initial commit of ebook 14657HEADmain

217 files changed, 43162 insertions, 0 deletions

diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6833f05
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.gitattributes
@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+* text=auto
+*.txt text
+*.md text
diff --git a/14657-0.txt b/14657-0.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..04a2f4b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-0.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,7365 @@
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 14657 ***
+
+PHILO-JUDÆUS
+
+OF ALEXANDRIA,
+
+
+
+BY
+
+
+
+NORMAN BENTWICH
+Sometime Scholar of Trinity College,
+Cambridge.
+
+
+
+
+PHILADELPHIA
+THE JEWISH PUBLICATION SOCIETY OF AMERICA
+1910
+
+
+
+COPYRIGHT, 1910,
+BY THE JEWISH PUBLICATION SOCIETY OF AMERICA
+
+
+
+
+
+TO MY MOTHER [Greek: threptêria]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+It is a melancholy reflection upon the history of the Jews that they
+have failed to pay due honor to their two greatest philosophers.
+Spinoza was rejected by his contemporaries from the congregation of
+Israel; Philo-Judæus was neglected by the generations that followed
+him. Maimonides, our third philosopher, was in danger of meeting the
+same fate, and his philosophical work was for long viewed with
+suspicion by a large part of the community. Philosophers, by the very
+excellence of their thought, have in all races towered above the
+comprehension of the people, and aroused the suspicion of the
+religious teachers. Elsewhere, however, though rejected by the Church,
+they have left their influence upon the nation, and taken a commanding
+place in its history, because they have founded secular schools of
+thought, which perpetuated their work. In Judaism, where religion and
+nationality are inextricably combined, that could not be. The history
+of Judaism since the extinction of political independence is the
+history of a national religious culture; what was national in its
+thought alone found favor; and unless a philosopher's work bore this
+national religious stamp it dropped out of Jewish history.
+
+Philo certainly had an intensely strong Jewish feeling, but his work
+had also another aspect, which was seized upon and made use of by
+those who wished to denationalize Judaism and convert it into a
+philosophical monotheism. The favor which the Church Fathers showed to
+his writings induced and was balanced by the neglect of the rabbis.
+
+It was left till recently to non-Jews to study the works of Philo, to
+present his philosophy, and estimate its value. So far from taking a
+Jewish standpoint in their work, they emphasized the parts of his
+teaching that are least Jewish; for they were writing as Christian
+theologians or as historians of Greek philosophy. They searched him
+primarily for traces of Christian, neo-Platonic, or Stoic doctrines,
+and commiserated with him, or criticised him as a weak-kneed eclectic,
+a half-blind groper for the true light.
+
+Even during the last hundred years, which have marked a revival of the
+historical consciousness of the Jews, as of all peoples, it has still
+been left in the main to non-Jewish scholars to write of Philo in
+relation to his time and his environment. The purpose of this little
+book is frankly to give a presentation of Philo from the Jewish
+standpoint. I hold that Philo is essentially and splendidly a Jew, and
+that his thought is through and through Jewish. The surname given him
+in the second century, "Judæus," not only distinguishes him from an
+obscure Christian bishop, but it expresses the predominant
+characteristic of his teaching. It may be objected that I have pointed
+the moral and adorned the tale in accordance with preconceived
+opinions, which--as Mr. Claude Montefiore says in his essay on
+Philo--it is easy to do with so strange and curious a writer. I
+confess that my worthy appeals to me most strongly as an exponent of
+Judaism, and it may be that in this regard I have not always looked on
+him as the calm, dispassionate student should; for I experience
+towards him that warmth of feeling which his name, [Greek: philon],
+"the beloved one," suggests. But I have tried so to write this
+biography as neither to show partiality on the one side nor
+impartiality on the other. If nevertheless I have exaggerated the
+Jewishness of my worthy's thought, my excuse must be that my
+predecessors have so often exaggerated other aspects of his teaching
+that it was necessary to call a new picture into being, in order to
+redress the balance of the old.
+
+Although I have to some extent taken a line of my own in this Life, my
+obligations to previous writers upon Philo are very great. I have used
+freely the works of Drummond, Schürer, Massebieau, Zeller, Conybeare,
+Cohn, and Wendland; and among those who have treated of Philo in
+relation to Jewish tradition I have read and borrowed from Siegfried
+(_Philon als Ausleger der heiligen Schrift_), Freudenthal
+(_Hellenistische Studien_), Ritter (_Philo und die Halacha_), and Mr.
+Claude Montefiore's _Florilegium Philonis_, which is printed in the
+seventh volume of the Jewish Quarterly Review. Once for all Mr.
+Montefiore has selected many of the most beautiful and most vital
+passages of Philo, and much as I should have liked to unearth new
+gems, as beautiful and as illuminating, I have often found myself
+irresistibly attracted to Mr. Montefiore's passages. Dr. Neumark's
+book, _Geschichte der jüdischen Philosophie des Mittelalters_,
+appeared after my manuscript was set up, or I should have dealt with
+his treatment of Philo. With what he says of the relation of Plato to
+Judaism I am in great part in agreement, and I had independently come
+to the conclusion that Plato was the main Greek influence on Philo's
+thought.
+
+To these various books I owe much, but not so much as to the teaching,
+influence, and help of one whose name I have not the boldness to
+associate with this little volume, but whose notes on my manuscript
+have given it whatever value it may possess. The index I owe to the
+kindly help of a sister, who would also be nameless. Lastly I have to
+thank Dr. Lionel Barnett, professor of Sanscrit at University College,
+London, and my father, who read my manuscript before it was sent to
+the printers. The one gave me the benefit of his wide and accurate
+scholarship, the other gave me much valuable advice and removed many a
+blazing indiscretion.
+
+NORMAN BENTWICH.
+
+_February 28, 1907._
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+  PAGE
+
+      I. THE JEWISH COMMUNITY AT ALEXANDRIA
+
+     II. THE LIFE AND TIMES OF PHILO
+
+    III. PHILO'S WORKS AND METHOD
+
+     IV. PHILO AND THE TORAH
+
+      V. PHILO'S THEOLOGY
+
+     VI. PHILO AS A PHILOSOPHER
+
+    VII. PHILO AND JEWISH TRADITION
+
+   VIII. THE INFLUENCE OF PHILO
+
+         BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+         ABBREVIATIONS USED FOR THE REFERENCES
+
+         INDEX
+
+
+
+
+
+
+PHILO-JUDÆUS OF ALEXANDRIA
+
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+THE JEWISH COMMUNITY AT ALEXANDRIA
+
+
+The three great world-conquerors known to history, Alexander, Julius
+Cæsar, and Napoleon, recognized the pre-eminent value of the Jew as a
+bond of empire, an intermediary between the heterogeneous nations
+which they brought beneath their sway. Each in turn showed favor to
+his religion, and accorded him political privileges. The petty tyrants
+of all ages have persecuted Jews on the plea of securing uniformity
+among their subjects; but the great conqueror-statesmen who have made
+history, realizing that progress is brought about by unity in
+difference, have recognized in Jewish individuality a force making for
+progress. Whereas the pure Hellenes had put all the other peoples of
+the world in the single category of barbarians, their Macedonian
+conqueror forced upon them a broader view, and, regarding his empire
+as a world-state, made Greeks and Orientals live together, and
+prepared the way for a mingling of races and culture. Alexander the
+Great became a notable figure in the Talmud and Midrashim, and many a
+marvellous legend was told about his passing visit to Jerusalem during
+his march to Egypt.[1] The high priest--whether it was Jaddua, Simon,
+or Onias the records do not make clear--is said to have gone out to
+meet him, and to have compelled the reverence and homage of the
+monarch by the majesty of his presence and the lustre of his robes. Be
+this as it may, it is certain that Alexander settled a considerable
+number of Jews in the Greek colonies which he founded as centres of
+cosmopolitan culture in his empire, and especially in the town by the
+mouth of the Nile that received his own name, and was destined to
+become within two centuries the second town in the world; second only
+to Rome in population and power, equal to it in culture. By its
+geographical position, the nature of its foundation, and the sources
+of its population, and by the wonderful organization of its Museum, in
+which the records of all nations were stored and studied, Alexandria
+was fitted to become the meeting-place of civilizations.
+
+There was already a considerable settlement of Jews in Egypt before
+Alexander's transplantation in 332 B.C.E. Throughout Bible times the
+connection between Israel and Egypt had been close. Isaiah speaks of
+the day when five cities in the land of Egypt should speak the
+language of Canaan and swear to the Lord of hosts (xix. 18); and when
+Nebuchadnezzar led away the first captivity, many of the people had
+fled from Palestine to the old "cradle of the nation." Jeremiah (xliv)
+went down with them to prophesy against their idolatrous practices and
+their backslidings; and Jewish and Christian writers in later times,
+daring boldly against chronology, told how Plato, visiting Egypt, had
+heard Jeremiah and learnt from him his lofty monotheism. Doubt was
+thrown in the last century upon the continuance of the Diaspora in
+Egypt between the time of Jeremiah and Alexander, but the recent
+discovery of a Jewish temple at Elephantine and of Aramaic papyri at
+Assouan dated in the fifth and fourth centuries B.C.E. has proved that
+these doubts were not well founded, and that there was a
+well-established community during the interval.
+
+From the time of the post-exilic prophets Judaism developed in three
+main streams, one flowing from Jerusalem, another from Babylon, the
+third from Egypt. Alexandria soon took precedence of existing
+settlements of Jews, and became a great centre of Jewish life. The
+first Ptolemy, to whom at the dismemberment of Alexander's empire
+Egypt had fallen,[2] continued to the Jewish settlers the privileges
+of full citizenship which Alexander had granted them. He increased
+also the number of Jewish inhabitants, for following his conquest of
+Palestine (or Coele-Syria, as it was then called), he brought back to
+his capital a large number of Jewish families and settled thirty
+thousand Jewish soldiers in garrisons. For the next hundred years the
+Palestinian and Egyptian Jews were under the same rule, and for the
+most part the Ptolemies treated them well. They were easy-going and
+tolerant, and while they encouraged the higher forms of Greek culture,
+art, letters, and philosophy, both at their own court and through
+their dominions, they made no attempt to impose on their subjects the
+Greek religion and ceremonial. Under their tolerant sway the Jewish
+community thrived, and became distinguished in the handicrafts as well
+as in commerce. Two of the five sections into which Alexandria was
+divided were almost exclusively occupied by them; these lay in the
+north-east along the shore and near the royal palace--a favorable
+situation for the large commercial enterprises in which they were
+engaged. The Jews had full permission to carry on their religious
+observances, and besides many smaller places of worship, each marked
+by its surrounding plantation of trees, they built a great synagogue,
+of which it is said in the Talmud, "He who has not seen it has not
+seen the glory of Israel."[3] It was in the form of a basilica, with a
+double row of columns, and so vast that an official standing upon a
+platform had to wave his head-cloth or veil to inform the people at
+the back of the edifice when to say "Amen" in response to the Reader.
+The congregation was seated according to trade-guilds, as was also
+customary during the Middle Ages; the goldsmiths, silversmiths,
+coppersmiths, and weavers had their own places, for the Alexandrian
+Jews seem to have partially adopted the Egyptian caste-system. The
+Jews enjoyed a large amount of self-government, having their own
+governor, the ethnarch, and in Roman times their own council
+(Sanhedrin), which administered their own code of laws. Of the
+ethnarch Strabo says that he was like an independent ruler, and it was
+his function to secure the proper fulfilment of duties by the
+community and compliance with their peculiar laws.[4] Thus the people
+formed a sort of state within a state, preserving their national life
+in the foreign environment. They possessed as much political
+independence as the Palestinian community when under Roman rule; and
+enjoyed all the advantages without any of the narrowing influences,
+physical or intellectual, of a ghetto. They were able to remain an
+independent body, and foster a Jewish spirit, a Jewish view of life, a
+Jewish culture, while at the same time they assimilated the different
+culture of the Greeks around them, and took their part in the general
+social and political life.
+
+At the end of the third and the beginning of the second century
+Palestine was a shuttlecock tossed between the Ptolemies and the
+Seleucids; but in the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes (_c._ 150 B.C.E.)
+it finally passed out of the power of the Ptolemaic house, and from
+this time the Palestinian Jews had a different political history from
+the Egyptian. The compulsory Hellenization by Antiochus aroused the
+best elements of the Jewish nation, which had seemed likely to lose by
+a gradual assimilation its adherence to pure monotheism and the Mosaic
+law. The struggle of foe as against the Hellenizing party of his own
+people, which, led by the high priests Jason, Menelaus, and Alcimus,
+tried to crush both the national and the religious spirit. The
+Maccabæan rule brought not only a renaissance of national life and
+national culture, but also a revival of the national religion. Before,
+however, the deliverance of the Jews had been accomplished by the
+noble band of brothers, many of the faithful Palestinian families had
+fled for protection from the tyranny of Antiochus to the refuge of his
+enemy Ptolemy Philometor. Among the fugitives were Onias and
+Dositheus, who, according to Josephus,[5] became the trusted leaders
+of the armies of the Egyptian monarch. Onias, moreover, was the
+rightful successor to the high-priesthood, and despairing of obtaining
+his dignity in Jerusalem, where the office had been given to the
+worthless Hellenist Alcimus, he conceived the idea of setting up a
+local centre of the Jewish religion in the country of his exile. He
+persuaded Ptolemy to grant him a piece of territory upon which he
+might build a temple for Jewish worship, assuring him that his action
+would have the effect of securing forever the loyalty of his Jewish
+subjects. Ptolemy "gave him a place one hundred and eighty furlongs
+distant from Memphis, in the nomos of Heliopolis, where he built a
+fortress and a temple, not like that at Jerusalem, but such as
+resembled a tower."[6] Professor Flinders Petrie has recently
+discovered remains at Tell-el-Yehoudiyeh, the "mound of the Jews,"
+near the ancient Leontopolis, which tally with the description of
+Josephus, and may be presumed to be the ruins of the temple.
+
+It is difficult to arrive at an accurate idea of the nature and
+importance of the Onias temple, because our chief authority,
+Josephus,[7] gives two inconsistent accounts of it, and the Talmud
+references[8] are equally involved. But certain negative facts are
+clear. First, the temple did not become, even if it were designed to
+be, a rival to the temple of Jerusalem: it did not diminish in any way
+the tribute which the Egyptian Jews paid to the sacred centre of the
+religion. They did not cease to send their tithes for the benefit of
+the poor in Judæa, or their representatives to the great festivals,
+and they dispatched messengers each year with contributions of gold
+and silver, who, says Philo,[9] "travelled over almost impassable
+roads, which they looked upon as easy, in that they led them to
+piety." The Alexandrian-Jewish writers, without exception, are silent
+about the work of Onias; Philo does not give a single hint of it, and
+on the other hand speaks[10] several times of the great national
+centre at Jerusalem as "the most beautiful and renowned temple which
+is honored by the whole East and West." The Egyptian Jews, according
+to Josephus, claimed that the prophecy of Isaiah had been
+accomplished, "that there shall be an altar to the Lord in the midst
+of the land of Egypt" (Is. xix. 19). But the altar, it has recently
+been suggested,[11] was rather a "Bamah" (a high place) than a temple.
+It served as a temporary sanctuary while the Jerusalem temple was
+defiled, and afterwards it was a place where the priestly ritual was
+carried out day by day, and offerings were brought by those who could
+not make the pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Though the synagogue was the
+main seat of religious life in the Diaspora, there was still a desire
+for the sacrificial worship, and for a long time the rabbis looked
+with favor upon the establishment of Onias. But when the tendency to
+found a new ritual there showed itself, they denied its holiness.[12]
+The religious importance of the temple, however, was never great, and
+its chief interest is that it shows the survival of the affection for
+the priestly service among the Hellenized community, and helps
+therefore to disprove the myth that the Alexandrians allegorized away
+the Levitical laws.
+
+During the checkered history of Egypt in the first century B.C.E.,
+when it was in turn the plaything of the corrupt Roman Senate, who
+supported the claims of a series of feeble puppet-Ptolemies, the prize
+of the warriors, who successively aspired to be masters of the world,
+Julius Cæsar, Mark Antony, and Octavian, and finally a province of the
+Roman Empire, the political and material prosperity of the Alexandrian
+Jews remained for the most part undisturbed. Julius Cæsar and
+Augustus, who everywhere showed special favor to their Jewish
+subjects, confirmed the privileges of full citizenship and limited
+self-government which the early Ptolemies had bestowed.[13] Josephus
+records a letter of Augustus to the Jewish community at Cyrene, in
+which he ordains: "Since the nation of the Jews hath been found
+grateful to the Roman people, it seemed good to me and my counsellors
+that the Jews have liberty to make use of their own customs, and that
+their sacred money be not touched, but sent to Jerusalem, and that
+they be not obliged to go before the judge on the Sabbath day nor on
+the day of preparation for it after the ninth hour," _i.e._, after the
+early evening.[14] This decree is typical of the emperor's attitude to
+his Jewish subjects; and Egypt became more and more a favored home of
+the race, so that the Jewish population in the land, from the Libyan
+desert to the border of Ethiopia, was estimated in Philo's time at not
+less than one million.[15]
+
+The prosperity and privileges of the Jews, combined with their
+peculiar customs and their religious separateness, did not fail at
+Alexandria, as they have not failed in any country of the Diaspora, to
+arouse the mixed envy and dislike of the rude populace, and give a
+handle to the agitations of self-seeking demagogues. The third book of
+the Maccabees tells of a Ptolemaic persecution during which Jewish
+victims were turned into the arena at Alexandria, to be trodden down
+by elephants made fierce with the blood of grapes, and of their
+deliverance by Divine Providence. Some fiction is certainly mixed with
+this recital, but it may well be that during the rule of the stupid
+and cruel usurper Ptolemy Physcon (_c._ 120 B.C.E.) the protection of
+the royal house was for political reasons removed for a time from the
+Jews. Josephus[16] relates that the anniversary of the deliverance was
+celebrated as a festival in Egypt. The popular feeling against the
+peculiar people was of an abiding character, for it had abiding
+causes, envy and dislike of a separate manner of life; and the
+professional anti-Semite,[17] who had his forerunners before the reign
+of the first Ptolemy, was able from time to time to fan popular
+feelings into flame. In those days, when history and fiction were not
+clearly distinguished, he was apt to hide his attacks under the guise
+of history, and stir up odium by scurrilous and offensive accounts of
+the ancient Hebrews. Hence anti-Jewish literature originated at
+Alexandria.
+
+Manetho, an historian of the second century B.C.E., in his chronicles
+of Egypt, introduced an anti-Jewish pamphlet with an original account
+of the Exodus, which became the model for a school of scribes more
+virulent and less distinguished than himself. The Battle of Histories
+was taken up with spirit by the Jews, and it was round the history of
+the Israelites in Egypt that the conflict chiefly raged. In reply to
+the offensive picture of a Manetho and the diatribes of some
+"starveling Greekling," there appeared the eulogistic picture of an
+Aristeas, the improved Exodus of an Artapanus. Joseph and Moses
+figured as the most brilliant of Egyptian statesmen, and the Ptolemies
+as admirers of the Scriptures. The morality of this apologetic
+literature, and more particularly of the literary forgeries which
+formed part of it, has been impugned by certain German theologians.
+But apart from the necessities of the case, it is not fair to apply to
+an age in which Cicero declared that artistic lying was legitimate in
+history, the standard of modern German accuracy. The fabrications of
+Jewish apologists were in the spirit of the time.
+
+The outward history of the Alexandrian community is far less
+interesting and of far less importance than its intellectual progress.
+When Alexander planted the colony of Jews in his greatest foundation,
+he probably intended to facilitate the fusion of Eastern and Western
+thought through their mediation. Such, at any rate, was the result of
+his work. His marvellous exploits had put an end for a time to the
+political strife between Asia and Europe, and had started the movement
+between the two realms of culture, which was fated to produce the
+greatest combination of ideas that the world has known. Now, at last,
+the Hebrew, with his lofty conception of God, came into close contact
+with the Greek, who had developed an equally noble conception of man.
+Disraeli, in his usual sweeping manner, makes one of his characters in
+"Lothair" tell how the Aryan and Semitic races, after centuries of
+wandering upon opposite courses, met again and, represented by their
+two choicest families, the Hellenes and the Hebrews, brought together
+the treasures of their accumulated wisdom and secured the civilization
+of man. Apart from the question of the original common source, of
+which we are no longer sure, his rhetoric is broadly true; but for two
+centuries the influence was nearly all upon one side. The Jew,
+attracted by the brilliant art, literature, science, and philosophy of
+the Hellene, speedily Hellenized, and as early as the third century
+B.C.E. Clearchus, the pupil of Aristotle, tells of a Jew whom his
+master met, who was "Greek not only in language but also in mind."[18]
+The Greek, on the other hand, who had not yet comprehended the majesty
+of his neighbor's monotheism, for lack of adequate presentation, did
+not Hebraize. In Palestine the adoption of Greek ways and the
+introduction of Greek ideas proceeded rapidly to the point of
+demoralization, until the Maccabees stayed it. Unfortunately, the
+Hellenism that was brought to Palestine was not the lofty culture, the
+eager search for truth and knowledge, that marked Athens in the
+classical age; it was a bastard product of Greek elegance and Oriental
+luxury and sensuousness, a seeking after base pleasures, an assertion
+of naturalistic polytheism. And hence came the strong reaction against
+Greek ideas among the bulk of the people, which prevented any
+permanent fusion of cultures in the land of Israel.
+
+The Hellenism of Alexandria was a more genuine product. The liberal
+policy of the early Ptolemies made their capital a centre of art,
+literature, science, and philosophy. To their court were gathered the
+chief poets, savants, and thinkers of their age. The Museum was the
+most celebrated literary academy, and the Library the most noted
+collection of books in the world. Dwelling in this atmosphere of
+culture and research, the Hebrew mind rapidly expanded and began to
+take its part as an active force in civilization. It acquired the love
+of knowledge in a wider sense than it had recognized before, and
+assimilated the teachings of Hellas in all their variety. Within a
+hundred years of their settlement Hebrew or Aramaic had become to the
+Jews a strange language, and they spoke and thought in Greek. Hence it
+was necessary to have an authoritative Greek translation of the Holy
+Scriptures, and the first great step in the Jewish-Hellenistic
+development is marked by the Septuagint version of the Bible.
+
+Fancy and legend attached themselves early to an event fraught with
+such importance for the history of the race and mankind as the
+translation of the Scriptures into the language of the cultured world.
+From this overgrowth it is difficult to construct a true narrative;
+still, the research of latter-day scholars has gone far to prove a
+basis of truth in the statements made in the famous letter of the
+pseudo-Aristeas, which professes to describe the origin of the work.
+We may extract from his story that the Septuagint was written in the
+reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, about 250 B.C.E., with the approval, if
+not at the express request, of the king, and with the help of rabbis
+brought from Palestine to give authority to the work. But we need not
+believe with later legend that each of the seventy translators was
+locked up in a separate cell for seventy days till he had finished the
+whole work, and that when they were let out they were all found to
+have written exactly the same words. Philo gives us a version of the
+event, romantic, indeed, but more rational, in his "Life of
+Moses."[19] He tells how Ptolemy, having conceived a great admiration
+for the laws of Moses, sent ambassadors to the high priest of Juddea,
+requesting him to choose out a number of learned men that might
+translate them into Greek. "These were duly chosen, and came to the
+king's court, and were allotted the Isle of Pharos as the most
+tranquil spot in the city for carrying out their work; by God's grace
+they all found the exact Greek words to correspond to the Hebrew
+words, so that they were not mere translators, but prophets to whom
+it had been granted to follow in the divinity of their minds the
+sublime spirit of Moses." "On which account," he adds, "even to this
+day there is in every year celebrated a festival in the Island of
+Pharos, to which not only Jews but many persons of other nations sail
+across, reverencing the place in which the light of interpretation
+first shone forth, and thanking God for His ancient gift to man, which
+has eternal youth and freshness." It is significant that Philo makes
+no mention in his books of the festival of Hanukah, while the Talmud
+has no mention of this feast of Pharos; the Alexandrian Jews
+celebrated the day when the Bible was brought within reach of the
+Greek world, the Palestinians the day when the Greeks were driven out
+of the temple. At the same time the celebrations in honor of the
+Septuagint and of the deliverance from the Ptolemaic persecution[20]
+are remarkable illustrations of a living Jewish tradition at
+Alexandria, which attached a religious consecration to the special
+history of the community.
+
+It is not correct to say with Philo that the translator rendered each
+word of the Hebrew with literal faithfulness, so as to give its proper
+force. Rather may we accept the words of the Greek translator of Ben
+Sira: "Things originally spoken in Hebrew have not the same force in
+them when they are translated into another tongue, and not only these,
+but the law itself (the Torah) and the prophecies and the rest of the
+books have no small difference when they are spoken in their original
+language."[21]
+
+From the making of the translation one can trace the movement that
+ended in Christianity. By reading their Scriptures in Greek, Jews
+began to think them in Greek and according to Greek conceptions.
+Certain commentators have seen in the Septuagint itself the infusion
+of Greek philosophical ideas. Be this as it may, it is certain that
+the version facilitated the introduction of Greek philosophy into the
+interpretation of Scripture, and gave a new meaning to certain Hebraic
+conceptions, by suggesting comparison with strange notions. This
+aspect of the work led the rabbis of Palestine and Babylon in later
+days, when the spread of Hellenized Judaism was fraught with misery to
+the race, to regard it as an awful calamity, and to recount a tale of
+a plague of darkness which fell upon Palestine for three days when it
+was made;[22] and they observed a fast day in place of the old
+Alexandrian feast on the anniversary of its completion. They felt as
+the old Italian proverb has it, _Traduttori, traditori!_ ("Translators
+are traitors!"). And the Midrash in the same spirit declares[23] that
+the oral law was not written down, because God knew that otherwise it
+would be translated into Greek, and He wished it to be the special
+mystery of His people, as the Bible no longer was.
+
+The Septuagint translation of the Bible was one answer to the lying
+accounts of Israel's early history concocted by anti-Semitic writers.
+As we have seen,[24] the Alexandrian Jews began early to write
+histories and re-edit the Bible stories to the same purpose. And for
+some time their writings were mainly apologetic, designed, whatever
+their form, to serve a defensive purpose. But later they took the
+offensive against the paganism and immorality of the peoples about
+them, and the missionary spirit became predominant. Alexander
+Polyhistor, who lived in the first century, included in his "History
+of the Jews" fragments of these early Jewish historians and
+apologists, which the Christian bishop Eusebius has handed down to us.
+From them we can gather some notion of the strange medley of fact and
+imagination which was composed to influence the Gentile world. Abraham
+is said to have instructed the Egyptians in astrology; Joseph devised
+a great system of agriculture; Moses was identified variously with the
+legendary Greek seer Musaeus and the god Hermes. A favorite device for
+rebutting the calumnies of detractors and attracting the outer world
+to Jewish ideas, was the attachment to some ancient source of
+panegyrics upon Judaism and monotheism. To the Greek philosopher
+Heraclitus and the Greek historian Hecatæeus, who wrote a history of
+the world, passages which glorify the Hebrew people and the Hebrew God
+were ascribed. Still more daring was the conversion into archaic
+hexameter verse of the stories of Genesis and Exodus, and of Messianic
+prophecies in the guise of Sibylline oracles. The Sibyl, whom the
+superstitions of the time revered as an inspired seeress of
+prehistoric ages, was made to recite the building of the tower of
+Babel, or the virtues of Abraham, and again to prophesy the day when
+the heathen nations should be wiped out, and the God of Israel be the
+God of all the world. Although the fabrication of oracles is not
+entirely defensible, it is unnecessary to see, with Schürer, in these
+writings a low moral standard among the Egyptian Jews. They were not
+meant to suggest, to the cultured at any rate, that the Sibyl in one
+case or Heraclitus in another had really written the words ascribed to
+them. The so-called forgery was a literary device of a like nature
+with the dialogues of Plato or the political fantasies of More and
+Swift. By the striking nature of their utterances the writers hoped to
+catch the ear of the Gentile world for the saving doctrine which they
+taught. The form is Greek, but the spirit is Hebraic; in the third
+Sibylline oracle, particularly, the call to monotheism and the
+denunciation of idolatry, with the pictures of the Divine reward for
+the righteous, and of the Divine judgment for the ungodly, remind us
+of the prophecies of Isaiah and Jeremiah; as when the poet says,[25]
+"Witless mortals, who cling to an image that ye have fashioned to be
+your god, why do ye vainly go astray, and march along a path which is
+not straight? Why remember ye not the eternal founder of All? One only
+God there is who ruleth alone." And again: "The children of Israel
+shall mark out the path of life to all mortals, for they are the
+interpreters of God, exalted by Him, and bearing a great joy to all
+mankind."[26] The consciousness of the Jewish mission is the dominant
+note. Masters now of Greek culture, the Jews believed that they had a
+philosophy of their own, which it was their privilege to teach to the
+Greeks; their conception of God and the government of the world was
+truer than any other; their conception of man's duty more righteous;
+even their conception of the state more ideal.
+
+The apocryphal book, the Wisdom of Solomon, which was probably written
+at Alexandria during the first century B.C.E., is marked by the same
+spirit. There again we meet with the glorification of the one true God
+of Israel, and the denunciation of pagan idolatry; and while the
+author writes in Greek and shows the influence of Greek ideas, he
+makes the Psalms and the Proverbs his models of literary form. "Love
+righteousness," he begins, "ye that be judges of the earth; think ye
+of the Lord with a good mind and in singleness of heart seek ye Him."
+His appeal for godliness is addressed to the Gentile world in a
+language which they understood, but in a spirit to which most of them
+were strangers. The early history of the Israelites in Egypt comes
+home to him with especial force, for he sees it "in the light of
+eternity," a striking moral lesson for the godless Egyptian world
+around him in which the house of Jacob dwelt again. With poetical
+imagination he tells anew the story of the ten plagues as though he
+had lived through them, and seen with his own eyes the punishment of
+the idolatrous land. He ends with a pæan to the God who had saved His
+people. "For in all things Thou didst magnify them, and Thou didst
+glorify them, and not lightly regard them, standing by their side in
+every time and place."
+
+At this epoch, and at Alexandria especially, Judaism was no
+self-centred, exclusive faith afraid of expansion. The mission of
+Israel was a very real thing, and conversion was widespread in Rome,
+in Egypt, and all along the Mediterranean countries. The Jews, says
+the letter of Aristeas, "eagerly seek intercourse with other nations,
+and they pay special care to this, and emulate each other therein."
+And one of the most reliable pagan writers says of them, "They have
+penetrated into every state, and it is hard to find a place where they
+have not become powerful."[27] Nor was it merely material power which
+they acquired. The days had come which the prophet Amos (viii. 11) had
+predicted, when "God will send a famine in the land, not a famine of
+bread, nor a thirst for water, but a famine of hearing the words of
+the Lord." The Greek world had lost faith in the poetical gods of its
+mythology and in the metaphysical powers of its philosophical schools,
+and was searching for a more real object to revere and lean on. The
+people were thirsting for the living God. And in place of the gods of
+nature, whom they had found unsatisfying, or the impersonal
+world-force, with which they sought in vain to come into harmony, the
+Jews offered them the God of history, who had preserved their race
+through the ages, and revealed to them the law of Moses.
+
+The missionary purpose was largely responsible for the rise of a
+philosophical school of Bible commentators. The Hellenistic world was
+thoroughly sophisticated, and Alexandria was distinguished above all
+towns as the home of philosophical lectures and book-making. One of
+Philo's contemporaries is said to have written over one thousand
+treatises, and in one of his rare touches of satire Philo relates[28]
+how bands of sophists talked to eager crowds of men and women day and
+night about virtue being the only good, and the blessedness of life
+according to nature, all without producing the slightest effect, save
+noise. The Jews also studied philosophy, and began to talk in the
+catchwords of philosophy, and then to re-interpret their Scriptures
+according to the ideas of philosophy. The Septuagint translation of
+the Pentateuch was to the cultured Gentile an account in rather bald
+and impure Greek of the history of a family which grew into a petty
+nation, and of their tribal and national laws. The prophets, it is
+true, set forth teachings which were more obviously of general moral
+import; but the books of the prophets were not God's special
+revelation to the Jews, but rather individual utterances and
+exhortations: and their teaching was treated as subordinate to the
+Divine revelation in the Five Books of Moses. Those, then, who aimed
+at the spread of Jewish monotheism were impelled to draw out a
+philosophical meaning, a universal value from the Books of Moses.
+Nowadays the Bible is the holy book of so much of the civilized world
+that it is somewhat difficult for us to form a proper conception of
+what it was to the civilized world before the Christian era. We have
+to imagine a state of culture in which it was only the Book of books
+to one small nation, while to others it was at best a curious record
+of ancient times, just as the Code of Hammurabi or the Egyptian Book
+of Life is to us. The Alexandrian Jews were the first to popularize
+its teachings, to bring Jewish religion into line with the thought of
+the Greek world. It was to this end that they founded a particular
+form of Midrash--the allegorical interpretation, which is largely a
+distinctive product of the Alexandrian age. The Palestinian rabbis of
+the time were on the one hand developing by dialectic discussion the
+oral tradition into a vast system of religious ritual and legal
+jurisprudence; on the other, weaving around the law, by way of
+adornment to it, a variegated fabric of philosophy, fable, allegory,
+and legend. Simultaneously the Alexandrian preachers--they were never
+quite the same as the rabbis--were emphasizing for the outer world as
+well as their own people the spiritual side of the religion,
+elaborating a theology that should satisfy the reason, and seeking to
+establish the harmony of Greek philosophy with Jewish monotheism and
+the Mosaic legislation. Allegorical interpretation is "based upon the
+supposition or fiction that the author who is interpreted intended
+something 'other' [Greek: allo] than what is expressed"; it is the
+method used to read thought into a text which its words do not
+literally bear, by attaching to each phrase some deeper, usually some
+philosophical meaning. It enables the interpreter to bring writings of
+antiquity into touch with the culture of his or any age; "the gates of
+allegory are never closed, and they open upon a path which stretches
+without a break through the centuries." In the region of jurisprudence
+there is an institution with a similar purpose, which is known as
+"legal fiction," whereby old laws by subtle interpretation are made to
+serve new conditions and new needs. Allegorical interpretation must be
+carefully distinguished from the writing of allegory, of which
+Bunyan's "Pilgrim's Progress" is the best-known type. One is the
+converse of the other; for in allegories moral ideas are represented
+as persons and moral lessons enforced by what purports to be a story
+of life. In allegorical interpretation persons are transformed into
+ideas and their history into a system of philosophy. The Greek
+philosophers had applied this method to Homer since the fourth century
+B.C.E., in order to read into the epic poet, whose work they regarded
+almost as a Divine revelation, their reflective theories of the
+universe. And doubtless the Jewish philosophers were influenced by
+their example.
+
+Their allegorical treatment of the Bible was intended, not merely to
+adapt it to the Greek world, but to strengthen its hold on the
+Alexandrian Jews themselves. These, as they acquired Hellenic culture,
+found that the Bible in its literal sense did not altogether satisfy
+their conceptions. They detected in it a certain primitiveness, and
+having eaten further of the tree of knowledge, they were aware of its
+philosophical nakedness. It was full of anthropomorphism, and it
+seemed wanting in that which the Greek world admired above all
+things--a systematic theology and systematic ethics. The idea that the
+words of the Bible contained some hidden meanings goes back to the
+earliest Jewish tradition and is one of the bases of the oral law; but
+the special characteristic of the Alexandrian exegesis is that it
+searched out theories of God and life like those which the Greek
+philosophers had developed. The device was necessary to secure the
+allegiance of the people to the Torah. And from the need of expounding
+the Bible in this way to the Jewish public at Alexandria, there arose
+a new form of religious literature, the sermon, and a new form of
+commentary, the homiletical. The words "homiletical" and "homily"
+suggest what they originally connoted; they are derived from the Greek
+word [Greek: homilia], "an assembly," and a homily was a discourse
+delivered to an assembly. The Meturgeman of Palestine and Babylon, who
+expounded the Hebrew text in Aramaic, became the preacher of
+Alexandria, who gave, in Greek, of course, homiletical expositions of
+the law. In the great synagogue each Sabbath some leader in the
+community would give a harangue to the assembly, starting from a
+Biblical text and deducing from it or weaving into it the ideas of
+Hellenic wisdom, touched by Jewish influence; for the synagogues at
+Alexandria as elsewhere were the schools (_Schule_) as much as the
+houses of prayer; schools, as Philo says, of "temperance, bravery,
+prudence, justice, piety, holiness, and in short of all virtues by
+which things human and Divine are well ordered."[29] He speaks
+repeatedly of the Sabbath gatherings, when the Jews would become, as
+he puts it, a community of philosophers,[30] as they listened to the
+exegesis of the preacher, who by allegorical and homiletical fancies
+would make a verse or chapter of the Torah live again with a new
+meaning to his audience. The Alexandrian Jews, though the form of
+their writing was influenced by the Greeks, probably brought with them
+from Palestine primitive traces of allegorism. Allegory and its
+counterpart, allegorical interpretation, are deeply imbedded in the
+Oriental mind, and we hear of ancient schools of symbolists in the
+oldest portions of the Talmud.[31] At what period the Alexandrians
+began to use allegorical interpretation for the purpose of harmonizing
+Greek ideas with the Bible we do not know, but the first writer in
+this style of whom we have record (though scholars consider that his
+fragments are of doubtful authenticity) is Aristobulus. He is said to
+have been the tutor of Ptolemy Philometor, and he must have written at
+the beginning of the first century B.C.E. He dedicated to the king his
+"Exegesis of the Mosaic Law," which was an attempt to reveal the
+teachings of the Peripatetic system, _i.e._, the philosophy of
+Aristotle, within the text of the Pentateuch. All anthropomorphic
+expressions are explained away allegorically, and God's activity in
+the material universe is ascribed to his [Greek: Dunamis] or power,
+which pervades all creation. Whether the power is independent and
+treated as a separate person is not clear from the fragments that
+Eusebius[32] has preserved for us. Aristobulus was only one link in a
+continuous chain, though his is the only name among Philo's
+predecessors that has come down to us. Philo speaks, fifteen times in
+all, of explanations of allegorists who read into the Bible this or
+that system of thought[33] regarding the words of the law as "manifest
+symbols of things invisible and hints of things inexpressible." And if
+their work were before us, it is likely that Philo would appear as the
+central figure of an Alexandrian Midrash gathered from many sources,
+instead of the sole authority for a vast development of the Torah. We
+must not regard him as a single philosophical genius who suddenly
+springs up, but as the culmination of a long development, the supreme
+master of an old tradition.
+
+If the allegorical method appears now as artificial and frigid, it
+must be remembered that it was one which recommended itself strongly
+to the age. The great creative era of the Greek mind had passed away
+with the absorption of the city-state in Alexander's empire. Then
+followed the age of criticism, during which the works of the great
+masters were interpreted, annotated, and compared. Next, as creative
+thought became rarer, and confidence in human reason began to be
+shaken, men fell back more and more for their ideas and opinions upon
+some authority of the distant past, whom they regarded as an inspired
+teacher. The sayings of Homer and Pythagoras were considered as
+divinely revealed truths; and when treated allegorically, they were
+shown to contain the philosophical tenets of the Platonic, the
+Aristotelian, or the Stoic school. Thus, in the first century B.C.E.,
+the Greek mind, which had earlier been devoted to the free search for
+knowledge and truth, was approaching the Hebraic standpoint, which
+considered that the highest truth had once for all been revealed to
+mankind in inspired writings, and that the duty of later generations
+was to interpret this revealed doctrine rather than search
+independently for knowledge. On the other hand, the Jewish
+interpreters were trying to reach the Greek standpoint when they set
+themselves to show that the writers of the Bible had anticipated the
+philosophers of Hellas with systems of theology, psychology, ethics,
+and cosmology. Allegorism, it may be said, is the instrument by which
+Greek and Hebrew thought were brought together. Its development was in
+its essence a sign of intellectual vigor and religious activity; but
+in the time of Philo it threatened to have one evil consequence, which
+did in the end undermine the religion of the Alexandrian community.
+Some who allegorized the Torah were not content with discovering a
+deeper meaning beneath the law, but went on to disregard the literal
+sense, _i.e._, they allegorized away the law, and held in contempt the
+symbolic observance to which they had attached a spiritual meaning. On
+the other hand, there was a party which adhered strictly to the
+literal sense ([Greek: to hrêton]) and rejected allegorism.[34] Philo
+protested against these extremes and was the leader of those who were
+liberal in thought and conservative in practice, and who venerated the
+law both for its literal and for its allegorical sense. To effect the
+true harmony between the literal and the allegorical sense of the
+Torah, between the spiritual and the legal sides of Judaism, between
+Greek philosophy and revealed religion--that was the great work of
+Philo-Judæus.
+
+Though the religious and intellectual development of the Alexandrian
+community proceeded on different lines from that of the main body of
+the nation in Palestine, yet the connection between the two was
+maintained closely for centuries. The colony, as we have noticed,
+recognized whole-heartedly the spiritual headship of Jerusalem, and at
+the great festivals of the year a deputation went from Alexandria to
+the holy sanctuary, bearing offerings from the whole community. In
+Jerusalem, on the other hand, special synagogues, where Greek was the
+language,[35] were built for Alexandrian visitors. Alexandrian
+artisans and craftsmen took part in the building of Herod's temple,
+but were found inferior to native workmen.[36] The notices within the
+building were written in Greek as well as in Aramaic, and the golden
+gates to the inner court were, we are told by Josephus,[37] the gift
+of Philo's brother, the head of the Alexandrian community. Some
+fragments have come down to us of a poem about Jerusalem in Greek
+verse by a certain Philo, who lived in the first century B.C.E., and
+was perhaps an ancestor of our worthy. He glorifies the Holy City,
+extols its fertility, and speaks of its ever-flowing waters beneath
+the earth. His greater namesake says that wherever the Jews live they
+consider Jerusalem as their metropolis. The Talmud again tells how
+Judah Ben Tabbai and Joshua Ben Perahya, during the persecution of the
+Pharisees by Hyreanus, fled to Alexandria, and how later Joshua Ben
+Hanania[38] sojourned there and gave answers to twelve questions which
+the Jews propounded to him, three of them dealing with "the Wisdom."
+The Talmud has frequent reference to Alexandrian Jews, and that it
+makes little direct mention of the Alexandrian exegesis is explained
+by the distrust of the whole Hellenistic movement, which the rise of
+Christianity and the growth of Gnosticism induced in the rabbis of the
+second and third centuries. They lived at a time when it had been
+proved that that movement led away from Judaism, and its main tenets
+had been adopted or perverted by an antagonistic creed. It was a
+tragic necessity which compelled the severance between the Eastern and
+Western developments of the religion. In Philo's day the breach was
+already threatened, through the anti-legal tendencies of the extreme
+allegorists. His own aim was to maintain the catholic tradition of
+Judaism, while at the same time expounding the Torah according to the
+conceptions of ancient philosophy. Unfortunately, the balance was not
+preserved by those who followed him, and the branch of Judaism that
+had blossomed forth so fruitfully fell off from the parent tree. But
+till the middle of the first century of the common era the Alexandrian
+and the Palestinian developments of Jewish culture were complementary:
+on the one side there was legal, on the other, philosophical
+expansion. Moreover, the Judæo-Alexandrian school, though, through its
+abandonment of the Hebrew tongue, it lies outside the main stream of
+Judaism, was an immense force in the religious history of the world,
+and Philo, its greatest figure, stands out in our annals as the
+embodiment of the Jewish religious mission, which is to preach to the
+nations the knowledge of the one God, and the law of righteousness.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+THE LIFE AND TIMES OF PHILO
+
+
+"The hero," says Carlyle, "can be poet, prophet, king, priest, or what
+you will, according to the kind of world he finds himself born
+into."[39] The Jews have not been a great political people, but their
+excellence has been a peculiar spiritual development: and therefore
+most of their heroes have been men of thought rather than action,
+writers rather than statesmen, men whose influence has been greater on
+posterity than upon their own generation. Of Philo's life we know one
+incident in very full detail, the rest we can only reconstruct from
+stray hints in his writings, and a few short notices of the
+commentators. From that incident also, which we know to have taken
+place in the year 40 C.E., we can fix the general chronology of his
+life and works. He speaks of himself as an old man in relating it, so
+that his birth may be safely placed at about 20 B.C.E. The first part
+of his life therefore was passed during the tranquil era in which
+Augustus and Tiberius were reorganizing the Roman Empire after a
+half-century of war; but he was fated to see more troublesome times
+for his people, when the emperor Gaius, for a miserable eight years,
+harassed the world with his mad escapades. In the riots which ensued
+upon the attempt to deprive the Jews of their religious freedom his
+brother the alabarch was imprisoned;[40] and he himself was called
+upon to champion the Alexandrian community in its hour of need.
+Although the ascent of the stupid but honest Claudius dispelled
+immediate danger from the Jews and brought them a temporary increase
+of favor in Alexandria as well as in Palestine, Philo did not return
+entirely to the contemplative life which he loved; and throughout the
+latter portion of his life he was the public defender as well as the
+teacher of his people. He probably died before the reign of Nero,
+between 50 and 60 C.E. In Jewish history his life covered the reigns
+of King Herod, his sons, and King Agrippa, when the Jewish kingdom
+reached its height of outward magnificence; and it extended probably
+up to the ill-omened conversion of Judæa into a Roman province under
+the rule of a procurator. It is noteworthy also that Philo was partly
+contemporary with Hillel, who came from Babylon to Jerusalem in 30
+B.C.E., and according to the accepted tradition was president of the
+Sanhedrin till his death in 10 C.E. In this epoch Judaism, by contact
+with external forces, was thoroughly self-conscious, and the world was
+most receptive of its teaching; hence it spread itself far and wide,
+and at the same time reached its greatest spiritual intensity. Hillel
+and Philo show the splendid expansion of the Hebrew mind. In the
+history of most races national greatness and national genius appear
+together. The two grandest expressions of Jewish genius immediately
+preceded the national downfall. For the genius of Judaism is
+religious, and temporal power is not one of the conditions of its
+development.
+
+Philo belonged to the most distinguished Jewish family of
+Alexandria,[41] and according to Jerome and Photius, the ancient
+authorities for his life, was of the priestly rank; his brother
+Alexander Lysimachus was not only the governor of the Jewish
+community, but also the alabarch, _i.e._, ruler of the whole Delta
+region, and enjoyed the confidence of Mark Antony, who appointed him
+guardian of his second daughter Antonia, the mother of Germanicus and
+the Roman emperor Claudius. Born in an atmosphere of power and
+affluence, Philo, who might have consorted with princes, devoted
+himself from the first with all his soul to a life of contemplation;
+like a Palestinian rabbi he regarded as man's highest duty the study
+of the law and the knowledge of God.[42] This is the way in which he
+understood the philosopher's life[43]: man's true function is to know
+God, and to make God known: he can know God only through His
+revelation, and he can comprehend that revelation only by continued
+study. [Hebrew: v-nbi' lbb hkma], God's interpreter must have a wise
+heart,[44] as the rabbis explained. Philo then considered that the true
+understanding of the law required a complete knowledge of general culture,
+and that secular philosophy was a necessary preparation for the deeper
+mysteries of the Holy Word. "He who is practicing to abide in the city
+of perfect virtue, before he can be inscribed as a citizen thereof,
+must sojourn with the 'encyclic' sciences, so that through them he may
+advance securely to perfect goodness."[45] The "encyclic," or
+encyclopædic sciences, to which he refers, are the various branches of
+Greek culture, and Philo finds a symbol of their place in life in the
+story of Abraham. Abraham is the eternal type of the seeker after God,
+and as he first consorted with the foreign woman Hagar and had
+offspring by her, and afterwards in his mature age had offspring by
+Sarah, so in Philo's interpretation the true philosopher must first
+apply himself to outside culture and enlarge his mind with that
+training; and when his ideas have thus expanded, he passes on to the
+more sublime philosophy of the Divine law, and his mind is fruitful in
+lofty thoughts.[46]
+
+As a prelude to the study of Greek philosophy he built up a harmony of
+the mind by a study of Greek poetry, rhetoric, music, mathematics, and
+the natural sciences. His works bear witness to the thoroughness with
+which he imbibed all that was best in Greek literature. His Jewish
+predecessors had written in the impure dialect of the Hellenistic
+colonies (the [Greek: koinê dialektos]), and had shown little
+literary charm; but Philo's style is more graceful than that of any
+Greek prose writer since the golden age of the fourth century. Like
+his thought, indeed, it is eclectic and not always clear, but full of
+reminiscences of the epic and tragic poets on the one hand, and of
+Plato on the other,[47] it gives a happy blending of prose and poetry,
+which admirably fits the devotional philosophy that forms its subject.
+And what was said of Plato by a Greek critic applies equally well to
+Philo: "He rises at times above the spirit of prose in such a way that
+he appears to be instinct, not with human understanding, but with a
+Divine oracle." From the study of literature and kindred subjects
+Philo passed on to philosophy, and he made himself master of the
+teachings of all the chief schools. There was a mingling of all the
+world's wisdom at Alexandria in his day; and Philo, like the other
+philosophers of the time, shows acquaintance with the ideas of
+Egyptian, Chaldean, Persian,[48] and even Indian thought. The chief
+Greek schools in his age were the Stoic, the Platonic, the Skeptic and
+the Pythagorean, which had each its professors in the Museum and its
+popular preachers in the public lecture-halls. Later we will notice
+more closely Philo's relations to the Greek philosophers: suffice it
+here to say that he was the most distinguished Platonist of his age.
+
+Philo's education therefore was largely Greek, and his method of
+thought, and the forms in which his ideas were associated and
+impressed, were Greek. It must not be thought, however, that this
+involved any weakening of his Judaism, or detracted from the purity of
+his belief. Far from it. The Torah remained for him the supreme
+standard to which all outside knowledge had to be subordinated, and
+for which it was a preparation.[49] But Philo brought to bear upon the
+elucidation of the Torah and Jewish law and ceremony not only the
+religious conceptions of the Jewish mind, but also the intellectual
+ideas of Greek philosophy, and he interpreted the Bible in the light
+of the broadest culture of his day. Beautiful as are the thoughts and
+fancies of the Talmudic rabbis, their Midrash was a purely national
+monument, closed by its form as by its language to the general world;
+Philo applied to the exposition of Judaism the most highly-trained
+philosophic mind of Alexandria, and brought out clearly for the
+Hellenistic people the latent philosophy of the Torah.
+
+Greek was his native language, but at the same time he was not, as has
+been suggested, entirely ignorant of Hebrew. The Septuagint
+translation was the version of the Bible which he habitually used, but
+there are passages in his works which show that he knew and
+occasionally employed the Hebrew Bible.[50] Moreover, his etymologies
+are evidence of his knowledge of the Hebrew language; though he
+sometimes gives a symbolic value to Biblical names according to their
+Greek equivalent, he more frequently bases his allegory upon a Hebrew
+derivation. That all names had a profound meaning, and signified the
+true nature of that which they designated, is among the most firmly
+established of Philo's ideas. Of his more striking derivations one may
+cite Israel, [Hebrew: v-shr-'l], the man who beholdeth God; Jerusalem,
+[Hebrew: yrv-shlom], the sight of peace; Hebrew, [Hebrew: 'bri], one who
+has passed over from the life of the passions to virtue; Isaac, [Hebrew:
+ytshk], the joy or laughter of the soul. These etymologies are more
+ingenious than convincing, and are not entirely true to Hebrew philology,
+but neither were those of the early rabbis; and they at least show that
+Philo had acquired a superficial knowledge of the language of Scripture.
+Nor can it be doubted that he was acquainted with the Palestinian Midrash,
+both Halakic and Haggadic. At the beginning of the "Life of Moses" he
+declares that he has based it upon "many traditions which I have
+received from the elders of my nation,"[51] and in several places he
+speaks of the "ancestral philosophy," which must mean the Midrash
+which embodied tradition. Eusebius also, the early Christian
+authority, bears witness to his knowledge of the traditional
+interpretations of the law.[52]
+
+It is fairly certain, moreover, that Philo sojourned some time in
+Jerusalem. He was there probably during the reign of Agrippa (_c._ 30
+C.E.), who was an intimate friend of his family, and had found a
+refuge at Alexandria when an exile from Palestine and Rome. In the
+first book on the Mosaic laws[53] Philo speaks with enthusiasm of the
+great temple, to which "vast assemblies of men from a countless
+variety of cities, some by land, some by sea, from East, West, North,
+and South, come at every festival as if to some common refuge and
+harbor from the troubles of this harassed and anxious life, seeking to
+find there tranquillity and gain a new hope in life by its joyous
+festivities." These gatherings, at which, according to Josephus,[54]
+over two million people assembled, must, indeed, have been a striking
+symbol of the unity of the Jewish race, which was at once national and
+international; magnificent embassies from Babylon and Persia, from
+Egypt and Cyrene, from Rome and Greece, even from distant Spain and
+Gaul, went in procession together through the gate of Xistus up the
+temple-mount, which was crowned by the golden sanctuary, shining in
+the full Eastern sun like a sea of light above the town. Philo
+describes in detail the form of the edifice that moved the admiration
+of all who beheld it, and for the Jew, moreover, was invested with the
+most cherished associations. Its outer courts consisted of double
+porticoes of marble columns burnished with gold, then came the inner
+courts of simple columns, and "within these stood the temple itself,
+beautiful beyond all possible description, as one may tell even from
+what is seen in the outer court; for the innermost sanctuary is
+invisible to every being except the high priest." The majesty of the
+ceremonial within equalled the splendor without. The high priest, in
+the words of Ben Sira (xlv), "beautified with comely ornament and
+girded about with a robe of glory," seemed a high priest fit for the
+whole world. Upon his head the mitre with a crown of gold engraved
+with holiness, upon his breast the mystic Urim and Thummim and the
+ephod with its twelve brilliant jewels, upon his tunic golden
+pomegranates and silver bells, which for the mystic ear pealed the
+harmony of the world as he moved. Little wonder that, inspired by the
+striking gathering and the solemn ritual, Philo regarded the temple as
+the shrine of the universe,[55] and thought the day was near when all
+nations should go up there together, to do worship to the One God.
+
+Sparse as are the direct proofs of Philo's connection with Palestinian
+Judaism, his account of the temple and its service, apart from the
+general standpoint of his writings, proves to us that he was a loyal
+son of his nation, and loved Judaism for its national institutions as
+well as its great moral sublimity. His aspiration was to bring home
+the truths of the religion to the cultured world, and therefore he
+devised a new expression for the wisdom of his people, and transformed
+it into a literary system. Judaism forms the kernel, but Greek
+philosophy and literature the shell, of his work; for the audience to
+which he appealed, whether Jewish or Gentile, thought in Greek, and
+would be moved only by ideas presented in Greek form, and by Greek
+models he himself was inspired.
+
+Philo's first ideal of life was to attain to the profoundest knowledge
+of God so as to be fitted for the mission of interpreting His Word:
+and he relates in one of his treatises how he spent his youth and his
+first manhood in philosophy and the contemplation of the universe.[56]
+"I feasted with the truly blessed mind, which is the object of all
+desire (_i.e._, God), communing continually in joy with the Divine
+words and doctrines. I entertained no low or mean thought, nor did I
+ever crawl about glory or wealth or worldly comfort, but I seemed to
+be carried aloft in a kind of spiritual inspiration and to be borne
+along in harmony with the whole universe." The intense religious
+spirit which seeks to perceive all things in a supreme unity Philo
+shares with Spinoza, whose life-ideal was the intuitional knowledge of
+the universe and "the intellectual love of God." Both men show the
+pursuit of righteousness raised to philosophical grandeur.
+
+In his early days the way to virtue and happiness appeared to Philo to
+lie in the solitary and ascetic life. He was possessed by a noble
+pessimism, that the world was an evil place,[57] and the worldly life
+an evil thing for a man's soul, that man must die to live, and
+renounce the pleasures not only of the body but also of society in
+order to know God. The idea was a common one of the age, and was the
+outcome of the mingling of Greek ethics and psychology and the Jewish
+love of righteousness. For the Greek thinkers taught a psychological
+dualism, by which the body and the senses were treated as antagonistic
+to the higher intellectual soul, which was immortal, and linked man
+with the principle of creation. The most remarkable and enduring
+effect of Hellenic influence in Palestine was the rise of the sect of
+Essenes,[58] Jewish mystics, who eschewed private property and the
+general social life, and forming themselves into communistic
+congregations which were a sort of social Utopia, devoted their lives
+to the cult of piety and saintliness. It cannot be doubted that their
+manner of life was to some degree an imitation of the Pythagorean
+brotherhoods, which ever since the sixth century had spread a sort of
+monasticism through the Greek world. Nor is it unlikely that Hindu
+teachings exercised an influence over them, for Buddhism was at this
+age, like Judaism, a missionizing religion, and had teachers in the
+West. Philo speaks in several places of its doctrines.[59] Whatever
+its moulding influences, Essenism represented the spirit of the age,
+and it spread far and wide. At Alexandria, above all places, where the
+life of luxury and dissoluteness repelled the serious, ascetic ideas
+took firm hold of the people, and the Therapeutic life, _i.e._, the
+life of prayer and labor devoted to God, which corresponded to the
+system of the Essenes, had numerous votaries. The first century
+witnessed the extremes of the religious and irreligious sentiments.
+The world was weary and jaded; it had lost confidence in human reason
+and faith in social ideals, and while the materialists abandoned
+themselves to hideous orgies and sensual debaucheries, the
+higher-minded went to the opposite excess and sought by flight from
+the world and mortification of the flesh to attain to supernatural
+states of ecstasy. A book has come down to us under the name of
+Philo[60] which describes "the contemplative life" of a Jewish
+brotherhood that lived apart on the shores of Lake Mareotis by the
+mouth of the Nile. Men and women lived in the settlement, though all
+intercourse between the sexes was rigidly avoided. During six days of
+the week they met in prayer, morning and evening, and in the interval
+devoted themselves in solitude to the practice of virtue and the study
+of the holy allegories, and the composition of hymns and psalms. On
+the Sabbath they sat in common assembly, but with the women separated
+from the men, and listened to the allegorical homily of an elder; they
+paid special honor to the Feast of Pentecost, reverencing the mystical
+attributes of the number fifty, and they celebrated a religious
+banquet thereon. During the rest of the year they only partook of the
+sustenance necessary for life, and thus in their daily conduct
+realized the way which the rabbis set out as becoming for the study of
+the Torah: "A morsel of bread with salt thou must eat, and water by
+measure thou must drink; thou must sleep upon the ground and live a
+life of hardship, the while thou toilest in the Torah."[61]
+
+We do not know whether Philo attached himself to one of these
+brotherhoods of organized solitude, or whether he lived even more
+strictly the solitary life out in the wilderness by himself. Certainly
+he was at one period in sympathy with ascetic ideas. It seemed to him
+that as God was alone, so man must be alone in order to be like
+God.[62] In his earlier writings he is constantly praising the ascetic
+life, as a means, indeed, to virtue rather than as a good in itself,
+and as a helpful discipline to the man of incomplete moral strength,
+though inferior to the spontaneous goodness which God vouchsafes to
+the righteous. Isaac is the type of this highest bliss, while the life
+of Jacob is the type of the progress to virtue through asceticism.[63]
+The flight from Laban represents the abandonment of family and social
+life for the practical service of God, and as Jacob, the ascetic,
+became Israel, "the man who beholdeth God," so Philo determined "to
+scorn delights and live laborious days" in order to be drawn nearer to
+the true Being. But he seems to have been disappointed in his hopes,
+and to have discovered that the attempt to cut out the natural desires
+of man was not the true road to righteousness. "I often," he says,[64]
+"left my kindred and friends and fatherland, and went into a solitary
+place, in order that I might have knowledge of things worthy of
+contemplation, but I profited nothing: for my mind was sore tempted by
+desire and turned to opposite things. But now, sometimes even when I
+am in a multitude of men, my mind is tranquil, and God scatters aside
+all unworthy desires, teaching me that it is not differences of place
+which affect the welfare of the soul, but God alone, who knows and
+directs its activity howsoever he pleases."
+
+The noble pessimism of Philo's early days was replaced by a noble
+optimism in his maturity, in which he trusted implicitly in God's
+grace, and believed that God vouchsafed to the good man the knowledge
+of Himself without its being necessary for him to inflict
+chastisements upon his body or uproot his inclinations. In this mood
+moderation is represented as the way of salvation; the abandonment of
+family and social life is selfish, and betrays a lack of the humanity
+which the truly good man must possess.[65] Of Philo's own domestic
+life we catch only a fleeting glimpse in his writings. He realized the
+place of woman in the home; "her absence is its destruction," he said;
+and of his wife it is told in another of the "Fragments" that when
+asked one day in an assembly of women why she alone did not wear any
+golden ornament, she replied, "The virtue of a husband is a sufficient
+ornament for his wife."
+
+Though in his maturity Philo renounced the ascetic life, his ideal
+throughout was a mystical union with the Divine Being. To a certain
+school of Judaism, which loves to make everything rational and
+moderate, mysticism is alien; it was alien indeed to the Sadducee
+realist and the Karaite literalist; it was alien to the systematic
+Aristotelianism of Maimonides, and it is alien alike to Western
+orthodox and Reform Judaism. But though often obscured and crushed by
+formal systems, mysticism is deeply seated in the religious feelings,
+and the race which has developed the Cabbalah and Hasidism cannot be
+accused of lack of it. Every great religion fosters man's aspiration
+to have direct communion with God in some super-rational way.
+Particularly should this be the case with a religion which recognizes
+no intermediary. The Talmudic conceptions of [Hebrew: nb'a], prophecy,
+[Hebrew: shkyna], the Divine Presence, and [Hebrew: rua hkdsh], the
+holy spirit, which was vouchsafed to the saint, certainly are mystic, and
+at Alexandria similar ideas inspired a striking development. Once again we
+can trace the fertilizing influence of Greek ideas. Even when the old
+naturalistic cults had flourished in Greece, and political life had
+provided a worthy goal for man, mystical beliefs and ceremonies had a
+powerful attraction for the Hellene; and, when the belief in the old
+gods had been shattered, and with the national greatness the liberal
+life of the State had passed away, he turned more and more to those
+rites which professed to provide healing and rest for the sickening
+soul. Many of the Alexandrian Jews must have been initiated into these
+Greek mysteries, for Philo introduces into his exegesis of the law of
+Moses an ordinance forbidding the practice.[66] He himself advocates a
+more spiritual mysticism, and it is a cardinal principle of his
+philosophy to treat the human soul as a god within and its absorption
+in the universal Godhead as supreme bliss, the end of all endeavor. He
+claimed to have attained, himself, to this union, and to have received
+direct inspiration. Giving a Greek coloring to the Hebrew notion of
+prophecy, "My soul," he says, "is wont to be affected with a Divine
+trance and to prophesy about things of which it has no knowledge"[67]....
+"Many a time have I come with the intention of writing, and knowing
+exactly what I ought to set down, but I have found my mind barren and
+fruitless, and I have gone away with nothing done, but at times I have
+come empty, and suddenly been full, for ideas were invisibly rained
+down upon me from above, so that I was seized by a Divine frenzy, and
+was lost to everything, place, people, self, speech, and thought. I
+had gotten a stream of interpretation, a gift of light, a clear survey
+of things, the clearest that eye can give."[68]
+
+In his "Guide of the Perplexed,"[69] Maimonides describes the various
+degrees of the [Hebrew: rua hkdsh], or what we call religious "genius,"
+with which man may be blessed. He distinguishes between the man who
+possesses it only for his own exaltation, and the man who feels
+himself compelled to impart it to others for their happiness. To this
+higher order of genius Philo advanced in his maturity. He consciously
+regarded himself as a follower of Moses, who was the perfect
+interpreter of God's thought. So he, though in a lesser degree, was an
+inspired interpreter, a hierophant (as he expressed it in the language
+of the Greek mystics) who expounded the Divine Word to his own
+generation by the gift of the Divine wisdom. When he had fled from
+Alexandria, to secure virtue by contemplation, he had as his final
+goal the attainment of the true knowledge of God, and as he advanced
+in age, he advanced in decision and authority. He was conscious of his
+philosophic grasp of the Torah, and the diffidence with which he
+allegorized in his early works gave place to a serene confidence that
+he had a lesson for his own and for future generations. Hoping for the
+time when Judaism should be a world-religion, he spoke his message for
+Jew and Gentile. We can imagine him preaching on Sabbaths to the great
+congregation which filled the synagogue at Alexandria, and on other
+days of the week expounding his philosophical ideas to a smaller
+circle which he collected around him.
+
+Essentially, then, he was a philosopher and a teacher, but he was
+called upon to play a part in the world of action. Following the
+passage already quoted, wherein Philo speaks of the blessings of the
+life of contemplation that he had led in the past,[70] he goes on to
+relate how that "envy, the most grievous of all evils, attacked me,
+and threw me into the vast sea of public affairs, in which I am still
+tossed about without being able to make my way out." A French
+scholar[71] conjectures that this is only a metaphorical way of saying
+that he was forced into some public office, probably, a seat in the
+Alexandrian Sanhedrin; and he ascribes the language to the bitter
+disappointment of one who was devoted to philosophical pursuits and
+found himself diverted from them. Philo's language points rather to
+duties which he was compelled to undertake less congenial than those
+of a member of the Sanhedrin would have been; and probably must refer
+to the polemical activity which he was called upon to exert in
+defending his people against misrepresentation and persecution. During
+the reign of Augustus and the early years of Tiberius (30 B.C.E.-20
+C.E.) the Roman provinces were firmly ruled, and the governors were as
+firmly controlled by the emperor. To Rectus, who was the prefect of
+Egypt till 14 C.E., and who was removed for attempted extortion,
+Tiberius addressed the rebuke, "I want my sheep to be shorn, not
+strangled." But when Tiberius fell under the influence of Sejanus, and
+left to his hated minister the active control of the empire, harder
+times began for the provincials, and especially for the Jews. Sejanus
+was an upstart, and like most upstarts a tyrant; and for some
+reason--it may be jealousy of the power of the Jews at Rome--he hated
+the Jewish race and persecuted it. The great opponent of Sejanus was
+Antonia, the ward of Philo's brother, and a loyal friend to his
+people; and this, too, may have incited Sejanus' ill-feeling. Whatever
+the reason, the Alexandrian Jews felt the heavy hand, and when Philo
+came to write the story of his people in his own times, he devoted one
+book to the persecution by Sejanus. Unfortunately it has not survived,
+but veiled hints of the period of stress through which the people
+passed are not wanting in the commentary on the law.
+
+There were always anti-Semites spoiling for a fight at Alexandria, and
+there was always inflammable material which they could stir up. The
+Egyptian populace were by nature, says Philo, "jealous and envious,
+and were filled moreover with an ancient and inveterate enmity towards
+the Jews,"[72] and of the degenerate Greek population, many were
+anxious from motives of private gain as well as from religious enmity
+to incite an outbreak; since the Jews were wealthy and the booty would
+be great. Among the cultured, too, there was one philosophical school
+powerful at Alexandria, which maintained a persistent attitude of
+hostility towards the Jews. The chief literary anti-Semites of whom we
+have record at this period were Stoics, and it is probably their
+"envy" to which Philo refers when he complains of being drawn into the
+sea of politics. In writings and in speeches the Stoic leaders Apion
+and Chæremon carried on a campaign of misrepresentation, and sought to
+give their attacks a fine humanitarian justification by drawing fancy
+pictures of the Jewish religion and Jewish laws. The Jews worshipped
+the head of an ass,[73] they hated the Gentiles, and would have no
+communication with them, they killed Gentile children at the Passover,
+and their law allowed them to commit any offences against all but
+their own people, and inculcated a low morality. When it was not
+morally bad, it was degraded and superstitious. Whereas the modern
+anti-Semite usually complains about Jewish success and dangerous
+cleverness, Apion accused them of having produced no original ideas
+and no great men, and no citizen as worthy of Alexandria as himself!
+Against these charges Philo, the most philosophical Jew of the time
+and the most distinguished member of the Alexandrian community, was
+called upon to defend his people, and that part of his works which
+Eusebius calls [Greek: Hypotheticha]; _i.e._ apologetics, was probably
+written in reply to the Stoic attacks. The hatred of the Stoics was a
+religious hatred, which is the bitterest of all; the Stoics were the
+propagators of a rival religious system, which had originally been
+founded by Hellenized Semites and borrowed much from Semitic sources.
+They had their missionaries everywhere and aspired to found a
+universal philosophical religion. In their proselytizing activity they
+tried to assimilate to their pantheism the mythological religion of
+the masses, and thus they became the philosophical supporters of
+idolatry. Their greatest religious opponents were the Jews, who not
+only refused to accept their teachings, but preached to the nations a
+transcendental monotheism against their impersonal and accommodating
+pantheism, and a divinely-revealed law of conduct against their vague
+natural reason. In the Stoic pantheism the first stand of the pagan
+national deities was made against the God of Israel, and at Alexandria
+during the first century the fight waxed fierce. It was a fight of
+ideas in which persons only were victims, but at the back of the
+intermittent persecutions of which we have record we may always
+surmise the influence of the Stoic anti-Semites. The war of words
+translated itself from time to time into the breaking of heads.
+
+Philo, indeed, never mentions Apion by name, but he refers covertly in
+many places to his insolence and unscrupulousness.[74] Josephus wrote
+a famous reply to his attacks, refuting "his vulgar abuse, gross
+ignorance and demagogic claptrap,"[75] and the fact that a Palestinian
+Jew thought this apology necessary, proves the wide dissemination of
+the poison. The disgrace and death of Sejanus seem to have brought a
+relief from actual persecution to the Alexandrian Jews; but the
+ill-will between the two races in the city smouldered on, and it only
+required a weakening of the controlling hand at Rome to set the
+passions aflame again. Right through Philo's treatise "On the
+Confusion of Tongues," we can trace the tension. As soon as Gaius,
+surnamed Caligula, came to the imperial chair, the opportunity of the
+anti-Semites returned. Gaius, after reigning well a few months, fell
+ill, was seized with madness, and proved how much evil can be done in
+a short space by an imbecile autocrat. Flaccus, the governor of Egypt,
+who had hitherto ruled fairly, hoping to ingratiate himself by
+misrule, allowed himself to be led by worthless minions, who, from
+motives of private greed, desired a riot at Alexandria; he was won
+over by the anti-Semites and gave the mob a free hand in their attacks
+upon the "alien Jews."[76] The arrival of Agrippa, the grandson of
+Herod, who was on his way to his kingdom of Palestine, which the
+capricious emperor had just conferred upon him, excited the ill-will
+of the Alexandrian mob. Flaccus looked on while the people attacked
+the Jewish quarters, sacked the houses, and assailed everyone that
+came within their reach. The most distinguished Jews were not spared,
+and thirty members of the Council of Elders were dragged to the
+marketplace and scourged. Philo's account gives a picture strikingly
+similar to that of a modern pogrom. The brutal indifference of Flaccus
+did not indeed avail to ingratiate him with the emperor, and he was
+recalled to Italy, exiled, and afterwards executed.
+
+The recall of Flaccus did not, however, put an end to the troubles;
+the mob had got out of hand, the anti-Semitic demagogues were elated,
+and a fresh opportunity for outrage soon presented itself. The mad
+emperor, having exhausted ordinary human follies, went on to imagine
+himself first a god and then the Supreme God, and finally ordered his
+image to be set up in every temple throughout his dominion. The Jews
+could not obey the order, and the mob rushed into fresh excesses upon
+them, defiled the synagogues with images of the lunatic, and in the
+great synagogue itself set up a bronze statue of him, inscribed with
+the name of Jupiter. With bitterness Philo points out that it was easy
+enough for the vile Egyptians, who worshipped reptiles and beasts, to
+erect a statue of the emperor in their temples; for the Jews, with
+their lofty idea of God, it was impossible. Against the attack upon
+their liberty of conscience they appealed directly to Gaius. An
+embassy was sent to lay their case before him, and Philo went to Italy
+at the head of the embassy. "He who is learned, gentle, and modest,
+and who is beloved of men, he shall be leader in the city." So said
+one of the rabbis of old, and the maxim is especially appropriate to
+Philo, who in name and deed was "beloved of men." Philo has left us a
+very full account of his mission, so that this incident of his life is
+a patch of bright light, which stands out almost glaringly from the
+general shadow. The account is not merely, nor, indeed, entirely
+history. Looking always for a sermon or a subject for a philosophical
+lesson, Philo has tricked out the record of the facts with much
+moralizing observation on the general lot of mankind, and elaborated
+the part of Providence more in the spirit of religious romance than of
+scientific history. Yet the main facts are clear. Philo prepared a
+long philosophical "apologia" for the Jews and set out with five
+colleagues for Italy. Nor were the enemies of the Jews remiss; and
+Apion, the Alexandrian anti-Semite, was sent at the head of a hostile
+deputation. The emperor, Gaius, was in one of his most flippant moods
+and little inclined to listen to philosophical or literary
+disquisitions. At first he received the Jewish deputation in a
+friendly way, and led them to think that he was favorable; but when
+they came to plead their cause, they had a rude awakening. Philo, who
+was not likely to appreciate the bitter humor of the situation,
+tells[77] with gravity that he expected that the emperor would hear
+the two contending parties in all proper judicial form, but that in
+fact he behaved like an insolent, overbearing tyrant. The audience--if
+it can be so called--took place in the gardens of the palace, and the
+emperor dragged the unfortunate deputation after him about the place,
+while he gave orders to his gardeners, builders, and workmen. Whenever
+they tried to put forward their arguments, he would rush ahead,
+enjoying the fright and dismay of his helpless victims. At times he
+would stop to make some ribald and jeering remark, as, "Why don't you
+eat pork, you fools?" at which the Egyptians following loudly
+applauded. Philo and his comrades, half-dead with agony, could only
+pray; and in response to the prayer, says our moralizing chronicler,
+the emperor's heart was turned to pity, so that he dismissed them
+without giving any hostile answer. According to Josephus, he drove
+them away in a passion, and Philo had to cheer his companions by
+assuring them of the Divine aid.[78]
+
+The affair was a pathetic farce, and the Jewish actors in it had a
+sorry time. The people about the palace, taking their lead from the
+emperor, treated them as clowns, and hissed and mocked them, and even
+beat them. The scene is somewhat revolting when one conjures up the
+picture of the aged Jewish philosopher being roughly handled by the
+set of ruffians and impudent slaves who surrounded a Roman emperor.
