask to be permitted to put in a modest plea for the +common telescope. What little I shall have to say will be addressed to +you more for the purpose of arousing interest in the subject than for +communicating to you any information of a novel or special character.</p> + +<p>When making use of the term "common telescope," I would like to be +understood as referring to good refractors with object glasses not +exceeding three or three and one-half inches in diameter. In some +works on the subject telescopes as large as five inches or even five +and one-half inches are included in the description "common," but +instruments of such apertures are not so frequently met with in this +country as to justify the classing of them with smaller ones, and, +perhaps, for my purpose, it is well that such is the fact, for the +expense connected with the purchase of first rate telescopes increases +very rapidly in proportion to the size of the object glass, and soon +becomes a serious matter. Should ever the larger apertures become +numerous on this continent, let us hope it shall be found to have been +as one of the results of societies like this, striving to make more +popular the study of astronomy.</p> + +<p>It is not by any means proposed to inflict upon you a history of the +telescope, but your indulgence is asked for a few moments while +reference is made to one or two matters connected with its invention, +or, rather, its accidental discovery and subsequent improvement.</p> + +<p>The opening years of the seventeenth century found the world without a +telescope, or, at least, such an instrument as was adapted for +astronomical work. It is true that long years before, Arabian and some +other eastern astronomers, for the purpose, possibly, of enabling them +to concentrate their gaze upon celestial objects and follow their +motions, had been accustomed to use a kind of tube consisting of a +long cylinder without glasses of any kind and open at both ends. For +magnifying purposes, this tube was of no value. Still, it must have +been of some kind of service, or else the first telescopes, as +constructed by the spectacle makers, who had stumbled upon the +principle involved, were exceedingly sorry affairs, for, soon after +their introduction, the illustrious Kepler, in his work on "Optics," +recommended the employment of plain apertures, without lenses, because +they were superior to the telescope on account of their freedom from +refraction.</p> + +<p>But as soon as the principle by which distant objects could, +apparently, be brought nearer the eye became known and its value +recognized by philosophers, telescopes ceased to be regarded as toys, +and underwent material improvements in the hands of such men as +Galilei, and, later, even of Kepler himself, Cassini, Huyghens, and +others. Galilei's first telescope magnified but three times, and his +best not much above thirty times. If I comprehend aright what has been +written upon the subject, I am justified in saying that this little +instrument in my hand, with an aperture of one inch and one-quarter, +and a focus, with an astronomical eye-piece, of about ten inches, is a +better magnifier than was Galilei's best. With it I can see the moons +of Jupiter, some spots on the sun, the phases of Venus, the +composition, in some places, of the Milky Way, the seas, the valleys, +the mountains, and, when in bold relief upon the terminator, even +some of the craters and cones of the moon. Indeed, I am of opinion I +can see even more than he could, for I can readily make out a +considerable portion of the Great Nebula in Orion, some double stars, +and enough of the Saturnian system to discern the disk of the planet +and see that there is something attached to its sides.</p> + +<p>For nearly one hundred and fifty years all refracting telescopes +labored under one serious difficulty. The images formed by them were +more or less confused by rainbow tints, due to the bending, or +refracting, by the object glass of the rays of light. To overcome this +obstacle to clear vision, and also to secure magnification, the focal +lengths of the instruments were greatly extended. Telescopes 38, 50, +78, 130, 160, 210, 400, and even 600 feet long were constructed. I +can, however, find nothing on record indicating that the object +glasses of these enormously attenuated instruments ever exceeded in +diameter two and one-half inches. Yet, with unwieldy and ungainly +telescopes, nearly always defining badly, wonders were accomplished by +the painstaking and indomitable observers of the time.</p> + +<p>In 1658, Huyghens, using a telescope twenty-three feet long and two +and one-third inches in diameter, with a power of 100, solved the +mystery of Saturn's rings, which had resisted all of Galilei's efforts +as well as his own with a shorter instrument, though he had discovered +Titan, Saturn's largest moon, and fixed correctly its period of +revolution at sixteen days. Fifteen years later, Ball, with a +telescope thirty-eight feet long, discovered the principal division in +the rings. Ten years still later, Cassini, with an instrument twenty +feet long and an object glass two and one-half inches in diameter, +rediscovered the division, which was named after him, rather than +after Ball, who had taken no pains to make widely known his discovery, +which, in the meantime, had been forgotten. Though we have no record, +there is no doubt that the lamented Horrocks and Crabtree, in England, +in 1639, with glasses no better than these, watched with exultant +emotions the first transit of Venus ever seen by human eyes.</p> + +<p>In 1722, Bradley, with a telescope 223¼ feet long, succeeded in +measuring the diameter of the same planet. Yet Grant assures us that, +in spite of all their difficulties, such was the industry of the +astronomers that when, at the commencement of this century, it became +possible to construct larger refracting telescopes, there was nothing +to be discovered that could have been discovered with the means at +their disposal. So far as we now know, a good three-inch telescope, +nay, a first-rate two inch one, will show far more than our +great-grandfathers ever saw, or dreamed of seeing, with their +refractors.</p> + +<p>Toward the middle of the seventeenth century the reflecting telescope +had been so much improved as nearly to crowd out its refracting rival, +but, just as its success seemed to be assured, Dollond, working along +lines partially followed up by Hall, found a combination of lenses by +which the chromatic aberration of the refractor could be very +perfectly corrected. While Dollond's invention was of immense value, +it remained that flint object glasses larger than two and one-half +inches in diameter could not, for some years, be manufactured, but +about the opening of the nineteenth century, Guinand, a Swiss, +discovered a process of making masses of optical flint glass +sufficiently large as to admit of the construction from them of +excellent lenses of sizes gradually increasing as time and +experimenting went on. The making of three-inch objectives, achromatic +and of short focus, wrought a revolution in telescopes and renewed the +demand for refractors, though prices, as compared with those of the +present day, were very great. But improvement was succeeded by +improvement. Larger and still larger objectives were made, yet +progress was not so rapid as not to justify Grant, in 1852, in +declaring to be a "munificent gift" the presentation, about 1838, to +Greenwhich Observatory, of a six and seven-tenths object glass alone, +and so it was esteemed by Mr. Airy, the astronomer royal. Improvement +is still the order of the day, and, as a result of keen competition, +very excellent telescopes of small aperture can be purchased at +reasonable prices. Great telescopes are enormously expensive, and will +probably be so until they are superseded by some simple invention +which shall be as superior to them as they are to the "mighty" +instruments which, from time to time, caused such sensations in the +days of Galilei, Cassini, Huyghens, Bradley, Dollond, and those who +came after them.</p> + +<p>But, notable as are the services rendered to science by giant +telescopes, it remains that by far the greater bulk of useful work has +been done by apertures of less than twelve inches in diameter. Indeed, +it may be asserted that most of such work has been done by instruments +of six inches or less in size. After referring with some detail to +this, Denning tells us that "nearly all the comets, planetoids, double +stars, etc., owe their detection to small instruments; that our +knowledge of sun spots, lunar and planetary features is also very +largely derived from similar sources; that there is no department +which is not indebted to the services of small telescopes, and that of +some thousands of drawings of celestial objects, made by observers +employing instruments from three to seventy-two inches in diameter, a +careful inspection shows that the smaller instruments have not been +outdone in this interesting field of observation, owing to their +excellent defining powers and the facility with which they are used." +Aperture for aperture, the record is more glorious for the "common +telescope" than for its great rivals. Let us for a moment recall +something of what has been done with instruments which may be embraced +under the designation "common" as such a statement may serve to remove +impressions that small telescopes are but of little use in +astronomical work.</p> + +<p>In his unrivaled book, Webb declares that his observations were +chiefly made with a telescope five and one-half feet long, carrying an +object glass of a diameter of three and seven-tenths inches. The +instrument was of "fair defining quality," and one has but to read his +delightful pages in order to form an idea of the countless pleasures +Webb derived from observation with it. Speaking of it, he says that +smaller ones will, of course, do less, especially with faint objects, +but are often very perfect and distinct, and that even diminutive +glasses, if good, will, at least, show something never seen without +them. He adds: "I have a little hand telescope twenty-two and +one-quarter inches long, when fully drawn out, with a focus of about +fourteen inches, and one and one-third inches aperture; this, with an +astronomical eye-piece, will show the <i>existence</i> of sun spots, the +mountains in the moon, Jupiter's satellites and Saturn's ring." In +another place, speaking of the sun, he says that an object glass of +only two inches will exhibit a curdled or marbled appearance over the +whole solar disk, caused by the intermixture of spaces of different +brightness. And I may add here that Dawes recommends a small aperture +for sun work, including spectroscopic examinations, he himself, like +Mr. Miller, our librarian, preferring to use for that purpose a four +inch refractor.</p> + +<p>As you know, the North Star is a most beautiful double. Its companion +is of the ninth order of magnitude, that is, three magnitudes smaller +than the smallest star visible to the naked eye on a dark night. There +was a time when Polaris, as a double, was regarded as an excellent +test for a good three inch telescope; that is any three inch +instrument in which the companion could be seen was pronounced to be +first-class. But so persistently have instruments of small aperture +been improved that that star is no longer an absolute test for three +inch objectives of fine quality, or any first-rate objective exceeding +two inches for which Dawes proposed it as a standard of excellence, he +having found that if the eye and telescope be good, the companion to +Polaris may be seen with such an aperture armed with a power of +eighty. As a matter of fact, Dawes, who was, like Burnham, blessed +with most acute vision, saw the companion with an instrument no larger +than this small one in my hand—one inch and three-tenths. Ward saw it +with an inch and one-quarter objective, and Dawson with so small an +aperture as one inch. T.T. Smith has seen it with a reflector stopped +down to one inch and one-quarter, while in the instrument still known +as the "great Dorpat reflector," it has been seen in broad daylight. +This historic telescope has, I believe, a twelve inch object glass, +but the difficulty of seeing in sunshine so minute a star is such that +the fact may fairly be mentioned here.</p> + +<p>Another interesting feature is this. Objects once discovered, though +thought to be visible in large telescopes only, may often be seen in +much smaller ones. The first Herschel said truly that less optical +power will show an object than was required for its discovery. The +rifts, or canals, in the Great Nebula in Andromeda is a case in point, +but two better illustrations may be taken from the planets. Though +Saturn was for many years subjected to most careful scrutiny by +skilled astronomers using the most powerful telescopes in existence, +the crape ring eluded discovery until November, 1850, when it was +independently seen by Dawes, in England, and Bond, in the United +States. Both were capital observers and employed excellent instruments +of large aperture, and it was naturally presumed that only such +instruments could show the novel Saturnian feature. Not so. Once +brought to the attention of astronomers, Webb saw the new ring with +his three and seven-tenths telescope and Ross with an aperture not +exceeding three and three-eighths in diameter. Nay, I am permitted to +say that a venerable member of this society made drawings of it with a +three inch refractor. With a two inch objective, Grover not only saw +the crape ring, but Saturn's belts, as well, and the shadow cast by +the ball of the planet upon its system of rings. Titan, Saturn's +largest moon, is merely a point of light as compared with the planet, +as it appears in a telescope, yet it has been seen, so it is said, +with a one inch glass. The shadow of this satellite, while crossing +the face of Saturn, has been observed by Banks with a two and +seven-eighths objective. By hiding the glare of the planet behind an +occulting bar, some of Saturn's smallest moons were seen by Kitchener +with a two and seven-tenths aperture and by Capron with a two and +three-fourths one. Banks saw four of them with a three and +seven-eighths telescope, Grover two of them with a three and +three-quarter inch, and four inches of aperture will show five of +them, so Webb says. Rhea, Dione and Tethys are more minute than +Japetus, yet Cassini, with his inferior means, discerned them and +traced their periods. Take the instance of Mars next. It was long +believed that Mars had no satellites. But in 1877, during one of the +highly favorable oppositions of that planet which occur but once in +about sixteen years, the able Hall, using the great 26 inch refractor +at Washington, discovered two tiny moons which had never been seen +before. One of these, called Deimos, is only six miles in diameter, +the other, named Phobos, is only seven, and both are exceedingly close +to the primary and in rapid revolution. The diameter of these +satellites is really less than the distance from High Park, on the +west of Toronto, to Woodbine race course, on the east of the city. No +wonder these minute objects—seldom, if ever, nearer to us than about +forty millions of miles—are difficult to see at all. Newcomb and +Holden tell us that they are invisible save at the sixteen year +periods referred to, when it happens that the earth and Mars, in their +respective orbits, approach each other more nearly than at any other +time. But once discovered, the rule held good even in the case of the +satellites of Mars. Pratt has seen Deimos, the outermost moon, with an +eight and one-seventh inch telescope; Erek has seen it with a seven +and one-third inch achromatic; Trouvellot, the innermost one, with a +six and three-tenths glass, while Common believes that any one who can +make out Enceladus, one of Saturn's smallest moons, can see those of +Mars by hiding the planet at or near the elongations, and that even +our own moonlight does not prevent the observations being made. It +chances for the benefit of observers, in the northern hemisphere +especially, that one of the sixteen year periods will culminate in +1893, when Mars will be most advantageously situated for close +examination. No doubt every one will avail himself of the opportunity, +and may we not reasonably hope that scores of amateur observers +throughout the United States and Canada will experience the delight of +seeing and studying the tiny moons of our ruddy neighbor?</p> + +<p>And so I might proceed until I had wearied you with illustrations +showing what can be done with telescopes so small that they may fairly +be classed as "common," Webb says that such apertures, with somewhat +high powers, will reveal stars down to the eleventh magnitude. The +interesting celestial objects more conspicuous than stars of that +magnitude are sufficiently numerous to exhaust much more time than any +amateur can give to observing. Indeed, the lot of the amateur is a +happy one. With a good, though small, telescope, he may have for +subjects of investigation the sun with his spots, his faculæ, his +prominences and spectra; the moon, a most superb object in nearly +every optical instrument, with her mountains, valleys, seas, craters, +cones, and ever-changing aspects renewed every month, her occupations +of stars, her eclipses, and all that; the planets, some with phases, +and other with markings, belts, rings, and moons with scores of +occupations, eclipses and transits due to their easily observed +rotation around their primaries; the nebulæ, the double, triple and +multiple stars with sometimes beautifully contrasted colors, and a +thousand and one other means of amusing and instructing himself. +Nature has opened in the heavens as interesting a volume as she has +opened on the earth, and with but little trouble any one may learn to +read in it.</p> + +<p>I trust it has been shown that expensive telescopes are not +necessarily required for practical work. My advice to an intending +purchaser would be to put into the objective for a refractor, or into +the mirror for a reflector, all the money he feels warranted in +spending, leaving the mounting to be done in the cheapest possible +manner consistent with accuracy of adjustment, because it is in the +objective or in the mirror that the <i>value</i> of the telescope alone +resides. In the shops may be found many telescopes gorgeous in +polished tubes and brass mountings which, for effective work, are +absolutely worthless. On this subject, I consulted the most eminent of +all discoverers of double stars, an observer who, even as an amateur, +made a glorious reputation by the work done with a six inch telescope. +I refer to Mr. S.W. Burnham, of the Lick Observatory, who, in reply, +kindly wrote: "You will certainly have no difficulty in making out a +strong case in favor of the use of small telescopes in many +departments of important astronomical work. Most of the early +telescopic work was done with instruments which would now be +considered as inferior to modern instruments, in quality as well as in +size. You are doubtless familiar with much of the amateur work, in +this country and elsewhere, done with comparatively small apertures. +<i>The most important condition is to have the refractor</i>, whatever its +size may be, <i>of the highest optical perfection</i>, and then the rest +will depend on the zeal and industry of the observer." The italics are +mine.</p> + +<p>Incidentally, it may be mentioned that much most interesting work may +be done even with an opera glass, as a few minutes' systematic +observation on any fine night will prove. Newcomb and Holden assure us +that "if Hipparchus had had even such an optical instrument, mankind +need not have waited two thousand years to know the nature of the +Milky Way, nor would it have required a Galilei to discover the phases +of Venus or the spots on the sun." To amplify the thought, if that +mighty geometer and observer and some of his contemporaries had +possessed but the "common telescope," is it not probable that in the +science of astronomy the world would have been to-day two thousand +years in advance of its present position?</p> + +<a name="Footnote_1_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_10">[1]</a> +<div class="note"><p>Paper read before the Astronomical and Physical Society +of Toronto, Canada, April 18, 1891.</p></div> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="ART01"></a>ARCHÆOLOGICAL DISCOVERIES AT CADIZ.</h2> + +<p>Those who have had the good fortune to visit Andalusia, that +privileged land of the sun, of light, songs, dances, beautiful girls, +and bull fighters, preserve, among many other poetical and pleasing +recollections, that of election to antique and smiling Cadiz—the +"pearl of the ocean and the silver cup," as the Andalusians say in +their harmonious and imaginative language. There is, in fact, nothing +exaggerated in these epithets, for they translate a true impression. +Especially if we arrive by sea, there is nothing so thrilling as the +dazzling silhouette which, from afar, is reflected all white from the +mirror of a gulf almost always blue.</p> + +<p>The Cadiz peninsula has for centuries been legitimately renowned, for, +turn by turn, Phenicians, properly so called, Carthaginians, Romans, +Goths, Arabs and Spaniards have made of it the preferred seat of +their business and pleasure. In his so often unsparing verses, +Martial, even, celebrates with an erotic rapture the undulating +suppleness of the ballet dancers of <i>Gades</i>, who are continued in our +day by the <i>majas</i> and <i>chulas</i>.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<a href="./images/12-tomb.png"><img src="images/12-tomb_th.png" alt="PHENICIAN TOMBS" title="" /></a> +<br />PHENICIAN TOMBS DISCOVERED AT CADIZ.</p> + +<p>For an epoch anterior to that of the Latin poet, we have the +testimony, among others, of Strabo, who describes the splendors, +formerly and for a long time famous, of the temple of Hercules, and +who gives many details, whose accuracy can still be verified, +concerning various questions of topography or ethnography. Thus the +superb tree called <i>Dracæna draco</i> is mentioned as growing in the +vicinity of <i>Gadeira</i>, the Greek name of the city. Now, some of these +trees still exist in certain public and private gardens, and attract +so much the more attention in that they are not met with in any other +European country. However, although historically Cadiz finds her title +to nobility on every page of the Greek and Latin authors, and although +her Phenician origin is averred, nowhere has such origin, in a +monumental and epigraphic sense, left fewer traces than in the +Andalusian peninsula. A few short legends, imperfectly read upon +either silver or bronze coins, and that was all, at least up to recent +times. Such penury as this distressed savants and even put them into +pretty bad humor with the Cadiz archæologists.</p> + +<p>To-day, it seems that the ancient Semitic civilization, which has +remained mute for so long in the Iberic territory, is finally willing +to yield up her secret, as is proved by the engravings which we +present to our readers from photographs taken <i>in situ</i>. It is +necessary for us to enter into some details.</p> + +<p>In 1887 there were met with at the gates of Cadiz, at about five +meters beneath the surface of the earth, three rude tombs of shelly +limestone, in which were found some skeletons, a few small bronze +instruments and some trinkets—the latter of undoubted oriental +manufacture.</p> + +<p>In one of these tombs was also inclosed a monolithic sarcophagus of +white marble of the form called anthropoid and measuring 2.15 m. in +length by 0.67 in width. This sarcophagus is now preserved in the +local museum, whose director is the active, intelligent and +disinterested Father Vera. Although this is not the place to furnish +technical or scientific explanations, it will be permitted us to point +out the fact that although it is of essentially oriental manufacture, +our anthropoid has undoubtedly undergone the Hellenistic influence, +which implies an epoch posterior to that of Pericles, who died in 429 +B.C. The personage represented, a man of mature age with noble +lineaments and aquiline nose, has thick hair corned up on the forehead +in the form of a crown, and a beard plaited in the Asiatic fashion. As +for the head, which is almost entirely executed in round relief, that +denotes in an undoubted manner the Hellenistic influence, united, +however, with the immutable and somewhat hierarchical traditions of +Phenician art. The arms are naked as far as to the elbow, and the +feet, summarily indicated, emerge from a long sheath-form robe. As for +the arms and hands, they project slightly and are rather outlined than +sculptured. The left hand grasps a fruit, the emblem of fecundity, +while the right held a painted crown, the traces of which have now +entirely disappeared. It suffices to look at this sarcophagus to +recognize the exclusively Phenician character of it, and the complete +analogy with the monuments of the same species met with in Phenicia, +in Cyprus, in Sicily, in Malta, in Sardinia, and everywhere where were +established those of Tyre and Sidon, but never until now in Spain.</p> + +<p>On another hand, for those of our readers who are interested in +archæology, we believe it our duty to point out as a source of +information a memoir published last year by our National Society of +Antiquaries. Let us limit ourselves, therefore, to fixing attention +upon one important point: The marble anthropoid was protected by a +tomb absolutely like the rude tombs contiguous to it.</p> + +<p>The successive discoveries since the third of last January at nearly +the same place, and at a depth of from 3 to 6 meters beneath the +surface, of numerous <i>Inculi</i> absolutely identical as to material and +structure with those of which we have just spoken, is therefore a +scientific event of high importance. Those discoveries, which were +purely accidental, were brought about by the work on the foundations +of the Maritime Arsenal now in course of construction at the gates of +Cadiz. Our Fig. 1 represents the unearthing of the <i>loculi</i> on the +14th of April, and on the value of which there is no need to dwell. As +to the dimensions, it is easy to judge of these, since the laborer +standing to the left of the spectator holds in his hand a meter +measure serving as a scale. It will suffice to state that the depth of +each tomb is about two meters, and that upon the lower part of three +of the parallelopipeds there exist pavements of crucial appearance. +Finally, nothing denoted externally the existence of these sarcophagi +jealously hidden from investigation according to a usage that is +established especially by the imprecations graven upon the basaltic +casket now preserved in the Museum of the Louvre, and which contained +the ashes of Eshmanazar, King of Sidon.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/13-sarco.png" alt="SARCOPHAGUS" title="" /><br /> +ANTHROPOID SARCOPHAGUS DISCOVERED AT CADIZ.</p> + +<p>Space is wanting to furnish ampler information. Our object is simply +to call attention to a zone which is somewhat neglected from a +scientific point of view, and which, however, seems as if it ought to +offer a valuable field of investigation to students of things Semitic, +among whom, as well known, our compatriots hold a rank apart, since it +is to them that falls the laborious and very honorable duty of +collecting and editing the inscriptions in Semitic languages.</p> + +<p>On another hand, although in the beginning the sepulchers were taken +to pieces and carried away (two of them imperfectly reconstructed may +be seen in the garden of the Cadizian Museum), there will be an +opportunity of making prevail the system of maintaining <i>in situ</i> the +various monuments that may hereafter be discovered. Thus only could +one, at a given moment, obtain an accurate idea of what the Phenician +necropolis of Cadiz was, and allow the structures that compose it to +preserve their imposing stamp of rustic indestructibility.</p> + +<p>The excavation is being carried on at this very moment, and a bronze +statuette of an oriental god and various trinkets of more or less +value have just enriched the municipal collection. Let us hope, then, +as was recently predicted by Mr. Clermont Ganneau, of the Institute, +that some day or another some Semitic inscription will throw a last +ray of light upon the past, which is at present so imperfectly known, +of Phenician Cadiz.—<i>L'Illustration.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="ART02"></a>PREHISTORIC HORSE IN AMERICA.</h2> + +<p><i>To the Editor of the Scientific American</i>:</p> + +<p>Apropos to Professor Cope's remarks before the A.A.A.S. at Washington, +reported in SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, September 12, inclose sketch of a +mounted man, whether on a horse or some other mammal, is a question +open to criticism.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/13-draw.png" alt="Drawing" title="" /><br /> +Height, 43 in.; length, 63 in. San Rafiel del Sur, 1878 +Drawn for and forwarded to Peabody Museum—No. 53.</p> + +<p>The figure seems incomplete—whether a cloven foot or toes were +intended, cannot say.</p> + +<p>A large fossil horse was exhumed in the marsh north of Granada, when +ditching in 1863. Then Lake Managua's outlet at Fipitapa ceased its +usual supply of water to Lake Nicaragua. When notified of the +discovery the spot was under water. Only one of the very large teeth +was given to me, which was forwarded to Prof. Baird, of +Smithsonian—Private No. 34.</p> + +<p>When Lake Nicaragua was an ocean inlet, its track extended to foot +hills northward. Its waterworn pebbles and small bowlders were +subsequently covered by lake deposit, during the time between the +inclosure and break out at San Carlos. In this deposit around the lake +(now dry) fossil bones occur—elephas, megatherium, horse, etc. The +large alluvium plains north of lake, cut through by rivers, allow +these bones to settle on their rocky beds. This deposit is of greater +depth in places west of lake.</p> + +<p>Now, if we suppose these animals were exterminated in glacial times, +it remains for us to show when this was consummated.</p> + +<p>Subsequent to the lake deposit and exposure no new proofs of its +continuance are found.</p> + +<p>1. This deposit occurred after the coast range was elevated.</p> + +<p>2. Elevation was caused by a volcanic ash eruption, 5 or 6 of a +series. (Geologically demonstrated in my letters to <i>Antiquarian</i> and +<i>Science</i>.)</p> + +<p>3. Coast hills inclosed sea sediment, now rock containing fossil +leaves.</p> + +<p>4. Wash from this sediment, carried with care, formed layers of +sandstone, up to ceiling.</p> + +<p>5. This ceiling was covered with elaborate inscriptions.</p> + +<p>6. The inscription sent you was a near neighbor to cave.</p> + +<p>7. Another representing a saurian reptile on large granite bowlder is +also a neighbor (a glacial dropping).</p> + +<p>8. Old river emptying into Lake Managua reveals fossil bones; moraines +east of it are found.</p> + +<p>From these data we see the glacial action was prior to the sedimentary +rock here, and had spent its force when elevation of coast range +occurred. No nearer estimate is possible.</p> + +<p>As the fossil horse occurs here, our mounted man may have domesticated +him, and afterward slaughtered for food like the modern Frenchman. +Unfortunately Prof. Cope did not find a similar inscription.</p> + +<p class="sig">EARL FLINT.</p> +<p class="ind">Rivas, Nicaragua, October 27, 1891.</p> + + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="ART08"></a>FURTHER RESEARCHES UPON THE ELEMENT FLUORINE.</h2> + +<h3>By A.E. TUTTON.</h3> + +<p>Since the publication by M. Moissan of his celebrated paper in the +<i>Annales de Chimîe et de Physique</i> for December, 1887, describing the +manner in which he had succeeded in isolating this remarkable gaseous +element, a considerable amount of additional information has been +acquired concerning the chemical behavior of fluorine, and important +additions and improvements have been introduced in the apparatus +employed for preparing and experimenting with the gas. M. Moissan now +gathers together the results of these subsequent researches—some of +which have been published by him from time to time as contributions to +various French scientific journals, while others have not hitherto +been made known—and publishes them in a long but most interesting +paper in the October number of the <i>Annales de Chimîe et de Physique.</i> +Inasmuch as the experiments described are of so extraordinary a +nature, owing to the intense chemical activity of fluorine, and are so +important as filling a long existing vacancy in our chemical +literature, readers of <i>Nature</i> will doubtless be interested in a +brief account of them.</p> + + +<h3>IMPROVED APPARATUS FOR PREPARING FLUORINE.</h3> + +<p>In his paper of 1887, the main outlines of which were given in +<i>Nature</i> at the time (1887, vol. xxxvii., p. 179), M. Moissan showed +that pure hydrofluoric acid readily dissolves the double fluoride of +potassium and hydrogen, and that the liquid thus obtained is a good +conductor of electricity, rendering electrolysis possible. It will be +remembered that, by passing a strong current of electricity through +this liquid contained in a platinum apparatus, free gaseous fluorine +was obtained at the positive pole and hydrogen at the negative pole. +The amount of hydrofluoric acid employed in these earlier experiments +was about fifteen grms., about six grms. of hydrogen potassium +fluoride, HF.KF, being added in order to render it a conductor. Since +the publication of that memoir a much larger apparatus has been +constructed, in order to obtain the gas in greater quantity for the +study of its reactions, and important additions have been made, by +means of which the fluorine is delivered in a pure state, free from +admixed vapor of the very volatile hydrofluoric acid. As much as a +hundred cubic centimeters of hydrofluoric acid, together with twenty +grms. of the dissolved double fluoride, are submitted to electrolysis +in this new apparatus, and upward of four liters of pure fluorine is +delivered by it per hour.</p> + +<p>This improved form of the apparatus is shown in the accompanying +figure (Fig. 1), which is reproduced from the memoir of M. Moissan. It +consists essentially of two parts—the electrolysis apparatus and the +purifying vessels. The electrolysis apparatus, a sectional view of +which is given in Fig. 2, is similar in form to that described in the +paper of 1887, but much larger.</p> + +<p>The U-tube of platinum has a capacity of 160 c.c. It is fitted with +two lateral delivery tubes of platinum, as in the earlier form, and +with stoppers of fluorspar, F, inserted in cylinders of platinum, <i>p</i>, +carrying screw threads, which engage with similar threads upon the +interior surfaces of the limbs of the U-tube. A key of brass, E, +serves to screw or unscrew the stoppers, and between the flange of +each stopper and the top of each branch of the U-tube a ring of lead +is compressed, by which means hermetic closing is effected. These +fluorspar stoppers, which are covered with a coating of gum lac during +the electrolysis, carry the electrode rods, <i>t</i>, which are thus +perfectly insulated. M. Moissan now employs electrodes of pure +platinum instead of irido-platinum, and the interior end of each is +thickened into a club shape in order the longer to withstand +corrosion. The apparatus is immersed during the electrolysis in a bath +of liquid methyl chloride, maintained in tranquil ebullition at -23°. +In order to preserve the methyl chloride as long as possible, the +cylinder containing it is placed in an outer glass cylinder containing +fragments of calcium chloride; by this means it is surrounded with a +layer of dry air, a bad conductor of heat.</p> + +<p>The purifying vessels are three in number. The first consists of a +platinum spiral worm-tube of about 40 c.c. capacity, immersed also in +a bath of liquid methyl chloride, maintained at as low a temperature +as possible, about -50°. As hydrofluoric acid boils at 19.5° +(Moissan), almost the whole of the vapor of this substance which is +carried away in the stream of issuing fluorine is condensed and +retained at the bottom of the worm. To remove the last traces of +hydrofluoric acid, advantage is taken of the fact that fused sodium +fluoride combines with the free acid with great energy to form the +double fluoride HF.NaF. Sodium fluoride also possesses the advantage +of not attracting moisture. After traversing the worm condenser, +therefore, the fluorine is caused to pass through two platinum tubes +filled with fragments of fused sodium fluoride, from which it issues +in an almost perfect state of purity. The junctions between the +various parts of the apparatus are effected by means of screw joints, +between the nuts and flanges of which collars of lead are compressed. +During the electrolysis these leaden collars become, where exposed to +the gaseous fluorine, rapidly converted into lead fluoride, which +being greater in bulk causes the joints to become hermetically sealed. +In order to effect the electrolysis, twenty-six to twenty-eight Bunsen +elements are employed, arranged in series. An ampere meter and a +commutator are introduced between the battery and the electrolysis +apparatus; the former affording an excellent indication of the +progress of the electrolysis.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/13-fig1.png" alt="FIG. 1" title="" /><br /> +FIG. 1.—FLUORINE APPARATUS.</p> + +<p>As the U-tube contains far more hydrofluoric acid than can be used in +one day, each lateral delivery tube is fitted with a metallic screw +stopper, so that the experiments may be discontinued at any time, and +the apparatus closed. The whole electrolysis vessel is then placed +under a glass bell jar containing dry air, and kept in a refrigerator +until again required for use. In this way it may be preserved full of +acid for several weeks, ready at any time for the preparation of the +gas. Considerable care requires to be exercised not to admit the vapor +of methyl chloride into the U-tube, as otherwise violent detonations +are liable to occur. When the liquid methyl chloride is being +introduced into the cylinder, the whole apparatus becomes surrounded +with an atmosphere of its vapor, and as the platinum U-tube is at the +same instant suddenly cooled the vapor is liable to enter by the +abducting tubes. Consequently, as soon as the current is allowed to +pass and fluorine is liberated within the U-tube, an explosion occurs. +Fluorine instantly decomposes methyl chloride, with production of +flame and formation of fluorides of hydrogen and carbon, liberation of +chlorine, and occasionally deposition of carbon. In order to avoid +this unpleasant occurrence, when the methyl chloride is being +introduced the ends of the lateral delivery tubes are attached to long +lengths of caoutchoue tubing, supplied at their ends with calcium +chloride drying tubes, so as to convey dry air from outside the +atmosphere of methyl chloride vapor. If great care is taken to obtain +the minimum temperature, this difficulty may be even more simply +overcome by employing a mixture of well pounded ice and salt instead +of methyl chloride; but there is the counterbalancing disadvantage to +be considered, that such a cooling bath requires much more frequent +renewal.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/13-fig2.png" alt="Fig. 2" title="" /><br /> +FIG. 2.</p> + + +<h3>CHEMICAL REACTIONS OCCURRING DURING THE ELECTROLYSIS.</h3> + +<p>In the paper of 1887, M. Moissan adopted the view that the first +action of the electric current was to effect the decomposition of the +potassium fluoride contained in solution in the hydrofluoric acid, +fluorine being liberated at the positive pole and potassium at the +negative terminal. This liberated potassium would at once regenerate +potassium fluoride in presence of hydrofluoric acid, and liberate its +equivalent of hydrogen:</p> + +<div class="ind"> +<p> KF = K + F.</p> +<p> K + HF = KF + H.</p> +</div> + +<p>But when the progress of the electrolysis is carefully followed, by +consulting the indications of the amperemeter placed in circuit, it is +found to be by no means as regular as the preceding formulæ would +indicate. With the new apparatus, the decomposition is quite irregular +at first, and does not attain regularity until it has been proceeding +for upward of two hours. Upon stopping the current and unmounting the +apparatus, the platinum rod upon which the fluorine was liberated is +found to be largely corroded, and at the bottom of the U-tube a +quantity of a black, finely divided substance is observed. This black +substance, which was taken at first to be metallic platinum, is a +complex compound containing one equivalent of potassium to one +equivalent of platinum, together with a considerable proportion of +fluorine.</p> + +<p>Moreover, the hydrofluoric acid is found to contain a small quantity +of platinum fluoride in solution. The electrolytic reaction is +probably therefore much more complicated than was at first considered +to be the case. The mixture of acid and alkaline fluoride furnishes +fluorine at the positive terminal rod, but this intensely active gas, +in its nascent state, attacks the platinum and produces platinum +tetrafluoride, PtF<sub>4</sub>; this probably unites with the potassium +fluoride to form a double salt, possibly 2Kl.PtF<sub>4</sub>, analogous to the +well known platinochloride 2KCl.PtCl<sub>4</sub>; and it is only when the +liquid contains this double salt that the electrolysis proceeds in a +regular manner, yielding free fluorine at the positive pole, and +hydrogen and the complex black compound at the negative pole.</p> + + +<h3>PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUORINE.</h3> + +<p>Fluorine possesses an odor which M. Moissan compares to a mixture of +hypochlorous acid and nitrogen peroxide, but this odor is usually +masked by that of the ozone which it always produces in moist air, +owing to its decomposition of the water vapor. It produces most +serious irritation of the bronchial tubes and mucous membrane of the +nasal cavities, the effects of which are persistent for quite a +fortnight.</p> + +<p>When examined in a thickness of one meter, it is seen to possess a +greenish yellow color, but paler, and containing more of yellow, than +that of chlorine. In such a layer, fluorine does not present any +absorption bands. Its spectrum exhibits thirteen bright, lines in the +red, between wave lengths 744 and 623. Their positions and relative +intensities are as follows:</p> + +<div class="ctr"> +<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<colgroup span="3"><col span="2" align="left"><col align="center"></colgroup> +<tr><td>λ =</td><td>744</td><td>very feeble.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td>740</td><td>"</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td>734</td><td>"</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td>714</td><td>feeble.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td>704</td><td>"</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td>691</td><td>"</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td>687.5</td><td>"</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td>685.5</td><td>"</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td>683.5</td><td>"</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td>677</td><td>strong</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td>640.5</td><td>"</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td>634</td><td>"</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td>623</td><td>"</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>At a temperature of -95° at ordinary atmospheric pressure, fluorine +remains gaseous, no sign of liquefaction having been observed.</p> + +<h3>METHODS OF EXPERIMENTING WITH FLUORINE.</h3> + +<p>When it is desired to determine the action of fluorine upon a solid +substance, the following method of procedure is adopted. A preliminary +experiment is first made, in order to obtain some idea as to the +degree of energy of the reaction, by bringing a little of the solid, +placed upon the lid of a platinum crucible held in a pair of tongs, +near the mouth of the delivery tube of the preparation apparatus. If a +gaseous or liquid product results, and it is desirable to collect it +for examination, small fragments of the solid are placed in a platinum +tube connected to the delivery tube by flexible platinum tubing or by +a screw joint, and the resulting gas may be collected over water or +mercury, or the liquid condensed in a cooled cylinder of platinum. In +this manner the action of fluorine upon sulphur and iodine has been +studied. If the solid, phosphorus for instance, attacks platinum, or +the temperature of the reaction is sufficiently high to determine the +combination of platinum and fluorine (toward 500°), a tube of +fluorspar is substituted for the platinum tube. The fluorspar tubes +employed by M. Moissan for the study of the action of phosphorus were +about twelve to fourteen centimeters long, and were terminated by +platinum ends furnished with flanges and screw threads in order to be +able to connect them with the preparation apparatus. If it is required +to heat the fluorspar tubes, they are surrounded by a closely wound +copper spiral, which may be heated by a Bunsen flame.</p> + +<p>In experimenting upon liquids, great care is necessary, as the +reaction frequently occurs with explosive violence. A preliminary +experiment is therefore always made, by allowing the fluorine delivery +tube to dip just beneath the surface of the liquid contained in a +small glass cylinder. When the liquid contains water, or when +hydrofluoric acid is a product of the reaction, cylinders of platinum +or of fluorspar are employed. If it is required to collect and examine +the product, the liquid is placed along the bottom of a horizontal +tube of platinum or fluorspar, as in case of solids, connected +directly with the preparation apparatus, and the product is collected +over water or mercury if a gas, or in a cooled platinum receiver if a +liquid.</p> + +<p>During the examination of liquids a means has accidentally been +discovered by which a glass tube may be filled with fluorine gas. A +few liquids, one of which is carbon tetrachloride, react only very +slowly with fluorine at the ordinary temperature. By filling a glass +tube with such a liquid, and inverting it over a platinum capsule also +containing the liquid, it is possible to displace the liquid by +fluorine, which, as the walls are wet, does not attack the glass. Or +the glass tube may be filled with the liquid, and then the latter +poured out, leaving the walls wet; the tube may then be filled with +fluorine gas, which being slightly heavier than air, remains in the +tube for some time. In one experiment, in which a glass test tube had +been filled with fluorine over carbon tetrachloride, it was attempted +to transfer it to a graduated tube over mercury, but in inclining the +test tube for this purpose the mercury suddenly came in contact with +the fluorine, and absorbed it so instantaneously and with such a +violent detonation that both the test tube and the graduated tube were +shattered into fragments. Indeed, owing to the powerful affinity of +mercury for fluorine, it is a most dangerous experiment to transfer a +tube containing fluorine gas, filled according to either the first or +second method, to the mercury trough; the tube is always shattered if +the mercury comes in contact with the gas, and generally with a loud +detonation. Fluorine may, however, be preserved for some time in tubes +over mercury, provided a few drops of the non-reacting liquid are kept +above the mercury meniscus.</p> + +<p>For studying the action of fluorine on gases, a special piece of +apparatus, shown in Fig. 3, has been constructed. It is composed of a +tube of platinum, fifteen centimeters long, closed by two plates of +clear, transparent, and colorless fluorspar, and carrying three +lateral narrower tubes also of platinum. Two of these tubes face each +other in the center of the apparatus, and serve one for the conveyance +of the fluorine and the other of the gas to be experimented upon. The +third, which is of somewhat greater diameter than the other two, +serves as exit tube for the product or products of the reaction, and +may be placed in connection with a trough containing either water or +mercury.</p> + +<p>The apparatus is first filled with the gas to be experimented upon, +then the fluorine is allowed to enter, and an observation of what +occurs may be made through the fluorspar windows. One most important +precaution to take in collecting the gaseous products over mercury is +not to permit the platinum delivery tube to dip more than two or at +most three millimeters under the mercury, as otherwise the levels of +the liquid in the two limbs of the electrolysis U-tube become so +different, owing to the pressure, that the fluorine from one side +mixes with the hydrogen evolved upon the other, and there is a violent +explosion.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/14-fig3.png" alt="Fig. 3" title="" /><br /> +FIG. 3.</p> + +<h3>ACTION OF FLUORINE UPON THE NON-METALLIC ELEMENTS.</h3> + +<p><i>Hydrogen.</i>—As just described, hydrogen combines with fluorine, even +at -23° and in the dark, with explosive force. This is the only case +in which two elementary gases unite directly without the intervention +of extraneous energy. If the end of the tube delivering fluorine is +placed in an atmosphere of hydrogen, a very hot blue flame, bordered +with red, at once appears at the mouth of the tube, and vapor of +hydrofluoric acid is produced.</p> + +<p><i>Oxygen.</i>—Fluorine has not been found capable of uniting with oxygen +up to a temperature of 500°. On ozone, however, it appears to exert +some action, as will be evident from the following experiment. It was +shown in 1887 that fluorine decomposes water, forming hydrofluoric +acid, and liberating oxygen in the form of ozone. When a few drops of +water are placed in the apparatus shown in Fig. 3, and fluorine +allowed to enter, the water is instantly decomposed, and on looking +through the fluorspar ends a thick dark cloud is seen over the spot +where each drop of water had previously been. This cloud soon +diminishes in intensity, and is eventually replaced by a beautiful +blue gas—ozone in a state of considerable density. If the product is +chased out by a stream of nitrogen as soon as the dense cloud is +formed, a very strong odor is perceived, different from that of either +fluorine or ozone, but which soon gives place to the unmistakable odor +of ozone. It appears as if there is at first produced an unstable +oxide of fluorine, which rapidly decomposes into fluorine and ozone.</p> + +<p><i>Nitrogen</i> and <i>chlorine</i> appear not to react with fluorine.</p> + +<p><i>Sulphur.</i>—In contact with fluorine gas, sulphur rapidly melts and +inflames. A gaseous fluoride of sulphur is formed, which possesses a +most penetrating odor, somewhat resembling that of chloride of +sulphur. The gas is incombustible, even in oxygen. When warmed in a +glass vessel, the latter becomes etched, owing to the formation of +silicon tetrafluoride, SiF<sub>4</sub>. Selenium and tellurium behave +similarly, but form crystalline solid fluorides.</p> + +<p><i>Bromine</i> vapor combines with fluorine in the cold with production of +a very bright but low temperature dame. If the fluorine is evolved in +the midst of pure dry liquid bromine, the combination is immediate, +and occurs without flame.</p> + +<p><i>Iodine.</i>—When fluorine is passed over a fragment of iodine contained +in the horizontal tube, combination occurs, with production of a pale +flame. A very heavy liquid, colorless when free from dissolved iodine, +and fuming strongly in the air, condenses in the cooled receiver. This +liquid fluoride of iodine attacks glass with great energy and +decomposes water when dropped into that liquid with a noise like that +produced by red-hot iron. Its properties agree with those of the +fluoride of iodine prepared by Gore by the action of iodine on silver +fluoride.</p> + +<p><i>Phosphorus.</i>—Immediately phosphorus, either the ordinary yellow +variety or red phosphorus, comes in contact with fluorine, a most +lively action occurs, accompanied by vivid incandescence. If the +fluorine is in excess, a fuming gas is evolved, which gives up its +excess of fluorine on collecting over mercury, and is soluble in +water. This gas is phosphorus pentafluoride, PF<sub>5</sub>, prepared some +years ago by Prof. Thorpe. If, on the contrary, the phosphorus is in +excess, a gaseous mixture of this pentafluoride with a new fluoride, +the trifluoride, PF<sub>3</sub>, a gas insoluble in water, but which may be +absorbed by caustic potash, is obtained. The trifluoride, in turn, +combines with more fluorine to form the pentafluoride, the reaction +being accompanied by the appearance of a flame of comparatively low +temperature.</p> + +<p><i>Arsenic</i> combines with fluorine at the ordinary temperature with +incandescence. If the current of fluorine is fairly rapid, a colorless +fuming liquid condenses in the receiver, which is mainly arsenic +trifluoride, AsF<sub>3</sub>, but which appears also to contain a new +fluoride, the pentafluoride, AsF<sub>5</sub>, inasmuch as the solution in +water yields the reactions of both arsenious and arsenic acids.</p> + +<p><i>Carbon.</i>—Chlorine does not unite with carbon even at the high +temperature of the electric arc, but fluorine reacts even at the +ordinary temperature with finely divided carbon. Purified lampblack +inflames instantly with great brilliancy, as do also the lighter +varieties of wood charcoal. A curious phenomenon is noticed with wood +charcoal; it appears at first to absorb and condense the fluorine, +then quite suddenly it bursts into flame with bright scintillations. +The denser varieties of charcoal require warming to 50° or 60° before +they inflame, but it once the combustion is started at any point it +rapidly propagates itself throughout the entire piece. Graphite must +be heated to just below dull redness in order to effect combination; +while the diamond has not yet been attacked by fluorine, even at the +temperature of the Bunsen flame. A mixture of gaseous fluorides of +carbon are produced whenever carbon of any variety is acted upon by +fluorine, the predominating constituent being the tetrafluoride, +CF<sub>4</sub>.</p> + +<p><i>Boron.</i>—The amorphous variety of boron inflames instantly in +fluorine, with projection of brilliant sparks and liberation of dense +fumes of boron trifluoride, BF<sub>3</sub>. The adamantine modification +behaves similarly if powdered. When the experiment is performed in the +fluorspar tube, the gaseous fluoride may be collected over mercury. +The gas fumes strongly in the air, and is instantly decomposed by +water.</p> + +<p><i>Silicon.</i>—The reaction between fluorine and silicon is one of the +most beautiful of all these extraordinary manifestations of chemical +activity. The cold crystals become immediately white-hot, and the +silicon burns with a very hot flame, scattering showers of star-like, +white-hot particles in all directions. If the action is stopped before +all the silicon is consumed, the residue is found to be fused. As +crystalline silicon only melts at a temperature superior to 1,200°, +the heat evolved must be very great. If the reaction is performed in +the fluorspar tube, the resulting gaseous silicon tetrafluoride, +SiF<sub>4</sub>, may be collected over mercury.</p> + +<p>Amorphous silicon likewise burns with great energy in fluorine.</p> + +<h3>ACTION OF FLUORINE UPON METALS.</h3> + +<p><i>Sodium</i> and <i>potassium</i> combine with fluorine with great vigor at +ordinary temperatures, becoming incandescent, and forming their +respective fluorides, which may be obtained crystallized from water in +cubes. Metallic <i>calcium</i> also burns in fluorine gas, forming the +fused fluoride, and occasionally minute crystals of fluorspar. +<i>Thallium</i> is rapidly converted to fluoride at ordinary temperatures, +the temperature rising until the metal melts and finally becomes red +hot. Powdered <i>magnesium</i> burns with great brilliancy. <i>Iron</i>, reduced +by hydrogen, combines in the cold with immediate incandescence, and +formation of an anhydrous, readily soluble, white fluoride. +<i>Aluminum</i>, on heating to low redness, gives a very beautiful +luminosity, as do also <i>chromium</i> and <i>manganese</i>. The combustion of +slightly warmed zinc in fluorine is particularly pretty as an +experiment, the flame being of a most dazzling whiteness. <i>Antimony</i> +takes fire at the ordinary temperature, and forms a solid white +fluoride. <i>Lead</i> and <i>mercury</i> are attacked in the cold, as previously +described, the latter with great rapidity. <i>Copper</i> reacts at low +redness, but in a strangely feeble manner, and the white fumes formed +appear to combine with a further quantity of fluorine to form a +perfluoride. The main product is a volatile white fluoride. <i>Silver</i> +is only slowly attacked in the cold. When heated, however, to 100°, +the metal commences to be covered with a yellow coat of anhydrous +fluoride, and on heating to low redness combination occurs, with +incandescence, and the resulting fluoride becomes fused, and afterward +presents a satin-like aspect. <i>Gold</i> becomes converted into a yellow +deliquescent volatile fluoride when heated to low redness, and at a +slightly higher temperature the fluoride is dissociated into metallic +gold and fluorine gas.</p> + +<p>The action of fluorine on <i>platinum</i> has been studied with special +care. It is evident, in view of the corrosion of the positive platinum +terminal of the electrolysis apparatus, that nascent fluorine rapidly +attacks platinum at a temperature of -23°. At 100°, however, fluorine +gas appears to be without action on platinum. At 500°-600° it is +attacked strongly, with formation of the tetrafluoride. PtF<sub>4</sub>, and a +small quantity of the protofluoride, PtF<sub>2</sub>. If the fluorine is +admixed with vapor of hydrofluoric acid, the reaction is much more +vigorous, as if a fluorhydrate of the tetrafluoride, perhaps +2HF.PtF<sub>4</sub>, were formed. The tetrafluoride is generally found in the +form of deep-red fused masses, or small yellow crystals resembling +those of anhydrous platinum chloride. The salt is volatile and very +hygroscopic. Its behavior with water is peculiar. With a small +quantity of water a brownish yellow solution is formed, which, +however, in a very short time becomes warm and the fluoride +decomposes; platinic hydrate is precipitated, and free hydrofluoric +acid remains in solution. If the quantity of water is greater, the +solution may be preserved for some minutes without decomposition. If +the liquid is boiled, it decomposes instantly. At a red heat platinic +fluoride decomposes into metallic platinum and fluorine, which is +evolved in the free state. This reaction can therefore be employed as +a ready means of preparing fluorine, the fluoride only requiring to be +heated rapidly to redness in a platinum tube closed at one end, when +crystallized silicon held at the open end will be found to immediately +take fire in the escaping fluorine. The best mode of obtaining the +fluoride of platinum for this purpose is to heat a bundle of platinum +wires to low redness in the fluorspar reaction tube in a rapid stream +of fluorine. As soon as sufficient fluoride is formed on the wires, +they are transferred to a well stoppered dry glass tube, until +required for the preparation of fluorine.</p> + +<h3>ACTION OF FLUORINE UPON NON-METALLIC COMPOUNDS.</h3> + +<p><i>Sulphureted Hydrogen.</i>—When the horizontal tube shown in Fig. 3 is +filled with sulphureted hydrogen gas and fluorine is allowed to enter, +a blue flame is observed on looking through the fluorspar windows +playing around the spot where the fluorine is being admitted. The +decomposition continues until the whole of the hydrogen sulphide is +converted into gaseous fluorides of hydrogen and sulphur.</p> + +<p><i>Sulphur dioxide</i> is likewise decomposed in the cold, with production +of a yellow flame and formation of fluoride of sulphur.</p> + +<p><i>Hydrochloric acid</i> gas is also decomposed at ordinary temperatures +with flame, and, if there is not a large excess of hydrochloric acid +present, with detonation. Hydrofluoric acid and free chlorine are the +products.</p> + +<p>Gaseous <i>hydrobromic</i> and <i>hydriodic acids</i> react with fluorine in a +similar manner, with production of flame and formation of hydrofluoric +acid. Inasmuch, however, as bromine and iodine combine with fluorine, +as previously described, these halogens do not escape, but burn up to +their respective fluorides. When fluorine is delivered into an aqueous +solution of hydriodic acid, each bubble as it enters produces a flash +of flame, and if the fluorine is being evolved fairly rapidly there is +a series of very violent detonations. A curious reaction also occurs +when fluorine is similarly passed into a 50 per cent. aqueous solution +of hydrofluoric acid itself, a flame being produced in the middle of +the liquid, accompanied by a series of detonations.</p> + +<p><i>Nitric acid</i> vapor reacts with great violence with fluorine, a loud +explosion resulting. If fluorine is passed into the ordinary liquid +acid, each bubble as it enters produces a flame in the liquid.</p> + +<p><i>Ammonia gas</i> is decomposed by fluorine with formation of a yellow +flame, forming hydrofluoric acid and liberating nitrogen. With a +solution of the gas in water, each bubble of fluorine produces an +explosion and flame, as in case of hydriodic acid.</p> + +<p><i>Phosphoric anhydride</i>, when heated to low redness, burns with a pale +flame in fluorine, forming a gaseous mixture of fluorides and +oxyfluoride of phosphorus. <i>Pentachloride and trichloride of +phosphorus</i> both react most energetically with fluorine, instantly +producing a brilliant flame, and evolving a mixture of phosphorus +pentafluoride and free chlorine.</p> + +<p><i>Arsenious anhydride</i> also affords a brilliant combustion, forming the +liquid trifluoride of arsenic, AsF<sub>3</sub>. This liquid in turn appears to +react with more fluorine with considerable evolution of heat, probably +forming the pentafluoride, AsF<sub>5</sub>. <i>Chloride of arsenic</i>, AsCl<sub>3</sub>, +is converted with considerable energy to the trifluoride, free +chlorine being liberated.</p> + +<p><i>Carbon bisulphide</i> inflames in the cold in contact with fluorine, and +if the fluorine is led into the midst of the liquid a similar +production of flame occurs under the surface of the liquid, as in case +of nitric acid. No carbon is deposited, both the carbon and sulphur +being entirely converted into gaseous fluorides.</p> + +<p><i>Carbon tetrachloride</i>, as previously mentioned, reacts only very +slowly with fluorine. The liquid may be saturated with gaseous +fluorine at 15°, but on boiling this liquid a gaseous mixture is +evolved, one constituent of which is carbon tetrafluoride, CF<sub>4</sub>, a +gas readily capable of absorption by alcoholic potash. The remainder +consists of another fluoride of carbon, incapable of absorption by +potash and chlorine. A mixture of the vapors of carbon tetrachloride +and fluorine inflames spontaneously with detonation, and chlorine is +liberated without deposition of carbon.</p> + +<p><i>Boric anhydride</i> is raised to a most vivid incandescence by fluorine, +the experiment being rendered very beautiful by the abundant white +fumes of the trifluoride which are liberated.</p> + +<p><i>Silicon dioxide</i>, one of the most inert of substances at the ordinary +temperature, takes fire in the cold in contact with fluorine, becoming +instantly white-hot, and rapidly disappearing in the form of silicon +tetrafluoride. The <i>chlorides</i> of both <i>boron</i> and <i>silicon</i> are +decomposed by fluorine, with formation of fluorides and liberation of +chlorine, the reaction being accompanied by the production of flame.</p> + + +<h3>ACTION OF FLUORINE UPON METALLIC COMPOUNDS.</h3> + +<p><i>Chlorides</i> of the metals are instantly decomposed by fluorine, +generally at the ordinary temperature, and in certain cases, antimony +trichloride for instance, with the appearance of flame. Chlorine is in +each case liberated, and a fluoride of the metal formed. A few require +heating, when a similar decomposition occurs, often accompanied by +incandescence, as in case of chromium sesquichloride.</p> + +<p><i>Bromides</i> and <i>iodides</i> are decomposed with even greater energy, and +the liberated bromine and iodine burn in the fluorine with formation +of their respective fluorides.</p> + +<p><i>Cyanides</i> react in a most beautiful manner with fluorine, the +displaced cyanogen burning with a purple flame. Potassium ferrocyanide +in particular affords a very pretty experiment, and reacts in the +cold. Ordinary potassium cyanide requires slightly warming in order to +start the combustion.</p> + +<p>Fused <i>potash</i> yields potassium fluoride and ozone. Aqueous potash +does not form potassium hypofluorite when fluorine is bubbled into it, +but only potassium fluoride. <i>Lime</i> becomes most brilliantly +incandescent, owing partly to the excess being raised to a very high +temperature by the heat developed during the decomposition, and partly +to the phosphorescence of the calcium fluoride formed.</p> + +<p><i>Sulphides</i> of the alkalies and alkaline earths are also immediately +rendered incandescent, fluorides of the metal and sulphur being +respectively formed.</p> + +<p><i>Boron nitride</i> behaves in an exceedingly beautiful manner, being +attacked in the cold, and emitting a brilliant blue light which is +surrounded by a halo of the fumes of boron fluoride.</p> + +<p><i>Sulphates</i>, <i>nitrates</i> and <i>phosphates</i> generally require the +application of more or less heat, when they too are rapidly and +energetically decomposed. Calcium phosphate is attacked in the cold +like lime, giving out a brilliant white light, and producing calcium +fluoride and gaseous oxyfluoride of phosphorus, POF<sub>3</sub>. <i>Calcium +carbonate</i> also becomes raised to brilliant incandescence when exposed +to fluorine gas, as does also normal <i>sodium carbonate</i>; but curiously +enough the bicarbonates of the alkalies do not react with fluorine +even at red heat. Perhaps this may be explained by the fact that +fluorine has no action at available temperatures upon carbon dioxide.</p> + + +<h3>ACTION OF FLUORINE UPON A FEW ORGANIC COMPOUNDS.</h3> + +<p><i>Chloroform.</i>—When chloroform is saturated with fluorine, and +subsequently boiled, carbon tetrafluoride, hydrofluoric acid and +chlorine are evolved. If a drop of chloroform is agitated in a glass +tube with excess of fluorine, a violent explosion suddenly occurs, +accompanied by a flash of flame, and the tube is shattered to pieces. +The reaction is very lively when fluorine is evolved in the midst of a +quantity of chloroform, a persistent flame burns beneath the surface +of the liquid, carbon is deposited, and fluorides of hydrogen and +carbon are evolved together with chlorine.</p> + +<p><i>Methyl chloride</i> is decomposed by fluorine, even at -23°, with +production of a yellow flame, deposition of carbon, and liberation of +fluorides of hydrogen and carbon and free chlorine. With the vapor of +methyl chloride, as pointed out in the description of the +electrolysis, violent explosions occur.</p> + +<p><i>Ethyl alcohol</i> vapor at once takes fire in fluorine gas, and the +liquid is decomposed with explosive violence without deposition of +carbon. Aldehyde is formed to a considerable extent during the +reaction.</p> + +<p><i>Acetic acid</i> and <i>benzene</i> are both decomposed with violence, their +cold vapors burn in fluorine, and when the latter is bubbled through +the liquids themselves, flashes of flame, and often most dangerous +explosions, occur. In the case of benzene, carbon is deposited, and +with both liquids fluorides of hydrogen and carbon are evolved. +<i>Aniline</i> likewise takes fire in fluorine, and deposits a large +quantity of carbon, which, however, if the fluorine is in excess, +burns away completely to carbon tetrafluoride.</p> + +<p>Such are the main outlines of these later researches of M. Moissan, +and they cannot fail to impress those who read them with the +prodigious nature of the forces associated with those minutest of +entities, the chemical atoms, as exhibited at their maximum, in so far +as our knowledge at present goes, in the case of the element +fluorine.—<i>Nature.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="ART07"></a>APPARATUS FOR THE ESTIMATION OF FAT IN MILK.</h2> + +<h3>By E. MOLISABI.</h3> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/15-1.png" alt="Apparatus" title="" /></p> + +<p>The author, after criticising the various methods for estimating fat +in milk which have been proposed from time to time, agrees with Stokes +(<i>Analyst</i>, 1885, p. 48), Eustace Hill (<i>Analyst</i>, 1891, p. 67), and +Bondzynsky (<i>Landwirth Jahrb. der Schweiz</i>, 1889), that the method of +Werner Schmid is the simplest, most rapid, and convenient hitherto +introduced. The conditions tending to inaccuracy are: The employment +of ether containing alcohol; boiling the mixture of milk and acid too +long, when a caramel-like body is formed, soluble in ether; the +difficulty of reading off the volume of ether left in the tube, owing +to the gradations of the instrument being obscured by the flocculent +layer of casein; when only a portion of the ether is used, fat may be +left behind in the acid mixture, as shown by Allen (<i>Chem. Zeit.</i>, +1891, p. 331). The author believes that by the invention of the simple +apparatus represented in the accompanying figure, he has rendered the +process both accurate and convenient. This consists of a flask B of +about 75 c.c. capacity, which has a glass tap fused on, with two +capillary tubes attached, the one passing upward, the other downward. +The neck of flask B is ground into the neck of flask A, which holds +about 90 c.c. Either of the flasks can be placed in communication with +the external air by the opening <i>a</i>. The ether must be previously +washed with one or two tenths of its volume of water, to remove traces +of alcohol. The operation is performed as follows: 10 c.c. of well +mixed milk are weighed in (or measured into) flask A, 10 c.c. of +hydrochloric acid added, and the mixture heated to boiling on an +asbestos sheet. The boiling must not exceed a minute and a half, the +fluid being shaken from time to time, and not allowed to become of a +deeper color than a dark brown [not black]. The flask is cooled, and +25 c.c. of ether added. The two flasks are connected as shown in the +figure, the tap closed, and the whole shaken for a few minutes, the +flask being vented two or three times by the opening <i>a</i>. The +apparatus is now inverted, allowed to stand five or six minutes, the +tap turned, and the dark acid liquid drawn off into flask B. By a +little shaking of the ether the whole of the acid liquid may be easily +got into the lower flask. The apparatus is again inverted, then +separated, 10 c.c. of ether are introduced into the flask B, the tap +closed, and the fluids well shaken. When the ether layer is distinct, +the acid liquor is run off, and the ether solution transferred to A. +The whole of the ether solution is washed in the apparatus two or +three times with a little water, the flask A removed to the water +bath, the ether driven off, the last traces of ether and water being +removed by placing the flask in a drying oven heated from 107 to 110° +C., where it must remain at least twenty minutes. The usual cooling in +the exsiccator and weighing concludes the operation. Examples are +given showing its concordance with the Adams and other recognized +processes. Sour milk, which must be weighed in the flask, can be +conveniently analyzed; also cream, using 5 grammes cream and 10 c.c. +hydrochloric acid. (<i>Berichte Deutsch. Chem. Gesell.</i>, 24, p. +2204).—<i>The Analyst.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="ART06"></a>AMERICAN ASSOCIATION—NINTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON +INDEXING CHEMICAL LITERATURE.<a name="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1"><sup>1</sup></a></h2> + +<p>The Committee on Indexing Chemical Literature respectfully presents to +the Chemical Section its ninth annual report.</p> + +<p>Since our last meeting the following bibliographies have been printed:</p> + +<p>1. A Bibliography of Geometrical Isomerism. Accompanying an address on +this subject to the Chemical Section of the American Association for +the Advancement of Science at Indianapolis, August, 1890, by Professor +Robert B. Warder, Vice President. Proceedings A.A.A.S., vol. xxxix. +Salem, 1890. 8vo.</p> + +<p>2. A Bibliography of the Chemical Influence of Light, by Alfred +Tuckerman. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections No. 785. Washington, +D.C., 1891. Pp. 22. 8vo.</p> + +<p>3. A Bibliography of Analytical Chemistry for the year 1890, by H. +Carrington Bolton. J. Anal. Appl. Chem., v., No. 3. March, 1891.</p> + +<p>We chronicle the publication of the following important bibliography:</p> + +<p>4. A Guide to the Literature of Sugar. A book of reference for +chemists, botanists, librarians, manufacturers and planters, with +comprehensive subject index. By H. Ling Roth. London: Kegan Paul, +Trench, Trubner & Co. Limited. 1890. 8vo. Pp xvi-159.</p> + +<p>This work contains more than 1,200 titles of books, pamphlets, and +papers relating to sugar. Many of the titles are supplemented with +brief abstracts. The alphabetical author catalogue is followed by a +chronological table and an analytical subject index. The compilation +extends to the beginning of the year 1885, and the author promises a +supplement and possibly an annual guide.</p> + +<p>The ambitious work is useful but very incomplete. It does not include +glucose. The author gives a list of fifteen periodicals devoted to +sugar, and omits exactly fifteen more recorded in Bolton's <i>Catalogue +of Scientific and Technical Periodicals</i> (1665-1882). Angelo Sala's +<i>Saccharologia</i> is not named, though mentioned in Roscoe and +Schorlemmer and elsewhere.</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding some blemishes, this work is indispensable to chemists +desirous of becoming familiar with the literature of sugar. It is to +be hoped that a second edition brought down to date may be issued by +the author.</p> + +<p>5. A Bibliography of Ptomaines accompanies Professor Victor C. +Vaughan's work, Ptomaines and Leucomaines. Philadelphia, 1888. (Pages +296-814.) 8vo.</p> + +<p>Chemists will hail with pleasure the announcement that a new +dictionary of solubilities is in progress by a competent hand. +Professor Arthur M. Comey, of Tufts College, College Hill, Mass., +writes that the work he has undertaken will be as complete as +possible. "The very old matter which forms so large a part of Storer's +Dictionary will be referred to, and in important cases fully given. +Abbreviations will be freely used and formulæ will be given instead of +the chemical names of substances, in the body of the book. This is +found to be absolutely necessary in order to bring the work into a +convenient size for use ..., The arrangement will be strictly +alphabetical. References to original papers will be given in all cases +..."</p> + +<p>Professor Comey estimates his work will contain over +70,000 entries, and will make a volume of 1,500-1,700 pages.</p> + +<p>The following letter from Mr. Howard L. Prince, Librarian of the +United States Patent Office, explains itself:</p> + +<blockquote> +<p>WASHINGTON, D.C., February 11, 1891</p> + +<p><i>Dr. H Carrington Bolton.</i><br /> +<i>University Club, New York, N.Y.</i>:</p> + +<p>DEAR SIR—In response to your request I take pleasure in +giving you the following information regarding the past +accomplishments and plans for the future of the Scientific +Library in the matter of technological indexing.</p> + +<p>The work of indexing periodicals has been carried on in the +library for some years in a somewhat desultory +fashion, taking up one journal after another, +the object being, apparently, more to supply clerks with work +than the pursuance of any well defined plan. However, one +important work has been substantially completed, viz., a +general index to the whole set of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN and +SUPPLEMENT from 1846 to date.</p> + +<p>It is unnecessary for me to point out to you the importance of +this work, embracing a collection which has held the leading +place in the line of general information on invention and +progress, the labor of compiling which has been so formidable +that no movement in that direction has been attempted by the +publishers except in regard to the SUPPLEMENT only, and that +very imperfectly. This index embraces now 184,600 cards, not +punched, and at present stored in shallow drawers and fastened +by rubber bands, and of course they are at present unavailable +for use. There is little prospect of printing this index, and +I have been endeavoring for some time to throw the index open +to the public by punching the cards and fastening them with +guard rods, but as yet have made no perceptible impression +upon the authorities, although the expense of preparation +would be only about $70.</p> + +<p>There has also been completed an index to the English journal +<i>Engineering</i>, comprising 84,000 cards, from the beginning to +date.</p> + +<p>An index to Dingler's <i>Polytechnisches Journal</i> was also +commenced as long ago as 1878, carried on for six or seven +years and then dropped. I hope, however, at no remote date, to +bring this forward to the present time.</p> + +<p>On taking charge of the library I was at once impressed with +the immense value of the periodical literature on our shelves +and the great importance of making it more readily accessible, +and have had in contemplation for some time the beginning of a +card index to all our periodicals on the same general plan as +that of Rieth's Repertorium. I have, however, been unable to +obtain sufficient force to cover the whole ground, but have +selected about one hundred and fifty journals, notably those +upon the subjects of chemistry, electricity and engineering, +both in English and foreign languages, the indexing of which +has been in progress since the first of January. This number +includes substantially all the valuable material in our +possession in the English language, not only journals, but +transactions of societies, all the electrical journals and +nearly all the chemical in foreign languages. This index will +be kept open to the public as soon as sufficient material has +accumulated. In general plan it will be alphabetical, +following nearly the arrangement of the periodical portion of +the surgeon general's catalogue. I shall depart from the +strictly alphabetical plan sufficiently to group under such +important subjects as chemistry, electricity, engineering, +railroads, etc., all the subdivisions of the art, so that the +electrical investigator, for instance, will not be obliged to +travel from one end of the alphabet to the other to find the +divisions of generators, conductors, dynamos, telephones, +telegraphs, etc., and in the grouping of the classes of +applied science the office classification of inventions will, +as a rule, be adhered to, the subdivisions being, of course, +arranged in alphabetical order under their general head and +the title of the several articles also arranged alphabetically +by authors or principal words.</p> + +<p>With many thanks for the kind interest and valuable +information afforded me, I remain, very truly yours,</p> + +<div class="ind"> +<p>HOWARD L. PRINCE,</p> +<p>Librarian Scientific Library.</p> +</div> + + +</blockquote> + +<p>The committee much prefers to record completed work than to mention +projects, as the latter sometimes fail. It is satisfactory, however, +to announce that the indefatigable indexer, Dr. Alfred Tuckerman, is +engaged on an extensive Bibliography of Mineral Waters. The chairman +of the committee expects to complete the MS. of a Select Bibliography +of Chemistry during the year, visiting the chief libraries of Europe +for the purpose this summer.</p> + +<p class="sig">H. CARRINGTON BOLTON, Chairman.<br /> +F.W. CLARKE,<br /> +ALBERT R. LEEDS,<br /> +ALEXIS A. JULIEN,<br /> +JOHN W. LANGLEY,<br /> +ALBERT B. PRESCOTT.</p> + +<p>[Dr. Alfred Tuckerman was added to the committee at the Washington +meeting to fill a vacancy.]</p> + +<a name="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1">[1]</a><div class="note"><p>From advance proof sheets of the Proceedings of the +American Association for the Advancement of Science; Washington +meeting, 1891.