+Happily Gaius jeered once too often in his mad life. One Chaerea, a
+Roman of position, nursed an insult of the emperor, and stabbed him
+shortly after these events; and the world had the respite of a
+tolerably sane emperor before the crowning horror of Nero was let
+loose upon it.
+
+The murder of the capricious tyrant released not only the Jews of
+Alexandria, but also the Jews of Palestine, from the burden of fear
+for their religion. The order had been given to set up a bronze statue
+of the emperor in the temple; the Roman governor Petronius was averse
+to obeying the edict, but the emperor insisted. King Agrippa, who had
+been but lately advanced by him to the kingdom of Judæa, interceded
+zealously on behalf of his people. Philo gives us an account of this
+appeal by the Jewish king,[79] which recalls at every turn the scenes
+of the book of Esther. We have again the fasting, the banquet, the
+emperor's request, the appeal of the royal favorite for his people.
+One higher critic, indeed, has been found to suggest that the Biblical
+book really relates Agrippa's intercession at Rome disguised in the
+setting of a Persian story. Agrippa secured for a short time the
+rescission of the fateful decree, but the capricious madman soon
+returned to his old frame of mind, and ordered his image to be set up
+immediately. Had not his death intervened, there would certainly have
+been rebellion in Palestine. As it was, the great revolt was postponed
+for thirty years. For a little the Jews prevailed over their
+adversaries; the anti-Semitic influences were put down in Judæa and
+in Alexandria, and in both places "there was light and joy and
+gladness for the Jews." Their political privileges were reaffirmed by
+imperial decree, and Philo's brother Alexander, who had been
+imprisoned, was restored to honor.[80] "It is fitting," ran the
+rescript of Claudius, "to permit the Jews everywhere under our sway to
+observe their ancient customs without hindrance. And I charge them to
+use my indulgence with moderation, and not to show contempt for the
+religious rites of other peoples."
+
+The note of triumph rings through the political references to be found
+in the last parts of Philo's allegorical commentary, and no doubt it
+was accentuated in the lost book which he added as an epilogue, or
+palinode, to his history of the embassy. God had again preserved his
+people, and discomfited their foes; recently-discovered papyri have
+revealed that the arch anti-Semites, Isidorus and Lampon, were tried
+at Rome and executed. Claudius was well-disposed to the Jewish race,
+and before the final storm there was a calm. Howbeit, after the death
+of Agrippa, in 44 C.E., Judæa became a Roman province, and under the
+rapacious governorship of Felix Florus and Cestius Gallus, the
+hostility of the people to the Romans grew more and more bitter. But
+in Alexandria there was tranquillity, or at least we know of no
+disquieting events during the next decade.
+
+"Old age," said Philo, "is an unruffled harbor,"[81] and the saying
+refers possibly to his own experience. For he must have died full of
+years and full of honors. Through his life he was the spiritual and
+philosophical guide, and finally he had become the champion of his
+people against their persecutors, giving dignity to their cause and
+inspiring respect even in their enemies. He was happy in the time of
+his death, for he did not live to see the destruction of the national
+home of his people and of that temple which he had loved to
+contemplate as the future centre of a universal religion. The
+disintegration of his own community at Alexandria followed full soon
+on the greater disaster; the temple of Onias was dismantled and
+interdicted against Jewish worship by Vespasian in the year 73 C.E.,
+and though, as has been noted, this was not in itself of great
+importance, it is symbolic of the uprooting of national life in the
+Diaspora as well as in Palestine itself. On the downfall of Jerusalem
+in 70 C.E. many of the extreme anti-Roman party, known as the Zealots,
+fled to Alexandria and stirred up rebellion and dissension. Nothing
+but disaster could have attended the outbreak, but it is a sad
+reflection that the governor who put it down and ruthlessly
+exterminated the rebels was none other than Tiberius Alexander, the
+nephew of Philo, who was in turn procurator of Judæa and Egypt. By
+another irony of history he had in the previous year been largely
+instrumental in securing for Vespasian, who was besieging Jerusalem,
+the imperial throne of Rome.[82] With him ends our knowledge of
+Philo's family, and it ends significantly with one who has ceased to
+be a Jew. The ruin of the Jewish-Alexandrian community was completed
+by a desperate revolt in the reign of Trajan, 114-117 C.E., after
+which they were deprived of their chief political privileges; and
+finally, after incessant conflicts with the Christians, they were
+expelled from the city by the all-powerful Bishop Cyril (415 C.E.).
+
+Philo himself passed out of Jewish tradition within a short time, to
+become a Christian worthy. The destruction of the nation and the
+gradual severance of the Christian heresy from the main community
+compelled the abandonment of missionary activity and distrust of the
+work of its exponents. The dangerous aspect of the Alexandrian
+development was revealed. Its philosophical allegorizing might attract
+the Gentile to the Jewish Scriptures, but it also led the Jew away
+from his special conduct of life. The Alexandrian Church, which
+claimed to continue the tradition of Philo, departed further and
+further from the Jewish standpoint, and formulated a dogmatic creed
+that was utterly opposed to Jewish monotheism. A philosophical Judaism
+for the whole world was a splendid ideal, but unfortunately in Philo's
+time it was incapable of accomplishment. The result of the attempt to
+found it was the establishment of a religion in which, together with
+the adoption of Hebraic teachings about God, certain ideas of
+Alexandrian mysticism became stereotyped as dogmas, and Jewish law was
+abrogated. When Babylon replaced Palestine as the centre of Jewish
+intellect, the works of Philo, like the rest of the Hellenistic-Jewish
+literature, written as they were in a strange tongue, fell into
+disuse, and before long were entirely forgotten. The Christians, on
+the other hand, found in Philo a notable evidence for many of their
+beliefs and a philosophical testimony for the dogmas of their creed.
+They claimed him as their own, and the Church Fathers, to bind him
+more closely to their tradition, invented fables of his meeting with
+Peter at Rome and Mark at Alexandria, They traced, in the treatise "On
+the Contemplative Life," a record of early Christian monastic
+communities, and on account of this book especially regarded Philo
+almost with the reverence of an apostle. To the Christian theologians
+of Alexandria we owe it that the interpretation of Judaism to the
+Hellenic world in the light of Hellenic philosophy has been preserved.
+Of the two Jewish philosophers who have made a great contribution to
+the world's intellectual development, Spinoza was excommunicated in
+his lifetime, and Philo suffered moral excommunication after his
+death. The writings of both exercised their chief influence outside
+the community; but the emancipated Jewry of our own day can in either
+case recognize the worth of the thinker, and point with pride to the
+saintliness of the man.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+PHILO'S WORKS AND METHOD
+
+
+The first thing that strikes a reader of Philo is the great volume of
+his work: he is the first Jewish writer to produce a large and
+systematic body of writings, the first to develop anything in the
+nature of a complete Jewish philosophy. He had essentially the
+literary gift, the capacity of giving lasting expression to his own
+thought and the thought of his generation. Treating him merely as a
+man of letters, he is one of the chief figures in Greek literature of
+the first century. We have extant over forty books of his composition,
+and nearly as many again have disappeared. His works are one and all
+expositions of Judaism, but they fall into six distinct classes of
+exegesis:
+
+I. The allegorical commentary, or "Allegories of the Laws," which is a
+series of philosophical treatises based upon continuous texts in
+Genesis, from the first to the eighteenth chapter. Together with this,
+the best authorities place the two remaining books on the "Dreams of
+the Bible," which are a portion of a larger work, and deal
+allegorically with the dreams of Jacob and Joseph.
+
+II. The Midrashic commentary on the Five Books of Moses, for which we
+have no single name, but which was clearly intended to be an ethical
+and philosophical treatise upon the whole law.
+
+III. A commentary in the form of "Questions and Answers to Genesis and
+Exodus," which is incomplete now, and save for detached fragments
+exists only in a Latin translation. In its original form it provided a
+short running exegesis, verse by verse, to the whole of the first
+three books of the Pentateuch, and was contained in twelve parts.
+
+IV. A popular and missionizing presentation of the Jewish system in
+the form of a "Life of Moses," and three appended tractates on the
+virtues "Courage," "Humanity," and "Repentance." Scholars[83] are of
+opinion that there are gaps in the extant "Life of Moses," but the
+general plan of the work is clear. It is at once an abstract and an
+interpretation of Jewish law for the Greek world, and also an ideal
+biography of the Jewish lawgiver.
+
+V. Philosophical monographs, not so intimately connected with the
+Bible as the preceding works; but in the nature of rhetorical
+exercises upon the stock subjects of the schools, which receive a
+Jewish coloring by reason of Biblical illustrations.
+
+VI. Historical and apologetic works that set out the case of the
+contemporary Jews against their persecutors and traducers. Of these
+writings the larger part has disappeared, and of a portion of those
+which remain the genuineness has been doubted.
+
+Lastly, there is a miscellaneous number of works ascribed to Philo,
+which all good scholars[84] now admit to be spurious: "On the
+Incorruptibility of the World," "On the Universe," "On Samson," and
+"On Jonah," etc.
+
+It will be seen from this classification of Philo's works, that he has
+dealt in several ways with the Biblical material. The reason of this
+is partly that his mind developed, and the interpretation of his
+maturer years differed widely from that of his earliest writings.
+Partly, however, it arises from the fact that the different treatments
+were meant for different audiences, and Philo always took the measure
+of those whom he was addressing. His most representative works are "a
+triple cord" with which he binds the Jewish Scripture to Greek
+culture. For the Greek-speaking populace he set out a broad statement
+of the Mosaic law; for the cultured community of Alexandria, Jew and
+Gentile, a more elaborate exegesis, in which each character and each
+ordinance of the Pentateuch received a particular ethical value; and,
+finally, for the esoteric circle of Hellenic-Jewish philosophers, a
+theological and psychological study of the allegories of the law.
+Origen, the first great Christian exegete of the Bible and a close
+student of the Philonic writings, distinguished three forms of
+interpreting: the historical, the moral, and the philosophical; he
+probably took the distinction from Philo, who exemplifies it in his
+commentaries upon the Books of Moses.
+
+Varied as is its scope, the religious idea dominates all his work, and
+endows it with one spirit. Whether he is writing philosophical,
+ethical, or mystical commentary, whether history, apology, or essay,
+his purpose is to assert the true notion of the one God, and the
+Divine excellence of God's revelation to His chosen people. Thus he
+regards history as a theodicy, vindicating the ways of God to man, and
+His special providence for Israel; philosophy as the inner meaning of
+the Scriptures, revealed by God in mystic communion with His holy
+prophets,[85] and, if comprehended aright, able to lead us on to a
+true conception of His Divine being. The greater part of the
+Hellenistic-Jewish literature has disappeared, but Philo sums up for
+us the whole of the Alexandrian development of Judaism. He represents
+it worthily in both its main aspects: the infusion of Greek culture
+into the Jewish pursuit of righteousness, and the recommendation of
+Jewish monotheism and the Torah to the Greek world. Aristaeus,
+Aristobulus, and Artapanus are hardly more than names, but their
+spirit is inherited and glorified in Philo-Judæus. His work,
+therefore, is more than the expression of one great mind; it is the
+record and expression of a great culture.
+
+The chronology of Philo's writings is as uncertain as the chronology
+of his life. Yet it is possible to trace a deepening of outlook and an
+increasing originality, if we work our way up from the sixth to the
+first division of the classification. It does not follow that the
+works were written in this order--and it may well be that Philo was
+producing at one and the same time books of several classes--but we
+may use this order as an ideal scale by which to mark off the stages
+of his philosophical progress. In the first place come the [Greek:
+Hypotheticha], or apologetic works, which have a practical purpose.
+With these we may associate the moralizing history that dealt in five
+books respectively with the persecutions of Sejanus, Flaccus, and
+Caligula, the ill-starred embassy, and the final triumph of the Jews
+over their enemies. The [Greek: Hypotheticha] proper, as we gather
+from Eusebius, contained a general apology for Judaism, and an account
+of the Essenes--which have disappeared--and the suspected book on the
+Therapeutic sect known by the title "On the Contemplative Life."
+Whether they received this generic name because they are suggestions
+for the Jewish cause, or because they are written to answer the
+insinuations ([Greek: kath' hypothesin]) of adversaries, is a moot
+point. But their general purport is clear: they were an apologetic
+presentation of Jewish life, written to show the falsity of
+anti-Semitic calumnies. The Jews are good citizens and their manner of
+life is humanitarian. The Essene sect is a living proof of Jewish
+practical socialism and practical philosophy, the Therapeutae show the
+Jewish zeal for the contemplative life.
+
+Next we come to Philo's philosophical monographs, which are not, as
+one might expect, the work of his mature thought, but rather the
+exercises of youth. Dissertations or declamations upon hackneyed
+subjects were part of the regular course of the university student at
+Alexandria, and Philo prepared himself for his Jewish philosophy by
+composing in the approved style essays upon "Providence," "The Liberty
+of the Good," and "The Slavery of the Wicked," etc. What chiefly
+distinguishes them above other collections of commonplaces is the
+appeal to the Bible for types of goodness, and here again the Essenes
+figure as the type of the philosophical life.[86] The writer, while
+still engaged in the studies of the Greek university, is feeling his
+way towards his system of universal Mosaism.
+
+This he expounds confidently and enthusiastically in his "Life of
+Moses." Philo in this book is not any longer the apt pupil of Greek
+philosophers, nor the eloquent defender of the Jewish-Alexandrian
+community against lying detractors. He preaches a mission to the whole
+world, and he lays before it his gospel of monotheism and humanity.
+Each Greek school has its ideal type, its Socrates, Diogenes, or
+Pythagoras; but Philo places above them all "the most perfect man that
+ever lived, Moses, the legislator of the Jews,[87] as some hold, but
+according to others the interpreter of the sacred laws, and the
+greatest of men in every way." And above all the ethical systems of
+the day he sets the law of life that God revealed to His greatest
+prophet: "The laws of the Greek legislators are continually subject to
+change; the laws of Moses alone remain steady, unmoved, unshaken,
+stamped as it were with the seal of nature herself, from the day when
+they were written to the present day, and will so remain for all time
+so long as the world endures. Not only the Jews but all other peoples
+who care for righteousness adopt them.... Let all men follow this code
+and the age of universal peace will come about, the kingdom of God on
+earth will be established."[88] Nor is the Greek to fear the lot of a
+proselyte. "God loves the man who turns from idolatry to the true
+faith not less than the man who has been a believer all his life;"[89]
+and in the little essays upon Repentance and Nobility, which are
+attached to the larger treatise, Philo appeals to his own people to
+welcome the stranger within the community. "The Life of Moses" is the
+greatest attempt to set monotheism before the world made before the
+Christian gospels. And it is truer to the Jewish spirit, because it
+breathes on every page love for the Torah. Philo in very truth wished
+to fulfil the law.
+
+If Judaism was to be the universal religion, it must be shown to
+contain the ultimate truth both about real being, _i.e._ God, and
+about ethics; for the philosophical world in that age--and the
+philosophical world included all educated people--demanded of religion
+that it should be philosophical, and of philosophy that it should be
+religious. The desire to expound Judaism in this way is the motive of
+Philo's three Biblical commentaries. The "Questions and Answers to
+Genesis and Exodus" constitute a preliminary study to the more
+elaborate works which followed. In them Philo is collecting his
+material, formulating his ideas, and determining the main lines of his
+allegory. They are a type of Midrash in its elementary stage, the
+explanation of the teacher to the pupil who has difficulties about the
+words of the law: at once like and unlike the old Tannaitic Midrash;
+like in that they deal with difficulties in the literal text of the
+Bible; unlike in that the reply of Philo is Agadic more usually than
+Halakic, speculative rather than practical. In these books,[90] as has
+been pointed out, there are numerous interpretations which Philo
+shares with the Palestinian schools. A few specimens taken from the
+first book will illustrate Philo's plan, but it should be mentioned
+that in every case he sets out the simple meaning of the text, the
+_Peshat_, as well as the inner meaning, or _Derash_.
+
+"Why does it say: 'And God made every green herb of the field before
+it was upon the earth'? (Gen. ii. 4.)
+
+"By these words he suggests symbolically the incorporeal Idea. The
+phrase, 'before it was upon the earth,' marks the original perfection
+of every plant and herb. The eternal types were first created in the
+noetic world, and the physical objects on earth, perceptible by the
+senses, were made in their likeness."
+
+In this way Philo reads into the first chapter of the Bible the
+Platonic idealism which we shall see was a fundamental part of his
+philosophy.
+
+"Why, when Enoch died, does it say, 'And he pleased God'? (Gen. v.
+24.)
+
+"He says this to teach that the soul is immortal, inasmuch as after it
+is released from the body it continues to please."
+
+"What is the meaning of the expression, 'And Noah opened the roof of
+the ark'? (Gen. viii. 13.)
+
+"The text appears to need no interpretation; but in its symbolical
+meaning the ark is our body, and that which covers the body and for a
+long time preserves its strength is spoken of as its roof. And this is
+appetite. Hence when the mind is attracted by a desire for heavenly
+things, it springs upwards and makes away with all material desires.
+It removes that which threw a shade over it so as to reach the eternal
+Ideas."
+
+The "Questions and Answers" are essentially Hebraic in form, designed
+for Jews who knew and studied their Bible; and we can feel in them the
+influences of a training in traditional Mishnah and Midrash; but Philo
+passed from them to a more artistic expression and a more thoroughly
+Hellenized presentation of the philosophy of the Bible. This work is
+the largest extant expression of his thought and mission; it embraces
+the treatises which we know as "On the Creation of the World," "The
+Lives of Abraham and Joseph," "On the Decalogue," and finally those
+"On the Specific Laws," which are partly thus entitled and partly have
+separate ethical names, as "On Honoring Parents," "On Rewards and
+Punishments," "On Justice," etc. Large portions of it have
+disappeared, notably the "Lives of Isaac and Jacob"; and also the
+"Life of Moses," which was introductory to his laws. For the book
+which we have under that name does not belong to the series, but is
+separate. The purpose of the work broadly is to deepen the value of
+the Bible for the Jews by revealing its constant spiritual message,
+and to assert its value for the whole of humanity by showing in it a
+philosophical conception of the universe and its creation, the most
+lofty ethical and moral types, the most admirable laws, and, above
+all, the purest ideas of God and His relation to man. All that seems
+tribal and particularist is explained away, and the spiritual aspect
+of every chapter--of every word almost--of the Torah is emphasized.
+Philo expounds the sacred book, not of one particular nation, but of
+mankind. The Roman and Greek peoples were waiting for a religious
+message which should at once harmonize with rational ideas and satisfy
+their longing for God. All the philosophical schools were converting
+the scientific systems of the classical age into [Greek: Tropoi Biou],
+"plans of life," and Philo challenges them all with a new faith which
+has as its basis a God who not only was the sole Creator and Ruler of
+the world, but who had revealed to man the way of happiness, and the
+good life, social as well as individual. To-day, when the world about
+us has accepted--or has professed to accept--the ethical law of the
+Bible, we are apt to regard the essentials of Judaism as the belief in
+One God and the observance of ceremonies. But to Philo Judaism was
+something more comprehensive. It was the spiritual life, and the
+Mosaic law is the complete code of the Divine Republic, of which all
+are or can be citizens. In the introduction to the "Life of Abraham,"
+Philo explains the scheme of his work:[91]
+
+     "'The Sacred Laws' [as he regularly calls the Bible] were
+     written in five books, of which the first is entitled
+     Genesis. It derives its title from the account of the
+     creation which it contains, though it deals also with
+     endless other subjects, peace and war, hunger and plenty,
+     great cataclysms, and the histories of good and evil men. We
+     have examined with great care the accounts of the creation
+     in our former treatise ['On the Making of the Universe'],
+     and we now go on naturally to inquire into the laws; and
+     postponing the particular laws, which are as it were copies,
+     we will first of all examine the more universal, which are
+     their models. Now men who have lived irreproachable lives
+     are these laws, and their virtues are recorded in the Holy
+     Scriptures not only by way of eulogy, but in order to lead
+     on those who read about them to emulate their life. They are
+     become living standards of right reason, whom the lawgiver
+     has glorified for two reasons: (1) To show that the laws
+     laid down are consistent with nature [the conception of a
+     natural law binding upon all peoples was one of the fixed
+     ideas of the age]. (2) To show that it is not a matter of
+     terrible labor to live according to our positive laws if a
+     man has the will to do so; seeing that the patriarchs
+     spontaneously followed the unwritten principles before any
+     of the particular laws were written. So that a man may
+     properly say that the code of law is only a memorial of the
+     lives of the patriarchs. For the patriarchs, of their own
+     accord and impulse, chose to follow nature, and, regarding
+     her course with truth as the most ancient ordinance, they
+     lived a life according to the law."
+
+Philo dwells affectionately on the patriarchs, because, as he held,
+they proved the Jewish life to be truest to man's nature and to the
+highest ideal of humanity, and served therefore as examples to the
+Gentile world of the universal truth of the religion. The rabbis also
+took the patriarchs as the perfect type of our life, saying,
+"Everything that happens to them is a sign to future generations,"[92]
+and again: "The patriarchs are the true [Hebrew: mrbba], manifestation of
+God." But while he emphasized the broad moral teachings of Judaism
+exemplified by the patriarchs, Philo nevertheless upheld in its
+integrity the Mosaic law, and found in every one of the six hundred
+and thirteen precepts a spiritual meaning. Even the details of the
+tabernacle offerings have their universal lesson when he expounds them
+as symbols. Voltaire speaks cynically of Judaism as a religion of
+sacrifices: Philo shows that the ritual of sacrifice suggests moral
+lessons. The command of the red heifer, a part of the law which was
+particularly subject to attack, emphasizes the law of moral as well as
+of physical cleanliness. The prohibition to add honey or leaven to the
+sacrifice[93] (Lev. ii. 13) points the lesson that all superfluous
+pleasure is unrighteous; and so on with each prescription.
+
+The Mosaic code in his exposition is commensurate with life in all its
+aspects. It deals not only with the duties of the individual but also
+with the good government of the state. The life of Joseph is made the
+text of a political treatise, and throughout the books "On the
+Specific Laws," the socialism of the Bible is emphasized,[94] and held
+up as the ideal order of the future. The Jewish State is enlarged in
+Philo's vision from a national theocracy into a world-city inspired by
+the two ideas of love of God and love of humanity. In this conception,
+no doubt, the influence of Greek philosophy is to be seen; the Jewish
+interpreter keeps before him the "Republic" of Plato, and the "Polity"
+of Aristotle. With him, however, the ideal state is not a vision
+"laid up in heaven";[95] its foundation is already laid upon earth,
+its capital is Jerusalem, and it is the mission of his people to
+extend its borders till it embraces all nations[96]--an idea which
+permeates the Jewish litany.
+
+This commentary of the law is allegorical in the sense that beneath
+the particular law the interpreter constantly reveals a spiritual
+idea, but it is not allegorical in the sense that he makes an exchange
+of values. He is not for the most part reading into the text
+conceptions which are not suggested by it, but really and truly
+expounding; and where he gives a philosophical piece of exegesis, as
+when he explains the visit of the three angels to Abraham as a theory
+of the human soul about God's being,[97] he does so with diffidence or
+with reference to authorities that have founded a tradition. It is
+quite otherwise with the last class of Philo's work, the fruit of his
+maturest thought, with which it remains to deal.
+
+Throughout the "Allegories of the Laws" he takes the verse of the
+Bible not so much as a text to be amplified and interpreted, but as a
+pretext for a philosophical disquisition. The allegories indeed are
+only in form a commentary on the Bible; in one aspect they are a
+history of the human soul, which, if they had been completed, would
+have traced the upward progress from Adam to Moses. It is not to be
+expected, however, that Philo should adhere closely to any plan in the
+allegories. Theology, metaphysics, and ethics have as large a part in
+the medley of philosophical ideas as the story of the soul. His
+Hebraic mind, even when fortified by the mastery of philosophy, was
+unable to present its ideas systematically; it passed from subject to
+subject, weaving the whole together only by the thread of a continuous
+commentary upon Genesis. Parts of the work are missing, it is true,
+which adds to the seeming want of plan; and--greatest loss of all--the
+first part, which gave the philosophical account of the first chapter
+of Genesis, the first six days of creation, referred to as "The
+Hexameron" [Greek: to Hexêmeron], has disappeared.[98] Here must
+have been the general introduction to the allegories, wherein Philo
+declared his purpose and his method of exposition. The first treatise
+that we possess starts abruptly with a comment on the first verse of
+the second chapter, "'And the heaven and earth and all their world
+were completed.' Moses has previously related the creation of the mind
+and sense, and now he proceeds to describe their perfection. Their
+perfection is not the individual mind or sense, but their archetypal
+'ideas.' And symbolically he calls the mind heaven, because in heaven
+are the ideas of the mind, and the sense he calls earth, because it is
+corporeal and material."[99]
+
+So in a rambling, unsystematic way Philo embarks upon a discourse on
+idealism and psychology, making a fresh start continually from a verse
+or a phrase of the Bible. The Biblical narrative in the earliest
+chapters offered a congenial soil for his explorations, but no ground
+is too stubborn for his seed. The genealogy of Noah's sons is as
+fertile in suggestion as the story of Adam and Eve, for each name
+represents some hidden power or possesses some ethical import.
+
+The allegorical commentary is clearly the work of Philo's maturity,
+wherein he exhibits full mastery of an original method of exegesis.
+His allegories are no longer tentative, and he writes with the
+confidence of the sage, who has received not only the admiration of
+his people, but the inspiration of God. Another sign of their maturity
+is that asceticism seems no longer the true path to virtue, as it was
+to the author of "The Lives of the Patriarchs" and "The Specific
+Laws," but, on the contrary, a moderate use of the world's goods and a
+share in political life are marks of the perfect man. These
+characteristics bespeak the firmer hand and the profounder experience.
+Yet the series of works which form together Philo's esoteric doctrine
+were certainly put together over a long period of years, as the varied
+political references indicate. It has indeed been suggested by a
+modern German scholar[100] that large parts were originally given in
+the form of detached lectures and sermons, and that Philo later
+composed them together into a continuous commentary, working them up
+with much literary elaboration. In support of this theory, it may be
+urged that several of the treatises contain political addresses to
+public audiences, notably the _De Agricultura_ and _De Confusione
+Linguarum_, while in others there are invocations to prayer, or a
+summons to read a passage in the Bible, addressed apparently by the
+preacher to the Hazan, who had before him the scroll of the law. From
+Philo's own statements we know that the wisest men used to deliver
+philosophical homilies upon the Bible on the Sabbath day; and it is
+natural that the man who was appointed to head the Jewish embassy to
+Gaius had made himself known in the past to his brethren for oratory
+and wisdom of speech. "Sermons," said Jowett, "though they deal with
+eternal subjects, are the most evanescent form of literature." The
+dictum is true for the most part, but occasionally the sermon, by its
+depth of thought, the universality of its message, and the beauty of
+its expression, has become part of the world's heritage from the ages.
+Moreover, at Alexandria philosophy was associated with preaching. And
+the sermons of the Jewish-Hellenistic writer, in their style as well
+as in their thought, represent an epoch. Philo spoke in the language
+of the intellectual world of his day, and strove to associate the
+intellectual precepts of Hellenism with the Hebraic passion for
+righteousness. In his great moments, however, the Hebraic spirit
+towers supreme. "He was," said Croiset, the historian of Greek
+literature, "the first Greek prose writer who could speak to God and
+of God to man with the ardent piety and reverence of the Jewish
+prophets."[101]
+
+It is a serious misconception to imagine that Philo's philosophical
+allegories were meant for the general body of Alexandrian Jews. He
+frequently[102] declares that he is speaking to a specially initiated
+sect, and warns his hearers not to divulge his teaching. The
+notion of an esoteric doctrine for the aristocracy of intellect had
+become a fixed idea in the Greek schools for three centuries, ever
+since the days of Aristotle; and whether through Greek influence or
+otherwise it had been generally adopted by the Jewish teachers. The
+rabbis of the Talmud derived from the first chapters of Genesis the
+inner mystery of the law, which was cognizable only by the sage; and
+the same idea is found in later Jewish tradition, which, expounding
+Paradise ([Hebrew: prds]) as four stages of interpretation, each
+marked by a letter of the word, Peshat, Remez, Derash, and Sod
+([Hebrew: sod]),[103] regarded the last as the final reward of the
+devoted seeker after God, as it is said in the Psalms, "The secret of
+the Lord is for those who fear Him." Jewish religious philosophers
+have in all ages designed their work for a select few. The Halakah, or
+way of life, is the fit study of the many. So Maimonides wrote his
+Moreh only for those who already were masters of the law. And Philo
+likewise at Alexandria taught an esoteric doctrine to an esoteric
+circle, which alone was fitted to receive the profoundest
+theology.[104] The allegories of the law do not take the place of the
+law itself, nor of its ethical ordinances. They are additional to the
+other exegesis and distinct, destined only for the man of learning.
+And as we shall see, he asserts emphatically in the midst of his
+allegories[105] that the perception of the philosophical value does
+not release man from the practice itself. The wise man even as the
+fool must obey the law.
+
+Why, it may be asked, does Philo artificially attach his philosophy to
+the Scriptures? He does so for two reasons: first, because he holds
+and wishes to prove that between faith and philosophy there is no
+conflict, and his generation worked out the agreement by this method;
+he does so also because he wishes to establish the Torah and Judaism
+upon a sure foundation for the man of outside culture. The pursuit of
+philosophy must have menaced the attachment to Judaism and challenged
+the authority of the Bible at Alexandria. A superficial knowledge of
+the materialistic or rationalistic theories, which were propagated
+respectively by the Epicurean and Stoic schools, was made the excuse
+for indifference to the law. Then as now the advanced Jew would mask
+his self-indulgence under the guise of a banal philosophy, and jeer
+easily at archaic myths and tribal laws. The dominating motive of
+Philo's work is to show that the Bible contains for those who will
+seek it the richest treasures of wisdom, that its ethical teaching is
+more ideal and yet more real than that which hundreds of sophists
+poured forth daily in the lecture-theatres[106] to the gaping
+dilettanti of learning, and lastly that the cultured Jew may search
+out knowledge and truth to their depths, and find them expressed in
+his holy books and in his religious beliefs and practices. Philo
+frequently introduces into his philosophical interpretation a polemic
+against the disintegrating and demoralizing forces which were at work
+in the Alexandria of his day. His commentary therefore is a strange
+medley, compounded of idealistic speculation, theology, homiletics,
+moral denunciation, and polemical rhetoric. The idea, which is not
+uncommon, that Philo represents the extreme Hellenic development of
+Judaism, and that he gathered into his writings the opinions of all
+Greek schools to the ruin of his Jewish individuality, is utterly
+erroneous. In fact, he chooses out only the valuable parts of Greek
+thought, which could enter into a true harmony with the Hebraic
+spirit; and he not only rejects, but he attacks unsparingly those
+elements which were antagonistic to holiness and righteousness. With
+the enthusiasm of a Maccabee, if with other weapons, he fought against
+the bastard culture, which meant self-indulgence and the excessive
+attention to the body, the idol-worship, the degraded ideas of the
+Divine power, and the disregard of truth and justice, that were
+current in the pagan society about him. The seeking after sensual
+pleasure and luxury was the most glaring evil of his city--as the
+Talmud says,[107] of ten parts of lust nine were given to
+Alexandria--and with every variety of denunciation he returns again
+and again to the charge. Epicureanism is detestable not only for its
+low idea of human life, but for its godless conception of the
+universe. Its theory that the world was a fortuitous concourse of
+atoms, which was governed by blind chance, and that the gods lived
+apart in complete indifference to men--this was to Philo utter
+atheism, and as such the greatest of sins. He attacked paganism not
+only in its crude form of idolatry,[108] but in its more seductive
+disguise of a pretentious philosophy. Always and entirely he was the
+champion of monotheism.
+
+Nearly as godless, and therefore as vile in his eyes as the follower
+of Epicurus, is the follower of the Stoic doctrines. It has been shown
+that the Jews and the Stoics were continually in conflict at
+Alexandria; and the "Allegories of the Laws" are filled with attacks,
+overt and hidden, upon the Stoic doctrines. The Stoics, indeed,
+believed in one supreme Divine Power, not however in a transcendental
+and personal God, but a cosmic, impersonal, fatalistic world-force.[109]
+To Philo this conception, with its denial of the Divine will and the
+Divine care for the individual, was as atheistic as the Epicurean
+"chance." Equally repulsive to his religious standpoint was the Stoic
+dogma, that man is, or should be, independent of all help, and that
+the human reason is all-powerful and can comprehend the universe by
+its own unaided power.[110] Repulsive also were their pride, their
+rejection of the emotions, their hard rationalism. The battle of Philo
+against the Stoics is the battle of personal monotheism against
+impersonal pantheism, of religious faith and revelation against
+arrogant rationalism, and of idealism against materialism. Hostile as
+he is to the Stoic intellectual dogmatism, Philo is none the less
+opposed to its converse, intellectual skepticism and agnosticism. Man,
+he is convinced, has a Divine revelation[111] which he may not deny
+without ruin. He holds with Pope that we have
+
+  "Too much of knowledge for the Skeptic side,
+  Too much of weakness for the Stoic's pride,"
+
+and he attacks the Skeptics of the day who devoted their minds to
+destructive dialectical quibbling and sophistry[112] instead of
+seeking for God and the human good. They are the Ishmaels of
+philosophy.
+
+Philo's polemic is directed less against the Greek schools in
+themselves than against the Jewish followers of the Greek schools. He
+saw the danger to Judaism in the teachings of these anti-religious
+philosophers, and deeply as he loved Greek culture, he loved more
+deeply his religion. He wanted to reveal a philosophy in the Bible
+which should win back to Judaism the men who had been captivated by
+foreign thought. In one aspect, therefore, his master-work is a plea
+for unity. The community at Alexandria was a very heterogeneous body;
+not only were the sects which had appeared in Palestine, the Sadducees,
+Samaritans, Pharisees, and Essenes, represented there too, but in
+addition there were parties who attached themselves to one or other of
+the Greek schools, the Pythagoreans, Skeptics, and the like, and
+lastly Gnostic groups, who cultivated an esoteric doctrine of the
+Godhead, and were lax in their observance of the law, which they held
+to be purely symbolical and of no account in its literal meaning. The
+mental activity which this growth of sects exemplified was in some
+respects a healthy sign, but it contained seeds of religious chaos,
+which bore their fruit in the next century. Men started by thinking
+out a philosophical Judaism for themselves; they ended by ceasing to
+be Jews and philosophers. Philo foresaw this danger, and he tried to
+combat it by presenting his people with a commentary of the Bible
+which should satisfy their intellectual and speculative bent, but at
+the same time preserve their loyalty to the Bible and the law. To the
+Greek world he offered a philosophical religion, to his own people a
+religious philosophy. Thus the allegorical commentary is the crowning
+point of his work, the offering of his deepest thought to the most
+cultured of the community; and though much of its detail had only
+relevancy for its own time, and its method may repel our modern taste,
+yet the spirit which animates it is of value to all ages, and should
+be an inspiration to every generation of emancipated Jews. That spirit
+is one of fearless acceptance of the finest culture of the age
+combined with unswerving love of the law and loyalty to catholic
+Judaism.
+
+We have already treated of the general characteristics of Philo's
+method of allegorical interpretation, but we must now consider rather
+more closely the way in which he employs it. The general principle
+upon which he depends is, that besides and in addition to the literal
+meaning which the Bible bears for the common man, it has a hidden and
+deeper meaning for the philosopher. It is, as it were, a sort of
+palimpsest; the writing on the top all may read, the writing below the
+student alone can decipher. With the rabbis Philo holds that the Torah
+was written "in the language of the sons of man,"[113] but he believes
+with them again that it contains all wisdom. And if the ideas of
+reason do not appear in its literal meaning, then they must be
+searched out in some inner interpretation. Commenting on the verse in
+Genesis (xi. 7), "Let us confound their language, that they may not
+understand one another's speech," he says: "Those who follow the
+literal and obvious interpretation think that the origin of the Greek
+and barbarian languages is here described; [the contrast between
+Greek, on the one hand, and barbarian--in which Hebrew, it seems, is
+included--on the other, is remarkable]. I would not find fault with
+them, because they also, perhaps, employ right reason, but I would
+call on them not to remain content with this, but to follow me to the
+metaphorical renderings, considering that the actual words of the holy
+oracle are, as it were, shadows of the real bodies, and the powers
+which they reflect are the true underlying ideas."[114]
+
+Elsewhere he tells a story of the condign punishment which befell a
+godless and impious man, perchance a Samaritan Jew, who made mock of
+the race of allegorical interpreters, jeering at the idea that the
+change of names from Abram to Abraham and from Sarai to Sarah
+contained some deep meaning. He soon paid a fitting penalty for his
+wicked wit, for on some very trivial pretext he went and hanged
+himself. Which was just, says Philo; for such a rascal deserved a
+rascal's death.[115] It is noteworthy that the Talmud also lays stress
+upon the deep meaning of the patriarch's change of name.[116] "He who
+calls Abraham Abram," said Bar Kappara, "transgresses a positive
+command" [Hebrew: mtsva 'sha]. "Nay," said Rabbi Levi, "he transgresses
+both a positive and a negative command (and commits a double sin)." Clearly
+this was a test-question and an article of faith, possibly because the
+letter [Hebrew: h], which was added to the name, was a letter of
+mystical import in the opinion of the age. Both the rejection of the
+literal and the rejection of the allegorical value of the Bible, Philo
+regarded as impious, and he had to struggle against opposite factions
+that were one-sided. The true son of the law believes in both [Greek:
+to hrêton] and [Greek: to en hyponoiais].[117] Seeing that the
+Bible was the inspired revelation of God, who is the fountain of all
+wisdom and knowledge--this is Philo's cardinal dogma--it is not to be
+supposed, on the one hand, that it was silent about the profoundest
+ideas of the human mind, or, on the other, that it contained ideas
+opposed to right reason and truth. Yet at first sight it seemed to
+lack any definite philosophy and to offer anthropomorphic views of
+God. Hence the true interpreter must use the actual words of the sage
+as metaphors, following the maxim, "Turn it about and about, because
+all is in it, and contemplate it and wax grey over it, for thou canst
+have no better rule than this."[118] The principle upon which Philo,
+Saadia, Maimonides, and in fact the whole line of Jewish philosophical
+exegetes have worked, is that the "words of the law are fruitful and
+multiply"; or, as the Bible phrase runs, "The Torah which Moses
+commanded unto us is the inheritance of the congregation of Jacob." It
+is the separate inheritance of each generation, which each must
+cultivate so as to gather therefrom its own fruit.
+
+The Halakah is the outcome of this devotion in one aspect, the
+philosophical exegesis in another. In the one case Jewish
+jurisprudence and the body of legal tradition, in the other,
+philosophical ideas inspired by outer civilization, are attached to
+the text of the Bible by ingenious devices of association. The device
+is partly a pious fiction, partly a genuine belief; in other words,
+the teachers honestly thought that there was respectively a hidden
+philosophical meaning in the Bible and an oral tradition,
+supplementary to the written law and arising out of it; but on the
+other hand they would not have urged that their particular
+interpretation alone was portended by the Scriptures. This is shown in
+the Talmud by the fact that different rabbis deduced the same lessons
+from different verses, and contrary laws from the same verse; in Philo
+by the fact that he often gives various interpretations of one text in
+different parts of his work. All that was claimed was that knowledge
+and truth must be primarily referred to the Divine revelation, and all
+law and practice to the authority of the Mosaic code. Philo, then, in
+the same way as the rabbis, deduces all his teaching from the Bible,
+not because he holds that it was explicitly contained there, but
+because he desires to give to his philosophical notions Divine
+authority. Like the rabbis, again, he suggests definite rules of
+interpretation which may always be applied [Greek: kanones tês
+allêgorias].[119] He declares that every name in the Torah has a deep
+symbolical meaning, and symbolizes some power.[120] Thus the names of
+the sons of Jacob typify each some moral quality, and these qualities
+together make the perfect man and the perfect nation. Reuben is "the
+son of insight" [Hebrew: ru'bn], Simeon is learning [Hebrew: shm'-on],
+Judah [Hebrew: yhuda] stands for the praise of God.[121] It may be noted,
+by the way, that all these values show traces of Hebrew etymology. Again,
+the synonyms in the Bible are to be carefully studied, while even
+particles and parts of words have their special value and importance.
+And the skilful exegete may for homiletical purposes make slight
+changes in a word, following the rabbinical rule,[122] "Read not so,
+but so." Thus he plays upon the name Esau, and takes the Hebrew word
+as though it were written, not [Hebrew: 'eshaw] but [Hebrew: 'ashav], a
+thing made.[123] Whence he shows that Esau represents the sham
+(made-up) greatness, which is boastful and insolent and shameless.
+Philo is referring perhaps to Apion, the vainglorious anti-Semite,
+whom he often covertly attacks. Again, whenever there is repetition in
+the text, a deeper meaning is portended. Dealing with the verse,
+"Sarah the wife of Abraham took Hagar the Egyptian" (Gen. xvi. 3),
+Philo comments, that we already knew that Sarah was Abraham's wife:
+why, then, does the Bible mention it again? And following certain
+values which he has made, he draws the lesson that the study of
+philosophy must always go together with the study of general
+culture.[124] These examples are not isolated; yet it is rather a
+barren science to search for the canons of Philo's allegory, as
+Siegfried has done.
+
+For his allegory is a very flexible instrument, which can be employed
+at pleasure to deduce anything from anything. And Philo regards these
+"points of construction" as the excuse, not as the motive, of his
+ethical and philosophical teaching. He does not depend on such
+devices, for he wanders into allegory more often than not without any
+pretext of the kind.
+
+The modern reader may consider the allegorical method artificial and
+unconvincing, even if he does not go so far as Spinoza, and say that
+it is "useless, harmful, and absurd."[125] We prefer to-day to show
+the inner agreement of philosophical with Biblical teaching, rather
+than pretend that all philosophy is contained within the Bible; and we
+accept the Bible as it stands, as a book of supreme religious worth,
+without requiring more of it. But that is mainly a difference of taste
+or of method, and in Philo's day, and in fact down to the time of the
+sixteenth-century Renaissance, Jew and Gentile alike preferred the
+other way. For thought, ancient and mediæval, was pervaded with the
+craving for authority or a plausible show of it. The Bible was not
+only the great book of morality, but the standard of truth, that from
+which knowledge in all its branches started, and that by which it was
+to be judged. As all knowledge came from God, so all knowledge was in
+God's Book; and allegory was the method by which the intellectual
+conceptions of succeeding ages were attached to it.
+
+The two main heads of Biblical interpretation which the Jewish
+religious genius developed, Peshat and Derash,--these represent two
+permanent attitudes of mind. In the first the commentator tries to get
+at the exact meaning of the text before him, to make its lesson clear
+and discuss the circumstances of the composition, the exact relations
+of its parts. He is satisfied to take the writer of the Biblical book
+for what he says in his own form of utterance. In the second the
+commentator is more anxious to inculcate ideas and lessons which do
+not arise obviously from the text, and to widen the significance of
+what he finds in the Bible. The interpretation ceases to be a mere
+exposition; it becomes creative or conciliating thought, and the
+interpreter becomes a religious reformer, a philosopher, a prophet. To
+this school Philo belongs, and the framework of his teaching or the
+ingenuity by which he develops it from his text is of small account.
+It is what he teaches and what he considers to be the vital things in
+religion and life to which we must pay attention. Judged on this
+ground Philo is a supreme master of Derash, and must take a place
+among the most creative of the interpreters of the Bible.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+PHILO AND THE TORAH
+
+
+Over and over again Philo declares that his function is to expound the
+law of Moses. Moses was the interpreter of God's word to Israel; and
+Philo aspired to be the interpreter of the revelation of Moses to the
+Hellenistic world, "the living voice of the holy law." He believed
+that Israel was a chosen people in the sense that it had received the
+Divine message on behalf of the whole human race,[126] a Kingdom of
+Priests, in that it occupied to other nations the position which the
+priest--using the word in the fullest sense--occupied to the common
+people.[127] The Torah is God's covenant, not only with one small
+nation, but with all His children, and its teachings are true for all
+times and for all places. "The Bible," as Professor Butcher says,[128]
+"is the one book which appears to have the capacity of eternal
+self-adjustment, of uninterrupted correspondence with an ever-shifting
+and ever-widening environment." Nowadays this appears a truism, but
+the truth first presented itself to the Jewish-Alexandrian community
+when they came in contact with external culture. The Palestinian and
+Babylonian Jews, free for the most part from outside influences,
+developed the Torah for the Jewish people, amplified the tradition,
+and determined the Halakah, the practical law. But the Alexandrian
+Jews in the first place found their own attitude to the Torah affected
+by their acquaintance with Greek ethics and metaphysics, and also
+found it necessary to interpret the Bible in a new fashion in order to
+make its value known to their environment. The Greek world required to
+be shown the general principle, the broad ethical idea in each
+ordinance. And thus it came about that the Alexandrian interpreters
+always emphasized the universal beneath the particular, the moral
+spirit beneath the forms.
+
+It had been one of the chief functions of the prophets to demonstrate
+the moral import of the law. In their vision the God of Israel became
+the God of the universe, and His law of conduct was spread over all
+mankind. "For the law shall go forth from Zion, and the word of the
+Lord from Jerusalem" (Micah iv. 2). Philo in effect expounds Judaism
+in their spirit, though he speaks their message in the voice of Plato
+and to a people whose minds were trained in Greek culture. Yet it is
+significant that he wrote all his commentaries round the Five Books of
+Moses, and used the prophets and other Biblical books only to
+illustrate and support the Mosaic teaching, which contains the whole
+way of life and the whole religious philosophy. According to the
+rabbis also the Prophets formed only a complement to the Torah, "a
+species of Agadah";[129] and the prophetic vision of Moses was much
+clearer than that of his successors. Philo, too, clearly realized that
+Judaism was the religion of the law. His view of the Torah is what the
+modern world would call uncritical: that is to say, he accepts the
+idea that the whole of the Five Books was an objective revelation to
+Moses at Sinai. But though--or because--he is innocent of the higher
+criticism, and believes in the literal inspiration of the Torah, his
+conception is none the less enlightened and spiritual. The law--the
+Divine Logos--is not the enactment of an outside power, arbitrarily
+imposed, and to be obeyed because of its miraculous origin; it is the
+expression of the human soul within, when raised to its highest power
+by the Divine inspiration. Every man may fit himself to receive the
+Divine word, which is, in modern language, revelation.[130] Moses,
+then, is distinguished above all other legislators, not because he
+alone received it, but because he received it in its purest form, and
+because he was the most noble interpreter of it. It is for this reason
+that the law of Moses is of universal validity for conduct. The Divine
+spirit possessed him so fully that his Logos, or revelation, is
+eternally true, and by following it all men become fit to be blessed
+with the Divine gift themselves. This is true of the other prophets of
+the Bible to a smaller degree, and in a still minor degree Philo hoped
+that it was true of himself.
+
+It should be premised that the "law of nature" was at the time of
+Philo an idea as widely accepted as "evolution" is to-day. Men
+believed that by a study of the processes of the universe the
+individual might discover the law of conduct that should bring his
+action into harmony with the whole. What the Greek philosophers
+declared to be the privilege of the few, Philo declared to have been
+imparted by God to His people as their law of life. Hence the Mosaic
+legislation is the code of nature and reason, and the righteous man
+directs his conduct in accordance with those rules of nature by which
+the cosmos is ordered.[131] Obedience to the law should not be
+obedience to an outward prescription, but rather the following out of
+our own highest nature. The ideal which the Stoic sage continually
+aspired for and never attained to--the life according to nature and
+right reason--this Philo claimed had been accomplished in the Mosaic
+revelation, handed down by God to Israel and through them to the
+world.
+
+Before we deal with Philo's treatment of the law in its narrower
+sense, it will be as well to consider briefly his interpretation of
+the historical parts of the Torah. Here likewise he finds ideas of
+natural reason and eternal truths embodied. To Philo, as we have seen,
+the Torah is a unity, and every part of it has equal validity and
+value. He had to contend against certain higher critics of his day,
+who declared that Genesis was a collection of myths ([Greek:
+mythôn plasmata]).[132] Moreover, the long catalogues of
+genealogies in Genesis and the longer recitals of sacrifices in
+Leviticus and Numbers seemed to refute those who declared that every
+part of the Pentateuch was a Divine revelation. In the third book of
+the "Questions to Genesis" Philo directly grapples with this
+objection. Commenting on the verse (Gen. xv. 9), "Take for me a heifer
+of three years old and a goat of three years old," etc., he says that
+in interpreting any part or any verse of Scripture we must look to the
+purpose of the whole and explain it from this outlook, "without
+dissecting or disturbing its harmony or disintegrating its
+unity."[133] Why should God, asked the scoffer, reveal these trivial
+or prolix details? Philo's answer is in fact to spiritualize
+everything that is material, and universalize everything that is
+particular. While he believes in the literal inspiration of the Bible,
+he does not insist upon the literal truth of every word of it, and in
+the opening chapters of Genesis in particular, he treats the tales as
+symbolical or allegorical myths. His philosophical commentary on the
+creation, corresponding to the [Hebrew: m'sha br'shit] of the
+rabbis, is found in the book _De Mundi Opificio_, which stands in
+modern editions at the head of his writings. Its main theme is to
+trace in the text the Platonic idealism, _i.e._, the theory that God
+first created transcendental, incorporeal archetypes of all
+physical and material things. Philo uses the double account of the
+creation of man in the first and second chapters of Genesis as clear
+evidence that the Bible describes--for those who have the mind to
+see--the creation of an ideal before the terrestrial man.
+
+In the "Allegories of the Laws," which is the profounder philosophical
+doctrine, the account of Adam and Eve is deliberately chosen by Philo
+as the text of a psychological treatise, in which he analyzes[134] the
+relations of the mind, the senses, and the pleasures, represented
+respectively by Adam, Eve, and the Serpent. The necessity of
+explaining the story symbolically is professedly based on the fact
+that otherwise we are driven to the idea that the Bible spoke
+inaccurately about God. "It is silly," he says, "to suppose that Adam
+and Eve can have hidden themselves in the Garden of Eden, for God
+filled the whole." We are driven then to suggest another meaning; and
+Philo passes into a homily about the false opinion of the man who
+follows the bidding of the senses (Eve) at the instigation of pleasure
+(the Serpent).[135]
+
+The story of Cain and Abel is another piece of moral philosophy
+embodied in a concrete form. Abel symbolizes pious humility, Cain the
+deadly sin of atheism and intellectual pride, which denies the
+absolute and ever-present power of the Deity. Philo asks himself the
+question that other commentators have frequently raised, some in
+reverence, some in ridicule, "Who was Cain's wife?"[136] And he
+answers that the Bible expression about the children of Cain cannot be
+taken literally, but suggests the union of the ill-ruled mind with
+impious opinions, which have as their issue false pride and sin.
+
+Philo here treats the stories in the opening of Genesis as pure
+allegories, in which the men and women represent symbolically
+characters and qualities. It should be remembered, however, that these
+interpretations occur in the commentary where our author is not so
+much expounding the Torah as deducing secret doctrines from it. His
+proper exposition of the law proceeds from the book on the Creation to
+the lives of the patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, and then to the
+lives of Joseph and Moses. And in this commentary the Bible narrative
+is taken as historical truth: only in addition to the historical fact
+there is a moral and universal value in every figure and every
+episode. The patriarchs' lives represent the unwritten law which the
+Greek world held in high honor, for it was considered to contain the
+broad principles of individual and social conduct, and to be prior
+logically and chronologically to the written codes. Moses, therefore,
+the perfect legislator, according to Philo, has presented in the three
+founders of the Hebrew race embodiments of the unwritten law of good
+conduct for all mankind. Each of them is a moral type of eternal
+validity and represents one of the ways in which blessedness may be
+attained.[137] Abraham represents the goodness which comes from
+instruction; Isaac, the spontaneous goodness that is innate, and the
+joy (or laughter) of the soul that is God's gift to his favored sons;
+Jacob, the goodness that comes after long effort, through the life of
+practice and severe discipline. Before this triad, the Bible presents
+another group of three, who represent the virtues preparatory to the
+acquisition of perfect goodness: Enosh, Enoch, and Noah.[138] They
+typify respectively, as their names indicate, hope, repentance, and
+justice. It is a pretty thought, helped by an error in the Septuagint
+translation,[139] which sees in the name of the first (_i.e._, man,
+[Hebrew: 'nosh]) the symbol of hope. Hope, the commentator suggests, is the
+distinguishing characteristic of man[140] as compared with other
+animals, and hope therefore is our first step towards the Divine
+nature, the seed of which faith is the fruit. Next in order come
+repentance and natural justice, and from these stepping-stones we can
+rise to the higher self. Philo's interpretation of these Bible figures
+would appear to have behind it an old Midrashic tradition. As far back
+as the book of Ben Sira, in the passage on "the Praises of Famous Men"
+(xliv), they are taken as typical of the different virtues, and Enoch
+notably is the type of repentance. In the first century the world was
+becoming incapable of understanding abstract ideas, and required
+ethics to be concretely embodied in examples of life. Philo found
+within the Jewish Scriptures what the Christian apostles later
+transferred to other events.
+
+Joseph, whose life followed that of the patriarchs, is the type of the
+political life, the model of the man of action and ambition. Taken
+alone, this is inferior to the life of the saint and philosopher, but
+mixed with the other it produces the perfect man, for the truly good
+man must take his part in public life. The story of Joseph, then,
+illustrates the full humanity of Moses' scheme, and it marks also,
+according to Philo, the great moral lesson, that if there be one spark
+of nobility in a man's soul, God will find it and cause it to shine
+forth.[141] For Joseph, until he comes down to Egypt, is not a
+virtuous man, but full of conceit and unworthy aspiration for
+supremacy; he shows his true worth when he is sold into slavery; and
+then by the Divine inspiration he becomes the ideal statesman. Very
+suggestive is Philo's homily, by which he develops the Bible
+narrative, that the function of the statesman is to expound
+dreams;[142] because his task is to interpret the life of man, which
+is one long dream of changing scenes, wherein we forget what has gone
+before, as the fleeting shadow leads us from childhood to youth, from
+youth to manhood, from manhood to old age. Lastly, from the story of
+Joseph he draws the lesson that when the Hebrew has attained to a high
+position in a foreign land, as in Egypt, where there is utter
+blindness about the true God, he can and should retain his national
+laws,[143] and not assimilate the practices of his environment.
+
+Eusebius[144] mentions, among the works of Philo which he had before
+him, a book on "The Statesman," in which doubtless the principles of
+government and social life were more fully treated. The book has
+disappeared, but the life of Joseph suffices to show that Philo
+recognized the place of public service in the human ideal.
+
+Moses is not only the divinely inspired legislator, but he typifies
+also the perfection of the human soul, the highest example of the man
+at one with God, supreme as king, lawgiver, priest, and prophet. He is
+the link between God and man, the perfect interpreter of the Divine
+Word; and though Philo avoids the suggestion of any Divine power
+incarnate in man, he speaks imaginatively of the Logos of Moses,[145]
+_i.e._, his reason, as identical with the Logos of God, the Divine law
+of the universe. It is significant of his attitude to religion that he
+lays no stress upon the miracles of the Bible narrative. Not that he
+rationalizes them away; he rejects all rationalizing whatsoever; but
+he interprets them as great spiritual signs, rather than as diversions
+from the laws of nature. His allegory of the burning bush, which Moses
+saw at Horeb is typical, and presents a truth to which the whole
+history of Israel bears witness. The weak thorn-bush, which was not
+consumed by the fire, is the image of the idea of Israel, which almost
+cries to the people in their misfortune: "Do not despair! Your
+weakness is your strength, and by it you shall wound race after race.
+You will be preserved by those who wish to destroy you, and you shall
+not perish. In evil days you shall not suffer, and when a tyrant
+thinks to uproot you, you shall shine forth the more in brighter
+glory."[146] The passage is typical also of the rhetorical artifice
+with which Philo, following the taste of the time, recommended the
+Bible to the Greeks.
+
+We turn now to Philo's treatment of the Mosaic legislation, the Torah
+in its narrower sense, which is to modern Jewry perhaps the most
+striking part of his commentary. His problem was the same as ours--to
+bring the ancient law into harmony with the ideas of a non-Jewish
+environment, and to show its essential value when tried by an external
+cultural standard. Briefly his solution is that he sees everything in
+the Torah _sub specie æternitatis_, in the light of eternity; and by
+his faithfulness to the law, combined with his spiritual
+interpretation of it, he stands forth as the greatest Jewish
+missionary of his age. Unfortunately for Judaism, depth of thought and
+philosophical judgment are not the qualities which mark the successful
+religious missionary. Philo's philosophical treatment of the Torah was
+understood only of the few; the fanatical Pauline rejection of the law
+appealed to the masses. The spirit of the age demanded, indeed, the
+ethical interpretation of the Bible, and it was carried out in many
+ways, some true, some untrue to Judaism. Philo and Josephus tell us
+how Judaism was spreading over the world.[147] "There is not any city
+of the Greeks," says the historian, "nor of the barbarians, nor of any
+nation whatsoever, to which our custom of resting on the seventh day
+has not been introduced, and where our fasts and our dietary laws are
+not observed.... As God Himself pervadeth all the universe, so hath
+our law passed through the world." And their testimony is supported by
+the frequent gibes against Judaizing Romans in the Roman poets,[148]
+and by the explicit statements of Strabo,[149] the famous geographer,
+and, more remarkable still, of Seneca, the Stoic
+philosopher-statesman. The bitter foe of the Jews, he confessed that
+this superstitious pest was infecting the whole world, and that the
+conquered people (Judæa had lately been made a Roman province) were
+taking their conquerors captive.[150] Philo, with his ardent hope,
+looked for the near coming of the time when the worship of the Jewish
+God would prevail over the world, and sought to show that the Jewish
+law, which is the expression of Jewish belief, and which differs from
+all others, not only in the extent of its sway, but in its
+unchangeableness, could be universalized to fit its new service. To
+this end he interpreted the Mosaic code, which "no war, tyrant,
+persecution, or visitation, human or Divine, can destroy: for it is
+eternal."[151] In the arrangement of the Torah, Philo finds a proof of
+its universality. It begins with the account of the creation, to teach
+us that the same Being that is the Creator and Father of the universe
+is also its Legislator, and, again, that he who follows the law will
+choose to live in harmony with nature, and will exhibit consistency of
+action with words and of words with action. Other philosophers,
+notably the Stoics, claimed to lay down a plan of life that followed
+the law of nature; but their practice notoriously fell below their
+unrealizable professions. In Judaism alone spirit and practice were at
+one, so that each inspired the other and secured human excellence.
+"Not theory but practice is the root of the matter" ([Hebrew: l' hmdrsh
+'kr 'l' hm'sha]), according to the rabbis:[152] and Philo, who,
+contemplative philosopher as he was, yet recognized the all-importance of
+conduct, writes in the same spirit:[153] "We must first study and then act,
+for we learn, not for learning's sake, but in order to action."
+
+Philo seeks to arrange the law under general moral heads, and he finds
+in the Decalogue the holy text upon which the rest of the code is but
+a commentary. He may be following a tradition common among all the
+Jews, for in the Midrash to Numbers (xiii) it is said that the six
+hundred and thirteen precepts are all contained in the Ten
+Commandments: [Hebrew: shtrig mtsvt klilit bhn]. We do not know, however,
+in what way the early rabbis carried out this idea, whereas we possess
+Philo's arrangement; and some of its features are very suggestive.[154]
+To the first two commandments he attaches the ritual laws relating to
+priests and sacrifices, to the fourth the laws of all the festivals, to
+the seventh the criminal and civil law, to the tenth the dietary laws.
+The Decalogue he conceives as falling into two divisions, between which
+the fifth commandment is a link. For the first four commandments are
+ordinances that determine man's relation to God, and the last five
+those which determine his relation to his fellows. Honor of the
+parents is the link between the Divine and the human virtues, even as
+parents themselves are a link between immortal God and mortal man.
+Corresponding to the two divisions of the Decalogue are the two
+generic virtues which the Mosaic legislation has set as its goal,
+piety, and humanity, or what the rabbis called charity ([Hebrew: tsdka]).
+"He who loves God, but does not show love towards his own kind,
+has but the half of virtue."[155] Thus in one and the same age Hillel,
+incited by a single scoffer, and Philo, moved by the taunts of a tribe
+of anti-Semites, looked for the most vital lesson of the Torah, and
+they found it alike in "the love of our neighbor." That was Judaism on
+its practical side.
+
+In order to show the humanitarian spirit of the Torah, Philo
+emphasizes its socialistic institutions, the law of the seventh year's
+rest to the land ([Hebrew: shnt hshmita]), of the emancipation of the
+slaves, and of the Jubilee. These to him are not tribal laws, but the
+ideal institutions for the whole world, which shall one day be set up
+when the theocracy has been established over all mankind. And in an age
+when slavery was as accepted a condition as factory-labor is to-day,
+he ventured to assert the principle of the equality of man. "If,"
+saith the law, "one of thy brethren be sold to thee, let him serve
+thee for six years, and in the seventh year let him go free without
+payment." And Philo thereon comments:[156] "A second time Moses calls
+our fellow-creature brother, to impress upon the master that he has a
+tie with his servant, so that he may not neglect him as a stranger.
+Nay, but if he follows the direction of the law, he will feel sympathy
+with him, and will not be vexed when he is about to liberate him. For
+though we call our servants slaves, yet in verity they are only
+dependents who serve us in order to have the means of life." This
+corresponds with the Talmud dictum, "Whoever buys a Jewish slave buys
+a master for himself."[157] Commenting again upon the verse in Exodus
+xxi. 6, which says with seeming harshness that a servant who wishes to
+stay with his master after the year of emancipation has arrived, shall
+be nailed by the ear to a door, he explains that no man should consent
+of his own will to be a slave, for we should only be servants of God;
+and if a man deliberately rejects freedom for comfort, he should wear
+a mark of degradation. The so-called Christian principle of the
+dignity of human life and the equality of man, Philo shows to be the
+spirit of the Mosaic law, not limited within the confines of one
+nation, but valid for the world. Nor is it contained therein as a mere
+sentimental aspiration, but it is realized in the institutions of the
+Jewish polity.
+
+Philo looked for the same broad principles in his treatment of the
+ceremonial law. The Sabbath day is the central observance, one might
+say, the lodestar of the Jewish life, round which the other ceremonies
+revolve. The Sabbath is the call to man's higher nature, for it is the
+day on which we are bidden to devote ourselves to the Divine power
+within us and to seek to know God. "The six days in which the Creator
+made the universe are an example to us to work, but the seventh day,
+on which He rested, is an example to us to meditate. As on that day
+God is said to have looked upon His work, so we, too, should
+contemplate the universe thereon, and consider our highest welfare.
+Let us never neglect the example of the best life, the combination of
+action and thought, but keeping a clear vision of it before our minds,
+so far as our human nature will permit, let us liken ourselves to
+immortal God by word and deed."[158] High-flown this language may be,
+but what Philo wishes to mark is the spiritual value of the Sabbath.
+It is not merely a day of rest from workaday toil, but it is a day
+upon which we devote all our thoughts to God, and enter into closer
+communion with Him, [Hebrew: mnoht 'hba vndba], a repose of love and
+devotion. Heine said that on one day of the week the lowliest Jew became
+a prince, Philo that he became a philosopher. As in all of Philo's
+interpretations of Jewish custom, there is something mystic in his
+conception of the Sabbath. For he regards all Divine service and all
+prayer as a mystic rite which leads the human soul unto God. In the
+special ordinances of the day he finds a spiritual motive. We may not
+touch fire, because fire is the seed and beginning of industry.[159]
+The servant of the house may not work,[160] because on this day he
+shall have a taste of freedom and humanity, and he will work the more
+cheerfully during the remaining six days. Some rabbis later, when
+numbers of Gentiles had adopted this without the other institutions of
+Judaism, claimed the Sabbath as the special heritage of Israel; and in
+the book of Jubilees[161] it is said that Israel alone has the right
+to observe the Sabbath. Not so Philo, who, desiring to give the day a
+value for all, regards it as God's covenant with the whole of
+humanity.[162]
+
+The Sabbath idea is reflected in all the festivals, which have as
+their dominating idea man's joyful gratitude to God. Influenced
+probably by a mystic fondness for certain numbers, Philo enumerates
+ten festivals, as follows:[163] (1) Each day in the year, if we use it
+aright--a truly Philonic conception; (2) The Sabbath; (3) The new
+moon--then in Alexandria, as in Palestine, a solemn day; (4) The
+Passover; (5) The bringing of the first barley ('Omer); (6) The Feast
+of Unleavened Bread. These last three are separate aspects of one
+celebration, which is divided up so as to produce the holy decad. (7)
+Pentecost; (8) New Year; (9) Atonement (to the mystic the Feast of
+feasts); (10) Tabernacles. Following his design of revealing in
+Judaism a religion of universal validity, Philo points out in all
+these festivals a double meaning. On the one hand, they mark God's
+providence to His chosen people, shown in some great event of their
+history--this is the special meaning for the Israelite--and, on the
+other, they indicate God's goodness as revealed in the march of
+nature, and thus help to bind man to the universal process. So
+Passover is the festival of the spring and a memorial of the creation
+([Hebrew: zbr lm'sha br'shit]) as well as the memorial of the great Exodus,
+and of our gratitude for the deliverance from the inhospitable land of
+Egypt. And those who look for a deeper moral meaning may find in it a
+symbol of the passing over from the life of the senses to the life with
+God. Similarly, Philo deals with the other festivals,[164] and in their
+particular ceremonies he finds symbols which stamp eternal lessons of
+history and of morality upon our hearts. The unleavened bread is the
+mark of the simple life, the New Year Shofar of the Divine rule of
+peace, the Sukkot booth of the equality of all men, and, as he puts it
+elsewhere, of man's duty in prosperity to remember the troubles of his
+past, so that he may worthily recognize God's goodness. Much of this
+may appear trite to us; and the association of the festivals with the
+seasons of nature may to some appear a false development of historical
+Judaism; nevertheless Philo's treatment of this part of the Torah is
+notable. It shows remarkable feeling for the ethical import of the
+law, and it establishes the harmony between the Greek and Hebrew
+conceptions of the Deity by combining the God of history with the God
+of nature in the same festival. The ideas were not unknown to
+Palestinian rabbis; Philo, by giving them a Greek dress, opened them
+to the world.
+
+Equally remarkable and equally suggestive is Philo's treatment of the
+dietary laws. We have seen that he placed them under the governing
+principle of the tenth commandment, "Thou shalt not covet," or, more
+broadly, "Thou shalt not have base desires." The dietary laws are at
+once a symbol and a discipline of temperance and self-control. We know
+that the Greeks, as soon as they had a superficial knowledge of Jewish
+observance, jeered at the barbarous and stupid superstition of
+refusing to eat pork. Again we are told in the letter of the false
+Aristeas that when Ptolemy's ambassadors went to Jerusalem, to summon
+learned men to translate the Torah into Greek, Eleazar, the high
+priest, instructed them in the deeper moral meaning of the dietary
+laws. Further, in the fourth book of the Maccabees--an Alexandrian
+sermon upon the Empire of Right Reason--we find an eloquent defence of
+these same laws as the precepts of reason which fortify our minds.
+Philo, then, is following a tradition, but he improves upon it.
+Accepting the Platonic psychology, which divided the soul into reason,
+temper (_i.e._, will), and desire, he shows how the aim of the Mosaic
+law about food is to control desire and will, so as to make them
+subservient to reason. By practicing self-restraint in the two
+commonest actions of life--eating and drinking--the Israelite acquires
+it in all things. The hard ascetic who would root out bodily desires
+errs against human nature, but the wise legislator controls them and
+curbs them by precepts, so that they are bent to the higher reason.
+
+Modern apologists for Judaism have been found who, trying to force
+science to support their tottering faith, allege that the dietary law
+is hygienic. Philo relies on no such treacherous reed. We may not eat,
+he says,[165] the flesh of the pig or shell-fish, not because they are
+unhealthy, but because they are the sweetest and most delightful of
+all food, and for that very reason they are marks of the sensual life.
+This and this alone is the true religious justification of the dietary
+law.
+
+In this way, by showing how the letter represents the spirit, Philo
+fulfils the law; his religion is liberal in thought, conservative in
+practice. He sees clearly that to throw off the law and reject
+tradition involves in the end chaos and the overthrow of
+righteousness. And certain Christian--and other--theologians, if one
+may make bold to say so, fail to realize the spirit of Philo, when
+they speak of him as a man who approached the light, but was too tied
+down by the old traditions to receive the full illumination. Rather is
+it true that the Jewish aspiration of "freedom under the law," or
+spirit through the letter, is absolutely fundamental in Philo, and
+loyalty to the Torah is a guiding principle in his religious outlook.
+He asserts it clearly and strikingly, not only in his ethical
+commentary on the law, but in his philosophical allegories. Both
+passages deserve quotation, since they mark the fundamental contrast
+between Philo and non-Jewish allegorists of the law. In the first
+Philo is commenting upon the command "Thou shalt not add to or take
+away from the law" (Deut. xix. 14).[166] He shows first how each of
+the virtues is marred by excess in either direction; virtue in fact,
+according to the Aristotelian formula, is "a mean."
+
+     "And in the same way, if we add anything great or small to
+     piety, the queen of virtues, or take anything away, we mar
+     it and change its form. Addition will engender superstition,
+     and diminution impiety, and true piety will disappear, which
+     above all things we should pray for to enlighten our souls:
+     for it is the cause of the greatest of goods, inducing in us
+     a knowledge of our conduct towards God, which is a thing
+     more royal and kingly than any public office or distinction.
+     Further, Moses lays down another general command, 'Do not
+     remove the boundary stone of thy neighbor, which thy
+     ancestors have set up.' This, methinks, does not refer
+     merely to inheritances and the boundary of land, but it is
+     ordained with a view to the preservation of ancient customs.
+     For customs are unwritten laws, the decrees of men of old,
+     not carved indeed upon pillars and inscribed upon parchment,
+     but engraved upon the souls of the generations who through
+     the ages maintain the chosen community. Children should take
+     over the paternal customs from their parents as part of
+     their inheritance, for they were reared on them, and lived
+     on them from their swaddling days, and they should not
+     neglect them merely because the tradition is not written.
+     The man who obeys the written laws is not, indeed, worthy of
+     praise, for he may be constrained thereto by fear of
+     punishment. But he who holds fast to the unwritten laws
+     gives proof of a voluntary goodness and is worthy of our
+     eulogy."
+
+Clearly he is arguing here for the observance of the oral law, which
+later was standardized in the Halakah.
+
+In the other passage, which occurs in the philosophical book "On the
+Migration of Abraham,"[167] he sets forth the reason of the authority
+of the law with more argument, and controverts those who would
+allegorize away the ordinances.
+
+     "To whom, then, God has granted both to be and to seem good,
+     he is truly happy and truly renowned. And we must have a
+     great care for reputation, as a matter of great importance
+     and of much value, for our social and bodily life. [By
+     reputation Philo means reputation of being loyal Jews. He is
+     addressing here an esoteric circle who, if they were lax,
+     would bring philosophy into disrepute.] And almost all can
+     secure it, who are well content not to disturb established
+     customs, but diligently preserve the constitution of their
+     nation. But there are some who, looking upon the written
+     laws as symbols of intellectual things, lay great stress on
+     these, but neglect the former. Such men I would blame for
+     their shallowness of mind [Greek: euchereia]. For they
+     ought to give good heed to both--to the accurate
+     investigation of the unseen meaning, but also to the
+     blameless observance of the visible letter. But now, as if
+     they were living by themselves in a desert, and were souls
+     without bodies, and knew nothing of city or village or house
+     or intercourse with men, they despise all that seems
+     valuable to the many, and search for bare and naked truth as
+     it is in itself. Such people the sacred Scripture teaches to
+     give good heed to a good reputation, and to abolish none of
+     those customs which greater and more inspired men than we
+     instituted in the past. For, because the seventh day teaches
+     us symbolically concerning the power of the uncreated God,
+     and the inactivity of the creature, we must not therefore
+     abolish its ordinances, so as to light a fire, or till the
+     ground, or bear a burden, or prosecute a lawsuit, or demand
+     the restoration of a deposit, or exact the repayment of a
+     loan, or do any other thing, which on week-days is allowed.