</p></div> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="ART10"></a>THE FRENCH WINE LAW.</h2> + +<p>The French wine law (<i>Journ. Officiel</i>, July 11, 1891) includes the +following provisions:</p> + +<p>Sect. 1. The product of fermentation of the husks of grapes from which +the must has been extracted with water, with or without the addition +of sugar, or mixed with wine in whatever proportion, may only be sold, +or offered for sale, under the name of husk wine or sugared wine.</p> + +<p>Sect. 2. The addition of the following substances to wine, husk wine, +sugared wine, or raisin wine will be considered an adulteration:</p> + +<div class="note"><p>1. Coloring matters of all descriptions.</p> + +<p>2. Sulphuric, nitric, hydrochloric, salicylic, boric acid, or similar +substances.</p> + +<p>3. Sodium chloride beyond one gramme per liter.</p> +</div> + +<p>Sect. 3. The sale of plastered wines, containing more than two grammes +of potassium, or sodium sulphate, is prohibited.</p> + +<p>Offenders are subject to a fine of 16 to 500 francs, or to +imprisonment from six days to three months, according to +circumstances.</p> + +<p>Barrels or vessels containing plastered wine must have affixed a +notice to that effect in large letters, and the books, invoices, and +bills of lading must likewise bear such notice.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="ART09"></a>THE ALLOTROPIC CONDITIONS OF SILVER.</h2> + +<p>M. Berthelot recently called the attention of the Academy (Paris) to +the memoirs of Carey Lea on the allotropic states of silver, and +exhibited specimens of the color of gold and others of a purple color +sent him by the author. He explained the importance of these results, +which remind us of the work of the ancient alchemists, but he reserved +the question whether these substances are really isomeric states of +silver or complex and condensed compounds, sharing the properties of +the element which constituted the principal mass (97-98 per cent.), +conformably to the facts known in the history of the various carbons, +of the derivatives of red phosphorus, and especially of the varieties +of iron and steel. Between these condensed compounds and the pure +elements the continuous transition of the physical and chemical +properties is often effected by insensible degrees, by a mixture of +definite compounds.</p> + +<p>The following letter appears in a recent number of the <i>Chemical +News</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Sir</i>: In a recently published lecture, Mr. Meldola seems to call in +question the existence of allotropic silver. This opinion does not +appear, however, to be based on any adequate study of the subject, but +to be somewhat conjectural in its nature. No experimental support of +any sort is given, and the only argument offered (if such it can be +called) is that this altered form of silver is analogous to that of +metals whose properties have been greatly changed by being <i>alloyed</i> +with small quantities of other metals. Does, then, Mr. Meldola suppose +that a silver alloy can be formed by precipitating silver in the +presence of another metal from an aqueous solution, or that one can +argue from alloys, which are solutions, to molecular compounds or +lakes? Moreover, he has overlooked the fact that allotropic silver can +be obtained in the absence of any metal with which silver is capable +of combining, as in the case of its formation by the action of soda +and dextrine. Silver cannot be alloyed with sodium.</p> + +<p>Mr. Meldola cites Prange as having shown that allotropic silver +obtained with the aid of ferrous citrate contains traces of iron, a +fact which was published by me several years earlier, with an +analytical determination of the amount of iron found. Mr. Prange +repeated and confirmed this fact of the presence of iron (in this +particular case), and my other observations generally, and was fully +convinced of the existence of both soluble and insoluble allotropic +silver. Mr. Meldola's quotation of Mr. Prange would not convey this +impression to the reader.</p> + +<p>Of the many forms of allotropic silver, two of the best marked are the +blue and the yellow.</p> + +<p>Blue allotropic silver is formed in many reactions with the aid of +many wholly different reagents. To suppose that each of these many +substances is capable of uniting in minute quantity with silver to +produce in all cases an identical result, the same product with +identical color and properties, would be an absurdity.</p> + +<p>Gold-colored allotropic silver in thin films is converted by the +slightest pressure to normal silver. A glass rod drawn over it with a +gentle pressure leaves a gray line behind it of ordinary silver. If +the film is then plunged into solution of potassium ferricyanide it +becomes red or blue, while the lines traced show by their different +reaction that they consist of ordinary silver. Heat, electricity, and +contact with strong acids produce a similar change to ordinary gray +silver.</p> + +<p>These reactions afford the clearest proof that the silver is in an +allotropic form. To account for them on suppositions like Mr. +Meldola's would involve an exceedingly forced interpretation, such as +no one who carefully repeated my work could possibly entertain.</p> + +<p class="ind">I am, etc.,</p> + +<p class="sig"> M. CAREY LEA.</p> +<p class="ind"> Philadelphia, October 22, 1891.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h3>THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN</h3> + +<h2>Architects and Builders Edition.</h2> + +<h3>$2.50 a Year. Single Copies, 25 cts.</h3> + +<p>This is a Special Edition of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, issued +monthly—on the first day of the month. Each number contains about +forty large quarto pages, equal to about two hundred ordinary book +pages, forming, practically, a large and splendid <b>Magazine of +Architecture</b>, richly adorned with <i>elegant plates in colors</i> and with +fine engravings, illustrating the most interesting examples of modern +Architectural Construction and allied subjects.</p> + +<p>A special feature is the presentation in each number of a variety of +the latest and best plans for private residences, city and country, +including those of very moderate cost as well as the more expensive. +Drawings in perspective and in color are given, together with full +Plans, Specifications, Costs, Bills of Estimate, and Sheets of +Details.</p> + +<p>No other building paper contains so many plans, details, and +specifications regularly presented as the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN. +Hundreds of dwellings have already been erected on the various plans +we have issued during the past year, and many others are in process of +construction.</p> + +<p>Architects, Builders, and Owners will find this work valuable in +furnishing fresh and useful suggestions. All who contemplate building +or improving homes, or erecting structures of any kind, have before +them in this work an almost <i>endless series of the latest and best +examples</i> from which to make selections, thus saving time and money.</p> + +<p>Many other subjects, including Sewerage, Piping, Lighting, Warming, +Ventilating, Decorating, Laying out of Grounds, etc., are illustrated. +An extensive Compendium of Manufacturers' Announcements is also given, +in which the most reliable and approved Building Materials, Goods, +Machines, Tools, and Appliances are described and illustrated, with +addresses of the makers, etc.</p> + +<p>The fullness, richness, cheapness, and convenience of this work have +won for it the <b>Largest Circulation</b> of any Architectural publication +in the world.</p> + +<p>A Catalogue of valuable books on Architecture, Building, Carpentry, +Masonry, Heating, Warming, Lighting, Ventilation, and all branches of +industry pertaining to the art of Building, is supplied free of +charge, sent to any address.</p> + + +<p class="ctr"> <b>MUNN & CO., Publishers,<br /> +361 Broadway, New York.</b></p> + +<hr /> + +<h3>THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN</h3> + +<h2>Cyclopedia of Receipts,</h2> + +<h3>NOTES AND QUERIES.</h3> + +<hr class="short" /> + +<h3>65O PAGES. PRICE $5.</h3> + +<hr class="short" /> + +<p>This splendid work contains a careful compilation of the most useful +Receipts and Replies given in the Notes and Queries of correspondents +as published in the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN during nearly half a century +past; together with many valuable and important additions.</p> + +<p><b>Over Twelve Thousand</b> selected receipts are here collected; Nearly +every branch of the useful arts being represented. It is by far the +most comprehensive volume of the kind ever placed before the public.</p> + +<p>The work may be regarded as the product of the studies and practical +experience of the ablest chemists and workers in all parts of the +world; the information given being of the highest value, arranged and +condensed in concise form, convenient for ready use.</p> + +<p>Almost every inquiry that can be thought of, relating to formulæ used +in the various manufacturing industries, will here be found answered.</p> + +<p>Instructions for working many different processes in the arts are +given. How to make and prepare many different articles and goods are +set forth.</p> + +<p>Those who are engaged in any branch of industry probably will find in +this book much that is of practical value in their respective +callings.</p> + +<p>Those who are in search of independent business or employment, +relating to the manufacture and sale of useful articles, will find in +it hundreds of most excellent suggestions.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><b>MUNN & CO., Publishers, 361 Broadway, New York.</b></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2>THE<br /> Scientific American Supplement.</h2> + +<h3>PUBLISHED WEEKLY.</h3> + +<p>Terms of Subscription, $5 a year.</p> + +<p>Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the +United States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any +foreign country.</p> + +<p>All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement, January +1, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each.</p> + +<p>All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise be supplied. Two +volumes are issued yearly. Price of each volume, $2.50 stitched in +paper, or $3.50 bound in stiff covers.</p> + +<p>COMBINED RATES.—One copy of SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN and one copy of +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, one year, postpaid, $7.00.</p> + +<p>A liberal discount to booksellers, news agents, and canvassers.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<b>MUNN & CO., Publishers,<br /> +361 Broadway, New York, N.Y.</b></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2>A New Catalogue of Valuable Papers</h2> + +<p>Contained in SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT during the past ten years, +sent <i>free of charge</i> to any address. MUNN & CO., 361 Broadway, New +York.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2>Useful Engineering Books</h2> + +<p>Manufacturers, Agriculturists, Chemists, Engineers, Mechanics, +Builders, men of leisure, and professional men, of all classes, need +good books in the line of their respective callings. Our post office +department permits the transmission of books through the mails at very +small cost. A comprehensive catalogue of useful books by different +authors, on more than fifty different subjects, has recently been +published, for free circulation, at the office of this paper. Subjects +classified with names of author. Persons desiring a copy have only to +ask for it, and it will be mailed to them. Address,</p> + +<p><b>MUNN & CO., 361 Broadway, New York.</b></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><img src="./images/16-p.png" alt="P" />ATENTS!</h2> + +<p>Messrs. MUNN & CO., in connection with the publication of the +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, continue to examine improvements, and to act as +Solicitors of Patents for Inventors.</p> + +<p>In this line of business they have had <i>forty-five years' experience</i>, +and now have <i>unequaled facilities</i> for the preparation of Patent +Drawings, Specifications, and the prosecution of Applications for +Patents in the United States, Canada, and Foreign Countries. Messrs. +Munn & Co. also attend to the preparation of Caveats, Copyrights for +Books, Labels, Reissues, Assignments, and Reports on Infringements of +Patents. All business intrusted to them is done with special care and +promptness, on very reasonable terms.</p> + +<p>A pamphlet sent free of charge, on application, containing full +information about Patents and how to procure them; directions +concerning Labels, Copyrights, Designs, Patents, Appeals, Reissues, +Infringements, Assignments, Rejected Cases. Hints on the Sale of +Patents, etc.</p> + +<p>We also send, <i>free of charge</i>, a Synopsis of Foreign Patent Laws, +showing the cost and method of securing patents in all the principal +countries of the world.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><b>MUNN & CO., Solicitors of Patents</b>,<br /> +361 Broadway, New York.</p> + +<p>BRANCH OFFICES.—No. 622 and 624 F Street, Pacific Building, near 7th +Street, Washington, D.C.</p> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. +832, December 12, 1891, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN *** + +***** This file should be named 15052-h.htm or 15052-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/5/0/5/15052/ + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the PG Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net. + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 832, December 12, 1891 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: February 14, 2005 [EBook #15052] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the PG Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net. + + + + + +[Illustration] + + + + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 832 + + + + +NEW YORK, December 12, 1891. + +Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XXXII, No. 832. + +Scientific American established 1845 + +Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year. + +Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year. + + * * * * * + + + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS. + + +I. ARCHAEOLOGY.--Archaeological Discoveries at Cadiz.--The discovery + of Phenician relics in Spain, with the possibility of future + important research in that region.--2 illustrations + + Prehistoric Horse in America.--Curious discovery of an aboriginal + drawing in Nicaragua.--1 illustration + +II. ASTRONOMY.--A Plea for the Common Telescope.--By G.E. + LUMSDEN.--The increasing interest in astronomy and instances of + work done by telescopes of moderate power, giving examples + from the work of celebrated observers + +III. BIOGRAPHY.--Alfred Tennyson.--Biographical note of the + great poet, now past his 80th year, with portrait.--1 illustration + + Fiftieth Year of the Prince of Wales.--The Prince of Wales + and his family, with notes of his life and habits.--1 illustration + +IV. CHEMISTRY.--American Association--Ninth Annual Report of + the Committee on Indexing Chemical Literature.--A very important + report upon the titular subject, with probabilities of future advance + in this line.--The chemical index of the SCIENTIFIC + AMERICAN and SUPPLEMENT + + Apparatus for the Estimation of Fat in Milk.--By E. MOLINARI.-- + Details of a method of determining fat in milk, with illustration + of the apparatus employed + + Further Researches upon the Element Fluorine.--By A.E. TUTTON.-- + Additional researches upon this element, following up + the work outlined by M. MOISSAN.--3 illustrations + + The Allotropic Conditions of Silver.--A recent letter from M. + CAREY LEA on this subject, with note of its presentation before + the French Academy by M. BERTHELOT + + The French Wine Law.--Recent enactment as to the adulterations + of wine + +V. CIVIL ENGINEERING.--Modern Methods of Quarrying.--A recent + paper of great value to all interested in exploiting quarries.--The + most recent methods described, tending now to replace the + cruder processes.--12 illustrations + + The Trotter Curve Ranger.--A surveying instrument for laying + off railroad curves, with full details of its theory, construction, + and use in the field.--4 illustrations + +VI. METALLURGY.--The Great Bell of the Basilica of the Sacred + Heart of Montmartre.--The founding of the great bell "La Savoyarde" + at the Paccard foundry in France.--Description of the + bell, its inscriptions, and decorations.--3 illustrations + +VII. MISCELLANEOUS.--Duck Hunting in Scotland.--A curious method of + approaching ducks under the guise of a donkey.--3 illustrations + +VIII. NAVAL ENGINEERING.--Hints to Shipmasters.--A very + practical view of the proper personal habits of the commander + of a merchant ship + + The British Cruiser AEolus.--Details of dimensions and armament + of this recently launched British ship + + Trials of H.M. Cruiser Blake.--Trial trip of this celebrated + cruiser.--Her horse power as developed, with the somewhat + disappointing results obtained as regards speed.--1 illustration + +IX. PHOTOGRAPHY.--Development with Sucrate of Lime.--Development + formulas, involving the use of sugar solution saturated + with lime.--Accelerating influences of certain chemicals + +X. RAILROAD ENGINEERING.--The Rail Spike and the Locomotive.--A + most interesting article on an old time railroad.--Curious + incidents in the construction of the Camden & Amboy Railroad, + by the celebrated Robert L. Stevens.--A most graphic account of + early difficulties + +XI. TECHNOLOGY--American Workshops.--The care of tools and practice + in American workshops, as viewed from an English standpoint + + New Sugar Items.--Interesting points in the cultivation of sugar + beets and manufacture of sugar therefrom in France, Germany, + and other countries + + * * * * * + + + + +THE GREAT BELL OF THE BASILICA OF THE SACRED HEART OF MONTMARTRE. + + +The main work on the basilica of the Sacred Heart is now completed and +the bell tower surmounts it. So we have now a few words to say about +"La Savoyarde"--the name of the great bell which is designed for it, +and which has just been cast at Annecy-le-Vieux, in Upper Savoy, in +the presence of Mgr. Leuilleux, Archbishop of Chambery, Mgr. Isoar, +Bishop of Annecy, and of all the clergy united, at the foundry of +Messrs. G. & F. Paccard, especially decorated for the occasion. + +[Illustration: INTERIOR OF THE BELL.] + +One of the Latin inscriptions that ornament the metal of "La +Savoyarde" at once explains to us its name and tells us why a bell +designed for the capital was cast at Annecy-le-Vieux. The following is +a translation of it: + + "In the year 1888, in the course of the solemnities of the + sacerdotal jubilee of the Sovereign Pontifex Leo XIII., I, + Frances Margaret of the Sacred Heart of Jesus, on the + initiative of Francis Albert Leuilleux, Archbishop of + Chambery, with the co-operation of the bishops of the + province, at the common expense of the clergy and upper and + lower classes of Savoy, was offered as a gift, as a + testimonial of piety toward the divine heart, in order to + repeat through the ages, from the top of the holy hill, to the + city, to the nation and to the entire world, 'Hail Jesus!'" + +Let us now witness the casting of the bell. + +Over there, at the back of the foundry, in the reverberatory furnace, +the alloy of copper and tin, in the proportions of 78 and 22 per +cent., is in fusion. From the huge crucible runs a conduit to the pit, +at the side of which the furnace is constructed, and in which is +placed the mould. A metallic plug intercepts communication. A quick +blow with an iron rod removes this plug and the tapping is effected. +This operation, which seems simple at first sight, is extremely +delicate in practice and requires a very skillful workman. A host of +technical words designates the dangers that it presents. Before the +tapping, it is necessary to calculate at a glance the function of the +gate pit. And what accidents afterward! But we need not dwell upon +these. After the cooling of the metal comes the cleaning, which is +done with scrapers and special instruments. + +The casting is preceded by two operations--the designing and the +moulding. The design rests upon a basis generally furnished by +experience, and which the founders have transmitted from generation to +generation. The thickness of the rim of the bell taken as unity +determines the diameters and dimensions. The outline most usually +followed gives 15 rims to the large diameter, 71/2 to the upper part of +the bell, and 32 to the large radius that serves to trace the profiles +of the external sides. + +[Illustration: THE CASTING OF THE GREAT BELL OF THE BASILICA OF THE +SACRED HEART.] + +The moulding is done as follows: In the pit where the casting is to be +done there is constructed a core of bricks and a clay shell, separated +from each other by a thickness of earth, called false bell. This +occupies provisionally the place of the metal, and will be destroyed +at the moment of the casting. + +Now let us give a brief description of "La Savoyarde." Its total +weight is 25,000 kilogrammes, divided as follows: 16,500 kilogrammes +of bronze, 800 kilogrammes for the clapper, and the rest for the +suspension gear. + +Its height is 3.06 meters and its width at the base is 3.03. It is +therefore as high as it is wide, and, as may be seen from our +engraving, two men can easily seat themselves in its interior. In +weight, it exceeds the bell of Notre Dame, of Paris, which weighs +17,170 kilogrammes, that of the Cathedral of Sens, which weighs +16,230, and that of the Amiens bell, which weighs 11,000. But it +cannot be compared to the famous bell given by Eudes Rigauit, +Archbishop of Rouen, to the cathedral of that city, and which was so +big and heavy that it was necessary to give a copious supply of +stimulants to those who rang it, in order "to encourage" them. + +[Illustration: THE GREAT BELL OF THE BASILICA OF THE SACRED HEART.] + +"La Savoyarde" will appear small also if we compare it with some +celebrated bells, that of the Kremlin of Moscow, for example, which +weighs 201,216 kilogrammes. One detail in conclusion: "La Savoyarde" +sounds in counter C. This had been desired and foreseen. The number of +vibrations, that is to say, the _timbre_ of a bell, is in inverse +ratio of its diameter or of the cubic root of its weight, so that in +calculating the diameters and in designing "La Savoyarde" the _timbre_ +was calculated at the same time.--_L'Illustration._ + + * * * * * + +[FROM THE SUGAR BEET.] + + + + +NEW SUGAR ITEMS. + +FRANCE. + + +Water that has been used to wash frozen beets contains a small +percentage of sugar. As the washing period, in such cases, is longer +than with normal beets, the sugar in beet cells has time to pass +through the outer walls by osmosis. The sugar loss is said to be 0.66 +per cent. (?) of the weight of beets washed. + +Well conducted experiments show that in small but well ventilated +silos, beets lose considerable weight, but very little sugar. On the +other hand, in large silos with poor ventilation, the sugar loss +frequently represents four to six per cent. When fermentation +commences, the mass of roots is almost ruined. + +Sodic nitrate, if used upon soil late in the season, may overcome a +difficulty that has been recently noticed. Beet fields located near +swamps that are dry a portion of the year have suffered from a malady +that turns leaves from green to yellow, even before harvesting period; +such beets have lost a considerable amount of sugar. + +A new method for the analysis of saccharose and raffinose, when in the +presence of inverted sugar, is said to give accurate results. The +process consists in adding sulphate of copper and lime to hot +molasses, so that the oxide of copper is changed to a protoxide, and +the invert sugar becomes water and carbonic acid. The whole is +neutralized with phosphoric acid. There follow a great number of +precipitates; the exact volume of liquid in which these are found is +determined after two polariscopic observations. + +It has been constantly noticed that samples of carbonatated juice vary +in composition with the part of tank from which they are taken. If +some arrangement could be made assuring a thorough mixing during the +passage of carbonic acid, results would be more satisfactory than they +now are. If gas could be distributed in every part of the tank, the +lime combination could be made perfect. + +Notwithstanding the new law regulating quantity of sugar to be used in +wines, ciders, etc., there has been, during 1890, an increase of +nearly 13,000 tons, as compared with 1889. Consumption of sugar for +these special industries was 33,000 tons; alcohol thus added to wine +was about 71,000,000 gallons. + +Beets cultivated without extra fertilizers, and that are regular in +shape and in good condition, without bruises, are the ones which give +the best results in silos. It is recommended to construct silos of two +types; one which is to be opened before first frost, the other where +beets remain for several months and are protected against excessive +cold. Great care should be taken that a thorough ventilation be given +in the first mentioned type. In the other, more substantial silos, +ventilation must be watched, and all communication with the exterior +closed as soon as the temperature falls to or near freezing. + +During the last campaign many manufacturers experienced great +difficulty in keeping the blades of slicers sufficiently sharp to work +frozen beets. Sharpening of blades is an operation attended to by +special hands at the factory; and under ordinary circumstances there +need be no difficulty. However, it is now proposed to have central +stations that will make a specialty of blade sharpening. Under these +circumstances manufacturers located in certain districts need give the +matter no further thought, let the coming winter be as severe as it +may. + +Some success has been obtained by the use of sulphurous acid in vacuum +pans. Great care is required; the operation cannot be done by an +ordinary workman. It is claimed that graining thereby is more rapid +and better than is now possible. Chemists agree that the operation is +more effectual by bringing sulphurous acid in contact with sirups +rather than juices; it is in the sirups that the coloring pigments are +found. Sulphurous acid is run into the pan until the sirups cover the +second coil. In all cases the work must be done at a low temperature. + +Height of juice in carbonatating tanks is only three feet in France, +while in Austria it is frequently twelve feet. The question of a +change in existing methods is being discussed; it necessitates an +increase in the blowing capacity of machine; since carbonic acid gas +has a greater resistance to overcome in Austrian than in French +methods. Longer the period juices are in contact with carbonic acid, +greater will be the effect produced. + +Ferric sulphate has been very little used for refuse water +purification, owing to cost of its manufacture. If roasted pyrites, a +waste product of certain chemical factories, are sprinkled with +sulphuric acid of 66 deg. B., and thoroughly mixed for several hours, at a +temperature of 100 deg. to 156 deg. F., the pyrites will soon be covered with +a white substance which is ferric sulphate. Precipitates from ferric +sulphate, unlike calcic compounds, do not subsequently enter into +putrefaction. + +Efforts are being made to convince manufacturers of the mistake in +using decanting vats, in connection with first and second +carbonatation. In Germany filter presses are used, decanting vats are +obsolete. The main objection to them is cooling of saccharine liquors, +which means an ultimate increase in fuel. Cooling is frequently +followed by partial fermentation. + +Further changes in the proposed combined baryta-soda method for juice +purification consist in using powdered soda carbonate 90-92 deg., upon +beet cossettes as they leave the slicer, before entering the diffusor. +The quantity of chemical to be used is 1/1000 of weight of beet slices +being treated. If a diffusor has a capacity of 2,500 lb., there would +be added 2.5 lb. soda carbonate. From the diffusor is subsequently +taken 316 gallons juice at 4-5 deg. density, this is rapidly heated to +185 deg.F., then 2.4 of a pure baryta solution is added; temperature is +kept at 185 deg. F. for a short time; resulting precipitates fall to +bottom of tank; then 13 gallons milk of lime 25 deg. B. are added. + +Other operations that follow are as usual. It is contended that the +cost of baryta is 10 cents per ton beets worked. The most important +advantage is gain in time; a factory working 20,000 during a 100-day +campaign, by the foregoing process can accomplish the same work in 80 +days, thus decreasing wear and tear of plant and diminishing +percentage of sugar lost in badly constructed silos. + +The exact influence of a low temperature upon beet cells has never +been satisfactorily settled. Considerable light has recently been +thrown upon the subject by a well known chemist. It is asserted that +living cells containing a saccharine liquid do not permit infiltration +from interior to exterior; this phenomenon occurs only when cell and +tissue are dead. It is necessary that the degree of cold should be +sufficiently intense, or that a thaw take place, under certain +conditions, to kill tissue of walls of said cells. An interesting fact +is that when cells are broken through the action of freezing, it is +not those containing sugar that are the first affected. The outer +cells containing very little sugar are the first to expand when +frozen, which expansion opens the central cells. + +Experiments to determine the action of lime upon soils apparently +prove that it does not matter in what form calcic salts are employed; +their effect, in all cases, is to increase the yield of roots to the +acre. On the other hand, very secondary results were obtained with +phosphoric and sulphuric acids. + +A micro-mushroom, a parasite that kills a white worm, enemy of the +beet, has been artificially cultivated. As soon as the worm is +attacked, the ravage continues until the entire body of the insect is +one mass of micro-organisms. Spores during this period are constantly +formed. If it were possible to spread this disease in districts +infected by the white worm, great service could be rendered to beet +cultivation. + +In sugar refining it is frequently desirable to determine the +viscosity of sirups, molasses, etc. Methods founded upon the rapidity +of flow through an orifice of a known size are not mathematical in +their results. A very simple plan, more accurate than any hitherto +thought of, is attracting some attention. Sensitive scales and a +thermometer suspended in a glass tube are all the apparatus necessary. +The exact weight of thermometer, with tube, is determined; they are +immersed in water and weighed for the second time; the difference in +weight before and afterward gives the weight of adhering water. If the +operation is repeated in molasses, we in the same way obtain the +weight of adhering liquid, which, if divided by the weight of adhering +water, gives the viscosity as compared with water. + +Sugar refineries located at Marseilles claim that it is cheaper for +them to purchase sugar in Java than beet sugar of northern Europe. On +the other hand, the argument of Paris refiners is just the reverse. +The total refined sugar consumed is 375,000 tons, the colonial and +indigenous production of raw sugar is nearly 1,000,000 tons more than +sufficient to meet the demands of the entire refining industry of the +country. There appears to have been considerable manipulation, foreign +sugar being imported with the view of producing a panic, followed by a +decline of market prices, after which Marseilles refiners would buy. +All sound arguments are in favor of protecting the home sugar +industry. + +It has been suggested that manufacturers weigh the fuel used more +carefully than hitherto; the extra trouble would soon lead to economy +for all interested in sugar production at ruinous cost. Some chemists +advocate that coal be purchased only after having been analyzed. +Efforts to have a unification in methods of analysis of all products +of factory is a move in the right direction; the Association of Sugar +Chemists have adopted a series of methods that are in the future to be +considered as standard. + +Copper solutions are destined to render great service in the +destruction of micro-organisms that attack the beet field. The liquid +used should be composed of 3 per cent. copper sulphate and 3 per cent. +lime, dissolved in water; fifty gallons are sufficient for one acre; +cost per acre, every item included, is 56 cents. The normal vitality +of the plant being restored, there follows an increased sugar +percentage. Ordinary liquid ammonia may be advantageously used to kill +white worms and insects that attack beets; two quarts of the diluted +chemical are used per square yard, and the cost is $12 per acre (?) + + +GERMANY. + +Calcic salt elimination from beet juices is a problem not yet +satisfactorily solved. Since the early history of beet sugar making, +it has been noticed that calcic salts render graining in the pan most +tedious; hence repeated efforts to reduce to a minimum percentage the +use of lime during defecation. In all cases it is essential to get rid +of inverted sugar. The difficulty from excess of lime is overcome by +adding it now and then during carbonatation; but other means are found +desirable; and phosphoric acid, magnesia, soda, etc., have been used +with success. Recent observations relating to the action of soda upon +calcic sulphates, calcic glucates, etc., are most important. Certain +citrates have a retarding influence upon calcic sulphates. + +An alarm contrivance to announce the passage of juices into condensing +pipes has rendered considerable service in beet sugar factories. + +A process for refining sugar in the factory, at less cost than it is +possible to make raw sugar by existing processes, deserves notice. +Sugars by this new method test 99.8, and sirups from the same have a +purity coefficient of 70. Weight of dry crystals obtained is said to +represent 66 per cent. of _masse cuite_ used. The additional cost of +the process is $30 to $40 per centrifugal. Concentrated juice or sirup +may be used as _cleare_ in centrifugals; this sirup should have a +density of 1.325 (36 deg. B.) at 113 deg. to 122 deg. F., so as not to redissolve +the sugar. Sirup should not be used until all adhering sirup of _masse +cuite_ has been swung out. The sirup, after passing through +centrifugals, may be sent to second carbonatation tanks and mixed with +juices being treated. + +The larva of an insect, known as _sylpha_, has attacked beet fields in +several parts of Saxony. The effect upon the root is a decrease in +foliage, followed by late development of the beet, with corresponding +reduction in sugar percentage. Chickens may render excellent service, +as they eat these worms with considerable relish. A solution of +Schweinfurt green has been used with some success; its cost is $2.50 +per acre. None of the chemical remains on the leaves after a rain (?) +White worms have done some damage; they should be collected from the +fields during plowing. When they become beetles in the spring, they +may be destroyed by a solution of sulphide of carbon; $0.20 worth of +this chemical is sufficient to kill 10,000 of them. These beetles +contain 50 per cent of fatty and nitric elements; when pulverized they +may be used as good for pigs and chickens. If the ground mass of +beetles is sprinkled with sulphuric acid and a reasonable amount of +lime and earth be added, the combination forms an excellent fertilizer +for certain crops. A disease that blackens young beet leaves is found +to be due to a microscopic insect. If the beet seed be saturated in a +phenic solution before planting, the difficulty may be overcome. + +We are soon to have a new method for selecting mothers for seed +production. Details of the same are not yet public. It is claimed that +it will be possible to grow seed that will yield beets of a given +quality determined in advance, a problem which has hitherto been +thought impossible. + +It will surprise many of our readers to learn that if "tops" or even +half beets are planted, they will give seed, the quality of which is +about same; showing that as soon as seed stalks commence to appear, +the _role_ of the root proper is of secondary consideration, as it +serves simply as a medium between the beet and soil(?) + +Sprayed water may be used with considerable success in washing sugar +in centrifugals; it is claimed that this new process offers many +advantages over either steam, water, or use of _cleare_. White sugar +to be washed is thoroughly mixed with a sugar sirup supersaturated. +The whole is run into centrifugals. The sirup swung from the same is +used in next and following operations; when it becomes too thick it is +sent to the vacuum pan to be regrained. The operation of washing lasts +less than two minutes; three quarts of water are necessary for 200 lb. +sugar. The water spray at a pressure of 5 to 10 atmospheres is +produced by a very simple appliance. + +Total weight of refuse cossettes obtained during last campaign was +4,000,000 tons, about 700,000 tons of which were sold for $1,000,000; +if what remains is dried, it would be worth $5,000,000. + +Several sodic-baryta methods have been recently invented. Of these we +will mention one where 1/4000 to 1/2000 part of calcined soda is added +to the beet slices in diffusors. The juice when drawn from the battery +is heated to 154 deg. F., and defecated with hydrate of baryta and milk of +lime. Nearly all foreign substances are thus eliminated. Carbonatation +then follows. + +Government taxation upon the sugar industry is destined within a few +years to be withdrawn. The new law recently put into operation no +longer taxes beets worked at factory, but the sugar manufactured. The +rate of taxation is about 2 cents per pound on all sugar made. + +Recent data from northeast Germany give the work during campaign +1890-91 of 54 associated beet sugar factories. They used 2,130,000 +tons beets, obtained from 142,602 acres of land, average yield 12 +tons. The total sugar amounted to 251,000 tons, of which 241,000 were +from beets and 10,000 tons from molasses worked by special processes. +The polarization of beet juices averaged 13.09; _masse cuite_, 14.31; +extraction of sugar of all grades, 11.79. It required 848 lb. beets to +produce 100 lb. sugar. + +In every center where beet sugar is made there exists some local +society; each year members from these societies meet to exchange views +upon the sugar situation of the empire. + +Of late, there has been a general complaint respecting quality of +sugar sold on the Magdeburg market. At one time the sugars averaged +more organic substances than ash; now there is more ash than organic +substances. Such sugars are most difficult to work, and cause much +loss of time in centrifugals. + +The most desirable temperature for diffusion batteries is not yet +definitely settled. Some manufacturers recommend 82 deg. to 86 deg. F. On the +other hand, satisfactory results have been obtained at 145 deg. F., +followed by cold water in the diffusors. + +The use of hydrofluoric acid, even in small quantities to prevent +fermentation, should not be allowed. + +It is proposed to use hydrogen dioxide for saccharine juice +purification. The alkalinity of juice is reduced to 0.07 by a +judicious use of lime. Precaution must be taken to keep the +temperature at 87 deg. F. After a preliminary filtration about 4 per cent. +hydrogen dioxide is added. The whole is then heated to the boiling +point, after which 1/2 to 1 per cent. lime is added. When alkalinity of +filtrate is 0.03 phosphoric acid and magnesia are added, in quantities +representing 0.03 per cent. of sugar in juice for magnesia, and 0.6 +per cent. for the phosphoric acid. In working beet juices hydrogen +dioxide may be used in the diffusor or during any phase of the sugar +manufacturing process, even upon sugars in centrifugals. In all cases +the results obtained are said to be most satisfactory. + +A method to crystallize the sugar contained in the mother liquor of a +_masse cuite_ consists in mixing during 24 hours the hot product, +direct from the pan, with low grade molasses. Gradual cooling follows. +The crystals of _masse cuite_ effect a crystallization of the +otherwise inactive product contained in the molasses. The separation +of crystals from adhering molasses is done in a special washing +appliance arranged in battery form. + +It has been frequently asked if the existing and accepted formula for +determining in advance the amount of refined sugar that may be +extracted from either beets, _masse cuite_ or raw sugar, is to be +considered exact, without special allowance being made for raffinose. +An intelligent discussion upon the subject shows that the sugar in +question, whether present or not, in no way influences the formula +under consideration. + + +AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. + +The committee on exhibition at Prague has issued several interesting +pamphlets, from which we learn that in Bohemia, in 1819, there existed +one beet sugar factory. In 1890 the total number of factories was 140; +last year 370,000 acres were planted in beets, and the yield was +3,700,000 tons; yield of sugar averaged 2,700 lb. per acre; 40,000 +hands were employed. During the past 24 years 17,900,000 tons of coal +have been consumed, and the working capacity per factory is now far +greater than formerly. There are at present seven sugar refineries in +Bohemia. + +Commercial arrangements with Germany having terminated favorably, +great pressure is being brought to bear upon Italy, Roumania, Servia +and Switzerland, to induce them to enter into a treaty. Sugars +imported by the country last named were 35,892 tons in 1889 and 43,300 +tons during 1890. + + +BELGIUM. + +If fresh cossettes are fed to cows, in quantities per diem +representing 20 per cent. of the animal's weight, they have a thinning +effect. When the refuse has been siloed for eight months, and 12 per +cent. of the animal's weight is used, there will follow a slight daily +increase in weight. Better results may be obtained from cossettes that +have been kept for two years; with the latter, if cows eat only 7 per +cent. of their weight, considerable fattening follows. Consequently, +while beet refuse, after long keeping, loses 50 per cent. of its +weight, it appears in the end to be more economical for feeding +purposes than fresh cossettes direct from the battery. + +During this period of keeping the percentage of water remains nearly +constant; fatty substances which were 0.08 per cent. become 0.74; and +the percentage of carbohydrates diminishes. Chemists are unable to +explain the changes that have taken place; if they are desirable, as +they appear to be, judging from the practical results just cited, +there is this question to be solved: What future have dried cossettes? +Evidently they offer advantages, as no one can doubt, such as a +decrease in weight and bulk, easy keeping for an indefinite time, etc. +At present, there is building a silo to contain 4,000 tons fresh +cossettes; this is to have the best possible system of drainage. +During the coming season it is proposed to analyze the water draining +from this mass of fermenting refuse; and we may then learn more than +we now know about the chemical changes above mentioned. + +A correspondent of M. Sachs asks why it is not possible to use live +steam in defecating tanks. A simple calculation shows that the water +to be subsequently evaporated would be increased 10 per cent. This +evaporation would cost more than cleaning of copper coils, etc., +combined with other difficulties existing appliances offer. + +The question as to the most desirable number of beets necessary to +analyze to obtain an average has been in part settled. Factories +working 500 tons per diem should make at least 200 analyses of beets +received, which work offers no difficulty by the rapid methods now +used. Several samples should be taken from every cart load delivered, +then make average selections from the same. + + +RUSSIA. + +Weak currents of electricity, 0.03 to 0.04 ampere, have been passed +through sirups for fourteen hours without any special increase in +purity coefficient. Experiments made upon diluted molasses or with raw +beet juices were not encouraging. + +Mixing of filter press scums with diffusion juices is said to offer +special advantages for the preliminary purification. Not over one to +two per cent. of scums should be used. If in too great quantity, the +raw juices will yield inferior results. During operations that follow, +experiments are not yet sufficiently advanced to determine with +certainty within what limits the refuse scum utilization process is to +be recommended. We have great doubts as to the wisdom of introducing +foreign elements, eliminated from other juices in a previous +operation, into a juice fresh from the battery. + + +OTHER COUNTRIES. + +The beet sugar factory in Japan is said to be working with +considerable success. + +This year in Europe over 3,000,000 acres are devoted to beet +cultivation. If the yield averages 12 tons, the crop of roots to be +worked during campaign 1891-92 will certainly not be less than +36,000,000 tons, with a total yield of first grade sugar of about +7,300,000,000 lb. + +Sugar sells for 9 cents per pound in Persia, where Russia has almost a +monopoly of that business. + +Finland imported, during 1889, 9,416 tons sugar, valued at $1,000,000. +Germany supplied two-thirds of this at cheaper rates than Russia, +owing to facilities of transportation. Two refineries are working; one +of these uses exclusively cane sugar, while the other employs both +cane and beet sugar. + +A beet sugar factory in England, that has been idle for many years, is +to resume operations under a new company, adopting the plan of growing +a sufficient quantity of beets for an average campaign, independently +of what all the farmers of the locality propose to do. + +Siberia is to have a beet sugar factory. Experiments in beet +cultivation have shown excellent beets may be raised there. Special +advantages are offered by the Russian government, and factories are to +be exempt from taxation daring a period of ten years. Sugar in Siberia +is now considered an article of luxury, owing to distance and +difficulties of transportation from manufacturing centers. + +A special delegation from Canada has been sent to Europe, to study and +subsequently report upon the true condition of the beet sugar +industry. + +A correspondent writes from Farnham, Canada, that the Canadian +government grants a bounty of 2 cents per pound on beet sugar during +campaign 1891-92. Duties on raw sugar were abolished last June. + + * * * * * + + + + +AMERICAN WORKSHOPS. + + +An interesting paper on some of the leading American workshops was +lately read before the members of the Manchester Association of +Engineers on Saturday by Mr. Hans Renold. After expressing his opinion +that the English people did not sufficiently look about them or try to +understand what other nations were doing, Mr. Renold stated that he +had visited that portion of America known as New England, and the +works he had inspected were among the best in the United States. Among +the many special features he had noticed he mentioned that in a Boston +establishment where milling machine cutters were made he had found +that L1 spent in wages produced as much as L30 to L40 worth of goods, +the cutters being made at the rate of about sixty-four per hour by +about a dozen men. Another noticeable feature was the exceptional care +taken in storing tools in American workshops. These, in fact, were +treated as if they were worth their weight in gold; they were stored +in safes much in the same manner as we in England stored our money. He +was, however, impressed by the fact that the mere understanding of the +method of American working would not enable them to do likewise in +England, because the American workmen had gone through a special +training, and a similar training would be necessary to enable English +workmen to adapt themselves to American machines. One very noticeable +feature in American engineering shops which he visited was that all +the machine men and turners were seated on blocks or stools at their +machines, and the question naturally arose in his mind what would +English engineers say if such a practice were adopted in their shops. +In other ways he was also struck by the special attention devoted to +the comfort of the workmen, and he was much impressed by the healthy +condition of the emery polishing shops as compared with similar shops +in this country. In England these shops in most cases were simply +deathtraps to the workmen, and he urged that the superior method of +ventilation carried out in the States should be adopted in this +country by introducing a fan to each wheel to take away the particles, +etc., which were so injurious. One very special feature in the United +States was that works were devoted to the manufacture of one +particular article to an almost inconceivable extent, and that heavy +machine tools complete and ready to be dispatched were kept in stock +in large numbers. American enterprise was not hampered as it too +frequently was in England by want of capital; while in England we were +ready to put our savings in South American railways or fictitious gold +mines, but very chary about investing capital which would assist an +engineer in bringing out an honest improvement, in America, on the +other hand, it was a common practice among the best firms to invest +their savings over and over again in their works, which were thus kept +in a high state of perfection. + +The above paper came in for some pretty severe criticism. Mr. John +Craven remarked that although Mr. Renold had gone over a wide field of +subjects, he had practically confined his remarks to Messrs. Brown & +Sharpe's establishment, and while he (Mr. Craven) was ready to admit +that so far as high class work and sanitary arrangements were +concerned, Messrs. Brown & Sharpe's were a model, they could not be +put forward as representative of American establishments generally. As +a matter of fact, many of the American workshops were not as good as a +large number of similar workshops in Manchester. Mr. Renold had +referred to the extensive use of gear cutters in the United States, +but he might point out that it was in Manchester that the milling +machine was first made. Mr. Samuel Dixon said he had certainly come to +the conclusion that no better work was done in America than could be +and was being done in this country; while as regards the enormous +production of milling cutters, that was simply an example of what +could be done where large firms devoted themselves to the production +of one specialty. With regard to the statement made by Mr. Renold that +the American thread was preferable to the Whitworth thread, he might +say he entirely disagreed with such a conclusion, and he might add +that after visiting a variety of Continental and American workshops he +should certainly not, if he were called upon to award the palm of +superiority in workmanship, go across the Atlantic for that purpose. +Mr. J. Nasmith remarked that whether English engineers were the +inventors of the milling machine or not, it must be admitted that it +was through this type of cutter being taken up by the Americans that +milling had become the success it was at the present time. English +engineers were very conservative, and it was only through the pressure +of circumstances that milling machines came into general use in this +country. When American inventions were brought to England they were +generally improved to the highest degree, but he thought the chief +fault of both American and Continental engineers was what one might +call "over-refinement;" there was such a thing as over-finishing an +object and overdoing it. If, however, American machinery was so much +superior to what we had in this country, as asserted by the reader of +the paper, how was it that cotton machinery, with all its intricacies, +could be sent to the United States, in the face of American +manufacturers, even though the cost was increased from 40 to 60 per +cent.? At the present time it was possible for English machinists to +secure contracts for the whole of the machinery in an American mill, +and inclusive of freight charges and high tariff, deliver and erect it +in America at a lower cost than American engineers with all the +advantages of their immeasurably superior tools were able to do. +Another speaker, Mr. Barstow, ridiculed the idea that the Americans +could be so pre-eminent in the manufacture of emery wheels as might be +inferred from Mr. Renold, when they had before them the fact that from +the neighborhood of Manchester thousands of emery wheels were every +year exported to the United States. + + * * * * * + + + + +MODERN METHODS OF QUARRYING. + + +Mr. Wm. L. Saunders, for many years the engineer of the Ingersoll Rock +Drill Co., and hence thoroughly familiar with modern quarrying +practice, read a paper before the last meeting of the American Society +of Civil Engineers on the above subject, containing many interesting +points, given in the _Engineering News_, from which we abstract as +follows. + +As a preliminary to describing the new Knox system of quarrying, which +even yet is not universally known among quarrymen, Mr. Saunders gives +the following in regard to older methods: + + The Knox system is a recent invention; no mention was made of + it in the tenth census, and no description has yet been given + of it in any publications on quarrying. The first work done by + this method was in 1885, and at the close of that year 2 + quarries had adopted it. In 1886 it was used in 20 quarries; + in 1887 in 44, in 1888 in upward of 100, and at the present + time about 300 quarries have adopted it. Its purpose is to + release dimension stone from its place in the bed, by so + directing an explosive force that it is made to cleave the + rock in a prescribed line without injury. The system is also + used for breaking up detached blocks of stone into smaller + sizes. + +Quarrymen have, ever since the introduction of blasting, tried to +direct the blast so as to save stock. Holes drilled by hand are seldom +round. The shape of the bit and their regular rotation while drilling +usually produce a hole of somewhat triangular section. It was +observed, many years ago, that when a blast was fired in a +hand-drilled hole the rock usually broke in three directions, +radiating from the points of the triangle in the hole. This led +quarrymen to look for a means by which the hole might be shaped in +accordance with a prescribed direction of cleavage. + +The oldest sandstone quarries in America are those at Portland, Conn. +It was from these quarries that great quantities of brownstone were +shipped for buildings in New York. The typical "brownstone front" is +all built of Portland stone. As the Portland quarries were carried to +great depths the thickness of bed increased, as it usually does in +quarries. With beds from 10 to 20 ft. deep, all of solid and valuable +brownstone, it became a matter of importance that some device should +be applied which would shear the stone from its bed without loss of +stock and without the necessity of making artificial beds at short +distances. A system was adopted and used successfully for a number of +years which comprised the drilling of deep holes from 10 to 12 in. in +diameter, and charging them with explosives placed in a canister of +peculiar shape. The drilling of this hole is so interesting as to +warrant a passing notice. The system was similar to that followed with +the old fashioned drop drill. The weight of the bit was the force +which struck the blow, and this bit was simply raised or lowered by a +crank turned by two men at the wheel. The bit resembled a broad ax in +shape, in that it was extremely broad, tapering to a sharp point, and +convex along the edge. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1] + +Fig. 1 illustrates in section one of the Portland drills, and a drill +hole with the canister containing the explosive in place. The canister +was made of two curved pieces of sheet tin with soldered edges, cloth +or paper being used at the ends. It was surrounded with sand or earth, +so that the effect of the blast was practically the same as though the +hole were drilled in the shape of the canister. In other words, the +old Portland system was to drill a large, round hole, put in a +canister, and then fill up a good part of the hole. Were it possible +to drill the hole in the shape of the canister, it would obviously +save a good deal of work which had to be undone. The Portland system +was, therefore, an extravagant one, but the results accomplished were +such as to fully warrant its use. Straight and true breaks were made, +following the line of the longer axis of the canister section, as in +Fig. 2. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2.] + +It was found that with the old Portland canister two breaks might be +made at right angles by a single blast, when using a canister shaped +like a square prism. In some of the larger blasts, where blocks +weighing in the neighborhood of 2,000 tons were sheared on the bed, +two holes as deep as 20 ft. were drilled close together. The core +between the holes was then clipped out and large canisters measuring 2 +ft. across from edge to edge were used. + +In regard to another of the older systems of blasting, known as +Lewising, Mr. Saunders says: + + A Lewis hole is made by drilling two or three holes close + together and parallel with each other, the partitions between + the holes being broken down by using what is known as a + broach. Thus a wide hole or groove is formed in which powder + is inserted, either by ramming it directly in the hole, or by + puling it in a canister, shaped somewhat like the Lewis hole + trench. A complex Lewis hole is the combination of 3 drill + holes, while a compound Lewis hole contains 4 holes. Lewising + is confined almost entirely to granite. In some cases a series + of Lewis holes is put in along the bench at distances of 10 + and 25 ft. apart, or even greater, each Lewis hole being + situated equidistant from the face of the bench. The holes are + blasted simultaneously by the electric battery. + +After noting another system used to a limited extent, and not to be +commended, viz., the use of inverted plugs and feathers (the plugs and +feathers being inserted as a sort of tamping which the blast drives +upward to split the rock), Mr. Saunders continues in substance as +follows: + + It is thus seen that the "state of the art" has been + progressive, though it was imperfect. Mr. Sperr, in his + reference to this subject, made in the report of the tenth + census, says: "The influence of the shape of the drill hole + upon the effects of the blast does not seem to be generally + known, and a great waste of material necessarily follows." + This was written but a few years before the introduction of + the new system, and it is doubtless true that attention was + thus widely directed to the conspicuous waste, due to a lack + of knowledge of the influence of the shape of a drill hole on + the effect of a blast. The system developed by Mr. Knox + practically does all and more than was done by the old + Portland system, and it does it at far less expense. It can + best be described by illustrations. + +[Illustrations: Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6] + +Fig. 3 is a round hole drilled either by hand or otherwise, preferably +otherwise, because an important point is to get it round. Fig. 4 is +the improved form of hole, and this is made by inserting a reamer, +Figs. 5 and 6, into the hole in the line of the proposed fracture, +thus cutting two V-shaped grooves into the walls of the hole. The +blacksmith tools for dressing the reamers are shown in Fig. 7. The +usual method of charging and tamping a hole in using the new system is +shown in Fig. 8. The charge of powder is shown at C, the air space at +B and the tamping at A. Fig. 9 is a special hole for use in thin beds +of rock. The charge of powder is shown at C, the rod to sustain +tamping at D, air space at BB, and tamping at A. + +[Illustration: Fig. 7] + +Let us assume that we have a bluestone quarry, in which we may +illustrate the simplest application of the new system. The sheet of +stone which we wish to shear from place has a bed running horizontally +at a depth of say 10 ft. One face is in front and a natural seam +divides the bed at each end at the walls of the quarry. We now have a +block of stone, say 50 ft. long, with all its faces free except +one--that opposite and corresponding with the bench. One or more of +the specially formed holes are put in at such depth and distance from +each other and from the bench as may be regulated by the thickness, +strength and character of the rock. No man is so good a judge of this +as the quarry foreman who has used and studied the effect of this +system in his quarry. Great care should be taken to drill the holes +round and in a straight line. In sandstone of medium hardness these +holes may be situated 10, 12 or 15 ft. apart. If the bed is a tight +one the hole should be run entirely through the sheet and to the bed; +but with an open free bed holes of less depth will suffice. + +[Illustration: Fig. 8, 9] + +The reamer should now be used and driven by hand. Several devices have +been applied to rock drills for reaming the hole by machinery while +drilling; that is, efforts have been made to combine the drill and the +reamer. Such efforts have met with only partial success. The perfect +alignment of the reamer is so important that where power is used this +point is apt to be neglected. It is also a well known fact that the +process of reaming by hand is not a difficult or a slow one. The +drilling of the hole requires the greatest amount of work. After this +has been done it is a simple matter to cut the V-shaped grooves. The +reamer should be applied at the center, that is, the grooves should be +cut on the axis or full diameter of the hole. The gauge of the reamer +should be at least 11/2 diameters. Great care should be taken that the +reamer does not twist, as the break may be thereby deflected; and the +reaming must be done also to the full depth of the hole. + +The hole is now ready for charging. The powder should be a low +explosive, like black or Judson powder or other explosives which act +slowly. No definite rule can be laid down as to the amount of powder +to be used, but it should be as small as possible. Very little powder +is required in most rocks. Hard and fine grained stone requires less +powder than soft stone. Mr. Knox tells of a case which came under his +observation, where a block of granite "more than 400 tons weight, +split clear in two with 13 oz. of FF powder." He compares this with a +block of sandstone of less than 100 tons weight "barely started with +21/2 lb. of the same grade of powder, and requiring a second shot to +remove it." + +It is obvious that enough powder must be inserted in the hole to +produce a force sufficient to move the entire mass of rock on its bed. +In some kinds of stone, notably sandstone, the material is so soft +that it will break when acted upon by the force necessary to shear the +block. In cases of this kind a number of holes should be drilled and +fired simultaneously by the electric battery. In such work it is usual +to put in the holes only 4 or 5 ft. apart. The powder must, of course, +be provided with a fuse or preferably a fulminating cap. It is well to +insert the cap at or near the bottom of the cartridge, as shown in +Figs. 8 and 9. + +After the charge the usual thing to do is to insert tamping. In the +improved form of hole the tamping should not he put directly upon the +powder, but an air space should be left, as shown at B, Fig. 8. The +best way to tamp, leaving an air space, is first to insert a wad, +which may be of oakum, hay, grass, paper or other similar material. +The tamping should be placed from 6 to 12 in. below the mouth of the +hole. In some kinds of stone a less distance will suffice, and as much +air space as practicable should intervene between the explosive and +the tamping. If several holes are used on a line they should be +connected in series and blasted by electricity. The effect of the +blast is to make a vertical seam connecting the holes, and the entire +mass of rock is sheared several inches or more. + +The philosophy of this new method of blasting is simple, though a +matter of some dispute. The following explanation has been given. See +Fig. 10. + +[Illustration: Fig. 10] + +"The two surfaces, _a_ and _b_, being of equal area, must receive an +equal amount of the force generated by the conversion of the explosive +into gas. These surfaces being smooth and presenting no angle between +the points, A and B, they furnish no starting point for a fracture, +but at these points the lines meet at a sharp angle including between +them a wedge-shaped space. The gas acting equally in all directions +from the center is forced into the two opposite wedge-shaped spaces, +and the impact being instantaneous the effect is precisely similar to +that of two solid wedges driven from the center by a force equally +prompt and energetic. All rocks possess the property of elasticity in +a greater or less degree, and this principle being excited to the +point of rupture at the points, A and B, the gas enters the crack and +the rock is split in a straight line simply because under the +circumstances it cannot split in any other way." + +Another theory which is much the same in substance is then given, and +after some general discussion of the theory of the action of the +forces under the several systems, the paper continues: + +The new form of hole is, therefore, almost identical in principle with +the old Portland canister, except that it has the greater advantage of +the V-shaped groove in the rock, which serves as a starting point for +the break. It is also more economical than the Portland canister, in +that it requires less drilling and the waste of stone is less. It is, +therefore, not only more economical than any other system of blasting, +but it is more certain, and in this respect it is vastly superior to +any other blasting system, because stone is valuable, and anything +which adds to the certainty of the break also adds to the profit of +the quarryman. + +It is doubtless true that, notwithstanding the greater area of +pressure in the new form of hole, the break would not invariably +follow the prescribed line but for the V-shaped groove which virtually +starts it. A bolt, when strained, will break in the thread whether +this be the smallest section or not, because the thread is the +starting point for the break. A rod of glass is broken with a slight +jar provided a groove has been filed in its surface. Numerous other +instances might be cited to prove the value of the groove. Elasticity +in rock is a pronounced feature, which varies to a greater or less +extent; but it is always more or less present. A sandstone has +recently been found which possesses the property of elasticity to such +an extent that it may be bent like a thin piece of steel. When a blast +is made in the new form of hole the stone is under high tension, and +being elastic it will naturally pull apart on such lines of weakness +as grooves, especially when they are made, as is usually the case in +this system, in a direction at right angles with the lines of least +resistance. + +Horizontal holes are frequently put in and artificial beds made by +"lofting." In such cases where the rock has a "rift" parallel with the +bed, one hole about half way through is sufficient for a block about +15 ft. square, but in "liver" rock the holes must be drilled nearly +through the block and the size of the block first reduced. + +A more difficult application of the system, and one requiring greater +care in its successful use, is where the block of stone is so situated +that both ends are not free, one of them being solidly fixed in the +quarry wall. A simple illustration of a case of this kind is a stone +step on a stairway which leads up and along a wall, Fig. 11. Each step +has one end fixed to the wall and the other free. Each step is also +free on top, on the bottom and on the face, but fixed at the back. We +now put one of the new form of holes in the corner at the junction of +the step and the wall. The shape of the hole is as shown in Fig. 12. + +[Illustration: FIG. 11.] + +It is here seen that the grooves are at right angles with each other, +and the block of stone is sheared by a break made opposite and +parallel with the bench, as in the previous case, and an additional +break made at right angles with the bench and at the fixed end of the +block. Sometimes a corner break is made by putting in two of the +regular V-shaped holes in the lines of the proposed break and without +the use of the corner hole. A useful application of this system is in +splitting up large masses of loose stone. For this purpose the +V-shaped grooves are sometimes cut in four positions and breaks are +made in four directions radiating from the center of the hole as shown +in Fig. 12. In this way a block is divided into four rectangular +pieces. + +[Illustration: FIG. 12.] + +Though the new system is especially adapted to the removal of heavy +masses of rock, yet it has been applied with success in cases where +several light beds overlie each other. In one such instance 10 sheets, +measuring in all only 6 ft., were broken by a blast, but in cases of +this kind the plug and feather process applies very well, and the new +system, when used, must be in the hands of an expert, or the loss will +be serious. + +Referring again to our stone step, let us imagine a case where this +stairway runs between two walls. We have here each step fixed at each +end and free only on the top, the bottom, and one face. Let us assume +that there is a back seam, that is, that the step is not fixed at the +back. In a quarry, this seam, unless a natural one, should be made by +a channeling machine. In order to throw this step put of place it must +be cut off at both ends, and for this purpose the V-shaped holes are +put in at right angles to the face. It is well, however, to put the +first two holes next the back seam in a position where the grooves +will converge at the back so as to form a sort of key, which serves a +useful purpose in removing the block after the blast. In quarries +where there are no horizontal beds a channeling machine should be used +to free the block on all sides and to a suitable depth, and then the +ledge may be "lofted" by holes placed horizontally. + +Where "pressure" exists in quarries, the new system has certain +limitations. After determining the line of "pressure" it is only +practicable to use the system directly on the line of thrust, or at +right angles to it. It is much better, however, to release the +"pressure" from the ledge by channeling, after which a single end may +be detached by a Knox blast. It is well to bear in mind that the holes +should invariably be of small diameter. In no case should the diameter +of a hole be over 11/2 in. in any kind of rock. This being the case, the +blocks of stone are delivered to the market with but little loss in +measurement. It is a noticeable fact that stone quarried by the new +system shows very little evidence of drill marks, for the faces are +frequently as true as though cut with a machine. + +A further gain is the safety of the system. The blasting is light and +is confined entirely within the holes. No spalls or fragments are +thrown from the bast. + +The popular idea that the system is antagonistic to the channeling +process is a mistaken one. There are, of course, some quarries which +formerly used channeling machines without this system, but which now +do a large part of the work by blasting. Instances, however, are rare +where the system has replaced the channeler. The two go side by side, +and an intelligent use of the new system in most quarries requires a +channeling machine. There are those who may tell of stone that has +been destroyed by a blast on the new system, but investigation usually +shows that either the work was done by an inexperienced operator, or +an effort was made to do too much. + +A most interesting illustration of the value of this system, side by +side with the channeler, is shown in the northern Ohio sandstone +quarries. A great many channeling machines are in use there, working +around the new form of holes, and when used together in an intelligent +and careful manner, the stone is quarried more cheaply than by any +other process that has yet been devised. + +To a limited extent the system has been used in slate. The difficulty +is that most of the slate quarries are in solid ledges, where no free +faces or beds exist; but it has been used with success in a slate +quarry at Cherryville, Pa., since 1888. Among notable blasts made by +this system are the following: At the mica schist quarries, at +Conshohocken, Pa., a hole 11/2 in. in diameter was drilled in a block +which was 27 ft. long, 15 ft. wide and 6 ft. thick. The blast broke +the stone across the "rift," only 8 oz. of black powder being used. At +the Portland, Conn., quarries a single blast was fired by electricity, +15 holes being drilled with 2 lb. of coarse No. C powder in each hole, +and a rock was removed 110 ft. long, 20 ft. wide and 11 ft. thick, +containing 24,200 cu. ft., or about 2,400 tons, the fracture being +perfectly straight. This large mass of stone was moved out about 2 in. +without injury to itself or the adjoining rock. + +Another blast at Portland removed 3,300 tons a distance of 4 in. +Seventeen holes were drilled, using 2 lb. of powder in each hole, the +size of the block being 150 x 20 x 11 ft. In a Lisbon, O., quarry a +block of sandstone 200 ft. long, 28 ft. wide and 15 ft. thick was +moved about 1/2 in. by a blast. This block was also afterward cut up by +this system in blocks 6 ft. square. A sandstone bowlder 70 ft. long, +average width 50 ft., average thickness 13 ft., was embedded in the +ground to a depth of about 7 ft. A single hole 8 ft. deep was charged +with 20 oz. of powder and the rock was split in a straight line from +end to end and entirely to the bottom. A ledge of sandstone open on +its face and two ends, 110 x 13 x 8 ft., was moved by a blast about 3 +in. without wasting a particle of rock, 8 holes being used, drilled by +three men in just one day, and 15 oz. of powder being used in each +hole. A sandstone ledge, open on the face and end only, 200 x 28 x 15 +ft., containing 84,000 cu. ft. stone, was moved 1/2 in. by 25 holes, +each containing 1 lb. of powder. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE TROTTER CURVE RANGER. + + +This little instrument was exhibited in a somewhat crude state at the +meeting of the British Association at Newcastle in 1889. It has since +been modified in several respects, and improvements suggested by +practical use have been introduced, bringing it into a practical form, +and enabling a much greater accuracy to be attained. The principle is +one which is occasionally employed for setting out circles with a +pocket sextant, viz., the property of a circle that the angle in a +segment is constant. The leading feature of the invention is the +arrangement of scales, which enables the operation of setting put +large curves for railway or other work to be carried out without +requiring any calculations, thereby enabling any intelligent man to +execute work which would otherwise call for a knowledge of the use of +a theodolite and the tables of tangential angles. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1--PERSPECTIVE VIEW OF INSTRUMENT MOUNTED ON A +STAFF.] + +The instrument is intended to be thoroughly portable; so much so, +indeed, that it is not necessary or even desirable to use a tripod. It +may be held in the hand like a sextant, or may be carried on a light +staff. The general appearance is shown in Fig. 1. It will be seen that +a metal plate, on which two scales are engraved, carries a mirror at +one end and an eye piece at the other. The mirror is mounted on a +metal plate, which is shaped to a peculiar curve. A clamp and slow +motion provide for rapid and for fine adjustment. The eye piece is set +at an angle, and contains a half silvered mirror, the upper portion +being transparent. This allows direct vision along the axis of the eye +piece, and at the same time vision in another direction, after two +reflections, one in the eye piece and the other at the adjustable +mirror. Fig. 2 is an outline plan of the instrument when closed. In +the first form of the instrument only one mirror was provided, but by +the double reflection in the improved pattern, any accidental twisting +of the rod or handle produces no displacement of the images, since the +inclination of one mirror neutralizes the equal and opposite +inclination of the other. No cross line is required with the new +arrangement, since it is only necessary that the two images should +coincide. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--OUTLINE OF INSTRUMENT SHOWING THE PATH OF THE +DIRECT AND OF THE REFLECTED RAY.] + +The dotted line A B represents the direct ray, and the line A C D the +reflected one. Fig. 3 shows the different geometrical and +trigonometrical elements of the curve, which can be read upon the +various scales, or to which the instrument may be set. An observer +standing at C sights the point B directly and the point A by +reflection. A staff being set up at each point, he will see them +simultaneously, and in coincidence if the instrument be properly set +for the curve. If any intermediate position be taken up on the curve, +both A and B will be seen in coincidence. If the two rods do not +appear superimposed, the operator must move to the right or the left +until this is the case. The instrument will then be over a point in +the curve. Any number of points at any regular or irregular distances +along the curve can thus be set out. One of the simplest elements +which can be taken as a datum is the ratio of the length of the chord +to the radius, AB/AO, Fig. 3. This being given, the value of the ratio +is found on the straight scale on the body of the instrument, and the +curved plate is moved until the beveled edge cuts the scale at the +desired point. The figure of this curve is a polar curve, whose +equation is _r_ = _a_ +- _b_ sin. 2 [theta], where _a_ is the distance +from the zero graduation to the axis of the mirror, and _b_ is the +length of the scale from zero to 2, and [theta] is the inclination of +the mirror. In the perspective view, Fig. 1, the curved edge cuts the +scale at 1. The instrument being thus set, the following elements may +be read either directly on the scales or by simple arithmetical +calculation: + +[Illustration: FIG. 3] + + The radius = 1. + + AB, the chord, read direct on the straight scale. + + AFB, the length of the arc, read direct on the back or under + surface of the plate. + + FH, the versed sine, read direct on the curved scale. + + ACB, the angle in the segment, read direct on the graduated + edge. + + EAB, the angle between the chord and the tangent, read direct + on the graduated edge. + + GAB, the tangential angle = 180 deg. - ACB. + + AOB, the angle at the center = 2GAB. + + AGB, the angle between the tangents = 180 deg. - AOB. + + OAB, the angle between the chord and the radius = EAB - 90 + deg. + + AH_{2} + GF = --------- - FH. + HO + + + +The foregoing elements are contained in a very simple diagram, Fig. 4, +which is engraved on the instrument, together with the following +references: + + B = 180 deg. - A. + C = 2B. + D = 180 deg. - C. + E = A - 90. + +Only one adjustment is necessary, and this is provided by means of the +screws which fix the inclination of the eyepiece. This is set at such +an angle that the instrument, when closed and reading 90 deg. on the +divided limb, acts as an optical square. + +It is not necessary, as in the ordinary method with a theodolite, that +one end of the curve should be visible from the other. If an obstacle +intervenes, all that part of the curve which commands a view of both +ends can be set out, and a ranging rod can be set up at any point of +the curve so found, and the instrument may be reset to complete the +curve. + +To set out a tangent to the curve at A, Fig. 3, set up a rod at A and +another at any point C, and take up a position on the curve at some +point between them. Adjust the mirror until the rods are seen +superimposed. Then moving back to A, observe C direct, and set up a +rod at E in the line observed by reflection. Then A E is the tangent +required. Similarly, on completing the setting out of a curve, and +arriving at the end of the chord, the remote end being seen by +reflection, the direction observed along the axis of the eyepiece is +the new tangent. + +Any of the angles or other ratios already mentioned may be used for +setting the instrument, but if no data whatever are given, as in the +rough surveys for colonial railways where no previous surveys exist, +it is only necessary to select points through which the curve must +pass, to set up ranging rods either at the extremities of the desired +curve, or at any points thereon, to take up a position on the desired +curve between two rods, and to adjust the instrument until they are +seen in coincidence. The curve can then be set out, and fully marked, +and the elements of the curve can be read on the scales and recorded +for reference. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--DIAGRAM ENGRAVED ON THE INSTRUMENT.] + +Various other cases which may occur in practice can be rapidly met by +one or other of the various scales. Suppose the angle A G B between +the tangents be given, together with the middle point F on the curve, +Fig. 3. Subtract this angle from 180 deg., the difference gives the +angle at the center A O B. Take half this, and set the instrument to +the angle thus found. Walk along the tangent until a rod set up at +some point in the tangent, say E, is seen in coincidence with a rod +set up at B. The position of the instrument then marks the point of +departure A. A rod being placed at A, the first half of the curve may +be set out; or, if B is invisible, the instrument may be reset for the +angle E A B, and the whole curve set out up to B. No cutting of hedges +is necessary, as with theodolite work, for a curve can easily be taken +piece by piece. Inclination of the whole instrument introduces no +appreciable error. If the eye piece be pointed up or down hill, the +instrument is thrown a little to one side or other of the tip of the +staff, but in a plane tangent to the circle. Errors made in setting +out a curve with the Trotter curve ranger are not cumulative, as in +the method of tangential angles with a theodolite. No corrections for +inaccurate hitting of the final rod can occur, for the curve must +necessarily end at that point. It should be observed that the +instrument is not intended to supersede a theodolite, but it has the +great advantage over the older instrument that no assistant or chains +or trigonometrical tables or any knowledge of mathematics are +required. The data being given, by a theodolite or otherwise, an +intelligent platelayer can easily set out the curve, while the trained +engineer proceeds in advance with the theodolite. No time is lost; as +in chaining, since the marks may be made wherever and as often as +convenient. In work where high accuracy is required this instrument is +well adapted for filling in, and where a rough idea of the nature of a +given curve is required, the mirror being adjusted for any three +points upon it, the various elements may be read off on the scales. A +telescope is provided, but the errors not being cumulative, it is +rarely required. The curve ranger weighs 1 lb. 10 oz., and is +manufactured by Messrs. Elliott Bros., St. Martin's Lane, London. It +is the invention of Mr. Alex. P. Trotter, Westminster.--_The +Engineer._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE RAIL SPIKE AND THE LOCOMOTIVE.[1] + + [Footnote 1: Abstract from the History of the Camden and Amboy + Railroad. By J. Elfreth Watkins, of the National Museum, + Washington, D.C.] + + +Early in October, 1830, and shortly after the surveys of the Camden +and Amboy Railroad were completed, Robert L. Stevens (born 1787) +sailed for England, with instructions to order a locomotive and rails +for that road. + +At that time no rolling mill in America was able to take a contract +for rolling T rails. + +Robert Stevens advocated the use of an all-iron rail in preference to +the wooden rail or stone stringer plated with strap iron, then in use +on one or two short American railroads. At his suggestion, at the last +meeting held before he sailed, after due discussion, the Board of +Directors of the Camden and Amboy Railroad passed a special resolution +authorizing him to obtain the rails he advocated. + + +ROBERT L. STEVENS INVENTS THE AMERICAN RAIL AND SPIKE. + +During the voyage to Liverpool he whiled away the hours on shipboard +by whittling thin wood into shapes of imaginary cross sections until +he finally decided which one was best suited to the needs of the new +road. + +He was familiar with the Berkenshaw rail, with which the best English +roads were then being laid, but he saw that, as it required an +expensive chair to hold it in place, it was not adapted to our +country, where metal workers were scarce and iron was dear. He added +the base to the T rail, dispensing with the chair. He also designed +the "hook-headed" spike (which is substantially the railroad spike of +to-day) and the "iron tongue" (which has been developed into the fish +bar), and the rivets (which have been replaced by the bolt and nut) to +complete the joint. + +A fac-simile of the letter[2] which he addressed to the English iron +masters a short time after his arrival in London is preserved in the +United States National Museum. It contains a cross section, side +elevation and ground plan of the rail for which he requested bids. + +The base of the rail which he first proposed was to be wider where it +was to be attached to the supports than in the intervening spaces. +This was afterward modified, so that the base was made the same width +(three inches) throughout. + + [Footnote 2: This letter reads: + + LIVERPOOL, November 26th, 1830. + + GENTLEMEN,--At what rate will you contract to deliver at + Liverpool, say from 500 to 600 tons of railway, of the best + quality of iron rolled to the above pattern in 12 or 16 feet + lengths, to lap as shown in the drawing, with one hole at each + end, and the projections on the lower flange at every two + feet, cash on delivery? + + How soon could you make the first delivery, and at what rate + per month until the whole is complete? Should the terms suit + and the work give satisfaction a more extended order is likely + to follow, as this is but about one-sixth part of the quantity + required. Please to address your answer (as soon as + convenient) to the care of Francis B. Ogden, Consul of the + United States at Liverpool. + + I am + Your obedient servant, + ROBERT L. STEVENS, + _President and Engineer of the Camden and + South Amboy Railroad and Transportation Company._ ] + + +DIFFICULTY OF ROLLING THE AMERICAN RAIL. + +Mr. Stevens received no favorable answer to his proposals, but being +acquainted with Mr. Guest (afterward Sir John Guest), a member of +Parliament, proprietor of large iron works in Dowlais, Wales, he +prevailed upon him to have rails rolled at his works. Mr. Guest became +interested in the matter and accompanied Mr. Stevens to Wales, where +the latter gave his personal supervision to the construction of the +rolls. After the rolls were completed the Messrs. Guest hesitated to +have them used, through fear of damage to the mill machinery, upon +hearing which Mr. Stevens deposited a handsome sum guaranteeing the +expense of repairing the mill in case it was damaged. The receipt for +this deposit was preserved for many years among the archives of the +Camden and Amboy Company. As a matter of fact, the rolling apparatus +did break down several times. "At first," as Mr. Stevens in a letter +to his father, which I have seen, described it, "the rails came from +the rolls twisted and as crooked as snakes," and he was greatly +discouraged. At last, however, the mill men acquired the art of +straightening the rail while it cooled. + +The first shipment,[3] consisting of five hundred and fifty bars +eighteen feet long, thirty-six pounds to the yard, arrived in +Philadelphia on the ship Charlemagne, May 16, 1831. + +Over thirty miles of this rail was laid before the summer of 1832. + +A few years after, on much of the Stevens rail laid on the Camden and +Amboy Railroad, the rivets at the joints were discarded, and the bolt +with the screw thread and nut, similar to that now used, was adopted +as the standard. + +The rail was first designed to weigh thirty-six pounds per yard, but +it was almost immediately increased in weight to between forty and +forty-two pounds, and rolled in lengths of sixteen feet. It was then +three and a half inches high, two and one-eighth inches wide on the +head and three and a half inches wide at the base, the price paid in +England being L8 per ton. The import duty was $1.85. + +The first shipment of rail, having arrived in America, was transported +to Bordentown, and here, upon the ground on which we stand, and which +this monument is erected to mark forever, was laid the first piece of +track (about five-sixths of a mile long) in August, 1831. The Camden +and Amboy Company, following the example of the Manchester and +Liverpool Railroad, laid their first track upon stone blocks two feet +square and ten to thirteen inches deep. These blocks were purchased +from the prison authorities at Sing Sing, N.Y. Some of these stone +blocks have been used in constructing the foundation for this +monument. + + [Footnote 3: A list of the vessels chartered to transport the rails, + with dates, tonnage, etc., is given below: + + No. of Tonnage. Rate of + Date. Ship. Bars. tons. cwt. lb. Duty. + + May 16, 1831. Charlemagne 550 504 0 14 $1.85 + May 19, 1831. Salem 963 744 2 14 1.85 + April 7, 1832. Caledonia 38 63 3 07 1.85 + April 23, 1832. Armadilla 525 1,000 3 21 1.85 + May 4, 1832. George Clinton 624 986 2 14 1.85 + June 2-18, 1833. Henry Kneeland 204 377 3 21 1.85 + May 8, 1832. Cumberland 1,464 2,790 1 00 1.85 + June 2, 1832. Gardiner 601 1,136 0 00 1.85 + June 5, 1832. Globe 499 943 1 14 1.85 + June 6, 1832. Jubilee 70 130 0 21 1.85 + July 18, 1832. Hellen 1,080 2,004 3 21 1.85 + July 19, 1832. Nimrod 937 1,745 3 00 1.85 + Aug. 2, 1832. Emery 240 454 2 00 1.85 + Aug. 7, 1833. Ajax 364 700 0 21 1.85 + Aug. 13, 1832. Concordia 622 1,174 3 14 1.85 + Aug. 14, 1830. William Byrny 1,120 2,138 1 07 1.85 + Aug. 20, 1832. Mary Howland 932 1,755 3 07 1.85 + Aug. 23, 1832. Pulaski 488 924 1 00 1.85 + Aug. 24, 1832. Robert Morris 1,985 3,732 0 14 1.85 + Aug. 27, 1832. Ann 506 961 2 27 1.85 + Sept. 3, 1832. Montgomery 1,369 2,959 0 14 1.85 + Sept. 4, 1832. Marengo 534 1,004 2 07 1.85 + Oct. 12, 1832. Vestal 237 460 2 07 1.85 + + This iron proved to be of such superior quality that after it was + worn out in the track, the company's mechanics preferred it to new + iron in making repairs. Some of this rail is still in use in side + tracks. It is pronounced equal in durability to much of the steel + rail of to-day. ] + + +FIRST JOINT FIXTURES. + +Mr. Stevens ordered the first joint fixtures also from an English +mill, at the same time. The ends of the rails were designed to rest +upon wrought iron plates or flat cast plates. The rails were connected +at the stems by an iron "tongue" five inches long, two inches wide, +and five-eighths of an inch thick. A rivet, put on hot, passing +through the stem of each rail near the ends of the bar, fastened it to +the tongue and completed the joint. A hole oblong in shape, to allow +for expunctral contraction, was punched in the stem at each end of the +rail. + + +THE FIRST RAILROAD SPIKES. + +The first "spikes six inches long, with hooked heads," were also +ordered at the same time. These were undoubtedly the "first railroad +spikes" (as they are known to the trade) ever manufactured. + +Mr. Stevens neglected to obtain a patent for these inventions, +although urged to do so by Mr. Ogden, American Consul at Liverpool, +and the credit of being the inventor of the American rail was for a +time claimed for others, but the evidence brought forward in late +years fully established the fact that he was the originator of the +American system of railway construction. + +The "Stevens rail and spike" gradually found great favor everywhere in +America--all the roads being relaid with it as the original T or strap +rail became worn out. + +In England the T rail still continues to be used. The London and +Birmingham Railway, opened in 1838, was laid with Berkenshaw rails; +part with the straight and part with the fish-bellied rail, and the +remainder with reversible "bull-headed" rail, both types being +supported by chairs.[4] + + [Footnote 4: The experiment of laying the Stevens rail in chairs + was tried on the Albany and Schenectady road in 1837, on the + Hudson River Railroad 1848, but the chairs were soon afterward + discarded, nothing but spikes being used to attach the rail to the + tie.] + +Sixty years have elapsed since this rail was adopted by the Camden and +Amboy Company, and with the exception of slight alterations in the +proportions incident to increased weight, no radical change has been +made in the "Stevens rail," which is now in use on every railroad in +America. Many improvements have been made in the joint fixture, but +the "tongue" or fish plate improved into the angle splice bar is in +general use, and nothing has yet been found to take the place of the +"hook-headed" railroad spike which Robert Stevens then designed. + +The track upon which we stand was the first in the world that was laid +with the rail and spike now in general use. + + +MR. STEVENS EXAMINES ENGLISH LOCOMOTIVES. + +Mr. Stevens divided his time while abroad between arranging for the +manufacture of track material and examining the English locomotives +that were being constructed or had been in service. + +A year had elapsed since the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester +Railway, and the English mechanics had not been idle. The "Rocket," +although successful in the Rainhill contest, when put to work had +shown many defects that Stephenson & Co. were striving to correct in +subsequent locomotives. + +The "Planet," built by that firm, was tried in public December 4, +1830, shortly after Mr. Stevens arrived in England, and at that time +was undoubtedly the best locomotive in the world. + + +THE "JOHN BULL" ORDERED. + +Mr. Stevens was present at a trial when the "Planet" showed most +satisfactory properties, and he at once ordered a locomotive of +similar construction, from the same manufacturers, for the Camden and +Amboy Railroad. This engine, afterward called the "John Bull" and "No. +1," was completed in May and shipped by sailing vessel from +Newcastle-on-Tyne in June, 1831, arriving in Philadelphia about the +middle of August of that year. It was then transferred to a sloop at +Chestnut Street wharf, Philadelphia, whence it was taken to +Bordentown. + + +THE "JOHN BULL" ARRIVES AT BORDENTOWN. + +The following circumstances connected with the arrival of the engine +at Bordentown, N.J., are related by Isaac Dripps, Esq., for many years +master mechanic of the Camden and Am boy Railroad, and afterward +superintendent of motive power of the Pennsylvania Railroad, who is +now, after a busy life, enjoying a peaceable retirement at his +pleasant home in West Philadelphia. + +Mr. Dripps, who is now in the eighty-second year of his age, was +employed by Robert and Edwin Stevens in repairing and assisting with +their steamboats on the Delaware River and at Hoboken as early as +1829. When the "John Bull" arrived in Philadelphia he was detailed by +Robert Stevens to attend to the transportation of the engine to +Bordentown, where it was landed safely the last week in August, 1831. + +The boiler and cylinders were in place, but the loose parts--rods, +pistons, valves, etc.--were packed in boxes. No drawings or directions +for putting the engine together had come to hand, and young Dripps, +who had never seen a locomotive, found great difficulty in discovering +how to put the parts in place, alone and unassisted, as Robert +Stevens, who had returned from Europe, was absent at Hoboken at the +time attending to other matters. + + +DIMENSIONS OF ENGINE AND PARTS. + +The bronze bass-relief upon the monument, made from the working +drawing furnished by Mr. Dripps, is an exact representation of the +locomotive when it arrived in America. + +The engine originally weighed about ten tons. The boiler was thirteen +feet long and three feet six inches in diameter. The cylinders were +nine inches by twenty inches. There were four driving wheels, four +feet six inches in diameter, arranged with outside cranks for +connecting parallel rods, but owing to the sharp curves on the road +these rods were never used. The driving wheels were made with cast +iron hubs and wooden (locust) spokes and felloes. The tires were of +wrought iron, three quarters of an inch thick, the tread being five +inches and the depth of flange one and a half inches. The gauge was +originally five feet from center to center of rails. The boiler was +composed of sixty-two flues seven feet six inches long, two inches in +diameter; the furnace was three feet seven inches long and three feet +two inches high, for burning wood. The steam ports were one and +one-eighth inches by six and a half inches; the exhaust ports one and +one-eighth by six and a half inches; grate surface, ten feet eight +inches; fire box surface, thirty-six feet; flue surface, two hundred +and thirteen feet; weight, without fuel or water, twenty-two thousand +four hundred and twenty-five pounds. + +After the valves were in gear and the engine in motion, two levers on +the engineman's side moved back and forth continuously. When it was +necessary to put the locomotive on the turntable, enginemen who were +skilled in the handling of the engines first put the valves out of +gear by turning the handle down, and then worked the levers by hand, +thus moving the valves to the proper position and stopping the engine +at the exact point desired. + +The reversing gear was a very complicated affair. The two eccentrics +were secured to a sleeve or barrel, which fitted loosely on the crank +shaft, between the two cranks, so as to turn freely. A treadle was +used to change the position of this loose eccentric sleeve on the +shaft of the driving wheel (moving it to the right or left) when it +was necessary to reverse. Two carriers were secured firmly to the body +of this shaft (one on each side of the eccentrics); one carrier worked +the engine ahead, the other back. The small handle on the right side +of the boiler was used to lift the eccentric rod (which passed forward +to the rock shaft on the forward part of the engine) off the pin, and +thus put the valves out of gear before it was possible to shift the +sleeve and reverse the engine. + +Great similarity will be noticed in the American locomotives built for +many years after the arrival of the "John Bull," especially in the +matter of making the keys, brasses, etc., on the connecting rods, and +in the construction of valves, fire box and tubes. Even the old plan +of setting the ends of the exhaust nozzle high up in the smoke box, +which was discontinued when the petticoat pipe came in use, is now +again resorted to in connection with the extended smoke box of modern +locomotives. + + +FIRST TRIAL OF THE LOCOMOTIVE. + +Mr. Dripps informs me that, after many attempts, he succeeded in +putting the parts of the engine together, and when it was placed in +position upon the track he notified Robert Stevens of the fact. Mr. +Stevens came at once to Bordentown, as his anxiety to see it in +operation was very great. Upon his arrival the boiler was pumped full +of water, by hand, from the hogshead in which it was brought. Benjamin +Higgins made the fire with pine wood, and when the scale[5] showed +thirty pounds steam pressure, Isaac Dripps opened the throttle, Robert +Stevens standing by his side, and the first locomotive on this great +highway _moved_. It would be difficult to describe the feeling of +these three men as they stood upon the moving engine--the first human +freight drawn by steam on what was afterward destined to be the great +highway connecting the two most populous cities of the American +continent; a most important link in the chain of intercommunication +between the North and South and West. What possibilities must have +dawned upon them if they cared to lift the veil of the future! + + [Footnote 5: The dial gauge was not in use at that time.] + +During the next few days after this preliminary trial the engine was +again taken apart, and as a few of the parts needed modification some +time intervened before it was again in running order. It will be +remembered that young Dripps had never seen a locomotive before and +there were no "old engineers" to consult in regard to the construction +or management of the engine. + + +A TENDER IMPROVISED. + +As no tender came with the locomotive, one was improvised from a +four-wheel flat car that had been used on construction work, which was +soon equipped to carry water and wood. The water tank consisted of a +large whisky cask which was procured from a Bordentown storekeeper, +and this was securely fastened on the center of this four-wheeled car. +A hole was bored up through the car into the barrel and into it a +piece of two-inch tin pipe was fastened, projecting below the platform +of the car. It now became necessary to devise some plan to get the +water from the tank to the pump and into the boiler around the turns +under the cars, and as a series of rigid sections of pipe was not +practicable, young Dripps procured four sections of hose two feet +long, which he had made out of shoe leather by a Bordentown shoemaker. +These were attached to the pipes and securely fastened by bands of +waxed thread. The hogshead was filled with water, a supply of wood for +fuel was obtained, and the engine and tender were ready for work. + + +STEAM OR HORSE POWER? + +At that time the question whether the railroad should be operated by +steam locomotives or horse power had already become a political issue. +The farmers and other horse owners and dealers, who had made money by +selling hay and grain and horses to the stage and freight wagon lines, +were discussing the possibilities of loss of business. + + +TRIAL OF THE ENGINE BEFORE THE LEGISLATURE. + +Many of the members of the New Jersey Legislature were farmers. The +management of the Camden and Amboy Railroad was anxious to give these +gentlemen and other prominent citizens an opportunity to examine a +steam locomotive at work and to ride in a railway train. + +Sixty years ago to-day, on the 12th of November, 1831, by special +invitation, the members of the Legislature and other State officials +were driven from Trenton to Bordentown in stages to witness the trial. +Among them were John P. Jackson (father of the present general +superintendent of the United Railroads of New Jersey division of the +Pennsylvania Railroad, who afterward took a prominent part in the +affairs of the New Jersey Railroad, whose termini were at New +Brunswick and Jersey City); Benjamin Fish (director for fifty years +for the Camden and Amboy Railroad), afterward president of the +Freehold and Jamesburg Agricultural Railroad; Ashbel Welch, chief +engineer and superintendent of the Belvidere and Delaware Railroad for +many years, and president of the United Railroads of New Jersey during +the years immediately preceding the lease to the Pennsylvania +Railroad; Edwin A. and Robert L. Stevens, afterward managers of the +road. + + +FIRST CARS. + +Two coaches built so that they might be drawn by horses were attached +to the locomotive. These coaches were of the English pattern. They had +four wheels and resembled three carriage bodies joined together, with +seats in each facing each other. There were three doors at each side. +These cars were made by a firm of carriage manufacturers, M.P. and +M.E. Green, of Hoboken, and were thought to be very handsome. The New +Jersey law makers were somewhat dubious, it is said, about risking +their lives in this novel train, but at last they concluded to do so +and the train started and made many trips back and forth without +accident or delay. Madam Murat, wife of Prince Murat, a nephew of +Napoleon Bonaparte, who was then living in Bordentown, insisted on +being the first woman to ride on a train hauled by a steam locomotive +in the State. + +In the evening a grand entertainment was given to the Legislature by +the railroad company at Arnell's Hotel, Bordentown, and it has been +whispered that the festivities kept up until a late hour in the night. +Whether that be true or not, it is generally conceded that from that +time to this the Legislature of New Jersey have always been more or +less interested in the affairs of the Camden and Amboy Railroad and +its successors, or _vice versa_. + +This first movement of passengers by steam in the State of New Jersey +was regarded as a success from every point of view, and in +commemoration of the important events here enacted the boundaries of +this first piece of railway laid between New York and Philadelphia, +which were identified and staked out by Isaac Dripps a half century +afterward, have been definitely marked for all time by the +Pennsylvania Railroad Company, who have erected these handsome stones. + + +EARLY DIFFICULTIES. + +Among the earliest troubles of the young engineer and his employer, +Robert L. Stevens, was the fact that as there were only four wheels +under the engines, they were derailed frequently in going around +curves; so it was necessary to provide an appliance to prevent this. + + +THE FIRST PILOT. + +The first pilot was planned, 1832, by Robert L. Stevens. A frame made +of oak, eight by four feet, pinned together at the corners, was made. +Under one end of it a pair of wheels twenty-six inches in diameter +were placed in boxes, and the other end was fastened to an extension +of the axle outside of the forward driving wheels, it having been +found by experience that a play of about one inch on each side on the +pedestals of the front wheels of the pilot or engine was necessary in +order to get around the curves then in the tracks. For years afterward +there was very little change in constructing the pilots from that +originally applied to the "John Bull." + +The spiral spring, which held the front wheels of the pilot in place, +acted substantially as the center pin of a truck. The turntables in +use on the road were so short that it was necessary to unconnect and +take off these pilots before turning the engine. After the pilot was +adopted the forward large wheel on right of the engine was made loose +on the shaft in order to afford additional play in going around +curves. Other[6] changes and additions were also made in the +locomotive. + + [Footnote 6: Changes in the locomotive "John Bull" since date of + construction, 1830: + + Steam dome changed from rear of boiler forward to a part over what + was called the "man-hole," and throttle valve placed therein. + + Steam pipes changed to outside of boiler, connecting new dome with + smoke box, entering it on each side. + + In the beginning the reverse gear was changed from one single + eccentric rod on each side to two on each side, connecting on to + the same eccentric wheel, and the lifting rod, in pulling back, + lifted the forward gear hook off the rocker arm, and the back + motion hook then connecting on the rocker arm reversed the engine. + + Side rods were never used. + + Driver spring was changed from a bearing under the pedestal boxes + to a point over the boxes. + + The pilot was attached in this manner: + + Right forward wheel being loose, forward axle extended eight + inches beyond box on each side; to this was attached the beam of + the pilot, having play of about one inch between box and pedestal + plate to act while going around curves. The weight of forward part + of engine rested upon a cross brace of the two-wheel pilot, which + took bearing by a screw pin surrounded by a spring, by turning + which pin the weight on the drivers could be adjusted. + + A brace used as a hand rail was added on top of the frame, bracing + frame and acting as a guide to the driving springs. + + Water-cocks changed from right to left side of the boiler. + + Bell, whistle and headlight were added. + + Balance safety valve scale was changed forward to a point over + barrel of boiler, the secret valve being over the new dome.] + + +IMPROVEMENTS IN LOCOMOTIVE BUILDING. + +During 1831-35 the company's shops were located at Hoboken, N.J., and +during the winter of 1832-33, three locomotives were commenced at +these shops (two completed before March, 1833, the other in April), +the valves, cylinders, pistons, etc., coming from England, the boilers +being made under the direction of Robert L. Stevens. It was his +opinion that the "John Bull" was too heavy, and the new boilers were +built smaller and lighter, so that the engines, when completed, +weighed eight instead of ten tons. With these three engines, which +were delivered to the railroad company at South Amboy, the stone +blocks and other material for the permanent track was delivered along +the line of the road. + + +BALDWIN'S FIRST LOCOMOTIVES. + +The importation of the locomotive "John Bull" was destined to have a +far-reaching influence in moulding the types of early American +locomotives. + +After the demonstration of November 12, 1831, the engine was taken +from the track and stored in a shed constructed to protect it until +such time as the track should be completed. + +It was about this time that the proprietor of Peale's Museum, in +Philadelphia, applied to Matthias Baldwin, an ingenious mathematical +instrument maker, for a small locomotive to run upon a circular track +on the floor of the museum. Mr. Baldwin had heard of this locomotive. +He came to Bordentown and applied to Isaac Dripps for permission to +inspect it. Mr. Dripps tells me he remembers very well the day that he +explained to Mr. Baldwin the construction of the various working +parts. + +Mr. Baldwin built a toy engine for Mr. Peale, which was so successful, +that in 1832 he was called upon by the Philadelphia and Germantown +Railroad Company to construct the old "Ironsides,"[7] which was +similar in many ways to the "John Bull," as an examination of the +model preserved in the National Museum will show. The success of this +engine laid the foundation for the great Baldwin Locomotive Works, +which is in existence to-day, sending locomotives to every part of the +globe. + + [Footnote 7: A handsome model of the "Ironsides" was presented to + the United States National Museum by the Baldwin Locomotive + Company in 1888.] + + +THE LINE FROM BORDENTOWN TO SOUTH AMBOY. + +The Camden and Amboy Company having obtained control of the steamboat +routes between Philadelphia and Bordentown, and between South Amboy +and New York, directed their energies to completing the railway across +the State. + +Although the grading of the road from Bordentown to Camden had been +commenced in the summer of 1831, work on that end of the line was +abandoned for about two years, the entire construction force being put +on the work between Bordentown and South Amboy. + +The road from Bordentown to Hightstown was completed by the middle of +September, 1832, and from Hightstown to South Amboy in the December +following. The "deep cut" at South Amboy, and the curves of the track +there, gave the civil engineers great trouble. + + +THE FIRST AMERICAN STANDARD TRACK. + +The laying of the track through the "deep cut" led to an event of +great importance to future railway construction. The authorities at +Sing Sing having failed to deliver the stone blocks rapidly enough, +Mr. Stevens ordered hewn wooden cross ties to be laid temporarily, and +the rail to be directly spiked thereto. A number of these ties were +laid on the sharpest curves in the cut. They showed such satisfactory +properties when the road began to be operated that they were permitted +to remain, and the stone blocks already in the track were replaced by +wooden ties as rapidly as practicable. Without doubt the piece of +track in "deep cut" was the first in the world to be laid according to +the present American practice of spiking the rail directly to the +cross tie. + + +THE LINE OPENED BETWEEN BORDENTOWN AND SOUTH AMBOY. + +Among the memoranda compiled by Benjamin Fish, published in his +memoir, I find the following: + + "First cars were put on the Camden and Amboy Railroad + September 19, 1832. They were drawn by two horses. They took + the directors and a few friends from Bordentown to Hightstown + and back. + + "On December 17, 1832, the first passengers were taken from + Bordentown through to South Amboy. Fifty or sixty people went. + It was a rainy day. + + "On January 24, 1833, the first freight cars were put on the + railroad. There were three cars, drawn by one horse each, with + six or seven thousand pounds of freight on each car. + + "Freight came from New York by steam boat to South Amboy. I + drove the first car, John Twine drove the second car and + Edmund Page the third one. We came to the Sand Hills (near + Bordentown) by railroad, there loaded the goods on wagons (it + was winter, and the river was frozen over), arriving in + Philadelphia by sunrise next morning. The goods left New York + at 12 o'clock, noon. This was done by the old firm of Hill, + Fish & Abbe." + +Immediately after the road from Bordentown to South Amboy was +completed, and as late as the summer of 1833, passengers were brought +from Philadelphia to the wharf at White Hill by steamboat, and from +there were rapidly driven to Amboy. Two horses were hitched to each +car, and as they were driven continuously on the run, three changes of +horses were required, the finest horses obtainable being purchased for +this purpose. The time consumed in crossing the State (thirty-four +miles) was from two and a half to three hours. + +Early in September, 1833, the locomotive "John Bull" was put on the +train leaving Bordentown about 7 o'clock in the morning, and returning +leaving South Amboy at 4 P.M. This was the first passenger train +regularly run by steam on the route between New York and Philadelphia. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE BRITISH CRUISER AEOLUS. + + +The new twin screw cruiser AEolus was launched from the Devonport +Dockyard on the 13th November. The first keel plate of the AEolus was +laid in position on the 10th March last year, and up to the present +time fully two thirds of the estimated weight has been worked into her +structure. Says _Industries_: She is built of steel, with large +phosphor bronze castings for stern post, shaft brackets, and stem, the +latter terminating in a formidable ram. The hull is sheathed with +wood, and will be covered with copper to enable her to keep the seas +for a lengthened period on remote stations, where there is a lack of +docking accommodation. All the vital portions, such as machinery, +boilers, magazines, and steering gear, are protected by a steel deck +running fore and aft, terminating forward in the ram, of which it +virtually forms a part. Subdivision has been made a special feature in +this type of vessel, and the hull under the upper deck is divided into +nearly 100 water tight compartments. Between perpendiculars the AEolus +measures 300 ft. in length, the extreme breadth being 43 ft. 8 in., +and moulded depth 22 ft. 9 in., with a displacement of 3,600 tons on a +mean draught of water of 17 ft. 6 in. She will be supplied by Messrs. +Hawthorn, Leslie & Co., of Newcastle on Tyne, with two sets of +vertical triple-expansion engines, capable of developing collectively +9,000 h.p., which is estimated to realize a speed of 19.75 knots. As +vertical engines have been adopted, the necessary protection of the +cylinders, which project above the steel protective deck, is obtained +by fitting an armored breastwork of steel 5 in. thick, supported by a +7 in. teak backing, around the engine hatchway. Provision is made for +a bunker coal capacity of 400 tons, and this is calculated to give a +radius of action of 8,000 knots at a reduced speed of 10 knots. The +armament of the ship will consist of two 6 in. breech-loading guns on +central pivot stands, one mounted on the poop and another on the +forecastle; six quick-firing 4.7 in. guns, mounted three on each +broadside; eight quick-firing 6-pounder guns, four on each broadside; +besides one 3-pounder Hotchkiss and four 5-barrel Nordenfeldt guns. In +addition four torpedo tubes are fitted, one forward, one aft, and one +on each broadside. All the necessary appliances for manipulating the +engines, guns, steering gear, etc., when in action, are placed in a +conning tower built of steel 3 in. thick, and situated at the after +end of the forecastle. The AEolus will be rigged with two pole mast, +carrying light fore and aft sails only. Her total cost is estimated at +L188,350, of which L100,000 is regarded as the cost of hull. When +complete she will be manned by a complement of 254 officers and men. +In the slipway vacated by the AEolus a second class cruiser, to be +named the Hermione, will be laid down forthwith. The Hermione may be +regarded as an enlarged AEolus, and will measure 320 ft. in length, 49 +ft. 6 in. in breadth, with a displacement of 4,360 tons, on a mean +draught of water of 19 ft. The new cruiser will be supplied with +propelling machinery of the same power as the AEolus, to be constructed +in the dockyard from Admiralty designs. The coal capacity of the +Hermione is to be 400 tons, and her estimated speed is 19.5 knots. + + * * * * * + + + + +TRIALS OF H.M. CRUISER BLAKE. + + +Special interest, says _Engineering_, attaches to the trials of the +protected cruiser Blake, in view of the assertion frequently made by +Admiralty authorities, from the first lord downward, to the effect +that with her sister ship Blenheim she would surpass anything hitherto +attempted. The condition of steaming continuously for long periods and +over great distances at 20 knots per hour was made a ruling condition +in the design, and with forced draught she was to be able to attain 22 +knots when occasion required. But all idea of getting these high +results has been abandoned. Our readers do not need to be reminded of +the frequent failure of boilers in the navy. Although in the newer +ships, profit has been gained by experience, larger boilers being +provided with separate combustion chambers for each furnace; the +Blake's boilers belong to the type of defective design, with the +result that, were they pressed under forced draught, the tubes would +leak. It was, therefore, decided some time ago to be content with +natural draught results, and on Wednesday, Nov. 18, the vessel was +taken out from Portsmouth, and ran for seven hours with satisfactory +results, considerably exceeding the contract power. But the speed was +but 19.12 knots, and 22 knots can never be attained, except, of +course, new boilers be provided, and when an expenditure of 5 or 6 per +cent. of the first cost of the vessel (433,755_l._) would give her new +boilers, it seems a pity to be content with the lesser speed, more +particularly as the vessel is well designed and the engines efficient. + +[Illustration: THE NEW BRITISH CRUISER BLAKE.] + +Before dealing with the engines and their trials, it may be stated +that the vessel is of 9000 tons displacement at 25 ft. 9 in. mean +draught. Her length is 375 ft. and her beam 65 ft. She was built at +Chatham, and the armament consists of two 92 in. 22-ton breech-loading +guns, ten 6-in. 5-ton guns and sixteen 3-pounder quick-firing, and +eight machine guns, with torpedo launching carriages and tubes. The +propelling engines were manufactured by Messrs. Maudslay Sons & Field, +Lambeth. They were designed to develop 13,000 horses with natural, and +20,000 with forced draught. They consist of four distinct sets of +triple expansion inverted cylinder engines, and occupy with boilers, +etc., nearly two-thirds of the length of the ship. They are placed in +four separate compartments, two sets being coupled together on the +starboard and port sides respectively for driving each screw. There +are four high pressure cylinders, 36 in. in diameter; four +intermediate cylinders, 52 in.; and four low pressure cylinders, 80 +in.; with a stroke of 4 ft. Each set of engines has an air pump 33 in. +in diameter and 2 ft. stroke, and a surface condenser having 12,800 +tubes and an aggregate surface of 2250 square feet, the length of the +tubes between the tube plates being 9 ft. There is also in each +compartment one centrifugal circulating pump driven by a small +independent engine, of the diameter of 3 ft. 9 in., and capable of +pumping from the bilge as well as the sea. The screw propellers are 18 +ft. 3 in. in diameter with a mean pitch of 24 ft. 6 in. + +Steam is furnished by six main double-ended boilers, having four +furnaces at each end, and one auxiliary boiler, with a heating surface +of 900 sq. ft., the dimensions of the former being 15 ft. 2 in. by 18 +ft., and of the latter 10 ft. by 9 ft. long. The total area of +firegrate surface is 863 sq. ft, and of heating surface 26.936 sq. ft. +Each engine room is kept cool by four 4 ft. 6 in. fans. Forced draught +is produced by twelve 5 ft. 6 in. fans, three being stationed in each +stokehold. The electric lighting machinery consists of three dynamos +of Siemens manufacture driven by a Willans engine, each of which is +capable of producing a current of 400 amperes. The after main engines +can be easily disconnected and worked separately for slow speeds. + +The Blake had her steering gear tested on Tuesday, Nov. 17. With both +engines going full power ahead and turning to starboard, with her helm +hard over 35 deg., she completed the circle in 4 min. 40 sec., the +port circle being completed in 5 min. 5 sec. The diameter was +estimated approximately to be about 575 yards. Forty-five seconds were +required to change from engine steering to steering by hand. By manual +gear the helm was moved from midships to hard a-starboard in 40 sec., +from starboard to hard a-port in 2 min. 10 sec., and from hard a-port +to midships in 2 min. 20 sec. The heavy balanced rudder and the speed +of the ship throwing great labor upon the crew manning the wheels, the +hand gear was afterward disconnected and the connection with the +steering engine completed in 40 sec. + +[Illustration: THE NEW BRITISH CRUISER BLAKE] + +On Nov. 18, when the vessel went on speed trials, the draught of the +vessel was 24 ft. 8 in. forward and 26 ft. 8 in. aft, which gave her +the mean load immersion provided for in her design. There was a +singular absence of vibration, said to be due to the space over which +the machinery is spread, but perhaps also due, in part at least, to +the number of cranks, as the cylinders deliver six throws throughout +the circle of revolution. The results of each hour's steaming are as +under: + +Hours. Revolutions. Steam. Power. +1st hour 86.86 120.6 13,568 +2d " 89.26 128.0 15,298 +3d " 88.55 125.0 14,251 +4th " 89.58 127.6 14,759 +5th " 89.40 125.0 14,394 +6th " 89.55 125.0 14,512 +7th " 89.15 126.0 14,893 + +The trial was originally intended to continue for eight hours, but at +the end of the seventh, as the light began to fade, and as, moreover, +the engines were working with a smoothness and efficiency that showed +no signs of flagging, it was considered expedient to terminate the +run. + +Steam pressure in boilers 125.5 lb. +Air pressure in stoke holds 0.42 in. +Revolutions per minute, starboard 88.41 +Revolutions per minute, port 89.39 + + | Starboard. | Port. | + +---------+--------+--------+--------| + | Forward| Aft | Forward| Aft | +Vacuum in condensers. | 27.85| 27.85| 28.1 | 29.1 | +Mean pressure in cylinders, high | 43.04| 38.95| 42.36| 42.45| +Mean pressure in cylinders, inter.