+     Because the festivals are symbols of spiritual joy and of
+     our gratitude to God, we must not therefore give up the
+     fixed assemblies at the proper seasons of the year. Nor,
+     because circumcision symbolizes the excision of all lusts
+     and passions, and the destruction of the impious opinion
+     according to which the mind imagines that it is itself
+     capable of production, must we therefore abolish the law of
+     fleshly circumcision. We should have to neglect the service
+     of the temple, and a thousand other things, if we were to
+     restrict ourselves only to the allegorical or symbolic
+     sense. That sense resembles the soul, the other sense the
+     body. Just as we must be careful of the body, as the house
+     of the soul, so must we give heed to the letter of the
+     written laws. For only when these are faithfully observed,
+     will the inner meaning, of which they are the symbols,
+     become more clearly realized, and, at the same time, the
+     blame and accusation of the multitude will be avoided."[168]
+
+Philo's position is, then, that man on the one hand owes loyalty to
+his nation, and on the other is not only a creature of spirit, but has
+a body and bodily passions. He cannot, therefore, have a religion
+which is individual or merely spiritual, but he requires common forms
+and ceremonies that can bind him with the rest of the community, and
+train his body by good habit to obey his reason. We do not reach the
+spirit by denying but by obeying the letter. To the mere formal
+observance of the law and the unreasoning custom which blindly follows
+the practice of our fathers [Greek: synêtheia] Philo is equally
+opposed, and he protests, with the earnestness of an Isaiah, against
+superstitious sacrifice and against the lip-service of the
+materialist.[169]
+
+     "If a man practices ablutions and purifications, but defiles
+     his mind while he cleanses his body; or if, through his
+     wealth, he founds a temple at a large outlay and expense; or
+     if he offers hecatombs and sacrifices oxen without number,
+     or adorns the shrine with rich ornaments, or gives endless
+     timber and cunningly wrought work, more precious than silver
+     or gold--let him none the more be called religious ([Greek:
+     eusebês]). For he has wandered far from the path of
+     religion, mistaking ritual for holiness, and attempting to
+     bribe the Incorruptible, and to flatter Him whom none can
+     flatter. God welcomes genuine service, and that is the
+     service of a soul that offers the bare and simple sacrifice
+     of truth, but from false service, the mere display of
+     material wealth, he turns away."
+
+Lot's daughter, born of a pillar of stone, symbolizes this unthinking,
+hypertrophied religion; and custom, its mother, which always lags
+behind and has no seed of life, is the enemy of truth. The religious
+man pursueth righteousness righteously, the superstitious
+unrighteously.
+
+Thus Philo holds the balance between a formless spirituality and an
+unspiritual formalism. The end of religious observance is the love of
+God, but the love of God requires more than feeling; it must
+impregnate life. Dubnow, in his summary of Jewish history, formulates
+an epigram, which, like most of its kind, becomes in its conciseness
+and pointed antithesis a half-truth. "At Jerusalem," he says, "Judaism
+appeared as a system of practical ceremonies; at Alexandria as a
+complex of abstract symbols." No doubt it is true that at Jerusalem
+the practical side of the law was most prominent, but the spiritual
+exaltation to which it should lead was appraised as the true end by
+the great rabbis. Witness Hillel, and indeed all the writers of the
+gnomic wisdom in the "Ethics of the Fathers." At Alexandria, again,
+while the philosophical principle underlying the outward practice was
+especially emphasized, the practice itself was loyally observed, and
+its value perceived, by those who most thoroughly understood Judaism.
+Witness the writings of Philo, the Wisdom of Solomon, and the fourth
+book of the Maccabees. The antithesis between letter and spirit, faith
+and works, is in truth a false one; and wherever the significance of
+Judaism has been fully comprehended, the two aspects of the law have
+been inextricably intertwined. As Philo understood the Jewish mission,
+it was not merely to diffuse the Jewish God-idea, but quite as much to
+diffuse the Jewish attitude to God, the way of life. Abstract ideas,
+however lofty, can never be the bond of a religious community, nor can
+they be a safeguard for moral conduct. Sooner or later congregations
+must submit themselves to some law, be it a law of dogma, or be it a
+law of conduct. Antinomianism, the opposition to the law, to which
+Paul later gave powerful, even fanatical, expression, was a strong
+movement at Alexandria in Philo's day. Preparatory to the spread of
+Christianity, numerous sects sprang up there which purported to follow
+a spiritual Judaism wherein the law was abrogated because, forsooth,
+its symbolism was understood! In the extreme allegorists, whom Philo
+attacks for their shallowness, one may discern the prototypes of the
+Cainites, Ophites, Melchizedecians, and the rest of the heretical
+parties that produced the religious chaos of the next centuries. From
+that welter of opinions there at last emerged dogmatic Christianity.
+The Christian reformers came to free man from the yoke of the law; but
+their successors imposed on the mind the fetters of dogma, and, in
+order to check the passions of the body, advocated renunciation and
+asceticism. So that not only Judaism as a system of belief, but
+Judaism as a system of life was lost in their handiwork. Spirituality
+lacking knowledge and allegorism in excess led to this result. In
+Philo they are controlled by affection for the Torah, and by a
+conviction of the need for national cohesion.
+
+Philo is loyal to the Jewish tradition not only because he had a deep
+feeling for what a modern teacher has called the catholic conscience
+and the historical continuity of Judaism, but because his philosophy
+was based on a conviction that the Jewish religion was the truest
+guide to conduct and righteousness and to the love of God. To him, as
+to Plato and Aristotle, the law was the outward register of the moral
+ideal; the "word-and-deed symbols" of ceremonial and prayer were
+emblems indeed of moral principles, but at the same time they had an
+intrinsic value, in that they impressed these principles upon the
+mind, and brought belief and action into harmony. "Religion is law,
+not philosophy," said Hobbes. With Philo, religion is law _and_
+philosophy. Thus the love of the Torah is of the essence of his
+religious thought. As he puts it in the exhortation to his
+fellow-ambassadors before Gaius,[170] "to die in defence of it is a
+kind of life." In his philosophical Judaism he sought always for the
+universal and the spiritual, but so as always to increase the honor of
+the law, and not only of the law but of the customs of his ancestors,
+thinking with the Psalmist that "the Torah is a tree of life to those
+who keep fast hold of her, and those who support her are blessed."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+PHILO'S THEOLOGY
+
+
+"The most remarkable feature about Judaism," says Darmesteter, "is
+that without a philosophical system it had reached a philosophical
+conclusion about the government of the world and the nature of
+God."[171] The same idea underlies the statement of the Peripatetic
+writer Theophrastus (who lived in the latter part of the fourth
+century B.C.E.) that the Jews are a people of philosophers,[172] and
+the epigram of Heine, that they pray in metaphysics. Intuitively, the
+lawgiver and prophets of the Hebrew race had attained a conception of
+monotheism to which the greatest of the Greek philosophers had hardly
+struggled by reason. The Greeks had started with separate
+nature-powers, which they had finally resolved into a supreme
+nature-force; the Hebrews had started with the historical God of their
+fathers, whom they had universalized into the Creator of the world and
+Father of all the human race. Wellhausen has suggested that the
+intellectual development of Judaism with its tendency to become a
+purified monotheism moved in the same direction towards which Greek
+thought tended in its philosophical speculation of the universe. The
+difference between the two conceptions of God, however, remained even
+in their universalized aspect; the one was an impersonal world-force,
+the other a personal God in direct relation with individual man.
+Elsewhere than in Judæa, it has been well said, religious development
+reaches unity only by sacrificing personality. But the prophets, whose
+conception of God was imaginative rather than rational, preserved His
+nearness while expanding His sway. Israel, to use Philo's etymology,
+is the man who sees God,[173] and his religious genius gave to the
+world a personal incorporeal Deity, who is both transcendent and
+immanent, personal and yet above human conception. It is unnecessary
+to quote evidence of this view of the Godhead in the Bible, and it
+would be superfluous to adduce passages from the rabbis, did they not
+bear a striking similarity to the words of Philo. God to them is not
+only the Creator of the world, but also the Father of the world, the
+Governor of the world, the Only One of the world, the Space of the
+world, filling it as the soul fills the body.[174] Now, this Jewish
+conception of God is dominant in Philo. To him also God is not only
+the Creator but the Father of the universe.[175] He is the One and the
+All.[176] He is ever at rest, yet he outstrippeth everything, nearest
+to everyone, yet far removed, everywhere and nowhere, above and
+outside the universe, yet filling creation with Himself.[177] Philo
+loves to attach to the Deity these opposite predicates, for in this
+way alone can we form for ourselves some conception, however
+inadequate, of His Being. Strictly, God is unconditioned, and cannot
+be the subject of predication, for all determination involves
+negation, and hence in one aspect He is not conceivable nor
+describable, nor nameable.[178] Siegfried and Zeller press this
+negative attitude to the Deity, and find that there is an inherent
+contradiction in Philo's system, which ruins it, in that his God, upon
+whom all depends and who is the object of all knowledge, is absolutely
+unknowable and unapproachable. But this is to take Philo according to
+the strict letter to the neglect of the spirit, and to do that with
+one so eloquent and so careless of verbal accuracy is utterly to
+misunderstand him.
+
+The Greek philosophers in their attempt to formulate an exact notion
+of the First Being by abstract metaphysics had, indeed, conceived it
+in this fashion; and Philo, harmonizing Greek metaphysics and Hebrew
+intuition, is drawn at times into a presentation of God which appears
+to deny His personality and make of Him an abstraction. What has been
+said of Spinoza is true no less of Philo.[179] "The tendency to unity,
+to the infinite, to religion, overbalanced itself till, by its mere
+excess, it seemed to be changed into its opposite. But this is not his
+spirit, only the dead ultimate result of an imperfect logic that
+confuses an abstract with a concrete unity." In truth, the moment man
+tries to define his conception of God's essence in words, he either
+impairs and perverts his idea, or he must use words that do not really
+make the idea any clearer than it was unexpressed. Thus in the Hymn of
+[Hebrew: ygdl] the writer, versifying the creeds of Maimonides, seeks to
+define God: "He is a Unity, but there is no Unity like His; He is
+hidden and there is no end to His oneness." But nobody can claim that
+this gives any adequate conception of what he means; so, too, Philo,
+when he tries to analyze God's being metaphysically, only obscures the
+God of his soul, who was the historical God of Israel.
+
+The Hebraic God, like the Greek First Being, has no qualities, but
+unlike the other He has ethical attributes, and it is by these that we
+know Him and by these that He is related to the universe and to man.
+"Failing to comprehend Him in His essence we must aim at the next best
+thing, to comprehend Him as He is manifested to the world."[180] So in
+the "Hymn of Unity" it is written, "In images they told of Thee, but
+not according to Thy essence! They but likened Thee in accordance with
+Thy works."[181] And this is the manner in which Philo conceives Him:
+"God's grace and goodness it is which are the causes of creation."[182]
+"The just man, seeking the nature of all things, makes this most
+excellent discovery, that all things are due to the grace of God." "To
+those who ask the origin of creation, one could most easily reply that
+it is the goodness and grace of God which He bestowed on the race that
+is after His image."[183] "For all that is in the universe and the
+universe itself are the gift and bounty and grace of God."[184] Again,
+"God is omnipotent; He could make all evil, but He wills only what is
+best."[185] "All is due to God's grace, though nothing is worthy of
+it;[186] but God looked to His own eternal goodness, and considered
+that to do good befitted His own blessed and happy nature."
+
+Philo's life-aim, as we have seen,[187] was to see God in all things
+and all things in God. He is the sole principle of being, exercising
+continuous causality; and yet He is always at rest, for His energy is
+the expression of His being. "He never ceases to create, for creation
+is as proper to Him as it is proper to fire to burn and to snow to
+cause cold."[188] Further, to Him all human activity and excellence
+are directly due. He fertilizes virtue by sending down the seed from
+Heaven,[189] and He brings forth wisdom from the human mind by His own
+Divine effluence. "It is the distinctive feature of Jewish thought,"
+said Spinoza, "never to make account of particular and secondary
+causes, but in a spirit of devotion, piety, and godliness to refer all
+things directly to the Deity." No Jewish thinker ever applied this
+principle more thoroughly than Philo; and it gives an unique color to
+his work in the history of ancient philosophy. All our lives are one
+unceasing miracle, due to the constant manifestation of God's power;
+and the miracles of the Bible are examples of the universal working of
+Divine care rather than exceptions from it.
+
+The dominant feeling behind Greek thought is that man is the measure
+of all things: Plato, attacking the standpoint of his nation, had
+declared that God is the measure, and Philo repeats his maxim with a
+new intensity. It means for him that man's mind is a fragment or
+particle of the Divine universal mind, which, however, is impotent
+till called into activity by the further Divine gift of inspiration.
+Knowledge and happiness, therefore, come not through God, but from
+God.[190] "The Divine Word streams down from the fount of wisdom, and
+waters the plants of virtuous souls."[191] "To God alone is it fitting
+to use the word 'my,'"[192] or, put in another way, man has only the
+usufruct and God the ownership of his powers. Pride of intellect is
+therefore a deadly sin, because it involves a false, incomplete idea
+of God, and true knowledge involves reverence. The ideal of the Greek
+sage, the independent reason, is a godless thing, and those in whom a
+knowledge of Greek philosophy produces intellectual pride are not
+disciples of Divine Wisdom. In a fine passage Philo charges with
+hypocrisy those who talk in high-sounding language about the
+all-powerful Deity, and yet declare that by their own intellect they
+can comprehend the world.[193] This was the attitude not only of the
+proud Stoic, but of certain kindred Jewish sects, which were subject
+to Greek influences, such as the Gnostics and the Cainites. And upon
+them Philo appears to be pouring his wrath when he exclaims: "How have
+you the effrontery to go on making and listening to fine professions
+about piety and the honor of God, when you have within you, forsooth,
+the mind equal to God that comprehends all human things, and can
+combine good and evil portions, giving to some a mixed, to others an
+unmixed lot? And when anybody accuses you of impiety, you brazenly
+declare that you belong to the school of that noble guide and teacher
+Cain (_i.e._ insolent reason), who bade you pay honor to the secondary
+rather than the primary cause."
+
+Philo has often been reproached with intellectualism, and excessive
+regard to acquired wisdom, and it may be urged that by his allegorical
+method he tried to find in the Bible the sanction of two degrees of
+religious faith, the higher for the philosopher and the lower for the
+ordinary man. At the same time, however, before his God he retains the
+childlike simplicity of the most un-Hellenic rabbi, and the perfect
+humility of the Hasid. His conviction of the dependence of all upon
+God's grace is the perfect corrective of his intellectual
+exclusiveness. The idea of God as the unity which comprehends
+everything and causes everything is the great Jewish contribution to
+thought, and binds our literature together in all its manifestations.
+It characterizes and unites the poetical utterance of the Bible
+prophets, the pious wisdom of the rabbis, the philosophical systems of
+Philo and Maimonides.
+
+The more sublime and exalted the conception of God, the more
+imperative became the need for the thinking Jew to explain how the
+perfect infinite Being came into relation with the imperfect finite
+world of man and matter. How can the incorporeal God be the founder of
+the material universe? How can the infinite mind be present in the
+finite thought of man? How can the all-good Power be the creator of
+the evil which we see in the material world and of the wickedness that
+flourisheth among men? These questions presented themselves to the
+Israelite after he had consummated his marvellous religious intuition,
+and became the starting-point of a theology which is nascent in the
+Wisdom literature of the Bible. Theology is the reasoning about God
+which follows always in the footsteps of religious certitude. First,
+man by his intuitive reason rises to some idea of the Godhead
+satisfying to his emotion; next, by his discursive reason, he
+endeavors to justify that idea to his experience in analyzing God's
+operations. Renan, disposing sweepingly of a great question, declares
+that the Jewish monotheism excluded any true theology. But, in fact,
+in Palestine, and still more in Alexandria from the third century
+B.C.E., Jewish thought had as one of its constant aims to develop a
+theory of the operations of the one God in the world of material
+plurality. When the Jews came in contact with the cosmological
+mythology of Babylon, their God seemed to soar beyond the reach of
+men, and they looked to powers nearer them to bridge the widening
+gulf. To some extent this aim engendered a modification in the
+religious monotheism, and led to the interposition of intermediate
+conceptions between the Inconceivable and man. "The whole angelology,"
+says Deutsch,[194] "so strikingly simple before the Captivity and so
+wonderfully complex after it, owes its quick development in Babylonian
+soil to some awe-stricken desire which grows with growing culture,
+removing the inconceivable Being further and further from human touch
+or knowledge." Speaking generally, it may be said that reflection
+about God's relations produced in Palestine the doctrine of angels, in
+Alexandria the doctrine of Wisdom and the Logos. At the same time the
+Wisdom and the Word were not unknown to the Palestinian Midrash, and
+the hierarchies of angels to the Alexandrian, for the suggestion of
+the different subordinate powers had been evolved before the two
+traditions had become independent. The doctrine of angels never indeed
+won recognition from the rabbis, but it was for centuries an element
+of popular belief.
+
+More philosophical than the doctrine of angels was the conception of
+different attributes of God [Hebrew: mdot], which were different
+manifestations of His activity, to the human mind separable and
+distinguishable from each other, though absolutely they were
+inseparable aspects of the Godhead. Chief among these were the
+attribute of mercy and the attribute of justice, [Hebrew: mdt hrhmim]
+and [Hebrew: mdt hdin],[195] by which, according to a Midrash, Adam
+was driven from Eden. And these conceptions, though distrusted by the
+Synagogue, entered into later parts of the Prayer Book. "Attribute of
+Mercy, reveal thyself for us; make our supplication to fall at the feet of
+Thy Creator; and on behalf of Thy people beseech for mercy"; thus runs
+a fine prayer in the Ne'ilah service of the Day of Atonement, and many
+of the other Selihot prove the persistence of this development of
+Jewish belief. The theory of Divine attributes was common to Palestine
+and Alexandria, and plays, as we shall see, an important part in
+Philo's[196] thought; but the distinctive Hellenistic theology is the
+hypostasis of the Wisdom and the Word of God. In the Bible itself, and
+notably in Proverbs, we find Wisdom personified--the first vague,
+poetical suggestion of a Jewish theology. As the Jews came into
+contact with Hellenic influence, the tendency to develop the
+personification into a power increased, and may be traced through the
+first flower of Græco-Jewish culture, the Wisdom literature. The Greek
+philosophers had conceived the First Cause as a ruling Mind, or
+universal Reason, and influenced by this conception, yet loyal to
+their monotheistic faith, the Jewish writers of the Hellenistic age
+spoke of the Wisdom as the minister of God, the power by which He
+ruled creation. The apocryphal books of Ecclesiasticus and the Wisdom
+of Solomon exhibit Wisdom passing from the poetical personification of
+the Bible to the separate hypostasis of theology. In the verse of the
+Bible sage, "Wisdom hath builded her house, she hath hewn out her
+seven pillars" (Prov. ix. 1), she is the creation of the purely
+poetical fancy, but in the Wisdom of Solomon she has become a link
+between Heaven and earth, the creation of the theologian's reflection.
+"She reacheth from one end of the world to the other with strength,
+and ordereth all things graciously. She is settled by God on His
+throne, and by her He made the world, by her the righteous were saved.
+She watched over the father of the human race, and she delivered
+Israel from Egypt." In Ecclesiasticus it is written, "All Wisdom is
+from the Lord and is with Him forever. She cometh forth from the mouth
+of the Most High, and was created before all things. God having
+fashioned her from the beginning placed her over all His works. Then
+she covered the earth as a mist, she pitched her tent in high places
+and her palace was in a pillar of cloud. She ministered in the
+tabernacle, and was established in Zion, in Jerusalem, the beloved
+city." In similar strain, in the apocalyptic book of Enoch (xxx), God
+says, "On the sixth day I ordered My Wisdom to make man"; and in the
+Sibylline Oracles and Aristobulus she appears as the assessor of God
+who ruleth over men.
+
+Parallel with Wisdom, the Word of God was developed into something
+between a poetical image and a separate power. Again the development
+starts from a Biblical metaphor. "By the word of the Lord were the
+heavens created, and all their host by the breath of His mouth" (Ps.
+xxxiii). "God of our Fathers and Lord of Mercy, who didst make all
+things by Thy word," says the writer of the Wisdom of Solomon.
+Inspired again by the phrase of the Psalmist, "He sent His word, and
+healed them" (Ps. cvi. 20), he hymns the Divine Logos as the
+all-powerful emissary doing God's bidding among men. "It was neither
+herb nor emollient that cured Israel in the wilderness (when bitten by
+the fiery scorpions), but Thy Logos, O Lord, which heals all things."
+Later, when he describes the destruction of the first-born in Egypt,
+he rises in a pæan to a finer poetical flight: "When tranquil silence
+folded all things, and night in her own swiftness was in the midst of
+her course, Thy all-powerful Logos leaped from heaven, from his royal
+throne, a stern warrior into the midst of the doomed land, bearing as
+a sharp sword Thy Divine commandment, and having taken his stand
+filled all things with death: and he touched heaven and walked upon
+earth." The Jewish poet, rejecting the idea that the perfect God could
+descend to earth and slay men, brushes away the anthropomorphism of
+the Bible, and summons from his mind this creation mixed of Hebrew
+imagination and Greek reason. So, too, Onkelos, wherever activity upon
+earth was ascribed to God, wrote, in his translation (Targum) of
+Scripture, "the word of the Lord," and for the material hand he
+substituted the more abstract might. The same development,[197] under
+the names of Memra and (less frequently) of [Hebrew: dbor], shows that
+the word-agent of God appealed to certain of the rabbis in their
+desire to explain away, on the one hand, expressions in the Bible
+which seemed to invest the Deity with corporeal qualities, and, on the
+other, so to divide His infinite perfection as to make His presence
+immanent upon earth.
+
+The teachers at Alexandria were above all others induced to develop
+the Word into the active power, since they seemed thereby to find in
+the Bible a remarkable anticipation of Greek philosophy. The Greek
+Logos, by which "the Word" was translated in the Septuagint, meant
+also thought and reason, and during the Hellenistic age was the
+regular term by which the philosophical schools expressed the
+impersonal world-force which governed all things. The Logos idea among
+the Jews was a modification of intuitive and naïve monotheism; among
+the Greeks it was a step upwards, demanded by reason, from polytheism
+to a monistic view of the universe. By the first century its
+recognition as the ruling power in both the physical and moral
+universe had become a point of union in all philosophical schools--the
+common stamp of philosophical theology. Between the Semitic
+ministerial word uttered by a personal Being and the Greek pantheistic
+governing reason, there was probably an early connection, due to
+Eastern influences which operated upon the founders of Greek
+philosophy, which later schools lost sight of. When the Hebrew
+Scriptures were translated, the two coalesced more fruitfully in the
+Greek term Logos, and a point of union was provided between the
+philosophical and the Jewish theology. Moreover the local Egyptian
+influence aided the union, for the god Thoth was also identified with
+the Logos, which thus appeared as a religious conception common to all
+races, the basis of a universal creed. And besides the world-reason of
+the philosophers, another Greek influence no doubt tended to further
+the development of the Logos in Jewish thought. One of the most marked
+characteristics of the Hellenistic age is the renascence of wonder at
+the institutions of human life, and more especially at numbers and
+speech.
+
+Numbers were held to contain the essence of things, and the marvellous
+powers of four, seven, and ten received honor from all sects and
+schools. Words, too, were regarded almost as a mystic power, distinct
+from thought, incorporeal things which made thought real and gave it
+expression. The mystical susceptibility of Philo to the power of
+numbers has been noticed by every critic and exaggerated by not a few;
+his mystical valuation of words and speech, though far more important
+in his thought, has been commonly passed over. The analysis which
+Greek writers made of the relation between the mental thought, the
+sound which utters it, and the mind which thinks it, was invested with
+special importance for the Jewish thinker, who transferred it from the
+human to the Divine sphere. He applied it to interpret the constant
+Biblical phrases "and God said" or "and God spoke," according to
+notions in which philosophy and theology are mixed; and propounded a
+mystic idealism and a mystic cosmology, in which God's thought or
+comprehensive Word becomes the archetype of the visible universe, His
+single words the substantive universe and the laws of nature. A
+century before Philo, Aristobulus--assuming the genuineness of his
+Fragments--wrote:[198] "We must understand the Word of God, not as a
+spoken word, but as the establishment of actual things, seeing that we
+find throughout the Torah that Moses has declared the whole creation
+to be words of God." Philo, following his predecessor, says, "God
+speaks not words but things,"[199] and, again, commenting on the first
+chapter of Genesis, "God, even as He spake, at the same moment
+created."[200] And of human speech he has this pretty conceit a little
+before: "Into the mouth there enter food and drink, the perishable
+food of a perishable body; out of it issue words, immortal laws of an
+immortal soul, by which rational life is guided."[201] If human speech
+is "immortal law," much more is the speech of God. His words are ideas
+seen by the eye of the soul, not heard by the ear.[202] The ten
+commandments given at Sinai were "ideas" of this incorporeal nature,
+and the voice that Israel heard was no voice such as men possess, but
+the [Hebrew: shkina], the Divine Presence itself, which exalted the
+multitude.[203] Philo is here expanding and developing Jewish
+tradition. In the "Ethics of the Fathers" (v) we read: "By ten words
+was the world created"; and in the pages of the Midrash the [Hebrew:
+bt-kol], i.e._, the mystic emanation of the Deity, which revealed itself
+after the spirit of prophecy had ceased to be vouchsafed, is credited
+with wondrous and varied powers, now revealing the Decalogue, now
+performing some miracle, now appearing in a vision to the blessed, now
+prophesying the future fate of the race to a pious rabbi. The
+fertilizing stream of Greek philosophical idealism nourished the
+growth of the Jewish pious imagination, and in the Logos of Philo the
+fruit matured. It is idle to try to formulate a single definite notion
+of Philo's Logos. For it is the expression of God in all His multiple
+and manifold activity, the instrument of creation, the seat of ideas,
+the world of thought which God first established as the model of the
+visible universe, the guiding providence, the sower of virtue, the
+fount of wisdom, described sometimes in religious ecstasy, sometimes
+in philosophical metaphysics, sometimes in the spirit of the mystical
+poet. Of his last manner let us take a specimen singled out by a
+Christian and a Jewish theologian as of surprising beauty. Commenting
+on the verse of the Psalmist, "The river of God is filled with water,"
+Philo declares that it is absurd to call any earthly stream the river
+of God.
+
+     "The poet clearly refers to the Divine Logos that is full of
+     the fountain of wisdom, and is in no part itself empty. Nay,
+     it is diffused through the universe, and is raised up on
+     high. In another verse the Psalmist says, 'The course of the
+     river gladdens the city of God.' And in truth the continuous
+     rush of the Divine Logos is borne along with eager but
+     regular onset, and overflows and gladdens all things. In one
+     sense he calls the world the city of God, for it has
+     received the 'full cup' of the Divine draught, and has
+     quaffed a perpetual, eternal joy. But in another sense he
+     gave this name to the soul of the wise, wherein God is said
+     to walk as in a city. And who can pour out the sacred
+     measures of their joy to the blissful soul which holds out
+     the holy cup, that is its own reason, save the Logos, the
+     cupbearer of God, the master of the feast? Nor is the Logos
+     cupbearer only, but it is itself the pure draught, itself
+     the joy and exultation, itself the pouring forth and the
+     delight, itself the ambrosial philtre and potion of
+     bliss."[204]
+
+Through the luxury of metaphor and imagination one may discern the
+underlying thought of the mystic writer, that the Logos is the
+effluence of God, either in the whole universe or the individual man,
+filling the one as the other with the Divine Shekinah. It is the link
+which joins God and man, the ladder of Jacob's dream, which stretches
+from Heaven to earth.[205] That man can attain the Divine state by the
+help of God's effluence was a cardinal thought of Philo's; this,
+indeed, is the form in which he conceives the Messianic hope. God does
+not come down to earth incarnate in man's form, but God's active
+influence possesses the soul of man, and makes it live with God, and
+if man be peculiarly blessed, carries it up to the ineffable Spirit.
+Similarly his idea of the Messiah is more spiritual than that of the
+popular belief. The ascent of man to God's height, not the descent of
+God to man's level, will produce the age of universal peace.
+
+There are various degrees of the Divine influence, stretching from
+complete possession by the Deity Himself to the advent of single
+Divine thoughts. These Philo regards as [Greek: logoi], words or
+thoughts--for he does not clearly distinguish between the two--and he
+resolves the realistic angels of the Bible into this spiritual
+conception.[206] Thus he says, "the place" where Jacob alighted and
+had the vision (Gen. xxvii. 11) is the symbol of the perfect
+contemplation of God; the angels which he saw ascending and descending
+are the inferior light of Divine precepts. These thoughts are
+continually vouchsafed to all of us, prompting us to noble actions,
+comforting us in times of sadness, inspiring lofty ideas.
+
+     "Up and down through the whole soul the Logoi of God move
+     without end; when they ascend, drawing it up with them, and
+     severing it from the mortal part, and showing only the
+     vision of ideal things; but when they descend, not casting
+     it down, but descending with it from humanity or compassion
+     towards our race, so as to give assistance and help, in
+     order that, inspiring what is noble, they may revive the
+     soul which is borne along on the stream of the body."[207]
+
+Conversely, the rabbis taught that from each word that proceeded from
+the mouth of God an angel was created, as it is said: "By the word of
+the Lord the Heavens were made, and all the host of them by the breath
+of His mouth."[208]
+
+Apart from these sudden and occasional emanations of the Divine
+Spirit, the individual man has within him a permanent Divine Logos by
+which he may direct his conduct aright. Viewed in this aspect, the
+Logos, _i.e._, the activity of God, is conscience, the Judge in the
+soul, which is the true man dwelling within,[209] ruler and king,
+judge and arbiter, witness and accuser, correcting and restraining.
+Rising to bolder personification, Philo, who loves to present a
+spiritual thought in a concrete image, calls it the undefiled high
+priest in us.[210] In this power he finds a sure refutation of
+skepticism; for in virtue of the Divine voice man may secure moral
+certitude: and he finds also a philosophical value for popular
+superstition. It was a common notion of the pagans as well as
+the Jews of the time that an intermediate order of beings passed
+between heaven and earth and brought supernatural aid to men; and also
+that a familiar spirit, or Dæmon, dwelt within the soul of each man.
+The finer spirit of Philo resolves the attendant Dæmon and the
+messenger-dæmons or angels into the spiritual effluences of the one
+Deity; save for a few places where he makes a pose of agreement with
+popular notions and speaks of winged denizens of Heaven[211] who
+descend to earth, he habitually expounds angels as inward revelations
+of God.
+
+As the revelation of God to the individual is a Logos, so, too, is his
+revelation to the whole of mankind. It was pointed out in the last
+chapter that Philo identified the Torah with the law of nature, and he
+did this by regarding it as the Divine Logos. The more perfect
+emanation of God is in one view the power by which He directs the
+physical creation, in another the perfect law which He set up as the
+model of conduct for His highest creatures. The rabbis, indeed, were
+prone to glorify the law as the primal creation of God, and the
+instrument of all the later creations, [Hebrew: kli hmra shbu gbrao
+shmim].[212] They speak of it as the light, the pillar, and the bond
+of the universe, the model whereon the architect looked;[213] and Philo
+amplifies this simple poetical concept and develops it afresh in the
+light of Greek idealistic and cosmical notions,[214] so that the Torah,
+as the Logos of God, is equated with the source of all being, wisdom, and
+knowledge, with the ideal world which is the archetype of the
+material, and with all the law and order of nature. And as the Torah
+is the Logos, so also its particular precepts are Logoi.
+
+It seems difficult to trace the unity among all these different
+aspects of the "Word," but in fact they are only different expressions
+of the Divine activity in the universe. All these are comprehended in
+the Logos, and then again divided out of it, so that it is, as it
+were, a crystal prism reflecting the light of the Godhead in a myriad
+different ways. One curious illustration of the universal sense in
+which Philo understood the Logos is his interpretation of the manna;
+it is typical also of his manner of exegesis and his habit of
+spiritualizing the material. It is related in Exodus (xvi. 15) that
+when the Israelites saw the heavenly food they exclaimed [Hebrew: mn
+hu'], "What is it?" and hence the food obtained its name of manna. Now the
+Greek Septuagint word for [Hebrew: mn] is [Greek: ti], which means not
+only "what" but "anything." Philo sees in the gift of the heavenly
+food a symbol of the inspiration of the chosen people by the Divine
+Logos, and says that the Logos is rightly called manna, _i.e._,
+anything, because it is the "most generic of all things, and that by
+which man may be nourished."[215]
+
+The central thought of Philo's system is that God is immanent in all
+His work; but it would seem to him sacrilegious to apply to the
+Godhead itself this universal, unceasing activity, and so he develops
+the Logos as the most ideal attribute of the Deity, and the sum of all
+His immanence and effluence. He preferred the Logos to the older
+Wisdom, probably because he could by this conception bring his idea of
+God into closer relation with Greek philosophical notions, for already
+the Hellenistic world had come spontaneously to revere the cosmical
+Logos. Only Philo gave to the expression of their physical and
+metaphysical speculation a religious warmth new to it, when he
+associated it with the word uttered by the personal God. Philosophy,
+theology, and religion were all joined and harmonized in his
+conception.
+
+If we have followed thus far the spirit of Philo aright, the Logos is
+only the immanent manifestation of the One God, who is both
+transcendental and immanent, metaphorically, not metaphysically,
+separate. In other words, it is the complete aspect of God as He
+reveals Himself to the world. Above it and including it is the being
+or essence of God, seen in Himself, and not in relation to His outward
+activity. But it is often suggested that the Logos appears to Philo as
+a second God, subordinate, indeed, to the Supreme Being, but yet a
+separate personality. It is said, with truth, that he speaks of it as
+a person, now calling it king, priest, primal man, the first-born son
+of God, even the second God, and identifying it at other times with
+some personal being, Melchizedek or Moses, and apostrophizing it as
+man's helper, guide, and advocate.[216] Now we have reason to think
+that Gnostic sects of Jews, both in Alexandria and in Palestine, were
+at this time tending towards the division of the Godhead into separate
+powers. The heresy of "Minut," frequently mentioned in the Talmud,
+consisted originally, in the opinion of modern scholars, of a Gnostic
+ditheism;[217] and during the latter part of the first century and
+thereafter we hear of sects in Egypt and Syria which supported similar
+theories. Theology here produced its fantastic offspring theosophy,
+and the followers of the esoteric wisdom let their speculations carry
+them away from the cardinal principle of Judaism. Influenced by
+Egyptian speculation, they imagined an incarnation of the Divine
+Spirit, and in the mystical thought of the day they adumbrated
+theories of virgin birth.
+
+Now these prototypes of Christian belief had undoubtedly manifested
+themselves at Alexandria in Philo's day. His treatises show traces of
+them,[218] and the question is whether he countenanced them or tried
+to summon the theosophists of his generation back to the true Jewish
+conception of God. Certain Christian and philosophical critics of
+Philo, for whom the wish was perhaps father to the thought, have found
+in Philo's Logos a conception which is at times impersonal, at times
+personal, at times an aspect of the One God, and at times a second
+independent God. If we take Philo literally, this certainly is the
+case. But let it be clearly understood, this interpretation not only
+involves Philo in inconsistency, but it utterly ruins and destroys his
+religious and philosophical system. It means that the champion of
+Jewish monotheism wanders into a vague ditheism. And in view of this,
+the modern commentators of Philo, notably Professor Drummond,[219]
+have examined his words more carefully and studied them in relation to
+their context; and they have shown how, judged in this critical
+fashion, the personality of the Logos is only figurative. It is,
+indeed, probable that certain extreme passages, where the Logos is
+presented most explicitly as a separate Deity, are due to
+Christological interpolation. The Church Fathers found in the popular
+belief in the Divine Word a remarkable support of the Trinity, and
+regarding, as they did, Philo's writings as valuable testimony to the
+truth of Christianity, they had every temptation to bring his passages
+about the Logos still closer to their ideas. And between the first and
+the fifth century, when we first hear from Eusebius of manuscripts of
+Philo at the Christian monastery of Cæsarea--from which we can trace
+our texts in direct line--there was no high standard in dealing with
+ancient authorities. It is the Christian teachers who preserved Philo,
+and they preserved him not as scholars but as missioners. The best
+editors have recognized that our text has been interfered with by
+evidenced-making scribes, as where a passage about the new Jerusalem
+appears, agreeing almost word for word with the picture of
+Revelations. Similarly, not a few passages about the Logos are
+probably spurious.[220]
+
+Yet, even when we have expurgated our text of Philo, there remain, it
+will be said, numerous passages where the Logos is spoken of and
+apostrophized as a person. This is so, but the conclusion which is
+drawn, that the Logos is regarded as a second deity, is unjustifiable.
+The Jewish mind from the time of the prophets unto this day has
+thought in images and metaphors, and the personification of the Logos
+is only the most striking instance of Philo's regular habit of
+personifying all abstract ideas. The allegorical habit particularly
+conduces to this, for as persons are constantly resolved into ideas,
+so ideas come to be naturally represented as persons. There are thus
+two steps in Philo's theology, which seem to some extent to counteract
+each other; in the first place, he resolves the concrete physical
+expressions of the Bible into spiritual ideas, in the second he
+portrays those ideas in pictorial language and clothes them in
+personifications. The allegorizer requires an allegorist to interpret
+him aright.
+
+Nor must it be forgotten that Philo was preaching spiritual monotheism
+not only to Jews, but also to the Hellenic world, for whom it was a
+vast bound from their naturalistic polytheism. Zealous as he was for
+the pure faith, he realized that mankind could not attain it directly,
+but must approach it by conceptions of the One God gradually
+increasing in profundity and truth. The Greek thinkers had
+approximated closest to the Hebraic God-idea when they conceived one
+supreme, immanent reason in the universe; and Philo, in carrying his
+audiences beyond this to the transcendent-immanent Being, transformed
+the Greek cosmical concept into a Divine power of the One Being. For
+the true believer this is the stepping-stone to the perfect idea. "The
+Logos," he says, "is the God of us imperfect people, but the true
+sages worship the One Being."[221] And, again, "The imperfect have as
+their law the holy Logos."[222] And in this sense, it is "intermediate
+([Greek: methorios]) between God and man."[223] What such passages
+mean is that the separation of the Logos is a stage in man's progress
+up to the true idea of God. It is a second-best Deity, so to say,
+rather than a second Deity; for those who regard the Logos as God have
+no conception at all of the perfect Being of which it is only the
+principal attribute.
+
+The theology of Philo is characterized throughout by a tolerant and
+philosophical grasp of the difficulty of pure monotheism, and of the
+necessity of a long intellectual searching before the goal can be
+attained. To declare the Unity of God is simple enough; to have a real
+conception of it is a very different and a very difficult thing. And
+Philo's theology has a two-fold aim, in which either part complements
+the other. It explains, on the one hand, how God is revealed to the
+world through His powers or attributes or modes of activity, and, on
+the other, how man can ascend to an ecstatic union with the Real Being
+through comprehension of those powers. By the ideal ladder which
+brings down God to earth, man can climb again to Heaven. The three
+chief rungs of the ladder are the attributes of creation, and of
+ruling power, and the Logos. The perfect unity of the Godhead is not,
+of course, properly the subject of attributes, but the limited mind of
+man so conceives it for its own understanding, and speaks of God's
+justice, God's goodness, God's wisdom. These are, to use philosophical
+terminology, categories of the religious understanding, which are
+finally resolved by the perfect sage in "the synthetic apperception of
+Unity."
+
+Philo follows what may have been a Hebrew tradition in explaining the
+two names of God, "Elohim" and "Jehovah," as connoting His two chief
+attributes: (1) the creative or beneficent, (2) the ruling or
+judicial, or, as it is sometimes called, the law-giving power.[224]
+Names, as we know, were always regarded by Philo as profound symbols,
+and naturally the names of God are of vital import; and the twofold
+expression for the Hebrew Deity, of which the higher critics have made
+much destructive use, was noticed by the earliest commentators, but
+made the basis by them of a constructive theology. The ruling and the
+creative attributes of God are outlined and contained in the highest
+mode of all, the Logos, "the reason of God in every phase and form of
+it that is discoverable and realizable by man." For by the Logos, God
+is both ruler and good.[225] This is the profound interpretation of
+the story in Genesis, that "God placed at the east of the garden of
+Eden the two Cherubim and a flaming sword, which turned every way to
+keep the way of the tree of life" (Gen. iv. 24). The Cherubim are the
+symbols of the powers of majesty and goodness; the flaming sword is
+the Logos; "because," says our author quaintly, "all thought and
+speech are the most mobile and the most ardent (_i.e._, the most
+intensive) of things, and especially the thought and speech of the
+only Principle."[226]
+
+To correspond with the descending attributes of God we have the
+ascending dispositions of man towards Him, fear, love, and thirdly
+their synthesis in loving knowledge. When we are in the first stage of
+religion we obey the law in hope of reward or fear of punishment; when
+we have progressed higher in thought, we worship God as the good
+Creator; when we have ascended one further stage, we surpass both fear
+and love in an emotion which combines them, realizing, as Browning
+puts it, that "God is law and God is love." In illustration of this
+scheme of Philo's we may examine two passages out of his philosophical
+commentary. In the first he is commenting upon the appearance of the
+three angels to Abraham as he sat outside his tent (Gen. xviii).[227]
+And, by the way, it may be remarked that the Midrash commenting on
+this passage notes that it begins, "And the Lord appeared unto
+Abraham," and then continues, "And he lifted up his eyes and looked,
+and, lo, three men stood before him." Hence we may learn that it was
+really the one God who appeared to the Patriarch, and that the three
+angels were but a vision of his mind. This is the dominant note of
+Philo's interpretation, but he as usual elaborates the old Midrash
+philosophically.
+
+     "The words," he says, "are symbols of things apprehended by
+     intelligence alone--the soul receives a triple expression of
+     one being, of which one is the representative of the actual
+     existent, and the other two are shadows, as it were, cast
+     from this. So it happens also in the physical world, for
+     there often occur two shadows of bodies at rest or in
+     motion. Let no one suppose, however, that shadow is properly
+     used in relation to God. It is only a popular use of words
+     for the clearer understanding of our subject. The reality is
+     not so, but, as one standing nearest to the truth might say,
+     the middle one is the Father of the universe, who is called
+     in Scripture the 'Self-existent'; and those on either side
+     of Him are the two oldest and chief powers, the Creative and
+     the Regal. The middle one, then, being attended by the
+     others as by a bodyguard, presents to the contemplative mind
+     a mental image or representation now of one and now of
+     three; of one whenever the soul, being properly purified and
+     perfectly initiated, rises to the idea which is unmingled
+     and free from limitation, and requires nothing to complete
+     it; but of three whenever it has not yet been initiated into
+     the great mysteries, and still celebrates the lesser rites,
+     unable to apprehend the Being in itself without
+     modification, but apprehending it through its modes as
+     either creating or ruling. This is, as the proverb says, a
+     second-best course, but yet it partakes of godlike opinion.
+     But the former does not partake of--for it _is_ itself--the
+     Godlike opinion, or rather it is truth, which is more
+     precious than all opinion.
+
+     "Further, there are three classes of human character, to
+     each of which one of the three conceptions of God has been
+     assigned. The best class goes with the first, the conception
+     of the absolute Being; the next goes with the conception of
+     Him as a Benefactor, in virtue of which He is called God;
+     the third with the conception of Him as a Ruler, in virtue
+     of which He is called Lord. The noblest character serves Him
+     who is in all the purity of His absolute Being; it is
+     attracted by no other thing or aspect, but is solely and
+     intently devoted to the honor of the one and only Being; the
+     second is brought to the knowledge of the Father through His
+     beneficent power; the third through His regal power."
+
+In the second passage, which occurs in the treatise on flight from the
+world,[228] Philo is allegorizing the law about founding six cities of
+refuge (Exodus xxxii). These are but material symbols for the six
+stages of the ascent of the mind to the pure God-idea. The chief city,
+the metropolis, is the Divine Logos, next come the two powers already
+considered, and then three secondary powers, the retributive, the
+law-giving, and the prohibitive. "Very beautiful and well-fenced
+cities they are, worthy refuges of souls that merit salvation." Each
+of these cities is an aspect of the religious mind; when it settles in
+the first it obeys the law from fear of punishment and thinks of God
+as the Judge; in the second it observes the precepts in hope of reward
+and conceives God as the legislator of a fixed code; in the next it is
+repentant and throws itself on God's grace, marking the first step of
+the spiritual life. Then it ascends in order to the idea of God as the
+governor of the universe, and the emotion which the rabbis called
+[Hebrew: yrat shmim], the fear of Heaven; and to the idea of God as the
+Creator and the universal Providence, which has as its emotional
+reflex the love of Heaven, [Hebrew: 'hbt shmim].
+
+But even this, which is the highest stage for many men, is not an
+adequate conception. Above it is the contemplation of God, apart from
+all manifestations in the perceptible world, in His ideal nature, the
+Logos, which at once transcends and comprehends the universe. And the
+attitude of this man can be best expressed perhaps by Spinoza's
+phrase, "the intellectual love of God," _amor intellectualis Dei_. The
+worshipper of the Logos has grasped and has harmonized all the
+manifestations of the Deity; he sees and honors all things in God; he
+comprehends the universe as the perfect manifestation of one good
+Being.
+
+Is this the highest point which man can reach? Many religious
+philosophers have held that it is, but Philo, the mystic, yearning to
+track out God "beyond the utmost bound of human thought," imagines one
+higher condition. The Logos is only the image or the shadow of the
+Godhead.[229] Above it is the one perfect reality, the transcendent
+Essence. Now, man cannot by any intellectual effort attain knowledge
+of the Infinite as He truly is, for this is above thought. But to a
+few blessed mortals God of His grace vouchsafes a mystic vision of His
+nature. Thus Moses, the perfect hierophant, had this perfect
+apprehension, and passed from intellectual love to holy adoration. And
+the true philosopher has as the goal of his aspirations the
+heaven-sent ecstasy, in which he sees God no longer through His
+effects, or in the modes of His activity, but through Himself in His
+own essence. The philosopher, when he receives this vision ([Greek:
+epopteia]) is possessed by the Shekinah,[230] and, losing
+consciousness of his individuality, becomes at one with God.
+
+So much for Philo's theory of man's upward progress. We may add a word
+about his treatment of the problem which troubled thinkers in that
+age, and which has harassed theologians ever since, viz., to show how
+punishment and evil could be derived from a God who was all-powerful
+and all-good. The Gnostics were driven by the difficulty to imagine an
+evil world-power, which was in incessant conflict with the Good God:
+and popular belief had conjured up a legion of subordinate powers, who
+took part in the work of creation and the government of the world.
+When Philo is speaking popularly, he accepts this current theology and
+speaks also of a punitive power of God[231] ([Greek: dunamis
+kolastikê]); but not when he is the philosopher. For then, in
+perfect faith, he denies the absolute existence of evil. "It is
+neither in Paradise nor indeed anywhere whatsoever."[232] Man,
+however, by his free will causes evil in the human sphere; and when
+God formed in man a rational nature capable of choosing for itself,
+moral evil became the necessary contrary of good.[233] Moreover, the
+punitive activity of God, though it seems to cause suffering and
+misery, is in truth a good, simulating evil, and if men judged the
+universal process as a whole, they would find it all good. The
+existence of evil involves no derogation from the perfect unity of
+God.
+
+If we have understood correctly Philo's theology, neither Logos, nor
+subordinate powers, nor angels, nor demons have an objective
+existence; they are mere imaginings of varying incompleteness which
+the limited minds of men, "moving in worlds not realized," make for
+themselves of the one and only true God. Philo's theology is the
+philosophical treatment of Jewish tradition, just as Philo's legal
+exegesis is the philosophical treatment of the Torah. While
+maintaining and striving to deepen the conception of God's unity, he
+aims at expounding to the reason how, on the one hand, that unity is
+revealed in the world about us, and how, on the other, we may advance
+to its true comprehension. It was, however, unfortunate that Philo
+expressed his theology in the current language, which was vague and
+inexact, and adapted certain foreign theosophical ideas to Judaism;
+hence succeeding generations, paying regard to the pictorial
+representation rather than to the principles of his thought, sought
+and found in him evidence of theories of Divine government to which
+Judaism was pre-eminently opposed. The first chapter of the Fourth
+Gospel shows that gradual process of thought which finally made the
+Logos doctrine the antithesis of Judaism. In the first verse we have a
+thought which might well have been written by Philo himself: "In the
+beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was
+God." But in the fourteenth verse there is manifest the sharp
+cleavage: "And the Word was made flesh, and dwelt among us, and we
+beheld his glory, the glory as of the only begotten of the Father,
+full of grace and truth." There may be a fine spiritual thought
+beneath the letter here, but the notion of the Incarnation is not
+Jewish, nor philosophical, nor Philonic. Philo's work was made to
+serve as the guide of that Christian Gnosticism which, within the next
+hundred years, proclaimed that Judaism was the work of an evil God,
+and that the essential mission of Jesus--the good Logos--was to
+dethrone Jehovah! But though the Logos conception was turned to
+non-Jewish and anti-Jewish purposes, it was in Philo the offspring of
+a pure and philosophical monotheism. Whatever the later abuse of his
+teaching, Philo constructed a theology which, though affected by
+foreign influences, was essentially true to Judaism; and more than
+that, he was the first to weave the Jewish idea of God into the
+world's philosophy.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+PHILO AS A PHILOSOPHER
+
+
+Save for a few monographs of no great importance, because of the
+absence of original thought, Philo's works form avowedly an exegesis
+of the Bible and not a series of philosophical writings. Nor must the
+reader expect to find an ordered system of philosophy in his separate
+works, much more than in the writings of the rabbis. As Professor
+Caird says,[234] "The Hebrew mind is intuitive, imaginative, incapable
+of analysis or systematic connection of ideas." Philo's philosophical
+conceptions lie scattered up and down his writings, "strung on the
+thread of the Bible narrative which determines the sequence of his
+thoughts." Nevertheless, though he has not given us explicit treatises
+on cosmology, metaphysics, ethics, psychology, etc., and though he was
+incapable of close logical thinking, he has treated all these subjects
+suggestively and originally in the course of his commentary, and his
+readers may gather together what he has dispersed, and find a
+co-ordinated body of religious philosophy. However loosely they are
+set forth in his treatises, his ideas are closely connected in his
+mind. Herein he differs from his Jewish predecessors, for the notion
+of the old historians of the Alexandrian movement, that there was a
+systematic Jewish philosophy before Philo, does not appear to have
+been well-founded. All that Aristeas and Aristobulus and the
+Apocryphal authors had done was to assimilate certain philosophemes to
+their religious ideas; they had not re-interpreted the whole system of
+philosophy from a Jewish point of view or traced an independent
+system, or an eclectic doctrine in the Holy Scriptures. This was the
+achievement of Philo. His thought is not original in the sense of
+presenting a new scheme of philosophy, but it is original in the sense
+of giving a fresh interpretation to the philosophical ideas of his age
+and environment. He ranges them under a new principle, puts them in a
+new light, and combines them in a new synthesis. This again is
+characteristic of the Jewish mind. Intent on God, it does not endeavor
+to make its own analysis of the universe by independent reasoning, but
+it utilizes the systems of other nations and endeavors to harmonize
+them with its religious convictions. Hence it is that nearly all
+Jewish philosophy appears to be eclectic; its writers have ranged
+through the fields of thought of many schools and culled flowers from
+each, which they bind together into a crown for their religion. They
+do not, with few exceptions, pursue philosophy with the purpose of
+widening the borders of secular knowledge; but rather in order to
+bring the light of reason to illuminate and clarify faith, to
+harmonize Judaism with the general culture of its environment, and to
+revivify belief and ceremony with a new interpretation. All this
+applies to our worthy, but at the same time he was a philosopher at
+heart, because he believed that the knowledge of God came by
+contemplation as well as by practice, and, further, because he had a
+firm faith in the universalism of Judaism; and he believed that this
+universal religion must comprehend all that is highest and truest in
+human thought. Like most Jewish philosophers he is synthetic rather
+than analytic, believing in intuition and distrusting the discursive
+reason, careless of physical science and soaring into religious
+metaphysics. Again, like most Jewish philosophers, he is deductive,
+starting with a synthesis of all in the Divine Unity, and making no
+fresh inductions from phenomena. It has been said that, though Philo
+was a philosopher and a Jew, yet Saadia was the first Jewish
+philosopher. But Philo's philosophical ideas are in complete harmony
+with his Judaism; and if by the criticism it is meant that most of the
+content of his works is based upon Greek models, it is true on the
+other hand that the spirit which pervades them is essentially Jewish,
+and that by the new force which he breathed into it he reformed and
+gave a new direction to the Greek philosophy of his age.
+
+Philo's philosophy is certainly eclectic in some degree, and we find
+in it ideas taken from the schools of Plato, Aristotle, Pythagoras,
+and the Stoics. Its fixed point was his theology, and wherever he
+finds anything to support this he adapts it to his purpose. He
+approached philosophy from a position opposed to that of the Greeks:
+they brought a questioning and free mind to the problems of the
+universe; he comes full of religious preconceptions. Yet in this lies
+his strength as well as his limitation, for he gains thus a point of
+certainty and a clear end, which other eclectic systems of the day did
+not possess. He welds together all the different elements of his
+thought in the heat of his passion for God. His cosmology and his
+ontology are a philosophical exposition of the Jewish conception of
+God's relation to the universe, his ethics and his psychology of the
+Jewish conception of man's relation to God.
+
+The religious preconceptions of Philo drew him to Plato above all
+other philosophers, so that his thought is essentially a religious
+development of Platonism. It is not too much to say that Philo's work
+has a double function, to interpret the Bible according to Platonic
+philosophy and to interpret Plato in the spirit of the Bible. The
+agreement was not the artificial production of the commentator, for in
+truth Plato was in sympathy with the religious conscience as a whole.
+The contrast between Hellenism and Hebraism is true, if we restrict it
+to the average mind of the two races. The one is intent on things
+secular, the other on God. But the greatest genius of the Hellenic
+race, influenced perhaps by contact with Oriental peoples, possessed,
+in a remarkable degree, the Hebraic spirit, which is zealous for God
+and makes for righteousness. Plato was not only a great philosopher,
+but also a great theologian, a great religious reformer, and a great
+prophet, the most perfectly developed mind which the world, ancient or
+modern, has known. His "Ideas," which are the archetypes of sensible
+things, were not only logical concepts but also a kingdom of Heaven
+connected with the human individual by the Divine soul. And as he grew
+older so his religious feeling intensified, and he translated his
+philosophy into theology and positive religion. Platonism, it has been
+well said, is a temper as much as a doctrine; it is the spirit that
+turns from the earth to Heaven, from creation to God. In his last
+work, "The Laws," wherein he designs a theocratic state, which has
+striking points of resemblance with the Jewish polity, he says: "The
+conclusion of the matter is this, which is the fairest and truest of
+all sayings, that for the good man to sacrifice and hold converse with
+the Deity by means of prayers and service of every kind is the noblest
+thing of all and the most conducive to a happy life, and above all
+things fitting."[235]
+
+This is typical of Plato's attitude towards life in his old age; and
+further, his metaphysical system of monistic idealism is the most
+remarkable approach to Hebrew monotheism which the Greek world made.
+The Patristic writers in the first centuries of the Christian era were
+so struck by this Hebraism in the Greek thinker, that they attributed
+it to direct borrowing. Aristobulus had written of a translation of
+the Pentateuch older than the Septuagint, which Plato was supposed to
+have studied. Clement called him the Hebrew philosopher, Origen and
+Augustine comment on his agreement with Genesis, and think that when
+he was in Egypt he listened to Jeremiah.[236] Eusebius worked out in
+detail his correspondences with the Bible. Some early neo-Platonist,
+perhaps Numenius, declared that Plato was only the Attic Moses; and in
+more modern times the Cambridge Platonists of the sixteenth century
+harbored similar ideas, and Nietzsche spoke bitterly of the day when
+"Plato went to school with the Jews in Egypt."
+
+Of Philo, then, we may say, as Montaigne said of himself, that he was
+a Platonist before he knew who Plato was. Yet he was the first
+Hellenistic Jew who perceived the fundamental harmony between the
+philosopher's idealism and Jewish monotheism, and he was the first
+important commentator of Plato who developed the religious teaching of
+his master into a powerful spiritual force.
+
+It is true that the seeds of neo-Platonism, _i.e._, the religious
+re-interpretation of Platonism under the influence of Eastern thought,
+had been sown already; and Philo must have received from his
+environment to some extent the mystical version of the master's
+system, with its goal of ecstatic union with God, and its tendency to
+asceticism as a means thereto. But the earlier products of the
+movement had been crude, and had lacked a powerful moving spirit. This
+was provided by Philo when he introduced his overmastering conception
+of God. The popular saying, "Either Plato Philonizes or Philo
+Platonizes"[237] contains a deep truth in its first as well as in its
+second part. It not only marks the likeness in style of the two
+writers, but it suggests that Philo, on the one hand, made fruitful
+the religious germ in Plato's teaching by his Hebraism, and, on the
+other, nourished the philosophical seed in Judaism by his Platonism.
+Plato's teaching falls into two main classes, the dialectical and the
+mythical, and it is with the latter that Philo is in specially close
+connection. For in his myths Plato tries to achieve a synthesis by
+imaginative flight where he had failed by discursive reason. He
+unifies experience by striking intuitions, something in the spirit of
+a Hebrew prophet. Moreover his style, as well as his thought, has here
+affinity with Jewish modes of thought. As Zeller says, speaking of the
+myths: "From the first, in the act of producing his work he thinks in
+images. They mark the point where it becomes evident that he cannot be
+wholly a philosopher because he is still too much of a poet." And this
+is true of all Philo's writings, and to generalize somewhat widely, of
+most Jewish philosophy. In "The Timæus," particularly, Plato,
+throughout, is the poet-philosopher, writing imaginative myths, which
+present pictorially an idealistic scheme of the universe; and "The
+Timæus" is for Philo, after the Bible, the most authoritative of
+books, the source of his chief philosophical ideas.
+
+The dominant philosophical principle of Plato is what is known as the
+Theory of Ideas. He imagined a world of real existences, invisible,
+incorporeal, eternal, grasped only by thought, prior to the objects of
+the physical universe, and the models or archetypes of them. In "The
+Timæus," which is a system of cosmology at once religious and
+metaphysical, the "Ideas" are represented as the thoughts of the one
+Supreme Mind, the intermediate powers by which the Supreme Unity,
+known as the "Idea of the Good," or "the Creator," evolves the
+material universe. Thus the universe is seen as the manifestation of
+one Beneficent Spirit, who brings it into existence and rules over it
+through His "ideal" thoughts. Philo adopts completely and uncritically
+this theory of transcendental ideas in his philosophical exegesis of
+the cosmogony in Genesis. "Without an incorporeal archetype God brings
+no simple thing to fulfilment."[238] There is an idea of stars, of
+grass, of man, of virtue, of music. And the Platonic conception
+receives a religious sanction. The ideas are a necessary step between
+God and the material universe, and those who deny them throw all
+things into confusion.[239] "God would not touch matter Himself, but
+He did not grudge a share of His nature to it through His powers, of
+which the true name is ideas." We have already noticed[240] how
+ingeniously Philo deduces the Theory of Ideas from the Biblical
+account of the creation, and associates it with the Hebraic conception
+of the ministerial Wisdom and Word. He, however, gives a new direction
+to the Platonic theory, owing to his Hebraic conception of God. The
+ideas with him are not the thoughts of an impersonal mind, but the
+emanations of a personal, volitional Deity. Keeping close to Jewish
+tradition, he says that they are the words of the Deity speaking. As
+human speech consists of incorporeal ideas, which produce an effect
+upon the minds of others, so the Divine speech is a pattern of
+incorporeal ideas which impress themselves upon a formless void, and
+so create the material world.[241] In this way Philo associates his
+cosmology with his theology. The creative "Ideas" are equated
+collectively with the Supreme Logos,[242] individually with the Logoi
+which represent God's particular activities. Thus the Logos represents
+the whole ideal or noetic world, "the kingdom of Heaven"; and it is in
+this metaphysical sense that the Logos is the first creation, "the
+first-born son of God," prior to the physical universe, which is His
+grandson. The whole universe is thus seen as the orderly manifestation
+of one principle. Philo, expanding a favorite image of the Haggadah,
+illustrates God's creation by the simile of a king founding a city.
+"He gets to him an architect, who first designs in his mind the parts
+of the perfect city, and then, looking continually to his model,
+begins to construct the city of stones and wood. So when God resolved
+to found the world-city, He first brought its form into mind, and
+using this as a model he completed the visible world."[243]
+
+The theory of religious idealism is the centre of Philo's philosophy,
+and provides the basis of his explanation of the material universe.
+Physics, indeed, he considered of small account, because he believed
+there could be no certainty in such speculations.[244] His mind was
+utterly unscientific; but as a religious philosopher he found it
+necessary to give a theory of the creation. Jewish dogma held that the
+world had been called into being out of nothing; the Greek
+philosophers repudiated such an idea, and held that creation must be
+the result of a reasonable process; Aristotle had imagined that matter
+was a separately existent principle with mind, and that the world was
+eternal; and the Stoics held that matter was the substance of all
+things, including the pantheistic power itself:
+
+  "All are but parts of one stupendous whole,
+  Whose body nature is, and God the soul."
+
+Philo impugns both these theories,[245] the one because it denies the
+creative power of God, the other because it confuses the Creator with
+His creation. He looked for a system which should satisfy at once the
+Jewish notion that the world was brought out of nothing by the will of
+God, and the philosophical concept that God is all reality; and he
+found in Plato's idealism a view of the creation which he could
+harmonize with the religious view. Plato declared that the material
+world had been created out of the _Non-Ens_ ([Greek: mê on]) _i.e._,
+that which has no real existence. He conceived space and matter as the
+mere passive receptacle of form, which is nothing till the form has
+given it quality. Though Philo's language is vague, this seems to be
+his view when he is speaking philosophically. It is, perhaps, a slight
+deviation from the earlier religious standpoint of the Jews, which
+looks to a direct and deliberate creation of the world-stuff, rather
+than to the informing of space by spirit, and regards the world as
+separate from God, and not as a manifestation of His being. But the
+more philosophical conception appears likewise in the Wisdom of
+Solomon. "For Thine all-powerful hand that created the world out of
+formless matter," says the author (xi. 17), establishing before Philo
+the compromise between two competing influences in his mind. More
+emphatically Philo rejects the notion of creation in time.[246] Time,
+he says, came into being after God had made the universe, and has no
+meaning for the Divine Ruler, whose life is in the eternal present.
+
+Summing up, we may say that Philo regards the universe as the image of
+the Divine manifestation or evolution in thought produced by His
+beneficent will; and this view is true to the religious standpoint of
+traditional Judaism in spirit if not in letter.
+
+In his conception of the human soul, Philo again harmonizes the simple
+Jewish notion with the developed Greek psychology by means of the
+Platonic idealism. The soul in the Bible is the breath of God; in
+Plato it is an Idea incarnate, represented in "The Timæus" as a
+particle of the Supreme Mind. Philo, following the psychology of his
+age, divides the soul into a higher and a lower part: (1) the Nous;
+(2) the vital functions, which include the senses. He lays all the
+stress upon the former, which gives man his kinship with God and the
+ideal world, while the other part is the necessary result of its
+incarnation in the body. He variously describes the Nous as an
+inseparable fragment of the Divine soul, a Divine breath which God
+inspires into each body, a reflection, an impression, or an image of
+the blessed Logos, sealed with its stamp.[247] Following the Platonic
+conception, Philo occasionally speaks of the Divine soul as having a
+prenatal existence,[248] holding, as the English poet put it, that
+
+  "The soul that rises with us, our life's star,
+    Hath had elsewhere its setting
+  And cometh from afar."
+
+Here, too, he follows an older Jewish-Hellenistic tradition, which
+appears in the Wisdom of Solomon (viii. 19 and 20), where it is
+written: "A good soul fell to my lot. Nay rather, being good, I came
+into a body undefiled." The Nous is in fact the god within, and it
+bears to the microcosm Man the relation which the infinite God bears
+to the macrocosm.[249] Indeed, it is the Logos descended from above,
+but yearning to return to its true abode. Thus Philo sings its Divine
+nature:
+
+     "It is unseen, but sees all things: its essence is unknown,
+     but it comprehends the essence of all things. And by arts
+     and sciences it makes for itself many roads and ways, and
+     traverses sea and land, searching out all things within
+     them. And it soars aloft on wings, and when it has
+     investigated the sky and its changes it is borne upwards
+     towards the æther and the revolutions of the heavens. It
+     follows the stars in their orbits, and passing the sensible
+     it yearns for the intelligible world."
+
+The Nous is the king of the whole organism, the governing and unifying
+power, and hence is often called the man himself. The senses,
+resembling the powers of God, are only the bodyguard, subordinate
+instruments, and inferior modes of the Divine part.[250] So Philo
+explains that all our faculties are derived from the Divine principle,
+and he draws the moral lesson that our true function is to bend them
+all to the Divine service, so as to foster our noblest part. The aim
+of the good man is to bring the god within him into union with the God
+without, and to this end he must avoid the life of the senses,[251]
+which mars the Divine Nous, and may entirely crush it. The Divine
+soul, as it had a life before birth, so also has a life after death;
+for what is Divine cannot perish. Immortality is man's most splendid
+hope. If the Divine Presence fills him with a mystic ecstasy, he has,
+indeed, attained it upon this earth, but this bliss is only for the
+very blessed sage; and he, too, looks forward to the more lasting union
+with the Godhead after this terrestrial life is over.[252] True at
+once to the principles of Platonism and Judaism, Philo admits no
+anthropomorphic conception of Heaven or of Hell. He is convinced that
+there is a life hereafter, and finds in the story of Enoch the
+Biblical symbol thereof,[253] but he does not speculate about the
+nature of the Divine reward. The pious are taken up to God, he says, and
+live forever,[254] communing alone with the Alone.[255] The unrighteous
+souls, Philo sometimes suggests, in accordance with current Pythagorean
+ideas, are reincarnated according to a system of transmigration within
+the human species ([Greek: palengenesia]).[256] Yet the sinner
+suffers his full doom on earth. The true Hades is the life of the
+wicked man who has not repented, exposed to vengeance, with uncleansed
+guilt, obnoxious to every curse.[257] And the Divine punishment is to
+live always dying, to endure death deathless and unending, the death
+of the soul.[258]
+
+The Divine Nous constitutes the true nature of man; Philo, however,
+insists with almost wearisome repetition, that the god within us has
+no power in itself, and depends entirely on the grace and inspiration
+of God without for knowledge, virtue, and happiness.[259] The Stoic
+dogma, that the wise man is perfectly independent and self-contained
+([Greek: autarchês]) appears to him as a wicked blasphemy. "Those
+who make God the indirect, and the mind the direct cause are guilty of
+impiety, for we are the instruments through which particular
+activities are developed, but He who gives the impulse to the powers
+of the body and the soul is the Creator by whom all things are
+moved."[260] All thought-functions, memory, reasoning, intuition, are
+referred directly to Divine inspiration, which is in Platonic
+terminology the illumination of the mind by the ideas. Thus, finally,
+all human activity is referred back to God.
+
+This guiding principle determines Philo's attitude to knowledge,
+involving, as it does, that we only know by Divine inspiration, or, as
+he says, by the immanence of the Logoi.[261] The possibility of
+knowledge was one of the burning questions of the age, and it was the
+failure of the old dogmatic schools to answer it which led to a great
+religious movement in Greek philosophy. How can man attain to true
+knowledge, it was asked, about the universe, seeing that perceptions
+vary with each individual, and of conceptions we have no certain
+standard? The old Hebrew attitude to this question is expressed by the
+verse of the Psalmist: "The heavens are the heavens of the Lord, but
+the earth hath He given to the sons of men" (Psalm cxv), which implies
+that man must not try to penetrate the secrets of the universe. Philo
+is sufficiently a philosopher to desire knowledge about things Divine
+and human, but at the same time he has a complete distrust in the
+powers of human sense and human reason. About the physical universe he
+is frankly a skeptic,[262] but his religious faith leads him to hold
+that God vouchsafes to man some knowledge of Himself and of the proper
+way of life, _i.e._, ethics. "Man knows all things in God."[363] Plato
+similarly had despaired of knowledge of the physical world, and had
+turned to the heavenly ideas as the true object of thought. Moreover,
+in his early period, while his theory was still poetical and mystical,
+he had conceived that knowledge was made possible in the subject, by
+the entrance of "forms," or emanations, from the ideas. This theory
+Philo adapts to his Jewish outlook. Like Plato, he turns away from the
+physical to the ideal world,[264] and he regards the ideas of wisdom,
+virtue, bravery, etc., which are theologically powers of God, as
+continually sending forth Logoi, forms or forces (the angels of
+popular belief), to inform and enlighten our minds. Throughout, God is
+the cause of all knowledge as well as of being, for these effluences
+are but an expression of God's activity. In Philo's theory, object and
+subject are really one. What can be known are the modes or attributes
+of God, which philosophically are "Ideas"; what knows is the emanation
+of the Idea, which God sends into the human soul that is prepared to
+receive it by pious contemplation. "Through the heavenly Wisdom,
+wisdom is seen, for wisdom sees itself." "Through God, God is known,
+for He is His own light."[265]
+
+Thus all knowledge is intuition, and man's function is not so much to
+reason as to lead a life of piety and contemplate the Divine work in
+the hope of being blessed with inspiration. It would be a mistake,
+however, to take Philo's words quite literally. He does not deny the
+need of human effort and striving for knowledge; for the Divine
+influence is not vouchsafed till we have prepared for it and
+consecrated all our faculties to God. But, devout mystic as he is,
+he ascribes every consummation to the direct help of the Deity. "The
+mind is the cause of nothing, but rather the Deity, who is prior to
+mind, generates thought."[266] The Greek philosopher had ascribed the
+final synthesis of knowledge to a superhuman force. Philo ascribes to
+God all the intermediate steps from sense-perception. It may be
+admitted that his passive notion of philosophy involves the
+abandonment of the Greek ideal, the eager searching of Plato after
+truth. He lived in an age in which, through loss of intellectual
+power, man had come to despair of the attainment of knowledge by human
+effort, and to rely entirely upon supernatural means, Divine
+revelations, visions, and the like. It is consistent with his whole
+position that the crown of life is represented, not as an intellectual
+state, but as a superhuman ecstasy of the Nous, wherein it is freed
+not only from the body but from the rest of the soul, and is, so to
+say, led out of itself.[267] He comments on the verse, "And the sun
+went down and a deep sleep fell on Abraham" (Gen. xv. 12). "When the
+Divine light," he says, "shines upon the mortal soul, the mortal light
+sinks, and our reason is driven out at the approach of the Divine
+spirit."[268] This is the Alexandrian interpretation of [Hebrew: shkina]
+and [Hebrew: nboah], and though it is much affected by Greek mystical
+ideas, yet at the same time it is broadly true to the spirit of Jewish
+mysticism, as we see it presented in writers of all ages, and as the
+Psalmist expressed it, "to abide under the shadow of the Almighty."
+
+Philo's ethics, like the rest of his philosophy, exhibits the
+transfusion of Greek ideas with his Hebrew spirit. The Greek
+philosophers had evolved a rational plan of life, while the Jewish
+teachers were impregnated with burning ardor for the living God; and
+Philo brings the two things together, making ethics dependent on
+religion. The Stoics, who were the most powerful school of his day,
+regarded as the ideal of goodness life according to unbending reason
+and in complete independence of God or man. Philo understands God as a
+personal power making for righteousness, and man's excellence,
+accordingly, which is likeness to God, is piety and charity.[269]
+Above all he insists upon Faith ([Greek: pistis]) and he defines
+virtue as a condition of soul which fixes its hopes upon the truly
+Existent God. The Stoics also professed to honor faith or confidence
+above all things, but the virtue which they meant was reliance upon
+man's own powers. Philo's virtue is almost the converse of this. Man
+must feel completely dependent upon God, and his proper attitude is
+humility and resignation. So only can he receive within his soul the
+seed of goodness, and finally the Divine Logos.[270] Yet at the same
+time Philo remains loyal to the Jewish ideal of conduct: faith without
+works is empty, and, as he puts it, "The true-born goods are faith and
+consistency of word and action."[271]
+
+The attainment of the highest excellence demands severe discipline,
+save for those few blessed souls whom God perfects without any effort
+on their part. The rest can only secure self-realization by
+self-renunciation; they must avoid the bodily passions and bodily
+lusts.[272] At times the Divine enthusiasm causes Philo, like many a
+Jewish saint and like his master Plato, to scorn all bodily
+limitations and recommend "insensibility" ([Greek: apatheia])[273]
+by which he means that man should crush his physical desires and
+repress his feelings. Not that the good life seems to him to imply
+absence of pleasure. On the contrary, it is filled with the purest of
+joy, for when man rises to the love of God "in calm of mind, all
+passion spent," then and then alone has he tasted true joyousness. The
+symbol of this bliss is Isaac ([Hebrew: ytshk]), the laughter of the
+soul.
+
+It was noticed in the second chapter that Philo modified his ethical
+ideas during his life. In the earlier period he insists more strongly
+on the need of ascetic self-denial, and has almost a horror of the
+world. Maturer experience, however, taught him that man is made for
+this world, and that a wise use of its goods was a surer path to
+happiness and to God than flight from all temptations. In his later
+writings, therefore, he exhibits a striking moderation. He reproaches
+the ascetics for their "savage enthusiasm,"[274] probably hinting at
+the extreme sects of the Essenes and the Therapeutæ. "Those who follow
+a gentler wisdom seek after God, but at the same time do not despise
+human things."
+
+     "Truth will properly blame those who without discrimination
+     shun all concern with the life of the State, and say that
+     they despise the acquisition of good repute and pleasure.
+     They are only making grand pretensions, and they do not
+     really despise these things. They go about in torn raiment
+     and with solemn visage, and live the life of penury and
+     hardship as a bait, to make people believe that they are
+     lovers of good conduct, temperance, and self-control."[275]
+
+Philo's aphorism, which follows, "Be drunk in a sober manner," is
+characteristic. The Stoic extreme of passionlessness is almost as
+false as the Epicurean hedonism, and the mean between them is the
+ideal Jewish life, in which godliness and humanity are blended.
+
+We have now examined the main divisions of Philo's philosophy, and we
+see that his metaphysics, cosmology, theory of knowledge, and ethics
+are all religious in tone, and all determined in their main lines by
+his Jewish outlook. His Hebraism is a seal which stamps all that
+enters his mind from Greek sources, and the Bible, spiritually
+interpreted, is the canon of all his wisdom.
+
+There remains one minor aspect of his work which must be briefly
+examined, because it has become closely associated with his name. This
+is his number-symbolism, by which he ascribes important powers to
+certain numbers, so that they are regarded as holy themselves and
+sanctifying that to which they are attached. This feature of his
+thought is commonly ascribed to Pythagorean influence, which was
+strong at Alexandria, and, indeed, throughout the world, at this era.
+The exact details of the holiness of four, seven, ten, fifty, etc.,
+Philo may have borrowed from neo-Pythagorean sources, but the general
+tendency was the natural result of his environment and his stage of
+thought. It was a feature of the recurring childishness of ideas and
+the renascence of wonder at common things which is apparent on many
+hands. To have denied the powers of numbers would have seemed as
+absurd and eccentric then as to deny the powers of electricity to-day.
+And in all ages people have been found to regard numbers mystically as
+a link between God and earth, and a means of solving all physical and
+metaphysical problems. The Hebrew intellect, primitive as it was,
+tended particularly to the reverence of the numerical powers. Witness
+the Bible itself, which emphasizes certain numbers; and witness also
+the fifth chapter of the Pirke Abot, with its lists ranged under four,
+seven, and ten, which is only typical of the rabbinical attitude.
+Philo is not original in his views concerning numbers, not above nor
+below the loose thinking of his age. He accepts unquestioningly the
+potency of seven, because of its marvellous mathematical properties,
+ratios, etc., its geometrical efficacy, and because of the seven
+periods of life from infancy to old age, of the seven parts of the
+body, the seven motions, the seven strings of the lyre, the seven
+vowels, and the very name, which is connected with worship ([Greek:
+sebasmos]). All this is trifling and trite, but what is of
+importance is the use which Philo makes of the sentiment. He converts
+it throughout to the support and glorification of Jewish institutions.
+Thus, if a man honors seven, he says, he will devote the Sabbath to
+meditation and philosophy.[276] Further, as seven is the symbol of
+rest and tranquillity, the Sabbath must be a day of perfect rest. Ten
+is magnified so as to honor the Decalogue,[277] fifty so as to honor
+the Feast of Pentecost. So, too, the Pythagoreans' mathematical
+conceptions of God as "the beginning and limit of all things," or,
+again, as the principle of equality, are approved by Philo, "because
+they breed in the soul the fairest and most nourishing fruit--piety."
+In short, Philo's Pythagoreanism only emphasizes his commanding
+purpose--to deepen and recommend the Jewish God-idea and the Jewish
+method of life.
+
+Jewish influences throughout are the determining element of Philo's
+teaching; they are the dynamic forces working upon the Greek matter
+and producing the new Platonism, which constitutes Philo's
+contribution to Greek philosophy. It may, indeed, be said that his
+Hebraism makes Philo anti-philosophical, because he has no desire or
+hope of adding to positive knowledge, but aims only at the calm of the
+individual soul in union with its God. The Platonic Theory of Ideas,
+metaphysical in origin, plays a very important part in his works, but
+it is adapted mystically, and turned from an ideal of the human
+intellect to a support of monotheism and piety. Here Philo is at once
+the leader and the child of his generation; men were no longer
+satisfied with rational systems, but wanted a religious philosophy,
+based upon a transcendental principle and a Divine revelation which
+could give them some certainty and some positive hope in life.
+Doubtless, the strong mystical tendency in Philo destroyed the balance
+between the intuitive and the discursive reason which makes the
+perfect philosopher. In his overpowering passion for God, he distrusts
+overmuch the analytical efforts of the human mind. Nevertheless, his
+acquired Hellenism gives his Jewish conceptions a philosophical
+impress, and this has made him the model of the school of religious
+philosophers. The ministerial "Word" became the "ideal" expression of
+God's mind, the governing reason, the world-soul; the angels were
+spiritualized as a kingdom of Ideas. Piety received an intellectual as
+well as a religious value, and the Mosaic law was raised to a higher
+dignity as an ethical code of universal validity.
+
+A complete harmony between the Hellenic and the Hebraic outlook upon
+life was impossible, but Philo at least accomplished a harmony between
+Hebraic monotheism and Greek metaphysics. He desired to show that
+faith and philosophy were in agreement, and that the imaginative and
+reflective conceptions of God and the Divine government were in
+unison. And he may be considered to have realized his desire in his
+synthesis of Jewish theology and Platonic idealism. He is through and
+through a great interpreter, elucidating points of unity between
+distinct systems of thought. In him the fusion of cultures, which
+began with the Septuagint translation, reached its culmination. It
+reached its zenith and straightway the severance began.
+
+In the next chapter we shall trace Philo's place in Jewish thought;
+here we may glance at his place in the development of Greek
+philosophy. The fusion between Eastern and Western thought, which he
+himself so strikingly illustrates, continued to dominate philosophy
+for the next four hundred years; and Plato, who, with his deep
+religious spirit, had a broad affinity with the Oriental conception of
+the universe, was the supreme philosophical master. All the chief
+teachers looked to him for the intellectual basis of their ideas and
+read into his works their particular religious beliefs; but they
+failed to maintain a true harmony between the two. The cultures of all
+countries and races mingled, even as their peoples mingled under the
+Roman Empire, but they were so combined as to lose the purity and
+individuality of each element. The Eastern Platonists who followed
+Philo brought to their interpretation less noble conceptions of the
+Godhead, the Gnosticism of Syria, the dualism of Persia, the
+impersonal pantheism of India, and the theurgies of Egypt, and
+produced strange hybrids of the human mind. The one point of agreement
+between them is that they conceive the Supreme God as impersonal and
+entirely inactive, "a deified Zero," and endeavor by a system of
+emanation to trace the descent of this baffling principle into man and
+the universe. Philo was as unfortunate in his philosophical as in his
+religious following, who both transformed his poetical metaphors into
+fixed and rigid dogmas. His doctrine of the Logos was, on the one
+hand, the forerunner of the Trinity of the Church, on the other of the
+Trinity of the Alexandrian neo-Platonists. It is difficult, indeed, to
+trace with certainty the connection between Philo and the later school
+of Alexandrian Platonists, but there appears to be at least one clear
+link in the teaching of the Syrian Numenius, who flourished in the
+middle of the second century. To him are attributed the two sayings:
+"Either Plato Philonizes or Philo Platonizes," and "What is Plato but
+the Attic Moses?" Modern scholars have questioned the correctness of
+the reference, but be this as it may, it is certain that Numenius used
+the Bible as evidence of Platonic doctrines. "We should go back," he
+says, in a fragment, "to the actual writings of Plato and call in as
+testimony the ideas of the most cultured races; comparing their holy
+books and laws we should bring in support the harmonious ideas which
+are to be found among the Brahmans and the Jews."[278] Origen tells
+us,[279] moreover, that he often introduced excerpts from the books of
+Moses and the Prophets, and allegorized them with ingenuity. In one of
+the few remains of his writings which have come down to us, we find
+him praising the verse in the first chapter of Genesis, "The spirit of
+God was upon the waters"; because, as Philo had interpreted
+it--following perhaps a rabbinical tradition--water represents the
+primal world-stuff. And elsewhere he mentions the efforts of the
+Egyptian magicians to frustrate the miracles of Moses, following
+Philo's account in his life of the Jewish hero.
+
+The work of Philo helped to spread a knowledge of the Hebrew
+Scriptures far and wide and to give them general authority as a
+philosophical book; but it did not succeed in spreading the pure
+Hebrew monotheism. The exalted Hebrew idea of God was still too
+sublime for the pagan nations, even for their philosophers. The world
+in truth was decaying morally and intellectually, and most of all in
+powers of imagination; and its hunger for God found expression in
+crude and stunted conceptions of His nature. Unable any longer to soar
+to Heaven, it sullied the majesty of the Deity, and divided the
+Godhead in order to bridge the gap. Numenius represents in philosophy
+the Gnostic ideas about God which were widely held by the heretics,
+Jewish and Christian, of the second century. He divides the Godhead
+into two separate powers: (1) the impersonal Being behind all reality,
+free from all activity whatsoever; (2) the Demiurge or active governor
+of the universe, who again is subdivided into a transcendent and an
+immanent power.
+
+The teaching of Plotinus, the most famous of the later Alexandrian
+neo-Platonists, shows a further step in the development of religious
+Platonism. Viewed from its higher side it is an attempt to explain
+everything as the emanation of the One. But philosophy in the third
+century debased itself in order to support the tottering polytheistic
+religion of the pagan world against the modified Hebraic creed,
+Christianity, which was fast demolishing its power. Against the
+Trinity of the Church the philosophers set up a heavenly Trinity of
+so-called reason: the Ineffable One, the Demiurgic Mind, and the World
+Soul; and between this Trinity and man they placed intermediate
+hierarchies of gods, angels, and demons--in fact, the whole fugitive
+army of Greek polytheism thinly disguised. All the vulgar fancies and
+superstitions which Philo had intellectualized, these later Eastern
+Platonists sought to revive and justify by conceptions of physical
+emanation blended of false science and mysticism. They hoped to found
+a universal religion by finding room in one system for the deities of
+all nations!
+
+From Plotinus down to Proclus, neo-Platonism became more
+unintellectual, more insane, more pagan, and, finally, with its vapid
+dreams, it brought the history of Greek philosophy to an inglorious
+close. Its finer teachings, however, deeply affected mediaeval
+philosophy, and not least the Arab-Jewish school. The theory of
+emanations and spiritual hierarchies pervades the writings of Ibn
+Ezra, Ibn Gabirol, and Ibn Daud, and thus indirectly provides a
+connection between the culture of Alexandrian Judaism and the culture
+of Spanish Judaism. The praise of God known as the [Hebrew: ktr mlkot] by
+Ibn Gabirol is a splendid example of the Hebraizing of neo-Platonic
+doctrines, which, though probably quite independent of his teaching,
+recalls constantly the ideas of Philo.
+
+By his place at the head of the neo-Platonic school Philo enters the
+broad stream of the world's philosophical development, but his more
+lasting influence was exercised over the religious philosophy of
+Christianity. He was the direct master of what is known as the
+Patristic school, which sought to combine the intellectual conceptions
+of Plato with the religious ideas of the Gospels. Its most celebrated
+teachers were Clement and Origen, both of Alexandria, who flourished
+in the second century. They resorted largely to allegorical
+interpretation, learning from Philo to trace in the Bible principles
+of universal thought and profound philosophy; but they used his method
+and his lessons to support notions of God and the Logos which were
+alien to his spirit. He had possessed pre-eminently the soaring
+imagination of poetry, which is the crown of the intellectual and of
+the religious mind, and unites them in their highest excellence; but
+they bounded their philosophy within the narrow limits of dogma, and
+thereby destroyed the harmony between Hebraism and Hellenism which he
+had contrived to effect. The controversy of Origen and Celsus began
+again the battle between reason and faith, "which was to destroy for
+centuries the independence of philosophy and to break the continuity
+of civilization." Had Philo really been ploughing the sand, and was an
+agreement between faith and reason, between religion and philosophy,
+impossible? Can the two finest creations of the mind only be combined
+on the terms that one is subordinate, or rather servile, to the other?
+In Judaism, if anywhere, the combination should be possible, for
+Judaism has as its basis an intuitional conception of God, which is in
+harmony with the philosophical conception of the universe, and it has
+little dogma besides. The neo-Platonists and the Church Fathers failed
+to carry on the ideal of Philo, but it was to be expected that among
+his own people, the nation of philosophers, as he had called them, he
+would have found true successors. Yet the use made of his work by the
+Christians compelled his people to regard him as a betrayer of the law
+and to avoid his goal as a treacherous snare. For centuries Greek
+philosophy was banned from Jewish thought, and Philo's works are not
+mentioned by any Jewish writer. Strangers possessed his inheritance,
+and his name alone, "Philo-Judæus," bore witness to his nationality.
+It is an interesting speculation to consider how different might have
+been the history, not only of the Jews, but of the world, if the
+Hellenistic Judaism of Philo had prevailed in the Roman-Greek world
+instead of "the impurer Hellenism of Christianity." When, in the tenth
+century, the leaders of Jewish thought broke the bonds of seclusion,
+and brought anew to the interpretation of their religion the culture
+of the outer world, Greek philosophy became again a powerful
+influence, though it was Aristotle rather than Plato whom they
+studied. The harmonizing spirit of Philo, which may be accounted part
+of the genius of the race, lives on in Saadia, Maimonides, Ibn Ezra,
+Ibn Gabirol, and Judah Halevi. But the difference between him and the
+Arabic school is marked. They do not inherit his whole object, for
+they aimed not at a philosophical Judaism which should be a
+world-religion, but at a philosophical Judaism for the more
+enlightened Jews alone. Philo's work was the culminating point,
+indeed, of a great development in Judaism, produced by the mingling of
+the finest products of human reason and human imagination, but it was
+particularly the expression of his own commanding genius. He lacked a
+true successor, for those who shared his aim did not inherit his
+Jewish outlook, and those who shared his Jewish outlook did not
+inherit his aim. What is characteristic of and peculiar to Philo is
+the combination of the missionary and the philosopher. Living at a
+time when the Jewish genius expanded most brilliantly, and when
+Judaism exercised its greatest influence, he hoped to make his
+religion universal by showing it to be philosophical, and to bring
+about by the aid of Plato the ideal of the prophets.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+PHILO AND JEWISH TRADITION
+
+
+We have seen from time to time how Philo's interpretation of the Bible
+corresponds with Palestinian Jewish tradition; and we must now
+consider more in detail the relations of the two schools of Jewish
+learning. Until the last century it was commonly supposed that no
+close relation existed, and that the Alexandrian and Palestinian
+schools were independent and opposed; Scaliger, the greatest scholar
+of the seventeenth century, wrote[280] that "Philo was more ignorant
+of Hebraic and Aramaic lore than any Gaul or Scythian," and this was
+the opinion generally held. The researches of Freudenthal and
+Siegfried[281] have shown the falsity of these views; and, most
+important of all, Philo refutes them out of his own mouth. He refers
+in many different parts of his works[282] to the tradition and the
+wisdom of his ancestors, he tells us how on the Sabbath the Jews
+studied in their synagogues their special philosophy,[283] and he
+commences his "Life of Moses" by declaring that against the false
+calumnies of Greek writers he will set forth the true account which he
+has learnt from the sacred writings and "from certain elders of his
+race." In support of his statement we have the remark of Eusebius, the
+Christian historian, and our chief ancient authority for Philo's
+work,[284] that he set forth and expounded not only the laws of the
+Bible, but many institutions and opinions of his fathers. Apart from
+these direct references, the numerous points of correspondence between
+Philo's interpretations and those of the Talmud and later Midrash
+would compel us to admit a connection between Alexandria and
+Jerusalem.
+
+The break between the two schools did not show itself till after the
+time of Philo. Up to the first century of the Christian era the rabbis
+encouraged the union of Shem and Japheth--the two good sons of one
+parent--and the stream of ideas flowed quite freely between the
+teachers in Palestine and the Hellenized colony in Egypt.[285] Hence
+the Palestinian Jews, on the one hand, received the first fruits of
+this mingling of cultures, and the Alexandrian Jews, on the other,
+must have inherited the early tradition of the rabbinical interpreters
+embodied in ancient Halakah and Haggadah. By this common heritage,
+rather than by any direct borrowing, it seems more reasonable to
+account for the correspondence in the two Midrashim. It should be
+remembered that until the second century of the common era the mass of
+Jewish tradition was a floating and developing body of opinion not
+consigned to writing or formalized, but handed down by word of mouth
+from teacher to pupil, and preacher to congregation: in this way it
+was diffused throughout the mind of the race, indefinitely and, to
+some extent, unconsciously shaping its thought. The detailed points of
+agreement between Philo and the Talmud and Midrash are not of great
+moment in themselves, but they are the signs of a unity of development
+and the catholicity of Judaism in the East and West. Doubtless the
+development was more national and at the same time more legal in
+Judæa, in Alexandria more Hellenistic and philosophical, but there is
+a common spiritual bond between the two expressions, pious images,
+fancies, similes, interpretations which they share. They are, as it
+were, children of one family, and despite the varying influences of
+environment they maintain a family resemblance. With the Sibylline
+oracles we may compare Daniel and the Psalms of Solomon; with Aristeas
+and his fellow-Apologists, Josephus; with the allegorical commentaries
+of Philo, the Midrashim. Modern scholars have gone far to prove that
+Philo was the expounder of an Hellenic Midrash upon the Bible, in
+which were gathered the thoughts and ideas that had been brought to
+Egypt by the Jewish settlers, modified, no doubt, by Greek influences,
+but still bearing the stamp of their origin. Philo, then, appears in
+the direct line of the tradition which from the time of the Great
+Synagogue was disseminated through two channels, the schools of
+Palestine and the writers of Alexandria. He developed the national
+Jewish theology in a literary form, which made it available for the
+world, but with him the tradition as a Jewish tradition ends; in its
+further Hellenistic development it departed entirely from its original
+principles.
+
+It is natural that the larger number of parallels between Philo and
+the rabbis is to be found in the Haggadic portions of Talmudic
+teaching, for the Haggadah represents the same spirit as underlies
+Philo's work, though in a more peculiarly Jewish form; it is an
+allegory, a play of fancy, a tale that points a moral, or illustrates
+a question. It had, too, largely the same origin, for it gathered
+together the popular discourses given in the synagogue on the
+Sabbaths. Yet the relation of Philo to the other domain of the Talmud,
+the code of life, or the Halakah, is of great interest; for, as we
+have seen,[286] the Alexandrian community had a Sanhedrin of their
+own, of which Philo's brother was the president, and he himself
+probably a member; and in his exposition of the "Specific Laws" he has
+preserved for us the record of certain interpretations of the Jewish
+code, which are illuminating as much by their difference from, as by
+their agreement with, the practices of Palestine. The general aim of
+Philo's exegesis of the law was to show its broad principles of
+justice and humanity rather than to formulate its exact detail. It is
+true, he makes it an offence[287]--unknown to the rabbis--for
+a Jew to be initiated into the Greek mysteries, but usually he is
+concerned to recommend the Halakah to the world rather than expand it
+for his own community. This is shown in his treatment of the civil as
+much as the moral law. The great system of jurisprudence in his day,
+with which every code claiming to have universal value had necessarily
+to challenge comparison, was Roman Law. That part of it which was
+applied throughout the Empire, the _jus gentium_, was regarded as
+"written reason." It is probable that contact with Roman jurisprudence
+had affected the practical interpretations which the Alexandrian
+Sanhedrin put upon the Biblical legislation, and was the cause of some
+of their differences from the Palestinian Halakah. In treating the
+ethical law, Philo's object was to show its agreement with the
+loftiest conceptions of Greek philosophers, and, indeed, its
+profounder truth; in treating the civil law of the Bible, his object
+likewise was to show its agreement with the highest principles of
+jurisprudence and its superiority to pagan codes. If at times he
+supports a greater severity than the Palestinian rabbis eventually
+allowed, that is where greater severity implies a closer relation to
+Roman Law. Thus he has not the horror of capital punishment which the
+Jerusalem Sanhedrin exhibited; he would condemn to death the man who
+commits wilful homicide, whether by his own hand or by poison;[288]
+whereas the other Halakah allows it only in the former case. He who
+commits perjury also is to suffer capital punishment.[289] He adds a
+law which finds no place in the Palestinian tradition, making the
+exposure of children a capital crime.[290] Again, following the text
+of the Biblical law literally (see Deut. xxi. 18), he gives power of
+life and death to parents over their rebellious children, whereas the
+Jewish law demands a trial before a court to make the death sentence
+legal. He approves of the _lex talionis_, "an eye for an eye, a tooth
+for a tooth," agreeing here, indeed, with the opinion of earlier
+rabbis like R. Eliezer (see Baba Kama 84, [Hebrew: 'yn tht 'yn mmsh],
+"the law of eye for eye is to be taken literally"), and disagreeing with
+the later Halakic interpretation, which says that the law of Moses means
+the award of the value of an eye for an eye, etc.
+
+This is one instance among many of Philo's adoption of the older
+tradition, established probably under the Sadducæan predominance,
+which was modified in the rabbinical schools of the first and the
+second century. Paradoxically, in his exposition of the law, Philo
+follows the letter more closely as the expression of justice, while
+the later rabbis often allegorize it in order to support their humaner
+interpretation. Thus, commenting on the passage in Exodus xxii. 3
+about the law of theft, "If the sun be risen upon him, blood shall be
+shed for blood," he, like R. Eliezer, interprets [Hebrew: dbrim kktbm][291]
+_i.e._, literally. "If," he says, "the owner catches the thief before
+sunrise, he may kill him, but after the sun has risen he must bring him
+before the court."[292] This also was the Roman law, but the Halakah
+interprets more artificially: "If it were as clear as sunlight that
+the thief would not have killed the owner, then the owner may not kill
+him." Philo would justify the old law; the rabbis explain it away. On
+the other hand, in his treatment of the law relating to slaves, Philo
+extends the liberality both of the Bible and the Halakah. He declares
+that the slave is to be set free when by his master's violence he loses
+an eye or even a tooth.[293] The Bible and the Talmud direct emancipation
+only where the slave loses a limb; but Philo writes eloquently of the
+humanity of which man is deprived by the loss of sight; and he would
+apparently condemn the master who injured his slave more seriously to the
+full penalties of the ordinary law.[294] Maimonides, in his exposition of
+the law, approves the milder practice,[295] and this suggests that it
+had an old tradition behind it. Beautiful is Philo's stray maxim,
+"Behave to your servants as you pray that God may behave to you. For
+as we hear them, so shall we be heard, and as we regard them, so shall
+we be regarded."[296] In his whole treatment of slavery, Philo shows
+remarkable enlightenment for his age. He objects, indeed, to the
+institution altogether, and he tempers it continually with ideas of
+equality. Thus, following the Halakah, he directs the redemption of a
+slave seven years after his purchase, and he treats the laws of the
+seventh-year rest to the land and of the jubilee as of universal
+validity.
+
+Coming to the more specifically religious laws we find that Philo,
+missionary as he is, prohibits altogether marriage with Gentiles,[297]
+and that though, in the opinion of certain rabbinic teachers, the
+Biblical prohibition extended only to marriage with the Canaanite
+tribes, and unions with other Gentiles were permitted.[298] Philo
+recognizes how dangerous such unions are for the cause which he had so
+dearly at heart, the spreading of Judaism. "Even," says he, "if you
+yourself remain true to your religion through the influence of the
+excellent instruction of your parents, yet there is no small danger
+that your children by such a marriage may be beguiled away by bad
+customs to unlearn the true religion of the one only God."[299]
+Throughout, Philo is true to the mission of Israel in its highest
+sense. That mission is not assimilation, and it is to be brought about
+by no easy method of mixing with the surrounding people. It can be
+effected only by holding up the Torah in its purity as a light to the
+nations, and by offering them examples of life according to the law.
+
+Of the special ordinances for Sabbaths and festivals Philo mentions
+only those consecrated by the Biblical law or ancient tradition, which
+probably were the only ones settled in his day. He lays down the
+prohibition to kindle fire,[300] to make or return deposits, or to
+plead in the law courts on the Sabbath; he speaks of the reading of
+the Haggadah and Hallel on the night of Passover, of the bringing of a
+barley cake during the 'Omer and of the first fruits to the Temple on
+the Feast of Weeks, of the Shofar at New Year, and of the Sukkah, but
+not of the Lulab at Tabernacles. It should be remembered that the
+Halakah was not consolidated till the second or third century, and in
+Philo's time it was in the process of formation by different schools
+of rabbis. But the passage quoted in an earlier chapter, about adding
+to the law, proves his reverence for the oral law.[301]
+
+Though his statement of the civil and religious law is of great
+interest to the student of Halakic development, Philo's work presents
+greater correspondence, on the whole, with the Haggadah, which in a
+primitive way draws philosophical and ethical lessons from the Bible
+narrative. It is a free interpretation of the Scriptures, the
+expression of the individual moralist; it loves to point a moral and
+adorn a tale, and in many cases it is in agreement with the
+Hellenistic school. To take a few typical examples: An early
+interpretation explains the story of the Brazen Serpent, as Philo
+does,[302] to mean that as long as Israel are looking upward to the
+Father in Heaven they will live, but when they cease to do so they
+will die. Another, like him again, finds the motive of the command to
+bore the ear of the slave who will not leave his master at the seventh
+year of redemption, in the principle that men are God's servants, and
+should not voluntarily throw away their precious freedom. So, too, the
+Haggadah agrees in numerous points with Philo's stories about the
+patriarchs.[303] If one were to go through the Midrashic
+interpretations of the Five Books of Moses, he would find in nearly
+every section interpretations reminiscent of Philo. In some cases,
+however, there are striking contrasts in the two commentaries. Thus
+the Midrash[304] tells that the four rivers of Eden symbolize the four
+great nations of the old world; to Philo, they represent the four
+cardinal virtues established by Greek philosophers. The Palestinian
+commentators were prone to see an historical where Philo saw a
+philosophical image.
+
+The question may be asked, Who is the originator and who the borrower
+of the common tradition? And it is a question to which chronology can
+give no certain answer, and for which dates or records have no
+meaning. For the Haggadah was not committed to writing till many
+generations had known its influences, and it was not finally compiled
+till many generations more had handed it down with continuous
+accretions. The Haggadah in fact is part of the permanent spirit of
+the race going back to a hoary past, and stretching down "the echoing
+grooves of time" to the tradition of Judaism in our own day. The
+Hebrew Word means, and the thing is, "what is said": the utterances of
+the inspired teacher, some tale, some happy play of fancy, some moral
+aphorism, some charming allegory which captivated the hearers, and was
+handed down the generations as a precious thought. It is significant
+in this regard that the Haggadah is remarkable for the number of
+foreign words which it contains, Greek, Persian, and Roman terms
+jostling with Hebrew and Aramaic. For while the Halakah was the
+production of the Palestinian and Babylonian schools alone, the
+Haggadah brought together the harvest of all lands; and scraps of
+Greek philosophy found their way to Palestine before the Alexandrian
+school developed its systematic allegory. In the Mishnah, the earliest
+body of Jewish lore which was definitely formulated and written down,
+one section is Haggadic, the passages we know as the "Ethics of the
+Fathers." Now, we cannot place the date of this compilation before the
+first century,[305] and thus it would seem to be contemporary with
+Philo's work, to which it affords numerous parallels. But the great
+mass of the Haggadah, the Pesikta, the Mekilta, and the other
+Midrashim, were all later compilations, some of them as late as the
+fifth and the sixth century. Are we to say, then, that where they
+correspond to Philo they show his influence? At first this would
+appear the natural conclusion.
+
+There is a better test of priority, however, than the date of
+compilation, the test of the thought itself and its expression. And
+judged by this test we see that the Haggadah is the more ancient, the
+primal development of the Hebrew mind. The "Sayings of the Fathers"
+are typical of the finest and most concentrated wisdom of the
+Haggadah, and exhibit thought in its impulsive, unsystematic, gnomic
+expression, neither logical nor illogical, because it knows not logic.
+Beautiful ethical intuitions and profound guesses at theological truth
+abound; anything like a definite system of ethics and theology is not
+to be found, whence it is said, "Do not argue with the Haggadah." Even
+more so is this the case with the bulk of the Midrash. There, pious
+fancy will weave itself around the history and ideals of the people,
+and suddenly one comes across a sage reflection or a philosophical
+utterance. With Philo it is otherwise. Compared with the Greeks he is
+unsystematic, inaccurate, wanting in logic, exuberant in imagination.
+Compared with the rabbis he is a formal and accurate philosopher, an
+exact and scholarly theologian. The floating poetical ideas of the
+Haggadah are woven by him into the fabric of a Jewish philosophy and a
+Jewish theology, and knit together with the rational conceptions of
+Aristotle's "Metaphysics" and Plato's "Timæus." We may say, then,
+almost with certainty, that Philo derives from the early Jewish
+tradition, though at the same time he introduced into that tradition
+many an idea taken from the Greek thinkers, which found its way to the
+later Palestinian schools of Jamnia and Tiberias, and was recast by
+the Hebraic imagination.
+
+Over and over again we find that he adopts some fancy of his ancestors
+and develops it rhetorically and philosophically in his commentary. To
+give many examples or references to examples of this feature of
+Philo's work is not within the scope of this book, but of his
+development of an old Palestinian tradition the following passage may
+serve as a typical instance:
+
+     "There is an old story," he writes, "composed by the sages
+     and handed down by memory from age to age.... They say that,
+     when God had finished the world, he asked one of the angels
+     if aught were wanting on land or in sea, in air or in
+     heaven. The angel answered that all was perfect and
+     complete. One thing only he desired, speech, to praise God's
+     works, or to recount, rather than praise, the exceeding
+     wonderfulness of all things made, even of the smallest and
+     the least. For the due recital of God's works would be their
+     most adequate praise, seeing that they needed no addition of
+     ornament, but possessed in the sincerity of truth the most
+     perfect eulogy. And the Father approved the angel's words,
+     and afterwards appeared the race gifted with the muses and
+     with song. This is the ancient story; and in accord with it,
+     I say that it is God's peculiar work to do good, and the
+     creature's work to give Him thanks."[306]
+
+Now this legend and moral appear in another form in the collection of
+Midrash, the Pirke Rabbi Eliezer, which apparently had ancient sources
+that have disappeared. There it is told: "When the Holy One, blessed
+be He, consulted the Torah as to the completeness of the work of
+creation, she answered him: 'Master of the future world, if there be
+no host, over whom will the King reign, and if there be no creatures
+to praise him, where is the glory of the King?' And the Lord of the
+world was pleased with her answer and forthwith He created man."[307]
+
+The Haggadah is rich also in allegorical speculation, of which there are
+traces in the Biblical books themselves. In the book of Micah, for
+example, we find that the patriarchs are taken as types of certain
+virtues, Abraham of Kindness, [Hebrew: hsd], and Jacob of Truth,
+[Hebrew: 'mt] (vii. 20). And when the ideas of the people expanded
+philosophically in Palestine and in Alexandria, the profounder
+conceptions were attached to Scripture by the device of allegorical
+interpretation, and certain rabbis attributed a higher value to the
+inner than to the literal meaning. Thus Akiba, who wrote an elaborate
+allegorical work upon the Song of Songs,[308] held that the book was the
+most profound in the Bible, and Rabbi Judah similarly regarded the book
+of Job.[309] The Palestinian allegorists took to themselves a wider
+field than the Alexandrian, and looked for the deeper meanings rather in
+the Wisdom Literature than in the Pentateuch, which was to them
+essentially the Book of the Law, and, therefore, not a fit subject for
+Mashal, _i.e._, inner meanings.[310] Hence, their allegorism was more
+natural, more real, and truer to the spirit of that which they
+interpreted. They allegorized when an allegory was invited, whereas
+Philo and his school often forced their philosophical meanings in face
+of the clear purport of the text, and without regard to the Hebrew. In
+the one case allegory was a genuine development, and might have been
+adopted by the original prophet: in the other, it was reconstruction;
+and the artificial un-Hebraic character of the Hellenistic commentary
+was one of the causes of its disappearance from Jewish tradition. While
+the Palestinian allegorists based their continuous philosophical
+interpretation upon the Wisdom Books, they, at the same time, looked for
+secondary meanings wherever opportunity offered, and found lessons in
+letters and teachings in names. An early school of commentators was
+actually known as [Hebrew: dorsh rshomot][311] or interpreters of signs,
+and their method was by examination of the letters of a word, or by
+comparison of different verses, to explore homilies. For instance, the
+verse, "And God showed Moses a tree" (Exod. xvi. 26), by which he
+sweetened the waters at Marah, symbolized, by a play on the word
+[Hebrew: vyvrhu],[312] that God taught Moses the Torah, of which it is
+said, "She is a tree of life" (Prov. iii. 18). Another happy example of
+this method occurs in the sixth section of the Pirke Abot, where the
+names in the itinerary, [Hebrew: mmtna nhlial, vmnhlial bmot] (Numb.
+xxi. 19), are invested with a spiritual meaning. Whoever believes in the
+Torah, it is written, shall be exalted, as it is said, "From the gift of
+the law man attains the heritage of God, and by that heritage he reaches
+Heaven."
+
+In this passage of Palestinian allegorism, it may be noticed that the
+Torah is regarded as a spiritual bond between man and God, and as a
+sort of intermediary power between them. This feature is almost as
+frequent in the Midrash as the Logos-idea in Philo, so that it may be
+said that rabbinic theology finds an idealism in the Torah which
+corresponds to the idealism of the Philonic Word. It is expressed, no
+doubt, naïvely and fancifully, even playfully, without attempt at
+philosophical deductions. It is informed by the same spirit as the
+Alexandrian allegory, but it is essentially poetical and impulsive,
+and set forth in mythical personification, not in deliberate
+metaphysics. The Torah to the rabbis was the embodiment of the Wisdom
+which the writer of Proverbs had glorified, and it takes its
+prerogatives. God gazes upon the Torah before He creates the
+world.[313] The Torah, though the chief, is not, however, the only
+object of rabbinic idealism. God and His name, it is said, alone
+existed before the world was created,[314] and in a Talmud legend
+relating the birth of man, the ideal power is identified with Truth,
+which, like the Logos, is pictured as God's own seal.
+
+  "From Heaven to Earth, from Earth once more to Heaven
+  Shall Truth, with constant interchange, alight
+  And soar again, an everlasting link
+  Between the world and Sky."
+
+  (Translation of Emma Lazarus.)[315]
+
+Correspondingly, Philo identifies the Logos with the name of God and
+with Truth.
+
+Of another piece of Talmudic idealism we catch a trace in Maimonides'
+"Guide of the Perplexed,"[316] where he says that the rabbis explained
+the designation of God, [Hebrew: lrubb b'rbot] [rendered in the authorized
+version, "He who rideth on the heavens" (Ps. lxviii. 4)], to mean that
+He dwelt in the highest sphere of heaven amid the eternal ideas of
+Justice and Virtue, as it is said: "Justice and Righteousness are the
+base of Thy throne" (Ps. lxxxix. 15). These fancies and
+interpretations indicate that in Palestine as well as in Alexandria an
+idealistic theology and a religious metaphysics were developing at
+this period, though in the East it was more imaginative, more Hebraic,
+more in the spirit of the old prophets.
+
+The more serious metaphysical and theological speculation of the
+rabbis was embodied in the doctrine of the "Creation," and the
+"Chariot," [Hebrew: m'sha br'shit] and [Hebrew: m'sha mrkba], which in
+form were commentaries on the early chapters of Genesis and the visions
+of Ezekiel. They were reserved for the wisest and most learned, for the
+rabbis had always a fear of introducing the student to philosophy until
+his knowledge of the law was well established. They held, with Plato, that
+metaphysical speculation must be the crown of knowledge, and if treated as
+its foundation, before the necessary discipline had been obtained, it
+would produce all sorts of wild ideas. Judaism for them was primarily
+not a philosophical doctrine but a system of life. The Hellenistic
+school was so far false to their standpoint that it laid stress for
+the ordinary believer upon the philosophical meaning as well as upon
+the law. And as events proved, this led to the neglect of the law and
+the dogmatic establishment of speculative theories as the basis of a
+new religion. Doubtless the consciousness that the philosophical
+development led away from Judaism increased the distrust of the later
+rabbis for such speculation, and made them regard esoteric as a milder
+term for heretical; but the warning is already given in Ben Sira: "It
+is not needful for thee to see the secret things."[317] The Talmud,
+indeed, records certain ideas about the powers of God and His relation
+to the universe in the names of the great masters; and in these ideas
+there are striking resemblances to Philo's conceptions. The Word is
+spoken of as an intermediate agency;[318] the finger of God is really
+the Word; the angels are sprung from the Words of God: Ben Zoma
+declared that the whole work of creation was carried out by the Word,
+as it is written, "And God said."[319] But on the other hand there are
+passages in which the rabbis oppose the Alexandrian attitude, and
+point out in its excessive philosophizing a danger to Judaism, so that
+in the end they exclude it. Rabbi Ishmael, we are told, warned his
+pupils of the danger of Greek wisdom.[320] Akiba, living at a time
+when the Jews were fighting for spiritual as well as for physical life
+against the combined forces of the Greeks and Romans, proposed to ban
+all the [Hebrew: sfrim hitsonim],[321] and the Gemara argues that among
+these were included the Apocryphal works which showed Greek influence.
+Again, Elisha ben Abuya, the arch-heretic, is held up to reproach because
+he read [Hebrew: sfri minim],[322] under which title Greek Gnostic books
+are probably implied.
+
+At the time when this spirit shows itself, the appearance of heretical
+offshoots from Judaism was already pronounced. Heresy was the
+aftermath of the combination of Judaism and Hellenism, and if further
+disintegration was to be avoided, the seductive Greek influence had to
+be discouraged. There is always the danger in a mingling of two
+cultures, that each will lose its particular excellence in a compound
+which has certain qualities, but not the virtues, of either element.
+Compromises may be desirable in political affairs; in affairs of
+thought they are perilous. Down to the time of Philo, the fusion of
+thought at Alexandria had been beneficial, and had broadened the
+Jewish outlook without impairing its strength, but the dissolving
+forces of civilization never operated more powerfully than in the
+early centuries of the common era, when the intellect of the world was
+jaded and weary, and the great movement in culture was a jumbling
+together of the ideas of East and West. More especially in the
+cosmopolitan towns, Alexandria, Antioch, and Rome, national life,
+national culture, and national religion were undermined; and even the
+Jew, despite the stronghold of his law and tradition, was caught in
+the general vortex of mingling creeds and theologies. Out of this
+confusion (which was in one aspect a continuation of the work of
+Philo) emerged, first, fantastic Gnostic religious and philosophical
+sects, and, finally, the Christian Church, which proved the system
+best fitted to survive in the circumstances, but was in essence as
+well as in origin a blending of different outlooks, and true to the
+cardinal points of neither Hebraism nor Hellenism. The rabbis, with
+remarkable intuition, saw that the Hellenistic development of Judaism,
+which had vainly striven to make Judaism universal, had ended in
+violating its monotheism and abrogating its law; and in that era of
+disintegration, denationalization, and decomposition they determined
+to keep their heritage pure and inviolate. Judaism by their efforts
+was the only national culture which survived, and some sacrifice had
+to be made to secure this end. The literary monuments of the
+Alexandrian community from the Septuagint translation to the
+philosophy of the Christian scholarchs were cut out of Jewish
+tradition, and the Babylonian school was ignorant altogether of the
+[Hebrew: hkma yonit] (Greek wisdom). When Ben Zoma desired to study the
+[Hebrew: sfrim hitsonim], and asked of his teacher at what hour of the
+day it was lawful to do so, he received the reply that it was permissible
+at an hour which was neither day nor night; for the precept was to study
+the Torah by day and night, as it is said, [Hebrew: ] (Josh. i. 8). Bar
+Kappara, indeed, a rabbi of the third century, explained Genesis ix. 27,
+"God shall enlarge Japheth and he shall dwell in the tents of Shem," to
+mean that the words of the Torah shall be recited in the speech of
+Japheth (_i.e._, Greek) in the synagogues and schools,[323] but by
+most other teachers the union between Shem and Japheth was no longer
+encouraged, because Japheth had become degraded and was allied with
+the cruel children of Edom (Rome).
+
+Besides the Talmud and the Midrash we have, in the work of Josephus,
+another indication that there was in Philo's own day communication
+between Alexandria and Palestine. The Jewish historian marks the
+influence of Hellenic ideas in Palestine in fullest measure, and like
+Philo he seeks by embellishment to recommend the histories and
+Scriptures of his people to the non-Jew and to bring home their
+thought to the cultured Roman-Greek world. Thus, in the preface to his
+"Antiquities," he notes, as Philo noted in his commentary, that Moses
+begins his laws with a philosophical cosmology; he says also that
+Moses spoke some things under a fitting allegory, hiding beneath it a
+very remarkable philosophical theory. The allegorical commentary which
+Josephus declared that he intended to write has not--if it was
+written--come down to us, but we have in his writings certain
+allegorical valuations of names that agree directly with Philo. Abel
+he explains as signifying mourning, Cain, [Hebrew: kin], as selfish
+possession. In the priestly garments of Aaron he sees with Philo a
+symbol of the universe, which the high priest supported when he
+entered the Holy of Holies. And the ritual vessels of the tabernacle
+have also their universal significance.
+
+     "If," says the Palestinian Hellenist, "any man do but
+     consider the fabric of the tabernacle and regard the
+     vestments of the high priest, he will find that our
+     legislator was a Divine man, and that we are unjustly
+     reproached by those who attack us for tribal narrowness. For
+     if he look upon these things without prejudice, he will find
+     that each one was made by way of imitation and
+     representation of the universe. When Moses ordered twelve
+     loaves to be set on the table, he denoted the years as
+     distinguished into so many months. By branching out the
+     candlestick into seven parts, he intimated the seven
+     divisions of the planets.... The vestments of the high
+     priest, being made of linen, signified the earth, the blue
+     color thereof denoted the sky, the pomegranates symbolized
+     lightning, and the noise of the bells resembled thunder. And
+     the fashion of the ephod showed that God had made the world
+     of four elements."[324]
+
+Let us now listen now to Philo: "The raiment of the priest is
+altogether a representation and imitation of the universe, and its
+parts are the parts of the other. His tunic is all of blue linen, the
+symbol of the sky. [The rabbis had a similar fancy of the Tsitsith
+(fringes).] And the flowers embroidered thereon mark the earth, from
+which all things flower. And the pomegranates are a symbol of the
+water, being skilfully called thus ([Greek: rhoischoi], _i.e._,
+flowing fruit) because of their juice, and the bells are the symbols
+of the harmony of all the elements."[325]
+
+It is true that the symbolism of two allegorists is varied, but a
+common spirit and aim underlie their interpretations. This is true
+alike of their account of the ritualistic and civil law of Moses.
+Either, then, there was a common source of Jewish apologetic
+literature, or Josephus must have borrowed from Philo. It is
+significant that he is the only contemporary of Philo that mentions
+him. He speaks of him as a distinguished philosopher, the brother of
+the alabarch, and the leader of the embassy to Gaius.[326] He knows
+also of the anti-Semitic diatribes of Philo's great enemy Apion, and
+two of his extant books are masterly reply to their outpourings. Hence
+it is not rash to assume that he knew at least that part of Philo's
+work which had a missionary and apologetic purpose--the "Life of
+Moses" and the "Hypothetica." He makes no acknowledgment to them, it
+is true, but expressions of obligation were not in the fashion of the
+time. Plagiarism was held to be no crime, and citation of authorities
+in notes or elsewhere was almost unknown in literature--save in the
+Talmud,[327] where to tell something in the name of somebody else is a
+virtue. But one can hardly doubt that the man who devoted himself to
+refuting the lying calumnies of Apion first made himself master of the
+classical work of Apion's opponent, which claimed to give to the Greek
+world the authoritative account of the Jewish lawgiver and his
+legislation.
+
+What Josephus knew must have been known to other cultured Jews of
+Palestine. Yet Philo, save in one doubtful case which will be noticed,
+is not mentioned by any Jewish writer between Josephus in the first
+and Azariah dei Rossi in the sixteenth century. The compilers of the
+Midrashim and the Yalkut, the philosophers of the Dark and Middle
+Ages, finally the Cabbalists, are continually reminiscent of his
+doctrines, but they do not mention his works or his existence. The
+Midrash Tadshé,[328] a tenth century compilation of allegorical
+exegesis, contains definite parallels to Philonic passages, especially
+in its quotations from an Essene Tannaite, Pin[h.]as ben Jaïr; but
+again the trace of influence is indirect. On the other hand, the
+Christian writers from the time of Clement in the second century quote
+him freely, make anthologies of his beautiful sayings, and in their
+more imaginative moments acclaim him the comrade of Mark and the
+friend of Peter. The rise of the Christian Church, which coincided
+with the downfall of the nation, caused the rabbis to emphasize the
+national character of Judaism in order to preserve the old faith of
+their fathers in the critical condition in which exile, persecution,
+and assimilation placed it. The first century was a time of feverish
+dreams and wild hopes that were not realizable: men had looked for the
+coming of the days of universal peace and good-will, and the
+Alexandrian Jews in particular hoped for the spreading of Judaism over
+the world. The rabbis recognized that this consummation was far away,
+and that Judaism must remain particularist for centuries in the hope
+of a final universalism. Meantime it must hold fast to the law and, in
+default of a national home, strengthen the national religious life in
+each Jewish household. They regarded Greek as not only a strange but a
+hostile tongue, and the allegorical exegesis of the Bible, which had
+led to the whittling away of the law, as a godless wisdom. The
+Septuagint translation, which had offered a starting point for
+philosophical speculation, was replaced by a new Greek version of the
+Old Testament made by Aquila, a proselyte, in the first century. It
+gave a baldly literal translation of the Hebrew text, sacrificing form
+and even lucidity to a faithful transcript. With unconscious irony the
+rabbis, who rejoiced in its truth to the Hebrew, said of Aquila, "Thou
+art fairer than the children of men, grace is poured into thy
+lips"[329] (Ps. xlv). In truth the work was utterly innocent of
+literary grace. A translation of the Bible marked the end, as it had
+marked the beginning, of Jewish-Hellenistic literature, but if the
+first had suggested the admission, so the other suggested the
+rejection of Greek philosophy from the interpretation of Judaism and a
+return to the exclusive national standpoint. The rabbinical
+appreciation of Aquila's work shows that, while the Jews were in
+Palestine, many still required a Greek translation of the Bible; but
+when in the third century C.E. the centre of the religion was moved to
+Babylon, Greek was forgotten, and the rabbis for a period lost sight
+of Greek culture. It is another irony of history that our manuscripts
+of Philo go back to an archetype in the library of Cæsarea in
+Palestine, which Eusebius studied in the fourth century. Philo came to
+the land of his fathers in the possession of his people's enemies, and
+at a time when he could no longer be understood by his people.
+
+Philo's works were not translated into Hebrew, and as Greek ceased to
+be the language of the cultured, they could not, in their original
+form, have influenced later Jewish philosophers. But the Christians,
+in their proselytizing activity, had translated them into Latin and
+Armenian before the fifth century, and through one of these means they
+may possibly have exercised an influence upon the new school of Jewish
+philosophy, which, opening with Saadia in the tenth century, blossomed
+forth in the Arabic-Spanish epoch. The light of historical research is
+beginning to illumine the obscurity of the Dark Ages, and has revealed
+traces of an Alexandrian allegorist in the writings of the Persian Jew
+Benjamin al-Nehawendi, himself a distinguished allegorizer of the
+Bible, who wrote in the ninth century and taught that God created the
+world by means of one ministerial angel.[330] Benjamin relates that
+the doctrine was held by a Jewish sect known as the Maghariya, which
+probably sprang up in the fourth or the fifth century, when sects grew
+like mushrooms. The Karaite al-Kirkisani, who wrote fifty years later,
+says that the Maghariya sect used in support of their doctrine the
+"prolegomena of an Alexandrian sage" who gave certain remarkable
+interpretations of the Bible; and in one of Dr. Schechter's Genizah
+fragments, which is probably to be ascribed to Kirkisani, there are
+contained examples of the Alexandrian's explanations of the Decalogue,
+which occur, and occur only, in Philo's treatise on the "Ten
+Commandments."
+
+This connection between Philo and an obscure Jewish sect, or an
+obscurer Persian-Jewish writer, may appear far-fetched and not worth
+the making. In itself doubtless it is unimportant, but it serves to
+keep Philo, however barely, within Jewish tradition. For it shows that
+Alexandrian literature, though probably through the medium of a
+Mohammedan source, was known to some Jews in the centuries of
+transition. It may be that further examination of the great Genizah
+collection, which has opened to Jewish scholarship a new world, will
+reveal further and stronger ties to unite Philo with his philosophical
+successors, of whom the first is Saadia Gaon (892-942 C.E.). Indeed
+the main interest of this newly-discovered connection, if it can be
+seriously so regarded, is that it suggests the possibility of Saadia's
+acquaintance with Philo by means of a translation. That Saadia read
+the works upon which Christian theologians relied, is certain; and a
+fragment in which he refers to the teaching of Judah the
+Alexandrian[331]--also unearthed from the Cairo Genizah--goes some way
+to support the suggestion. The passage refers to the connection of the
+number "fifty" with the different seasons of the year, and though it
+does not tally exactly with any piece of the extant Philo, it is in
+the Philonic manner. And Philo, who was surnamed Judæus by the Church,
+would have been re-named by his own people, translating from the
+Church writers, [Hebrew: yhuda]. One would the more willingly catch on to
+this floating straw, because Saadia was at once a compatriot of Philo,
+born in the Fayyum of Egypt, and the first Jew who strove to carry on
+his work. He aimed at showing the philosophy of the Torah, and its
+harmony with Greek wisdom in particular. Aristotle, who had been
+translated into Arabic, had meantime supplanted Plato as the master of
+philosophy for theologians, and Saadia's _magnum opus_, [Hebrew: amonot
+tsd'ot], is colored throughout by Aristotelian ideas. But the difference
+of masters does not obscure the likeness of aim, and, albeit
+unconsciously, Saadia renews the task of the Hellenic-Jewish school.
+
+Saadia's work was carried on and expanded in a great outburst of the
+Jewish genius, which showed itself most brilliantly in the
+Moorish-Spanish kingdom. The general cultural conditions of Alexandria
+in the first century B.C.E. were reproduced in Spain in the tenth
+century. Once again the Jews found themselves politically emancipated
+amid a sympathetic environment, and again they illumined their
+religious tradition with all the culture which their environment could
+afford. The mingling of thought gave birth to a great literature, both
+creative and critical; to a striking body of lyric poetry; to a
+systematic theology, and a religious philosophy.
+
+While the study of the old Talmudic lore was maintained, the greatest
+teachers developed tradition afresh by a philosophical restatement
+designed to make it appeal to the mental attitude of the enlightened.
+The sermon flourished again, collections of Haggadah (Yalkut) were
+made as storehouses of homilies, and metaphysical treatises modelled
+upon the works of the schoolmen set forth a philosophical Judaism for
+the learned world. It is notable also that these last were not written
+in Hebrew or in the Talmudic dialect, but in Arabic, the language of
+their cultured environment; for though the missionary spirit was dead,
+the controversial activity of the period impelled the Jewish
+philosophers to present their ideas in the form used by the
+philosophers of the general community.
+
+It is not only the general conditions of the Arab-Jewish period, but
+also the special development of Jewish ideas, which recalls the work
+of the Alexandrian school. This was, indeed, to be expected, seeing
+that in both cases there was a mingling of Hebraism and Hellenism. In
+Spain, however, the Jews acquired Hellenism at second hand, and
+through the somewhat distorted medium of Arabic translations or
+scholastic misunderstanding, and hence the harmony is neither complete
+nor pure. They endeavored to show that the teachings of Aristotle are
+implicit in the written and the oral law, but the interpretation is
+hardly convincing even in "The Guide of the Perplexed," of Maimonides,
+the monumental work which marks the culmination of mediæval Jewish
+philosophy.
+
+If there is one figure in Jewish tradition with whom Philo challenges
+at once comparison and contrast, it is Maimonides, the brightest star
+of the Arabic, as he was of the Hellenic, development of the Jewish
+religion. Though there is nothing on which to found any direct
+influence of the one on the other, the aim, the method, the scope of
+their philosophical work are the same, the relation which they hold to
+exist between faith and philosophy wellnigh identical. The metaphysics
+of the Bible, according to both, is hidden beneath an allegory, and
+is meant only for the more learned of the people. To Maimonides the
+Bible is not only the standard of all wisdom, but it is "the Divine
+anticipation of human discovery." In the words of Hosea, God has
+therein "multiplied visions and spoken in similitudes" (xii. 11). The
+duty of the Jewish philosopher is to expound these metaphors and
+similes; and Maimonides, endeavoring to knit Greek metaphysics closely
+with Jewish tradition, propounds a science of allegorical values,
+which by exact philological study traces the inner as well as the
+outer meaning of the Hebrew words. But differentiated as it is by
+greater mastery of the tradition and closer adherence to the Hebrew
+text, his method is nearly as artificial and his thought as extraneous
+to the text as the method and thought of Philo. The content of their
+philosophies is, indeed, strikingly alike, save that the one is a
+Platonist, the other an Aristotelian. This involves not so much a
+difference of philosophical views as a difference of temper and of
+objective. The followers of Plato are mystics, yearning for the love
+of God; the followers of Aristotle are rationalists, seeking for the
+abstract knowledge of God. Hence in Maimonides there is less soaring
+and more argument than in Philo. Everything is deduced, so far as may
+be, with exactitude and logical sequence--according to the logic of
+the schoolmen--and everything is formalized according to scholastic
+principles. But the subjects treated are the same--the nature of God
+and His attributes, His relation to the universe and man, the manner
+of the creation, and the way of righteousness.
+
+Maimonides, who is in form more loyal to Jewish tradition, is to a
+larger degree than Philo dependent on authority for the philosophical
+ideas which he applies to religion. To a great extent this is due to
+the spirit of his age, for in the Middle Ages not only was the matter
+of thought, but also its form, accepted on authority, and Aristotle
+ruled the one as imperiously as the Bible ruled the other. The
+differences of form and substance do not, however, obscure the
+essential likeness with Philo's interpretation of Judaism. With him
+Maimonides holds that the essential nature of God is incognizable.[332]
+No positive predication can properly be applied to Him, but we know
+Him by His activities in relation to man and the world, _i.e._, by His
+attributes or by what Philo called His powers. Maimonides does not
+preserve the absolute monarchy of the Divine government, but places
+between God and man intermediate beings with subordinate creative
+powers--the separate intelligences of the stars, which are identified
+with the angels of the Bible.[333] But he maintains inviolate the sole
+causality of God and His immanence in the human soul. Maimonides, like
+Philo, gives in addition to a metaphysical theology a philosophical
+exposition of the law of Moses, which has the same guiding principle
+as the books on the "Specific Laws." Moses was the perfect
+legislator,[334] whose ordinances are [Hebrew: tsdikim], _i.e._, perfectly
+equitable, attaining "the mean"--the Aristotelian conception of
+excellence--and identical with the eternal laws of nature.[335]
+Numerous details of Maimonides' interpretations agree with those given
+in the books on the "Specific Laws." Whether correspondence of thought
+is merely an indication of the similar workings of Jewish genius in
+similar conditions, or whether it is the effect of an early tradition
+common to both, or whether, finally, there was connection, however
+indirect, between the two minds, it is now impossible to say. But at
+least the philosophy of Maimonides confirms the inner Jewishness of
+the philosophy of Philo, and its essential loyalty to Jewish
+tradition.
+
+Not less striking than his correspondence with later Jewish religious
+philosophy, though not less indefinite, is the relation of Philo to
+the later Jewish mystical and theosophical literature, purporting also
+to be a development of hoary tradition, and indeed calling itself
+simply the tradition, [Hebrew: kbla]. Between Philo and the Cabbalah it is
+as difficult to establish any direct connection as between Philo and
+rabbinic Midrash, but the likeness in spirit and the signs of a common
+source are equally remarkable. To trace God in all things through
+various attributes and emanations, to bring God and man into direct
+union, to prove that there is an immanent God within the soul of the
+individual, and to show how this may be inspired with the
+transcendental Deity--this is common to both. In the earliest times
+the mystic doctrine appears to have been a form of Jewish Gnosticism,
+speculation about the nature of God and His connection with the world.
+It probably embraced the [Hebrew: m'sha br'shit] and the [Hebrew: m'sha
+mrkba], though we know not what these exactly contained.[336] But it was
+not till the Middle Ages that Jewish mysticism received definite and
+separate literary expression, and by that time it was mixed up with a
+number of neo-Platonic and magical fancies and foreign theosophies. The
+later compilations of this character form what is more regularly known
+as the Cabbalah; but, apart from the professions of the later writers,
+a continuous train of tradition affirms the existence of secret
+teachings in Judaism from the time of the Babylonian captivity. Jewish
+mysticism is as much a continuous expression of the spirit of the race
+as the Jewish law. We may then without rashness conclude that the
+later Cabbalah is a coarser development, for a less enlightened and
+less philosophical age, of the Gnostic material which Philo
+refashioned in the light of Platonism for the Hellenized community at
+Alexandria. Modern scholars have favored the idea that the Essenes
+were the first systematizers of and the first practitioners in the
+Cabbalah, and have interpreted their name[337] to mean those engaged
+in secret things, but the mystic tradition itself is earlier than the
+foundation of a special mystic sect. It is part of the heritage from
+the Jewish prophets and psalmists and the Babylonian interaction with
+Hebraism.
+
+Philo had large sympathies with the Essenic development of Judaism, and
+he speaks at times as though he had joined one of their communities, and
+therein had been initiated into the great mysteries and secret
+philosophies of the sages. We have noted that he offers his most
+precious wisdom to the worthy few alone, "who in all humility practice
+genuine piety, free from all false pretence." They, in turn, are to
+discourse on these doctrines only to other members of the brotherhood.
+"I bid ye, initiated brethren, who listen with chastened ears, receive
+these truly sacred mysteries in your inmost souls, and reveal them not
+to one of the uninitiated, but laying them up in your hearts, guard them
+as a most excellent treasure in which the noblest of possessions is
+stored, the knowledge, namely, of the First Cause and of virtue, and
+moreover of what they generate."[338] These mysteries, it is not
+unlikely, represent according to some scholars the [Hebrew: sod] of the
+Talmudical rabbis, which was elaborately developed in the Zohar and
+kindred writings. Be this as it may, Philo's religious intensity
+expresses the spirit of the Cabbalists, his mystic soaring is the
+prototype of their theosophical ecstasies; his persistent declaration
+that God encloses the universe, but is Himself not enclosed by anything,
+contains the root of their conception of the En Sof ([Hebrew: 'yn
+sof]),[339] his Logos-idealism, with its Divine effluences, which are
+the true causes of all changes, physical and mental, is companion to
+their system of [Hebrew: 'olmim] and [Hebrew: sfirot], emanations and
+spheres. His fancies about sex and the struggle between a male and
+female principle in all things[340] are a constant theme of their
+teachers, and form a special section of their wisdom, [Hebrew: sof
+htsrog], the mystery of generation. His conception of the Logos as the
+heavenly archetype of the human race, the "Man-himself," is the Platonic
+counterpart of their [Hebrew: adm kdmon], or "primal man," who is known
+in the ancient allegorizing of the Song of Songs. His number-mysticism
+and his speech-idealism reappear more crudely, but not obscurely, in
+their ideas of creative letters, of which the cosmogony by the
+twenty-two letters of the Hebrew alphabet in the Sefer Yezirah is
+typical. Finally, his teachings of ecstasy and Divine possession are
+repeated in divers ways in their descriptions of the pious life
+([Hebrew: hnanot]).
+
+Philo, indeed, viewed from the Jewish standpoint, is the Hellenizer
+not only of the law but also of the Cabbalah, the philosophical
+adapter of the secret traditional wisdom of his ancestors. He brings
+it into close relation with Platonism and purifies it; he clears away
+its anthropomorphisms and superstitious fantasies, or rather he raises
+them into idealistic conceptions and sublime exaltations of the soul.
+By his deep knowledge of the intellectual ideas of Greece he refined
+the strange compound of lofty imagination and popular fancy, and
+raised it to a higher value. Plato and the Cabbalah represent the same
+mystic spirit in different degrees of intellectual sublimity and
+religious aspiration; Philo endeavored to unite the two
+manifestations. He lived in a markedly non-rational age given over to
+mystical speculation; and Alexandria especially, by her cosmopolitan
+character, "furnished the soil and seed which formed the mystic
+philosophy that knew how to blend the wisdom and folly of the
+ages."[341] Through the mass of apocalyptic literature that was poured
+forth in the first centuries of the common era, through the later
+books of the Apocrypha, through the Sefer Yezirah of the ninth and the
+Zohar of the thirteenth century, and through the vast literature
+inspired by these books, run the ideas that composed Philo's mystic
+theology. Philo himself was unknown, but his religious interpretation
+of Platonism had entered into the world's thought, and inspired the
+mystics of his own race as well as of the Christian world.
+
+After a thousand years of Latin domination the Renaissance revived the
+study of Greek in Western Europe, and to the most cultured of his race
+Philo was no longer a sealed book. The first Jewish writer to show an
+intimate acquaintance with him and a clear idea of his relation to
+Jewish tradition was Azariah dei Rossi, who lived in the sixteenth
+century. His "Meor Einayim" dealt largely with the Hellenistic epoch
+of Judaism, and its attitude towards it is summed up in the remark
+that "all that is good in Philo agrees with our law."[342] He pointed
+out many instances of agreement, and some of disagreement, but he
+objected in general to the allegorizing of the historical parts of the
+Torah and to the absence of the traditional interpretations in Philo's
+commentaries. He shared largely the rabbinical attitude and could not
+give an independent historical appreciation of Philo's work. That was
+not to come for two hundred years more. To Dei Rossi we owe the Jewish
+translation of Philo's name, [Hebrew: ydydim 'lksndri].[343] To the outer
+world Philo was "the Jew"; to his own people, "the Alexandrian."
+
+As soon as Greek was reintroduced into the scholarly world, Philo
+began to reassert an important influence on theology. One remarkable
+school of English mystics and religious philosophers, the Cambridge
+Platonists, who wrote during the seventeenth century, founded upon him
+their method and also their general attitude to philosophy.[344] They
+were Christian neo-Platonists, who looked for spiritual allegories in
+the Old and New Testaments, and combined the teachings of Jesus with
+the emotional idealism of the Alexandrian interpreters of Plato. They
+affirmed enthusiastically God's revelation to the universe and to
+individual man through the Logos. Their imitation of Philo's
+allegorism serves to mark the important place that he occupied in the
+learned world during the seventeenth century; and supports, however
+slightly, the suggestion that he influenced, directly or indirectly,
+the supreme Jewish philosopher of the age, Baruch de Spinoza. That he
+was well known in Holland at the time is shown in divers ways. He is
+quoted by the famous jurist Grotius in his book which founded the
+science of international law; he is quoted and criticised, as we have
+seen, by Scaliger; and curiously enough, his name, "Philo-Judæus," is
+applied by Rembrandt to the portrait of his own father, now in the
+Ferdinandeum at Innsbruck. It is tempting to conjecture that there was
+a direct connection between the Jewish philosophers of the ancient and
+the modern world. Whether it existed or not, there is certainly
+kinship in their ideas. Spinoza does actually refer in one place, in
+his "Theologico-Political Tractate" (ch. x), to the opinion of
+Philo-Judæus upon the date of Psalm lxxxviii, and there are other
+places in the same book, where he almost echoes the words of the
+Jewish Platonist; as where he speaks of God's eternal Word being
+divinely inscribed in the human mind: "And this is the true original
+of God's covenant, stamped with His own seal, namely, the idea of
+Himself, as it were, with the image of His Godhead" (iv); or, again,
+"The supreme reward for keeping God's Word is that Word itself."
+Spinoza knew no Greek, but, master as he was of Christian theology, he
+may have studied Philo in a Latin translation, and caught some of his
+phrases. With or without influence, he developed, as Philo had done, a
+system of philosophy, starting from the Hebrew conception of God and
+blending Jewish tradition with scientific metaphysics. The Unity of
+God and His sole reality were the fundamental principles of his
+thought, as they had been of Philo's. He rejected, indeed, with scorn
+the notion that all philosophy must be deduced from the Bible, which
+was to him a book of moral and religious worth, but free from all
+philosophical doctrine. Theology, the subject of the Bible, according
+to him, demands perfect obedience, philosophy perfect knowledge.[345]
+Both alike are saving, but the spheres of the two are distinct: and
+Moses and the prophets excel in law and imagination, not in reason and
+reflection. Hence Spinoza approached the Bible from the critical
+standpoint; and, on the other hand, he approached philosophy with a
+free mind searching for truth, independent of religious dogmatism, and
+he was, therefore, the founder of modern philosophy. None the less his
+view of the universe is an intellectual expression of the Hebraic
+monotheism, which unites a religious with a scientific monism. He
+regards God as the only reality, sees and knows all things in Him, and
+deduces all things from His attributes, which are the incomplete
+representations that man makes of His true nature; he explains all
+thought, all movement, and all that seems material as the working of
+His modes; and, finally, he places as the end of man's intellectual
+progress and the culmination of his moral life the love of God. In
+truth, Jewish philosophy has its unity and its special stamp, no less
+than Jewish religion and tradition, from which it receives its
+nurture. Thrice it has towered up in a great system: through Philo in
+the classical, through Maimonides in the mediæval, through Spinoza in
+the modern world. In the Renaissance of Jewish learning during the
+nineteenth century, Philo was at last studied and interpreted by scholars
+of his own people. The first modern writer to reveal the philosophy of
+Jewish history was Nachman Krochmal (1785-1840), and his posthumous Hebrew
+book, "The Guide of the Perplexed of the Time," edited by Zunz,
+contained the first critical appreciation of the Hellenistic Jewish
+culture by a rabbinic scholar. He knew no Greek, but he studied the
+works of German writers, and in his account of Philo gives a summary
+of the remarks of the theologian Neander, himself a baptized Jew. In
+his own criticism he discerns the weakness and strength of Philo from
+the Jewish aspect. "There are," he says, "many strange things in
+Philo's exegesis, not only because he draws far-fetched allegories
+from the text, but also because he interprets single words without a
+sure foundation in Hebrew philology. He uses Scripture as a sort of
+clay which he moulds to convey his philosophical ideas. Yet we must be
+grateful to him because many of his interpretations are beautiful
+ornaments to the text; and we may apply to them what Ibn Ezra said of
+the teachings of the Haggadah, 'Some of them are fine silks, others as
+heavy as sack-cloth.'"
+
+Krochmal translated into Hebrew examples of Philo's allegories and
+gave parallels and contrasts from the Talmud. The relation between the
+Palestinian and the Alexandrian exegesis was more elaborately
+considered by a greater master of Hellenistic literature, Zacharias
+Frankel (1801-1875), who has been followed by a band of Jewish scholars.
+Yearly our understanding of the Alexandrian culture becomes fuller.
+Philo, too, has in part been translated into Hebrew. Indirect in the
+past, his influence on Jewish thought in the future bids fair to be
+direct and increasing.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+VIII
+
+THE INFLUENCE OF PHILO
+
+
+The hope which Philo had cherished and worked for was the spreading of
+the knowledge of God and the diffusion of the true religion over the
+whole world.[346] The end of Jewish national life was approaching, but
+rabbis in Palestine and philosophers at Alexandria, unconscious of the
+imminent doom, thought that the promise of the prophet was soon to be
+fulfilled, and all peoples would go up to worship the one God at the
+temple upon Mount Zion, which should be the religious centre of the
+world. In Philo's day a universal Judaism seemed possible, a Judaism
+true to the Torah as well as to the Unity of God,[347] spread over the
+Megalopolis of all peoples; and in the light of this hope Philo
+welcomed proselytism. The Jews had a clear mission; they were to be
+the light of the world, because they alone of all peoples had
+perceived God. Israel ([Hebrew: 'shr'l]), to repeat Philo's etymology, is
+the man who beholds God, and through him the other nations were to be
+led to the light. The mission of Israel was not a passive service, but
+an active preaching of God's word, and an active propagation of God's
+law to the Gentile. He must welcome the stranger that came within the
+gates.[348] Philo struggled against the separative and exclusive
+tendency which characterized a section of his race. He laid stress
+upon the valuelessness of birth, and the saving power of God's grace
+to the pagan who has come to recognize Him, in language which
+Christian commentators call incredible in a Jew, but which was in fact
+typical of the common feeling at Alexandria. Appealing to the
+Gentiles, Philo declared that "God has special regard for the
+proselyte, who is in the class of the weak and humble together with
+the widow and orphan[349]; for he may be alienated from his kindred
+when he is converted to the honor of the one true God, and abandons
+idolatrous, polytheistic worship, but God is all the more his advocate
+and helper." And speaking to the Jews he says:[350] "Kinship is not
+measured by blood alone when truth is the judge, but by likeness of
+conduct and by the pursuit of the same objects." Similarly, in the
+Midrash, it is said that proselytes are as dear to God as those who
+were born Jews;[351] and, again, that the Torah was given to Israel
+for the benefit of all peoples;[352] or[353] that the purpose of
+Israel's dispersion was that they might make proselytes. Philo's short
+treatise on "Nobility" is an eloquent plea for the equal treatment of
+the stranger who joins the true faith; and the author finds in the
+Bible narratives support for his thesis, that not good birth but the
+virtue of the individual is the true test of merit. Of the
+valuelessness of the one, Cain, Ham, and Esau are types; of the
+supreme worth of the other, Abraham, who is set up as the model of the
+excellent man brought up among idolaters, but led by the Divine
+oracle, revealed to his mind, to embrace the true idea of God. If the
+founder of the Hebrew nation was himself a convert, then surely there
+was a place within the religion for other converts. Remarkable is the
+closing note of the book:
+
+     "We should, therefore, blame those who spuriously
+     appropriate as their own merit what they derive from others,
+     good birth; and they should justly be regarded as enemies
+     not only of the Jewish race, but of all mankind; of the
+     Jewish race, because they engender indifference in their
+     brethren, so that they despise the righteous life in their
+     reliance upon their ancestors' virtue; and of the Gentiles,
+     because they would not allow them their meed of reward even
+     though they attain to the highest excellence of conduct,
+     simply because they have not commendable ancestors. I know
+     not if there could be a more pernicious doctrine than this:
+     that there is no punishment for the wicked offspring of good
+     parents, and no reward for the good offspring of evil
+     parents. The law judges each man upon his own merit, and
+     does not assign praise or blame according to the virtues of
+     the forefathers."
+
+And, again, he writes: "God judges by the fruit of the tree, not by
+the root; and in the Divine judgment the proselyte will be raised on
+high, and he will have a double distinction, because on earth he
+'deserted' to God, and later he receives as his reward a place in
+Heaven."[354]
+
+Unfortunately, the development of missionizing activity, which
+followed Philo's epoch, threatening, as it did, the fundamental
+principles of Judaism, necessitated the reassertion of its national
+character and antagonism to an attitude which sought expansion by
+compromise. It is the tragedy of Philo's work that his mission to the
+nations was of necessity distrusted by his own race, and that his
+appeal for tolerance within the community was turned to a mockery by
+the hostility which the converts of the next century showed to the
+national ideas. Christian apologists early learned to imitate Philo's
+allegorical method, and appropriated it to explain away the laws of
+Moses. Within a hundred years of Philo's death, his ideal, at least in
+the form in which he had conceived it, had been shattered for ages.