| 31.49| 30.82| 30.17| 28.38| +Mean pressure in cylinders, low | 11.68| 12.4 | 12.85| 12.32| +Indicated horse power each engine | 3631.42| 3589.07| 3721.37| 3583.50| +Total | 7220.39 | 7304.88 | +Collectively | 14525.37 | + +As will be seen, the collective power exceeds the contract power under +natural draught by 1,525.37 horses, and was obtained with less than +the Admiralty limit of air pressure. The coal used on the occasion was +Harris' deep navigation, but no account was taken of the amount +consumed. Four runs were made on the measured mile with and against +the tide, the mean of means disclosing a speed of 19.12 knots. The +average speed of the seven hours' steaming, as measured by patent log, +was 19.28 knots. This fell short by over three-quarters of a knot of +what was anticipated in proportion to the power indicated by the +engines. Up to the limit of air pressure used the boilers answered +admirably. + + * * * * * + + + + +HINTS TO SHIPMASTERS. + + +A Master in charge of a tramp steamer in these days _must_, if he +wishes for any comfort in life, take good care of himself, for the +pressure and hurry which is inseparable from his position, combined +with the responsibilities and anxieties of his calling, put a very +great strain upon him, and will, in time, unless he takes special +care, have a serious effect on his health; this is more particularly +the case with men of the nervous temperament. It cannot be expected +that in this age, when so many thousands of people on shore fail from +overwork and "high pressure," steamship masters, who as a class, are +overworked and harrassed to a serious extent, should altogether +escape. Again, unless a shipmaster takes an interest in the health, +comfort, and well-being of his crew, he, in the first place, neglects +one of his duties, and, secondly, sows the seeds of discomfort and +annoyance to himself. Let us consider his duties to himself +personally. + +First, then, he must prepare himself to undergo, periodically, the +discomfort of want of proper rest and irregularity in times of meals; +he may, for instance, not be able to leave the bridge for over +forty-eight hours or more on a stretch, and, of course, any shipmaster +who may read this will know that this is no uncommon occurrence; +during this time he may be unable to get regular meals, and what he +does get may have to be eaten in a hurry and at an anxious time when +he cannot properly enjoy and digest it. + +A time like this may be followed by a period of rest, when the days +will hang heavily on his hands, and he will be tempted to long +afternoon sleeps merely to get through the weary hours. + +Now, as a course of this kind of thing is bound, unless care be +exercised, to act unfavorably on the digestion and bring on some form +of dyspepsia, so also the nights and days of great anxiety and moments +of great strain will, besides increasing the dyspeptic tendency, be +apt to bring on nervousness in some form or other. It is a fact that +in these times, and often from want of attention to health, nearly +every shipmaster long in harness is more or less nervous. + +There are people in the present day who have actually talked of making +their chief engineer (who exercises his special trade at sea or on +shore as suits himself and is in no sense _a seaman_) the master of +the vessel, and turning the shipmaster into a mere pilot. Those who +talk in this way forget that to do this the _responsibility_ must be +shifted on to the engineer. Of course such a change as this cannot +happen, the country would not stand it; but I merely mention it to +show the vast amount of ignorance there is, even among those who +should be well informed, as to the real strain and responsibility on +the modern shipmaster. + +The master then, if anxious to do the best for himself, should, if +possible, be a total abstainer, for two reasons: first, because, as he +will be obliged to be irregular in his feeding, alcohol in any form +will do him harm and tend to augment the dyspepsia. Secondly, because, +often in times of great mental strain, combined with exposure, a glass +of spirits will give _great temporary relief_ (which is of itself a +dangerous fact for a weak-minded man), but this will always be +followed by depression, and will in reality be doing great harm +instead of lasting good. Spirituous liquor may be necessary for a few, +but these should use it under medical advice if at all. It is a hard +thing for many men to give up their grog, but there is not a man of +any experience in the merchant service who has not seen its blasting +effects on many a master and officer. It is almost impossible to find +a substitute for it which shall recommend itself to anyone who has +really a liking for it, about the only things being coffee, lime +juice, or lemonade and ginger ale. So-called temperance drinks are all +of them very nasty stuff, besides containing a large percentage of +alcohol; rather than swallow these one had better not change his +habits. The master then, being an abstainer, should also give some +care to his diet. Very heavy meals of meat and strong food should not +be taken at sea, because there are no means of taking proper exercise, +and it is impossible to work them off properly. Again, long, heavy, +after-dinner sleeps should not be indulged in; a quiet nap of ten +minutes would in many cases be beneficial, but the long sleep up to +five o'clock is positively harmful to any man. One of the _best_ +things a master can do is to take up some work. No matter what it is +so long as he takes an interest in it, such as joiner work, fret work, +painting, writing, learning a musical instrument or a foreign +language, or anything of that sort. It will be of incalculable benefit +to both mind and body. + +On occasions when it is absolutely necessary to be on deck for long +periods, the steward ought to have orders to attend _himself +personally_ to the master's wants--to see that his meals are properly +cooked and brought up to him at regular intervals, and that there is +always a _well made_ cup of coffee to be had when wanted. The ordinary +cup of coffee as made at sea is generally a beastly mixture and not +worth drinking. The steward has an easy life and should not be spared +at these times, but should always be turned out when wanted, _night or +day_, and made to look after these things himself, and a man who +growls at having this to do or who will not take the proper trouble to +see things well cooked and served up nicely with cheerfulness should +_at once_ be discharged, and a good man, of whom there are plenty, +shipped in his place. The master, of course, should always be on the +bridge when required, and in fog certainly all the time; but many men +are over-cautious in this respect through sheer nervousness, and +oftentimes expose and fatigue themselves to no purpose, harass their +officers, and make them unreliable, so that when the time comes that +their presence on deck is absolutely necessary, they are, through +exhaustion of mind and body, in anything but a fit state to take +charge of the ship, or be cool and collected in a moment of sudden +emergency. Should a man feel that through hard work and exposure he is +becoming shaky, he should at once leave off _entirely_ the false +relief which drink gives and consult a physician. A _good_ man with +_experience_ will in almost any case be able to help him, and, besides +medicine, give him such hints for regulating his diet and mode of +living as will enable him to bear better than before the strain and +wear and tear of his life.[1] + + [Footnote 1: For the _fluttering_, unsteady feeling often felt, + the following, if not abused, will be found beneficial: Take as + much bromide of potassium as will lie, not heaped up, on a + shilling, and half a teaspoonful of sal volatile (aromatic spirits + of ammonia). Mix in a wine glass full of water; but this should + only be taken when absolutely necessary, and not habitually.] + +As to the crew. A master who has full command of himself ought to be +able to rule judiciously even the most unruly crew, but before he is +in a really _strong_ position to do this, he must treat them fairly +and honestly. In many cases a bad start is made with a new set of men +(of course this will not apply to the high class mail steamers, nor +perhaps to what are termed weekly boats). They come on board and find +their forecastle just as the last crew left it, full of a week's +filth,[2] possibly lumbered up with hauling lines and what-not, +wanting painting badly, and often showing unmistakable signs of +overhead leakage. This is quite enough to make a respectable man +discontented, and naturally so. In common fairness, the often wretched +place that the men have to occupy ought to be put in decent order to +receive the new crew. Again, they should be distinctly made to +understand, when signing articles, what their _food_ will be, and what +their pay and allowances will come to. It is to be feared that bad +feeding is the cause of much trouble in these days. From first coming +on board discipline should be _enforced_; many officers, both young +and old, are greatly remiss in enforcing this, with the consequence +that day by day it is harder to do, till at last it is impossible, and +anarchy reigns triumphant. If a seaman finds that he is _fairly_ +treated, and that he _must_ obey orders, he will in nine cases out of +ten conduct himself well, and give no trouble. The more high class +type of man the master is the better he will treat his men, and the +more exacting he will be in compelling discipline, both in his +officers and crew. + + [Footnote 2: This should not be. It is most decidedly one of the + master's duties to see that the men on _both_ sides of the + forecastle keep their places clean, and for this purpose it is a + very good plan to give them an hour or two every week, and it is + only right that if a crew fled a forecastle clean to receive them, + they should be made to leave it in the same state.] + +Engineers and firemen are often sources of annoyance in these days. +Firemen are a lower class generally than seamen, and more inclined to +insubordination; in many cases the engineers are quite incapable of +keeping them in proper order, and it sometimes happens that in an +engine room row it falls to the lot of the deck officers to restore +discipline. + +The master should remember that his engineers are officers of the +ship, with their own responsibility, that his chief engineer is of +some importance on board, and that it is necessary in the owner's +interests that they should work together amicably. In ordinary cargo +vessels, the engineer is often better educated than the master +himself, and should _never_ be treated as an inferior while he behaves +with proper respect to the master. To his own deck officers the master +should behave with ordinary courtesy, and, if he finds them +trustworthy, should not spoil them and render them unreliable by +always keeping on or about the bridge; an officer who is never left by +himself in charge will soon fancy himself incapable. It is to be +feared that many young officers are spoiled in this way. + +Familiarity with the men before the mast is always unwise. It is not a +good practice in ordinary vessels, where a new crew is shipped each +voyage, to begin by calling the men "Tom" and "Jack." An officer to +have any real command over the men _must_ keep himself apart from them +and show them the difference of their positions. A judicious +shipmaster will warn his young mates about this. + +The usual system of mess room for engineers, the officers messing in +the cabin with the master, is a good one, though it is a question +whether it would not be a _very_ good thing if the chief engineer +always messed with the master so long as he was a decent, respectable +man. It is often one of the causes of ill health in the master that he +keeps too much to himself, seldom if ever speaking to his officers +except on business connected with the ship. A man who does this has +far too much time to think, and if he has any trivial illness is apt +to brood over it and actually make himself ill. + +It is much wiser and better for all concerned that the master should, +within certain limits, be on friendly terms at any rate with his first +mate, if not with all his officers. Any man with common tact can +always find means for checking undue familiarity, and it will +generally be found that officers treated as equals instead, as is +often the case, as though they were an inferior race of beings, will +be much more inclined to do their work with zeal, and to back up the +master in all his troubles. Many men when they get command seem to +forget that they ever were officers themselves. It is the general +opinion that the strict ship is the most comfortable one, and as a +rule the master who will take the trouble to enforce proper discipline +fore and aft is just the very man who will also be considerate and +courteous to those who sail under his command--whatever be their rank. + +To govern others well a man _must_ first have learned to govern +himself. The first lesson for a young seaman to learn is obedience, +and unless he does learn this lesson he will not know how to enforce +it when he becomes an officer, and still less will he be fit for his +position when he obtains command. It is to be feared that many _never_ +learn this lesson, and that this is the cause of much of the +insubordination rife in these days. + +If the modern hard-driven shipmaster would exercise greater care as to +his health and habits, and would strive more after being a true +_master_ over his ship's company, and this is easier to be gained by +respect than fear, things would go on more smoothly, and when he did +get away for a time from all the petty annoyances of shore, which are +more especially felt in his home port, he would have a time of +comparative comfort, would live longer and happier, and, possibly, +escape the terrible attacks of nervous depression which have finished +the career of many a too finely strung _fin de siecle_ shipmaster. +--_Nautical Magazine._ + + * * * * * + + + + +ALFRED TENNYSON. + + +Alfred Tennyson, the poet laureate of England, was born at Sornersby, +Lincolnshire, April 9, 1810, and was the third of a large family of +children, eight of whom were boys and three girls. His father was a +clergyman, a man of remarkably fine abilities; his mother, as should +be the mother of a great poet, was a deeply religious woman with a +sensitive spirit that was keenly attuned to the aspects of nature. It +was from her that Tennyson inherited his poetic temperament combined +with the love of study that was a characteristic of his father. +Tennyson's brother, Charles, superintended the construction of his +younger brother's first poetic composition, which was written upon a +slate when the great laureate was a child of seven. Tennyson's parents +were people who had sufficient of this world's wealth to educate their +sons well, and Alfred was sent to Trinity College, where he as a mere +lad won the gold medal for a poem in blank verse entitled "Timbuctoo," +which is to be found in all the volumes of his collected works, though +many of the other poems produced in that period are not given place. + +[Illustration: ALFRED TENNYSON, POET LAUREATE OF ENGLAND.] + +His first volume of poems was published in 1827, and in them the +influence of Byron, whom he passionately admired, is everywhere +visible. In 1830 he issued another volume, which defined his position +as a poet of great promise, but which was criticised by Christopher +North with the most biting sarcasm, and which was held up to ridicule +by the great Lockhart. More than ten years followed in which the poet +wrote nothing, then he began a literary career which lifted him to the +highest place in the literary world, a place which he has since held, +and as a lyric poet he has never been equaled. + +In 1850 he issued that most wonderful production in any language, "In +Memoriam," which has enriched the English language by hundreds of +quotations and which in its delicate sentiment, its deep sorrow, its +reflective tenderness, has been the voice of many a soul similarly +bereft. + +Had Tennyson never written anything but "In Memoriam," his fame would +have been assured, but "The Idylls of the King," "Enoch Arden," "The +Princess," and other great compositions will stand forever to his +credit. Of Tennyson's personal character much has been said and +written. As pure and sweet as his poetry, beloved by a large circle of +friends, active still in literary work, it may be said of him that he +has always worn + + "without reproach + The grand old name of gentleman," + +and that his mellow old age is the ripening into fruit of "the white +flower of a blameless life."--_Chicago Graphic._ + + * * * * * + + + + +FIFTIETH YEAR OF THE PRINCE OF WALES. + + +In the case of a distinguished person whose public life has a claim to +be regarded with national and social interest, his fiftieth birthday +must be considered a jubilee; and Monday, Nov. 9, in the present year, +completing that number of anniversaries for the eldest son of her +Majesty the Queen, the heir apparent to the crown of the United +Kingdom, is manifestly an occasion demanding such congratulations as +must arise from sentiments of loyalty to the monarchical constitution +and of respect for the reigning family. His Royal Highness, it is +understood, has preferred to have it treated simply as a private and +domestic affair, entertaining a party of his personal friends, and not +inviting any formal addresses from the representatives of municipal +corporations or other public bodies. Nevertheless, it may be permitted +to journalists, taking note of this period in the life of so important +a contemporary personage, to express their continued good wishes for +his health and happiness, and to indulge in a few retrospective +observations on his past career. + +Born on Nov. 9, 1841, second of the offspring of Queen Victoria by her +marriage with the late Prince Consort, Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, +inherited the greatest blessing of humanity, that of having good +parents and wise guardians of his childhood and youth. His instruction +at home was, no doubt, wider in range of studies than that of ordinary +English boys, including an acquaintance with several European +languages and with modern history, needful to qualify him for the +duties of a prince. He was further educated at Christ Church, Oxford, +and at Trinity College, Cambridge; was enrolled a law student of the +Middle Temple and held a commission in the army. + +His earliest appearance in a leading part on any public occasion was +in 1858 or 1859, we think at the laying of the foundation stone of the +Lambeth School of Art at Vauxhall; but after the lamented death of his +father, in December, 1861, the Prince of Wales naturally became the +most eminent and desirable performer of all ceremonies in which +beneficent or useful undertakings were to be recognized by royal +approval. This work has occupied a very large share of his time during +thirty years; and we can all testify that it has been discharged with +such frank good will, cordiality, and unaffected graciousness, with +such patient attention, diligence, and punctuality, as to deserve the +gratitude of large numbers of her Majesty's subjects in almost every +part of the kingdom. No prince of any country in any age has ever +personally exerted himself more constantly and faithfully, in +rendering services of this kind to the community, than the Prince of +Wales. The multiplicity and variety of his engagements, on behalf of +local and special objects of utility, would make a surprising list, +and they must have involved a sacrifice of ease and leisure, and +endurance of self-imposed restraint, a submission to tedious +repetitions of similar acts and scenes, and to continual requests and +importunities, which few men of high rank would like to undergo. + +[Illustration: THE PRINCE OF WALES AND FAMILY--FROM THE PHOTOGRAPH OF +MESSRS. BYRNE, RICHMOND.] + +The marriage of his Royal Highness to Princess Alexandra of Denmark, +on March 10, 1863, was one of the happiest events within the memory of +this generation. It tended visibly, of course, to raise and confirm +his position as leader of English society, and as the active dispenser +of that encouragement which royalty can bestow on commendable public +objects. Charity, education, science, art, music, industry, +agriculture, and local improvements are in no small measure advanced +by this patronage. The Prince of Wales may not be so learned in some +of these matters as his accomplished father, but he has taken as much +trouble to assist the endless labors of the immediate agents, in doing +which he has shown good judgment and discretion, and a considerable +degree of business talent--notably, in the British preparations for +the Paris Exhibition of 1867, the Indian and Colonial Exhibition of +1886 in London, and the organization of the Imperial Institute. The +last-named institution and the Royal College of Music will be +permanent memorials of the directing energy of the Prince of Wales. + +These are but a few examples or slight indications of the work he has +actually done for us all. It is unnecessary to mention the incidental +salutary influences of his visits to Canada and to India, which have +left an abiding favorable impression of English royalty in those +provinces of the empire. Nor can it be requisite to observe the manner +in which the prince's country estate and mansion at Sandringham, with +his care of agricultural improvement, of stock breeding, studs, and +other rural concerns, has set an example to landowners, the value of +which is already felt. We refrain upon this occasion from speaking of +the Princess of Wales, or of the sons and daughters, whose lives, we +trust, will be always good and happy. It is on the personal merits and +services of the head of their illustrious house, with reference only +to public interests, that we have thought it needful to dwell, in view +of the fiftieth birthday of his Royal Highness; and very heartily to +wish him, in homely English phrase, "Many happy returns of the +day!"--_Illustrated London News._ + + * * * * * + + + + +DEVELOPMENT WITH SUCRATE OF LIME. + + +I have experimented with carbonate of lithia as an accelerator, and I +have obtained with it rather favorable results. However, in opposition +to Mr. Wickers, I have always found that carbonate of lithia, used +even in larger doses than those recommended by this author, was not +sufficiently active, and that development had to be too much prolonged +in order to obtain prints of good intensity. I have also observed that +the prints developed by this process were as often fogged as when I +made use of carbonate of potash. The oxides of alkaline metals or +their alkaline salts are not the only accelerators susceptible of +being used in pyro development. Two oxides of the earthy alkaline +metals, lime and hydrate of barytes, may also be used as accelerators. +I will not insist upon the second, which, although giving some +results, should be rejected from photographic practice on account of +its caustic properties, and of its too great affinity for the carbonic +acids in the air, which prevents the keeping of its solutions. This +objection does not obtain for the first, provided, however, that +ordinary lime water is not used, but a solution of succharate or +sucrate of lime. In my experiments I have made use of the following +solutions: + + _Solution A._ + +Pyrogallic acid. 10 grms. +Sulphite of soda. 20 " +Citric acid. 2 " +Water. 120 " + + _Solution B._ +Water. 1000 " +Sugar. sufficient quantity to triturate. + +To which add a sufficient quantity of pure lime to saturate the sugar +solution. + +In this manner we get a highly concentrated liquid, very alkaline, and +which keeps for a considerable time. To develop, I mix: + +Water. 80 cubic cent. +Solution A. 2 " " + +I throw this over the plate, and allow it to remain for a few moments, +agitating, then I add to this bath gradually and according to the +results obtained, from one to two cubic centimeters of the solution B. +These solutions should be made with a great deal of care and prudence, +as the sucrate of lime is an accelerator of very great energy. +Moreover, according as the plate has been more or less exposed, we may +add to the developing bath a few drops of a solution of citric acid, +or of a solution of an alkaline bromide. We obtain in this way very +soft prints, sometimes too soft, which, however, are not more free +from fogging than plates developed with hydrochinon (new bath), or +pyro having for accelerators ammonia, potash, soda, carbonate of +potash, of soda, or of lithia. I do not give this process with sucrate +of lime as perfect, but I give it as perfectable and susceptible of +application. If I have undertaken to write these few lines it is +because it has never been brought to my knowledge that up to the +present time the oxides and the alkaline salts of the earthy alkaline +metals have been studied from a photographic point of view.--_Leon +Degoix in Photo. Gazette._ + + * * * * * + + + + +DUCK HUNTING IN SCOTLAND. + + +The wild duck is a shy bird, apt to spread his wings and change his +quarters when a noble sportsman is seen approaching his habitation +with a fowling piece. You have heard of the ass who put on a lion's +skin, and wandered out into the wilderness and brayed. I have +elaborated a device of equal ingenuity and more convincing realism. It +is my habit during the duck-shooting season to put on the skin of a +Blondin donkey and so roam among the sedges bordering on the lakes +where wild ducks most do congregate. I have cut a hole in the face to +see through, and other holes in the legs to put my hands +through.--_London Graphic_ + +[Illustration: WILDFOWL SHOOTING IN SCOTLAND.] + + * * * * * + + + + +A PLEA FOR THE COMMON TELESCOPE.[1] + +By G.E. LUMSDEN. + + [Footnote 1: Paper read before the Astronomical and Physical + Society of Toronto, Canada, April 18, 1891.] + + +These are the palmiest days in the eventful history of physical and +observational astronomy. Along the whole line of professional and +amateur observation substantial progress is being made, but in certain +new directions, and in some old ones, too, the advance is very rapid. +As never before, public interest is alive to the attractions and value +of the work of astronomers. The science itself now appeals to a +constituency of students and readers daily increasing in numbers and +importance. Evidence of this gratifying fact is easily obtained. There +is at the libraries an ever-growing demand for standard astronomical +works, some of them by no means intended to be of a purely popular +character. Some of the most influential and conservative magazines on +both sides of the Atlantic now find it to be in their interest to +devote pages of space to the careful discussion of new theories, or to +the results of the latest work of professional observers. Even the +daily press in some cities has caught the infection, if infection it +may be called. There are in New York, Philadelphia, St. Louis, and +other centers of population on this continent leading newspapers +which, every week or so, publish columns of original matter +contributed by writers evidently able to place before their readers in +an attractive form articles dealing accurately, and yet in a popular +vein, with the many-sided subject of astronomy. In scientific matters +generally, there is abroad in this and other countries a spirit of +inquiry, never more apparent than at the present time. + +Readers and thinkers may, no doubt, be numbered by thousands. So far, +however, as astronomy is concerned, the majority of readers and +thinkers is composed of non-observers, most of whom believe they must +be content with studying the theoretical side of the subject only. +They labor under the false impression that unless they have telescopes +of large aperture and other costly apparatus, the pleasures attaching +to practical work are denied them. The great observatories, to which +every intelligent eye is directed, are, in a measure, though +innocently enough, responsible for this. Anticipation is ever on +tiptoe. People are naturally awaiting the latest news from the giant +refracting and reflecting telescopes of the day. Under these +circumstances, it may be that the services rendered, and capable of +being rendered, to science by smaller apertures may be overlooked, +and, therefore, I ask to be permitted to put in a modest plea for the +common telescope. What little I shall have to say will be addressed to +you more for the purpose of arousing interest in the subject than for +communicating to you any information of a novel or special character. + +When making use of the term "common telescope," I would like to be +understood as referring to good refractors with object glasses not +exceeding three or three and one-half inches in diameter. In some +works on the subject telescopes as large as five inches or even five +and one-half inches are included in the description "common," but +instruments of such apertures are not so frequently met with in this +country as to justify the classing of them with smaller ones, and, +perhaps, for my purpose, it is well that such is the fact, for the +expense connected with the purchase of first rate telescopes increases +very rapidly in proportion to the size of the object glass, and soon +becomes a serious matter. Should ever the larger apertures become +numerous on this continent, let us hope it shall be found to have been +as one of the results of societies like this, striving to make more +popular the study of astronomy. + +It is not by any means proposed to inflict upon you a history of the +telescope, but your indulgence is asked for a few moments while +reference is made to one or two matters connected with its invention, +or, rather, its accidental discovery and subsequent improvement. + +The opening years of the seventeenth century found the world without a +telescope, or, at least, such an instrument as was adapted for +astronomical work. It is true that long years before, Arabian and some +other eastern astronomers, for the purpose, possibly, of enabling them +to concentrate their gaze upon celestial objects and follow their +motions, had been accustomed to use a kind of tube consisting of a +long cylinder without glasses of any kind and open at both ends. For +magnifying purposes, this tube was of no value. Still, it must have +been of some kind of service, or else the first telescopes, as +constructed by the spectacle makers, who had stumbled upon the +principle involved, were exceedingly sorry affairs, for, soon after +their introduction, the illustrious Kepler, in his work on "Optics," +recommended the employment of plain apertures, without lenses, because +they were superior to the telescope on account of their freedom from +refraction. + +But as soon as the principle by which distant objects could, +apparently, be brought nearer the eye became known and its value +recognized by philosophers, telescopes ceased to be regarded as toys, +and underwent material improvements in the hands of such men as +Galilei, and, later, even of Kepler himself, Cassini, Huyghens, and +others. Galilei's first telescope magnified but three times, and his +best not much above thirty times. If I comprehend aright what has been +written upon the subject, I am justified in saying that this little +instrument in my hand, with an aperture of one inch and one-quarter, +and a focus, with an astronomical eye-piece, of about ten inches, is a +better magnifier than was Galilei's best. With it I can see the moons +of Jupiter, some spots on the sun, the phases of Venus, the +composition, in some places, of the Milky Way, the seas, the valleys, +the mountains, and, when in bold relief upon the terminator, even some +of the craters and cones of the moon. Indeed, I am of opinion I can +see even more than he could, for I can readily make out a considerable +portion of the Great Nebula in Orion, some double stars, and enough of +the Saturnian system to discern the disk of the planet and see that +there is something attached to its sides. + +For nearly one hundred and fifty years all refracting telescopes +labored under one serious difficulty. The images formed by them were +more or less confused by rainbow tints, due to the bending, or +refracting, by the object glass of the rays of light. To overcome this +obstacle to clear vision, and also to secure magnification, the focal +lengths of the instruments were greatly extended. Telescopes 38, 50, +78, 130, 160, 210, 400, and even 600 feet long were constructed. I +can, however, find nothing on record indicating that the object +glasses of these enormously attenuated instruments ever exceeded in +diameter two and one-half inches. Yet, with unwieldy and ungainly +telescopes, nearly always defining badly, wonders were accomplished by +the painstaking and indomitable observers of the time. + +In 1658, Huyghens, using a telescope twenty-three feet long and two +and one-third inches in diameter, with a power of 100, solved the +mystery of Saturn's rings, which had resisted all of Galilei's efforts +as well as his own with a shorter instrument, though he had discovered +Titan, Saturn's largest moon, and fixed correctly its period of +revolution at sixteen days. Fifteen years later, Ball, with a +telescope thirty-eight feet long, discovered the principal division in +the rings. Ten years still later, Cassini, with an instrument twenty +feet long and an object glass two and one-half inches in diameter, +rediscovered the division, which was named after him, rather than +after Ball, who had taken no pains to make widely known his discovery, +which, in the meantime, had been forgotten. Though we have no record, +there is no doubt that the lamented Horrocks and Crabtree, in England, +in 1639, with glasses no better than these, watched with exultant +emotions the first transit of Venus ever seen by human eyes. + +In 1722, Bradley, with a telescope 2231/4 feet long, succeeded in +measuring the diameter of the same planet. Yet Grant assures us that, +in spite of all their difficulties, such was the industry of the +astronomers that when, at the commencement of this century, it became +possible to construct larger refracting telescopes, there was nothing +to be discovered that could have been discovered with the means at +their disposal. So far as we now know, a good three-inch telescope, +nay, a first-rate two inch one, will show far more than our +great-grandfathers ever saw, or dreamed of seeing, with their +refractors. + +Toward the middle of the seventeenth century the reflecting telescope +had been so much improved as nearly to crowd out its refracting rival, +but, just as its success seemed to be assured, Dollond, working along +lines partially followed up by Hall, found a combination of lenses by +which the chromatic aberration of the refractor could be very +perfectly corrected. While Dollond's invention was of immense value, +it remained that flint object glasses larger than two and one-half +inches in diameter could not, for some years, be manufactured, but +about the opening of the nineteenth century, Guinand, a Swiss, +discovered a process of making masses of optical flint glass +sufficiently large as to admit of the construction from them of +excellent lenses of sizes gradually increasing as time and +experimenting went on. The making of three-inch objectives, achromatic +and of short focus, wrought a revolution in telescopes and renewed the +demand for refractors, though prices, as compared with those of the +present day, were very great. But improvement was succeeded by +improvement. Larger and still larger objectives were made, yet +progress was not so rapid as not to justify Grant, in 1852, in +declaring to be a "munificent gift" the presentation, about 1838, to +Greenwhich Observatory, of a six and seven-tenths object glass alone, +and so it was esteemed by Mr. Airy, the astronomer royal. Improvement +is still the order of the day, and, as a result of keen competition, +very excellent telescopes of small aperture can be purchased at +reasonable prices. Great telescopes are enormously expensive, and will +probably be so until they are superseded by some simple invention +which shall be as superior to them as they are to the "mighty" +instruments which, from time to time, caused such sensations in the +days of Galilei, Cassini, Huyghens, Bradley, Dollond, and those who +came after them. + +But, notable as are the services rendered to science by giant +telescopes, it remains that by far the greater bulk of useful work has +been done by apertures of less than twelve inches in diameter. Indeed, +it may be asserted that most of such work has been done by instruments +of six inches or less in size. After referring with some detail to +this, Denning tells us that "nearly all the comets, planetoids, double +stars, etc., owe their detection to small instruments; that our +knowledge of sun spots, lunar and planetary features is also very +largely derived from similar sources; that there is no department +which is not indebted to the services of small telescopes, and that of +some thousands of drawings of celestial objects, made by observers +employing instruments from three to seventy-two inches in diameter, a +careful inspection shows that the smaller instruments have not been +outdone in this interesting field of observation, owing to their +excellent defining powers and the facility with which they are used." +Aperture for aperture, the record is more glorious for the "common +telescope" than for its great rivals. Let us for a moment recall +something of what