+While he was preaching a philosophical Judaism for the world at
+Alexandria, Peter and Paul were preaching through the Diaspora an
+heretical Judaism for the half-converted Gentiles. The disciples of
+Jesus spread his teaching far and wide; but they continually widened
+the breach which their Master had himself initiated, and so their work
+became, not so much a development of Judaism, as an attack upon it. In
+some of its principles, indeed, the message of Jesus was the message
+of Philo, emphasizing, as it did, the broad principles of morality and
+the need of an inner godliness. But it was fundamentally
+differentiated by a doctrine of God and the Messiah which was neither
+Jewish nor philosophical, and by the breaking away from the law of
+Moses, which cut at the roots of national life. Whatever the moral
+worth of the preaching of Jesus, it involved and involves the
+overthrow of the Jewish attitude to life and religion, which may be
+expressed as the sanctification of ordinary conduct, and as morality
+under the national law. To this ideal Philo throughout was true, and
+the Christian teachers were essentially opposed, and however much they
+approximated to his method and utilized his thought, they were always
+strangers to his spirit. Philo's philosophy was in great part a
+philosophy of the law; the Patristic school borrowed his allegorizing
+method and produced a philosophy of religious dogma! Those who spread
+the Christian doctrine among the Hellenized peoples and the
+sophisticated communities that dwelt round the Mediterranean found it
+necessary to explain and justify it by the metaphysical and ethical
+catchwords of the day, and in so doing they took Philo as their model.
+They followed both in general and in detail his allegorical
+interpretations in their recommendation of the Old Testament to the
+more cultured pagans, as the apology of Justin, the commentaries of
+Origen, and the philosophical miscellany ([Greek: Strômateis]) of
+Clement abundantly show.
+
+Certain parts of the New Testament itself exhibit the combination of
+Hebraism and Hellenism which characterizes the work of Philo. In the
+sayings of Jesus we have the Hebraic strain, but in Luke and John and
+the Epistles the mingling of cultures. Thus the Apostles seem to some
+the successors of Philo, and the Epistles the lineal descendants of
+the "Allegories of the Laws." In the Fourth Gospel and the Epistle to
+the Hebrews especially the correspondence is striking. But there is,
+in fact, despite much that is common, a great gulf between them. The
+later missionaries oppose the national religion and the Torah: Philo
+was pre-eminently their champion.
+
+The most commanding of the Apostles, Paul of Tarsus, when he took the
+new statement of Judaism out of the region of spirit and tried to
+shape it into a definite religion for the world, "forgot the rock from
+which he was hewn." As a modern Jewish theologian says,[355] "His
+break with the past is violent; Jesus seemed to expand and
+spiritualize Judaism; Paul in some senses turns it upside down." His
+work may have been necessary to bring home the Word to the heathen,
+but it utterly breaks the continuity of development. Paul himself was
+little of a philosopher, and those to whom he preached were not
+usually philosophical communities such as Philo addressed at
+Alexandria, but congregations of half converted, superstitious pagans.
+The philosophical exposition of the law was too difficult for them,
+while the observance of the law in its strictness demanded too great a
+sacrifice. The spiritual teaching of Jesus was dissociated by his
+Apostle from its source, and the break with Judaism was deliberate and
+complete. The fanatical zest of the missionary dominated him, and he
+proclaimed distinctly where the new Hebraism which was offered to the
+Gentile should depart from the historic religion of the Jews: "For Christ
+is the end of the law for righteousness to everyone that believeth,"[356]
+he says to the Romans; and to the Galatians: "As many as are of the works
+of the law are under the curse."[357] "Christ hath redeemed us from the
+curse of the law.... But before faith came, we were kept under the law,
+shut up with the faith which should afterwards be revealed. Wherefore
+the law was our schoolmaster to bring us unto Christ that we might be
+justified by faith. But after that faith is come, we are no longer
+under a schoolmaster." Paul's position then--and he is the forerunner
+of dogmatic Christianity--involved a rejection of the Torah; and it is
+this which above all else constituted his cleavage from both Judaism
+and the Philonic presentation of it.
+
+Philo is commonly regarded as the forerunner of Christian teaching,
+and it is doubtless true that he suggested to the Church Fathers parts
+of their theology, and represented also the missionary spirit which
+inspired the teaching of some Apostles. But it must be clearly
+understood that he shared still more the spirit of Hillel, whose maxim
+was "to love thy fellow-creatures and draw them near to the Torah,"
+and that he would have been fundamentally opposed to the new
+missionary attitude of Paul. The doctrines of the Epistle to the
+Romans, or the Epistle to the Ephesians, are absolutely antipathetic
+to the ideal of the "Allegories of the Laws." Paul is allied in
+spirit--though his expression is that of the fanatic rather than of
+the philosopher--to the extreme allegorist section of philosophical
+Jews at Alexandria, attacked by Philo for their shallowness in the
+famous passage, quoted from _De Migratione Abrahami_ (ch. 16[358]),
+who, because they recognized the spiritual meaning of the law,
+rejected its literal commands; because they saw that circumcision
+symbolized the abandonment of the sensual life, no longer observed the
+ceremony. The same antinomian spirit is shown in the Epistle to the
+Galatians by the allegory of the children whom Abraham had by Hagar
+the bondwoman and Sarah the free wife: "For there are the two
+covenants, the one from the mount of Sinai which gendereth to bondage,
+which is Hagar.... But we, brethren, as Isaac was, are the children of
+promise." To Philo the law and the observance of the letter were the
+high-road to freedom and the Divine spirit, and, remaining loyal to
+the Jewish conception of religion, for all his philosophical outlook,
+he said: "The rejection of the [Greek: Nomos] will produce chaos in
+our lives." To Paul the law was an obstacle to the spread of religious
+truth and a fetter to the spiritual life of the individual.
+
+It is possible that an extremist section of the Jews pressed the
+letter of the law to excess, so as to lose its spirit, but the
+opposite excess, into which Paul plunged the new faith, was as narrow.
+It involved a glorification of belief, which did not imply any
+relation to conduct. Philo had pleaded no less earnestly than the
+Apostle for the reliance upon grace and the saving virtue of faith,
+but he did not therefore absolve men from the law which made for
+righteousness.[359] And lest it be thought that the stress laid upon
+faith was peculiar to Hellenizing Judaism, we have only to note such
+passages as Dr. Schechter has adduced from the early Midrash on the
+rabbinic conception.[360] "Great was the merit of faith which Israel
+put in God; for it was by the merit of this faith that the Holy Spirit
+came over them, and they said the [Hebrew: shira], (_i.e._, the Song of
+Moses) to God, as it is said, 'And they believed in the Lord and His
+servant Moses. Then sang Moses and the children of Israel this song
+unto the Lord.'" Or again[361]--and the passage reminds us still more
+strongly of both Philo and Christian Gospel--"Our Father Abraham came
+into the possession of this world and the world hereafter only by the
+merit of his faith."
+
+What is new in the Christian position is not the magnifying of faith;
+it is the severance of faith from the law and the particular faith
+which is magnified. Philo, and the rabbis, too, believed that faith
+was the goal of virtue, and the culmination of the moral life; but
+faith to them implied the sanctification of the whole of life, the
+love of God "shown in obedience to a law of conduct." Paul, however,
+hating the law, set up a new faith in the saving power of Jesus and in
+certain beliefs about him, which afterwards were crystallized, or
+petrified, into merciless dogmas, contrary alike to the Jewish ideas
+of God and of life. The new religion, when it was denationalized,
+inevitably became ecclesiastical: for as the national regulation of
+life was rejected, in order to ensure some kind of uniformity, it had
+to bind its members together by definite articles of belief imposed by
+a central authority. The true alternative was not between a legal and
+a spiritual religion--for every religion must have some external
+rule--but between a law of conduct and a law of belief. Philo and the
+rabbis chose the former way; Paul and the Church, the latter.
+Christian theology, no less than the Christian conception of religion,
+exhibits also a complete breach with the Jewish spirit of Philo. In
+the Epistles there are, indeed, in many places doctrines of the Logos
+in the same images and the same Hebraic metaphors as Philo had worked
+into his system; but their purport is entirely changed by association
+with new un-Jewish dogmas. Philo, allegorizing,[362] had seen the holy
+Word typified in the high priest, and in Melchizedek, the priest of
+the Most High; he had called it the son of God and His first-born.
+Paul, dogmatizing, exalts Jesus Christ, the incarnate Word, above
+Melchizedek and the high priest, and calls on the Hebrews to gain
+salvation by faith in the son of God, who died on behalf of the sinful
+human race. Philo, in his poetic fancy, speaks of God associating with
+the virgin soul and generating therein the Divine offspring of holy
+wisdom;[363] the Christian creed-makers enunciated the irrational
+dogma of the immaculate conception of Jesus. So, too, the earliest
+philosophical exponents of Christianity, Clement of Alexandria, and
+Origen, may have derived many of their detailed ideas from Philo, but
+they converted--one might rather say perverted--his monotheistic
+theology into a dogmatic trinitarianism. They exalted the Logos, to
+Philo the "God of the imperfect," and a second-best Deity, to an equal
+place with the perfect God. For man, indeed, he was nearer and the
+true object of human adoration. And this not only meant a departure
+from Judaism; it meant a departure from philosophy. The supreme unity
+of the pure reason was sacrificed no less than the unity of the
+soaring religious imagination. The one transcendental God became
+again, as He had been to the Greek theologians, an inscrutable
+impersonal power, who was unknown to man and ruled over the universe
+by His begotten son, the Logos. The sublimity of the Hebrew
+conception, which combines personality with unity, was lost, and the
+harmony of the intellectual and emotional aspirations achieved by
+Philo was broken straightway by those who professed to follow him. The
+skeleton of his thought was clothed with a body wherein his spirit
+could never have dwelt. It was the penalty which Philo paid for
+vagueness of expression and luxuriance of words that his works became
+the support of doctrines which he had combated, the guide of those who
+were opposed to his life's ideal.
+
+The experience of the Church showed how right was Philo's judgment
+when he declared that the rejection of the Torah would produce chaos.
+The fourth and fifth centuries exhibit an era of unparalleled disorder
+and confusion in the religious world,[364] sect struggling with sect,
+creed with creed, churches rising and falling, dogmas set up by
+councils and forced upon men's souls at the point of the Roman sword!
+And out of this struggling mass of beliefs and fancies, theologies and
+superstitions, sects and political forces, there arose a tyrannical,
+dogmatic Church which laid far heavier burthens on men's minds than
+ever the most ruthless Pharisee of the theologian's imagination had
+laid upon their body and spirit. The yoke of the law of Moses,
+sanctifying the life, had been broken; the fiat of popes and the
+decrees of synods were the saving beliefs which ensured the Kingdom of
+Heaven! Was it to this that the allegorizing of the law, the search
+for the spirit beneath the letter, the reinterpretation of the holy
+law of Moses in the light of philosophical reason, had brought
+Judaism? And was the association of Jewish religion with Greek
+philosophy one long error? That would be a hard conclusion, if we had
+to admit that Judaism cannot stand the test of contact with foreign
+culture. But in truth the Hellenistic interpretation of the Bible, so
+long as it was genuinely philosophical, remained loyal to Judaism.
+Only when it became hardened into dogma, fixed not only as good
+doctrine, but as the only saving doctrine, as the tree of life opposed
+to the Torah, the tree of death--only then did it become anti-Jewish,
+and appear as a bastard offspring of the Hebraic God-idea and Greek
+culture. Nor should it be forgotten that the Christian theology and
+the Christian conception of religion are a falling away also from the
+highest Hellenic ideas; for to Plato as well God was a purely
+spiritual unity, and religion "a system of morality based upon a law
+of conduct and touched with emotion." In Philo, as we have seen, the
+Hebraic and Hellenic conceptions of God touch at their summits in
+their noblest expressions; the conceptions of Plato are interfused
+with the imagination of the prophets. The Christian theology was a
+descent to a commoner Hellenism--or one should rather call it a
+commoner syncretism--as well as to an easier, impurer Hebraism.
+
+It must not be put down to the fault of the Septuagint or the
+allegorists or Philo that the Alexandrian development of Judaism led
+on to Roman Christianity. It is to be ascribed rather to the infirmity
+of human nature, which requires the ideas of its inspired teachers and
+peoples to be brought down to the common understanding, and causes the
+progress towards universal religion to be a slow growth. The masses of
+the Alexandrian Jews in his own day cannot have grasped his teaching;
+for Philo, to some degree, lived in a narrow world of philosophical
+idealism, and he did not calculate the forces which opposed and made
+impossible the spread of his faith in its integrity. He was aiming at
+what was and must for long remain unattainable--the establishment
+among the peoples of philosophical monotheism.
+
+No man is a prophet in his own land--or in his own time--and because
+Philo has in him much of the prophet, he seems to have failed. But it
+is the burden of our mission to sow in tears that we may reap in joy.
+And the work of the Alexandrian-Jewish school may be sad from one
+aspect of Jewish history, but it is nevertheless one of the dominating
+incidents of our religious annals. It did not succeed in bringing over
+the world to the pure idea of God, but it did help in undermining
+cruder paganism. It brought the nations nearer to God, and it
+introduced Hebraism into the thought of the Western peoples. It
+marked, therefore, a great step in the religious work of Israel; yet
+by the schools of rabbis who felt the hard hand of its offspring upon
+their people it was regarded as a long misfortune, to be blotted from
+memory. What seemed so ominous to them was that the annihilation of
+the nation came at the same time as the cleavage in the religion.
+Judaism seemed attacked no less by internal foes than by external
+calamity; and was likely to perish altogether or to drift into a lower
+conception of God, unless it could find some stalwart defence. Hence
+they insisted on the extension of the fence of the law, and abandoned
+for centuries the mission of the Jews to the outer world. This was the
+true Galut, or exile; not so much the political exclusion from the
+land of their fathers, but the enforced exclusion from the mission of
+the prophets. Philo is one of the brightest figures of a golden age of
+Jewish expansion, which passed away of a sudden, and has never since
+returned. In the silver and bronze ages which followed, his place in
+Judaism was obscured. But this age of ours, which boasts of its
+historical sense, looking back over the centuries and freed from the
+bitter dismay of the rabbis, can appraise his true worth and see in
+him one who realized for himself all that Judaism and Jewish culture
+could and still can be.
+
+Some Jewish teachers have thought that Philo's work was a failure,
+others that it provides a warning rather than an example for later
+generations of Jews, proving the mischief of expanding Judaism for the
+world. As well one might say that Isaiah's prophecy was a calamity,
+because the Christian synoptics used his words as evidences of
+Christianity. What is universal in Jewish literature is in the fullest
+sense Jewish, and we should beware of renouncing our inheritance because
+others have abused and perverted it. Other critics, again, say that
+Philo is wearisome and prolix, artificial and sophisticated. There is
+certainly some truth in this judgment; but Philo has many beautiful
+passages which compensate. Part of his message was for his own
+generation and the Alexandrian community, and with the passing away of
+the Hellenistic culture, it has lost its attraction. But part of it is
+of universal import, and is very pertinent and significant for every
+generation of Jews which, enjoying social and intellectual emancipation,
+lives amid a foreign culture. Doubtless the position of Philo and the
+Alexandrian community was to some extent different from that of the Jews
+at any time since the greater Diaspora that followed the destruction of
+the temple. They had behind them a national culture and a centre of
+Jewish life, religious and social, which was a powerful influence in
+civilization and united the Jews in every land. And this gave a
+catholicity to their development and a standard for their teaching which
+the scattered communities of Jews to-day do not possess. None the less
+Philo's ideal of Judaism as religion and life is an ideal for our time
+and for all time. Its keynote is that Israel is a holy people, a kingdom
+of priests, which has a special function for humanity. And the
+performance of this function demands the religious-philosophical
+ordering of life. From the negative side Philo stands for the struggle
+against Epicureanism, which in other words is the devotion to material
+pleasures and sensual enjoyments. In adversity, as he notes, the race is
+truest to its ideals, but as soon as the breeze of prosperity has caught
+its sails, then it throws overboard all that ennobles life. The hedonist
+whom he attacks, like the Epicuros ([Hebrew: 'fikuros]) of the rabbis,
+is not the banal thinker of one particular age, but a permanent type in
+the history of our people. We seem to spend nearly all our moral
+strength in the resistance of persecution, and with tranquillity from
+without comes degradation within. Emancipation, which should be but a
+means to the realization of the higher life, is taken as an end, and
+becomes the grave of idealism. With a reiteration that becomes almost
+wearisome, but which is the measure of the need for the warning, Philo
+protests against this desecration of life, of liberty, and of Judaism.
+His position is, that a free and cultured Jewry must pursue the mission
+of Israel alike by the example of the righteous life devoted to the
+service of God, and by the preaching of God's revealed word. This is his
+"burden of the word of the Lord" to the worldly-wise and the
+materialists of civilized Alexandria--and to Jews of other lands.
+
+From the positive side Philo stands for the spiritual significance of
+the religion. Judaism, which lays stress upon the law, the ceremonial,
+and the customs of our forefathers, is threatened at times with the
+neglect of the inward religion and the hardness of legalism. Not that
+the law, when it is understood, kills the spirit or fetters the
+feelings, but a formal observance and an unenlightened insistence upon
+the letter may crush the soul which good habits should nurture.
+Religion at its highest must be the expression of the individual soul
+within, not the acceptance of a law from without. Although Philo's
+estimate of the Torah is from the historical and philological
+standpoint uncritical, in the religious sense it is finely critical
+inasmuch as it searches out true values. Philo looks in every
+ordinance of the Bible for the spiritual light and conceives the law
+as an inspiration of spiritual truth and the guide to God, or, as he
+puts it sometimes, "the mystagogue to divine ecstasy." For the crown
+of life to him is the saint's union with God. In mysticism religion
+and philosophy blend, for mysticism is the philosophical form of
+faith. Just as the Torah to Philo has an outward and an inward
+meaning, so, too, has the religion of the Torah; and the outward
+Judaism is the symbol, the necessary bodily expression of the inward,
+even as the words of Moses are the symbol, the suggestive expression
+of the deeper truth behind them. Yet mystic and spiritual as he is,
+Philo never allows religion to sink into mere spirituality, because he
+has a true appreciation and a real love for the law. The Torah is the
+foundation of Judaism, and one of the three pillars of the universe,
+as the rabbis said; and neither the philosopher nor the mystic in
+Philo ever causes him to forget that Judaism is a religion of conduct
+as well as of belief, and that the law of righteousness is a law which
+must be practiced and show itself in active life. He holds fast,
+moreover, to the catholicity of Judaism, which restrains the
+individual from abrogating observance till the united conscience of
+the race calls for it; unless progress comes in this ordered way, the
+reformer will produce chaos.
+
+Philo is conservative then in practice, but he is pre-eminently
+liberal in thought. The perfect example himself of the assimilation of
+outside culture, he demands that Judaism shall always seek out the
+fullest knowledge, and in the light of the broadest culture of the age
+constantly reinterpret its religious ideas and its holy books. Above
+all it must be philosophical, for philosophy is "the breath and finer
+spirit of all knowledge," and it vivifies the knowledge of God as well
+as the knowledge of human things. Without it religion becomes bigoted,
+faith obscurantist, and ceremony superstitious. But the Jew does not
+merely borrow ideas or accept his philosophy ready-made from his
+environment; he interprets it afresh according to his peculiar
+God-idea and his conception of God's relation to man, and thereby
+makes it a genuine Jewish philosophy, forming in each age a special
+Jewish culture. And as religion without philosophy is narrow, so, to
+Philo, philosophy without religion is barren; remote from the true
+life, and failing in the true purpose of the search for wisdom, which
+is to raise man to his highest function. Philosophy, then, is not the
+enemy of the Torah: it is its true complement, endowing it with a
+deeper meaning and a profounder influence. Thus the saying runs in the
+"Ethics of the Fathers,"
+
+[Hebrew: 'm 'yn tora 'yn hkma; 'm 'yn hkma 'yn tora]
+
+"If there is no Torah, there is no wisdom; if there is no wisdom,
+there is no Torah." The thought that study of the law is essential to
+Judaism Philo shares with the rabbis, and the Torah is in his eyes
+Israel's great heritage, not only her literature but her life. As
+Saadia said later,[365] "This nation is only a nation by reason of its
+Torah." It is because Philo starts from this conviction that his
+mission is so striking, and its results so tragical. The Judaism which
+he preached to the pagan world was no food for the soul with the
+strength taken out to render it more easily assimilated. He emphasizes
+its spiritual import, he shows its harmony, as the age demanded, with
+the philosophical and ethical conceptions of the time, but he
+steadfastly holds aloft, as the standard of humanity, the law of
+Moses. The reign of "one God and one law" seemed to him not a far-off
+Divine event, but something near, which every good Jew could bring
+nearer. He was oppressed by no craven fear of Jewish distinctiveness;
+and the Biblical saying that Israel was a chosen people was real to
+him and moved him to action. It meant that Israel was essentially a
+religious nation, nearer God, and possessed of the Divine law of life,
+and that it had received the Divine bidding to spread the truth about
+God to all the world. It was a creed, and more, it was an inspiration
+which constantly impelled to effort. It would be difficult to sum up
+Philo's message to his people better than by the verses in Deuteronomy
+which he, the interpreter of God's Word and the successor of Moses, as
+he loved to consider himself, proclaims afresh to his own age, and
+beyond it to the congregation of Jacob in all ages, "Keep therefore my
+commandments and do them; for this is your wisdom and your
+understanding in the sight of the nations, which shall hear all these
+statutes, and say, Surely this great nation is a wise and
+understanding people.
+
+"For what nation is there so great, who hath God so nigh unto them, as
+the Lord our God is in all things that we call upon Him for?
+
+"And what nation is there so great that hath statutes and judgments so
+righteous as all this law, which I set before you this day?" (Deut.
+iv. 5-7).
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+
+  The following are the chief works which have been
+  consulted and are recommended to the student of Philo:
+
+  The standard edition of Philo is still that of Thomas
+  Mangey, _Philonis Judæi opera quæ reperiri potuerunt
+  omnia._ 1742. Londini.
+
+  A far more accurate and critical edition, which is
+  provided with introductory essays and notes upon the
+  sources of Philo, is in course of publication for the
+  Berlin Academy, by Dr. Leopold Cohn and Dr. Paul Wendland.
+  The first five volumes have already appeared, and
+  the remainder may be expected before long. The only
+  complete edition which contains the Latin text of the
+  _Quaestiones_ as well as the Greek works is that published
+  by Tauchnitz in eight volumes; but the text is not reliable.
+
+  There is an English translation of Philo's works in
+  the Bohn Library (G. Bell & Sons) by C.D. Yonge (4 vols.),
+  but it is neither accurate nor neat. The same may
+  he said of the German translation of Jost, but an
+  admirable German version edited by Dr. L. Cohn is now
+  appearing, which contains notes of the parallel passages
+  in rabbinic and patristic literature.
+
+  Works bearing on Philo and his period generally:
+
+  Schürer, "History of the Jewish People at the Time
+  of Jesus Christ" (English translation).
+
+  Siegfried, _Philo von Alexandrien als Ausleger der
+  heiligen Schrift_.
+
+  Zeller, _Geschiehte der Philosophie der Griechen_,
+  vol. III, sec. 2.
+
+  Drummond, "Philo-Judæus and the Jewish Alexandrian
+  School." 2 vols. (London.)
+
+  Herriot, _Philon le Juif_.
+
+  Vacherot, _École d'Alexandrie_, vol. I.
+
+  Eusebius, _Præparatio Evangelica_, ed. Gifford.
+
+  Freudenthal, J., _Hellenistische Studien_.
+
+  Harnack, "History of Dogma," vol. I.
+
+  Josephus, "Wars of the Jews"; "Antiquities of the Jews."
+
+  Mommsen, Th., "The Roman Provinces."
+
+  Works bearing on the special subjects of the different
+  chapters:
+
+  I. THE JEWISH COMMUNITY AT ALEXANDRIA
+    Graetz, "History of the Jews" (Eng. trans.), vol. II.
+    Swete, "introduction to the Septuagint."
+    Hirsch, S.A., "The Temple of Onias," in the
+  Jews' College Jubilee Volume.
+    Friedländer, M. (Vienna), _Geschichte der jüdischen
+  Apologetitc_ and _Religiöse Bewegungen
+  der Juden irn Zeitalter von Jesus._
+
+  II. THE LIFE AND TIMES OF PHILO
+    Conybeare, edition of _De Vita Contemplativa_. (Oxford.)
+    Hils, _Les juifs en Rome. Revue des Etudes
+  Juives_, vols. 8 and 11.
+    Reinach, Théodor, _Textes d'auteurs grecs et romains
+  rélatifs au Judaisme_.
+    Bréhier et Massebieau, _Essai sur la chronologie
+  de Philon. Revue de l'Histoire des Religions,_ 1906.
+
+  III. PHILO'S WORKS AND METHOD
+    Hart, J.H.A., "Philo of Alexandria," Jewish
+  Quarterly Review, vols. XVII and XVIII.
+    Massebieau, _Du classement des oeuvres de Philon_.
+    Cohn, Leopold, _Einteilung und Chronologie der
+  Schriften Philon_.
+
+  IV. PHILO AND THE TORAH
+    Treitel, L., _Der Nomos in Philon. Monatsschrift
+  für Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judenthums_, 1905.
+
+  V. PHILO'S THEOLOGY
+    Montefiore, C., _Florilegium Philonis_, Jewish
+  Quarterly Review, vol. VIII.
+    Caird, Ed., "Evolution of Theology in the
+  Greek Philosophers."
+    Heinze, _Die Lefire vom Logos_,
+    Bucher, _Philonische Studien_.
+    Von Arnim, _Philonische Studien._
+
+  VI. PHILO AS A PHILOSOPHER
+    Freudenthal, Max, _Die Erkenntnisstheorie von Philo._
+    Bigg, "The Christian neo-Platonists of Alexandria."
+    Bussell, "The School of Plato."
+    Stewart, J.A., "The Myths of Plato."
+    Cuyot, H., _Les reminiscences de Philon chez Plotin_. 1906.
+    Neumark, _Geschichte der jildischen Philosophie
+  des Mittelalters_.
+
+  VII. PHILO AND JEWISH TRADITION
+    Schechter, "Aspects of Rabbinic Theology."
+    Taylor, "Ethics of the Fathers."
+    Ritter, Bernhard, _Philo und die Halacha_. Breslau, 1879.
+    Dei Rossi, "Meor Einayim," ed. Cassel.
+    Krochmal, "Moreh Nebuchei Hazeman," ed. Zunz.
+    Frankel, Z., _Ueber den Einfluss der palästinensischen
+  Exegese auf die alexandrinische Hermeneutik_.
+    Epstein, _Le livre des Jubilis, Philon et le Midrasch
+  Tadsché_, Revue des Etudes Juives, XXI.
+    Ginzberg, L., "Allegorical Interpretation," in
+  Jewish Encyclopedia.
+    Joel, M., _Blicke in die Religionsgeschichte_.
+    Treitel, L., _Agadah bei Philo. Monatsschrift
+    für Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judenthums_, 1909.
+
+
+
+
+ABBREVIATIONS USED FOR THE REFERENCES
+
+
+The references to Philo's works are made according to the chapters in
+Conn and Wendland's edition, so far as it has appeared. In referring
+to the works which they have not edited, I have used the pages of
+Mangey'a edition; but I have frequently mentioned the name of the
+treatise in which the passage occurs, as well as the page-number.
+
+I have employed the following abbreviations in the references:
+
+  L.A. I-III Legum Allegoriae.
+  De Mundi Op. De Mundi Opificio.
+  De Sacrif. De Sacrifices Abelis.
+  Quod Det. Quod Deterius Potiori Insidiatur.
+  De Post. C. De Posteritate Caini.
+  De Gigant. De Gigantibus.
+  Quod Deus. Quod Deus Sit Immutabilis.
+  De Agric. De Agricultura.
+  De Plant. De Plantatione.
+  De Ebr. De Ebrietate.
+  De Confus. De Confusione Linguarum.
+  De Migr. De Migratione Abrahami.
+  Quis Rer. Div. Quis Rerum Divinarum Heres.
+  De Cong. De Congressu Eruditorum Causa.
+  De Fuga. De Fuga et Inventione.
+  De Mut. Nom. De Mutatione Nominum.
+  De Somn. De Somniis.
+  De Abr. De Vita Abrahami.
+  De Jos. De Vita Josephi.
+  De V. Mos. De Vita Mosis.
+  De Mon. De Monarchia.
+  De Spec. Leg. De Specialibus Legibus.
+  De Sac. De Sacerdotum Honoribus et de Victimis.
+  De Leg. De Legatione ad Gaium.
+  In Flacc. In Flaccum.
+  De Decal. De Decalogo.
+  De Septen. De Septenario.
+  De Concupisc. De Concupiscentia.
+  De Just. De Justitia.
+  De Exsecr. De Exsecrationibus.
+  Ant. Josephus: Antiquities of the Jews,
+                            tr. by Whiston.
+  Bell. Jud. Wars of the Jews.
+  C. Apion. Contra Apionem.
+  Hist. Ecclesiast. Eusebius: Historia Ecclesiastica.
+  Praep. Evang. Eusebius: Praeparatio Evangelica.
+  Photius, Cod. Photius: Codex.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+  Abraham (_see_ Lives of Abraham and Joseph), 83;
+    model of the excellent man, 244.
+
+  Agrippa (King), Philo's life covers reign of, 45;
+    Philo in Jerusalem during reign of, 50;
+    arrives at Alexandria, 65;
+    advanced to Kingdom of Judea, 69;
+    intercedes at Rome for his people, 69;
+    death of, 70.
+
+  Alexander (the Great), a notable figure in Talmud, 13;
+    settles Jews in Greek colonies, 14;
+    result of his work, 23.
+
+  Alexander Lysimachus, Alabarch of Delta region, 46;
+    guardian of Antony's daughter, 46;
+    restored to honor after imprisonment, 70.
+
+  Alexandria, Jewish community at (_see_ Jewish), 13 ff., 41, 42 f.;
+    Jewish population of, under Ptolemy I, 15;
+    meeting-place of civilizations, 14, 48, 95;
+    centre of Jewish life, 15, 129;
+    two sections occupied by Jews, 16;
+    prosperity of Jews in, 21, 22, 32;
+    anti-Semitic literature and influences in, 22, 62, 67, 74;
+    Jewish tradition at, 27;
+    synagogues at, 37;
+    deputation to Jerusalem from, 41;
+    rabbis flee to, 42;
+    Agrippa finds a refuge at, 51, 65;
+    mystical and ascetic ideas of people at, 55, 59;
+    philosophical schools at, 63, 90, 92, 94, 140;
+    development of Judaism in, 77, 255;
+    Egyptian caste-system adopted at, 16;
+    Jews of, popularize teachings of Bible, 34;
+    Jews of, referred to, in Talmud, 42;
+    Philo forced into Sanhedrin of, 61, 202, 203 f.;
+    Philo member of, 61;
+    disintegration of community at, 71;
+    Zealots flee to, on fall of Jerusalem, 71;
+    replaced by Babylon as centre of Jewish intellect, 73;
+    Samaritans in, 106;
+    antinomian movement in, 130;
+    prototypes of Christian belief at, 155;
+    Pythagorean influence at, 188;
+    national life and culture undermined at (_see_ National), 218.
+
+  Alexandrian, exegesis, characteristic of, 36;
+    church, departs from Jewish standpoint, 72;
+    Platonists, connection between Philo and later school of, 192;
+    schools, relation of, to Palestinian, 199 f., 213;
+    literature in the Dark and Middle Ages, 225 f.
+
+  _Allegories of the Laws_, an allegorical commentary, 74, 87 f.;
+    attacks Stoic doctrines, 94;
+    the _Epistles_, lineal descendants of, 247.
+
+  Angels, doctrine of, in Palestine, 140;
+    Philo's treatment of, 150-1.
+
+  Antiochus Epiphanes, Palestine passes to, 17.
+
+  Anti-Semitic, party, Flaccus won over by, 65;
+    literature and influences in Alexandria, 22, 62, 67, 74;
+    party, punishment of, at Rome, 70.
+
+  Apion, a Stoic leader, 63;
+    accuses Jews, 63, 67;
+    Philo's references to, 63, 101;
+    Josephus' reply to, 65.
+
+  Aquila, new Greek version of Old Testament made by, 224;
+    rabbis' views of, 224.
+
+  Aristeas, spirit of, glorified in Philo, 77.
+
+  Aristobulus, first allegorist of Alexandria, 38;
+    his spirit inherited by Philo, 77;
+    on wisdom, 143;
+    on the Word of God, 146;
+    difference between Philo and, 168.
+
+  Artapanus, Jewish apologist, 77.
+
+  Assouan, Aramaic papyri at, 15.
+
+
+  Babylon, replaces Alexandria as centre of Jewish intellect, 73;
+    Greek culture forgotten in, 224.
+
+  Bible, the, Philo's interpretation
+    and views on, 49, 102, 108 ff.;
+    Philo reveals spiritual message of, 83;
+    authority of, challenged at Alexandria, 92;
+    wisdom personified in, 141, 142.
+
+
+  Cabbalah, the, Essenes practitioners in, 233;
+    Philo as the Hellenizer of, 235.
+
+  Caligula. _See_ Gaius.
+
+  Chaldean, thought, Philo's acquaintance with, 48.
+
+  Christian, monastic communities, 73;
+    heresy, a severance from main community, 72;
+    theologians, fail to realize spirit of Philo, 124;
+    reformers, and the yoke of the law, 130;
+    teachers preserve Philo's works, 156, 248;
+    writers quote Philo, 223;
+    apologists imitate allegorical method, 245.
+
+  Christianity, the movement towards, 28;
+    rise of, 42;
+    conflict with Judaism at Alexandria, 72;
+    Philo's writings regarded as testimony to, 156;
+    Philo's influence over religious philosophy of, 195.
+
+  Conversion to Judaism, in Egypt and Rome, 32.
+
+  _Courage_, tractate appended to _Life of Moses_, 75.
+
+  _Creation of the World_, description of, 83.
+
+  Croiset, criticism of Philo by, 90.
+
+
+  _Decalogue, The_, contents of, 83.
+
+  Derash, Philo a master of, 103.
+
+  _Dreams of the Bible_, classed with Allegories of the Laws, 74.
+
+  Dubnow, on Alexandrian Judaism, 129.
+
+
+  Egypt, Alexander's march to, 14;
+    settlement of Jews in, 14;
+    connection between Israel and, 14;
+    visited by Plato, 15, 172;
+    Diaspora in, after Jeremiah, 15;
+    a favored home of the Jews, 21;
+    conversion widespread in (_see_ Rome), 32;
+    Flaccus, governor of, 65;
+    Jews of, under same rule as Palestine Jews, 15.
+
+  Egyptian, populace, Philo on, 62;
+    thought, Philo's acquaintance with, 48.
+
+  _Epistles_, the Pauline, lineal descendants of Allegories of the
+    Laws, 247;
+    doctrines of the Logos in, 250.
+
+  Essenes, rise of, 34, 54;
+    account of, in Philo's works, 78;
+    type of the philosophical life, 79;
+    practitioners in the Cabbalah, 233.
+
+
+  Flaccus, won over by Anti-Semites, 65;
+    indifference of, to attacks of Jews, 66;
+    recall of, 66;
+    Philo on the persecutions of, 78.
+
+  Frankel Z., writes on Alexandrian-Jewish culture, 241.
+
+
+  Gaius (Roman Emperor), comes to the imperial chair, 65;
+    Jews appeal directly to, 66;
+    receives Jewish deputation, 67;
+    death of, 69.
+
+  Greek philosophers, Philo's relation to, 48, 52;
+    philosophy, Philo's influence on, 49, 191 f.;
+    colonies, Alexander settles Jews in, 14.
+
+  Greek culture, various branches of, 47;
+    the chief schools of, 48, 54;
+    fertilizing influence of ideas of, 58;
+    and Jewish Scripture, 76;
+    neglected in Babylon, 224.
+
+
+  Haggadah, the, in Philo's works, 202, 207 f.;
+    antiquity of, 209 f.;
+    allegorical speculation in, 212.
+
+  Halakah, outcome of devotion to Torah, 99;
+    Palestinian Jews determine, 105;
+    observance of oral law standardized in, 126;
+    relation of Philo to, 202 f.;
+    differences between Alexandrian Sanhedrin and Palestinian, 203 f.;
+    codification of, 207.
+
+  Hebrew, language, evidence of Philo's knowledge of, 49;
+    included in barbarian languages, 97;
+    Philo's derivations from, 50, 101;
+    race, the three founders of, 110 f.;
+    tradition, Philo follows, 159;
+    mind, Professor Caird on, 167.
+
+  Hellenism, of Palestine, 24, 25;
+    of Alexandria (_see_ Greek culture), 25;
+    influence of, in Palestine, 51;
+    and the interpretation of the Bible, 254;
+    New Testament, a combination of Hebraism and, 247;
+    Christian theology a descent to a commoner, 254.
+
+  Hillel, Philo contemporary with, 45;
+    shows expansion of Hebrew mind, 45;
+    on chief lesson of Torah, 117, 118;
+    spirit of, shared by Philo, 249.
+
+  _Humanity_, tractate appended to a _Life of Moses_, 75.
+
+
+  Incarnation, notion of, not Jewish, 166.
+
+  Indian, thought, Philo's acquaintance with, 48.
+
+  Isaac, _See Lives of Isaac and Jacob_, 83.
+
+  Israel, Philo's derivation of the name, 50, 138;
+    God's special providence for, 77;
+    the mission of, 206, 242.
+
+  Italy, Philo visits, 66.
+
+
+  Jacob, _See Lives of Isaac and Jacob_, 83.
+
+  Jeremiah, prophesies in Egypt, 14;
+    heard by Plato, 15.
+
+  Jerusalem, Alexander's visit to, 14;
+    Philo, on national centre at, 20, 41, 86;
+    spiritual headship of, 41;
+    special synagogues for Alexandrians in, 41;
+    derivation of name of, 50;
+    Philo's sojourn at, 50;
+    downfall of, 71;
+    Judaism at, 129.
+
+  Jesus, spread of his teaching, 245;
+    his message compared with that of Philo, 245;
+    preaching of, effect on Jewish attitude to life, 246;
+    Paul sets up a new faith in, 251.
+
+  Jewish, community at Alexandria (_see_ Alexandria), 13 ff., 72;
+    temple at Elephantine, 15;
+    kingdom reaches its height, 45;
+    mind, religous conception of, 49, 137, 166;
+    law and ceremony, elucidation of, 49;
+    race, symbol of the unity of, 51;
+    aspiration toward "freedom under the law," 124;
+    influences, dominant in Philo, 133, 189;
+    philosophy, eclectic, 168;
+    philosophy, new school of in Middle Ages, 225 f.
+
+  Joseph (_see Lives of Abraham and Joseph_), 83;
+    as Egyptian statesman, 23.
+
+  Josephus, on Onias and Dositheus, 18;
+    inconsistent accounts of Onias temple, 19;
+    on Egyptian Jews, 20;
+    account of Herod's temple by, 41;
+    writes a reply to Apion, 65;
+    description of Gaius' conduct to Jewish deputation, 68;
+    on the spreading of Judaism, 115;
+    indicates communication between schools of Alexandria and Palestine,
+    220;
+    relation to Philo and his works, 222.
+
+  Jowett, on sermons, 90.
+
+  Judaism, genius of, 46, 196;
+    Philo's exposition of, 52, 74, 78, 81, 84, 105;
+    Philo protests against desecration of, 258;
+    mysticism in, 58;
+    philosophical, 72, 230;
+    Alexandrian development of, 77, 92;
+    moral teachings of, 85;
+    religion of the law, 106, 116, 260;
+    Josephus on the spreading of, 115;
+    a religion of universal validity, 121, 169;
+    at Jerusalem and Alexandria, 129;
+    catholic conscience of, 130, 131;
+    Darmesteter on, 132;
+    Logos doctrine and, 165;
+    danger of union with Gentiles to, 206;
+    a national culture, 219;
+    influences of Jesus and Paul on, 247;
+    Hellenistic interpretation of the Bible and, 254.
+
+  Judas Maccabæus, struggles against Hellenizing party, 18.
+
+  Krochmal, Nachman, criticism of Philo, 240.
+
+
+  _Life of Moses_, contents of, 75, 79 f.;
+    an attempt to set monotheism before the world, 80;
+    tractates appended to, 75.
+
+  _Lives of Abraham and Joseph_, description of, 83.
+
+  _Lives of Isaac and Jacob_, contents of, 83.
+
+  Logos, 143 ff.;
+    its relation to God's Providence, 143;
+    meaning of, 144-164, 148;
+    Aristobulus on, 146;
+    regarded as the effluence of God, 149;
+    spoken of as a person, 156;
+    the soul, an image of, 178;
+    development of Philo's doctrine of, 192.
+
+
+  Maimonides, object of his Moreh, 91;
+    principles of, 99, 229;
+    comparison of Philo with, 229 f.
+
+  Mark Antony, Alexander Lysimachus in the confidence of, 46.
+
+  Monastic communities, supposed record of Christian, in Philo, 73.
+
+  Moses, Philo a follower of, 60, 113 f.;
+    Philo's ideal type, 79 f.;
+    Philo, as interpreter of his revelation, 104, 106 f.
+    _See Life of Moses_.
+
+
+  National, centre at Jerusalem, Philo on, 20, 41, 86;
+    life undermined at Rome and Alexandria, 218.
+
+
+  Old Testament, Septuagint translation of, 25-30;
+    Aquila's new Greek version of, 224.
+
+  Onias, leader of army of Egyptian monarch, 18;
+    successor to high priesthood, 18;
+    builds temple, 18, 19 f.;
+    temple of, dismantled, 71;
+    Jewish writers silent about work of, 19.
+
+  Oral law, observance of, standardized in the Halakah, 126.
+
+  Origen, distinguishes three methods of interpretation, 76;
+    teacher of Patristic school, 195; imitates Philo, 186.
+
+
+  Palestine, struggle for, between Ptolemies and Seleucids, 17;
+    Hellenism of, compared with that of Athens, 24, 25;
+    rabbis of, 28;
+    Philo visits, 50;
+    effect of Hellenic influence in, 54;
+    New Moon a solemn day in, 121;
+    aims of Jewish thought in, 140;
+    doctrine of angels in, 140.
+
+  Palestinian Jews, under same rule as Egyptian Jews, 15;
+    rabbis, oral tradition, 34;
+    development of Jewish culture, 42 f., 200;
+    Midrash, Philo's acquaintance with, 52;
+    schools, relation existing between Alexandrian and, 199 f., 203 f.,
+    213.
+
+  Paul, the most commanding of the apostles, 247;
+    influence of, compared with that of Jesus, 247;
+    rejection of the Torah by, 248;
+    sets up a new faith in Jesus, 251.
+
+ Pentateuch, Samaritan doctrines with reference to, 106.
+
+  Peshat, as a form of interpretation, 103.
+
+  Philo, contemporary with Herod, 45, 50;
+    family of, 46;
+    works of 74 ff.;
+    philosophical training of, 49;
+    flees from Alexandria, 60;
+    meeting of Peter and Mark with, 73;
+    forced into Sanhedrin of Alexandria, 61;
+    writings of, regarded as testimony to Christianity, 73, 156;
+    influence of, over Christian religious philosophy, 195, 242 ff.;
+    relation of, to Greek philosophers, 48, 52;
+    acquaintance of, with Chaldean and Indian thought, 48;
+    his interpretation and views of the Bible, 49, 102, 108 ff.;
+    evidence of his knowledge of Hebrew language, 49;
+    follows Hebrew tradition, 159, 199 ff.;
+    compared with Spinoza, 73, 134, 163;
+    on persecutions of Sejanus and Flaccus, 62, 78;
+    replies to attacks of stoics, 64, 95;
+    stoics' view of God compared with that of, 185;
+    goes to Italy, 66;
+    refers to Apion, 63, 101;
+    Josephus' knowledge of the works of, 222;
+    Christian teachers preserve works of, 156, 247;
+    relation of, to the Halakah, 202 f.;
+    comparison of Maimonides with, 229 f.;
+    doctrine of the Logos (_see_ Logos), 144 ff.;
+    connection between Saadia and, 226 f.;
+    the Hellenizer of the Cabbalah, 235;
+    opposed to missionary attitude of Paul, 249.
+
+  Plato, hears Jeremiah, 15;
+    Philo's style reminiscent of, 48;
+    conception of the Law in, 131;
+    Philo's philosophy compared with that of, 170 ff.;
+    dominant philosophical principle of, 174;
+    a mystic, 230;
+    conception of God in, 254.
+
+  Ptolemies, the: Ptolemy I, increases number of Jewish inhabitants in
+    Alexandria, 15;
+    IV, gives Heliopolis to Onias, 16;
+    admirers of Scriptures, 23.
+
+
+  _Questions and Answers to Genesis and Exodus_, now incomplete, 75, 81 f.;
+    a preliminary study to more elaborate works, 81;
+    Hebraic in form, 82.
+
+
+  _Repentance_, tractate appended to _Life of Moses_, 75.
+
+  Rome, Alexandria second to, 14;
+    conversion widespread in (_see_ Egypt), 32;
+    Agrippa an exile from, 51;
+    power of Jews at, 62;
+    Jewish struggle with, 220;
+    Philo's apocryphal meeting with Peter at, 73;
+    national life and culture undermined at (_see_ National), 218.
+
+
+  Saadia, founds new school of Jewish philosophy, 225 f.;
+    connection between Philo and, 226 f.
+
+  Samaritan, doctrines with reference to Pentateuch, 106;
+    Jew, story of, 98.
+
+  Sanhedrin, Hillel, president of, 45;
+    Philo forced into Alexandrian, 61;
+    duties of members of, 61;
+    of Alexandrian community, 202;
+    of Jerusalem and capital punishment, 203;
+    differences between Palestinian Halakah and Alexandrian, 203 f.
+
+  Sejanus, Tiberius falls under influence of, 62;
+    Antonia opponent of, 62;
+    Philo's book on persecution of, 62, 78;
+    disgrace and death of, 65.
+
+  Septuagint, Hellenistic development marked by, 25;
+    Philo's version of origin of, 26;
+    celebrations in honor of, 27;
+    infusion of Greek philosophic ideas into, 28;
+    Christianizing influence of, 29;
+    value of, to the cultured Gentile, 33;
+    replaced by new Greek version of Old Testament, 224.
+
+  Solomon, Wisdom of, written at Alexandria, 31.
+
+  _Specific Laws, The_, description of, 83;
+    socialism of Bible emphasized in, 86.
+
+  Spinoza, his ideal of life, 53;
+    compared with Philo's, 73, 134, 163, 239;
+    on Jewish thought, 137;
+    influenced by Philo, 237 ff.;
+    approaches Bible from critical standpoint, 239.
+
+  Stoics, the chief Anti-Semites, 63;
+    Philo replies to attacks of, 64, 95;
+    in conflict with Jews at Alexandria, 94;
+    beliefs of, 64, 94, 116, 176;
+    view of God compared with that of Philo, 185.
+
+  Synagogues,
+    at Alexandria, 16, 37.
+
+
+  Tiberius Alexander,
+    nephew of Philo, 71.
+
+  Tradition, Jewish,
+    at Alexandria, 27;
+    Philo and Jewish, 199 ff.
+
+
+  Zealots, flight of,
+    to Alexandria, 71.
+
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 1: Comp. Leviticus Rabba 13.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Comp. Josephus, Ant. IX. 1.]
+
+[Footnote 3: Sukkah 51^{b}.]
+
+[Footnote 4: Quoted by Josephus, Ant. XIV. 7.]
+
+[Footnote 5: Ant. XII. 5, 9, XX. 10.]
+
+[Footnote 6: Josephus, _Bell. Jud._ VII. 10.]
+
+[Footnote 7: Comp. the passages in the "Antiquities" above and the
+_Bell. Jud._ V. 5.]
+
+[Footnote 8: Menahot 109, Abodah Zarah 52^{b}.]
+
+[Footnote 9: _De Leg._ II. 578.]
+
+[Footnote 10: Comp. _De Mon._ I. 5.]
+
+[Footnote 11: Dr. Hirseh, in The Jews' College Jubilee Volume, p.39.]
+
+[Footnote 12: Menahot 119.]
+
+[Footnote 13: Comp. Ant. XIV. 14-16.]
+
+[Footnote 14: Ant. XVI. 7.]
+
+[Footnote 15: Philo, _In Flacc._ 6.]
+
+[Footnote 16: _C. Apion._ II. 5.]
+
+[Footnote 17: I have used the word anti-Semite because, though the
+hatred at Alexandria was not racial, but national, it has now become
+synonymous with Jew-hater generally.]
+
+[Footnote 18: Quoted in _C. Apion_. I. 22.]
+
+[Footnote 19: _De V. Mos_. II. 6, 7.]
+
+[Footnote 20: See p. 22, above.]
+
+[Footnote 21: Preface to Ecclesiasticus.]
+
+[Footnote 22: Tract. Soferim I. 7.]
+
+[Footnote 23: Tanhuma [Hebrew: ki tsha]]
+
+[Footnote 24: See p. 23, above.]
+
+[Footnote 25: _Orac. Sib_., ed. Alexandre, III. 8.]
+
+[Footnote 26: _Ibid._, III. 195.]
+
+[Footnote 27: Comp. Strabo, Frag. 6, Didot.]
+
+[Footnote 28: _De Post.C._ 24.]
+
+[Footnote 29: _De V. Mos_. II. 28.]
+
+[Footnote 30: Comp. _De Decal_. 20.]
+
+[Footnote 31: Comp. Yer. Berakot 24c.]
+
+[Footnote 32: _Praep. Evang_. VIII. 10, XIII. 12.]
+
+[Footnote 33: Comp. _De Abr_. 15 and 37, _De Jos_. II. 63, _De Spec.
+Leg._ III. 32, _De Migr_. 89.]
+
+[Footnote 34: _Quod Deus_ 11, _De Abr._ 36.]
+
+[Footnote 35: Comp. Acts of the Apostles VI. 9, and Tosef. Meg. III.
+6.]
+
+[Footnote 36: Yoma 83^{a}.]
+
+[Footnote 37: _Bell. Jud._ V. 5.]
+
+[Footnote 38: Comp. Niddah 69^{b}, Sotah 47^{a}.]
+
+[Footnote 39: "Heroes and Hero-Worship," ch. 3.]
+
+[Footnote 40: Ant. XIX. 5.]
+
+[Footnote 41: Photius, _Cod._ 108.]
+
+[Footnote 42: Comp. _De Confus._ 15.]
+
+[Footnote 43: Comp. _De Mon._ I. 6.]
+
+[Footnote 44: Comp. Maimonides, Moreh II, ch. 36.]
+
+[Footnote 45: _L.A._ I. 135.]
+
+[Footnote 46: Comp. _De Cong._ 6 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 47: Comp. Croiset, _Histoire de la littérature grecque_, V,
+pp. 425 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 48: Comp. Mills, "Zoroaster, Philo, and Israel."]
+
+[Footnote 49: Comp. _Quis Rer. Div._ 43, _De Judice_ II, _De V. Mos._
+II. 4.]
+
+[Footnote 50: Ritter, _Philon und die Halacha_.]
+
+[Footnote 51: Comp. _De V. Mos._ I. 1, _In Flacc._ 23 and 33, _De Mut.
+Nom._ 39.]
+
+[Footnote 52: _Præp. Evang._ VIII. v.]
+
+[Footnote 53: _De Mon._ II. 1-3.]
+
+[Footnote 54: Comp. _Bell. Jud._ VI. 9. 3.]
+
+[Footnote 55: Comp. _De V. Mos._ II. 4.]
+
+[Footnote 56: _De Spec. Leg._ III. 1.]
+
+[Footnote 57: Comp. _De Migr._ 4, _L.A._ III. 45.]
+
+[Footnote 58: Comp. Graetz, "History of the Jews" III. 91 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 59: Comp. _Quod Omnis Probus Liber_ 11 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 60: The authenticity of this book is elaborately discussed
+by Conybeare in his edition of it.]
+
+[Footnote 61: "Ethics of the Fathers" VI. 4.]
+
+[Footnote 62: _De Mundi Op._ I. 42.]
+
+[Footnote 63: Comp. _De Migr._ 6 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 64: _L.A._ II. 21.]
+
+[Footnote 65: _De Fuga_ 7 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 66: Comp. _De Spec. Leg._ II. 260.]
+
+[Footnote 67: Comp. _De Cherubim_ 9.]
+
+[Footnote 68: _De Migr._ 7-9.]
+
+[Footnote 69: II, ch. 36 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 70: Comp. _De Spec. Leg._ III. 1.]
+
+[Footnote 71: Massebieau, _Du classement des oeuvres de Philon_.]
+
+[Footnote 72: _In Flacc._ 5.]
+
+[Footnote 73: Comp. Th. Reinach, _Textes d'auteurs romains et grecs
+relatifs au Judaisme_, pp. 120 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 74: Comp. _De Confus._, _passim_.]
+
+[Footnote 75: Josephus, _C. Apion._, Introduction.]
+
+[Footnote 76: _In Flacc._ 10.]
+
+[Footnote 77: _De Leg_. 27 and 28.]
+
+[Footnote 78: Ant. XVIII. 8. 1.]
+
+[Footnote 79: _De Leg., ad fin_.]
+
+[Footnote 80: Ant. XIX. 5.]
+
+[Footnote 81: Frag, preserved by John of Damascus, p. 404.]
+
+[Footnote 82: Comp. Ant. XX. 5.]
+
+[Footnote 83: Comp. Massebieau, _op. cit._]
+
+[Footnote 84: Comp. Bernays, _Ueber die unter Philos Werken stehenden
+Schriften [Greek: peri tês aphtharsias Kosmou]_, and Siegfried, art.
+"Philo" in the Jewish Encyclopedia.]
+
+[Footnote 85: _Quod Deus_ 86.]
+
+[Footnote 86: _Quod Omnis Probus Liber_ 12 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 87: _De V. Mos._ I. 1.]
+
+[Footnote 88: _De V. Mos_. II. 5.]
+
+[Footnote 89: "On Repentance," II.]
+
+[Footnote 90: Comp. Treitel, _Agadah bei Philo. Monatsschrift_, 1909.]
+
+[Footnote 91: _De Abr._ 12.]
+
+[Footnote 92: Comp. Bereshit Rabba 47.]
+
+[Footnote 93: _De Sac. et Victimis_ 5 and 6.]
+
+[Footnote 94: _De Mon._ II. 3 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 95: Comp. Plato, _Rep_. V, _ad fin_.]
+
+[Footnote 96: _De Exsecr_. II. 587.]
+
+[Footnote 97: _De Abr._ 3.]
+
+[Footnote 98: Comp. _L.A._ II. 4.]
+
+[Footnote 99: _L.A._ I. 1.]
+
+[Footnote 100: Comp. Freudenthal, _Hellenistische Studien_.]
+
+[Footnote 101: Croiset, _op. cit._ V, p. 427.]
+
+[Footnote 102: Comp. _De Cherubim_, _passim_.]
+
+[Footnote 103: Comp. Zohar III.]
+
+[Footnote 104: _De Cherubim_, 9 and 14, _De Somn._ 8.]
+
+[Footnote 105: _De Migr._ 12.]
+
+[Footnote 106: _De Post. C._ 22.]
+
+[Footnote 107: Midrash Esther I.]
+
+[Footnote 108: Comp. _De Sac._ II. 245.]
+
+[Footnote 109: Comp. _De Migr._ 32.]
+
+[Footnote 110: Comp. _De Post C_, 11.]
+
+[Footnote 111: _Quaestiones in Gen._ III. 33.]
+
+[Footnote 112: _De Cong._ 10.]
+
+[Footnote 113: Comp. Berakot 51^{b}, _De Agric._ 12, _De Somn._ II. 25.]
+
+[Footnote 114: _De Confus._ 38.]
+
+[Footnote 115: _De Mut. Nom._ 8.]
+
+[Footnote 116: Comp. Bereshit Rabba 64.]
+
+[Footnote 117: _De Somn._ I. 16 and 17.]
+
+[Footnote 118: Comp. "Ethics of the Fathers" V. 25.]
+
+[Footnote 119: Comp. _De Somn._ I. 13.]
+
+[Footnote 120: _De Mut. Nom._ 9.]
+
+[Footnote 121: _De Somn._ I. 5.]
+
+[Footnote 122: Berakot 10^{a}.]
+
+[Footnote 123: _De Cong._ 12.]
+
+[Footnote 124: _De Cong._ 14.]
+
+[Footnote 125: "Theologico-Political Tractate" VII.]
+
+[Footnote 126: _De Abr._ 19.]
+
+[Footnote 127: _De Mon._ II. 6.]
+
+[Footnote 128: Harvard Studies, "Hellenism and Hebraism."]
+
+[Footnote 129: Comp. Schechter, "Aspects of Rabbinic Theology," p.
+119.]
+
+[Footnote 130: Comp. _De V. Mos._ II. 9 and 10, III. 1.]
+
+[Footnote 131: _L.A._ I. 2.]
+
+[Footnote 132: Comp. _De Mundi Op._ 2.]
+
+[Footnote 133: Comp. p. 85, above.]
+
+[Footnote 134: Comp. _L.A._ I, _passim_.]
+
+[Footnote 135: _L.A._ III. 12.]
+
+[Footnote 136: _De Post. C._ 11.]
+
+[Footnote 137: _De Abr._ 3 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 138: _Ibid._ 6-10.]
+
+[Footnote 139: The LXX renders the verse Gen. iv. 26, which is
+translated in the Authorized Version: "Then began men to call upon the
+name of the Lord," [Greek: outos êlpisen epi ton tôn olôn patera]
+_i.e._, "He hoped in the Father of all."]
+
+[Footnote 140: _Quod Det._ 38.]
+
+[Footnote 141: _De Jos._ 21.]
+
+[Footnote 142: _De Jos._ 22.]
+
+[Footnote 143: _De Jos._ 42.]
+
+[Footnote 144: _Hist. Ecclesiast._ II. 18, 1.]
+
+[Footnote 145: _De V. Mos._ III. 4 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 146: _De V. Mos._ II. 3.]
+
+[Footnote 147: _De V. Mos._ II. 5, Josephus, _C. Apion._ II. 37.]
+
+[Footnote 148: Comp. Horace, Satires I. 4, 138; I. 9, 60.]
+
+[Footnote 149: Frag. preserved in Josephus, Ant. XIV. 7.]
+
+[Footnote 150: Comp. Reinach, _op. cit._, p. 262.]
+
+[Footnote 151: _De V. Mos._ II. 3.]
+
+[Footnote 152: "Ethics of the Fathers" I. 17.]
+
+[Footnote 153: _De Fuga_ 6.]
+
+[Footnote 154: _De Decal._ 12.]
+
+[Footnote 155: _De Decal._ 23.]
+
+[Footnote 156: _De Septen._ 9.]
+
+[Footnote 157: Kiddushin 20^{a}.]
+
+[Footnote 158: _De Decal._ 20.]
+
+[Footnote 159: _De Septen._ 7.]
+
+[Footnote 160: _De Septen._ 6.]
+
+[Footnote 161: Ch. 2. 31.]
+
+[Footnote 162: Comp. _De Migr._ 23.]
+
+[Footnote 163: _De Septen._ 1. 2.]
+
+[Footnote 164: _De Septen._ 18 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 165: _De Concupisc._ 1-3.]
+
+[Footnote 166: Comp. _De Just._ II. 360.]
+
+[Footnote 167: Ch. 16.]
+
+[Footnote 168: I have taken this translation and that on the next page
+from Mr. Claude Montefiore's _Florilegium Philonis_. Jewish Quarterly
+Review, vol. VII.]
+
+[Footnote 169: Comp. _De Ebr._ 40, and _De Spec. Leg._ II. 414.]
+
+[Footnote 170: _De Leg._ II. 574.]
+
+[Footnote 171: _Essais, Les Prophètes d'Israël_.]
+
+[Footnote 172: Frag. cited by Porphyry, _De Abstinentia_ II. 25.]
+
+[Footnote 173: _De Cong._ 10.]
+
+[Footnote 174: Comp. Schechter, "Aspects of Rabbinic Theology," pp. 21
+ff.]
+
+[Footnote 175: _L.A._ I. 7.]
+
+[Footnote 176: _L.A._ I. 14.]
+
+[Footnote 177: _De Confus._ 2, _De Post. C._ 5.]
+
+[Footnote 178: Comp. _De Somn._ I. 11, _De Mut. Nom._ 4.]
+
+[Footnote 179: Caird, "Life of Spinoza" II.]
+
+[Footnote 180: _De Mon._ I. 5.]
+
+[Footnote 181: Comp. "The Authorised Prayer Book." p. 78.]
+
+[Footnote 182: _Quod Deus_ 23.]
+
+[Footnote 183: _De Mundi Op._ 5.]
+
+[Footnote 184: _L.A._ III. 24.]
+
+[Footnote 185: _De Somn._ II. 38.]
+
+[Footnote 186: _L.A._ III. 24.]
+
+[Footnote 187: See p. 77, above.]
+
+[Footnote 188: _L.A._ I. 3.]
+
+[Footnote 189: _De Plant._ 7, _Quod Det._ 31.]
+
+[Footnote 190: _De Cherubim_ 35.]
+
+[Footnote 191: _L.A._ II. 70.]
+
+[Footnote 192: _De Cherubim_ 32, _De Somn._ II, 56.]
+
+[Footnote 193: _De Post. C._ 11.]
+
+[Footnote 194: Essay on the Talmud.]
+
+[Footnote 195: Bereshit Rabba 21, and Yalkut 26.]
+
+[Footnote 196: Comp. _De Plant._ 30.]
+
+[Footnote 197: Comp. [H.]agigah 14.]
+
+[Footnote 198: Quoted by Euseb., _op. cit._ XIII. 8.]
+
+[Footnote 199: _De Decal._ 11.]
+
+[Footnote 200: _De Mundi Op._ 24.]
+
+[Footnote 201: _Ibid._ 20.]
+
+[Footnote 202: _De Migr._ 9.]
+
+[Footnote 203: _De Decal._ 11.]
+
+[Footnote 204: _De Somn._ II. 37.]
+
+[Footnote 205: _De Somn._ I. 23.]
+
+[Footnote 206: Comp. _De Somn._ II. 11.]
+
+[Footnote 207: _De Somn._ I. 22.]
+
+[Footnote 208: Comp. [H.]agigah 14^{a}.]
+
+[Footnote 209: _Quod Deus_ 26 and 32.]
+
+[Footnote 210: _De Confus._ 14.]
+
+[Footnote 211: _De Gigant._ 2.]
+
+[Footnote 212: "Ethics of the Fathers" III.]
+
+[Footnote 213: Comp. Schechter, _op. cit._, "The Law as Personified in
+Literature."]
+
+[Footnote 214: Comp. _L.A._ III. 73, _De Somn._ II. 33.]
+
+[Footnote 215: _De Cong._ 31.]
+
+[Footnote 216: _De Confus._ 14, Fragments I, _L.A._ III. 23, _Quis
+Rer. Div._ 42, _De Gigant._ 12.]
+
+[Footnote 217: Comp. Graetz, "Gnosticism and Judaism," pp. 15 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 218: Comp. _De Cherubim_ 14 and 17, _De Gigant._ 12.]
+
+[Footnote 219: Drummond, "Philo-Judæus and the Jewish Hellenistic
+School," vol. II.]
+
+[Footnote 220: _De Somn._ I. 32, _De Confus._ 14, _L.A._ III. 25, _De
+V. Mos._ III. 14.]
+
+[Footnote 221: _L.A._ III. 73.]
+
+[Footnote 222: _De Sacrif._ 38.]
+
+[Footnote 223: _Quis Rer. Div._ 42.]
+
+[Footnote 224: _De Plant._ 21.]
+
+[Footnote 225: _L.A._ III.]
+
+[Footnote 226: _De Cherubim_ 9.]
+
+[Footnote 227: _De Abr._ 24 and 25.]
+
+[Footnote 228: _De Fuga_ 18.]
+
+[Footnote 229: _L.A._ II.]
+
+[Footnote 230: _L.A._ I. 13, II. 15, _Quis Rer. Div._ 53.]
+
+[Footnote 231: Comp. _De Decal._, _ad fin_.]
+
+[Footnote 232: _L.A._ I. 20, _De Fuga_ 12.]
+
+[Footnote 233: _De Mundi Op._ 54, _De Fuga_ 11.]
+
+[Footnote 234: "The Evolution of Theology in the Greek Philosophers"
+VIII.]
+
+[Footnote 235: Plato, "Laws" 718.]
+
+[Footnote 236: Comp. Bk. 12 of the _Præp. Evang._]
+
+[Footnote 237: Quoted by Suidas, _s.v._ Philo.]
+
+[Footnote 238: _De Mundi Op._ 43.]
+
+[Footnote 239: _De Victimis_ II. 260-262.]
+
+[Footnote 240: Comp. p. 81, above.]
+
+[Footnote 241: _De Sacrif._ 24, _Quod Det._ 24.]
+
+[Footnote 242: _De Mundi Op._ 24.]
+
+[Footnote 243: _De Mundi Op._ 4.]
+
+[Footnote 244: _De Somn._ I. 4.]
+
+[Footnote 245: _De Victimis_ II. 260.]
+
+[Footnote 246: _Quod Deus_ 6, _De Post. C._ 5.]
+
+[Footnote 247: _Quod Det._ 24, _De Mundi Op._ 45 and 51.]
+
+[Footnote 248: _L.A._ I. 32, _De Confus._ 27.]
+
+[Footnote 249: _De Mon_. II. 214, _De Mundi Op_. I. 16.]
+
+[Footnote 250: _De Mundi Op_. 22 and 48, _L.A._ I. 13 and II. 12 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 251: _De Sacrif._ 32.]
+
+[Footnote 252: _De Plant._ 9.]
+
+[Footnote 253: _Quaestiones in Gen._ II. 59.]
+
+[Footnote 254: _De Fuga_ 6.]
+
+[Footnote 255: _Quaestiones in Gen._ IV. 140.]
+
+[Footnote 256: _De Cherubim_ 32.]
+
+[Footnote 257: _L.A._ I. 15.]
+
+[Footnote 258: _L.A._ II. 25.]
+
+[Footnote 259: _L.A._ I. 11 ff., II. 12-14.]
+
+[Footnote 260: _De Cherubim_ 35.]
+
+[Footnote 261: _De Somn._ I. 12.]
+
+[Footnote 262: _De Somn._ I. 4.]
+
+[Footnote 263: _De Plant._ 7.]
+
+[Footnote 264: _Quod Det._ 31.]
+
+[Footnote 265: _De Migr._ 8, _De Spec. Leg._ I. 9.]
+
+[Footnote 266: _L.A._ I. 13.]
+
+[Footnote 267: _L.A._ III. 13, 14.]
+
+[Footnote 268: _Quis Rer. Div._ 53.]
+
+[Footnote 269: _De Mundi Op._ 54.]
+
+[Footnote 270: _De Abr._ 31.]
+
+[Footnote 271: _De Fuga_ 27.]
+
+[Footnote 272: _L.A._ I. 32, II. 25.]
+
+[Footnote 273: Comp. _L.A._ III. 45.]
+
+[Footnote 274: _Quod Det._ 7.]
+
+[Footnote 275: _De Fuga_ 5 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 276: _De Mundi Op._ 15, _L.A._ I. 46.]
+
+[Footnote 277: _De Decal._ 6-8.]
+
+[Footnote 278: Comp. Euseb., _Praep. Evang._ IX 411A.]
+
+[Footnote 279: _C. Celsum_ IV. 51.]
+
+[Footnote 280: _De Sectis Judaicis_ XVIII.]
+
+[Footnote 281: Comp. Freudenthal, _Hellenistische Studien_, and
+Siegfried, _Philo als Ausleger der hieligen Schrift_.]
+
+[Footnote 282: Comp. _Quis Rer. Div._ XLIII, and Chapter II above.]
+
+[Footnote 283: _De Mon_. II. 212.]
+
+[Footnote 284: _Hist. Ecclesiast._ II. iv. 2.]
+
+[Footnote 285: Comp. Graetz, "History" II. xviii.]
+
+[Footnote 286: Comp. Chapter I, p. 17, above.]
+
+[Footnote 287: _De Spec. Leg_. II. 260.]
+
+[Footnote 288: _De Spec. Leg._ III. 17.]
+
+[Footnote 289: _Ibid._ II. 6.]
+
+[Footnote 290: _De Parentibus Colendis_ 56.]
+
+[Footnote 291: Comp. Sifre Debarim 237.]
+
+[Footnote 292: _De Spec. Leg._ IV.]
+
+[Footnote 293: _De Spec. Leg._ III. 36.]
+
+[Footnote 294: _De Spec. Leg._ III. 33 and 34.]
+
+[Footnote 295: Moreh Nebukim III, ch. 39.]
+
+[Footnote 296: _Fragmenta ex Antonio_ II. 672.]
+
+[Footnote 297: _De Spec. Leg._ III. 5, II. 304, 305.]
+
+[Footnote 298: Deut. vii. 3, and Abodah Zarah 36^{b}.]
+
+[Footnote 299: _De Spec. Leg._ III. 5, II. 304.]
+
+[Footnote 300: _De Septen._ 5 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 301: See Chapter IV, p. 125, above.]
+
+[Footnote 302: Mishnah Rosh Hashanah III. 8, and Philo, _De Somn._ II.
+11.]
+
+[Footnote 303: Comp. _Agadah bei Philo_, by Treitel, _Monatsschrift_,
+1909.]
+
+[Footnote 304: Comp. Bereshit Rabba 16, 4.]
+
+[Footnote 305: Comp. Taylor's edition.]
+
+[Footnote 306: _De Plant._ 30.]
+
+[Footnote 307: It is impossible for me to make an adequate
+acknowledgment of my debt to Dr. Schechter, President of the Jewish
+Theological Seminary of America. But I should say that I have borrowed
+freely from his articles on rabbinic theology in the Jewish Quarterly
+Review, vols. VI and VII, now included in his "Aspects of Rabbinic
+Theology."]
+
+[Footnote 308: Mishnah Yodayim III. 5.]
+
+[Footnote 309: Bereshit Rabba 26. 7.]
+
+[Footnote 310: Comp. Schechter, _op. cit._, Introduction.]
+
+[Footnote 311: Berakot 24^{b}.]
+
+[Footnote 312: Mekilta [Hebrew: kshla] I. 1.]
+
+[Footnote 313: Bereshit Rabba I. 2.]
+
+[Footnote 314: Pirke R. Eliezer III.]
+
+[Footnote 315: Comp. Poems, II, p. 25.]
+
+[Footnote 316: Moreh II, ch. 70.]
+
+[Footnote 317: Eccles. III. 15.]
+
+[Footnote 318: [H.]agigah 14 ff., Sanhedrin 37^{a}.]
+
+[Footnote 319: Bereshit Rabba 4.]
+
+[Footnote 320: Mena[h.]ot 99.]
+
+[Footnote 321: Mishnah Sanhedrin II. 1.]
+
+[Footnote 322: [H.]agigah 15^{b}.]
+
+[Footnote 323: Bereshit Rabba 36. 8.]
+
+[Footnote 324: Ant. III. 2.]
+
+[Footnote 325: _De V. Mos._ II. 12.]
+
+[Footnote 326: Comp. Ant. XVIII. 8. 1.]
+
+[Footnote 327: Comp. "Ethics of the Fathers" VI. 6.]
+
+[Footnote 328: See Epstein, _Philon et le Midrasch Tadsché_, Revue des
+Etudes Juives, XXI, p. 80.]
+
+[Footnote 329: Yer. Meg. I. 71^{c}.]
+
+[Footnote 330: Comp. an article by Dr. Poznànski in the _Revue des
+Études Juives_, 1905, _Philo dans l'ancienne littérature judéo-arabe_,
+pp. 10 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 331: Comp. Poznànski, _op. cit._, p. 27.]
+
+[Footnote 332: Moreh II. ch. 1 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 333: _Ibid._ 31.]
+
+[Footnote 334: _Ibid._ 31.]
+
+[Footnote 335: Moreh III. 43 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 336: Comp. Ginzberg, art. "Cabbalah," Jewish Encyclopedia.]
+
+[Footnote 337: Comp. Taylor's "Ethics of the Fathers," ch. 5, notes.]
+
+[Footnote 338: _De Cherubim_ 12 and 14. Comp. _De Somn._ I. 8.]
+
+[Footnote 339: Comp. _De Somn._ I. 12.]
+
+[Footnote 340: Comp. _De Fuga_ 9.]
+
+[Footnote 341: Comp. Hort, Introduction to Clement's [Greek:
+Etrômateis].]
+
+[Footnote 342: Ed. Cassel, pp. 4 and 15^{b}.]
+
+[Footnote 343: Comp. Imre Binah. Meor Einayim, ch. 30.]
+
+[Footnote 344: Comp. J.A. Stewart, "Myths of Plato," _ad fin._]
+
+[Footnote 345: Comp. "Theologico-Political Tractate" XV.]
+
+[Footnote 346: Comp. _De Humanitate_ II. 395.]
+
+[Footnote 347: _De V. Mos._ II. 1-5.]
+
+[Footnote 348: Comp. _De Mon._ II. 6.]
+
+[Footnote 349: _De Just._ 6.]
+
+[Footnote 350: Comp. _De Nobilitate_ 6.]
+
+[Footnote 351: Bamidbar Rabba 8.]
+
+[Footnote 352: Tan[h.]uma to Debarim.]
+
+[Footnote 353: Comp. Pesa[h.]im 87^{b}.]
+
+[Footnote 354: _De Exsecr._ 6. II. 433.]
+
+[Footnote 355: Comp. Montefiore, Jewish Quarterly Review, VI, p. 428.]
+
+[Footnote 356: Epistle to the Romans V.]
+
+[Footnote 357: Epistle to the Galatians III. 10.]
+
+[Footnote 358: Comp. Chapter IV, above, p. 126.]
+
+[Footnote 359: _De Abr._ 46.]
+
+[Footnote 360: Comp. Schechter, _op. cit._, Introduction.]
+
+[Footnote 361: Comp. Mekilta 33^{a}, ed. Friedmann.]
+
+[Footnote 362: Comp. _L.A._ III. 26, and Chapter V, above, p. 154.]
+
+[Footnote 363: _De Cherubim_ 12.]
+
+[Footnote 364: Comp. Gibbon, "Decline of the Roman Empire," ch. 15.]
+
+[Footnote 365: [Hebrew: 'monot vd'ot] III.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Philo-Judaeus of Alexandria, by Norman Bentwich
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 14657 ***
diff --git a/14657-h/14657-h.htm b/14657-h/14657-h.htm
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8a8d1fb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/14657-h.htm
@@ -0,0 +1,9924 @@
+<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.0 Transitional//EN">
+<html>
+<head>
+<meta name="generator" content=
+"HTML Tidy for Windows (vers 1st March 2004), see www.w3.org">
+<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Philo-Jud&aelig;us by Norman
+Bentwich</title>
+<meta http-equiv="content-type" content=
+"text/html; charset=UTF-8">
+<style type="text/css">
+A {
+    TEXT-DECORATION: none;
+}
+P {
+    MARGIN-TOP: 0.75em; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 0.75em; TEXT-ALIGN: justify;
+}
+H1 {
+    TEXT-ALIGN: center;
+}
+H2 {
+    TEXT-ALIGN: center;
+}
+H3 {
+    TEXT-ALIGN: center;
+}
+H4 {
+    TEXT-ALIGN: center;
+}
+H5 {
+    TEXT-ALIGN: center;
+}
+H6 {
+    TEXT-ALIGN: center;
+}
+
+HR {
+    WIDTH: 33%;
+}
+HR.full {
+    WIDTH: 100%; HEIGHT: 5px;
+}
+A:link {
+    COLOR: blue; TEXT-DECORATION: none;
+}
+LINK {
+    COLOR: blue; TEXT-DECORATION: none;
+}
+A:visited {
+    COLOR: blue; TEXT-DECORATION: none;
+}
+A:hover {
+    COLOR: red;
+}
+
+
+BODY {
+    MARGIN-LEFT: 7%; MARGIN-RIGHT: 8%;
+}
+.linenum {
+    LEFT: 4%; POSITION: absolute; TOP: auto;
+}
+.note {
+    MARGIN-BOTTOM: 1em; MARGIN-LEFT: 2em; MARGIN-RIGHT: 2em;
+}
+.blkquot {
+    MARGIN-LEFT: 4em; MARGIN-RIGHT: 4em;
+}
+.pagenum {
+    FONT-SIZE: smaller; LEFT: 92%; POSITION: absolute;
+    TEXT-ALIGN: right;
+}
+.newpage { display: none;
+}
+.sidenote {
+    CLEAR: right; MARGIN-TOP: 1em; PADDING-LEFT: 1em;
+    FONT-SIZE: smaller; FLOAT: right;
+    MARGIN-BOTTOM: 1em; WIDTH: 20%;
+}
+
+ins.correction {border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-color: red;
+       border-bottom-width:1px;
+}
+
+.poem {
+    MARGIN-LEFT: 10%; MARGIN-RIGHT: 10%; TEXT-ALIGN: left;
+}
+
+
+.poem BR {
+    DISPLAY: none;
+}
+.poem .stanza {
+    MARGIN: 1em 0em;
+}
+.poem SPAN {
+    DISPLAY: block; PADDING-LEFT: 3em; MARGIN: 0px; TEXT-INDENT: -3em;
+}
+.poem SPAN.i2 {
+    DISPLAY: block; MARGIN-LEFT: 2em;
+}
+.poem SPAN.i4 {
+    DISPLAY: block; MARGIN-LEFT: 4em;
+}
+.poem .caesura {
+    VERTICAL-ALIGN: -200%;
+}
+LI.indent {
+    MARGIN-LEFT: 5%;
+}
+</style>
+</head>
+<body>
+<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 14657 ***</div>
+
+<div style=
+" background-color: white; color: black; border-style: ridge;">
+<center>
+<h1>PHILO-JUD&AElig;US</h1>
+</center>
+</div>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<h3>BY</h3>
+<br>
+<h2>NORMAN BENTWICH</h2>
+<h3>Sometime Scholar of Trinity College,<br>
+Cambridge</h3>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<h4>COPYRIGHT, 1910, BY<br>
+THE JEWISH PUBLICATION SOCIETY OF AMERICA</h4>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<h2>PHILO-JUD&AElig;US<br>
+OF ALEXANDRIA,</h2>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<h3>TO MY MOTHER</h3>
+<center><img alt="Greek: thrept&ecirc;ria " src=
+"images/image01.jpg" width="91" height="24"></center>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>
+<h3>CONTENTS</h3>
+<table summary="toc">
+<tr>
+<td><b>CHAPTER</b></td>
+<td></td>
+<td align="right">page</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><a href="#PREFACE"></a><b>PREFACE</b></td>
+<td></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page_7">7</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>I. THE JEWISH COMMUNITY AT ALEXANDRIA</td>
+<td></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page_13">13</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>II. THE LIFE AND TIMES OF PHILO</td>
+<td></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page_44">44</a></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>III. PHILO'S WORKS AND METHOD</td>
+<td></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page_74">74</a></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>IV. PHILO AND THE TORAH</td>
+<td></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page_104">104</a></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>V. PHILO'S THEOLOGY</td>
+<td></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page_132">132</a></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>VI. PHILO AS A PHILOSOPHER</td>
+<td></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page_167">167</a></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>VII. PHILO AND JEWISH TRADITION</td>
+<td></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page_199">199</a></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>VIII. THE INFLUENCE OF PHILO</td>
+<td></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page_242">242</a></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>BIBLIOGRAPHY</td>
+<td></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page_263">263</a></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>ABBREVIATIONS USED FOR THE REFERENCES</td>
+<td></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page_266">266</a></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>INDEX</td>
+<td></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page_269">269</a></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_7" id=
+"page_7">[pg.7]</a></span>
+<hr style="width: 65%;">
+<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE">PREFACE</a></h2>
+<hr style="width: 65%;">
+<p>It is a melancholy reflection upon the history of the Jews that
+they have failed to pay due honor to their two greatest
+philosophers. Spinoza was rejected by his contemporaries from the
+congregation of Israel; Philo-Jud&aelig;us was neglected by the
+generations that followed him. Maimonides, our third philosopher,
+was in danger of meeting the same fate, and his philosophical work
+was for long viewed with suspicion by a large part of the
+community. Philosophers, by the very excellence of their thought,
+have in all races towered above the comprehension of the people,
+and aroused the suspicion of the religious teachers. Elsewhere,
+however, though rejected by the Church, they have left their
+influence upon the nation, and taken a commanding place in its
+history, because they have founded secular schools of thought,
+which perpetuated their work. In Judaism, where religion and
+nationality are inextricably combined, that could not be. The
+history of Judaism since the extinction of political independence
+is the history of a national religious culture; what was national
+in its thought alone found favor; and unless a philosopher's work
+bore this national religious stamp it dropped out of Jewish
+history.</p>
+<p>Philo certainly had an intensely strong Jewish feeling, but his
+work had also another aspect, which <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_8" id="page_8">[pg.8]</a></span> was seized upon and made use
+of by those who wished to denationalize Judaism and convert it into
+a philosophical monotheism. The favor which the Church Fathers
+showed to his writings induced and was balanced by the neglect of
+the rabbis.</p>
+<p>It was left till recently to non-Jews to study the works of
+Philo, to present his philosophy, and estimate its value. So far
+from taking a Jewish standpoint in their work, they emphasized the
+parts of his teaching that are least Jewish; for they were writing
+as Christian theologians or as historians of Greek philosophy. They
+searched him primarily for traces of Christian, neo-Platonic, or
+Stoic doctrines, and commiserated with him, or criticised him as a
+weak-kneed eclectic, a half-blind groper for the true light.</p>
+<p>Even during the last hundred years, which have marked a revival
+of the historical consciousness of the Jews, as of all peoples, it
+has still been left in the main to non-Jewish scholars to write of
+Philo in relation to his time and his environment. The purpose of
+this little book is frankly to give a presentation of Philo from
+the Jewish standpoint. I hold that Philo is essentially and
+splendidly a Jew, and that his thought is through and through
+Jewish. The surname given him in the second century,
+"Jud&aelig;us," not only distinguishes him from an obscure
+Christian bishop, but it expresses the predominant characteristic
+of his teaching. It may be objected that I have pointed the moral
+and adorned the tale in accordance with preconceived opinions,
+which&mdash;as Mr. Claude <span class="newpage"><a name="page_9"
+id="page_9">[pg.9]</a></span> Montefiore says in his essay on
+Philo&mdash;it is easy to do with so strange and curious a writer.
+I confess that my worthy appeals to me most strongly as an exponent
+of Judaism, and it may be that in this regard I have not always
+looked on him as the calm, dispassionate student should; for I
+experience towards him that warmth of feeling which his name,
+<img alt="Greek: philon " src="images/image02.jpg" width="52"
+height="24">, "the beloved one," suggests. But I have tried so to
+write this biography as neither to show partiality on the one side
+nor impartiality on the other. If nevertheless I have exaggerated
+the Jewishness of my worthy's thought, my excuse must be that my
+predecessors have so often exaggerated other aspects of his
+teaching that it was necessary to call a new picture into being, in
+order to redress the balance of the old.</p>
+<p>Although I have to some extent taken a line of my own in this
+Life, my obligations to previous writers upon Philo are very great.
+I have used freely the works of Drummond, Sch&uuml;rer, Massebieau,
+Zeller, Conybeare, Cohn, and Wendland; and among those who have
+treated of Philo in relation to Jewish tradition I have read and
+borrowed from Siegfried (<i>Philon als Ausleger der heiligen
+Schrift</i>), Freudenthal (<i>Hellenistische Studien</i>), Ritter
+(<i>Philo und die Halacha</i>), and Mr. Claude Montefiore's
+<i>Florilegium Philonis</i>, which is printed in the seventh volume
+of the Jewish Quarterly Review. Once for all Mr. Montefiore has
+selected many of the most beautiful and most vital passages of
+Philo, and much as I should have liked to unearth new gems, as
+beautiful and as <span class="newpage"><a name="page_10" id=
+"page_10">[pg.10]</a></span> illuminating, I have often found
+myself irresistibly attracted to Mr. Montefiore's passages. Dr.
+Neumark's book, <i>Geschichte der j&uuml;dischen Philosophie des
+Mittelalters</i>, appeared after my manuscript was set up, or I
+should have dealt with his treatment of Philo. With what he says of
+the relation of Plato to Judaism I am in great part in agreement,
+and I had independently come to the conclusion that Plato was the
+main Greek influence on Philo's thought.</p>
+<p>To these various books I owe much, but not so much as to the
+teaching, influence, and help of one whose name I have not the
+boldness to associate with this little volume, but whose notes on
+my manuscript have given it whatever value it may possess. The
+index I owe to the kindly help of a sister, who would also be
+nameless. Lastly I have to thank Dr. Lionel Barnett, professor of
+Sanscrit at University College, London, and my father, who read my
+manuscript before it was sent to the printers. The one gave me the
+benefit of his wide and accurate scholarship, the other gave me
+much valuable advice and removed many a blazing indiscretion.</p>
+<p>NORMAN BENTWICH.</p>
+<p><i>February 28, 1907.</i> <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_11" id="page_11">[pg.11]</a></span></p>
+<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_12" id=
+"page_12">[pg.12]</a></span> <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_13" id="page_13">[pg.13]</a></span></p>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<hr style="width: 65%;">
+<h3>PHILO-JUD&AElig;US OF ALEXANDRIA</h3>
+<hr style="width: 65%;">
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<h2>I</h2>
+<p>THE JEWISH COMMUNITY AT ALEXANDRIA</p>
+<br>
+<p>The three great world-conquerors known to history, Alexander,
+Julius C&aelig;sar, and Napoleon, recognized the pre-eminent value
+of the Jew as a bond of empire, an intermediary between the
+heterogeneous nations which they brought beneath their sway. Each
+in turn showed favor to his religion, and accorded him political
+privileges. The petty tyrants of all ages have persecuted Jews on
+the plea of securing uniformity among their subjects; but the great
+conqueror-statesmen who have made history, realizing that progress
+is brought about by unity in difference, have recognized in Jewish
+individuality a force making for progress. Whereas the pure
+Hellenes had put all the other peoples of the world in the single
+category of barbarians, their Macedonian conqueror forced upon them
+a broader view, and, regarding his empire as a world-state, made
+Greeks and Orientals live together, and prepared the way for a
+mingling of races and culture. Alexander the Great became a notable
+figure in the Talmud and Midrashim, and many a marvellous legend
+was told about his passing <span class="newpage"><a name="page_14"
+id="page_14">[pg.14]</a></span> visit to Jerusalem during his march
+to Egypt.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_1_1">[1]</a> The high priest&mdash;whether it was
+Jaddua, Simon, or Onias the records do not make clear&mdash;is said
+to have gone out to meet him, and to have compelled the reverence
+and homage of the monarch by the majesty of his presence and the
+lustre of his robes. Be this as it may, it is certain that
+Alexander settled a considerable number of Jews in the Greek
+colonies which he founded as centres of cosmopolitan culture in his
+empire, and especially in the town by the mouth of the Nile that
+received his own name, and was destined to become within two
+centuries the second town in the world; second only to Rome in
+population and power, equal to it in culture. By its geographical
+position, the nature of its foundation, and the sources of its
+population, and by the wonderful organization of its Museum, in
+which the records of all nations were stored and studied,
+Alexandria was fitted to become the meeting-place of
+civilizations.</p>
+<p>There was already a considerable settlement of Jews in Egypt
+before Alexander's transplantation in 332 B.C.E. Throughout Bible
+times the connection between Israel and Egypt had been close.
+Isaiah speaks of the day when five cities in the land of Egypt
+should speak the language of Canaan and swear to the Lord of hosts
+(xix. 18); and when Nebuchadnezzar led away the first captivity,
+many of the people had fled from Palestine to the old "cradle of
+the nation." Jeremiah (xliv) went down with them <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_15" id="page_15">[pg.15]</a></span> to
+prophesy against their idolatrous practices and their backslidings;
+and Jewish and Christian writers in later times, daring boldly
+against chronology, told how Plato, visiting Egypt, had heard
+Jeremiah and learnt from him his lofty monotheism. Doubt was thrown
+in the last century upon the continuance of the Diaspora in Egypt
+between the time of Jeremiah and Alexander, but the recent
+discovery of a Jewish temple at Elephantine and of Aramaic papyri
+at Assouan dated in the fifth and fourth centuries B.C.E. has
+proved that these doubts were not well founded, and that there was
+a well-established community during the interval.</p>
+<p>From the time of the post-exilic prophets Judaism developed in
+three main streams, one flowing from Jerusalem, another from
+Babylon, the third from Egypt. Alexandria soon took precedence of
+existing settlements of Jews, and became a great centre of Jewish
+life. The first Ptolemy, to whom at the dismemberment of
+Alexander's empire Egypt had fallen,<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id=
+"FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2">[2]</a> continued to the
+Jewish settlers the privileges of full citizenship which Alexander
+had granted them. He increased also the number of Jewish
+inhabitants, for following his conquest of Palestine (or
+Coele-Syria, as it was then called), he brought back to his capital
+a large number of Jewish families and settled thirty thousand
+Jewish soldiers in garrisons. For the next hundred years the
+Palestinian and Egyptian Jews were under the same rule, and for the
+most part the Ptolemies <span class="newpage"><a name="page_16" id=
+"page_16">[pg.16]</a></span> treated them well. They were
+easy-going and tolerant, and while they encouraged the higher forms
+of Greek culture, art, letters, and philosophy, both at their own
+court and through their dominions, they made no attempt to impose
+on their subjects the Greek religion and ceremonial. Under their
+tolerant sway the Jewish community thrived, and became
+distinguished in the handicrafts as well as in commerce. Two of the
+five sections into which Alexandria was divided were almost
+exclusively occupied by them; these lay in the north-east along the
+shore and near the royal palace&mdash;a favorable situation for the
+large commercial enterprises in which they were engaged. The Jews
+had full permission to carry on their religious observances, and
+besides many smaller places of worship, each marked by its
+surrounding plantation of trees, they built a great synagogue, of
+which it is said in the Talmud, "He who has not seen it has not
+seen the glory of Israel."<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id=
+"FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3">[3]</a> It was in the
+form of a basilica, with a double row of columns, and so vast that
+an official standing upon a platform had to wave his head-cloth or
+veil to inform the people at the back of the edifice when to say
+"Amen" in response to the Reader. The congregation was seated
+according to trade-guilds, as was also customary during the Middle
+Ages; the goldsmiths, silversmiths, coppersmiths, and weavers had
+their own places, for the Alexandrian Jews seem to have partially
+adopted the Egyptian caste-system. The Jews enjoyed a large amount
+of <span class="newpage"><a name="page_17" id=
+"page_17">[pg.17]</a></span> self-government, having their own
+governor, the ethnarch, and in Roman times their own council
+(Sanhedrin), which administered their own code of laws. Of the
+ethnarch Strabo says that he was like an independent ruler, and it
+was his function to secure the proper fulfilment of duties by the
+community and compliance with their peculiar laws.<a name=
+"FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_4_4">[4]</a> Thus the people formed a sort of state
+within a state, preserving their national life in the foreign
+environment. They possessed as much political independence as the
+Palestinian community when under Roman rule; and enjoyed all the
+advantages without any of the narrowing influences, physical or
+intellectual, of a ghetto. They were able to remain an independent
+body, and foster a Jewish spirit, a Jewish view of life, a Jewish
+culture, while at the same time they assimilated the different
+culture of the Greeks around them, and took their part in the
+general social and political life.</p>
+<p>At the end of the third and the beginning of the second century
+Palestine was a shuttlecock tossed between the Ptolemies and the
+Seleucids; but in the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes (<i>c.</i> 150
+B.C.E.) it finally passed out of the power of the Ptolemaic house,
+and from this time the Palestinian Jews had a different political
+history from the Egyptian. The compulsory Hellenization by
+Antiochus aroused the best elements of the Jewish nation, which had
+seemed likely to lose by a gradual assimilation its adherence to
+pure monotheism and the Mosaic law. The struggle of <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_18" id="page_18">[pg.18]</a></span> foe as
+against the Hellenizing party of his own people, which, led by the
+high priests Jason, Menelaus, and Alcimus, tried to crush both the
+national and the religious spirit. The Maccab&aelig;an rule brought
+not only a renaissance of national life and national culture, but
+also a revival of the national religion. Before, however, the
+deliverance of the Jews had been accomplished by the noble band of
+brothers, many of the faithful Palestinian families had fled for
+protection from the tyranny of Antiochus to the refuge of his enemy
+Ptolemy Philometor. Among the fugitives were Onias and Dositheus,
+who, according to Josephus,<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id=
+"FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5">[5]</a> became the
+trusted leaders of the armies of the Egyptian monarch. Onias,
+moreover, was the rightful successor to the high-priesthood, and
+despairing of obtaining his dignity in Jerusalem, where the office
+had been given to the worthless Hellenist Alcimus, he conceived the
+idea of setting up a local centre of the Jewish religion in the
+country of his exile. He persuaded Ptolemy to grant him a piece of
+territory upon which he might build a temple for Jewish worship,
+assuring him that his action would have the effect of securing
+forever the loyalty of his Jewish subjects. Ptolemy "gave him a
+place one hundred and eighty furlongs distant from Memphis, in the
+nomos of Heliopolis, where he built a fortress and a temple, not
+like that at Jerusalem, but such as <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_19" id="page_19">[pg.19]</a></span> resembled a
+tower."<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_6_6">[6]</a> Professor Flinders Petrie has recently
+discovered remains at Tell-el-Yehoudiyeh, the "mound of the Jews,"
+near the ancient Leontopolis, which tally with the description of
+Josephus, and may be presumed to be the ruins of the temple.</p>
+<p>It is difficult to arrive at an accurate idea of the nature and
+importance of the Onias temple, because our chief authority,
+Josephus,<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_7_7">[7]</a> gives two inconsistent accounts of it, and
+the Talmud references<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id=
+"FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8">[8]</a> are equally
+involved. But certain negative facts are clear. First, the temple
+did not become, even if it were designed to be, a rival to the
+temple of Jerusalem: it did not diminish in any way the tribute
+which the Egyptian Jews paid to the sacred centre of the religion.
+They did not cease to send their tithes for the benefit of the poor
+in Jud&aelig;a, or their representatives to the great festivals,
+and they dispatched messengers each year with contributions of gold
+and silver, who, says Philo,<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id=
+"FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9">[9]</a> "travelled over
+almost impassable roads, which they looked upon as easy, in that
+they led them to piety." The Alexandrian-Jewish writers, without
+exception, are silent about the work of Onias; Philo does not give
+a single hint of it, and on the other hand speaks<a name=
+"FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_10_10">[10]</a> several times of the great <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_20" id="page_20">[pg.20]</a></span>
+national centre at Jerusalem as "the most beautiful and renowned
+temple which is honored by the whole East and West." The Egyptian
+Jews, according to Josephus, claimed that the prophecy of Isaiah
+had been accomplished, "that there shall be an altar to the Lord in
+the midst of the land of Egypt" (Is. xix. 19). But the altar, it
+has recently been suggested,<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id=
+"FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11">[11]</a> was rather
+a "Bamah" (a high place) than a temple. It served as a temporary
+sanctuary while the Jerusalem temple was defiled, and afterwards it
+was a place where the priestly ritual was carried out day by day,
+and offerings were brought by those who could not make the
+pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Though the synagogue was the main seat of
+religious life in the Diaspora, there was still a desire for the
+sacrificial worship, and for a long time the rabbis looked with
+favor upon the establishment of Onias. But when the tendency to
+found a new ritual there showed itself, they denied its
+holiness.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_12_12">[12]</a> The religious importance of the temple,
+however, was never great, and its chief interest is that it shows
+the survival of the affection for the priestly service among the
+Hellenized community, and helps therefore to disprove the myth that
+the Alexandrians allegorized away the Levitical laws.</p>
+<p>During the checkered history of Egypt in the first century
+B.C.E., when it was in turn the plaything of the corrupt Roman
+Senate, who supported the claims <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_21" id="page_21">[pg.21]</a></span> of a series of feeble
+puppet-Ptolemies, the prize of the warriors, who successively
+aspired to be masters of the world, Julius C&aelig;sar, Mark
+Antony, and Octavian, and finally a province of the Roman Empire,
+the political and material prosperity of the Alexandrian Jews
+remained for the most part undisturbed. Julius C&aelig;sar and
+Augustus, who everywhere showed special favor to their Jewish
+subjects, confirmed the privileges of full citizenship and limited
+self-government which the early Ptolemies had bestowed.<a name=
+"FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_13_13">[13]</a> Josephus records a letter of Augustus to
+the Jewish community at Cyrene, in which he ordains: "Since the
+nation of the Jews hath been found grateful to the Roman people, it
+seemed good to me and my counsellors that the Jews have liberty to
+make use of their own customs, and that their sacred money be not
+touched, but sent to Jerusalem, and that they be not obliged to go
+before the judge on the Sabbath day nor on the day of preparation
+for it after the ninth hour," <i>i.e.</i>, after the early
+evening.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_14_14">[14]</a> This decree is typical of the emperor's
+attitude to his Jewish subjects; and Egypt became more and more a
+favored home of the race, so that the Jewish population in the
+land, from the Libyan desert to the border of Ethiopia, was
+estimated in Philo's time at not less than one million.<a name=
+"FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_15_15">[15]</a></p>
+<p>The prosperity and privileges of the Jews, combined with their
+peculiar customs and their religious <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_22" id="page_22">[pg.22]</a></span> separateness, did not
+fail at Alexandria, as they have not failed in any country of the
+Diaspora, to arouse the mixed envy and dislike of the rude
+populace, and give a handle to the agitations of self-seeking
+demagogues. The third book of the Maccabees tells of a Ptolemaic
+persecution during which Jewish victims were turned into the arena
+at Alexandria, to be trodden down by elephants made fierce with the
+blood of grapes, and of their deliverance by Divine Providence.
+Some fiction is certainly mixed with this recital, but it may well
+be that during the rule of the stupid and cruel usurper Ptolemy
+Physcon (<i>c.</i> 120 B.C.E.) the protection of the royal house
+was for political reasons removed for a time from the Jews.
+Josephus<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_16_16">[16]</a> relates that the anniversary of the
+deliverance was celebrated as a festival in Egypt. The popular
+feeling against the peculiar people was of an abiding character,
+for it had abiding causes, envy and dislike of a separate manner of
+life; and the professional anti-Semite,<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id=
+"FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17">[17]</a> who had his
+forerunners before the reign of the first Ptolemy, was able from
+time to time to fan popular feelings into flame. In those days,
+when history and fiction were not clearly distinguished, he was apt
+to hide his attacks under the guise of history, and stir up odium
+by scurrilous and offensive accounts of the ancient Hebrews. Hence
+anti-Jewish literature originated at Alexandria.</p>
+<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_23" id=
+"page_23">[pg.23]</a></span> Manetho, an historian of the second
+century B.C.E., in his chronicles of Egypt, introduced an
+anti-Jewish pamphlet with an original account of the Exodus, which
+became the model for a school of scribes more virulent and less
+distinguished than himself. The Battle of Histories was taken up
+with spirit by the Jews, and it was round the history of the
+Israelites in Egypt that the conflict chiefly raged. In reply to
+the offensive picture of a Manetho and the diatribes of some
+"starveling Greekling," there appeared the eulogistic picture of an
+Aristeas, the improved Exodus of an Artapanus. Joseph and Moses
+figured as the most brilliant of Egyptian statesmen, and the
+Ptolemies as admirers of the Scriptures. The morality of this
+apologetic literature, and more particularly of the literary
+forgeries which formed part of it, has been impugned by certain
+German theologians. But apart from the necessities of the case, it
+is not fair to apply to an age in which Cicero declared that
+artistic lying was legitimate in history, the standard of modern
+German accuracy. The fabrications of Jewish apologists were in the
+spirit of the time.</p>
+<p>The outward history of the Alexandrian community is far less
+interesting and of far less importance than its intellectual
+progress. When Alexander planted the colony of Jews in his greatest
+foundation, he probably intended to facilitate the fusion of
+Eastern and Western thought through their mediation. Such, at any
+rate, was the result of his work. His marvellous exploits had put
+an end for a time to the political strife between Asia and Europe,
+and had <span class="newpage"><a name="page_24" id=
+"page_24">[pg.24]</a></span> started the movement between the two
+realms of culture, which was fated to produce the greatest
+combination of ideas that the world has known. Now, at last, the
+Hebrew, with his lofty conception of God, came into close contact
+with the Greek, who had developed an equally noble conception of
+man. Disraeli, in his usual sweeping manner, makes one of his
+characters in "Lothair" tell how the Aryan and Semitic races, after
+centuries of wandering upon opposite courses, met again and,
+represented by their two choicest families, the Hellenes and the
+Hebrews, brought together the treasures of their accumulated wisdom
+and secured the civilization of man. Apart from the question of the
+original common source, of which we are no longer sure, his
+rhetoric is broadly true; but for two centuries the influence was
+nearly all upon one side. The Jew, attracted by the brilliant art,
+literature, science, and philosophy of the Hellene, speedily
+Hellenized, and as early as the third century B.C.E. Clearchus, the
+pupil of Aristotle, tells of a Jew whom his master met, who was
+"Greek not only in language but also in mind."<a name=
+"FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_18_18">[18]</a> The Greek, on the other hand, who had
+not yet comprehended the majesty of his neighbor's monotheism, for
+lack of adequate presentation, did not Hebraize. In Palestine the
+adoption of Greek ways and the introduction of Greek ideas
+proceeded rapidly to the point of demoralization, until the
+Maccabees stayed it. Unfortunately, the Hellenism that was brought
+to Palestine was not <span class="newpage"><a name="page_25" id=
+"page_25">[pg.25]</a></span> the lofty culture, the eager search
+for truth and knowledge, that marked Athens in the classical age;
+it was a bastard product of Greek elegance and Oriental luxury and
+sensuousness, a seeking after base pleasures, an assertion of
+naturalistic polytheism. And hence came the strong reaction against
+Greek ideas among the bulk of the people, which prevented any
+permanent fusion of cultures in the land of Israel.</p>
+<p>The Hellenism of Alexandria was a more genuine product. The
+liberal policy of the early Ptolemies made their capital a centre
+of art, literature, science, and philosophy. To their court were
+gathered the chief poets, savants, and thinkers of their age. The
+Museum was the most celebrated literary academy, and the Library
+the most noted collection of books in the world. Dwelling in this
+atmosphere of culture and research, the Hebrew mind rapidly
+expanded and began to take its part as an active force in
+civilization. It acquired the love of knowledge in a wider sense
+than it had recognized before, and assimilated the teachings of
+Hellas in all their variety. Within a hundred years of their
+settlement Hebrew or Aramaic had become to the Jews a strange
+language, and they spoke and thought in Greek. Hence it was
+necessary to have an authoritative Greek translation of the Holy
+Scriptures, and the first great step in the Jewish-Hellenistic
+development is marked by the Septuagint version of the Bible.</p>
+<p>Fancy and legend attached themselves early to an <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_26" id="page_26">[pg.26]</a></span> event
+fraught with such importance for the history of the race and
+mankind as the translation of the Scriptures into the language of
+the cultured world. From this overgrowth it is difficult to
+construct a true narrative; still, the research of latter-day
+scholars has gone far to prove a basis of truth in the statements
+made in the famous letter of the pseudo-Aristeas, which professes
+to describe the origin of the work. We may extract from his story
+that the Septuagint was written in the reign of Ptolemy
+Philadelphus, about 250 B.C.E., with the approval, if not at the
+express request, of the king, and with the help of rabbis brought
+from Palestine to give authority to the work. But we need not
+believe with later legend that each of the seventy translators was
+locked up in a separate cell for seventy days till he had finished
+the whole work, and that when they were let out they were all found
+to have written exactly the same words. Philo gives us a version of
+the event, romantic, indeed, but more rational, in his "Life of
+Moses."<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_19_19">[19]</a> He tells how Ptolemy, having conceived a
+great admiration for the laws of Moses, sent ambassadors to the
+high priest of Juddea, requesting him to choose out a number of
+learned men that might translate them into Greek. "These were duly
+chosen, and came to the king's court, and were allotted the Isle of
+Pharos as the most tranquil spot in the city for carrying out their
+work; by God's grace they all found the exact Greek words to
+correspond <span class="newpage"><a name="page_27" id=
+"page_27">[pg.27]</a></span> to the Hebrew words, so that they were
+not mere translators, but prophets to whom it had been granted to
+follow in the divinity of their minds the sublime spirit of Moses."
+"On which account," he adds, "even to this day there is in every
+year celebrated a festival in the Island of Pharos, to which not
+only Jews but many persons of other nations sail across,
+reverencing the place in which the light of interpretation first
+shone forth, and thanking God for His ancient gift to man, which
+has eternal youth and freshness." It is significant that Philo
+makes no mention in his books of the festival of Hanukah, while the
+Talmud has no mention of this feast of Pharos; the Alexandrian Jews
+celebrated the day when the Bible was brought within reach of the
+Greek world, the Palestinians the day when the Greeks were driven
+out of the temple. At the same time the celebrations in honor of
+the Septuagint and of the deliverance from the Ptolemaic
+persecution<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id=
+"FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20">[20]</a> are
+remarkable illustrations of a living Jewish tradition at
+Alexandria, which attached a religious consecration to the special
+history of the community.</p>
+<p>It is not correct to say with Philo that the translator rendered
+each word of the Hebrew with literal faithfulness, so as to give
+its proper force. Rather may we accept the words of the Greek
+translator of Ben Sira: "Things originally spoken in Hebrew have
+not the same force in them when they are translated into another
+tongue, and not only these, but the law itself <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_28" id="page_28">[pg.28]</a></span> (the
+Torah) and the prophecies and the rest of the books have no small
+difference when they are spoken in their original
+language."<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_21_21">[21]</a></p>
+<p>From the making of the translation one can trace the movement
+that ended in Christianity. By reading their Scriptures in Greek,
+Jews began to think them in Greek and according to Greek
+conceptions. Certain commentators have seen in the Septuagint
+itself the infusion of Greek philosophical ideas. Be this as it
+may, it is certain that the version facilitated the introduction of
+Greek philosophy into the interpretation of Scripture, and gave a
+new meaning to certain Hebraic conceptions, by suggesting
+comparison with strange notions. This aspect of the work led the
+rabbis of Palestine and Babylon in later days, when the spread of
+Hellenized Judaism was fraught with misery to the race, to regard
+it as an awful calamity, and to recount a tale of a plague of
+darkness which fell upon Palestine for three days when it was
+made;<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_22_22">[22]</a> and they observed a fast day in place of
+the old Alexandrian feast on the anniversary of its completion.
+They felt as the old Italian proverb has it, <i>Traduttori,
+traditori!</i> ("Translators are traitors!"). And the Midrash in
+the same spirit declares<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id=
+"FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23">[23]</a> that the
+oral law was not written down, because God knew that otherwise it
+would be translated into Greek, and He wished it to be the special
+mystery of His people, as the Bible no longer was. <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_29" id="page_29">[pg.29]</a></span> The
+Septuagint translation of the Bible was one answer to the lying
+accounts of Israel's early history concocted by anti-Semitic
+writers. As we have seen,<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id=
+"FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24">[24]</a> the
+Alexandrian Jews began early to write histories and re-edit the
+Bible stories to the same purpose. And for some time their writings
+were mainly apologetic, designed, whatever their form, to serve a
+defensive purpose. But later they took the offensive against the
+paganism and immorality of the peoples about them, and the
+missionary spirit became predominant. Alexander Polyhistor, who
+lived in the first century, included in his "History of the Jews"
+fragments of these early Jewish historians and apologists, which
+the Christian bishop Eusebius has handed down to us. From them we
+can gather some notion of the strange medley of fact and
+imagination which was composed to influence the Gentile world.
+Abraham is said to have instructed the Egyptians in astrology;
+Joseph devised a great system of agriculture; Moses was identified
+variously with the legendary Greek seer Musaeus and the god Hermes.
+A favorite device for rebutting the calumnies of detractors and
+attracting the outer world to Jewish ideas, was the attachment to
+some ancient source of panegyrics upon Judaism and monotheism. To
+the Greek philosopher Heraclitus and the Greek historian
+Hecat&aelig;eus, who wrote a history of the world, passages which
+glorify the Hebrew people and the Hebrew God were ascribed. Still
+more daring was <span class="newpage"><a name="page_30" id=
+"page_30">[pg.30]</a></span> the conversion into archaic hexameter
+verse of the stories of Genesis and Exodus, and of Messianic
+prophecies in the guise of Sibylline oracles. The Sibyl, whom the
+superstitions of the time revered as an inspired seeress of
+prehistoric ages, was made to recite the building of the tower of
+Babel, or the virtues of Abraham, and again to prophesy the day
+when the heathen nations should be wiped out, and the God of Israel
+be the God of all the world. Although the fabrication of oracles is
+not entirely defensible, it is unnecessary to see, with
+Sch&uuml;rer, in these writings a low moral standard among the
+Egyptian Jews. They were not meant to suggest, to the cultured at
+any rate, that the Sibyl in one case or Heraclitus in another had
+really written the words ascribed to them. The so-called forgery
+was a literary device of a like nature with the dialogues of Plato
+or the political fantasies of More and Swift. By the striking
+nature of their utterances the writers hoped to catch the ear of
+the Gentile world for the saving doctrine which they taught. The
+form is Greek, but the spirit is Hebraic; in the third Sibylline
+oracle, particularly, the call to monotheism and the denunciation
+of idolatry, with the pictures of the Divine reward for the
+righteous, and of the Divine judgment for the ungodly, remind us of
+the prophecies of Isaiah and Jeremiah; as when the poet
+says,<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_25_25">[25]</a> "Witless mortals, who cling to an image
+that ye have fashioned to be your god, why do ye vainly go astray,
+and march along a path which is <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_31" id="page_31">[pg.31]</a></span> not straight? Why
+remember ye not the eternal founder of All? One only God there is
+who ruleth alone." And again: "The children of Israel shall mark
+out the path of life to all mortals, for they are the interpreters
+of God, exalted by Him, and bearing a great joy to all
+mankind."<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_26_26">[26]</a> The consciousness of the Jewish mission
+is the dominant note. Masters now of Greek culture, the Jews
+believed that they had a philosophy of their own, which it was
+their privilege to teach to the Greeks; their conception of God and
+the government of the world was truer than any other; their
+conception of man's duty more righteous; even their conception of
+the state more ideal.</p>
+<p>The apocryphal book, the Wisdom of Solomon, which was probably
+written at Alexandria during the first century B.C.E., is marked by
+the same spirit. There again we meet with the glorification of the
+one true God of Israel, and the denunciation of pagan idolatry; and
+while the author writes in Greek and shows the influence of Greek
+ideas, he makes the Psalms and the Proverbs his models of literary
+form. "Love righteousness," he begins, "ye that be judges of the
+earth; think ye of the Lord with a good mind and in singleness of
+heart seek ye Him." His appeal for godliness is addressed to the
+Gentile world in a language which they understood, but in a spirit
+to which most of them were strangers. The early history of the
+Israelites in Egypt comes home to him <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_32" id="page_32">[pg.32]</a></span> with
+especial force, for he sees it "in the light of eternity," a
+striking moral lesson for the godless Egyptian world around him in
+which the house of Jacob dwelt again. With poetical imagination he
+tells anew the story of the ten plagues as though he had lived
+through them, and seen with his own eyes the punishment of the
+idolatrous land. He ends with a p&aelig;an to the God who had saved
+His people. "For in all things Thou didst magnify them, and Thou
+didst glorify them, and not lightly regard them, standing by their
+side in every time and place."</p>
+<p>At this epoch, and at Alexandria especially, Judaism was no
+self-centred, exclusive faith afraid of expansion. The mission of
+Israel was a very real thing, and conversion was widespread in
+Rome, in Egypt, and all along the Mediterranean countries. The
+Jews, says the letter of Aristeas, "eagerly seek intercourse with
+other nations, and they pay special care to this, and emulate each
+other therein." And one of the most reliable pagan writers says of
+them, "They have penetrated into every state, and it is hard to
+find a place where they have not become powerful."<a name=
+"FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_27_27">[27]</a> Nor was it merely material power which
+they acquired. The days had come which the prophet Amos (viii. 11)
+had predicted, when "God will send a famine in the land, not a
+famine of bread, nor a thirst for water, but a famine of hearing
+the words of the Lord." The Greek world had lost faith in the
+poetical gods of its <span class="newpage"><a name="page_33" id=
+"page_33">[pg.33]</a></span> mythology and in the metaphysical
+powers of its philosophical schools, and was searching for a more
+real object to revere and lean on. The people were thirsting for
+the living God. And in place of the gods of nature, whom they had
+found unsatisfying, or the impersonal world-force, with which they
+sought in vain to come into harmony, the Jews offered them the God
+of history, who had preserved their race through the ages, and
+revealed to them the law of Moses.</p>
+<p>The missionary purpose was largely responsible for the rise of a
+philosophical school of Bible commentators. The Hellenistic world
+was thoroughly sophisticated, and Alexandria was distinguished
+above all towns as the home of philosophical lectures and
+book-making. One of Philo's contemporaries is said to have written
+over one thousand treatises, and in one of his rare touches of
+satire Philo relates<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id=
+"FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28">[28]</a> how bands
+of sophists talked to eager crowds of men and women day and night
+about virtue being the only good, and the blessedness of life
+according to nature, all without producing the slightest effect,
+save noise. The Jews also studied philosophy, and began to talk in
+the catchwords of philosophy, and then to re-interpret their
+Scriptures according to the ideas of philosophy. The Septuagint
+translation of the Pentateuch was to the cultured Gentile an
+account in rather bald and impure Greek of the history of a family
+which grew into a petty nation, and of their tribal and national
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_34" id=
+"page_34">[pg.34]</a></span> laws. The prophets, it is true, set
+forth teachings which were more obviously of general moral import;
+but the books of the prophets were not God's special revelation to
+the Jews, but rather individual utterances and exhortations: and
+their teaching was treated as subordinate to the Divine revelation
+in the Five Books of Moses. Those, then, who aimed at the spread of
+Jewish monotheism were impelled to draw out a philosophical
+meaning, a universal value from the Books of Moses. Nowadays the
+Bible is the holy book of so much of the civilized world that it is
+somewhat difficult for us to form a proper conception of what it
+was to the civilized world before the Christian era. We have to
+imagine a state of culture in which it was only the Book of books
+to one small nation, while to others it was at best a curious
+record of ancient times, just as the Code of Hammurabi or the
+Egyptian Book of Life is to us. The Alexandrian Jews were the first
+to popularize its teachings, to bring Jewish religion into line
+with the thought of the Greek world. It was to this end that they
+founded a particular form of Midrash&mdash;the allegorical
+interpretation, which is largely a distinctive product of the
+Alexandrian age. The Palestinian rabbis of the time were on the one
+hand developing by dialectic discussion the oral tradition into a
+vast system of religious ritual and legal jurisprudence; on the
+other, weaving around the law, by way of adornment to it, a
+variegated fabric of philosophy, fable, allegory, and legend.
+Simultaneously the Alexandrian preachers&mdash;they <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_35" id="page_35">[pg.35]</a></span> were
+never quite the same as the rabbis&mdash;were emphasizing for the
+outer world as well as their own people the spiritual side of the
+religion, elaborating a theology that should satisfy the reason,
+and seeking to establish the harmony of Greek philosophy with
+Jewish monotheism and the Mosaic legislation. Allegorical
+interpretation is "based upon the supposition or fiction that the
+author who is interpreted intended something 'other' <img alt=
+"Greek: allo " src="images/image03.jpg" width="55" height="20">
+than what is expressed"; it is the method used to read thought into
+a text which its words do not literally bear, by attaching to each
+phrase some deeper, usually some philosophical meaning. It enables
+the interpreter to bring writings of antiquity into touch with the
+culture of his or any age; "the gates of allegory are never closed,
+and they open upon a path which stretches without a break through
+the centuries." In the region of jurisprudence there is an
+institution with a similar purpose, which is known as "legal
+fiction," whereby old laws by subtle interpretation are made to
+serve new conditions and new needs. Allegorical interpretation must
+be carefully distinguished from the writing of allegory, of which
+Bunyan's "Pilgrim's Progress" is the best-known type. One is the
+converse of the other; for in allegories moral ideas are
+represented as persons and moral lessons enforced by what purports
+to be a story of life. In allegorical interpretation persons are
+transformed into ideas and their history into a system of
+philosophy. The Greek philosophers had applied this method to Homer
+since the <span class="newpage"><a name="page_36" id=
+"page_36">[pg.36]</a></span> fourth century B.C.E., in order to
+read into the epic poet, whose work they regarded almost as a
+Divine revelation, their reflective theories of the universe. And
+doubtless the Jewish philosophers were influenced by their
+example.</p>
+<p>Their allegorical treatment of the Bible was intended, not
+merely to adapt it to the Greek world, but to strengthen its hold
+on the Alexandrian Jews themselves. These, as they acquired
+Hellenic culture, found that the Bible in its literal sense did not
+altogether satisfy their conceptions. They detected in it a certain
+primitiveness, and having eaten further of the tree of knowledge,
+they were aware of its philosophical nakedness. It was full of
+anthropomorphism, and it seemed wanting in that which the Greek
+world admired above all things&mdash;a systematic theology and
+systematic ethics. The idea that the words of the Bible contained
+some hidden meanings goes back to the earliest Jewish tradition and
+is one of the bases of the oral law; but the special characteristic
+of the Alexandrian exegesis is that it searched out theories of God
+and life like those which the Greek philosophers had developed. The
+device was necessary to secure the allegiance of the people to the
+Torah. And from the need of expounding the Bible in this way to the
+Jewish public at Alexandria, there arose a new form of religious
+literature, the sermon, and a new form of commentary, the
+homiletical. The words "homiletical" and "homily" suggest what they
+originally connoted; they are derived from the Greek word <img alt=
+"Greek: homilia " src="images/image04.jpg" width="55" height="22">,
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_37" id=
+"page_37">[pg.37]</a></span> "an assembly," and a homily was a
+discourse delivered to an assembly. The Meturgeman of Palestine and
+Babylon, who expounded the Hebrew text in Aramaic, became the
+preacher of Alexandria, who gave, in Greek, of course, homiletical
+expositions of the law. In the great synagogue each Sabbath some
+leader in the community would give a harangue to the assembly,
+starting from a Biblical text and deducing from it or weaving into
+it the ideas of Hellenic wisdom, touched by Jewish influence; for
+the synagogues at Alexandria as elsewhere were the schools
+(<i>Schule</i>) as much as the houses of prayer; schools, as Philo
+says, of "temperance, bravery, prudence, justice, piety, holiness,
+and in short of all virtues by which things human and Divine are
+well ordered."<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id=
+"FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29">[29]</a> He speaks
+repeatedly of the Sabbath gatherings, when the Jews would become,
+as he puts it, a community of philosophers,<a name="FNanchor_30_30"
+id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30">[30]</a> as they
+listened to the exegesis of the preacher, who by allegorical and
+homiletical fancies would make a verse or chapter of the Torah live
+again with a new meaning to his audience. The Alexandrian Jews,
+though the form of their writing was influenced by the Greeks,
+probably brought with them from Palestine primitive traces of
+allegorism. Allegory and its counterpart, allegorical
+interpretation, are deeply imbedded in the Oriental mind, and we
+hear of ancient schools of symbolists in the oldest portions of the
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_38" id=
+"page_38">[pg.38]</a></span> Talmud.<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id=
+"FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31">[31]</a> At what
+period the Alexandrians began to use allegorical interpretation for
+the purpose of harmonizing Greek ideas with the Bible we do not
+know, but the first writer in this style of whom we have record
+(though scholars consider that his fragments are of doubtful
+authenticity) is Aristobulus. He is said to have been the tutor of
+Ptolemy Philometor, and he must have written at the beginning of
+the first century B.C.E. He dedicated to the king his "Exegesis of
+the Mosaic Law," which was an attempt to reveal the teachings of
+the Peripatetic system, <i>i.e.</i>, the philosophy of Aristotle,
+within the text of the Pentateuch. All anthropomorphic expressions
+are explained away allegorically, and God's activity in the
+material universe is ascribed to his <img alt="Greek: Dunamis" src=
+"images/image05.jpg" width="73" height="17"> or power, which
+pervades all creation. Whether the power is independent and treated
+as a separate person is not clear from the fragments that
+Eusebius<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_32_32">[32]</a> has preserved for us. Aristobulus was
+only one link in a continuous chain, though his is the only name
+among Philo's predecessors that has come down to us. Philo speaks,
+fifteen times in all, of explanations of allegorists who read into
+the Bible this or that system of thought<a name="FNanchor_33_33"
+id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33">[33]</a>
+regarding the words of the law as "manifest symbols of things
+invisible and hints of things inexpressible." And if their work
+were <span class="newpage"><a name="page_39" id=
+"page_39">[pg.39]</a></span> before us, it is likely that Philo
+would appear as the central figure of an Alexandrian Midrash
+gathered from many sources, instead of the sole authority for a
+vast development of the Torah. We must not regard him as a single
+philosophical genius who suddenly springs up, but as the
+culmination of a long development, the supreme master of an old
+tradition.</p>
+<p>If the allegorical method appears now as artificial and frigid,
+it must be remembered that it was one which recommended itself
+strongly to the age. The great creative era of the Greek mind had
+passed away with the absorption of the city-state in Alexander's
+empire. Then followed the age of criticism, during which the works
+of the great masters were interpreted, annotated, and compared.
+Next, as creative thought became rarer, and confidence in human
+reason began to be shaken, men fell back more and more for their
+ideas and opinions upon some authority of the distant past, whom
+they regarded as an inspired teacher. The sayings of Homer and
+Pythagoras were considered as divinely revealed truths; and when
+treated allegorically, they were shown to contain the philosophical
+tenets of the Platonic, the Aristotelian, or the Stoic school.
+Thus, in the first century B.C.E., the Greek mind, which had
+earlier been devoted to the free search for knowledge and truth,
+was approaching the Hebraic standpoint, which considered that the
+highest truth had once for all been revealed to mankind in inspired
+writings, and that the duty of later generations was to interpret
+this revealed doctrine rather than <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_40" id="page_40">[pg.40]</a></span> search independently for
+knowledge. On the other hand, the Jewish interpreters were trying
+to reach the Greek standpoint when they set themselves to show that
+the writers of the Bible had anticipated the philosophers of Hellas
+with systems of theology, psychology, ethics, and cosmology.
+Allegorism, it may be said, is the instrument by which Greek and
+Hebrew thought were brought together. Its development was in its
+essence a sign of intellectual vigor and religious activity; but in
+the time of Philo it threatened to have one evil consequence, which
+did in the end undermine the religion of the Alexandrian community.
+Some who allegorized the Torah were not content with discovering a
+deeper meaning beneath the law, but went on to disregard the
+literal sense, <i>i.e.</i>, they allegorized away the law, and held
+in contempt the symbolic observance to which they had attached a
+spiritual meaning. On the other hand, there was a party which
+adhered strictly to the literal sense <img alt=
+"Greek: to hr&ecirc;ton" src="images/image06.jpg" width="86"
+height="24"> and rejected allegorism.<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id=
+"FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34">[34]</a> Philo
+protested against these extremes and was the leader of those who
+were liberal in thought and conservative in practice, and who
+venerated the law both for its literal and for its allegorical
+sense. To effect the true harmony between the literal and the
+allegorical sense of the Torah, between the spiritual and the legal
+sides of Judaism, between Greek philosophy and revealed
+religion&mdash;that was the great work of Philo-Jud&aelig;us.
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_41" id=
+"page_41">[pg.41]</a></span> Though the religious and intellectual
+development of the Alexandrian community proceeded on different
+lines from that of the main body of the nation in Palestine, yet
+the connection between the two was maintained closely for
+centuries. The colony, as we have noticed, recognized
+whole-heartedly the spiritual headship of Jerusalem, and at the
+great festivals of the year a deputation went from Alexandria to
+the holy sanctuary, bearing offerings from the whole community. In
+Jerusalem, on the other hand, special synagogues, where Greek was
+the language,<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id=
+"FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35">[35]</a> were built
+for Alexandrian visitors. Alexandrian artisans and craftsmen took
+part in the building of Herod's temple, but were found inferior to
+native workmen.<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id=
+"FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36">[36]</a> The notices
+within the building were written in Greek as well as in Aramaic,
+and the golden gates to the inner court were, we are told by
+Josephus,<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_37_37">[37]</a> the gift of Philo's brother, the head of
+the Alexandrian community. Some fragments have come down to us of a
+poem about Jerusalem in Greek verse by a certain Philo, who lived
+in the first century B.C.E., and was perhaps an ancestor of our
+worthy. He glorifies the Holy City, extols its fertility, and
+speaks of its ever-flowing waters beneath the earth. His greater
+namesake says that wherever the Jews live they consider Jerusalem
+as their metropolis. The Talmud again <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_42" id="page_42">[pg.42]</a></span> tells
+how Judah Ben Tabbai and Joshua Ben Perahya, during the persecution
+of the Pharisees by Hyreanus, fled to Alexandria, and how later
+Joshua Ben Hanania<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id=
+"FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38">[38]</a> sojourned
+there and gave answers to twelve questions which the Jews
+propounded to him, three of them dealing with "the Wisdom." The
+Talmud has frequent reference to Alexandrian Jews, and that it
+makes little direct mention of the Alexandrian exegesis is
+explained by the distrust of the whole Hellenistic movement, which
+the rise of Christianity and the growth of Gnosticism induced in
+the rabbis of the second and third centuries. They lived at a time
+when it had been proved that that movement led away from Judaism,
+and its main tenets had been adopted or perverted by an
+antagonistic creed. It was a tragic necessity which compelled the
+severance between the Eastern and Western developments of the
+religion. In Philo's day the breach was already threatened, through
+the anti-legal tendencies of the extreme allegorists. His own aim
+was to maintain the catholic tradition of Judaism, while at the
+same time expounding the Torah according to the conceptions of
+ancient philosophy. Unfortunately, the balance was not preserved by
+those who followed him, and the branch of Judaism that had
+blossomed forth so fruitfully fell off from the parent tree. But
+till the middle of the first century of the common era the
+Alexandrian and the Palestinian developments of Jewish <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_43" id="page_43">[pg.43]</a></span> culture
+were complementary: on the one side there was legal, on the other,
+philosophical expansion. Moreover, the Jud&aelig;o-Alexandrian
+school, though, through its abandonment of the Hebrew tongue, it
+lies outside the main stream of Judaism, was an immense force in
+the religious history of the world, and Philo, its greatest figure,
+stands out in our annals as the embodiment of the Jewish religious
+mission, which is to preach to the nations the knowledge of the one
+God, and the law of righteousness. <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_44" id="page_44">[pg.44]</a></span></p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;">
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<a name="II" id="II"></a>
+<h2>II</h2>
+<p>THE LIFE AND TIMES OF PHILO</p>
+<br>
+<p>"The hero," says Carlyle, "can be poet, prophet, king, priest,
+or what you will, according to the kind of world he finds himself
+born into."<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id=
+"FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39">[39]</a> The Jews
+have not been a great political people, but their excellence has
+been a peculiar spiritual development: and therefore most of their
+heroes have been men of thought rather than action, writers rather
+than statesmen, men whose influence has been greater on posterity
+than upon their own generation. Of Philo's life we know one
+incident in very full detail, the rest we can only reconstruct from
+stray hints in his writings, and a few short notices of the
+commentators. From that incident also, which we know to have taken
+place in the year 40 C.E., we can fix the general chronology of his
+life and works. He speaks of himself as an old man in relating it,
+so that his birth may be safely placed at about 20 B.C.E. The first
+part of his life therefore was passed during the tranquil era in
+which Augustus and Tiberius were reorganizing the Roman Empire
+after a half-century of war; but he was fated to see more
+troublesome times for his people, when the emperor Gaius, for a
+miserable eight years, harassed the world with his mad escapades.
+In the riots which ensued upon the attempt to deprive the Jews of
+their religious freedom his brother the alabarch was <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_45" id="page_45">[pg.45]</a></span>
+imprisoned;<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id=
+"FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40">[40]</a> and he
+himself was called upon to champion the Alexandrian community in
+its hour of need. Although the ascent of the stupid but honest
+Claudius dispelled immediate danger from the Jews and brought them
+a temporary increase of favor in Alexandria as well as in
+Palestine, Philo did not return entirely to the contemplative life
+which he loved; and throughout the latter portion of his life he
+was the public defender as well as the teacher of his people. He
+probably died before the reign of Nero, between 50 and 60 C.E. In
+Jewish history his life covered the reigns of King Herod, his sons,
+and King Agrippa, when the Jewish kingdom reached its height of
+outward magnificence; and it extended probably up to the ill-omened
+conversion of Jud&aelig;a into a Roman province under the rule of a
+procurator. It is noteworthy also that Philo was partly
+contemporary with Hillel, who came from Babylon to Jerusalem in 30
+B.C.E., and according to the accepted tradition was president of
+the Sanhedrin till his death in 10 C.E. In this epoch Judaism, by
+contact with external forces, was thoroughly self-conscious, and
+the world was most receptive of its teaching; hence it spread
+itself far and wide, and at the same time reached its greatest
+spiritual intensity. Hillel and Philo show the splendid expansion
+of the Hebrew mind. In the history of most races national greatness
+and national genius appear together. The two grandest expressions
+of Jewish genius immediately <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_46" id="page_46">[pg.46]</a></span> preceded the national
+downfall. For the genius of Judaism is religious, and temporal
+power is not one of the conditions of its development.</p>
+<p>Philo belonged to the most distinguished Jewish family of
+Alexandria,<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id=
+"FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41">[41]</a> and
+according to Jerome and Photius, the ancient authorities for his
+life, was of the priestly rank; his brother Alexander Lysimachus
+was not only the governor of the Jewish community, but also the
+alabarch, <i>i.e.</i>, ruler of the whole Delta region, and enjoyed
+the confidence of Mark Antony, who appointed him guardian of his
+second daughter Antonia, the mother of Germanicus and the Roman
+emperor Claudius. Born in an atmosphere of power and affluence,
+Philo, who might have consorted with princes, devoted himself from
+the first with all his soul to a life of contemplation; like a
+Palestinian rabbi he regarded as man's highest duty the study of
+the law and the knowledge of God.<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id=
+"FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42">[42]</a> This is the
+way in which he understood the philosopher's life<a name=
+"FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_43_43">[43]</a>: man's true function is to know God, and
+to make God known: he can know God only through His revelation, and
+he can comprehend that revelation only by continued study.
+<img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image07.jpg" width="100" height=
+"14">, God's interpreter must have a wise heart,<a name=
+"FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_44_44">[44]</a> as the rabbis explained. Philo then
+considered that the true understanding of the law required a
+complete knowledge of general culture, and that secular philosophy
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_47" id=
+"page_47">[pg.47]</a></span> was a necessary preparation for the
+deeper mysteries of the Holy Word. "He who is practicing to abide
+in the city of perfect virtue, before he can be inscribed as a
+citizen thereof, must sojourn with the 'encyclic' sciences, so that
+through them he may advance securely to perfect goodness."<a name=
+"FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_45_45">[45]</a> The "encyclic," or encyclop&aelig;dic
+sciences, to which he refers, are the various branches of Greek
+culture, and Philo finds a symbol of their place in life in the
+story of Abraham. Abraham is the eternal type of the seeker after
+God, and as he first consorted with the foreign woman Hagar and had
+offspring by her, and afterwards in his mature age had offspring by
+Sarah, so in Philo's interpretation the true philosopher must first
+apply himself to outside culture and enlarge his mind with that
+training; and when his ideas have thus expanded, he passes on to
+the more sublime philosophy of the Divine law, and his mind is
+fruitful in lofty thoughts.<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id=
+"FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46">[46]</a></p>
+<p>As a prelude to the study of Greek philosophy he built up a
+harmony of the mind by a study of Greek poetry, rhetoric, music,
+mathematics, and the natural sciences. His works bear witness to
+the thoroughness with which he imbibed all that was best in Greek
+literature. His Jewish predecessors had written in the impure
+dialect of the Hellenistic colonies (the <img alt=
+"Greek: koin&ecirc; dialektos" src="images/image08.jpg" width="142"
+height="19">, and had shown little literary charm; but Philo's
+style is more graceful than that of any Greek prose writer since
+the golden age of the fourth <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_48" id="page_48">[pg.48]</a></span> century. Like his
+thought, indeed, it is eclectic and not always clear, but full of
+reminiscences of the epic and tragic poets on the one hand, and of
+Plato on the other,<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id=
+"FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47">[47]</a> it gives a
+happy blending of prose and poetry, which admirably fits the
+devotional philosophy that forms its subject. And what was said of
+Plato by a Greek critic applies equally well to Philo: "He rises at
+times above the spirit of prose in such a way that he appears to be
+instinct, not with human understanding, but with a Divine oracle."
+From the study of literature and kindred subjects Philo passed on
+to philosophy, and he made himself master of the teachings of all
+the chief schools. There was a mingling of all the world's wisdom
+at Alexandria in his day; and Philo, like the other philosophers of
+the time, shows acquaintance with the ideas of Egyptian, Chaldean,
+Persian,<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_48_48">[48]</a> and even Indian thought. The chief Greek
+schools in his age were the Stoic, the Platonic, the Skeptic and
+the Pythagorean, which had each its professors in the Museum and
+its popular preachers in the public lecture-halls. Later we will
+notice more closely Philo's relations to the Greek philosophers:
+suffice it here to say that he was the most distinguished Platonist
+of his age.</p>
+<p>Philo's education therefore was largely Greek, and his method of
+thought, and the forms in which his ideas were associated and
+impressed, were Greek. It <span class="newpage"><a name="page_49"
+id="page_49">[pg.49]</a></span> must not be thought, however, that
+this involved any weakening of his Judaism, or detracted from the
+purity of his belief. Far from it. The Torah remained for him the
+supreme standard to which all outside knowledge had to be
+subordinated, and for which it was a preparation.<a name=
+"FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_49_49">[49]</a> But Philo brought to bear upon the
+elucidation of the Torah and Jewish law and ceremony not only the
+religious conceptions of the Jewish mind, but also the intellectual
+ideas of Greek philosophy, and he interpreted the Bible in the
+light of the broadest culture of his day. Beautiful as are the
+thoughts and fancies of the Talmudic rabbis, their Midrash was a
+purely national monument, closed by its form as by its language to
+the general world; Philo applied to the exposition of Judaism the
+most highly-trained philosophic mind of Alexandria, and brought out
+clearly for the Hellenistic people the latent philosophy of the
+Torah.</p>
+<p>Greek was his native language, but at the same time he was not,
+as has been suggested, entirely ignorant of Hebrew. The Septuagint
+translation was the version of the Bible which he habitually used,
+but there are passages in his works which show that he knew and
+occasionally employed the Hebrew Bible.<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id=
+"FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50">[50]</a> Moreover,
+his etymologies are evidence of his knowledge of the Hebrew
+language; though he sometimes gives a symbolic value to Biblical
+names according to <span class="newpage"><a name="page_50" id=
+"page_50">[pg.50]</a></span> their Greek equivalent, he more
+frequently bases his allegory upon a Hebrew derivation. That all
+names had a profound meaning, and signified the true nature of that
+which they designated, is among the most firmly established of
+Philo's ideas. Of his more striking derivations one may cite
+Israel, <img alt="Hebrew: " src="images/image09.jpg" width="73"
+height="22"> the man who beholdeth God; Jerusalem, <img alt=
+"Hebrew; " src="images/image10.jpg" width="73" height="25">, the
+sight of peace; Hebrew, <img alt="Hebrew; " src=
+"images/image11.jpg" width="46" height="22"> one who has passed
+over from the life of the passions to virtue; Isaac, <img alt=
+"Hebrew; " src="images/image12.jpg" width="51" height="25"> the joy
+or laughter of the soul. These etymologies are more ingenious than
+convincing, and are not entirely true to Hebrew philology, but
+neither were those of the early rabbis; and they at least show that
+Philo had acquired a superficial knowledge of the language of
+Scripture. Nor can it be doubted that he was acquainted with the
+Palestinian Midrash, both Halakic and Haggadic. At the beginning of
+the "Life of Moses" he declares that he has based it upon "many
+traditions which I have received from the elders of my
+nation,"<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_51_51">[51]</a> and in several places he speaks of the
+"ancestral philosophy," which must mean the Midrash which embodied
+tradition. Eusebius also, the early Christian authority, bears
+witness to his knowledge of the traditional interpretations of the
+law.<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_52_52">[52]</a></p>
+<p>It is fairly certain, moreover, that Philo sojourned some time
+in Jerusalem. He was there probably during the reign of Agrippa
+(<i>c.</i> 30 C.E.), who was an <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_51" id="page_51">[pg.51]</a></span> intimate friend of his
+family, and had found a refuge at Alexandria when an exile from
+Palestine and Rome. In the first book on the Mosaic laws<a name=
+"FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_53_53">[53]</a> Philo speaks with enthusiasm of the
+great temple, to which "vast assemblies of men from a countless
+variety of cities, some by land, some by sea, from East, West,
+North, and South, come at every festival as if to some common
+refuge and harbor from the troubles of this harassed and anxious
+life, seeking to find there tranquillity and gain a new hope in
+life by its joyous festivities." These gatherings, at which,
+according to Josephus,<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id=
+"FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54">[54]</a> over two
+million people assembled, must, indeed, have been a striking symbol
+of the unity of the Jewish race, which was at once national and
+international; magnificent embassies from Babylon and Persia, from
+Egypt and Cyrene, from Rome and Greece, even from distant Spain and
+Gaul, went in procession together through the gate of Xistus up the
+temple-mount, which was crowned by the golden sanctuary, shining in
+the full Eastern sun like a sea of light above the town. Philo
+describes in detail the form of the edifice that moved the
+admiration of all who beheld it, and for the Jew, moreover, was
+invested with the most cherished associations. Its outer courts
+consisted of double porticoes of marble columns burnished with
+gold, then came the inner courts of simple columns, and "within
+these stood the temple itself, beautiful beyond all possible
+description, as one may <span class="newpage"><a name="page_52" id=
+"page_52">[pg.52]</a></span> tell even from what is seen in the
+outer court; for the innermost sanctuary is invisible to every
+being except the high priest." The majesty of the ceremonial within
+equalled the splendor without. The high priest, in the words of Ben
+Sira (xlv), "beautified with comely ornament and girded about with
+a robe of glory," seemed a high priest fit for the whole world.
+Upon his head the mitre with a crown of gold engraved with
+holiness, upon his breast the mystic Urim and Thummim and the ephod
+with its twelve brilliant jewels, upon his tunic golden
+pomegranates and silver bells, which for the mystic ear pealed the
+harmony of the world as he moved. Little wonder that, inspired by
+the striking gathering and the solemn ritual, Philo regarded the
+temple as the shrine of the universe,<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id=
+"FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55">[55]</a> and thought
+the day was near when all nations should go up there together, to
+do worship to the One God.</p>
+<p>Sparse as are the direct proofs of Philo's connection with
+Palestinian Judaism, his account of the temple and its service,
+apart from the general standpoint of his writings, proves to us
+that he was a loyal son of his nation, and loved Judaism for its
+national institutions as well as its great moral sublimity. His
+aspiration was to bring home the truths of the religion to the
+cultured world, and therefore he devised a new expression for the
+wisdom of his people, and transformed it into a literary system.
+Judaism forms the kernel, but Greek philosophy and literature the
+shell, <span class="newpage"><a name="page_53" id=
+"page_53">[pg.53]</a></span> of his work; for the audience to which
+he appealed, whether Jewish or Gentile, thought in Greek, and would
+be moved only by ideas presented in Greek form, and by Greek models
+he himself was inspired.</p>
+<p>Philo's first ideal of life was to attain to the profoundest
+knowledge of God so as to be fitted for the mission of interpreting
+His Word: and he relates in one of his treatises how he spent his
+youth and his first manhood in philosophy and the contemplation of
+the universe.<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id=
+"FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56">[56]</a> "I feasted
+with the truly blessed mind, which is the object of all desire
+(<i>i.e.</i>, God), communing continually in joy with the Divine
+words and doctrines. I entertained no low or mean thought, nor did
+I ever crawl about glory or wealth or worldly comfort, but I seemed
+to be carried aloft in a kind of spiritual inspiration and to be
+borne along in harmony with the whole universe." The intense
+religious spirit which seeks to perceive all things in a supreme
+unity Philo shares with Spinoza, whose life-ideal was the
+intuitional knowledge of the universe and "the intellectual love of
+God." Both men show the pursuit of righteousness raised to
+philosophical grandeur.</p>
+<p>In his early days the way to virtue and happiness appeared to
+Philo to lie in the solitary and ascetic life. He was possessed by
+a noble pessimism, that the world was an evil place,<a name=
+"FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_57_57">[57]</a> and the worldly life an <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_54" id="page_54">[pg.54]</a></span> evil
+thing for a man's soul, that man must die to live, and renounce the
+pleasures not only of the body but also of society in order to know
+God. The idea was a common one of the age, and was the outcome of
+the mingling of Greek ethics and psychology and the Jewish love of
+righteousness. For the Greek thinkers taught a psychological
+dualism, by which the body and the senses were treated as
+antagonistic to the higher intellectual soul, which was immortal,
+and linked man with the principle of creation. The most remarkable
+and enduring effect of Hellenic influence in Palestine was the rise
+of the sect of Essenes,<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id=
+"FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58">[58]</a> Jewish
+mystics, who eschewed private property and the general social life,
+and forming themselves into communistic congregations which were a
+sort of social Utopia, devoted their lives to the cult of piety and
+saintliness. It cannot be doubted that their manner of life was to
+some degree an imitation of the Pythagorean brotherhoods, which
+ever since the sixth century had spread a sort of monasticism
+through the Greek world. Nor is it unlikely that Hindu teachings
+exercised an influence over them, for Buddhism was at this age,
+like Judaism, a missionizing religion, and had teachers in the
+West. Philo speaks in several places of its doctrines.<a name=
+"FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_59_59">[59]</a> Whatever its moulding influences,
+Essenism represented the spirit of the age, and it spread far and
+wide. At Alexandria, above all places, where the life of luxury and
+dissoluteness <span class="newpage"><a name="page_55" id=
+"page_55">[pg.55]</a></span> repelled the serious, ascetic ideas
+took firm hold of the people, and the Therapeutic life,
+<i>i.e.</i>, the life of prayer and labor devoted to God, which
+corresponded to the system of the Essenes, had numerous votaries.
+The first century witnessed the extremes of the religious and
+irreligious sentiments. The world was weary and jaded; it had lost
+confidence in human reason and faith in social ideals, and while
+the materialists abandoned themselves to hideous orgies and sensual
+debaucheries, the higher-minded went to the opposite excess and
+sought by flight from the world and mortification of the flesh to
+attain to supernatural states of ecstasy. A book has come down to
+us under the name of Philo<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id=
+"FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60">[60]</a> which
+describes "the contemplative life" of a Jewish brotherhood that
+lived apart on the shores of Lake Mareotis by the mouth of the
+Nile. Men and women lived in the settlement, though all intercourse
+between the sexes was rigidly avoided. During six days of the week
+they met in prayer, morning and evening, and in the interval
+devoted themselves in solitude to the practice of virtue and the
+study of the holy allegories, and the composition of hymns and
+psalms. On the Sabbath they sat in common assembly, but with the
+women separated from the men, and listened to the allegorical
+homily of an elder; they paid special honor to the Feast of
+Pentecost, reverencing the mystical attributes of the number fifty,
+and they celebrated a religious banquet <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_56" id="page_56">[pg.56]</a></span>
+thereon. During the rest of the year they only partook of the
+sustenance necessary for life, and thus in their daily conduct
+realized the way which the rabbis set out as becoming for the study
+of the Torah: "A morsel of bread with salt thou must eat, and water
+by measure thou must drink; thou must sleep upon the ground and
+live a life of hardship, the while thou toilest in the
+Torah."<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_61_61">[61]</a></p>
+<p>We do not know whether Philo attached himself to one of these
+brotherhoods of organized solitude, or whether he lived even more
+strictly the solitary life out in the wilderness by himself.