has been done with instruments which may be embraced +under the designation "common" as such a statement may serve to remove +impressions that small telescopes are but of little use in +astronomical work. + +In his unrivaled book, Webb declares that his observations were +chiefly made with a telescope five and one-half feet long, carrying an +object glass of a diameter of three and seven-tenths inches. The +instrument was of "fair defining quality," and one has but to read his +delightful pages in order to form an idea of the countless pleasures +Webb derived from observation with it. Speaking of it, he says that +smaller ones will, of course, do less, especially with faint objects, +but are often very perfect and distinct, and that even diminutive +glasses, if good, will, at least, show something never seen without +them. He adds: "I have a little hand telescope twenty-two and +one-quarter inches long, when fully drawn out, with a focus of about +fourteen inches, and one and one-third inches aperture; this, with an +astronomical eye-piece, will show the _existence_ of sun spots, the +mountains in the moon, Jupiter's satellites and Saturn's ring." In +another place, speaking of the sun, he says that an object glass of +only two inches will exhibit a curdled or marbled appearance over the +whole solar disk, caused by the intermixture of spaces of different +brightness. And I may add here that Dawes recommends a small aperture +for sun work, including spectroscopic examinations, he himself, like +Mr. Miller, our librarian, preferring to use for that purpose a four +inch refractor. + +As you know, the North Star is a most beautiful double. Its companion +is of the ninth order of magnitude, that is, three magnitudes smaller +than the smallest star visible to the naked eye on a dark night. There +was a time when Polaris, as a double, was regarded as an excellent +test for a good three inch telescope; that is any three inch +instrument in which the companion could be seen was pronounced to be +first-class. But so persistently have instruments of small aperture +been improved that that star is no longer an absolute test for three +inch objectives of fine quality, or any first-rate objective exceeding +two inches for which Dawes proposed it as a standard of excellence, he +having found that if the eye and telescope be good, the companion to +Polaris may be seen with such an aperture armed with a power of +eighty. As a matter of fact, Dawes, who was, like Burnham, blessed +with most acute vision, saw the companion with an instrument no larger +than this small one in my hand--one inch and three-tenths. Ward saw it +with an inch and one-quarter objective, and Dawson with so small an +aperture as one inch. T.T. Smith has seen it with a reflector stopped +down to one inch and one-quarter, while in the instrument still known +as the "great Dorpat reflector," it has been seen in broad daylight. +This historic telescope has, I believe, a twelve inch object glass, +but the difficulty of seeing in sunshine so minute a star is such that +the fact may fairly be mentioned here. + +Another interesting feature is this. Objects once discovered, though +thought to be visible in large telescopes only, may often be seen in +much smaller ones. The first Herschel said truly that less optical +power will show an object than was required for its discovery. The +rifts, or canals, in the Great Nebula in Andromeda is a case in point, +but two better illustrations may be taken from the planets. Though +Saturn was for many years subjected to most careful scrutiny by +skilled astronomers using the most powerful telescopes in existence, +the crape ring eluded discovery until November, 1850, when it was +independently seen by Dawes, in England, and Bond, in the United +States. Both were capital observers and employed excellent instruments +of large aperture, and it was naturally presumed that only such +instruments could show the novel Saturnian feature. Not so. Once +brought to the attention of astronomers, Webb saw the new ring with +his three and seven-tenths telescope and Ross with an aperture not +exceeding three and three-eighths in diameter. Nay, I am permitted to +say that a venerable member of this society made drawings of it with a +three inch refractor. With a two inch objective, Grover not only saw +the crape ring, but Saturn's belts, as well, and the shadow cast by +the ball of the planet upon its system of rings. Titan, Saturn's +largest moon, is merely a point of light as compared with the planet, +as it appears in a telescope, yet it has been seen, so it is said, +with a one inch glass. The shadow of this satellite, while crossing +the face of Saturn, has been observed by Banks with a two and +seven-eighths objective. By hiding the glare of the planet behind an +occulting bar, some of Saturn's smallest moons were seen by Kitchener +with a two and seven-tenths aperture and by Capron with a two and +three-fourths one. Banks saw four of them with a three and +seven-eighths telescope, Grover two of them with a three and +three-quarter inch, and four inches of aperture will show five of +them, so Webb says. Rhea, Dione and Tethys are more minute than +Japetus, yet Cassini, with his inferior means, discerned them and +traced their periods. Take the instance of Mars next. It was long +believed that Mars had no satellites. But in 1877, during one of the +highly favorable oppositions of that planet which occur but once in +about sixteen years, the able Hall, using the great 26 inch refractor +at Washington, discovered two tiny moons which had never been seen +before. One of these, called Deimos, is only six miles in diameter, +the other, named Phobos, is only seven, and both are exceedingly close +to the primary and in rapid revolution. The diameter of these +satellites is really less than the distance from High Park, on the +west of Toronto, to Woodbine race course, on the east of the city. No +wonder these minute objects--seldom, if ever, nearer to us than about +forty millions of miles--are difficult to see at all. Newcomb and +Holden tell us that they are invisible save at the sixteen year +periods referred to, when it happens that the earth and Mars, in their +respective orbits, approach each other more nearly than at any other +time. But once discovered, the rule held good even in the case of the +satellites of Mars. Pratt has seen Deimos, the outermost moon, with an +eight and one-seventh inch telescope; Erek has seen it with a seven +and one-third inch achromatic; Trouvellot, the innermost one, with a +six and three-tenths glass, while Common believes that any one who can +make out Enceladus, one of Saturn's smallest moons, can see those of +Mars by hiding the planet at or near the elongations, and that even +our own moonlight does not prevent the observations being made. It +chances for the benefit of observers, in the northern hemisphere +especially, that one of the sixteen year periods will culminate in +1893, when Mars will be most advantageously situated for close +examination. No doubt every one will avail himself of the opportunity, +and may we not reasonably hope that scores of amateur observers +throughout the United States and Canada will experience the delight of +seeing and studying the tiny moons of our ruddy neighbor? + +And so I might proceed until I had wearied you with illustrations +showing what can be done with telescopes so small that they may fairly +be classed as "common," Webb says that such apertures, with somewhat +high powers, will reveal stars down to the eleventh magnitude. The +interesting celestial objects more conspicuous than stars of that +magnitude are sufficiently numerous to exhaust much more time than any +amateur can give to observing. Indeed, the lot of the amateur is a +happy one. With a good, though small, telescope, he may have for +subjects of investigation the sun with his spots, his faculae, his +prominences and spectra; the moon, a most superb object in nearly +every optical instrument, with her mountains, valleys, seas, craters, +cones, and ever-changing aspects renewed every month, her occupations +of stars, her eclipses, and all that; the planets, some with phases, +and other with markings, belts, rings, and moons with scores of +occupations, eclipses and transits due to their easily observed +rotation around their primaries; the nebulae, the double, triple and +multiple stars with sometimes beautifully contrasted colors, and a +thousand and one other means of amusing and instructing himself. +Nature has opened in the heavens as interesting a volume as she has +opened on the earth, and with but little trouble any one may learn to +read in it. + +I trust it has been shown that expensive telescopes are not +necessarily required for practical work. My advice to an intending +purchaser would be to put into the objective for a refractor, or into +the mirror for a reflector, all the money he feels warranted in +spending, leaving the mounting to be done in the cheapest possible +manner consistent with accuracy of adjustment, because it is in the +objective or in the mirror that the _value_ of the telescope alone +resides. In the shops may be found many telescopes gorgeous in +polished tubes and brass mountings which, for effective work, are +absolutely worthless. On this subject, I consulted the most eminent of +all discoverers of double stars, an observer who, even as an amateur, +made a glorious reputation by the work done with a six inch telescope. +I refer to Mr. S.W. Burnham, of the Lick Observatory, who, in reply, +kindly wrote: "You will certainly have no difficulty in making out a +strong case in favor of the use of small telescopes in many +departments of important astronomical work. Most of the early +telescopic work was done with instruments which would now be +considered as inferior to modern instruments, in quality as well as in +size. You are doubtless familiar with much of the amateur work, in +this country and elsewhere, done with comparatively small apertures. +_The most important condition is to have the refractor_, whatever its +size may be, _of the highest optical perfection_, and then the rest +will depend on the zeal and industry of the observer." The italics are +mine. + +Incidentally, it may be mentioned that much most interesting work may +be done even with an opera glass, as a few minutes' systematic +observation on any fine night will prove. Newcomb and Holden assure us +that "if Hipparchus had had even such an optical instrument, mankind +need not have waited two thousand years to know the nature of the +Milky Way, nor would it have required a Galilei to discover the phases +of Venus or the spots on the sun." To amplify the thought, if that +mighty geometer and observer and some of his contemporaries had +possessed but the "common telescope," is it not probable that in the +science of astronomy the world would have been to-day two thousand +years in advance of its present position? + + * * * * * + + + + +ARCHAEOLOGICAL DISCOVERIES AT CADIZ. + + +Those who have had the good fortune to visit Andalusia, that +privileged land of the sun, of light, songs, dances, beautiful girls, +and bull fighters, preserve, among many other poetical and pleasing +recollections, that of election to antique and smiling Cadiz--the +"pearl of the ocean and the silver cup," as the Andalusians say in +their harmonious and imaginative language. There is, in fact, nothing +exaggerated in these epithets, for they translate a true impression. +Especially if we arrive by sea, there is nothing so thrilling as the +dazzling silhouette which, from afar, is reflected all white from the +mirror of a gulf almost always blue. + +The Cadiz peninsula has for centuries been legitimately renowned, for, +turn by turn, Phenicians, properly so called, Carthaginians, Romans, +Goths, Arabs and Spaniards have made of it the preferred seat of their +business and pleasure. In his so often unsparing verses, Martial, +even, celebrates with an erotic rapture the undulating suppleness of +the ballet dancers of _Gades_, who are continued in our day by the +_majas_ and _chulas_. + +[Illustration: PHENICIAN TOMBS DISCOVERED AT CADIZ.] + +For an epoch anterior to that of the Latin poet, we have the +testimony, among others, of Strabo, who describes the splendors, +formerly and for a long time famous, of the temple of Hercules, and +who gives many details, whose accuracy can still be verified, +concerning various questions of topography or ethnography. Thus the +superb tree called _Dracaena draco_ is mentioned as growing in the +vicinity of _Gadeira_, the Greek name of the city. Now, some of these +trees still exist in certain public and private gardens, and attract +so much the more attention in that they are not met with in any other +European country. However, although historically Cadiz finds her title +to nobility on every page of the Greek and Latin authors, and although +her Phenician origin is averred, nowhere has such origin, in a +monumental and epigraphic sense, left fewer traces than in the +Andalusian peninsula. A few short legends, imperfectly read upon +either silver or bronze coins, and that was all, at least up to recent +times. Such penury as this distressed savants and even put them into +pretty bad humor with the Cadiz archaeologists. + +To-day, it seems that the ancient Semitic civilization, which has +remained mute for so long in the Iberic territory, is finally willing +to yield up her secret, as is proved by the engravings which we +present to our readers from photographs taken _in situ_. It is +necessary for us to enter into some details. + +In 1887 there were met with at the gates of Cadiz, at about five +meters beneath the surface of the earth, three rude tombs of shelly +limestone, in which were found some skeletons, a few small bronze +instruments and some trinkets--the latter of undoubted oriental +manufacture. + +In one of these tombs was also inclosed a monolithic sarcophagus of +white marble of the form called anthropoid and measuring 2.15 m. in +length by 0.67 in width. This sarcophagus is now preserved in the +local museum, whose director is the active, intelligent and +disinterested Father Vera. Although this is not the place to furnish +technical or scientific explanations, it will be permitted us to point +out the fact that although it is of essentially oriental manufacture, +our anthropoid has undoubtedly undergone the Hellenistic influence, +which implies an epoch posterior to that of Pericles, who died in 429 +B.C. The personage represented, a man of mature age with noble +lineaments and aquiline nose, has thick hair corned up on the forehead +in the form of a crown, and a beard plaited in the Asiatic fashion. As +for the head, which is almost entirely executed in round relief, that +denotes in an undoubted manner the Hellenistic influence, united, +however, with the immutable and somewhat hierarchical traditions of +Phenician art. The arms are naked as far as to the elbow, and the +feet, summarily indicated, emerge from a long sheath-form robe. As for +the arms and hands, they project slightly and are rather outlined than +sculptured. The left hand grasps a fruit, the emblem of fecundity, +while the right held a painted crown, the traces of which have now +entirely disappeared. It suffices to look at this sarcophagus to +recognize the exclusively Phenician character of it, and the complete +analogy with the monuments of the same species met with in Phenicia, +in Cyprus, in Sicily, in Malta, in Sardinia, and everywhere where were +established those of Tyre and Sidon, but never until now in Spain. + +On another hand, for those of our readers who are interested in +archaeology, we believe it our duty to point out as a source of +information a memoir published last year by our National Society of +Antiquaries. Let us limit ourselves, therefore, to fixing attention +upon one important point: The marble anthropoid was protected by a +tomb absolutely like the rude tombs contiguous to it. + +The successive discoveries since the third of last January at nearly +the same place, and at a depth of from 3 to 6 meters beneath the +surface, of numerous _Inculi_ absolutely identical as to material and +structure with those of which we have just spoken, is therefore a +scientific event of high importance. Those discoveries, which were +purely accidental, were brought about by the work on the foundations +of the Maritime Arsenal now in course of construction at the gates of +Cadiz. Our Fig. 1 represents the unearthing of the _loculi_ on the +14th of April, and on the value of which there is no need to dwell. As +to the dimensions, it is easy to judge of these, since the laborer +standing to the left of the spectator holds in his hand a meter +measure serving as a scale. It will suffice to state that the depth of +each tomb is about two meters, and that upon the lower part of three +of the parallelopipeds there exist pavements of crucial appearance. +Finally, nothing denoted externally the existence of these sarcophagi +jealously hidden from investigation according to a usage that is +established especially by the imprecations graven upon the basaltic +casket now preserved in the Museum of the Louvre, and which contained +the ashes of Eshmanazar, King of Sidon. + +[Illustration: ANTHROPOID SARCOPHAGUS DISCOVERED AT CADIZ.] + +Space is wanting to furnish ampler information. Our object is simply +to call attention to a zone which is somewhat neglected from a +scientific point of view, and which, however, seems as if it ought to +offer a valuable field of investigation to students of things Semitic, +among whom, as well known, our compatriots hold a rank apart, since it +is to them that falls the laborious and very honorable duty of +collecting and editing the inscriptions in Semitic languages. + +On another hand, although in the beginning the sepulchers were taken +to pieces and carried away (two of them imperfectly reconstructed may +be seen in the garden of the Cadizian Museum), there will be an +opportunity of making prevail the system of maintaining _in situ_ the +various monuments that may hereafter be discovered. Thus only could +one, at a given moment, obtain an accurate idea of what the Phenician +necropolis of Cadiz was, and allow the structures that compose it to +preserve their imposing stamp of rustic indestructibility. + +The excavation is being carried on at this very moment, and a bronze +statuette of an oriental god and various trinkets of more or less +value have just enriched the municipal collection. Let us hope, then, +as was recently predicted by Mr. Clermont Ganneau, of the Institute, +that some day or another some Semitic inscription will throw a last +ray of light upon the past, which is at present so imperfectly known, +of Phenician Cadiz.--_L'Illustration._ + + * * * * * + + + + +PREHISTORIC HORSE IN AMERICA. + + +_To the Editor of the Scientific American_: + +Apropos to Professor Cope's remarks before the A.A.A.S. at Washington, +reported in SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, September 12, inclose sketch of a +mounted man, whether on a horse or some other mammal, is a question +open to criticism. + +[Illustration: Height, 43 in.; length, 63 in. San Rafiel del Sur, 1878 +Drawn for and forwarded to Peabody Museum--No. 53.] + +The figure seems incomplete--whether a cloven foot or toes were +intended, cannot say. + +A large fossil horse was exhumed in the marsh north of Granada, when +ditching in 1863. Then Lake Managua's outlet at Fipitapa ceased its +usual supply of water to Lake Nicaragua. When notified of the +discovery the spot was under water. Only one of the very large teeth +was given to me, which was forwarded to Prof. Baird, of +Smithsonian--Private No. 34. + +When Lake Nicaragua was an ocean inlet, its track extended to foot +hills northward. Its waterworn pebbles and small bowlders were +subsequently covered by lake deposit, during the time between the +inclosure and break out at San Carlos. In this deposit around the lake +(now dry) fossil bones occur--elephas, megatherium, horse, etc. The +large alluvium plains north of lake, cut through by rivers, allow +these bones to settle on their rocky beds. This deposit is of greater +depth in places west of lake. + +Now, if we suppose these animals were exterminated in glacial times, +it remains for us to show when this was consummated. + +Subsequent to the lake deposit and exposure no new proofs of its +continuance are found. + +1. This deposit occurred after the coast range was elevated. + +2. Elevation was caused by a volcanic ash eruption, 5 or 6 of a +series. (Geologically demonstrated in my letters to _Antiquarian_ and +_Science_.) + +3. Coast hills inclosed sea sediment, now rock containing fossil +leaves. + +4. Wash from this sediment, carried with care, formed layers of +sandstone, up to ceiling. + +5. This ceiling was covered with elaborate inscriptions. + +6. The inscription sent you was a near neighbor to cave. + +7. Another representing a saurian reptile on large granite bowlder is +also a neighbor (a glacial dropping). + +8. Old river emptying into Lake Managua reveals fossil bones; moraines +east of it are found. + +From these data we see the glacial action was prior to the sedimentary +rock here, and had spent its force when elevation of coast range +occurred. No nearer estimate is possible. + +As the fossil horse occurs here, our mounted man may have domesticated +him, and afterward slaughtered for food like the modern Frenchman. +Unfortunately Prof. Cope did not find a similar inscription. + +EARL FLINT. +Rivas, Nicaragua, October 27, 1891. + + * * * * * + + + + +FURTHER RESEARCHES UPON THE ELEMENT FLUORINE. + +By A.E. TUTTON. + + +Since the publication by M. Moissan of his celebrated paper in the +_Annales de Chimie et de Physique_ for December, 1887, describing the +manner in which he had succeeded in isolating this remarkable gaseous +element, a considerable amount of additional information has been +acquired concerning the chemical behavior of fluorine, and important +additions and improvements have been introduced in the apparatus +employed for preparing and experimenting with the gas. M. Moissan now +gathers together the results of these subsequent researches--some of +which have been published by him from time to time as contributions to +various French scientific journals, while others have not hitherto +been made known--and publishes them in a long but most interesting +paper in the October number of the _Annales de Chimie et de Physique._ +Inasmuch as the experiments described are of so extraordinary a +nature, owing to the intense chemical activity of fluorine, and are so +important as filling a long existing vacancy in our chemical +literature, readers of _Nature_ will doubtless be interested in a +brief account of them. + + +IMPROVED APPARATUS FOR PREPARING FLUORINE. + +In his paper of 1887, the main outlines of which were given in +_Nature_ at the time (1887, vol. xxxvii., p. 179), M. Moissan showed +that pure hydrofluoric acid readily dissolves the double fluoride of +potassium and hydrogen, and that the liquid thus obtained is a good +conductor of electricity, rendering electrolysis possible. It will be +remembered that, by passing a strong current of electricity through +this liquid contained in a platinum apparatus, free gaseous fluorine +was obtained at the positive pole and hydrogen at the negative pole. +The amount of hydrofluoric acid employed in these earlier experiments +was about fifteen grms., about six grms. of hydrogen potassium +fluoride, HF.KF, being added in order to render it a conductor. Since +the publication of that memoir a much larger apparatus has been +constructed, in order to obtain the gas in greater quantity for the +study of its reactions, and important additions have been made, by +means of which the fluorine is delivered in a pure state, free from +admixed vapor of the very volatile hydrofluoric acid. As much as a +hundred cubic centimeters of hydrofluoric acid, together with twenty +grms. of the dissolved double fluoride, are submitted to electrolysis +in this new apparatus, and upward of four liters of pure fluorine is +delivered by it per hour. + +This improved form of the apparatus is shown in the accompanying +figure (Fig. 1), which is reproduced from the memoir of M. Moissan. It +consists essentially of two parts--the electrolysis apparatus and the +purifying vessels. The electrolysis apparatus, a sectional view of +which is given in Fig. 2, is similar in form to that described in the +paper of 1887, but much larger. + +The U-tube of platinum has a capacity of 160 c.c. It is fitted with +two lateral delivery tubes of platinum, as in the earlier form, and +with stoppers of fluorspar, F, inserted in cylinders of platinum, _p_, +carrying screw threads, which engage with similar threads upon the +interior surfaces of the limbs of the U-tube. A key of brass, E, +serves to screw or unscrew the stoppers, and between the flange of +each stopper and the top of each branch of the U-tube a ring of lead +is compressed, by which means hermetic closing is effected. These +fluorspar stoppers, which are covered with a coating of gum lac during +the electrolysis, carry the electrode rods, _t_, which are thus +perfectly insulated. M. Moissan now employs electrodes of pure +platinum instead of irido-platinum, and the interior end of each is +thickened into a club shape in order the longer to withstand +corrosion. The apparatus is immersed during the electrolysis in a bath +of liquid methyl chloride, maintained in tranquil ebullition at -23 deg.. +In order to preserve the methyl chloride as long as possible, the +cylinder containing it is placed in an outer glass cylinder containing +fragments of calcium chloride; by this means it is surrounded with a +layer of dry air, a bad conductor of heat. + +The purifying vessels are three in number. The first consists of a +platinum spiral worm-tube of about 40 c.c. capacity, immersed also in +a bath of liquid methyl chloride, maintained at as low a temperature +as possible, about -50 deg.. As hydrofluoric acid boils at 19.5 deg. +(Moissan), almost the whole of the vapor of this substance which is +carried away in the stream of issuing fluorine is condensed and +retained at the bottom of the worm. To remove the last traces of +hydrofluoric acid, advantage is taken of the fact that fused sodium +fluoride combines with the free acid with great energy to form the +double fluoride HF.NaF. Sodium fluoride also possesses the advantage +of not attracting moisture. After traversing the worm condenser, +therefore, the fluorine is caused to pass through two platinum tubes +filled with fragments of fused sodium fluoride, from which it issues +in an almost perfect state of purity. The junctions between the +various parts of the apparatus are effected by means of screw joints, +between the nuts and flanges of which collars of lead are compressed. +During the electrolysis these leaden collars become, where exposed to +the gaseous fluorine, rapidly converted into lead fluoride, which +being greater in bulk causes the joints to become hermetically sealed. +In order to effect the electrolysis, twenty-six to twenty-eight Bunsen +elements are employed, arranged in series. An ampere meter and a +commutator are introduced between the battery and the electrolysis +apparatus; the former affording an excellent indication of the +progress of the electrolysis. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--FLUORINE APPARATUS.] + +As the U-tube contains far more hydrofluoric acid than can be used in +one day, each lateral delivery tube is fitted with a metallic screw +stopper, so that the experiments may be discontinued at any time, and +the apparatus closed. The whole electrolysis vessel is then placed +under a glass bell jar containing dry air, and kept in a refrigerator +until again required for use. In this way it may be preserved full of +acid for several weeks, ready at any time for the preparation of the +gas. Considerable care requires to be exercised not to admit the vapor +of methyl chloride into the U-tube, as otherwise violent detonations +are liable to occur. When the liquid methyl chloride is being +introduced into the cylinder, the whole apparatus becomes surrounded +with an atmosphere of its vapor, and as the platinum U-tube is at the +same instant suddenly cooled the vapor is liable to enter by the +abducting tubes. Consequently, as soon as the current is allowed to +pass and fluorine is liberated within the U-tube, an explosion occurs. +Fluorine instantly decomposes methyl chloride, with production of +flame and formation of fluorides of hydrogen and carbon, liberation of +chlorine, and occasionally deposition of carbon. In order to avoid +this unpleasant occurrence, when the methyl chloride is being +introduced the ends of the lateral delivery tubes are attached to long +lengths of caoutchoue tubing, supplied at their ends with calcium +chloride drying tubes, so as to convey dry air from outside the +atmosphere of methyl chloride vapor. If great care is taken to obtain +the minimum temperature, this difficulty may be even more simply +overcome by employing a mixture of well pounded ice and salt instead +of methyl chloride; but there is the counterbalancing disadvantage to +be considered, that such a cooling bath requires much more frequent +renewal. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + + +CHEMICAL REACTIONS OCCURRING DURING THE ELECTROLYSIS. + +In the paper of 1887, M. Moissan adopted the view that the first +action of the electric current was to effect the decomposition of the +potassium fluoride contained in solution in the hydrofluoric acid, +fluorine being liberated at the positive pole and potassium at the +negative terminal. This liberated potassium would at once regenerate +potassium fluoride in presence of hydrofluoric acid, and liberate its +equivalent of hydrogen: + + KF = K + F. + K + HF = KF + H. + +But when the progress of the electrolysis is carefully followed, by +consulting the indications of the amperemeter placed in circuit, it is +found to be by no means as regular as the preceding formulae would +indicate. With the new apparatus, the decomposition is quite irregular +at first, and does not attain regularity until it has been proceeding +for upward of two hours. Upon stopping the current and unmounting the +apparatus, the platinum rod upon which the fluorine was liberated is +found to be largely corroded, and at the bottom of the U-tube a +quantity of a black, finely divided substance is observed. This black +substance, which was taken at first to be metallic platinum, is a +complex compound containing one equivalent of potassium to one +equivalent of platinum, together with a considerable proportion of +fluorine. + +Moreover, the hydrofluoric acid is found to contain a small quantity +of platinum fluoride in solution. The electrolytic reaction is +probably therefore much more complicated than was at first considered +to be the case. The mixture of acid and alkaline fluoride furnishes +fluorine at the positive terminal rod, but this intensely active gas, +in its nascent state, attacks the platinum and produces platinum +tetrafluoride, PtF_{4}; this probably unites with the potassium +fluoride to form a double salt, possibly 2Kl.PtF_{4}, analogous to the +well known platinochloride 2KCl.PtCl_{4}; and it is only when the +liquid contains this double salt that the electrolysis proceeds in a +regular manner, yielding free fluorine at the positive pole, and +hydrogen and the complex black compound at the negative pole. + + +PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUORINE. + +Fluorine possesses an odor which M. Moissan compares to a mixture of +hypochlorous acid and nitrogen peroxide, but this odor is usually +masked by that of the ozone which it always produces in moist air, +owing to its decomposition of the water vapor. It produces most +serious irritation of the bronchial tubes and mucous membrane of the +nasal cavities, the effects of which are persistent for quite a +fortnight. + +When examined in a thickness of one meter, it is seen to possess a +greenish yellow color, but paler, and containing more of yellow, than +that of chlorine. In such a layer, fluorine does not present any +absorption bands. Its spectrum exhibits thirteen bright, lines in the +red, between wave lengths 744 and 623. Their positions and relative +intensities are as follows: + +[lambda] = 744 very feeble. | [lambda] = 685.5 feeble + 740 " | 683.5 " + 734 " | 677 strong + 714 feeble. | 640.5 " + 704 " | 634 " + 691 " | 623 " + 687.5 " | + +At a temperature of -95 deg. at ordinary atmospheric pressure, fluorine +remains gaseous, no sign of liquefaction having been observed. + + +METHODS OF EXPERIMENTING WITH FLUORINE. + +When it is desired to determine the action of fluorine upon a solid +substance, the following method of procedure is adopted. A preliminary +experiment is first made, in order to obtain some idea as to the +degree of energy of the reaction, by bringing a little of the solid, +placed upon the lid of a platinum crucible held in a pair of tongs, +near the mouth of the delivery tube of the preparation apparatus. If a +gaseous or liquid product results, and it is desirable to collect it +for examination, small fragments of the solid are placed in a platinum +tube connected to the delivery tube by flexible platinum tubing or by +a screw joint, and the resulting gas may be collected over water or +mercury, or the liquid condensed in a cooled cylinder of platinum. In +this manner the action of fluorine upon sulphur and iodine has been +studied. If the solid, phosphorus for instance, attacks platinum, or +the temperature of the reaction is sufficiently high to determine the +combination of platinum and fluorine (toward 500 deg.), a tube of +fluorspar is substituted for the platinum tube. The fluorspar tubes +employed by M. Moissan for the study of the action of phosphorus were +about twelve to fourteen centimeters long, and were terminated by +platinum ends furnished with flanges and screw threads in order to be +able to connect them with the preparation apparatus. If it is required +to heat the fluorspar tubes, they are surrounded by a closely wound +copper spiral, which may be heated by a Bunsen flame. + +In experimenting upon liquids, great care is necessary, as the +reaction frequently occurs with explosive violence. A preliminary +experiment is therefore always made, by allowing the fluorine delivery +tube to dip just beneath the surface of the liquid contained in a +small glass cylinder. When the liquid contains water, or when +hydrofluoric acid is a product of the reaction, cylinders of platinum +or of fluorspar are employed. If it is required to collect and examine +the product, the liquid is placed along the bottom of a horizontal +tube of platinum or fluorspar, as in case of solids, connected +directly with the preparation apparatus, and the product is collected +over water or mercury if a gas, or in a cooled platinum receiver if a +liquid. + +During the examination of liquids a means has accidentally been +discovered by which a glass tube may be filled with fluorine gas. A +few liquids, one of which is carbon tetrachloride, react only very +slowly with fluorine at the ordinary temperature. By filling a glass +tube with such a liquid, and inverting it over a platinum capsule also +containing the liquid, it is possible to displace the liquid by +fluorine, which, as the walls are wet, does not attack the glass. Or +the glass tube may be filled with the liquid, and then the latter +poured out, leaving the walls wet; the tube may then be filled with +fluorine gas, which being slightly heavier than air, remains in the +tube for some time. In one experiment, in which a glass test tube had +been filled with fluorine over carbon tetrachloride, it was attempted +to transfer it to a graduated tube over mercury, but in inclining the +test tube for this purpose the mercury suddenly came in contact with +the fluorine, and absorbed it so instantaneously and with such a +violent detonation that both the test tube and the graduated tube were +shattered into fragments. Indeed, owing to the powerful affinity of +mercury for fluorine, it is a most dangerous experiment to transfer a +tube containing fluorine gas, filled according to either the first or +second method, to the mercury trough; the tube is always shattered if +the mercury comes in contact with the gas, and generally with a loud +detonation. Fluorine may, however, be preserved for some time in tubes +over mercury, provided a few drops of the non-reacting liquid are kept +above the mercury meniscus. + +For studying the action of fluorine on gases, a special piece of +apparatus, shown in Fig. 3, has been constructed. It is composed of a +tube of platinum, fifteen centimeters long, closed by two plates of +clear, transparent, and colorless fluorspar, and carrying three +lateral narrower tubes also of platinum. Two of these tubes face each +other in the center of the apparatus, and serve one for the conveyance +of the fluorine and the other of the gas to be experimented upon. The +third, which is of somewhat greater diameter than the other two, +serves as exit tube for the product or products of the reaction, and +may be placed in connection with a trough containing either water or +mercury. + +The apparatus is first filled with the gas to be experimented upon, +then the fluorine is allowed to enter, and an observation of what +occurs may be made through the fluorspar windows. One most important +precaution to take in collecting the gaseous products over mercury is +not to permit the platinum delivery tube to dip more than two or at +most three millimeters under the mercury, as otherwise the levels of +the liquid in the two limbs of the electrolysis U-tube become so +different, owing to the pressure, that the fluorine from one side +mixes with the hydrogen evolved upon the other, and there is a violent +explosion. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.] + + +ACTION OF FLUORINE UPON THE NON-METALLIC ELEMENTS. + +_Hydrogen._--As just described, hydrogen combines with fluorine, even +at -23 deg. and in the dark, with explosive force. This is the only case +in which two elementary gases unite directly without the intervention +of extraneous energy. If the end of the tube delivering fluorine is +placed in an atmosphere of hydrogen, a very hot blue flame, bordered +with red, at once appears at the mouth of the tube, and vapor of +hydrofluoric acid is produced. + +_Oxygen._--Fluorine has not been found capable of uniting with oxygen +up to a temperature of 500 deg.. On ozone, however, it appears to exert +some action, as will be evident from the following experiment. It was +shown in 1887 that fluorine decomposes water, forming hydrofluoric +acid, and liberating oxygen in the form of ozone. When a few drops of +water are placed in the apparatus shown in Fig. 3, and fluorine +allowed to enter, the water is instantly decomposed, and on looking +through the fluorspar ends a thick dark cloud is seen over the spot +where each drop of water had previously been. This cloud soon +diminishes in intensity, and is eventually replaced by a beautiful +blue gas--ozone in a state of considerable density. If the product is +chased out by a stream of nitrogen as soon as the dense cloud is +formed, a very strong odor is perceived, different from that of either +fluorine or ozone, but which soon gives place to the unmistakable odor +of ozone. It appears as if there is at first produced an unstable +oxide of fluorine, which rapidly decomposes into fluorine and ozone. + +_Nitrogen_ and _chlorine_ appear not to react with fluorine. + +_Sulphur._--In contact with fluorine gas, sulphur rapidly melts and +inflames. A gaseous fluoride of sulphur is formed, which possesses a +most penetrating odor, somewhat resembling that of chloride of +sulphur. The gas is incombustible, even in oxygen. When warmed in a +glass vessel, the latter becomes etched, owing to the formation of +silicon tetrafluoride, SiF_{4}. Selenium and tellurium behave +similarly, but form crystalline solid fluorides. + +_Bromine_ vapor combines with fluorine in the cold with production of +a very bright but low temperature dame. If the fluorine is evolved in +the midst of pure dry liquid bromine, the combination is immediate, +and occurs without flame. + +_Iodine._--When fluorine is passed over a fragment of iodine contained +in the horizontal tube, combination occurs, with production of a pale +flame. A very heavy liquid, colorless when free from dissolved iodine, +and fuming strongly in the air, condenses in the cooled receiver. This +liquid fluoride of iodine attacks glass with great energy and +decomposes water when dropped into that liquid with a noise like that +produced by red-hot iron. Its properties agree with those of the +fluoride of iodine prepared by Gore by the action of iodine on silver +fluoride. + +_Phosphorus._--Immediately phosphorus, either the ordinary yellow +variety or red phosphorus, comes in contact with fluorine, a most +lively action occurs, accompanied by vivid incandescence. If the +fluorine is in excess, a fuming gas is evolved, which gives up its +excess of fluorine on collecting over mercury, and is soluble in +water. This gas is phosphorus pentafluoride, PF_{5}, prepared some +years ago by Prof. Thorpe. If, on the contrary, the phosphorus is in +excess, a gaseous mixture of this pentafluoride with a new fluoride, +the trifluoride, PF_{3}, a gas insoluble in water, but which may be +absorbed by caustic potash, is obtained. The trifluoride, in turn, +combines with more fluorine to form the pentafluoride, the reaction +being accompanied by the appearance of a flame of comparatively low +temperature. + +_Arsenic_ combines with fluorine at the ordinary temperature with +incandescence. If the current of fluorine is fairly rapid, a colorless +fuming liquid condenses in the receiver, which is mainly arsenic +trifluoride, AsF_{3}, but which appears also to contain a new +fluoride, the pentafluoride, AsF_{5}, inasmuch as the solution in +water yields the reactions of both arsenious and arsenic acids. + +_Carbon._--Chlorine does not unite with carbon even at the high +temperature of the electric arc, but fluorine reacts even at the +ordinary temperature with finely divided carbon. Purified lampblack +inflames instantly with great brilliancy, as do also the lighter +varieties of wood charcoal. A curious phenomenon is noticed with wood +charcoal; it appears at first to absorb and condense the fluorine, +then quite suddenly it bursts into flame with bright scintillations. +The denser varieties of charcoal require warming to 50 deg. or 60 deg. before +they inflame, but it once the combustion is started at any point it +rapidly propagates itself throughout the entire piece. Graphite must +be heated to just below dull redness in order to effect combination; +while the diamond has not yet been attacked by fluorine, even at the +temperature of the Bunsen flame. A mixture of gaseous fluorides of +carbon are produced whenever carbon of any variety is acted upon by +fluorine, the predominating constituent being the tetrafluoride, +CF_{4}. + +_Boron._--The amorphous variety of boron inflames instantly in +fluorine, with projection of brilliant sparks and liberation of dense +fumes of boron trifluoride, BF_{3}. The adamantine modification +behaves similarly if powdered. When the experiment is performed in the +fluorspar tube, the gaseous fluoride may be collected over mercury. +The gas fumes strongly in the air, and is instantly decomposed by +water. + +_Silicon._--The reaction between fluorine and silicon is one of the +most beautiful of all these extraordinary manifestations of chemical +activity. The cold crystals become immediately white-hot, and the +silicon burns with a very hot flame, scattering showers of star-like, +white-hot particles in all directions. If the action is stopped before +all the silicon is consumed, the residue is found to be fused. As +crystalline silicon only melts at a temperature superior to 1,200 deg., +the heat evolved must be very great. If the reaction is performed in +the fluorspar tube, the resulting gaseous silicon tetrafluoride, +SiF_{4}, may be collected over mercury. + +Amorphous silicon likewise burns with great energy in fluorine. + + +ACTION OF FLUORINE UPON METALS. + +_Sodium_ and _potassium_ combine with fluorine with great vigor at +ordinary temperatures, becoming incandescent, and forming their +respective fluorides, which may be obtained crystallized from water in +cubes. Metallic _calcium_ also burns in fluorine gas, forming the +fused fluoride, and occasionally minute crystals of fluorspar. +_Thallium_ is rapidly converted to fluoride at ordinary temperatures, +the temperature rising until the metal melts and finally becomes red +hot. Powdered _magnesium_ burns with great brilliancy. _Iron_, reduced +by hydrogen, combines in the cold with immediate incandescence, and +formation of an anhydrous, readily soluble, white fluoride. +_Aluminum_, on heating to low redness, gives a very beautiful +luminosity, as do also _chromium_ and _manganese_. The combustion of +slightly warmed zinc in fluorine is particularly pretty as an +experiment, the flame being of a most dazzling whiteness. _Antimony_ +takes fire at the ordinary temperature, and forms a solid white +fluoride. _Lead_ and _mercury_ are attacked in the cold, as previously +described, the latter with great rapidity. _Copper_ reacts at low +redness, but in a strangely feeble manner, and the white fumes formed +appear to combine with a further quantity of fluorine to form a +perfluoride. The main product is a volatile white fluoride. _Silver_ +is only slowly attacked in the cold. When heated, however, to 100 deg., +the metal commences to be covered with a yellow coat of anhydrous +fluoride, and on heating to low redness combination occurs, with +incandescence, and the resulting fluoride becomes fused, and afterward +presents a satin-like aspect. _Gold_ becomes converted into a yellow +deliquescent volatile fluoride when heated to low redness, and at a +slightly higher temperature the fluoride is dissociated into metallic +gold and fluorine gas. + +The action of fluorine on _platinum_ has been studied with special +care. It is evident, in view of the corrosion of the positive platinum +terminal of the electrolysis apparatus, that nascent fluorine rapidly +attacks platinum at a temperature of -23 deg.. At 100 deg., however, fluorine +gas appears to be without action on platinum. At 500 deg.-600 deg. it is +attacked strongly, with formation of the tetrafluoride. PtF_{4}, and a +small quantity of the protofluoride, PtF_{2}. If the fluorine is +admixed with vapor of hydrofluoric acid, the reaction is much more +vigorous, as if a fluorhydrate of the tetrafluoride, perhaps +2HF.PtF_{4}, were formed. The tetrafluoride is generally found in the +form of deep-red fused masses, or small yellow crystals resembling +those of anhydrous platinum chloride. The salt is volatile and very +hygroscopic. Its behavior with water is peculiar. With a small +quantity of water a brownish yellow solution is formed, which, +however, in a very short time becomes warm and the fluoride +decomposes; platinic hydrate is precipitated, and free hydrofluoric +acid remains in solution. If the quantity of water is greater, the +solution may be preserved for some minutes without decomposition. If +the liquid is boiled, it decomposes instantly. At a red heat platinic +fluoride decomposes into metallic platinum and fluorine, which is +evolved in the free state. This reaction can therefore be employed as +a ready means of preparing fluorine, the fluoride only requiring to be +heated rapidly to redness in a platinum tube closed at one end, when +crystallized silicon held at the open end will be found to immediately +take fire in the escaping fluorine. The best mode of obtaining the +fluoride of platinum for this purpose is to heat a bundle of platinum +wires to low redness in the fluorspar reaction tube in a rapid stream +of fluorine. As soon as sufficient fluoride is formed on the wires, +they are transferred to a well stoppered dry glass tube, until +required for the preparation of fluorine. + + +ACTION OF FLUORINE UPON NON-METALLIC COMPOUNDS. + +_Sulphureted Hydrogen._--When the horizontal tube shown in Fig. 3 is +filled with sulphureted hydrogen gas and fluorine is allowed to enter, +a blue flame is observed on looking through the fluorspar windows +playing around the spot where the fluorine is being admitted. The +decomposition continues until the whole of the hydrogen sulphide is +converted into gaseous fluorides of hydrogen and sulphur. + +_Sulphur dioxide_ is likewise decomposed in the cold, with production +of a yellow flame and formation of fluoride of sulphur. + +_Hydrochloric acid_ gas is also decomposed at ordinary temperatures +with flame, and, if there is not a large excess of hydrochloric acid +present, with detonation. Hydrofluoric acid and free chlorine are the +products. + +Gaseous _hydrobromic_ and _hydriodic acids_ react with fluorine in a +similar manner, with production of flame and formation of hydrofluoric +acid. Inasmuch, however, as bromine and iodine combine with fluorine, +as previously described, these halogens do not escape, but burn up to +their respective fluorides. When fluorine is delivered into an aqueous +solution of hydriodic acid, each bubble as it enters produces a flash +of flame, and if the fluorine is being evolved fairly rapidly there is +a series of very violent detonations. A curious reaction also occurs +when fluorine is similarly passed into a 50 per cent. aqueous solution +of hydrofluoric acid itself, a flame being produced in the middle of +the liquid, accompanied by a series of detonations. + +_Nitric acid_ vapor reacts with great violence with fluorine, a loud +explosion resulting. If fluorine is passed into the ordinary liquid +acid, each bubble as it enters produces a flame in the liquid. + +_Ammonia gas_ is decomposed by fluorine with formation of a yellow +flame, forming hydrofluoric acid and liberating nitrogen. With a +solution of the gas in water, each bubble of fluorine produces an +explosion and flame, as in case of hydriodic acid. + +_Phosphoric anhydride_, when heated to low redness, burns with a pale +flame in fluorine, forming a gaseous mixture of fluorides and +oxyfluoride of phosphorus. _Pentachloride and trichloride of +phosphorus_ both react most energetically with fluorine, instantly +producing a brilliant flame, and evolving a mixture of phosphorus +pentafluoride and free chlorine. + +_Arsenious anhydride_ also affords a brilliant combustion, forming the +liquid trifluoride of arsenic, AsF_{3}. This liquid in turn appears to +react with more fluorine with considerable evolution of heat, probably +forming the pentafluoride, AsF_{5}. _Chloride of arsenic_, AsCl_{3}, +is converted with considerable energy to the trifluoride, free +chlorine being liberated. + +_Carbon bisulphide_ inflames in the cold in contact with fluorine, and +if the fluorine is led into the midst of the liquid a similar +production of flame occurs under the surface of the liquid, as in case +of nitric acid. No carbon is deposited, both the carbon and sulphur +being entirely converted into gaseous fluorides. + +_Carbon tetrachloride_, as previously mentioned, reacts only very +slowly with fluorine. The liquid may be saturated with gaseous +fluorine at 15 deg., but on boiling this liquid a gaseous mixture is +evolved, one constituent of which is carbon tetrafluoride, CF_{4}, a +gas readily capable of absorption by alcoholic potash. The remainder +consists of another fluoride of carbon, incapable of absorption by +potash and chlorine. A mixture of the vapors of carbon tetrachloride +and fluorine inflames spontaneously with detonation, and chlorine is +liberated without deposition of carbon. + +_Boric anhydride_ is raised to a most vivid incandescence by fluorine, +the experiment being rendered very beautiful by the abundant white +fumes of the trifluoride which are liberated. + +_Silicon dioxide_, one of the most inert of substances at the ordinary +temperature, takes fire in the cold in contact with fluorine, becoming +instantly white-hot, and rapidly disappearing in the form of silicon +tetrafluoride. The _chlorides_ of both _boron_ and _silicon_ are +decomposed by fluorine, with formation of fluorides and liberation of +chlorine, the reaction being accompanied by the production of flame. + + +ACTION OF FLUORINE UPON METALLIC COMPOUNDS. + +_Chlorides_ of the metals are instantly decomposed by fluorine, +generally at the ordinary temperature, and in certain cases, antimony +trichloride for instance, with the appearance of flame. Chlorine is in +each case liberated, and a fluoride of the metal formed. A few require +heating, when a similar decomposition occurs, often accompanied by +incandescence, as in case of chromium sesquichloride. + +_Bromides_ and _iodides_ are decomposed with even greater energy, and +the liberated bromine and iodine burn in the fluorine with formation +of their respective fluorides. + +_Cyanides_ react in a most beautiful manner with fluorine, the +displaced cyanogen burning with a purple flame. Potassium ferrocyanide +in particular affords a very pretty experiment, and reacts in the +cold. Ordinary potassium cyanide requires slightly warming in order to +start the combustion. + +Fused _potash_ yields potassium fluoride and ozone. Aqueous potash +does not form potassium hypofluorite when fluorine is bubbled into it, +but only potassium fluoride. _Lime_ becomes most brilliantly +incandescent, owing partly to the excess being raised to a very high +temperature by the heat developed during the decomposition, and partly +to the phosphorescence of the calcium fluoride formed. + +_Sulphides_ of the alkalies and alkaline earths are also immediately +rendered incandescent, fluorides of the metal and sulphur being +respectively formed. + +_Boron nitride_ behaves in an exceedingly beautiful manner, being +attacked in the cold, and emitting a brilliant blue light which is +surrounded by a halo of the fumes of boron fluoride. + +_Sulphates_, _nitrates_ and _phosphates_ generally require the +application of more or less heat, when they too are rapidly and +energetically decomposed. Calcium phosphate is attacked in the cold +like lime, giving out a brilliant white light, and producing calcium +fluoride and gaseous oxyfluoride of phosphorus, POF_{3}. _Calcium +carbonate_ also becomes raised to brilliant incandescence when exposed +to fluorine gas, as does also normal _sodium carbonate_; but curiously +enough the bicarbonates of the alkalies do not react with fluorine +even at red heat. Perhaps this may be explained by the fact that +fluorine has no action at available temperatures upon carbon dioxide. + + +ACTION OF FLUORINE UPON A FEW ORGANIC COMPOUNDS. + +_Chloroform._--When chloroform is saturated with fluorine, and +subsequently boiled, carbon tetrafluoride, hydrofluoric acid and +chlorine are evolved. If a drop of chloroform is agitated in a glass +tube with excess of fluorine, a violent explosion suddenly occurs, +accompanied by a flash of flame, and the tube is shattered to pieces. +The reaction is very lively when fluorine is evolved in the midst of a +quantity of chloroform, a persistent flame burns beneath the surface +of the liquid, carbon is deposited, and fluorides of hydrogen and +carbon are evolved together with chlorine. + +_Methyl chloride_ is decomposed by fluorine, even at -23 deg., with +production of a yellow flame, deposition of carbon, and liberation of +fluorides of hydrogen and carbon and free chlorine. With the vapor of +methyl chloride, as pointed out in the description of the +electrolysis, violent explosions occur. + +_Ethyl alcohol_ vapor at once takes fire in fluorine gas, and the +liquid is decomposed with explosive violence without deposition of +carbon. Aldehyde is formed to a considerable extent during the +reaction. + +_Acetic acid_ and _benzene_ are both decomposed with violence, their +cold vapors burn in fluorine, and when the latter is bubbled through +the liquids themselves, flashes of flame, and often most dangerous +explosions, occur. In the case of benzene, carbon is deposited, and +with both liquids fluorides of hydrogen and carbon are evolved. +_Aniline_ likewise takes fire in fluorine, and deposits a large +quantity of carbon, which, however, if the fluorine is in excess, +burns away completely to carbon tetrafluoride. + +Such are the main outlines of these later researches of M. Moissan, +and they cannot fail to impress those who read them with the +prodigious nature of the forces associated with those minutest of +entities, the chemical atoms, as exhibited at their maximum, in so far +as our knowledge at present goes, in the case of the element +fluorine.--_Nature._ + + * * * * * + + + + +APPARATUS FOR THE ESTIMATION OF FAT IN MILK. + +By E. MOLISABI. + + +[Illustration] + +The author, after criticising the various methods for estimating fat +in milk which have been proposed from time to time, agrees with Stokes +(_Analyst_, 1885, p. 48), Eustace Hill (_Analyst_, 1891, p. 67), and +Bondzynsky (_Landwirth Jahrb. der Schweiz_, 1889), that the method of +Werner Schmid is the simplest, most rapid, and convenient hitherto +introduced. The conditions tending to inaccuracy are: The employment +of ether containing alcohol; boiling the mixture of milk and acid too +long, when a caramel-like body is formed, soluble in ether; the +difficulty of reading off the volume of ether left in the tube, owing +to the gradations of the instrument being obscured by the flocculent +layer of casein; when only a portion of the ether is used, fat may be +left behind in the acid mixture, as shown by Allen (_Chem. Zeit._, +1891, p. 331). The author believes that by the invention of the simple +apparatus represented in the accompanying figure, he has rendered the +process both accurate and convenient. This consists of a flask B of +about 75 c.c. capacity, which has a glass tap fused on, with two +capillary tubes attached, the one passing upward, the other downward. +The neck of flask B is ground into the neck of flask A, which holds +about 90 c.c. Either of the flasks can be placed in communication with +the external air by the opening _a_. The ether must be previously +washed with one or two tenths of its volume of water, to remove traces +of alcohol. The operation is performed as follows: 10 c.c. of well +mixed milk are weighed in (or measured into) flask A, 10 c.c. of +hydrochloric acid added, and the mixture heated to boiling on an +asbestos sheet. The boiling must not exceed a minute and a half, the +fluid being shaken from time to time, and not allowed to become of a +deeper color than a dark brown [not black]. The flask is cooled, and +25 c.c. of ether added. The two flasks are connected as shown in the +figure, the tap closed, and the whole shaken for a few minutes, the +flask being vented two or three times by the opening _a_. The +apparatus is now inverted, allowed to stand five or six minutes, the +tap turned, and the dark acid liquid drawn off into flask B. By a +little shaking of the ether the whole of the acid liquid may be easily +got into the lower flask. The apparatus is again inverted, then +separated, 10 c.c. of ether are introduced into the flask B, the tap +closed, and the fluids well shaken. When the ether layer is distinct, +the acid liquor is run off, and the ether solution transferred to A. +The whole of the ether solution is washed in the apparatus two or +three times with a little water, the flask A removed to the water +bath, the ether driven off, the last traces of ether and water being +removed by placing the flask in a drying oven heated from 107 to 110 deg. +C., where it must remain at least twenty minutes. The usual cooling in +the exsiccator and weighing concludes the operation. Examples are +given showing its concordance with the Adams and other recognized +processes. Sour milk, which must be weighed in the flask, can be +conveniently analyzed; also cream, using 5 grammes cream and 10 c.c. +hydrochloric acid. (_Berichte Deutsch. Chem. Gesell._, 24, p. +2204).--_The Analyst._ + + * * * * * + + + + +AMERICAN ASSOCIATION--NINTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON INDEXING +CHEMICAL LITERATURE.[1] + + [Footnote 1: From advance proof sheets of the Proceedings of the + American Association for the Advancement of Science; Washington + meeting, 1891.] + + +The Committee on Indexing Chemical Literature respectfully presents to +the Chemical Section its ninth annual report. + +Since our last meeting the following bibliographies have been printed: + +1. A Bibliography of Geometrical Isomerism. Accompanying an address on +this subject to the Chemical Section of the American Association for +the Advancement of Science at Indianapolis, August, 1890, by Professor +Robert B. Warder, Vice President. Proceedings A.A.A.S., vol. xxxix. +Salem, 1890. 8vo. + +2. A Bibliography of the Chemical Influence of Light, by Alfred +Tuckerman. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections No. 785. Washington, +D.C., 1891. Pp. 22. 8vo. + +3. A Bibliography of Analytical Chemistry for the year 1890, by H. +Carrington Bolton. J. Anal. Appl. Chem., v., No. 3. March, 1891. + +We chronicle the publication of the following important bibliography: + +4. A Guide to the Literature of Sugar. A book of reference for +chemists, botanists, librarians, manufacturers and planters, with +comprehensive subject index. By H. Ling Roth. London: Kegan Paul, +Trench, Trubner & Co. Limited. 1890. 8vo. Pp xvi-159. + +This work contains more than 1,200 titles of books, pamphlets, and +papers relating to sugar. Many of the titles are supplemented with +brief abstracts. The alphabetical author catalogue is followed by a +chronological table and an analytical subject index. The compilation +extends to the beginning of the year 1885, and the author promises a +supplement and possibly an annual guide. + +The ambitious work is useful but very incomplete. It does not include +glucose. The author gives a list of fifteen periodicals devoted to +sugar, and omits exactly fifteen more recorded in Bolton's _Catalogue +of Scientific and Technical Periodicals_ (1665-1882). Angelo Sala's +_Saccharologia_ is not named, though mentioned in Roscoe and +Schorlemmer and elsewhere. + +Notwithstanding some blemishes, this work is indispensable to chemists +desirous of becoming familiar with the literature of sugar. It is to +be hoped that a second edition brought down to date may be issued by +the author. + +5. A Bibliography of Ptomaines accompanies Professor Victor C. +Vaughan's work, Ptomaines and Leucomaines. Philadelphia, 1888. (Pages +296-814.) 8vo. + +Chemists will hail with pleasure the announcement that a new +dictionary of solubilities is in progress by a competent hand. +Professor Arthur M. Comey, of Tufts College, College Hill, Mass., +writes that the work he has undertaken will be as complete as +possible. "The very old matter which forms so large a part of Storer's +Dictionary will be referred to, and in important cases fully given. +Abbreviations will be freely used and formulae will be given instead of +the chemical names of substances, in the body of the book. This is +found to be absolutely necessary in order to bring the work into a +convenient size for use ..., The arrangement will be strictly +alphabetical. References to original papers will be given in all cases +..." + +Professor Comey estimates his work will contain over +70,000 entries, and will make a volume of 1,500-1,700 pages. + +The following letter from Mr. Howard L. Prince, Librarian of the +United States Patent Office, explains itself: + + WASHINGTON, D.C., February 11, 1891 + + _Dr. H Carrington Bolton._ + _University Club, New York, N.Y._: + + DEAR SIR--In response to your request I take pleasure in + giving you the following information regarding the past + accomplishments and plans for the future of the Scientific + Library in the matter of technological indexing. + + The work of indexing periodicals has been carried on in the + library for some years in a somewhat desultory fashion, taking + up one journal after another, the object being, apparently, more + to supply clerks with work than the pursuance of any well + defined plan. However, one important work has been substantially + completed, viz., a general index to the whole set of the + SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN and SUPPLEMENT from 1846 to date. + + It is unnecessary for me to point out to you the importance of + this work, embracing a collection which has held the leading + place in the line of general information on invention and + progress, the labor of compiling which has been so formidable + that no movement in that direction has been attempted by the + publishers except in regard to the SUPPLEMENT only, and that + very imperfectly. This index embraces now 184,600 cards, not + punched, and at present stored in shallow drawers and fastened + by rubber bands, and of course they are at present unavailable + for use. There is little prospect of printing this index, and + I have been endeavoring for some time to throw the index open + to the public by punching the cards and fastening them with + guard rods, but as yet have made no perceptible impression + upon the authorities, although the expense of preparation + would be only about $70. + + There has also been completed an index to the English journal + _Engineering_, comprising 84,000 cards, from the beginning to + date. + + An index to Dingler's _Polytechnisches Journal_ was also + commenced as long ago as 1878, carried on for six or seven + years and then dropped. I hope, however, at no remote date, to + bring this forward to the present time. + + On taking charge of the library I was at once impressed with + the immense value of the periodical literature on our shelves + and the great importance of making it more readily accessible, + and have had in contemplation for some time the beginning of a + card index to all our periodicals on the same general plan as + that of Rieth's Repertorium. I have, however, been unable to + obtain sufficient force to cover the whole ground, but have + selected about one hundred and fifty journals, notably those + upon the subjects of chemistry, electricity and engineering, + both in English and foreign languages, the indexing of which + has been in progress since the first of January. This number + includes substantially all the valuable material in our + possession in the English language, not only journals, but + transactions of societies, all the electrical journals and + nearly all the chemical in foreign languages. This index will + be kept open to the public as soon as sufficient material has + accumulated. In general plan it will be alphabetical, + following nearly the arrangement of the periodical portion of + the surgeon general's catalogue. I shall depart from the + strictly alphabetical plan sufficiently to group under such + important subjects as chemistry, electricity, engineering, + railroads, etc., all the subdivisions of the art, so that the + electrical investigator, for instance, will not be obliged to + travel from one end of the alphabet to the other to find the + divisions of generators, conductors, dynamos, telephones, + telegraphs, etc., and in the grouping of the classes of + applied science the office classification of inventions will, + as a rule, be adhered to, the subdivisions being, of course, + arranged in alphabetical order under their general head and + the title of the several articles also arranged alphabetically + by authors or principal words. + + With many thanks for the kind interest and valuable + information afforded me, I remain, very truly yours, + + HOWARD L. PRINCE, + Librarian Scientific Library. + +The committee much prefers to record completed work than to mention +projects, as the latter sometimes fail. It is satisfactory, however, +to announce that the indefatigable indexer, Dr. Alfred Tuckerman, is +engaged on an extensive Bibliography of Mineral Waters. The chairman +of the committee expects to complete the MS. of a Select Bibliography +of Chemistry during the year, visiting the chief libraries of Europe +for the purpose this summer. + + H. CARRINGTON BOLTON, Chairman. + F.W. CLARKE, + ALBERT R. LEEDS, + ALEXIS A. JULIEN, + JOHN W. LANGLEY, + ALBERT B. PRESCOTT. + +[Dr. Alfred Tuckerman was added to the committee at the Washington +meeting to fill a vacancy.] + + * * * * * + + + + +THE FRENCH WINE LAW. + + +The French wine law (_Journ. Officiel_, July 11, 1891) includes the +following provisions: + +Sect. 1. The product of fermentation of the husks of grapes from which +the must has been extracted with water, with or without the addition +of sugar, or mixed with wine in whatever proportion, may only be sold, +or offered for sale, under the name of husk wine or sugared wine. + +Sect. 2. The addition of the following substances to wine, husk wine, +sugared wine, or raisin wine will be considered an adulteration: + +1. Coloring matters of all descriptions. + +2. Sulphuric, nitric, hydrochloric, salicylic, boric acid, or similar +substances. + +3. Sodium chloride beyond one gramme per liter. + +Sect. 3. The sale of plastered wines, containing more than two grammes +of potassium, or sodium sulphate, is prohibited. + +Offenders are subject to a fine of 16 to 500 francs, or to +imprisonment from six days to three months, according to +circumstances. + +Barrels or vessels containing plastered wine must have affixed a +notice to that effect in large letters, and the books, invoices, and +bills of lading must likewise bear such notice. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ALLOTROPIC CONDITIONS OF SILVER. + + +M. Berthelot recently called the attention of the Academy (Paris) to +the memoirs of Carey Lea on the allotropic states of silver, and +exhibited specimens of the color of gold and others of a purple color +sent him by the author. He explained the importance of these results, +which remind us of the work of the ancient alchemists, but he reserved +the question whether these substances are really isomeric states of +silver or complex and condensed compounds, sharing the properties of +the element which constituted the principal mass (97-98 per cent.), +conformably to the facts known in the history of the various carbons, +of the derivatives of red phosphorus, and especially of the varieties +of iron and steel. Between these condensed compounds and the pure +elements the continuous transition of the physical and chemical +properties is often effected by insensible degrees, by a mixture of +definite compounds. + +The following letter appears in a recent number of the _Chemical +News_. + +_Sir_: In a recently published lecture, Mr. Meldola seems to call in +question the existence of allotropic silver. This opinion does not +appear, however, to be based on any adequate study of the subject, but +to be somewhat conjectural in its nature. No experimental support of +any sort is given, and the only argument offered (if such it can be +called) is that this altered form of silver is analogous to that of +metals whose properties have been greatly changed by being _alloyed_ +with small quantities of other metals. Does, then, Mr. Meldola suppose +that a silver alloy can be formed by precipitating silver in the +presence of another metal from an aqueous solution, or that one can +argue from alloys, which are solutions, to molecular compounds or +lakes? Moreover, he has overlooked the fact that allotropic silver can +be obtained in the absence of any metal with which silver is capable +of combining, as in the case of its formation by the action of soda +and dextrine. Silver cannot be alloyed with sodium. + +Mr. Meldola cites Prange as having shown that allotropic silver +obtained with the aid of ferrous citrate contains traces of iron, a +fact which was published by me several years earlier, with an +analytical determination of the amount of iron found. Mr. Prange +repeated and confirmed this fact of the presence of iron (in this +particular case), and my other observations generally, and was fully +convinced of the existence of both soluble and insoluble allotropic +silver. Mr. Meldola's quotation of Mr. Prange would not convey this +impression to the reader. + +Of the many forms of allotropic silver, two of the best marked are the +blue and the yellow. + +Blue allotropic silver is formed in many reactions with the aid of +many wholly different reagents. To suppose that each of these many +substances is capable of uniting in minute quantity with silver to +produce in all cases an identical result, the same product with +identical color and properties, would be an absurdity. + +Gold-colored allotropic silver in thin films is converted by the +slightest pressure to normal silver. A glass rod drawn over it with a +gentle pressure leaves a gray line behind it of ordinary silver. If +the film is then plunged into solution of potassium ferricyanide it +becomes red or blue, while the lines traced show by their different +reaction that they consist of ordinary silver. Heat, electricity, and +contact with strong acids produce a similar change to ordinary gray +silver. + +These reactions afford the clearest proof that the silver is in an +allotropic form. To account for them on suppositions like Mr. +Meldola's would involve an exceedingly forced interpretation, such as +no one who carefully repeated my work could possibly entertain. + +I am, etc., + + M. CAREY LEA. + Philadelphia, October 22, 1891. + + * * * * * + + +THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN + +Architects and Builders Edition. + +$2.50 a Year. Single Copies, 25 cts. + +This is a Special Edition of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, issued +monthly--on the first day of the month. Each number contains about +forty large quarto pages, equal to about two hundred ordinary book +pages, forming, practically, a large and splendid MAGAZINE OF +ARCHITECTURE, richly adorned with _elegant plates in colors_ and with +fine engravings, illustrating the most interesting examples of modern +Architectural Construction and allied subjects. + +A special feature is the presentation in each number of a variety of +the latest and best plans for private residences, city and country, +including those of very moderate cost as well as the more expensive. +Drawings in perspective and in color are given, together with full +Plans, Specifications, Costs, Bills of Estimate, and Sheets of +Details. + +No other building paper contains so many plans, details, and +specifications regularly presented as the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN. +Hundreds of dwellings have already been erected on the various plans +we have issued during the past year, and many others are in process of +construction. + +Architects, Builders, and Owners will find this work valuable in +furnishing fresh and useful suggestions. All who contemplate building +or improving homes, or erecting structures of any kind, have before +them in this work an almost _endless series of the latest and best +examples_ from which to make selections, thus saving time and money. + +Many other subjects, including Sewerage, Piping, Lighting, Warming, +Ventilating, Decorating, Laying out of Grounds, etc., are illustrated. +An extensive Compendium of Manufacturers' Announcements is also given, +in which the most reliable and approved Building Materials, Goods, +Machines, Tools, and Appliances are described and illustrated, with +addresses of the makers, etc. + +The fullness, richness, cheapness, and convenience of this work have +won for it the LARGEST CIRCULATION of any Architectural publication +in the world. + +A Catalogue of valuable books on Architecture, Building, Carpentry, +Masonry, Heating, Warming, Lighting, Ventilation, and all branches of +industry pertaining to the art of Building, is supplied free of +charge, sent to any address. + + MUNN & CO., PUBLISHERS, + 361 BROADWAY, NEW YORK. + + * * * * * + + +THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN + +Cyclopedia of Receipts, + +NOTES AND QUERIES. + +---------------------------------------- + +650 PAGES. PRICE $5. + +---------------------------------------- + +This splendid work contains a careful compilation of the most useful +Receipts and Replies given in the Notes and Queries of correspondents +as published in the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN during nearly half a century +past; together with many valuable and important additions. + +OVER TWELVE THOUSAND selected receipts are here collected; Nearly +every branch of the useful arts being represented. It is by far the +most comprehensive volume of the kind ever placed before the public. + +The work may be regarded as the product of the studies and practical +experience of the ablest chemists and workers in all parts of the +world; the information given being of the highest value, arranged and +condensed in concise form, convenient for ready use. + +Almost every inquiry that can be thought of, relating to formulae used +in the various manufacturing industries, will here be found answered. + +Instructions for working many different processes in the arts are +given. How to make and prepare many different articles and goods are +set forth. + +Those who are engaged in any branch of industry probably will find in +this book much that is of practical value in their respective +callings. + +Those who are in search of independent business or employment, +relating to the manufacture and sale of useful articles, will find in +it hundreds of most excellent suggestions. + +MUNN & CO., PUBLISHERS, 361 BROADWAY, NEW YORK. + + * * * * * + + +THE +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. + +PUBLISHED WEEKLY. + +Terms of Subscription, $5 a year. + +Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the +United States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any +foreign country. + +All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement, January +1, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each. + +All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise be supplied. Two +volumes are issued yearly. Price of each volume, $2.50 stitched in +paper, or $3.50 bound in stiff covers. + +COMBINED RATES.--One copy of SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN and one copy of +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, one year, postpaid, $7.00. + +A liberal discount to booksellers, news agents, and canvassers. + +MUNN & CO., PUBLISHERS, +361 BROADWAY, NEW YORK, N.Y. + + * * * * * + + +A New Catalogue of Valuable Papers + +Contained in SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT during the past ten years, +sent _free of charge_ to any address. MUNN & CO., 361 Broadway, New +York. + + * * * * * + + +Useful Engineering Books + +Manufacturers, Agriculturists, Chemists, Engineers, Mechanics, +Builders, men of leisure, and professional men, of all classes, need +good books in the line of their respective callings. Our post office +department permits the transmission of books through the mails at very +small cost. A comprehensive catalogue of useful books by different +authors, on more than fifty different subjects, has recently been +published, for free circulation, at the office of this paper. Subjects +classified with names of author. Persons desiring a copy have only to +ask for it, and it will be mailed to them. Address, + +MUNN & CO., 361 BROADWAY, NEW YORK. + + * * * * * + + +PATENTS! + +Messrs. MUNN & CO., in connection with the publication of the +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, continue to examine improvements, and to act as +Solicitors of Patents for Inventors. + +In this line of business they have had _forty-five years' experience_, +and now have _unequaled facilities_ for the preparation of Patent +Drawings, Specifications, and the prosecution of Applications for +Patents in the United States, Canada, and Foreign Countries. Messrs. +Munn & Co. also attend to the preparation of Caveats, Copyrights for +Books, Labels, Reissues, Assignments, and Reports on Infringements of +Patents. All business intrusted to them is done with special care and +promptness, on very reasonable terms. + +A pamphlet sent free of charge, on application, containing full +information about Patents and how to procure them; directions +concerning Labels, Copyrights, Designs, Patents, Appeals, Reissues, +Infringements, Assignments, Rejected Cases. Hints on the Sale of +Patents, etc. + +We also send, _free of charge_, a Synopsis of Foreign Patent Laws, +showing the cost and method of securing patents in all the principal +countries of the world. + + MUNN & CO., SOLICITORS OF PATENTS, + 361 Broadway, New York. + +BRANCH OFFICES.--No. 622 and 624 F Street, Pacific Building, near 7th +Street, Washington, D.C. + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. +832, December 12, 1891, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN *** + +***** This file should be named 15052.txt or 15052.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/5/0/5/15052/ + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the PG Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net. + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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