+Certainly he was at one period in sympathy with ascetic ideas. It
+seemed to him that as God was alone, so man must be alone in order
+to be like God.<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id=
+"FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62">[62]</a> In his
+earlier writings he is constantly praising the ascetic life, as a
+means, indeed, to virtue rather than as a good in itself, and as a
+helpful discipline to the man of incomplete moral strength, though
+inferior to the spontaneous goodness which God vouchsafes to the
+righteous. Isaac is the type of this highest bliss, while the life
+of Jacob is the type of the progress to virtue through
+asceticism.<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id=
+"FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63">[63]</a> The flight
+from Laban represents the abandonment of family and social life for
+the practical service of God, and as Jacob, the ascetic, became
+Israel, "the man who beholdeth God," so Philo determined "to scorn
+delights and live laborious days" in order to be drawn <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_57" id="page_57">[pg.57]</a></span> nearer
+to the true Being. But he seems to have been disappointed in his
+hopes, and to have discovered that the attempt to cut out the
+natural desires of man was not the true road to righteousness. "I
+often," he says,<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id=
+"FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64">[64]</a> "left my
+kindred and friends and fatherland, and went into a solitary place,
+in order that I might have knowledge of things worthy of
+contemplation, but I profited nothing: for my mind was sore tempted
+by desire and turned to opposite things. But now, sometimes even
+when I am in a multitude of men, my mind is tranquil, and God
+scatters aside all unworthy desires, teaching me that it is not
+differences of place which affect the welfare of the soul, but God
+alone, who knows and directs its activity howsoever he
+pleases."</p>
+<p>The noble pessimism of Philo's early days was replaced by a
+noble optimism in his maturity, in which he trusted implicitly in
+God's grace, and believed that God vouchsafed to the good man the
+knowledge of Himself without its being necessary for him to inflict
+chastisements upon his body or uproot his inclinations. In this
+mood moderation is represented as the way of salvation; the
+abandonment of family and social life is selfish, and betrays a
+lack of the humanity which the truly good man must possess.<a name=
+"FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_65_65">[65]</a> Of Philo's own domestic life we catch
+only a fleeting glimpse in his writings. He realized the place of
+woman in the home; "her absence is its destruction," <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_58" id="page_58">[pg.58]</a></span><br>
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">he said; and of his wife it is
+told in another of the "Fragments"</span><br>
+that when asked one day in an assembly of women why she alone did
+not wear any golden ornament, she replied, "The virtue of a husband
+is a sufficient ornament for his wife."</p>
+<p>Though in his maturity Philo renounced the ascetic life, his
+ideal throughout was a mystical union with the Divine Being. To a
+certain school of Judaism, which loves to make everything rational
+and moderate, mysticism is alien; it was alien indeed to the
+Sadducee realist and the Karaite literalist; it was alien to the
+systematic Aristotelianism of Maimonides, and it is alien alike to
+Western orthodox and Reform Judaism. But though often obscured and
+crushed by formal systems, mysticism is deeply seated in the
+religious feelings, and the race which has developed the Cabbalah
+and Hasidism cannot be accused of lack of it. Every great religion
+fosters man's aspiration to have direct communion with God in some
+super-rational way. Particularly should this be the case with a
+religion which recognizes no intermediary. The Talmudic conceptions
+of <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image13.jpg" width="208" height=
+"21">, the Divine Presence, and <img alt="Hebrew; " src=
+"images/image14.jpg" width="100" height="22"> the holy spirit,
+which was vouchsafed to the saint, certainly are mystic, and at
+Alexandria similar ideas inspired a striking development. Once
+again we can trace the fertilizing influence of Greek ideas. Even
+when the old naturalistic cults had flourished in Greece, and
+political life had provided a worthy goal for man, mystical beliefs
+and ceremonies had a powerful <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_59" id="page_59">[pg.59]</a></span> attracion for the
+Hellene; and, when the belief in the old gods had been shattered,
+and with the national greatness the liberal life of the State had
+passed away, he turned more and more to those rites which professed
+to provide healing and rest for the sickening soul. Many of the
+Alexandrian Jews must have been initiated into these Greek
+mysteries, for Philo introduces into his exegesis of the law of
+Moses an ordinance forbidding the practice.<a name="FNanchor_66_66"
+id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66">[66]</a> He
+himself advocates a more spiritual mysticism, and it is a cardinal
+principle of his philosophy to treat the human soul as a god within
+and its absorption in the universal Godhead as supreme bliss, the
+end of all endeavor. He claimed to have attained, himself, to this
+union, and to have received direct inspiration. Giving a Greek
+coloring to the Hebrew notion of prophecy, "My soul," he says, "is
+wont to be affected with a Divine trance and to prophesy about
+things of which it has no knowledge"<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id=
+"FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67">[67]</a>.... "Many a
+time have I come with the intention of writing, and knowing exactly
+what I ought to set down, but I have found my mind barren and
+fruitless, and I have gone away with nothing done, but at times I
+have come empty, and suddenly been full, for ideas were invisibly
+rained down upon me from above, so that I was seized by a Divine
+frenzy, and was lost to everything, place, people, self, speech,
+and thought. I had gotten a stream of interpretation, <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_60" id="page_60">[pg.60]</a></span> a gift
+of light, a clear survey of things, the clearest that eye can
+give."<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_68_68">[68]</a></p>
+<p>In his "Guide of the Perplexed,"<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id=
+"FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69">[69]</a> Maimonides
+describes the various degrees of the <img alt="Hebrew; " src=
+"images/image14.jpg" width="100" height="22">, or what we call
+religious "genius," with which man may be blessed. He distinguishes
+between the man who possesses it only for his own exaltation, and
+the man who feels himself compelled to impart it to others for
+their happiness. To this higher order of genius Philo advanced in
+his maturity. He consciously regarded himself as a follower of
+Moses, who was the perfect interpreter of God's thought. So he,
+though in a lesser degree, was an inspired interpreter, a
+hierophant (as he expressed it in the language of the Greek
+mystics) who expounded the Divine Word to his own generation by the
+gift of the Divine wisdom. When he had fled from Alexandria, to
+secure virtue by contemplation, he had as his final goal the
+attainment of the true knowledge of God, and as he advanced in age,
+he advanced in decision and authority. He was conscious of his
+philosophic grasp of the Torah, and the diffidence with which he
+allegorized in his early works gave place to a serene confidence
+that he had a lesson for his own and for future generations. Hoping
+for the time when Judaism should be a world-religion, he spoke his
+message for Jew and Gentile. We can imagine him preaching on
+Sabbaths to the <span class="newpage"><a name="page_61" id=
+"page_61">[pg.61]</a></span> great congregation which filled the
+synagogue at Alexandria, and on other days of the week expounding
+his philosophical ideas to a smaller circle which he collected
+around him.</p>
+<p>Essentially, then, he was a philosopher and a teacher, but he
+was called upon to play a part in the world of action. Following
+the passage already quoted, wherein Philo speaks of the blessings
+of the life of contemplation that he had led in the past,<a name=
+"FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_70_70">[70]</a> he goes on to relate how that "envy, the
+most grievous of all evils, attacked me, and threw me into the vast
+sea of public affairs, in which I am still tossed about without
+being able to make my way out." A French scholar<a name=
+"FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_71_71">[71]</a> conjectures that this is only a
+metaphorical way of saying that he was forced into some public
+office, probably, a seat in the Alexandrian Sanhedrin; and he
+ascribes the language to the bitter disappointment of one who was
+devoted to philosophical pursuits and found himself diverted from
+them. Philo's language points rather to duties which he was
+compelled to undertake less congenial than those of a member of the
+Sanhedrin would have been; and probably must refer to the polemical
+activity which he was called upon to exert in defending his people
+against misrepresentation and persecution. During the reign of
+Augustus and the early years of Tiberius (30 B.C.E.-20 C.E.) the
+Roman provinces were firmly ruled, and <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_62" id="page_62">[pg.62]</a></span> the
+governors were as firmly controlled by the emperor. To Rectus, who
+was the prefect of Egypt till 14 C.E., and who was removed for
+attempted extortion, Tiberius addressed the rebuke, "I want my
+sheep to be shorn, not strangled." But when Tiberius fell under the
+influence of Sejanus, and left to his hated minister the active
+control of the empire, harder times began for the provincials, and
+especially for the Jews. Sejanus was an upstart, and like most
+upstarts a tyrant; and for some reason&mdash;it may be jealousy of
+the power of the Jews at Rome&mdash;he hated the Jewish race and
+persecuted it. The great opponent of Sejanus was Antonia, the ward
+of Philo's brother, and a loyal friend to his people; and this,
+too, may have incited Sejanus' ill-feeling. Whatever the reason,
+the Alexandrian Jews felt the heavy hand, and when Philo came to
+write the story of his people in his own times, he devoted one book
+to the persecution by Sejanus. Unfortunately it has not survived,
+but veiled hints of the period of stress through which the people
+passed are not wanting in the commentary on the law.</p>
+<p>There were always anti-Semites spoiling for a fight at
+Alexandria, and there was always inflammable material which they
+could stir up. The Egyptian populace were by nature, says Philo,
+"jealous and envious, and were filled moreover with an ancient and
+inveterate enmity towards the Jews,"<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id=
+"FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72">[72]</a> and of the
+degenerate Greek population, many were anxious from motives
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_63" id=
+"page_63">[pg.63]</a></span> of private gain as well as from
+religious enmity to incite an outbreak; since the Jews were wealthy
+and the booty would be great. Among the cultured, too, there was
+one philosophical school powerful at Alexandria, which maintained a
+persistent attitude of hostility towards the Jews. The chief
+literary anti-Semites of whom we have record at this period were
+Stoics, and it is probably their "envy" to which Philo refers when
+he complains of being drawn into the sea of politics. In writings
+and in speeches the Stoic leaders Apion and Ch&aelig;remon carried
+on a campaign of misrepresentation, and sought to give their
+attacks a fine humanitarian justification by drawing fancy pictures
+of the Jewish religion and Jewish laws. The Jews worshipped the
+head of an ass,<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id=
+"FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73">[73]</a> they hated
+the Gentiles, and would have no communication with them, they
+killed Gentile children at the Passover, and their law allowed them
+to commit any offences against all but their own people, and
+inculcated a low morality. When it was not morally bad, it was
+degraded and superstitious. Whereas the modern anti-Semite usually
+complains about Jewish success and dangerous cleverness, Apion
+accused them of having produced no original ideas and no great men,
+and no citizen as worthy of Alexandria as himself! Against these
+charges Philo, the most philosophical Jew of the time and the most
+distinguished member of the Alexandrian <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_64" id="page_64">[pg.64]</a></span>
+community, was called upon to defend his people, and that part of
+his works which Eusebius calls <img alt="Greek: Hypotheticha" src=
+"images/image15.jpg" width="84" height="19">; <i>i.e.</i>
+apologetics, was probably written in reply to the Stoic attacks.
+The hatred of the Stoics was a religious hatred, which is the
+bitterest of all; the Stoics were the propagators of a rival
+religious system, which had originally been founded by Hellenized
+Semites and borrowed much from Semitic sources. They had their
+missionaries everywhere and aspired to found a universal
+philosophical religion. In their proselytizing activity they tried
+to assimilate to their pantheism the mythological religion of the
+masses, and thus they became the philosophical supporters of
+idolatry. Their greatest religious opponents were the Jews, who not
+only refused to accept their teachings, but preached to the nations
+a transcendental monotheism against their impersonal and
+accommodating pantheism, and a divinely-revealed law of conduct
+against their vague natural reason. In the Stoic pantheism the
+first stand of the pagan national deities was made against the God
+of Israel, and at Alexandria during the first century the fight
+waxed fierce. It was a fight of ideas in which persons only were
+victims, but at the back of the intermittent persecutions of which
+we have record we may always surmise the influence of the Stoic
+anti-Semites. The war of words translated itself from time to time
+into the breaking of heads.</p>
+<p>Philo, indeed, never mentions Apion by name, but he refers
+covertly in many places to his insolence and <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_65" id="page_65">[pg.65]</a></span>
+unscrupulousness.<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id=
+"FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74">[74]</a> Josephus
+wrote a famous reply to his attacks, refuting "his vulgar abuse,
+gross ignorance and demagogic claptrap,"<a name="FNanchor_75_75"
+id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75">[75]</a> and the
+fact that a Palestinian Jew thought this apology necessary, proves
+the wide dissemination of the poison. The disgrace and death of
+Sejanus seem to have brought a relief from actual persecution to
+the Alexandrian Jews; but the ill-will between the two races in the
+city smouldered on, and it only required a weakening of the
+controlling hand at Rome to set the passions aflame again. Right
+through Philo's treatise "On the Confusion of Tongues," we can
+trace the tension. As soon as Gaius, surnamed Caligula, came to the
+imperial chair, the opportunity of the anti-Semites returned.
+Gaius, after reigning well a few months, fell ill, was seized with
+madness, and proved how much evil can be done in a short space by
+an imbecile autocrat. Flaccus, the governor of Egypt, who had
+hitherto ruled fairly, hoping to ingratiate himself by misrule,
+allowed himself to be led by worthless minions, who, from motives
+of private greed, desired a riot at Alexandria; he was won over by
+the anti-Semites and gave the mob a free hand in their attacks upon
+the "alien Jews."<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id=
+"FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76">[76]</a> The arrival
+of Agrippa, the grandson of Herod, who was on his way to his
+kingdom of Palestine, which the capricious emperor had just
+conferred upon him, excited the ill-will of the Alexandrian
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_66" id=
+"page_66">[pg.66]</a></span> mob. Flaccus looked on while the
+people attacked the Jewish quarters, sacked the houses, and
+assailed everyone that came within their reach. The most
+distinguished Jews were not spared, and thirty members of the
+Council of Elders were dragged to the marketplace and scourged.
+Philo's account gives a picture strikingly similar to that of a
+modern pogrom. The brutal indifference of Flaccus did not indeed
+avail to ingratiate him with the emperor, and he was recalled to
+Italy, exiled, and afterwards executed.</p>
+<p>The recall of Flaccus did not, however, put an end to the
+troubles; the mob had got out of hand, the anti-Semitic demagogues
+were elated, and a fresh opportunity for outrage soon presented
+itself. The mad emperor, having exhausted ordinary human follies,
+went on to imagine himself first a god and then the Supreme God,
+and finally ordered his image to be set up in every temple
+throughout his dominion. The Jews could not obey the order, and the
+mob rushed into fresh excesses upon them, defiled the synagogues
+with images of the lunatic, and in the great synagogue itself set
+up a bronze statue of him, inscribed with the name of Jupiter. With
+bitterness Philo points out that it was easy enough for the vile
+Egyptians, who worshipped reptiles and beasts, to erect a statue of
+the emperor in their temples; for the Jews, with their lofty idea
+of God, it was impossible. Against the attack upon their liberty of
+conscience they appealed directly to Gaius. An embassy was sent to
+lay their case before him, and Philo went to Italy at the
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_67" id=
+"page_67">[pg.67]</a></span> head of the embassy. "He who is
+learned, gentle, and modest, and who is beloved of men, he shall be
+leader in the city." So said one of the rabbis of old, and the
+maxim is especially appropriate to Philo, who in name and deed was
+"beloved of men." Philo has left us a very full account of his
+mission, so that this incident of his life is a patch of bright
+light, which stands out almost glaringly from the general shadow.
+The account is not merely, nor, indeed, entirely history. Looking
+always for a sermon or a subject for a philosophical lesson, Philo
+has tricked out the record of the facts with much moralizing
+observation on the general lot of mankind, and elaborated the part
+of Providence more in the spirit of religious romance than of
+scientific history. Yet the main facts are clear. Philo prepared a
+long philosophical "apologia" for the Jews and set out with five
+colleagues for Italy. Nor were the enemies of the Jews remiss; and
+Apion, the Alexandrian anti-Semite, was sent at the head of a
+hostile deputation. The emperor, Gaius, was in one of his most
+flippant moods and little inclined to listen to philosophical or
+literary disquisitions. At first he received the Jewish deputation
+in a friendly way, and led them to think that he was favorable; but
+when they came to plead their cause, they had a rude awakening.
+Philo, who was not likely to appreciate the bitter humor of the
+situation, tells<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id=
+"FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77">[77]</a> with
+gravity that he expected that <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_68" id="page_68">[pg.68]</a></span> the emperor would hear
+the two contending parties in all proper judicial form, but that in
+fact he behaved like an insolent, overbearing tyrant. The
+audience&mdash;if it can be so called&mdash;took place in the
+gardens of the palace, and the emperor dragged the unfortunate
+deputation after him about the place, while he gave orders to his
+gardeners, builders, and workmen. Whenever they tried to put
+forward their arguments, he would rush ahead, enjoying the fright
+and dismay of his helpless victims. At times he would stop to make
+some ribald and jeering remark, as, "Why don't you eat pork, you
+fools?" at which the Egyptians following loudly applauded. Philo
+and his comrades, half-dead with agony, could only pray; and in
+response to the prayer, says our moralizing chronicler, the
+emperor's heart was turned to pity, so that he dismissed them
+without giving any hostile answer. According to Josephus, he drove
+them away in a passion, and Philo had to cheer his companions by
+assuring them of the Divine aid.<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id=
+"FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78">[78]</a></p>
+<p>The affair was a pathetic farce, and the Jewish actors in it had
+a sorry time. The people about the palace, taking their lead from
+the emperor, treated them as clowns, and hissed and mocked them,
+and even beat them. The scene is somewhat revolting when one
+conjures up the picture of the aged Jewish philosopher being
+roughly handled by the set of ruffians and impudent slaves who
+surrounded a Roman emperor. Happily Gaius jeered once too often in
+his <span class="newpage"><a name="page_69" id=
+"page_69">[pg.69]</a></span> mad life. One Chaerea, a Roman of
+position, nursed an insult of the emperor, and stabbed him shortly
+after these events; and the world had the respite of a tolerably
+sane emperor before the crowning horror of Nero was let loose upon
+it.</p>
+<p>The murder of the capricious tyrant released not only the Jews
+of Alexandria, but also the Jews of Palestine, from the burden of
+fear for their religion. The order had been given to set up a
+bronze statue of the emperor in the temple; the Roman governor
+Petronius was averse to obeying the edict, but the emperor
+insisted. King Agrippa, who had been but lately advanced by him to
+the kingdom of Jud&aelig;a, interceded zealously on behalf of his
+people. Philo gives us an account of this appeal by the Jewish
+king,<a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_79_79">[79]</a> which recalls at every turn the scenes
+of the book of Esther. We have again the fasting, the banquet, the
+emperor's request, the appeal of the royal favorite for his people.
+One higher critic, indeed, has been found to suggest that the
+Biblical book really relates Agrippa's intercession at Rome
+disguised in the setting of a Persian story. Agrippa secured for a
+short time the rescission of the fateful decree, but the capricious
+madman soon returned to his old frame of mind, and ordered his
+image to be set up immediately. Had not his death intervened, there
+would certainly have been rebellion in Palestine. As it was, the
+great revolt was postponed for thirty years. For a little the Jews
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_70" id=
+"page_70">[pg.70]</a></span> prevailed over their adversaries; the
+anti-Semitic influences were put down in Jud&aelig;a and in
+Alexandria, and in both places "there was light and joy and
+gladness for the Jews." Their political privileges were reaffirmed
+by imperial decree, and Philo's brother Alexander, who had been
+imprisoned, was restored to honor.<a name="FNanchor_80_80" id=
+"FNanchor_80_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80_80">[80]</a> "It is
+fitting," ran the rescript of Claudius, "to permit the Jews
+everywhere under our sway to observe their ancient customs without
+hindrance. And I charge them to use my indulgence with moderation,
+and not to show contempt for the religious rites of other
+peoples."</p>
+<p>The note of triumph rings through the political references to be
+found in the last parts of Philo's allegorical commentary, and no
+doubt it was accentuated in the lost book which he added as an
+epilogue, or palinode, to his history of the embassy. God had again
+preserved his people, and discomfited their foes;
+recently-discovered papyri have revealed that the arch
+anti-Semites, Isidorus and Lampon, were tried at Rome and executed.
+Claudius was well-disposed to the Jewish race, and before the final
+storm there was a calm. Howbeit, after the death of Agrippa, in 44
+C.E., Jud&aelig;a became a Roman province, and under the rapacious
+governorship of Felix Florus and Cestius Gallus, the hostility of
+the people to the Romans grew more and more bitter. But in
+Alexandria there was tranquillity, or at least we know of no
+disquieting events during the next decade. <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_71" id="page_71">[pg.71]</a></span> "Old
+age," said Philo, "is an unruffled harbor,"<a name="FNanchor_81_81"
+id="FNanchor_81_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_81">[81]</a> and the
+saying refers possibly to his own experience. For he must have died
+full of years and full of honors. Through his life he was the
+spiritual and philosophical guide, and finally he had become the
+champion of his people against their persecutors, giving dignity to
+their cause and inspiring respect even in their enemies. He was
+happy in the time of his death, for he did not live to see the
+destruction of the national home of his people and of that temple
+which he had loved to contemplate as the future centre of a
+universal religion. The disintegration of his own community at
+Alexandria followed full soon on the greater disaster; the temple
+of Onias was dismantled and interdicted against Jewish worship by
+Vespasian in the year 73 C.E., and though, as has been noted, this
+was not in itself of great importance, it is symbolic of the
+uprooting of national life in the Diaspora as well as in Palestine
+itself. On the downfall of Jerusalem in 70 C.E. many of the extreme
+anti-Roman party, known as the Zealots, fled to Alexandria and
+stirred up rebellion and dissension. Nothing but disaster could
+have attended the outbreak, but it is a sad reflection that the
+governor who put it down and ruthlessly exterminated the rebels was
+none other than Tiberius Alexander, the nephew of Philo, who was in
+turn procurator of Jud&aelig;a and Egypt. By another irony of
+history he had in the previous year been largely instrumental in
+securing for Vespasian, <span class="newpage"><a name="page_72" id=
+"page_72">[pg.72]</a></span> who was besieging Jerusalem, the
+imperial throne of Rome.<a name="FNanchor_82_82" id=
+"FNanchor_82_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82_82">[82]</a> With him
+ends our knowledge of Philo's family, and it ends significantly
+with one who has ceased to be a Jew. The ruin of the
+Jewish-Alexandrian community was completed by a desperate revolt in
+the reign of Trajan, 114-117 C.E., after which they were deprived
+of their chief political privileges; and finally, after incessant
+conflicts with the Christians, they were expelled from the city by
+the all-powerful Bishop Cyril (415 C.E.).</p>
+<p>Philo himself passed out of Jewish tradition within a short
+time, to become a Christian worthy. The destruction of the nation
+and the gradual severance of the Christian heresy from the main
+community compelled the abandonment of missionary activity and
+distrust of the work of its exponents. The dangerous aspect of the
+Alexandrian development was revealed. Its philosophical
+allegorizing might attract the Gentile to the Jewish Scriptures,
+but it also led the Jew away from his special conduct of life. The
+Alexandrian Church, which claimed to continue the tradition of
+Philo, departed further and further from the Jewish standpoint, and
+formulated a dogmatic creed that was utterly opposed to Jewish
+monotheism. A philosophical Judaism for the whole world was a
+splendid ideal, but unfortunately in Philo's time it was incapable
+of accomplishment. The result of the attempt to found it was the
+establishment of a religion in which, together with the adoption of
+Hebraic <span class="newpage"><a name="page_73" id=
+"page_73">[pg.73]</a></span> teachings about God, certain ideas of
+Alexandrian mysticism became stereotyped as dogmas, and Jewish law
+was abrogated. When Babylon replaced Palestine as the centre of
+Jewish intellect, the works of Philo, like the rest of the
+Hellenistic-Jewish literature, written as they were in a strange
+tongue, fell into disuse, and before long were entirely forgotten.
+The Christians, on the other hand, found in Philo a notable
+evidence for many of their beliefs and a philosophical testimony
+for the dogmas of their creed. They claimed him as their own, and
+the Church Fathers, to bind him more closely to their tradition,
+invented fables of his meeting with Peter at Rome and Mark at
+Alexandria, They traced, in the treatise "On the Contemplative
+Life," a record of early Christian monastic communities, and on
+account of this book especially regarded Philo almost with the
+reverence of an apostle. To the Christian theologians of Alexandria
+we owe it that the interpretation of Judaism to the Hellenic world
+in the light of Hellenic philosophy has been preserved. Of the two
+Jewish philosophers who have made a great contribution to the
+world's intellectual development, Spinoza was excommunicated in his
+lifetime, and Philo suffered moral excommunication after his death.
+The writings of both exercised their chief influence outside the
+community; but the emancipated Jewry of our own day can in either
+case recognize the worth of the thinker, and point with pride to
+the saintliness of the man. <span class="newpage"><a name="page_74"
+id="page_74">[pg.74]</a></span></p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;">
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<a name="III" id="III"></a>
+<h2>III</h2>
+<p>PHILO'S WORKS AND METHOD</p>
+<br>
+<p>The first thing that strikes a reader of Philo is the great
+volume of his work: he is the first Jewish writer to produce a
+large and systematic body of writings, the first to develop
+anything in the nature of a complete Jewish philosophy. He had
+essentially the literary gift, the capacity of giving lasting
+expression to his own thought and the thought of his generation.
+Treating him merely as a man of letters, he is one of the chief
+figures in Greek literature of the first century. We have extant
+over forty books of his composition, and nearly as many again have
+disappeared. His works are one and all expositions of Judaism, but
+they fall into six distinct classes of exegesis:</p>
+<p>I. The allegorical commentary, or "Allegories of the Laws,"
+which is a series of philosophical treatises based upon continuous
+texts in Genesis, from the first to the eighteenth chapter.
+Together with this, the best authorities place the two remaining
+books on the "Dreams of the Bible," which are a portion of a larger
+work, and deal allegorically with the dreams of Jacob and
+Joseph.</p>
+<p>II. The Midrashic commentary on the Five Books of Moses, for
+which we have no single name, but <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_75" id="page_75">[pg.75]</a></span> which was clearly
+intended to be an ethical and philosophical treatise upon the whole
+law.</p>
+<p>III. A commentary in the form of "Questions and Answers to
+Genesis and Exodus," which is incomplete now, and save for detached
+fragments exists only in a Latin translation. In its original form
+it provided a short running exegesis, verse by verse, to the whole
+of the first three books of the Pentateuch, and was contained in
+twelve parts.</p>
+<p>IV. A popular and missionizing presentation of the Jewish system
+in the form of a "Life of Moses," and three appended tractates on
+the virtues "Courage," "Humanity," and "Repentance."
+Scholars<a name="FNanchor_83_83" id="FNanchor_83_83"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_83_83">[83]</a> are of opinion that there are gaps in
+the extant "Life of Moses," but the general plan of the work is
+clear. It is at once an abstract and an interpretation of Jewish
+law for the Greek world, and also an ideal biography of the Jewish
+lawgiver.</p>
+<p>V. Philosophical monographs, not so intimately connected with
+the Bible as the preceding works; but in the nature of rhetorical
+exercises upon the stock subjects of the schools, which receive a
+Jewish coloring by reason of Biblical illustrations.</p>
+<p>VI. Historical and apologetic works that set out the case of the
+contemporary Jews against their persecutors and traducers. Of these
+writings the larger part has disappeared, and of a portion of those
+which remain the genuineness has been doubted.</p>
+<p>Lastly, there is a miscellaneous number of works <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_76" id="page_76">[pg.76]</a></span>
+ascribed to Philo, which all good scholars<a name="FNanchor_84_84"
+id="FNanchor_84_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84_84">[84]</a> now
+admit to be spurious: "On the Incorruptibility of the World," "On
+the Universe," "On Samson," and "On Jonah," etc.</p>
+<p>It will be seen from this classification of Philo's works, that
+he has dealt in several ways with the Biblical material. The reason
+of this is partly that his mind developed, and the interpretation
+of his maturer years differed widely from that of his earliest
+writings. Partly, however, it arises from the fact that the
+different treatments were meant for different audiences, and Philo
+always took the measure of those whom he was addressing. His most
+representative works are "a triple cord" with which he binds the
+Jewish Scripture to Greek culture. For the Greek-speaking populace
+he set out a broad statement of the Mosaic law; for the cultured
+community of Alexandria, Jew and Gentile, a more elaborate
+exegesis, in which each character and each ordinance of the
+Pentateuch received a particular ethical value; and, finally, for
+the esoteric circle of Hellenic-Jewish philosophers, a theological
+and psychological study of the allegories of the law. Origen, the
+first great Christian exegete of the Bible and a close student of
+the Philonic writings, distinguished three forms of interpreting:
+the historical, the moral, and the philosophical; he probably took
+the distinction from Philo, who exemplifies it in his commentaries
+upon the Books of Moses. <span class="newpage"><a name="page_77"
+id="page_77">[pg.77]</a></span> Varied as is its scope, the
+religious idea dominates all his work, and endows it with one
+spirit. Whether he is writing philosophical, ethical, or mystical
+commentary, whether history, apology, or essay, his purpose is to
+assert the true notion of the one God, and the Divine excellence of
+God's revelation to His chosen people. Thus he regards history as a
+theodicy, vindicating the ways of God to man, and His special
+providence for Israel; philosophy as the inner meaning of the
+Scriptures, revealed by God in mystic communion with His holy
+prophets,<a name="FNanchor_85_85" id="FNanchor_85_85"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_85_85">[85]</a> and, if comprehended aright, able to
+lead us on to a true conception of His Divine being. The greater
+part of the Hellenistic-Jewish literature has disappeared, but
+Philo sums up for us the whole of the Alexandrian development of
+Judaism. He represents it worthily in both its main aspects: the
+infusion of Greek culture into the Jewish pursuit of righteousness,
+and the recommendation of Jewish monotheism and the Torah to the
+Greek world. Aristaeus, Aristobulus, and Artapanus are hardly more
+than names, but their spirit is inherited and glorified in
+Philo-Jud&aelig;us. His work, therefore, is more than the
+expression of one great mind; it is the record and expression of a
+great culture.</p>
+<p>The chronology of Philo's writings is as uncertain as the
+chronology of his life. Yet it is possible to trace a deepening of
+outlook and an increasing originality, if we work our way up from
+the sixth to the <span class="newpage"><a name="page_78" id=
+"page_78">[pg.78]</a></span> first division of the classification.
+It does not follow that the works were written in this
+order&mdash;and it may well be that Philo was producing at one and
+the same time books of several classes&mdash;but we may use this
+order as an ideal scale by which to mark off the stage of his
+philosophical progress. In the first place come the <img alt=
+"Greek: Hypotheticha" src="images/image15.jpg" width="84" height=
+"19">, or apologetic works, which have a practical purpose. With
+these we may associate the moralizing history that dealt in five
+books respectively with the persecutions of Sejanus, Flaccus, and
+Caligula, the ill-starred embassy, and the final triumph of the
+Jews over their enemies. The <img alt="Greek: Hypotheticha " src=
+"images/image15.jpg" width="84" height="19"> proper, as we gather
+from Eusebius, contained a general apology for Judaism, and an
+account of the Essenes&mdash;which have disappeared&mdash;and the
+suspected book on the Therapeutic sect known by the title "On the
+Contemplative Life." Whether they received this generic name
+because they are suggestions for the Jewish cause, or because they
+are written to answer the insinuations <img alt=
+"Greek: chath' hypothesin" src="images/image16.jpg" width="135"
+height="25"> of adversaries, is a moot point. But their general
+purport is clear: they were an apologetic presentation of Jewish
+life, written to show the falsity of anti-Semitic calumnies. The
+Jews are good citizens and their manner of life is humanitarian.
+The Essene sect is a living proof of Jewish practical socialism and
+practical philosophy, the Therapeutae show the Jewish zeal for the
+contemplative life.</p>
+<p>Next we come to Philo's philosophical monographs, which are not,
+as one might expect, the work of his <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_79" id="page_79">[pg.79]</a></span> mature thought, but
+rather the exercises of youth. Dissertations or declamations upon
+hackneyed subjects were part of the regular course of the
+university student at Alexandria, and Philo prepared himself for
+his Jewish philosophy by composing in the approved style essays
+upon "Providence," "The Liberty of the Good," and "The Slavery of
+the Wicked," etc. What chiefly distinguishes them above other
+collections of commonplaces is the appeal to the Bible for types of
+goodness, and here again the Essenes figure as the type of the
+philosophical life.<a name="FNanchor_86_86" id=
+"FNanchor_86_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86_86">[86]</a> The writer,
+while still engaged in the studies of the Greek university, is
+feeling his way towards his system of universal Mosaism.</p>
+<p>This he expounds confidently and enthusiastically in his "Life
+of Moses." Philo in this book is not any longer the apt pupil of
+Greek philosophers, nor the eloquent defender of the
+Jewish-Alexandrian community against lying detractors. He preaches
+a mission to the whole world, and he lays before it his gospel of
+monotheism and humanity. Each Greek school has its ideal type, its
+Socrates, Diogenes, or Pythagoras; but Philo places above them all
+"the most perfect man that ever lived, Moses, the legislator of the
+Jews,<a name="FNanchor_87_87" id="FNanchor_87_87"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_87_87">[87]</a> as some hold, but according to others
+the interpreter of the sacred laws, and the greatest of men in
+every way." And above all the ethical systems of the day he sets
+the law of life that God <span class="newpage"><a name="page_80"
+id="page_80">[pg.80]</a></span> revealed to His greatest prophet:
+"The laws of the Greek legislators are continually subject to
+change; the laws of Moses alone remain steady, unmoved, unshaken,
+stamped as it were with the seal of nature herself, from the day
+when they were written to the present day, and will so remain for
+all time so long as the world endures. Not only the Jews but all
+other peoples who care for righteousness adopt them.... Let all men
+follow this code and the age of universal peace will come about,
+the kingdom of God on earth will be established."<a name=
+"FNanchor_88_88" id="FNanchor_88_88"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_88_88">[88]</a> Nor is the Greek to fear the lot of a
+proselyte. "God loves the man who turns from idolatry to the true
+faith not less than the man who has been a believer all his
+life;"<a name="FNanchor_89_89" id="FNanchor_89_89"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_89_89">[89]</a> and in the little essays upon Repentance
+and Nobility, which are attached to the larger treatise, Philo
+appeals to his own people to welcome the stranger within the
+community. "The Life of Moses" is the greatest attempt to set
+monotheism before the world made before the Christian gospels. And
+it is truer to the Jewish spirit, because it breathes on every page
+love for the Torah. Philo in very truth wished to fulfil the
+law.</p>
+<p>If Judaism was to be the universal religion, it must be shown to
+contain the ultimate truth both about real being, <i>i.e.</i> God,
+and about ethics; for the philosophical world in that age&mdash;and
+the philosophical world included all educated people&mdash;demanded
+of <span class="newpage"><a name="page_81" id=
+"page_81">[pg.81]</a></span> religion that it should be
+philosophical, and of philosophy that it should be religious. The
+desire to expound Judaism in this way is the motive of Philo's
+three Biblical commentaries. The "Questions and Answers to Genesis
+and Exodus" constitute a preliminary study to the more elaborate
+works which followed. In them Philo is collecting his material,
+formulating his ideas, and determining the main lines of his
+allegory. They are a type of Midrash in its elementary stage, the
+explanation of the teacher to the pupil who has difficulties about
+the words of the law: at once like and unlike the old Tannaitic
+Midrash; like in that they deal with difficulties in the literal
+text of the Bible; unlike in that the reply of Philo is Agadic more
+usually than Halakic, speculative rather than practical. In these
+books,<a name="FNanchor_90_90" id="FNanchor_90_90"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_90_90">[90]</a> as has been pointed out, there are
+numerous interpretations which Philo shares with the Palestinian
+schools. A few specimens taken from the first book will illustrate
+Philo's plan, but it should be mentioned that in every case he sets
+out the simple meaning of the text, the <i>Peshat</i>, as well as
+the inner meaning, or <i>Derash</i>.</p>
+<p>"Why does it say: 'And God made every green herb of the field
+before it was upon the earth'? (Gen. ii. 4.)</p>
+<p>"By these words he suggests symbolically the incorporeal Idea.
+The phrase, 'before it was upon the earth,' marks the original
+perfection of every plant <span class="newpage"><a name="page_82"
+id="page_82">[pg.82]</a></span> and herb. The eternal types were
+first created in the noetic world, and the physical objects on
+earth, perceptible by the senses, were made in their likeness."</p>
+<p>In this way Philo reads into the first chapter of the Bible the
+Platonic idealism which we shall see was a fundamental part of his
+philosophy.</p>
+<p>"Why, when Enoch died, does it say, 'And he pleased God'? (Gen.
+v. 24.)</p>
+<p>"He says this to teach that the soul is immortal, inasmuch as
+after it is released from the body it continues to please."</p>
+<p>"What is the meaning of the expression, 'And Noah opened the
+roof of the ark'? (Gen. viii. 13.)</p>
+<p>"The text appears to need no interpretation; but in its
+symbolical meaning the ark is our body, and that which covers the
+body and for a long time preserves its strength is spoken of as its
+roof. And this is appetite. Hence when the mind is attracted by a
+desire for heavenly things, it springs upwards and makes away with
+all material desires. It removes that which threw a shade over it
+so as to reach the eternal Ideas."</p>
+<p>The "Questions and Answers" are essentially Hebraic in form,
+designed for Jews who knew and studied their Bible; and we can feel
+in them the influences of a training in traditional Mishnah and
+Midrash; but Philo passed from them to a more artistic expression
+and a more thoroughly Hellenized presentation of the philosophy of
+the Bible. This work is the largest extant expression of his
+thought and mission; it embraces the treatises which we know
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_83" id=
+"page_83">[pg.83]</a></span> as "On the Creation of the World,"
+"The Lives of Abraham and Joseph," "On the Decalogue," and finally
+those "On the Specific Laws," which are partly thus entitled and
+partly have separate ethical names, as "On Honoring Parents," "On
+Rewards and Punishments," "On Justice," etc. Large portions of it
+have disappeared, notably the "Lives of Isaac and Jacob"; and also
+the "Life of Moses," which was introductory to his laws. For the
+book which we have under that name does not belong to the series,
+but is separate. The purpose of the work broadly is to deepen the
+value of the Bible for the Jews by revealing its constant spiritual
+message, and to assert its value for the whole of humanity by
+showing in it a philosophical conception of the universe and its
+creation, the most lofty ethical and moral types, the most
+admirable laws, and, above all, the purest ideas of God and His
+relation to man. All that seems tribal and particularist is
+explained away, and the spiritual aspect of every chapter&mdash;of
+every word almost&mdash;of the Torah is emphasized. Philo expounds
+the sacred book, not of one particular nation, but of mankind. The
+Roman and Greek peoples were waiting for a religious message which
+should at once harmonize with rational ideas and satisfy their
+longing for God. All the philosophical schools were converting the
+scientific systems of the classical age into <img alt=
+"Greek: Tropoi Biou" src="images/image17.jpg" width="103" height=
+"22">, "plans of life," and Philo challenges them all with a new
+faith which has as its basis a God who not only was the sole
+Creator and Ruler of <span class="newpage"><a name="page_84" id=
+"page_84">[pg.84]</a></span> the world, but who had revealed to man
+the way of happiness, and the good life, social as well as
+individual. To-day, when the world about us has accepted&mdash;or
+has professed to accept&mdash;the ethical law of the Bible, we are
+apt to regard the essentials of Judaism as the belief in One God
+and the observance of ceremonies. But to Philo Judaism was
+something more comprehensive. It was the spiritual life, and the
+Mosaic law is the complete code of the Divine Republic, of which
+all are or can be citizens. In the introduction to the "Life of
+Abraham," Philo explains the scheme of his work:<a name=
+"FNanchor_91_91" id="FNanchor_91_91"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_91_91">[91]</a></p>
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>"'The Sacred Laws' [as he regularly calls the Bible] were
+written in five books, of which the first is entitled Genesis. It
+derives its title from the account of the creation which it
+contains, though it deals also with endless other subjects, peace
+and war, hunger and plenty, great cataclysms, and the histories of
+good and evil men. We have examined with great care the accounts of
+the creation in our former treatise ['On the Making of the
+Universe'], and we now go on naturally to inquire into the laws;
+and postponing the particular laws, which are as it were copies, we
+will first of all examine the more universal, which are their
+models. Now men who have lived irreproachable lives are these laws,
+and their virtues are recorded in the Holy Scriptures not only by
+way of eulogy, but in order to lead on those who read about them to
+emulate their life. They are become living standards of right
+reason, whom the lawgiver has glorified for two reasons: (1) To
+show that the laws laid down are consistent with nature [the
+conception of a <span class="newpage"><a name="page_85" id=
+"page_85">[pg.85]</a></span> natural law binding upon all peoples
+was one of the fixed ideas of the age]. (2) To show that it is not
+a matter of terrible labor to live according to our positive laws
+if a man has the will to do so; seeing that the patriarchs
+spontaneously followed the unwritten principles before any of the
+particular laws were written. So that a man may properly say that
+the code of law is only a memorial of the lives of the patriarchs.
+For the patriarchs, of their own accord and impulse, chose to
+follow nature, and, regarding her course with truth as the most
+ancient ordinance, they lived a life according to the law."</p>
+</div>
+<p>Philo dwells affectionately on the patriarchs, because, as he
+held, they proved the Jewish life to be truest to man's nature and
+to the highest ideal of humanity, and served therefore as examples
+to the Gentile world of the universal truth of the religion. The
+rabbis also took the patriarchs as the perfect type of our life,
+saying, "Everything that happens to them is a sign to future
+generations,"<a name="FNanchor_92_92" id=
+"FNanchor_92_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92_92">[92]</a> and again:
+"The patriarchs are the true <img alt="Hebrew; " src=
+"images/image18.jpg" width="56" height="16">, manifestation of
+God." But while he emphasized the broad moral teachings of Judaism
+exemplified by the patriarchs, Philo nevertheless upheld in its
+integrity the Mosaic law, and found in every one of the six hundred
+and thirteen precepts a spiritual meaning. Even the details of the
+tabernacle offerings have their universal lesson when he expounds
+them as symbols. Voltaire speaks cynically of Judaism as a religion
+of sacrifices: Philo shows that the ritual of sacrifice
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_86" id=
+"page_86">[pg.86]</a></span> suggests moral lessons. The command of
+the red heifer, a part of the law which was particularly subject to
+attack, emphasizes the law of moral as well as of physical
+cleanliness. The prohibition to add honey or leaven to the
+sacrifice<a name="FNanchor_93_93" id="FNanchor_93_93"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_93_93">[93]</a> (Lev. ii. 13) points the lesson that all
+superfluous pleasure is unrighteous; and so on with each
+prescription.</p>
+<p>The Mosaic code in his exposition is commensurate with life in
+all its aspects. It deals not only with the duties of the
+individual but also with the good government of the state. The life
+of Joseph is made the text of a political treatise, and throughout
+the books "On the Specific Laws," the socialism of the Bible is
+emphasized,<a name="FNanchor_94_94" id=
+"FNanchor_94_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94_94">[94]</a> and held up
+as the ideal order of the future. The Jewish State is enlarged in
+Philo's vision from a national theocracy into a world-city inspired
+by the two ideas of love of God and love of humanity. In this
+conception, no doubt, the influence of Greek philosophy is to be
+seen; the Jewish interpreter keeps before him the "Republic" of
+Plato, and the "Polity" of Aristotle. With him, however, the ideal
+state is not a vision "laid up in heaven";<a name="FNanchor_95_95"
+id="FNanchor_95_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95_95">[95]</a> its
+foundation is already laid upon earth, its capital is Jerusalem,
+and it is the mission of his people to extend its borders till it
+embraces all nations<a name="FNanchor_96_96" id=
+"FNanchor_96_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96_96">[96]</a>&mdash;an
+idea which permeates the Jewish litany.</p>
+<p>This commentary of the law is allegorical in the <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_87" id="page_87">[pg.87]</a></span> sense
+that beneath the particular law the interpreter constantly reveals
+a spiritual idea, but it is not allegorical in the sense that he
+makes an exchange of values. He is not for the most part reading
+into the text conceptions which are not suggested by it, but really
+and truly expounding; and where he gives a philosophical piece of
+exegesis, as when he explains the visit of the three angels to
+Abraham as a theory of the human soul about God's being,<a name=
+"FNanchor_97_97" id="FNanchor_97_97"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_97_97">[97]</a> he does so with diffidence or with
+reference to authorities that have founded a tradition. It is quite
+otherwise with the last class of Philo's work, the fruit of his
+maturest thought, with which it remains to deal.</p>
+<p>Throughout the "Allegories of the Laws" he takes the verse of
+the Bible not so much as a text to be amplified and interpreted,
+but as a pretext for a philosophical disquisition. The allegories
+indeed are only in form a commentary on the Bible; in one aspect
+they are a history of the human soul, which, if they had been
+completed, would have traced the upward progress from Adam to
+Moses. It is not to be expected, however, that Philo should adhere
+closely to any plan in the allegories. Theology, metaphysics, and
+ethics have as large a part in the medley of philosophical ideas as
+the story of the soul. His Hebraic mind, even when fortified by the
+mastery of philosophy, was unable to present its ideas
+systematically; it passed from subject to subject, weaving the
+whole together only by the thread of a continuous <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_88" id="page_88">[pg.88]</a></span>
+commentary upon Genesis. Parts of the work are missing, it is true,
+which adds to the seeming want of plan; and&mdash;greatest loss of
+all&mdash;the first part, which gave the philosophical account of
+the first chapter of Genesis, the first six days of creation,
+referred to as "The Hexameron" <img alt="Greek: to Hex&ecirc;meron"
+src="images/image19.jpg" width="127" height="28">, has
+disappeared.<a name="FNanchor_98_98" id=
+"FNanchor_98_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98_98">[98]</a> Here must
+have been the general introduction to the allegories, wherein Philo
+declared his purpose and his method of exposition. The first
+treatise that we possess starts abruptly with a comment on the
+first verse of the second chapter, "'And the heaven and earth and
+all their world were completed.' Moses has previously related the
+creation of the mind and sense, and now he proceeds to describe
+their perfection. Their perfection is not the individual mind or
+sense, but their archetypal 'ideas.' And symbolically he calls the
+mind heaven, because in heaven are the ideas of the mind, and the
+sense he calls earth, because it is corporeal and
+material."<a name="FNanchor_99_99" id="FNanchor_99_99"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_99_99">[99]</a></p>
+<p>So in a rambling, unsystematic way Philo embarks upon a
+discourse on idealism and psychology, making a fresh start
+continually from a verse or a phrase of the Bible. The Biblical
+narrative in the earliest chapters offered a congenial soil for his
+explorations, but no ground is too stubborn for his seed. The
+genealogy of Noah's sons is as fertile in suggestion as the story
+of Adam and Eve, for each name represents some hidden power or
+possesses some ethical import.</p>
+<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_89" id=
+"page_89">[pg.89]</a></span> The allegorical commentary is clearly
+the work of Philo's maturity, wherein he exhibits full mastery of
+an original method of exegesis. His allegories are no longer
+tentative, and he writes with the confidence of the sage, who has
+received not only the admiration of his people, but the inspiration
+of God. Another sign of their maturity is that asceticism seems no
+longer the true path to virtue, as it was to the author of "The
+Lives of the Patriarchs" and "The Specific Laws," but, on the
+contrary, a moderate use of the world's goods and a share in
+political life are marks of the perfect man. These characteristics
+bespeak the firmer hand and the profounder experience. Yet the
+series of works which form together Philo's esoteric doctrine were
+certainly put together over a long period of years, as the varied
+political references indicate. It has indeed been suggested by a
+modern German scholar<a name="FNanchor_100_100" id=
+"FNanchor_100_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100_100">[100]</a> that
+large parts were originally given in the form of detached lectures
+and sermons, and that Philo later composed them together into a
+continuous commentary, working them up with much literary
+elaboration. In support of this theory, it may be urged that
+several of the treatises contain political addresses to public
+audiences, notably the <i>De Agricultura</i> and <i>De Confusione
+Linguarum</i>, while in others there are invocations to prayer, or
+a summons to read a passage in the Bible, addressed apparently by
+the preacher to the Hazan, who had before him the scroll of the
+law. From Philo's own statements we know that the wisest men used
+to deliver philosophical <span class="newpage"><a name="page_90"
+id="page_90">[pg.90]</a></span> homilies upon the Bible on the
+Sabbath day; and it is natural that the man who was appointed to
+head the Jewish embassy to Gaius had made himself known in the past
+to his brethren for oratory and wisdom of speech. "Sermons," said
+Jowett, "though they deal with eternal subjects, are the most
+evanescent form of literature." The dictum is true for the most
+part, but occasionally the sermon, by its depth of thought, the
+universality of its message, and the beauty of its expression, has
+become part of the world's heritage from the ages. Moreover, at
+Alexandria philosophy was associated with preaching. And the
+sermons of the Jewish-Hellenistic writer, in their style as well as
+in their thought, represent an epoch. Philo spoke in the language
+of the intellectual world of his day, and strove to associate the
+intellectual precepts of Hellenism with the Hebraic passion for
+righteousness. In his great moments, however, the Hebraic spirit
+towers supreme. "He was," said Croiset, the historian of Greek
+literature, "the first Greek prose writer who could speak to God
+and of God to man with the ardent piety and reverence of the Jewish
+prophets."<a name="FNanchor_101_101" id=
+"FNanchor_101_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101_101">[101]</a></p>
+<p>It is a serious misconception to imagine that Philo's
+philosophical allegories were meant for the general body of
+Alexandrian Jews. He frequently<a name="FNanchor_102_102" id=
+"FNanchor_102_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_102_102">[102]</a>
+declares that he is speaking to a specially initiated sect, and
+warns his hearers not to divulge his teaching. The <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_91" id="page_91">[pg.91]</a></span> notion
+of an esoteric doctrine for the aristocracy of intellect had become
+a fixed idea in the Greek schools for three centuries, ever since
+the days of Aristotle; and whether through Greek influence or
+otherwise it had been generally adopted by the Jewish teachers. The
+rabbis of the Talmud derived from the first chapters of Genesis the
+inner mystery of the law, which was cognizable only by the sage;
+and the same idea is found in later Jewish tradition, which,
+expounding Paradise <img alt="Hebrew:prds " src=
+"images/image20.jpg" width="58" height="27"> as four stages of
+interpretation, each marked by a letter of the word, Peshat, Remez,
+Derash, and Sod <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image21.jpg" width=
+"52" height="24">, <a name="FNanchor_103_103" id=
+"FNanchor_103_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_103_103">[103]</a>
+regarded the last as the final reward of the devoted seeker after
+God, as it is said in the Psalms, "The secret of the Lord is for
+those who fear Him." Jewish religious philosophers have in all ages
+designed their work for a select few. The Halakah, or way of life,
+is the fit study of the many. So Maimonides wrote his Moreh only
+for those who already were masters of the law. And Philo likewise
+at Alexandria taught an esoteric doctrine to an esoteric circle,
+which alone was fitted to receive the profoundest theology.<a name=
+"FNanchor_104_104" id="FNanchor_104_104"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_104_104">[104]</a> The allegories of the law do not take
+the place of the law itself, nor of its ethical ordinances. They
+are additional to the other exegesis and distinct, destined only
+for the man of learning. And as we shall see, he asserts
+emphatically in the midst of his allegories<a name=
+"FNanchor_105_105" id="FNanchor_105_105"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_105_105">[105]</a> that the <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_92" id="page_92">[pg.92]</a></span>
+perception of the philosophical value does not release man from the
+practice itself. The wise man even as the fool must obey the
+law.</p>
+<p>Why, it may be asked, does Philo artificially attach his
+philosophy to the Scriptures? He does so for two reasons: first,
+because he holds and wishes to prove that between faith and
+philosophy there is no conflict, and his generation worked out the
+agreement by this method; he does so also because he wishes to
+establish the Torah and Judaism upon a sure foundation for the man
+of outside culture. The pursuit of philosophy must have menaced the
+attachment to Judaism and challenged the authority of the Bible at
+Alexandria. A superficial knowledge of the materialistic or
+rationalistic theories, which were propagated respectively by the
+Epicurean and Stoic schools, was made the excuse for indifference
+to the law. Then as now the advanced Jew would mask his
+self-indulgence under the guise of a banal philosophy, and jeer
+easily at archaic myths and tribal laws. The dominating motive of
+Philo's work is to show that the Bible contains for those who will
+seek it the richest treasures of wisdom, that its ethical teaching
+is more ideal and yet more real than that which hundreds of
+sophists poured forth daily in the lecture-theatres<a name=
+"FNanchor_106_106" id="FNanchor_106_106"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_106_106">[106]</a> to the gaping dilettanti of learning,
+and lastly that the cultured Jew may search out knowledge and truth
+to their depths, and find them expressed in his holy books and
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_93" id=
+"page_93">[pg.93]</a></span> in his religious beliefs and
+practices. Philo frequently introduces into his philosophical
+interpretation a polemic against the disintegrating and
+demoralizing forces which were at work in the Alexandria of his
+day. His commentary therefore is a strange medley, compounded of
+idealistic speculation, theology, homiletics, moral denunciation,
+and polemical rhetoric. The idea, which is not uncommon, that Philo
+represents the extreme Hellenic development of Judaism, and that he
+gathered into his writings the opinions of all Greek schools to the
+ruin of his Jewish individuality, is utterly erroneous. In fact, he
+chooses out only the valuable parts of Greek thought, which could
+enter into a true harmony with the Hebraic spirit; and he not only
+rejects, but he attacks unsparingly those elements which were
+antagonistic to holiness and righteousness. With the enthusiasm of
+a Maccabee, if with other weapons, he fought against the bastard
+culture, which meant self-indulgence and the excessive attention to
+the body, the idol-worship, the degraded ideas of the Divine power,
+and the disregard of truth and justice, that were current in the
+pagan society about him. The seeking after sensual pleasure and
+luxury was the most glaring evil of his city&mdash;as the Talmud
+says,<a name="FNanchor_107_107" id="FNanchor_107_107"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_107_107">[107]</a> of ten parts of lust nine were given
+to Alexandria&mdash;and with every variety of denunciation he
+returns again and again to the charge. Epicureanism is detestable
+not only for its low idea of <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_94" id="page_94">[pg.94]</a></span> human life, but for its
+godless conception of the universe. Its theory that the world was a
+fortuitous concourse of atoms, which was governed by blind chance,
+and that the gods lived apart in complete indifference to
+men&mdash;this was to Philo utter atheism, and as such the greatest
+of sins. He attacked paganism not only in its crude form of
+idolatry,<a name="FNanchor_108_108" id=
+"FNanchor_108_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_108_108">[108]</a> but in
+its more seductive disguise of a pretentious philosophy. Always and
+entirely he was the champion of monotheism.</p>
+<p>Nearly as godless, and therefore as vile in his eyes as the
+follower of Epicurus, is the follower of the Stoic doctrines. It
+has been shown that the Jews and the Stoics were continually in
+conflict at Alexandria; and the "Allegories of the Laws" are filled
+with attacks, overt and hidden, upon the Stoic doctrines. The
+Stoics, indeed, believed in one supreme Divine Power, not however
+in a transcendental and personal God, but a cosmic, impersonal,
+fatalistic world-force.<a name="FNanchor_109_109" id=
+"FNanchor_109_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_109_109">[109]</a> To
+Philo this conception, with its denial of the Divine will and the
+Divine care for the individual, was as atheistic as the Epicurean
+"chance." Equally repulsive to his religious standpoint was the
+Stoic dogma, that man is, or should be, independent of all help,
+and that the human reason is all-powerful and can comprehend the
+universe by its own unaided power.<a name="FNanchor_110_110" id=
+"FNanchor_110_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_110_110">[110]</a>
+Repulsive also were their pride, their rejection of the emotions,
+their hard rationalism. The <span class="newpage"><a name="page_95"
+id="page_95">[pg.95]</a></span> battle of Philo against the Stoics
+is the battle of personal monotheism against impersonal pantheism,
+of religious faith and revelation against arrogant rationalism, and
+of idealism against materialism. Hostile as he is to the Stoic
+intellectual dogmatism, Philo is none the less opposed to its
+converse, intellectual skepticism and agnosticism. Man, he is
+convinced, has a Divine revelation<a name="FNanchor_111_111" id=
+"FNanchor_111_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_111_111">[111]</a> which
+he may not deny without ruin. He holds with Pope that we have</p>
+<p><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Too much of knowledge for the
+Skeptic side,</span><br>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Too much of weakness for the
+Stoic's pride,"</span><br></p>
+<p>and he attacks the Skeptics of the day who devoted their minds
+to destructive dialectical quibbling and sophistry<a name=
+"FNanchor_112_112" id="FNanchor_112_112"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_112_112">[112]</a> instead of seeking for God and the
+human good. They are the Ishmaels of philosophy.</p>
+<p>Philo's polemic is directed less against the Greek schools in
+themselves than against the Jewish followers of the Greek schools.
+He saw the danger to Judaism in the teachings of these
+anti-religious philosophers, and deeply as he loved Greek culture,
+he loved more deeply his religion. He wanted to reveal a philosophy
+in the Bible which should win back to Judaism the men who had been
+captivated by foreign thought. In one aspect, therefore, his
+master-work is a plea for unity. The community at Alexandria was a
+very heterogeneous body; not only were the sects which had appeared
+in Palestine, the Sadducees, <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_96" id="page_96">[pg.96]</a></span> Samaritans, Pharisees,
+and Essenes, represented there too, but in addition there were
+parties who attached themselves to one or other of the Greek
+schools, the Pythagoreans, Skeptics, and the like, and lastly
+Gnostic groups, who cultivated an esoteric doctrine of the Godhead,
+and were lax in their observance of the law, which they held to be
+purely symbolical and of no account in its literal meaning. The
+mental activity which this growth of sects exemplified was in some
+respects a healthy sign, but it contained seeds of religious chaos,
+which bore their fruit in the next century. Men started by thinking
+out a philosophical Judaism for themselves; they ended by ceasing
+to be Jews and philosophers. Philo foresaw this danger, and he
+tried to combat it by presenting his people with a commentary of
+the Bible which should satisfy their intellectual and speculative
+bent, but at the same time preserve their loyalty to the Bible and
+the law. To the Greek world he offered a philosophical religion, to
+his own people a religious philosophy. Thus the allegorical
+commentary is the crowning point of his work, the offering of his
+deepest thought to the most cultured of the community; and though
+much of its detail had only relevancy for its own time, and its
+method may repel our modern taste, yet the spirit which animates it
+is of value to all ages, and should be an inspiration to every
+generation of emancipated Jews. That spirit is one of fearless
+acceptance of the finest culture of the age combined with
+unswerving love of the law and loyalty to catholic Judaism.</p>
+<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_97" id=
+"page_97">[pg.97]</a></span> We have already treated of the general
+characteristics of Philo's method of allegorical interpretation,
+but we must now consider rather more closely the way in which he
+employs it. The general principle upon which he depends is, that
+besides and in addition to the literal meaning which the Bible
+bears for the common man, it has a hidden and deeper meaning for
+the philosopher. It is, as it were, a sort of palimpsest; the
+writing on the top all may read, the writing below the student
+alone can decipher. With the rabbis Philo holds that the Torah was
+written "in the language of the sons of man,"<a name=
+"FNanchor_113_113" id="FNanchor_113_113"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_113_113">[113]</a> but he believes with them again that
+it contains all wisdom. And if the ideas of reason do not appear in
+its literal meaning, then they must be searched out in some inner
+interpretation. Commenting on the verse in Genesis (xi. 7), "Let us
+confound their language, that they may not understand one another's
+speech," he says: "Those who follow the literal and obvious
+interpretation think that the origin of the Greek and barbarian
+languages is here described; [the contrast between Greek, on the
+one hand, and barbarian&mdash;in which Hebrew, it seems, is
+included&mdash;on the other, is remarkable]. I would not find fault
+with them, because they also, perhaps, employ right reason, but I
+would call on them not to remain content with this, but to follow
+me to the metaphorical renderings, considering that the actual
+words of the holy oracle are, <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_98" id="page_98">[pg.98]</a></span> as it were, shadows of
+the real bodies, and the powers which they reflect are the true
+underlying ideas."<a name="FNanchor_114_114" id=
+"FNanchor_114_114"></a><a href="#Footnote_114_114">[114]</a></p>
+<p>Elsewhere he tells a story of the condign punishment which
+befell a godless and impious man, perchance a Samaritan Jew, who
+made mock of the race of allegorical interpreters, jeering at the
+idea that the change of names from Abram to Abraham and from Sarai
+to Sarah contained some deep meaning. He soon paid a fitting
+penalty for his wicked wit, for on some very trivial pretext he
+went and hanged himself. Which was just, says Philo; for such a
+rascal deserved a rascal's death.<a name="FNanchor_115_115" id=
+"FNanchor_115_115"></a><a href="#Footnote_115_115">[115]</a> It is
+noteworthy that the Talmud also lays stress upon the deep meaning
+of the patriarch's change of name.<a name="FNanchor_116_116" id=
+"FNanchor_116_116"></a><a href="#Footnote_116_116">[116]</a> "He
+who calls Abraham Abram," said Bar Kappara, "transgresses a
+positive command" <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image22.jpg"
+width="105" height="21">. "Nay," said Rabbi Levi, "he transgresses
+both a positive and a negative command (and commits a double sin)."
+Clearly this was a test-question and an article of faith, possibly
+because the letter <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image24.jpg"
+width="22" height="13"> , which was added to the name, was a letter
+of mystical import in the opinion of the age. Both the rejection of
+the literal and the rejection of the allegorical value of the
+Bible, Philo regarded as impious, and he had to struggle against
+opposite factions that were one-sided. The true son of the law
+believes in both <img alt=
+"Greek: to rh&ecirc;ton and to en hyponoiais" src=
+"images/image23.jpg" width="256" height="22">.<a name=
+"FNanchor_117_117" id="FNanchor_117_117"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_117_117">[117]</a> Seeing that the Bible was the
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_99" id=
+"page_99">[pg.99]</a></span> inspired revelation of God, who is the
+fountain of all wisdom and knowledge&mdash;this is Philo's cardinal
+dogma&mdash;it is not to be supposed, on the one hand, that it was
+silent about the profoundest ideas of the human mind, or, on the
+other, that it contained ideas opposed to right reason and truth.
+Yet at first sight it seemed to lack any definite philosophy and to
+offer anthropomorphic views of God. Hence the true interpreter must
+use the actual words of the sage as metaphors, following the maxim,
+"Turn it about and about, because all is in it, and contemplate it
+and wax grey over it, for thou canst have no better rule than
+this."<a name="FNanchor_118_118" id="FNanchor_118_118"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_118_118">[118]</a> The principle upon which Philo,
+Saadia, Maimonides, and in fact the whole line of Jewish
+philosophical exegetes have worked, is that the "words of the law
+are fruitful and multiply"; or, as the Bible phrase runs, "The
+Torah which Moses commanded unto us is the inheritance of the
+congregation of Jacob." It is the separate inheritance of each
+generation, which each must cultivate so as to gather therefrom its
+own fruit.</p>
+<p>The Halakah is the outcome of this devotion in one aspect, the
+philosophical exegesis in another. In the one case Jewish
+jurisprudence and the body of legal tradition, in the other,
+philosophical ideas inspired by outer civilization, are attached to
+the text of the Bible by ingenious devices of association. The
+device is partly a pious fiction, partly a genuine belief; in other
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_100" id=
+"page_100">[pg.100]</a></span> words, the teachers honestly thought
+that there was respectively a hidden philosophical meaning in the
+Bible and an oral tradition, supplementary to the written law and
+arising out of it; but on the other hand they would not have urged
+that their particular interpretation alone was portended by the
+Scriptures. This is shown in the Talmud by the fact that different
+rabbis deduced the same lessons from different verses, and contrary
+laws from the same verse; in Philo by the fact that he often gives
+various interpretations of one text in different parts of his work.
+All that was claimed was that knowledge and truth must be primarily
+referred to the Divine revelation, and all law and practice to the
+authority of the Mosaic code. Philo, then, in the same way as the
+rabbis, deduces all his teaching from the Bible, not because he
+holds that it was explicitly contained there, but because he
+desires to give to his philosophical notions Divine authority. Like
+the rabbis, again, he suggests definite rules of interpretation
+which may always be applied <img alt=
+"Greek: kanones t&ecirc;s all&ecirc;gorias" src=
+"images/image25.jpg" width="193" height="19"> .<a name=
+"FNanchor_119_119" id="FNanchor_119_119"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_119_119">[119]</a> He declares that every name in the
+Torah has a deep symbolical meaning, and symbolizes some
+power.<a name="FNanchor_120_120" id="FNanchor_120_120"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_120_120">[120]</a> Thus the names of the sons of Jacob
+typify each some moral quality, and these qualities together make
+the perfect man and the perfect nation. Reuben is "the son of
+insight" <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image26.jpg" width="65"
+height="21">, Simeon is learning <img alt="Hebrew; " src=
+"images/image27.jpg" width="67" height="24">, Judah <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_101" id="page_101">[pg.101]</a></span>
+<img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image28.jpg" width="65" height=
+"21"> stands for the praise of God.<a name="FNanchor_121_121" id=
+"FNanchor_121_121"></a><a href="#Footnote_121_121">[121]</a> It may
+be noted, by the way, that all these values show traces of Hebrew
+etymology. Again, the synonyms in the Bible are to be carefully
+studied, while even particles and parts of words have their special
+value and importance. And the skilful exegete may for homiletical
+purposes make slight changes in a word, following the rabbinical
+rule,<a name="FNanchor_122_122" id="FNanchor_122_122"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_122_122">[122]</a> "Read not so, but so." Thus he plays
+upon the name Esau, and takes the Hebrew word as though it were
+written, not <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image29.jpg" width=
+"34" height="21"> but <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image30.jpg"
+width="34" height="18">, a thing made.<a name="FNanchor_123_123"
+id="FNanchor_123_123"></a><a href="#Footnote_123_123">[123]</a>
+Whence he shows that Esau represents the sham (made-up) greatness,
+which is boastful and insolent and shameless. Philo is referring
+perhaps to Apion, the vainglorious anti-Semite, whom he often
+covertly attacks. Again, whenever there is repetition in the text,
+a deeper meaning is portended. Dealing with the verse, "Sarah the
+wife of Abraham took Hagar the Egyptian" (Gen. xvi. 3), Philo
+comments, that we already knew that Sarah was Abraham's wife: why,
+then, does the Bible mention it again? And following certain values
+which he has made, he draws the lesson that the study of philosophy
+must always go together with the study of general culture.<a name=
+"FNanchor_124_124" id="FNanchor_124_124"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_124_124">[124]</a> These examples are not isolated; yet
+it is rather a barren science to search for the canons of Philo's
+allegory, as Siegfried has done.</p>
+<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_102" id=
+"page_102">[pg.102]</a></span> For his allegory is a very flexible
+instrument, which can be employed at pleasure to deduce anything
+from anything. And Philo regards these "points of construction" as
+the excuse, not as the motive, of his ethical and philosophical
+teaching. He does not depend on such devices, for he wanders into
+allegory more often than not without any pretext of the kind.</p>
+<p>The modern reader may consider the allegorical method artificial
+and unconvincing, even if he does not go so far as Spinoza, and say
+that it is "useless, harmful, and absurd."<a name=
+"FNanchor_125_125" id="FNanchor_125_125"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_125_125">[125]</a> We prefer to-day to show the inner
+agreement of philosophical with Biblical teaching, rather than
+pretend that all philosophy is contained within the Bible; and we
+accept the Bible as it stands, as a book of supreme religious
+worth, without requiring more of it. But that is mainly a
+difference of taste or of method, and in Philo's day, and in fact
+down to the time of the sixteenth-century Renaissance, Jew and
+Gentile alike preferred the other way. For thought, ancient and
+medi&aelig;val, was pervaded with the craving for authority or a
+plausible show of it. The Bible was not only the great book of
+morality, but the standard of truth, that from which knowledge in
+all its branches started, and that by which it was to be judged. As
+all knowledge came from God, so all knowledge was in God's Book;
+and allegory was the method by which the intellectual conceptions
+of succeeding ages were attached to it.</p>
+<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_103" id=
+"page_103">[pg.103]</a></span></p>
+<p>The two main heads of Biblical interpretation which the Jewish
+religious genius developed, Peshat and Derash,&mdash;these
+represent two permanent attitudes of mind. In the first the
+commentator tries to get at the exact meaning of the text before
+him, to make its lesson clear and discuss the circumstances of the
+composition, the exact relations of its parts. He is satisfied to
+take the writer of the Biblical book for what he says in his own
+form of utterance. In the second the commentator is more anxious to
+inculcate ideas and lessons which do not arise obviously from the
+text, and to widen the significance of what he finds in the Bible.
+The interpretation ceases to be a mere exposition; it becomes
+creative or conciliating thought, and the interpreter becomes a
+religious reformer, a philosopher, a prophet. To this school Philo
+belongs, and the framework of his teaching or the ingenuity by
+which he develops it from his text is of small account. It is what
+he teaches and what he considers to be the vital things in religion
+and life to which we must pay attention. Judged on this ground
+Philo is a supreme master of Derash, and must take a place among
+the most creative of the interpreters of the Bible.</p>
+<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_104" id=
+"page_104">[pg.104]</a></span></p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;">
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<p>IV</p>
+<p>PHILO AND THE TORAH</p>
+<br>
+<p>Over and over again Philo declares that his function is to
+expound the law of Moses. Moses was the interpreter of God's word
+to Israel; and Philo aspired to be the interpreter of the
+revelation of Moses to the Hellenistic world, "the living voice of
+the holy law." He believed that Israel was a chosen people in the
+sense that it had received the Divine message on behalf of the
+whole human race,<a name="FNanchor_126_126" id=
+"FNanchor_126_126"></a><a href="#Footnote_126_126">[126]</a> a
+Kingdom of Priests, in that it occupied to other nations the
+position which the priest&mdash;using the word in the fullest
+sense&mdash;occupied to the common people.<a name=
+"FNanchor_127_127" id="FNanchor_127_127"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_127_127">[127]</a> The Torah is God's covenant, not only
+with one small nation, but with all His children, and its teachings
+are true for all times and for all places. "The Bible," as
+Professor Butcher says,<a name="FNanchor_128_128" id=
+"FNanchor_128_128"></a><a href="#Footnote_128_128">[128]</a> "is
+the one book which appears to have the capacity of eternal
+self-adjustment, of uninterrupted correspondence with an
+ever-shifting and ever-widening environment." Nowadays this appears
+a truism, but the truth first presented itself to the
+Jewish-Alexandrian community when they came in contact with
+external culture. The Palestinian and Babylonian Jews, free for the
+most part from outside influences, developed the Torah for the
+Jewish people, amplified the tradition, and determined <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_105" id="page_105">[pg.105]</a></span> the
+Halakah, the practical law. But the Alexandrian Jews in the first
+place found their own attitude to the Torah affected by their
+acquaintance with Greek ethics and metaphysics, and also found it
+necessary to interpret the Bible in a new fashion in order to make
+its value known to their environment. The Greek world required to
+be shown the general principle, the broad ethical idea in each
+ordinance. And thus it came about that the Alexandrian interpreters
+always emphasized the universal beneath the particular, the moral
+spirit beneath the forms.</p>
+<p>It had been one of the chief functions of the prophets to
+demonstrate the moral import of the law. In their vision the God of
+Israel became the God of the universe, and His law of conduct was
+spread over all mankind. "For the law shall go forth from Zion, and
+the word of the Lord from Jerusalem" (Micah iv. 2). Philo in effect
+expounds Judaism in their spirit, though he speaks their message in
+the voice of Plato and to a people whose minds were trained in
+Greek culture. Yet it is significant that he wrote all his
+commentaries round the Five Books of Moses, and used the prophets
+and other Biblical books only to illustrate and support the Mosaic
+teaching, which contains the whole way of life and the whole
+religious philosophy. According to the rabbis also the Prophets
+formed only a complement to the Torah, "a species of
+Agadah";<a name="FNanchor_129_129" id=
+"FNanchor_129_129"></a><a href="#Footnote_129_129">[129]</a> and
+the prophetic vision of</p>
+<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_106" id=
+"page_106">[pg.106]</a></span> Moses was much clearer than that of
+his successors. Philo, too, clearly realized that Judaism was the
+religion of the law. His view of the Torah is what the modern world
+would call uncritical: that is to say, he accepts the idea that the
+whole of the Five Books was an objective revelation to Moses at
+Sinai. But though&mdash;or because&mdash;he is innocent of the
+higher criticism, and believes in the literal inspiration of the
+Torah, his conception is none the less enlightened and spiritual.
+The law&mdash;the Divine Logos&mdash;is not the enactment of an
+outside power, arbitrarily imposed, and to be obeyed because of its
+miraculous origin; it is the expression of the human soul within,
+when raised to its highest power by the Divine inspiration. Every
+man may fit himself to receive the Divine word, which is, in modern
+language, revelation.<a name="FNanchor_130_130" id=
+"FNanchor_130_130"></a><a href="#Footnote_130_130">[130]</a> Moses,
+then, is distinguished above all other legislators, not because he
+alone received it, but because he received it in its purest form,
+and because he was the most noble interpreter of it. It is for this
+reason that the law of Moses is of universal validity for conduct.
+The Divine spirit possessed him so fully that his Logos, or
+revelation, is eternally true, and by following it all men become
+fit to be blessed with the Divine gift themselves. This is true of
+the other prophets of the Bible to a smaller degree, and in a still
+minor degree Philo hoped that it was true of himself.</p>
+<p>It should be premised that the "law of nature" <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_107" id="page_107">[pg.107]</a></span> was
+at the time of Philo an idea as widely accepted as "evolution" is
+to-day. Men believed that by a study of the processes of the
+universe the individual might discover the law of conduct that
+should bring his action into harmony with the whole. What the Greek
+philosophers declared to be the privilege of the few, Philo
+declared to have been imparted by God to His people as their law of
+life. Hence the Mosaic legislation is the code of nature and
+reason, and the righteous man directs his conduct in accordance
+with those rules of nature by which the cosmos is ordered.<a name=
+"FNanchor_131_131" id="FNanchor_131_131"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_131_131">[131]</a> Obedience to the law should not be
+obedience to an outward prescription, but rather the following out
+of our own highest nature. The ideal which the Stoic sage
+continually aspired for and never attained to&mdash;the life
+according to nature and right reason&mdash;this Philo claimed had
+been accomplished in the Mosaic revelation, handed down by God to
+Israel and through them to the world.</p>
+<p>Before we deal with Philo's treatment of the law in its narrower
+sense, it will be as well to consider briefly his interpretation of
+the historical parts of the Torah. Here likewise he finds ideas of
+natural reason and eternal truths embodied. To Philo, as we have
+seen, the Torah is a unity, and every part of it has equal validity
+and value. He had to contend against certain higher critics of his
+day, who declared that Genesis was a collection of myths
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_108" id=
+"page_108">[pg.108]</a></span> <img alt=
+"Greek: myth&ocirc;n plasmata" src="images/image31.jpg" width="154"
+height="18">).<a name="FNanchor_132_132" id=
+"FNanchor_132_132"></a><a href="#Footnote_132_132">[132]</a>
+Moreover, the long catalogues of genealogies in Genesis and the
+longer recitals of sacrifices in Leviticus and Numbers seemed to
+refute those who declared that every part of the Pentateuch was a
+Divine revelation. In the third book of the "Questions to Genesis"
+Philo directly grapples with this objection. Commenting on the
+verse (Gen. xv. 9), "Take for me a heifer of three years old and a
+goat of three years old," etc., he says that in interpreting any
+part or any verse of Scripture we must look to the purpose of the
+whole and explain it from this outlook, "without dissecting or
+disturbing its harmony or disintegrating its unity."<a name=
+"FNanchor_133_133" id="FNanchor_133_133"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_133_133">[133]</a> Why should God, asked the scoffer,
+reveal these trivial or prolix details? Philo's answer is in fact
+to spiritualize everything that is material, and universalize
+everything that is particular. While he believes in the literal
+inspiration of the Bible, he does not insist upon the literal truth
+of every word of it, and in the opening chapters of Genesis in
+particular, he treats the tales as symbolical or allegorical myths.
+His philosophical commentary on the creation, corresponding to the
+<img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image32.jpg" width="118" height=
+"16"> of the rabbis, is found in the book <i>De Mundi Opificio</i>,
+which stands in modern editions at the head of his writings. Its
+main theme is to trace in the text the Platonic idealism,
+<i>i.e.</i>, the theory that God first created transcendental,
+incorporeal archetypes of all <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_109" id="page_109">[pg.109]</a></span> physical and material
+things. Philo uses the double account of the creation of man in the
+first and second chapters of Genesis as clear evidence that the
+Bible describes&mdash;for those who have the mind to see&mdash;the
+creation of an ideal before the terrestrial man.</p>
+<p>In the "Allegories of the Laws," which is the profounder
+philosophical doctrine, the account of Adam and Eve is deliberately
+chosen by Philo as the text of a psychological treatise, in which
+he analyzes<a name="FNanchor_134_134" id=
+"FNanchor_134_134"></a><a href="#Footnote_134_134">[134]</a> the
+relations of the mind, the senses, and the pleasures, represented
+respectively by Adam, Eve, and the Serpent. The necessity of
+explaining the story symbolically is professedly based on the fact
+that otherwise we are driven to the idea that the Bible spoke
+inaccurately about God. "It is silly," he says, "to suppose that
+Adam and Eve can have hidden themselves in the Garden of Eden, for
+God filled the whole." We are driven then to suggest another
+meaning; and Philo passes into a homily about the false opinion of
+the man who follows the bidding of the senses (Eve) at the
+instigation of pleasure (the Serpent).<a name="FNanchor_135_135"
+id="FNanchor_135_135"></a><a href="#Footnote_135_135">[135]</a></p>
+<p>The story of Cain and Abel is another piece of moral philosophy
+embodied in a concrete form. Abel symbolizes pious humility, Cain
+the deadly sin of atheism and intellectual pride, which denies the
+absolute and ever-present power of the Deity. Philo asks himself
+the question that other commentators have frequently raised, some
+in reverence, some in <span class="newpage"><a name="page_110" id=
+"page_110">[pg.110]</a></span> ridicule, "Who was Cain's
+wife?"<a name="FNanchor_136_136" id="FNanchor_136_136"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_136_136">[136]</a> And he answers that the Bible
+expression about the children of Cain cannot be taken literally,
+but suggests the union of the ill-ruled mind with impious opinions,
+which have as their issue false pride and sin.</p>
+<p>Philo here treats the stories in the opening of Genesis as pure
+allegories, in which the men and women represent symbolically
+characters and qualities. It should be remembered, however, that
+these interpretations occur in the commentary where our author is
+not so much expounding the Torah as deducing secret doctrines from
+it. His proper exposition of the law proceeds from the book on the
+Creation to the lives of the patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob,
+and then to the lives of Joseph and Moses. And in this commentary
+the Bible narrative is taken as historical truth: only in addition
+to the historical fact there is a moral and universal value in
+every figure and every episode. The patriarchs' lives represent the
+unwritten law which the Greek world held in high honor, for it was
+considered to contain the broad principles of individual and social
+conduct, and to be prior logically and chronologically to the
+written codes. Moses, therefore, the perfect legislator, according
+to Philo, has presented in the three founders of the Hebrew race
+embodiments of the unwritten law of good conduct for all mankind.
+Each of them is a moral type of eternal validity and represents one
+of the ways in <span class="newpage"><a name="page_111" id=
+"page_111">[pg.111]</a></span> which blessedness may be
+attained.<a name="FNanchor_137_137" id=
+"FNanchor_137_137"></a><a href="#Footnote_137_137">[137]</a>
+Abraham represents the goodness which comes from instruction;
+Isaac, the spontaneous goodness that is innate, and the joy (or
+laughter) of the soul that is God's gift to his favored sons;
+Jacob, the goodness that comes after long effort, through the life
+of practice and severe discipline. Before this triad, the Bible
+presents another group of three, who represent the virtues
+preparatory to the acquisition of perfect goodness: Enosh, Enoch,
+and Noah.<a name="FNanchor_138_138" id=
+"FNanchor_138_138"></a><a href="#Footnote_138_138">[138]</a> They
+typify respectively, as their names indicate, hope, repentance, and
+justice. It is a pretty thought, helped by an error in the
+Septuagint translation,<a name="FNanchor_139_139" id=
+"FNanchor_139_139"></a><a href="#Footnote_139_139">[139]</a> which
+sees in the name of the first <i>i.e.</i>, man, <img alt="Hebrew; "
+src="images/image33.jpg" width="40" height="18"> the symbol of
+hope. Hope, the commentator suggests, is the distinguishing
+characteristic of man<a name="FNanchor_140_140" id=
+"FNanchor_140_140"></a><a href="#Footnote_140_140">[140]</a> as
+compared with other animals, and hope therefore is our first step
+towards the Divine nature, the seed of which faith is the fruit.
+Next in order come repentance and natural justice, and from these
+stepping-stones we can rise to the higher self. Philo's
+interpretation of these Bible figures would appear to have behind
+it an old Midrashic tradition. As far back as the book of Ben Sira,
+in the passage on "the Praises of Famous Men" (xliv), they are
+taken as typical of the different virtues, and Enoch notably
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_112" id=
+"page_112">[pg.112]</a></span> is the type of repentance. In the
+first century the world was becoming incapable of understanding
+abstract ideas, and required ethics to be concretely embodied in
+examples of life. Philo found within the Jewish Scriptures what the
+Christian apostles later transferred to other events.</p>
+<p>Joseph, whose life followed that of the patriarchs, is the type
+of the political life, the model of the man of action and ambition.
+Taken alone, this is inferior to the life of the saint and
+philosopher, but mixed with the other it produces the perfect man,
+for the truly good man must take his part in public life. The story
+of Joseph, then, illustrates the full humanity of Moses' scheme,
+and it marks also, according to Philo, the great moral lesson, that
+if there be one spark of nobility in a man's soul, God will find it
+and cause it to shine forth.<a name="FNanchor_141_141" id=
+"FNanchor_141_141"></a><a href="#Footnote_141_141">[141]</a> For
+Joseph, until he comes down to Egypt, is not a virtuous man, but
+full of conceit and unworthy aspiration for supremacy; he shows his
+true worth when he is sold into slavery; and then by the Divine
+inspiration he becomes the ideal statesman. Very suggestive is
+Philo's homily, by which he develops the Bible narrative, that the
+function of the statesman is to expound dreams;<a name=
+"FNanchor_142_142" id="FNanchor_142_142"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_142_142">[142]</a> because his task is to interpret the
+life of man, which is one long dream of changing scenes, wherein we
+forget what has gone before, as the fleeting shadow leads us from
+childhood to youth, from youth to manhood, from manhood to
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_113" id=
+"page_113">[pg.113]</a></span> old age. Lastly, from the story of
+Joseph he draws the lesson that when the Hebrew has attained to a
+high position in a foreign land, as in Egypt, where there is utter
+blindness about the true God, he can and should retain his national
+laws,<a name="FNanchor_143_143" id="FNanchor_143_143"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_143_143">[143]</a> and not assimilate the practices of
+his environment.</p>
+<p>Eusebius<a name="FNanchor_144_144" id=
+"FNanchor_144_144"></a><a href="#Footnote_144_144">[144]</a>
+mentions, among the works of Philo which he had before him, a book
+on "The Statesman," in which doubtless the principles of government
+and social life were more fully treated. The book has disappeared,
+but the life of Joseph suffices to show that Philo recognized the
+place of public service in the human ideal.</p>
+<p>Moses is not only the divinely inspired legislator, but he
+typifies also the perfection of the human soul, the highest example
+of the man at one with God, supreme as king, lawgiver, priest, and
+prophet. He is the link between God and man, the perfect
+interpreter of the Divine Word; and though Philo avoids the
+suggestion of any Divine power incarnate in man, he speaks
+imaginatively of the Logos of Moses,<a name="FNanchor_145_145" id=
+"FNanchor_145_145"></a><a href="#Footnote_145_145">[145]</a>
+<i>i.e.</i>, his reason, as identical with the Logos of God, the
+Divine law of the universe. It is significant of his attitude to
+religion that he lays no stress upon the miracles of the Bible
+narrative. Not that he rationalizes them away; he rejects all
+rationalizing whatsoever; but he <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_114" id="page_114">[pg.114]</a></span> interprets them as
+great spiritual signs, rather than as diversions from the laws of
+nature. His allegory of the burning bush, which Moses saw at Horeb
+is typical, and presents a truth to which the whole history of
+Israel bears witness. The weak thorn-bush, which was not consumed
+by the fire, is the image of the idea of Israel, which almost cries
+to the people in their misfortune: "Do not despair! Your weakness
+is your strength, and by it you shall wound race after race. You
+will be preserved by those who wish to destroy you, and you shall
+not perish. In evil days you shall not suffer, and when a tyrant
+thinks to uproot you, you shall shine forth the more in brighter
+glory."<a name="FNanchor_146_146" id=
+"FNanchor_146_146"></a><a href="#Footnote_146_146">[146]</a> The
+passage is typical also of the rhetorical artifice with which
+Philo, following the taste of the time, recommended the Bible to
+the Greeks.</p>
+<p>We turn now to Philo's treatment of the Mosaic legislation, the
+Torah in its narrower sense, which is to modern Jewry perhaps the
+most striking part of his commentary. His problem was the same as
+ours&mdash;to bring the ancient law into harmony with the ideas of
+a non-Jewish environment, and to show its essential value when
+tried by an external cultural standard. Briefly his solution is
+that he sees everything in the Torah <i>sub specie
+&aelig;ternitatis</i>, in the light of eternity; and by his
+faithfulness to the law, combined with his spiritual interpretation
+of it, he stands forth as the greatest Jewish missionary of his
+age. Unfortunately for Judaism, depth of thought and philosophical
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_115" id=
+"page_115">[pg.115]</a></span> judgment are not the qualities which
+mark the successful religious missionary. Philo's philosophical
+treatment of the Torah was understood only of the few; the
+fanatical Pauline rejection of the law appealed to the masses. The
+spirit of the age demanded, indeed, the ethical interpretation of
+the Bible, and it was carried out in many ways, some true, some
+untrue to Judaism. Philo and Josephus tell us how Judaism was
+spreading over the world.<a name="FNanchor_147_147" id=
+"FNanchor_147_147"></a><a href="#Footnote_147_147">[147]</a> "There
+is not any city of the Greeks," says the historian, "nor of the
+barbarians, nor of any nation whatsoever, to which our custom of
+resting on the seventh day has not been introduced, and where our
+fasts and our dietary laws are not observed.... As God Himself
+pervadeth all the universe, so hath our law passed through the
+world." And their testimony is supported by the frequent gibes
+against Judaizing Romans in the Roman poets,<a name=
+"FNanchor_148_148" id="FNanchor_148_148"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_148_148">[148]</a> and by the explicit statements of
+Strabo,<a name="FNanchor_149_149" id=
+"FNanchor_149_149"></a><a href="#Footnote_149_149">[149]</a> the
+famous geographer, and, more remarkable still, of Seneca, the Stoic
+philosopher-statesman. The bitter foe of the Jews, he confessed
+that this superstitious pest was infecting the whole world, and
+that the conquered people (Jud&aelig;a had lately been made a Roman
+province) were taking their conquerors captive.<a name=
+"FNanchor_150_150" id="FNanchor_150_150"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_150_150">[150]</a> Philo, with his ardent hope, looked
+for the near coming of the time when the worship of the Jewish God
+would prevail over the <span class="newpage"><a name="page_116" id=
+"page_116">[pg.116]</a></span> world, and sought to show that the
+Jewish law, which is the expression of Jewish belief, and which
+differs from all others, not only in the extent of its sway, but in
+its unchangeableness, could be universalized to fit its new
+service. To this end he interpreted the Mosaic code, which "no war,
+tyrant, persecution, or visitation, human or Divine, can destroy:
+for it is eternal."<a name="FNanchor_151_151" id=
+"FNanchor_151_151"></a><a href="#Footnote_151_151">[151]</a> In the
+arrangement of the Torah, Philo finds a proof of its universality.
+It begins with the account of the creation, to teach us that the
+same Being that is the Creator and Father of the universe is also
+its Legislator, and, again, that he who follows the law will choose
+to live in harmony with nature, and will exhibit consistency of
+action with words and of words with action. Other philosophers,
+notably the Stoics, claimed to lay down a plan of life that
+followed the law of nature; but their practice notoriously fell
+below their unrealizable professions. In Judaism alone spirit and
+practice were at one, so that each inspired the other and secured
+human excellence. "Not theory but practice is the root of the
+matter" <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image34.jpg" width="247"
+height="19">, according to the rabbis:<a name="FNanchor_152_152"
+id="FNanchor_152_152"></a><a href="#Footnote_152_152">[152]</a> and
+Philo, who, contemplative philosopher as he was, yet recognized the
+all-importance of conduct, writes in the same spirit:<a name=
+"FNanchor_153_153" id="FNanchor_153_153"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_153_153">[153]</a> "We must first study and then act,
+for we learn, not for learning's sake, but in order to action."</p>
+<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_117" id=
+"page_117">[pg.117]</a></span> Philo seeks to arrange the law under
+general moral heads, and he finds in the Decalogue the holy text
+upon which the rest of the code is but a commentary. He may be
+following a tradition common among all the Jews, for in the Midrash
+to Numbers (xiii) it is said that the six hundred and thirteen
+precepts are all contained in the Ten Commandments: <img alt=
+"Hebrew; " src="images/image35.jpg" width="193" height="21">. We do
+not know, however, in what way the early rabbis carried out this
+idea, whereas we possess Philo's arrangement; and some of its
+features are very suggestive.<a name="FNanchor_154_154" id=
+"FNanchor_154_154"></a><a href="#Footnote_154_154">[154]</a> To the
+first two commandments he attaches the ritual laws relating to
+priests and sacrifices, to the fourth the laws of all the
+festivals, to the seventh the criminal and civil law, to the tenth
+the dietary laws. The Decalogue he conceives as falling into two
+divisions, between which the fifth commandment is a link. For the
+first four commandments are ordinances that determine man's
+relation to God, and the last five those which determine his
+relation to his fellows. Honor of the parents is the link between
+the Divine and the human virtues, even as parents themselves are a
+link between immortal God and mortal man. Corresponding to the two
+divisions of the Decalogue are the two generic virtues which the
+Mosaic legislation has set as its goal, piety, and humanity, or
+what the rabbis called charity <img alt="Hebrew; " src=
+"images/image36.jpg" width="58" height="16">. "He who loves God,
+but does not show love towards his own kind, has but the half of
+virtue."<a name="FNanchor_155_155" id=
+"FNanchor_155_155"></a><a href="#Footnote_155_155">[155]</a> Thus
+in one and the same age Hillel, <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_118" id="page_118">[pg.118]</a></span> incited by a single
+scoffer, and Philo, moved by the taunts of a tribe of anti-Semites,
+looked for the most vital lesson of the Torah, and they found it
+alike in "the love of our neighbor." That was Judaism on its
+practical side.</p>
+<p>In order to show the humanitarian spirit of the Torah, Philo
+emphasizes its socialistic institutions, the law of the seventh
+year's rest to the land <img alt="Hebrew; " src=
+"images/image37.jpg" width="118" height="18">, of the emancipation
+of the slaves, and of the Jubilee. These to him are not tribal
+laws, but the ideal institutions for the whole world, which shall
+one day be set up when the theocracy has been established over all
+mankind. And in an age when slavery was as accepted a condition as
+factory-labor is to-day, he ventured to assert the principle of the
+equality of man. "If," saith the law, "one of thy brethren be sold
+to thee, let him serve thee for six years, and in the seventh year
+let him go free without payment." And Philo thereon
+comments:<a name="FNanchor_156_156" id=
+"FNanchor_156_156"></a><a href="#Footnote_156_156">[156]</a> "A
+second time Moses calls our fellow-creature brother, to impress
+upon the master that he has a tie with his servant, so that he may
+not neglect him as a stranger. Nay, but if he follows the direction
+of the law, he will feel sympathy with him, and will not be vexed
+when he is about to liberate him. For though we call our servants
+slaves, yet in verity they are only dependents who serve us in
+order to have the means of life." This corresponds with the Talmud
+dictum, "Whoever buys a <span class="newpage"><a name="page_119"
+id="page_119">[pg.119]</a></span> Jewish slave buys a master for
+himself."<a name="FNanchor_157_157" id=
+"FNanchor_157_157"></a><a href="#Footnote_157_157">[157]</a>
+Commenting again upon the verse in Exodus xxi. 6, which says with
+seeming harshness that a servant who wishes to stay with his master
+after the year of emancipation has arrived, shall be nailed by the
+ear to a door, he explains that no man should consent of his own
+will to be a slave, for we should only be servants of God; and if a
+man deliberately rejects freedom for comfort, he should wear a mark
+of degradation. The so-called Christian principle of the dignity of
+human life and the equality of man, Philo shows to be the spirit of
+the Mosaic law, not limited within the confines of one nation, but
+valid for the world. Nor is it contained therein as a mere
+sentimental aspiration, but it is realized in the institutions of
+the Jewish polity.</p>
+<p>Philo looked for the same broad principles in his treatment of
+the ceremonial law. The Sabbath day is the central observance, one
+might say, the lodestar of the Jewish life, round which the other
+ceremonies revolve. The Sabbath is the call to man's higher nature,
+for it is the day on which we are bidden to devote ourselves to the
+Divine power within us and to seek to know God. "The six days in
+which the Creator made the universe are an example to us to work,
+but the seventh day, on which He rested, is an example to us to
+meditate. As on that day God is said to have looked upon His work,
+so we, too, should <span class="newpage"><a name="page_120" id=
+"page_120">[pg.120]</a></span> contemplate the universe thereon,
+and consider our highest welfare. Let us never neglect the example
+of the best life, the combination of action and thought, but
+keeping a clear vision of it before our minds, so far as our human
+nature will permit, let us liken ourselves to immortal God by word
+and deed."<a name="FNanchor_158_158" id=
+"FNanchor_158_158"></a><a href="#Footnote_158_158">[158]</a>
+High-flown this language may be, but what Philo wishes to mark is
+the spiritual value of the Sabbath. It is not merely a day of rest
+from workaday toil, but it is a day upon which we devote all our
+thoughts to God, and enter into closer communion with Him,
+<img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image38.jpg" width="168" height=
+"18">, a repose of love and devotion. Heine said that on one day of
+the week the lowliest Jew became a prince, Philo that he became a
+philosopher. As in all of Philo's interpretations of Jewish custom,
+there is something mystic in his conception of the Sabbath. For he
+regards all Divine service and all prayer as a mystic rite which
+leads the human soul unto God. In the special ordinances of the day
+he finds a spiritual motive. We may not touch fire, because fire is
+the seed and beginning of industry.<a name="FNanchor_159_159" id=
+"FNanchor_159_159"></a><a href="#Footnote_159_159">[159]</a> The
+servant of the house may not work,<a name="FNanchor_160_160" id=
+"FNanchor_160_160"></a><a href="#Footnote_160_160">[160]</a>
+because on this day he shall have a taste of freedom and humanity,
+and he will work the more cheerfully during the remaining six days.
+Some rabbis later, when numbers of Gentiles had adopted this
+without the other institutions of Judaism, claimed the Sabbath as
+the <span class="newpage"><a name="page_121" id=
+"page_121">[pg.121]</a></span> special heritage of Israel; and in
+the book of Jubilees<a name="FNanchor_161_161" id=
+"FNanchor_161_161"></a><a href="#Footnote_161_161">[161]</a> it is
+said that Israel alone has the right to observe the Sabbath. Not so
+Philo, who, desiring to give the day a value for all, regards it as
+God's covenant with the whole of humanity.<a name=
+"FNanchor_162_162" id="FNanchor_162_162"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_162_162">[162]</a></p>
+<p>The Sabbath idea is reflected in all the festivals, which have
+as their dominating idea man's joyful gratitude to God. Influenced
+probably by a mystic fondness for certain numbers, Philo enumerates
+ten festivals, as follows:<a name="FNanchor_163_163" id=
+"FNanchor_163_163"></a><a href="#Footnote_163_163">[163]</a> (1)
+Each day in the year, if we use it aright&mdash;a truly Philonic
+conception; (2) The Sabbath; (3) The new moon&mdash;then in
+Alexandria, as in Palestine, a solemn day; (4) The Passover; (5)
+The bringing of the first barley ('Omer); (6) The Feast of
+Unleavened Bread. These last three are separate aspects of one
+celebration, which is divided up so as to produce the holy decad.
+(7) Pentecost; (8) New Year; (9) Atonement (to the mystic the Feast
+of feasts); (10) Tabernacles. Following his design of revealing in
+Judaism a religion of universal validity, Philo points out in all
+these festivals a double meaning. On the one hand, they mark God's
+providence to His chosen people, shown in some great event of their
+history&mdash;this is the special meaning for the
+Israelite&mdash;and, on the other, they indicate God's goodness as
+revealed in the march of nature, and thus help to bind man to the
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_122" id=
+"page_122">[pg.122]</a></span> universal process. So Passover is
+the festival of the spring and a memorial of the creation <img alt=
+"Hebrew; " src="images/image39.jpg" width="175" height="18"> as
+well as the memorial of the great Exodus, and of our gratitude for
+the deliverance from the inhospitable land of Egypt. And those who
+look for a deeper moral meaning may find in it a symbol of the
+passing over from the life of the senses to the life with God.
+Similarly, Philo deals with the other festivals,<a name=
+"FNanchor_164_164" id="FNanchor_164_164"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_164_164">[164]</a> and in their particular ceremonies he
+finds symbols which stamp eternal lessons of history and of
+morality upon our hearts. The unleavened bread is the mark of the
+simple life, the New Year Shofar of the Divine rule of peace, the
+Sukkot booth of the equality of all men, and, as he puts it
+elsewhere, of man's duty in prosperity to remember the troubles of
+his past, so that he may worthily recognize God's goodness. Much of
+this may appear trite to us; and the association of the festivals
+with the seasons of nature may to some appear a false development
+of historical Judaism; nevertheless Philo's treatment of this part
+of the Torah is notable. It shows remarkable feeling for the
+ethical import of the law, and it establishes the harmony between
+the Greek and Hebrew conceptions of the Deity by combining the God
+of history with the God of nature in the same festival. The ideas
+were not unknown to Palestinian rabbis; Philo, by giving them a
+Greek dress, opened them to the world.</p>
+<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_123" id=
+"page_123">[pg.123]</a></span></p>
+<p>Equally remarkable and equally suggestive is Philo's treatment
+of the dietary laws. We have seen that he placed them under the
+governing principle of the tenth commandment, "Thou shalt not
+covet," or, more broadly, "Thou shalt not have base desires." The
+dietary laws are at once a symbol and a discipline of temperance
+and self-control. We know that the Greeks, as soon as they had a
+superficial knowledge of Jewish observance, jeered at the barbarous
+and stupid superstition of refusing to eat pork. Again we are told
+in the letter of the false Aristeas that when Ptolemy's ambassadors
+went to Jerusalem, to summon learned men to translate the Torah
+into Greek, Eleazar, the high priest, instructed them in the deeper
+moral meaning of the dietary laws. Further, in the fourth book of
+the Maccabees&mdash;an Alexandrian sermon upon the Empire of Right
+Reason&mdash;we find an eloquent defence of these same laws as the
+precepts of reason which fortify our minds. Philo, then, is
+following a tradition, but he improves upon it. Accepting the
+Platonic psychology, which divided the soul into reason, temper
+(<i>i.e.</i>, will), and desire, he shows how the aim of the Mosaic
+law about food is to control desire and will, so as to make them
+subservient to reason. By practicing self-restraint in the two
+commonest actions of life&mdash;eating and drinking&mdash;the
+Israelite acquires it in all things. The hard ascetic who would
+root out bodily desires errs against human nature, but the wise
+legislator controls them and curbs them by precepts, so that they
+are bent to the higher reason.</p>
+<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_124" id=
+"page_124">[pg.124]</a></span> Modern apologists for Judaism have
+been found who, trying to force science to support their tottering
+faith, allege that the dietary law is hygienic. Philo relies on no
+such treacherous reed. We may not eat, he says,<a name=
+"FNanchor_165_165" id="FNanchor_165_165"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_165_165">[165]</a> the flesh of the pig or shell-fish,
+not because they are unhealthy, but because they are the sweetest
+and most delightful of all food, and for that very reason they are
+marks of the sensual life. This and this alone is the true
+religious justification of the dietary law.</p>
+<p>In this way, by showing how the letter represents the spirit,
+Philo fulfils the law; his religion is liberal in thought,
+conservative in practice. He sees clearly that to throw off the law
+and reject tradition involves in the end chaos and the overthrow of
+righteousness. And certain Christian&mdash;and
+other&mdash;theologians, if one may make bold to say so, fail to
+realize the spirit of Philo, when they speak of him as a man who
+approached the light, but was too tied down by the old traditions
+to receive the full illumination. Rather is it true that the Jewish
+aspiration of "freedom under the law," or spirit through the
+letter, is absolutely fundamental in Philo, and loyalty to the
+Torah is a guiding principle in his religious outlook. He asserts
+it clearly and strikingly, not only in his ethical commentary on
+the law, but in his philosophical allegories. Both passages deserve
+quotation, since they mark the fundamental contrast between Philo
+and non-Jewish allegorists of the law. In the first <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_125" id="page_125">[pg.125]</a></span>
+Philo is commenting upon the command "Thou shalt not add to or take
+away from the law" (Deut. xix. 14).<a name="FNanchor_166_166" id=
+"FNanchor_166_166"></a><a href="#Footnote_166_166">[166]</a> He
+shows first how each of the virtues is marred by excess in either
+direction; virtue in fact, according to the Aristotelian formula,
+is "a mean."</p>
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>"And in the same way, if we add anything great or small to
+piety, the queen of virtues, or take anything away, we mar it and
+change its form. Addition will engender superstition, and
+diminution impiety, and true piety will disappear, which above all
+things we should pray for to enlighten our souls: for it is the
+cause of the greatest of goods, inducing in us a knowledge of our
+conduct towards God, which is a thing more royal and kingly than
+any public office or distinction. Further, Moses lays down another
+general command, 'Do not remove the boundary stone of thy neighbor,
+which thy ancestors have set up.' This, methinks, does not refer
+merely to inheritances and the boundary of land, but it is ordained
+with a view to the preservation of ancient customs. For customs are
+unwritten laws, the decrees of men of old, not carved indeed upon
+pillars and inscribed upon parchment, but engraved upon the souls
+of the generations who through the ages maintain the chosen
+community. Children should take over the paternal customs from
+their parents as part of their inheritance, for they were reared on
+them, and lived on them from their swaddling days, and they should
+not neglect them merely because the tradition is not written. The
+man who obeys the written laws is not, indeed, worthy of praise,
+for he may be constrained thereto by fear of punishment. But he who
+holds fast to the unwritten laws gives proof of a voluntary
+goodness and is worthy of our eulogy."</p>
+</div>
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_126" id=
+"page_126">[pg.126]</a></span>
+<p>Clearly he is arguing here for the observance of the oral law,
+which later was standardized in the Halakah.</p>
+<p>In the other passage, which occurs in the philosophical book "On
+the Migration of Abraham,"<a name="FNanchor_167_167" id=
+"FNanchor_167_167"></a><a href="#Footnote_167_167">[167]</a> he
+sets forth the reason of the authority of the law with more
+argument, and controverts those who would allegorize away the
+ordinances.</p>
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>"To whom, then, God has granted both to be and to seem good, he
+is truly happy and truly renowned. And we must have a great care
+for reputation, as a matter of great importance and of much value,
+for our social and bodily life. [By reputation Philo means
+reputation of being loyal Jews. He is addressing here an esoteric
+circle who, if they were lax, would bring philosophy into
+disrepute.] And almost all can secure it, who are well content not
+to disturb established customs, but diligently preserve the
+constitution of their nation. But there are some who, looking upon
+the written laws as symbols of intellectual things, lay great
+stress on these, but neglect the former. Such men I would blame for
+their shallowness of mind <img alt="Greek: euchereia" src=
+"images/image40.jpg" width="68" height="19">. For they ought to
+give good heed to both&mdash;to the accurate investigation of the
+unseen meaning, but also to the blameless observance of the visible
+letter. But now, as if they were living by themselves in a desert,
+and were souls without bodies, and knew nothing of city or village
+or house or intercourse with men, they despise all that seems
+valuable to the many, and search for bare and naked truth as it is
+in itself. Such people the sacred Scripture teaches to give good
+heed to a good reputation, and to abolish none of those customs
+which greater and more inspired men than we instituted in the past.
+For, because the seventh day teaches us symbolically <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_127" id="page_127">[pg.127]</a></span>
+concerning the power of the uncreated God, and the inactivity of
+the creature, we must not therefore abolish its ordinances, so as
+to light a fire, or till the ground, or bear a burden, or prosecute
+a lawsuit, or demand the restoration of a deposit, or exact the
+repayment of a loan, or do any other thing, which on week-days is
+allowed. Because the festivals are symbols of spiritual joy and of
+our gratitude to God, we must not therefore give up the fixed
+assemblies at the proper seasons of the year. Nor, because
+circumcision symbolizes the excision of all lusts and passions, and
+the destruction of the impious opinion according to which the mind
+imagines that it is itself capable of production, must we therefore
+abolish the law of fleshly circumcision. We should have to neglect
+the service of the temple, and a thousand other things, if we were
+to restrict ourselves only to the allegorical or symbolic sense.
+That sense resembles the soul, the other sense the body. Just as we
+must be careful of the body, as the house of the soul, so must we
+give heed to the letter of the written laws. For only when these
+are faithfully observed, will the inner meaning, of which they are
+the symbols, become more clearly realized, and, at the same time,
+the blame and accusation of the multitude will be avoided."<a name=
+"FNanchor_168_168" id="FNanchor_168_168"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_168_168">[168]</a></p>
+</div>
+<p>Philo's position is, then, that man on the one hand owes loyalty
+to his nation, and on the other is not only a creature of spirit,
+but has a body and bodily passions. He cannot, therefore, have a
+religion which is individual or merely spiritual, but he requires
+common forms and ceremonies that can bind him with <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_128" id="page_128">[pg.128]</a></span> the
+rest of the community, and train his body by good habit to obey his
+reason. We do not reach the spirit by denying but by obeying the
+letter. To the mere formal observance of the law and the
+unreasoning custom which blindly follows the practice of our
+fathers [Greek: syn&ecirc;theia] Philo is equally opposed, and he
+protests, with the earnestness of an Isaiah, against superstitious
+sacrifice and against the lip-service of the materialist.<a name=
+"FNanchor_169_169" id="FNanchor_169_169"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_169_169">[169]</a></p>
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>"If a man practices ablutions and purifications, but defiles his
+mind while he cleanses his body; or if, through his wealth, he
+founds a temple at a large outlay and expense; or if he offers
+hecatombs and sacrifices oxen without number, or adorns the shrine
+with rich ornaments, or gives endless timber and cunningly wrought
+work, more precious than silver or gold&mdash;let him none the more
+be called religious ([Greek: euseb&ecirc;s]). For he has wandered
+far from the path of religion, mistaking ritual for holiness, and
+attempting to bribe the Incorruptible, and to flatter Him whom none
+can flatter. God welcomes genuine service, and that is the service
+of a soul that offers the bare and simple sacrifice of truth, but
+from false service, the mere display of material wealth, he turns
+away."</p>
+</div>
+<p>Lot's daughter, born of a pillar of stone, symbolizes this
+unthinking, hypertrophied religion; and custom, its mother, which
+always lags behind and has no seed of life, is the enemy of truth.
+The religious man pursueth righteousness righteously, the
+superstitious unrighteously.</p>
+<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_129" id=
+"page_129">[pg.129]</a></span></p>
+<p>Thus Philo holds the balance between a formless spirituality and
+an unspiritual formalism. The end of religious observance is the
+love of God, but the love of God requires more than feeling; it
+must impregnate life. Dubnow, in his summary of Jewish history,
+formulates an epigram, which, like most of its kind, becomes in its
+conciseness and pointed antithesis a half-truth. "At Jerusalem," he
+says, "Judaism appeared as a system of practical ceremonies; at
+Alexandria as a complex of abstract symbols." No doubt it is true
+that at Jerusalem the practical side of the law was most prominent,
+but the spiritual exaltation to which it should lead was appraised
+as the true end by the great rabbis. Witness Hillel, and indeed all
+the writers of the gnomic wisdom in the "Ethics of the Fathers." At
+Alexandria, again, while the philosophical principle underlying the
+outward practice was especially emphasized, the practice itself was
+loyally observed, and its value perceived, by those who most
+thoroughly understood Judaism. Witness the writings of Philo, the
+Wisdom of Solomon, and the fourth book of the Maccabees. The
+antithesis between letter and spirit, faith and works, is in truth
+a false one; and wherever the significance of Judaism has been
+fully comprehended, the two aspects of the law have been
+inextricably intertwined. As Philo understood the Jewish mission,
+it was not merely to diffuse the Jewish God-idea, but quite as much
+to diffuse the Jewish attitude to God, the way of life. Abstract
+ideas, however lofty, can never be the bond of a <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_130" id="page_130">[pg.130]</a></span>
+religious community, nor can they be a safeguard for moral conduct.
+Sooner or later congregations must submit themselves to some law,
+be it a law of dogma, or be it a law of conduct. Antinomianism, the
+opposition to the law, to which Paul later gave powerful, even
+fanatical, expression, was a strong movement at Alexandria in
+Philo's day. Preparatory to the spread of Christianity, numerous
+sects sprang up there which purported to follow a spiritual Judaism
+wherein the law was abrogated because, forsooth, its symbolism was
+understood! In the extreme allegorists, whom Philo attacks for
+their shallowness, one may discern the prototypes of the Cainites,
+Ophites, Melchizedecians, and the rest of the heretical parties
+that produced the religious chaos of the next centuries. From that
+welter of opinions there at last emerged dogmatic Christianity. The
+Christian reformers came to free man from the yoke of the law; but
+their successors imposed on the mind the fetters of dogma, and, in
+order to check the passions of the body, advocated renunciation and
+asceticism. So that not only Judaism as a system of belief, but
+Judaism as a system of life was lost in their handiwork.
+Spirituality lacking knowledge and allegorism in excess led to this
+result. In Philo they are controlled by affection for the Torah,
+and by a conviction of the need for national cohesion.</p>
+<p>Philo is loyal to the Jewish tradition not only because he had a
+deep feeling for what a modern teacher has called the catholic
+conscience and the historical <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_131" id="page_131">[pg.131]</a></span> continuity of Judaism,
+but because his philosophy was based on a conviction that the
+Jewish religion was the truest guide to conduct and righteousness
+and to the love of God. To him, as to Plato and Aristotle, the law
+was the outward register of the moral ideal; the "word-and-deed
+symbols" of ceremonial and prayer were emblems indeed of moral
+principles, but at the same time they had an intrinsic value, in
+that they impressed these principles upon the mind, and brought
+belief and action into harmony. "Religion is law, not philosophy,"
+said Hobbes. With Philo, religion is law <i>and</i> philosophy.
+Thus the love of the Torah is of the essence of his religious
+thought. As he puts it in the exhortation to his fellow-ambassadors
+before Gaius,<a name="FNanchor_170_170" id=
+"FNanchor_170_170"></a><a href="#Footnote_170_170">[170]</a> "to
+die in defence of it is a kind of life." In his philosophical
+Judaism he sought always for the universal and the spiritual, but
+so as always to increase the honor of the law, and not only of the
+law but of the customs of his ancestors, thinking with the Psalmist
+that "the Torah is a tree of life to those who keep fast hold of
+her, and those who support her are blessed."</p>
+<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_132" id=
+"page_132">[pg.132]</a></span></p>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<p>V</p>
+<p>PHILO'S THEOLOGY</p>
+<br>
+<p>"The most remarkable feature about Judaism," says Darmesteter,
+"is that without a philosophical system it had reached a
+philosophical conclusion about the government of the world and the
+nature of God."<a name="FNanchor_171_171" id=
+"FNanchor_171_171"></a><a href="#Footnote_171_171">[171]</a> The
+same idea underlies the statement of the Peripatetic writer
+Theophrastus (who lived in the latter part of the fourth century
+B.C.E.) that the Jews are a people of philosophers,<a name=
+"FNanchor_172_172" id="FNanchor_172_172"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_172_172">[172]</a> and the epigram of Heine, that they
+pray in metaphysics. Intuitively, the lawgiver and prophets of the
+Hebrew race had attained a conception of monotheism to which the
+greatest of the Greek philosophers had hardly struggled by reason.
+The Greeks had started with separate nature-powers, which they had
+finally resolved into a supreme nature-force; the Hebrews had
+started with the historical God of their fathers, whom they had
+universalized into the Creator of the world and Father of all the
+human race. Wellhausen has suggested that the intellectual
+development of Judaism with its tendency to become a purified
+monotheism moved in the same direction towards which Greek thought
+tended in its philosophical speculation of the universe. The
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_133" id=
+"page_133">[pg.133]</a></span> difference between the two
+conceptions of God, however, remained even in their universalized
+aspect; the one was an impersonal world-force, the other a personal
+God in direct relation with individual man. Elsewhere than in
+Jud&aelig;a, it has been well said, religious development reaches
+unity only by sacrificing personality. But the prophets, whose
+conception of God was imaginative rather than rational, preserved
+His nearness while expanding His sway. Israel, to use Philo's
+etymology, is the man who sees God,<a name="FNanchor_173_173" id=
+"FNanchor_173_173"></a><a href="#Footnote_173_173">[173]</a> and
+his religious genius gave to the world a personal incorporeal
+Deity, who is both transcendent and immanent, personal and yet
+above human conception. It is unnecessary to quote evidence of this
+view of the Godhead in the Bible, and it would be superfluous to
+adduce passages from the rabbis, did they not bear a striking
+similarity to the words of Philo. God to them is not only the
+Creator of the world, but also the Father of the world, the
+Governor of the world, the Only One of the world, the Space of the
+world, filling it as the soul fills the body.<a name=
+"FNanchor_174_174" id="FNanchor_174_174"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_174_174">[174]</a> Now, this Jewish conception of God is
+dominant in Philo. To him also God is not only the Creator but the
+Father of the universe.<a name="FNanchor_175_175" id=
+"FNanchor_175_175"></a><a href="#Footnote_175_175">[175]</a> He is
+the One and the All.<a name="FNanchor_176_176" id=
+"FNanchor_176_176"></a><a href="#Footnote_176_176">[176]</a> He is
+ever at rest, yet he outstrippeth everything, <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_134" id="page_134">[pg.134]</a></span>
+nearest to everyone, yet far removed, everywhere and nowhere, above
+and outside the universe, yet filling creation with
+Himself.<a name="FNanchor_177_177" id=
+"FNanchor_177_177"></a><a href="#Footnote_177_177">[177]</a> Philo
+loves to attach to the Deity these opposite predicates, for in this
+way alone can we form for ourselves some conception, however
+inadequate, of His Being. Strictly, God is unconditioned, and
+cannot be the subject of predication, for all determination
+involves negation, and hence in one aspect He is not conceivable
+nor describable, nor nameable.<a name="FNanchor_178_178" id=
+"FNanchor_178_178"></a><a href="#Footnote_178_178">[178]</a>
+Siegfried and Zeller press this negative attitude to the Deity, and
+find that there is an inherent contradiction in Philo's system,
+which ruins it, in that his God, upon whom all depends and who is
+the object of all knowledge, is absolutely unknowable and
+unapproachable. But this is to take Philo according to the strict
+letter to the neglect of the spirit, and to do that with one so
+eloquent and so careless of verbal accuracy is utterly to
+misunderstand him.</p>
+<p>The Greek philosophers in their attempt to formulate an exact
+notion of the First Being by abstract metaphysics had, indeed,
+conceived it in this fashion; and Philo, harmonizing Greek
+metaphysics and Hebrew intuition, is drawn at times into a
+presentation of God which appears to deny His personality and make
+of Him an abstraction. What has been said of Spinoza is true no
+less of Philo.<a name="FNanchor_179_179" id=
+"FNanchor_179_179"></a><a href="#Footnote_179_179">[179]</a> "The
+tendency to unity, to the infinite, to religion, overbalanced
+itself <span class="newpage"><a name="page_135" id=
+"page_135">[pg.135]</a></span> till, by its mere excess, it seemed
+to be changed into its opposite. But this is not his spirit, only
+the dead ultimate result of an imperfect logic that confuses an
+abstract with a concrete unity." In truth, the moment man tries to
+define his conception of God's essence in words, he either impairs
+and perverts his idea, or he must use words that do not really make
+the idea any clearer than it was unexpressed. Thus in the Hymn of
+<img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image41.jpg" width="39" height=
+"22"> the writer, versifying the creeds of Maimonides, seeks to
+define God: "He is a Unity, but there is no Unity like His; He is
+hidden and there is no end to His oneness." But nobody can claim
+that this gives any adequate conception of what he means; so, too,
+Philo, when he tries to analyze God's being metaphysically, only
+obscures the God of his soul, who was the historical God of
+Israel.</p>
+<p>The Hebraic God, like the Greek First Being, has no qualities,
+but unlike the other He has ethical attributes, and it is by these
+that we know Him and by these that He is related to the universe
+and to man. "Failing to comprehend Him in His essence we must aim
+at the next best thing, to comprehend Him as He is manifested to
+the world."<a name="FNanchor_180_180" id=
+"FNanchor_180_180"></a><a href="#Footnote_180_180">[180]</a> So in
+the "Hymn of Unity" it is written, "In images they told of Thee,
+but not according to Thy essence! They but likened Thee in
+accordance with Thy works."<a name="FNanchor_181_181" id=
+"FNanchor_181_181"></a><a href="#Footnote_181_181">[181]</a> And
+this is the manner in which Philo conceives Him: "God's grace and
+goodness it is which are the causes of <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_136" id="page_136">[pg.136]</a></span>
+creation."<a name="FNanchor_182_182" id=
+"FNanchor_182_182"></a><a href="#Footnote_182_182">[182]</a> "The
+just man, seeking the nature of all things, makes this most
+excellent discovery, that all things are due to the grace of God."
+"To those who ask the origin of creation, one could most easily
+reply that it is the goodness and grace of God which He bestowed on
+the race that is after His image."<a name="FNanchor_183_183" id=
+"FNanchor_183_183"></a><a href="#Footnote_183_183">[183]</a> "For
+all that is in the universe and the universe itself are the gift
+and bounty and grace of God."<a name="FNanchor_184_184" id=
+"FNanchor_184_184"></a><a href="#Footnote_184_184">[184]</a> Again,
+"God is omnipotent; He could make all evil, but He wills only what
+is best."<a name="FNanchor_185_185" id=
+"FNanchor_185_185"></a><a href="#Footnote_185_185">[185]</a> "All
+is due to God's grace, though nothing is worthy of it;<a name=
+"FNanchor_186_186" id="FNanchor_186_186"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_186_186">[186]</a> but God looked to His own eternal
+goodness, and considered that to do good befitted His own blessed
+and happy nature."</p>
+<p>Philo's life-aim, as we have seen,<a name="FNanchor_187_187" id=
+"FNanchor_187_187"></a><a href="#Footnote_187_187">[187]</a> was to
+see God in all things and all things in God. He is the sole
+principle of being, exercising continuous causality; and yet He is
+always at rest, for His energy is the expression of His being. "He
+never ceases to create, for creation is as proper to Him as it is
+proper to fire to burn and to snow to cause cold."<a name=
+"FNanchor_188_188" id="FNanchor_188_188"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_188_188">[188]</a> Further, to Him all human activity
+and excellence are directly due. He fertilizes virtue by sending
+down the seed from Heaven,<a name="FNanchor_189_189" id=
+"FNanchor_189_189"></a><a href="#Footnote_189_189">[189]</a> and He
+brings forth wisdom <span class="newpage"><a name="page_137" id=
+"page_137">[pg.137]</a></span> from the human mind by His own
+Divine effluence. "It is the distinctive feature of Jewish
+thought," said Spinoza, "never to make account of particular and
+secondary causes, but in a spirit of devotion, piety, and godliness
+to refer all things directly to the Deity." No Jewish thinker ever
+applied this principle more thoroughly than Philo; and it gives an
+unique color to his work in the history of ancient philosophy. All
+our lives are one unceasing miracle, due to the constant
+manifestation of God's power; and the miracles of the Bible are
+examples of the universal working of Divine care rather than
+exceptions from it.</p>
+<p>The dominant feeling behind Greek thought is that man is the
+measure of all things: Plato, attacking the standpoint of his
+nation, had declared that God is the measure, and Philo repeats his
+maxim with a new intensity. It means for him that man's mind is a
+fragment or particle of the Divine universal mind, which, however,
+is impotent till called into activity by the further Divine gift of
+inspiration. Knowledge and happiness, therefore, come not through
+God, but from God.<a name="FNanchor_190_190" id=
+"FNanchor_190_190"></a><a href="#Footnote_190_190">[190]</a> "The
+Divine Word streams down from the fount of wisdom, and waters the
+plants of virtuous souls."<a name="FNanchor_191_191" id=
+"FNanchor_191_191"></a><a href="#Footnote_191_191">[191]</a> "To
+God alone is it fitting to use the word 'my,'"<a name=
+"FNanchor_192_192" id="FNanchor_192_192"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_192_192">[192]</a> or, put in another way, man has only
+the usufruct and God the ownership of his <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_138" id="page_138">[pg.138]</a></span>
+powers. Pride of intellect is therefore a deadly sin, because it
+involves a false, incomplete idea of God, and true knowledge
+involves reverence. The ideal of the Greek sage, the independent
+reason, is a godless thing, and those in whom a knowledge of Greek
+philosophy produces intellectual pride are not disciples of Divine
+Wisdom. In a fine passage Philo charges with hypocrisy those who
+talk in high-sounding language about the all-powerful Deity, and
+yet declare that by their own intellect they can comprehend the
+world.<a name="FNanchor_193_193" id="FNanchor_193_193"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_193_193">[193]</a> This was the attitude not only of the
+proud Stoic, but of certain kindred Jewish sects, which were
+subject to Greek influences, such as the Gnostics and the Cainites.
+And upon them Philo appears to be pouring his wrath when he
+exclaims: "How have you the effrontery to go on making and
+listening to fine professions about piety and the honor of God,
+when you have within you, forsooth, the mind equal to God that
+comprehends all human things, and can combine good and evil
+portions, giving to some a mixed, to others an unmixed lot? And
+when anybody accuses you of impiety, you brazenly declare that you
+belong to the school of that noble guide and teacher Cain
+(<i>i.e.</i> insolent reason), who bade you pay honor to the
+secondary rather than the primary cause."</p>
+<p>Philo has often been reproached with intellectualism, and
+excessive regard to acquired wisdom, and it <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_139" id="page_139">[pg.139]</a></span> may
+be urged that by his allegorical method he tried to find in the
+Bible the sanction of two degrees of religious faith, the higher
+for the philosopher and the lower for the ordinary man. At the same
+time, however, before his God he retains the childlike simplicity
+of the most un-Hellenic rabbi, and the perfect humility of the
+Hasid. His conviction of the dependence of all upon God's grace is
+the perfect corrective of his intellectual exclusiveness. The idea
+of God as the unity which comprehends everything and causes
+everything is the great Jewish contribution to thought, and binds
+our literature together in all its manifestations. It characterizes
+and unites the poetical utterance of the Bible prophets, the pious
+wisdom of the rabbis, the philosophical systems of Philo and
+Maimonides.</p>
+<p>The more sublime and exalted the conception of God, the more
+imperative became the need for the thinking Jew to explain how the
+perfect infinite Being came into relation with the imperfect finite
+world of man and matter. How can the incorporeal God be the founder
+of the material universe? How can the infinite mind be present in
+the finite thought of man? How can the all-good Power be the
+creator of the evil which we see in the material world and of the
+wickedness that flourisheth among men? These questions presented
+themselves to the Israelite after he had consummated his marvellous
+religious intuition, and became the starting-point of a theology
+which is nascent in the Wisdom literature of the Bible. Theology is
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_140" id=
+"page_140">[pg.140]</a></span> the reasoning about God which
+follows always in the footsteps of religious certitude. First, man
+by his intuitive reason rises to some idea of the Godhead
+satisfying to his emotion; next, by his discursive reason, he
+endeavors to justify that idea to his experience in analyzing God's
+operations. Renan, disposing sweepingly of a great question,
+declares that the Jewish monotheism excluded any true theology.
+But, in fact, in Palestine, and still more in Alexandria from the
+third century B.C.E., Jewish thought had as one of its constant
+aims to develop a theory of the operations of the one God in the
+world of material plurality. When the Jews came in contact with the
+cosmological mythology of Babylon, their God seemed to soar beyond
+the reach of men, and they looked to powers nearer them to bridge
+the widening gulf. To some extent this aim engendered a
+modification in the religious monotheism, and led to the
+interposition of intermediate conceptions between the Inconceivable
+and man. "The whole angelology," says Deutsch,<a name=
+"FNanchor_194_194" id="FNanchor_194_194"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_194_194">[194]</a> "so strikingly simple before the
+Captivity and so wonderfully complex after it, owes its quick
+development in Babylonian soil to some awe-stricken desire which
+grows with growing culture, removing the inconceivable Being
+further and further from human touch or knowledge." Speaking
+generally, it may be said that reflection about God's relations
+produced in Palestine the doctrine of angels, in Alexandria the
+doctrine of Wisdom and the Logos. At the same time the <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_141" id="page_141">[pg.141]</a></span>
+Wisdom and the Word were not unknown to the Palestinian Midrash,
+and the hierarchies of angels to the Alexandrian, for the
+suggestion of the different subordinate powers had been evolved
+before the two traditions had become independent. The doctrine of
+angels never indeed won recognition from the rabbis, but it was for
+centuries an element of popular belief.</p>
+<p>More philosophical than the doctrine of angels was the
+conception of different attributes of God <img alt="Hebrew; " src=
+"images/image42.jpg" width="52" height="22">, which were different
+manifestations of His activity, to the human mind separable and
+distinguishable from each other, though absolutely they were
+inseparable aspects of the Godhead. Chief among these were the
+attribute of mercy and the attribute of justice, <img alt=
+"Hebrew; " src="images/image43.jpg" width="244" height="16">
+<a name="FNanchor_195_195" id="FNanchor_195_195"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_195_195">[195]</a> by which, according to a Midrash,
+Adam was driven from Eden. And these conceptions, though distrusted
+by the Synagogue, entered into later parts of the Prayer Book.
+"Attribute of Mercy, reveal thyself for us; make our supplication
+to fall at the feet of Thy Creator; and on behalf of Thy people
+beseech for mercy"; thus runs a fine prayer in the Ne'ilah service
+of the Day of Atonement, and many of the other Selihot prove the
+persistence of this development of Jewish belief. The theory of
+Divine attributes was common to Palestine and Alexandria, and
+plays, as we shall see, an important part in Philo's<a name=
+"FNanchor_196_196" id="FNanchor_196_196"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_196_196">[196]</a> thought; but the distinctive
+Hellenistic theology is the hypostasis of the Wisdom and the
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_142" id=
+"page_142">[pg.142]</a></span> Word of God. In the Bible itself,
+and notably in Proverbs, we find Wisdom personified&mdash;the first
+vague, poetical suggestion of a Jewish theology. As the Jews came
+into contact with Hellenic influence, the tendency to develop the
+personification into a power increased, and may be traced through
+the first flower of Gr&aelig;co-Jewish culture, the Wisdom
+literature. The Greek philosophers had conceived the First Cause as
+a ruling Mind, or universal Reason, and influenced by this
+conception, yet loyal to their monotheistic faith, the Jewish
+writers of the Hellenistic age spoke of the Wisdom as the minister
+of God, the power by which He ruled creation. The apocryphal books
+of Ecclesiasticus and the Wisdom of Solomon exhibit Wisdom passing
+from the poetical personification of the Bible to the separate
+hypostasis of theology. In the verse of the Bible sage, "Wisdom
+hath builded her house, she hath hewn out her seven pillars" (Prov.
+ix. 1), she is the creation of the purely poetical fancy, but in
+the Wisdom of Solomon she has become a link between Heaven and
+earth, the creation of the theologian's reflection. "She reacheth
+from one end of the world to the other with strength, and ordereth
+all things graciously. She is settled by God on His throne, and by
+her He made the world, by her the righteous were saved. She watched
+over the father of the human race, and she delivered Israel from
+Egypt." In Ecclesiasticus it is written, "All Wisdom is from the
+Lord and is with Him forever. She cometh forth from the mouth of
+the Most High, and was created <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_143" id="page_143">[pg.143]</a></span> before all things. God
+having fashioned her from the beginning placed her over all His
+works. Then she covered the earth as a mist, she pitched her tent
+in high places and her palace was in a pillar of cloud. She
+ministered in the tabernacle, and was established in Zion, in
+Jerusalem, the beloved city." In similar strain, in the apocalyptic
+book of Enoch (xxx), God says, "On the sixth day I ordered My
+Wisdom to make man"; and in the Sibylline Oracles and Aristobulus
+she appears as the assessor of God who ruleth over men.</p>
+<p>Parallel with Wisdom, the Word of God was developed into
+something between a poetical image and a separate power. Again the
+development starts from a Biblical metaphor. "By the word of the
+Lord were the heavens created, and all their host by the breath of
+His mouth" (Ps. xxxiii). "God of our Fathers and Lord of Mercy, who
+didst make all things by Thy word," says the writer of the Wisdom
+of Solomon. Inspired again by the phrase of the Psalmist, "He sent
+His word, and healed them" (Ps. cvi. 20), he hymns the Divine Logos
+as the all-powerful emissary doing God's bidding among men. "It was
+neither herb nor emollient that cured Israel in the wilderness
+(when bitten by the fiery scorpions), but Thy Logos, O Lord, which
+heals all things." Later, when he describes the destruction of the
+first-born in Egypt, he rises in a p&aelig;an to a finer poetical
+flight: "When tranquil silence folded all things, and night in her
+own swiftness was in the midst of her course, Thy <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_144" id="page_144">[pg.144]</a></span>
+all-powerful Logos leaped from heaven, from his royal throne, a
+stern warrior into the midst of the doomed land, bearing as a sharp
+sword Thy Divine commandment, and having taken his stand filled all
+things with death: and he touched heaven and walked upon earth."
+The Jewish poet, rejecting the idea that the perfect God could
+descend to earth and slay men, brushes away the anthropomorphism of
+the Bible, and summons from his mind this creation mixed of Hebrew
+imagination and Greek reason. So, too, Onkelos, wherever activity
+upon earth was ascribed to God, wrote, in his translation (Targum)
+of Scripture, "the word of the Lord," and for the material hand he
+substituted the more abstract might. The same development,<a name=
+"FNanchor_197_197" id="FNanchor_197_197"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_197_197">[197]</a> under the names of Memra and (less
+frequently) of <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image44.jpg" width=
+"37" height="16">, shows that the word-agent of God appealed to
+certain of the rabbis in their desire to explain away, on the one
+hand, expressions in the Bible which seemed to invest the Deity
+with corporeal qualities, and, on the other, so to divide His
+infinite perfection as to make His presence immanent upon
+earth.</p>
+<p>The teachers at Alexandria were above all others induced to
+develop the Word into the active power, since they seemed thereby
+to find in the Bible a remarkable anticipation of Greek philosophy.
+The Greek Logos, by which "the Word" was translated in the
+Septuagint, meant also thought and reason, and during the
+Hellenistic age was the regular term by which <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_145" id="page_145">[pg.145]</a></span> the
+philosophical schools expressed the impersonal world-force which
+governed all things. The Logos idea among the Jews was a
+modification of intuitive and na&iuml;ve monotheism; among the
+Greeks it was a step upwards, demanded by reason, from polytheism
+to a monistic view of the universe. By the first century its
+recognition as the ruling power in both the physical and moral
+universe had become a point of union in all philosophical
+schools&mdash;the common stamp of philosophical theology. Between
+the Semitic ministerial word uttered by a personal Being and the
+Greek pantheistic governing reason, there was probably an early
+connection, due to Eastern influences which operated upon the
+founders of Greek philosophy, which later schools lost sight of.
+When the Hebrew Scriptures were translated, the two coalesced more
+fruitfully in the Greek term Logos, and a point of union was
+provided between the philosophical and the Jewish theology.
+Moreover the local Egyptian influence aided the union, for the god
+Thoth was also identified with the Logos, which thus appeared as a
+religious conception common to all races, the basis of a universal
+creed. And besides the world-reason of the philosophers, another
+Greek influence no doubt tended to further the development of the
+Logos in Jewish thought. One of the most marked characteristics of
+the Hellenistic age is the renascence of wonder at the institutions
+of human life, and more especially at numbers and speech.</p>
+<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_146" id=
+"page_146">[pg.146]</a></span> Numbers were held to contain the
+essence of things, and the marvellous powers of four, seven, and
+ten received honor from all sects and schools. Words, too, were
+regarded almost as a mystic power, distinct from thought,
+incorporeal things which made thought real and gave it expression.
+The mystical susceptibility of Philo to the power of numbers has
+been noticed by every critic and exaggerated by not a few; his
+mystical valuation of words and speech, though far more important
+in his thought, has been commonly passed over. The analysis which
+Greek writers made of the relation between the mental thought, the
+sound which utters it, and the mind which thinks it, was invested
+with special importance for the Jewish thinker, who transferred it
+from the human to the Divine sphere. He applied it to interpret the
+constant Biblical phrases "and God said" or "and God spoke,"
+according to notions in which philosophy and theology are mixed;
+and propounded a mystic idealism and a mystic cosmology, in which
+God's thought or comprehensive Word becomes the archetype of the
+visible universe, His single words the substantive universe and the
+laws of nature. A century before Philo, Aristobulus&mdash;assuming
+the genuineness of his Fragments&mdash;wrote:<a name=
+"FNanchor_198_198" id="FNanchor_198_198"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_198_198">[198]</a> "We must understand the Word of God,
+not as a spoken word, but as the establishment of actual things,
+seeing that we find throughout the Torah that Moses has declared
+the whole creation to be words of God." Philo, following his
+predecessor, <span class="newpage"><a name="page_147" id=
+"page_147">[pg.147]</a></span> says, "God speaks not words but
+things,"<a name="FNanchor_199_199" id=
+"FNanchor_199_199"></a><a href="#Footnote_199_199">[199]</a> and,
+again, commenting on the first chapter of Genesis, "God, even as He
+spake, at the same moment created."<a name="FNanchor_200_200" id=
+"FNanchor_200_200"></a><a href="#Footnote_200_200">[200]</a> And of
+human speech he has this pretty conceit a little before: "Into the
+mouth there enter food and drink, the perishable food of a
+perishable body; out of it issue words, immortal laws of an
+immortal soul, by which rational life is guided."<a name=
+"FNanchor_201_201" id="FNanchor_201_201"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_201_201">[201]</a> If human speech is "immortal law,"
+much more is the speech of God. His words are ideas seen by the eye
+of the soul, not heard by the ear.<a name="FNanchor_202_202" id=
+"FNanchor_202_202"></a><a href="#Footnote_202_202">[202]</a> The
+ten commandments given at Sinai were "ideas" of this incorporeal
+nature, and the voice that Israel heard was no voice such as men
+possess, but the <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image45.jpg"
+width="51" height="19">, the Divine Presence itself, which exalted
+the multitude.<a name="FNanchor_203_203" id=
+"FNanchor_203_203"></a><a href="#Footnote_203_203">[203]</a> Philo
+is here expanding and developing Jewish tradition. In the "Ethics
+of the Fathers" (v) we read: "By ten words was the world created";
+and in the pages of the Midrash the <img alt="Hebrew; " src=
+"images/image46.jpg" width="57" height="21">, <i>i.e.</i>, the
+mystic emanation of the Deity, which revealed itself after the
+spirit of prophecy had ceased to be vouchsafed, is credited with
+wondrous and varied powers, now revealing the Decalogue, now
+performing some miracle, now appearing in a vision to the blessed,
+now prophesying the future fate of the race to a pious rabbi. The
+fertilizing stream of Greek <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_148" id="page_148">[pg.148]</a></span> philosophical idealism
+nourished the growth of the Jewish pious imagination, and in the
+Logos of Philo the fruit matured. It is idle to try to formulate a
+single definite notion of Philo's Logos. For it is the expression
+of God in all His multiple and manifold activity, the instrument of
+creation, the seat of ideas, the world of thought which God first
+established as the model of the visible universe, the guiding
+providence, the sower of virtue, the fount of wisdom, described
+sometimes in religious ecstasy, sometimes in philosophical
+metaphysics, sometimes in the spirit of the mystical poet. Of his
+last manner let us take a specimen singled out by a Christian and a
+Jewish theologian as of surprising beauty. Commenting on the verse
+of the Psalmist, "The river of God is filled with water," Philo
+declares that it is absurd to call any earthly stream the river of
+God.</p>
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>"The poet clearly refers to the Divine Logos that is full of the
+fountain of wisdom, and is in no part itself empty. Nay, it is
+diffused through the universe, and is raised up on high. In another
+verse the Psalmist says, 'The course of the river gladdens the city
+of God.' And in truth the continuous rush of the Divine Logos is
+borne along with eager but regular onset, and overflows and
+gladdens all things. In one sense he calls the world the city of
+God, for it has received the 'full cup' of the Divine draught, and
+has quaffed a perpetual, eternal joy. But in another sense he gave
+this name to the soul of the wise, wherein God is said to walk as
+in a city. And who can pour out the sacred measures of their joy to
+the blissful soul which holds out the holy cup, that is its own
+reason, save the Logos, the cupbearer of God, the</p>
+</div>
+<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_149" id=
+"page_149">[pg.149]</a></span></p>
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>master of the feast? Nor is the Logos cupbearer only, but it is
+itself the pure draught, itself the joy and exultation, itself the
+pouring forth and the delight, itself the ambrosial philtre and
+potion of bliss."<a name="FNanchor_204_204" id=
+"FNanchor_204_204"></a><a href="#Footnote_204_204">[204]</a></p>
+</div>
+<p>Through the luxury of metaphor and imagination one may discern
+the underlying thought of the mystic writer, that the Logos is the
+effluence of God, either in the whole universe or the individual
+man, filling the one as the other with the Divine Shekinah. It is
+the link which joins God and man, the ladder of Jacob's dream,
+which stretches from Heaven to earth.<a name="FNanchor_205_205" id=
+"FNanchor_205_205"></a><a href="#Footnote_205_205">[205]</a> That
+man can attain the Divine state by the help of God's effluence was
+a cardinal thought of Philo's; this, indeed, is the form in which
+he conceives the Messianic hope. God does not come down to earth
+incarnate in man's form, but God's active influence possesses the
+soul of man, and makes it live with God, and if man be peculiarly
+blessed, carries it up to the ineffable Spirit. Similarly his idea
+of the Messiah is more spiritual than that of the popular belief.
+The ascent of man to God's height, not the descent of God to man's
+level, will produce the age of universal peace.</p>
+<p>There are various degrees of the Divine influence, stretching
+from complete possession by the Deity Himself to the advent of
+single Divine thoughts. These Philo regards as <img alt=
+"Greek: logoi" src="images/image47.jpg" width="46" height="19">,
+words or thoughts&mdash;for he does not clearly distinguish between
+the two&mdash;and he resolves the realistic angels of the Bible
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_150" id=
+"page_150">[pg.150]</a></span> into this spiritual
+conception.<a name="FNanchor_206_206" id=
+"FNanchor_206_206"></a><a href="#Footnote_206_206">[206]</a> Thus
+he says, "the place" where Jacob alighted and had the vision (Gen.
+xxvii. 11) is the symbol of the perfect contemplation of God; the
+angels which he saw ascending and descending are the inferior light
+of Divine precepts. These thoughts are continually vouchsafed to
+all of us, prompting us to noble actions, comforting us in times of
+sadness, inspiring lofty ideas.</p>
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>"Up and down through the whole soul the Logoi of God move
+without end; when they ascend, drawing it up with them, and
+severing it from the mortal part, and showing only the vision of
+ideal things; but when they descend, not casting it down, but
+descending with it from humanity or compassion towards our race, so
+as to give assistance and help, in order that, inspiring what is
+noble, they may revive the soul which is borne along on the stream
+of the body."<a name="FNanchor_207_207" id=
+"FNanchor_207_207"></a><a href="#Footnote_207_207">[207]</a></p>
+</div>
+<p>Conversely, the rabbis taught that from each word that proceeded
+from the mouth of God an angel was created, as it is said: "By the
+word of the Lord the Heavens were made, and all the host of them by
+the breath of His mouth."<a name="FNanchor_208_208" id=
+"FNanchor_208_208"></a><a href="#Footnote_208_208">[208]</a></p>
+<p>Apart from these sudden and occasional emanations of the Divine
+Spirit, the individual man has within him a permanent Divine Logos
+by which he may direct his conduct aright. Viewed in this aspect,
+the Logos, <i>i.e.</i>, the activity of God, is conscience, the
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_151" id=
+"page_151">[pg.151]</a></span> Judge in the soul, which is the true
+man dwelling within,<a name="FNanchor_209_209" id=
+"FNanchor_209_209"></a><a href="#Footnote_209_209">[209]</a> ruler
+and king, judge and arbiter, witness and accuser, correcting and
+restraining. Rising to bolder personification, Philo, who loves to
+present a spiritual thought in a concrete image, calls it the
+undefiled high priest in us.<a name="FNanchor_210_210" id=
+"FNanchor_210_210"></a><a href="#Footnote_210_210">[210]</a> In
+this power he finds a sure refutation of skepticism; for in virtue
+of the Divine voice man may secure moral certitude: and he finds
+also a philosophical value for popular superstition. It was a
+common notion of the pagans as well as the Jews of the time that an
+intermediate order of beings passed between heaven and earth and
+brought supernatural aid to men; and also that a familiar spirit,
+or D&aelig;mon, dwelt within the soul of each man. The finer spirit
+of Philo resolves the attendant D&aelig;mon and the
+messenger-d&aelig;mons or angels into the spiritual effluences of
+the one Deity; save for a few places where he makes a pose of
+agreement with popular notions and speaks of winged denizens of
+Heaven<a name="FNanchor_211_211" id="FNanchor_211_211"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_211_211">[211]</a> who descend to earth, he habitually
+expounds angels as inward revelations of God.</p>
+<p>As the revelation of God to the individual is a Logos, so, too,
+is his revelation to the whole of mankind. It was pointed out in
+the last chapter that Philo identified the Torah with the law of
+nature, and he did this by regarding it as the Divine Logos. The
+more perfect emanation of God is in one view the power by
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_152" id=
+"page_152">[pg.152]</a></span> which He directs the physical
+creation, in another the perfect law which He set up as the model
+of conduct for His highest creatures. The rabbis, indeed, were
+prone to glorify the law as the primal creation of God, and the
+instrument of all the later creations, <img alt="Hebrew; " src=
+"images/image48.jpg" width="203" height="18">.<a name=
+"FNanchor_212_212" id="FNanchor_212_212"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_212_212">[212]</a> They speak of it as the light, the
+pillar, and the bond of the universe, the model whereon the
+architect looked;<a name="FNanchor_213_213" id=
+"FNanchor_213_213"></a><a href="#Footnote_213_213">[213]</a> and
+Philo amplifies this simple poetical concept and develops it afresh
+in the light of Greek idealistic and cosmical notions,<a name=
+"FNanchor_214_214" id="FNanchor_214_214"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_214_214">[214]</a> so that the Torah, as the Logos of
+God, is equated with the source of all being, wisdom, and
+knowledge, with the ideal world which is the archetype of the
+material, and with all the law and order of nature. And as the
+Torah is the Logos, so also its particular precepts are Logoi.</p>
+<p>It seems difficult to trace the unity among all these different
+aspects of the "Word," but in fact they are only different
+expressions of the Divine activity in the universe. All these are
+comprehended in the Logos, and then again divided out of it, so
+that it is, as it were, a crystal prism reflecting the light of the
+Godhead in a myriad different ways. One curious illustration of the
+universal sense in which Philo understood the Logos is his
+interpretation of the manna; it is typical also of his manner of
+exegesis <span class="newpage"><a name="page_153" id=
+"page_153">[pg.153]</a></span> and his habit of spiritualizing the
+material. It is related in Exodus (xvi. 15) that when the
+Israelites saw the heavenly food they exclaimed <img alt="Hebrew; "
+src="images/image49.jpg" width="59" height="15">, "What is it?" and
+hence the food obtained its name of manna. Now the Greek Septuagint
+word for <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image50.jpg" width="67"
+height="22"> which means not only "what" but "anything." Philo sees
+in the gift of the heavenly food a symbol of the inspiration of the
+chosen people by the Divine Logos, and says that the Logos is
+rightly called manna, <i>i.e.</i>, anything, because it is the
+"most generic of all things, and that by which man may be
+nourished."<a name="FNanchor_215_215" id=
+"FNanchor_215_215"></a><a href="#Footnote_215_215">[215]</a></p>
+<p>The central thought of Philo's system is that God is immanent in
+all His work; but it would seem to him sacrilegious to apply to the
+Godhead itself this universal, unceasing activity, and so he
+develops the Logos as the most ideal attribute of the Deity, and
+the sum of all His immanence and effluence. He preferred the Logos
+to the older Wisdom, probably because he could by this conception
+bring his idea of God into closer relation with Greek philosophical
+notions, for already the Hellenistic world had come spontaneously
+to revere the cosmical Logos. Only Philo gave to the expression of
+their physical and metaphysical speculation a religious warmth new
+to it, when he associated it with the word uttered by the personal
+God. Philosophy, theology, and religion were all joined and
+harmonized in his conception.</p>
+<p>If we have followed thus far the spirit of Philo <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_154" id="page_154">[pg.154]</a></span>
+aright, the Logos is only the immanent manifestation of the One
+God, who is both transcendental and immanent, metaphorically, not
+metaphysically, separate. In other words, it is the complete aspect
+of God as He reveals Himself to the world. Above it and including
+it is the being or essence of God, seen in Himself, and not in
+relation to His outward activity. But it is often suggested that
+the Logos appears to Philo as a second God, subordinate, indeed, to
+the Supreme Being, but yet a separate personality. It is said, with
+truth, that he speaks of it as a person, now calling it king,
+priest, primal man, the first-born son of God, even the second God,
+and identifying it at other times with some personal being,
+Melchizedek or Moses, and apostrophizing it as man's helper, guide,
+and advocate.<a name="FNanchor_216_216" id=
+"FNanchor_216_216"></a><a href="#Footnote_216_216">[216]</a> Now we
+have reason to think that Gnostic sects of Jews, both in Alexandria
+and in Palestine, were at this time tending towards the division of
+the Godhead into separate powers. The heresy of "Minut," frequently
+mentioned in the Talmud, consisted originally, in the opinion of
+modern scholars, of a Gnostic ditheism;<a name="FNanchor_217_217"
+id="FNanchor_217_217"></a><a href="#Footnote_217_217">[217]</a> and
+during the latter part of the first century and thereafter we hear
+of sects in Egypt and Syria which supported similar theories.
+Theology here produced its fantastic offspring theosophy, and the
+followers of the esoteric wisdom let their speculations carry them
+away from the cardinal principle of <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_155" id="page_155">[pg.155]</a></span> Judaism. Influenced by
+Egyptian speculation, they imagined an incarnation of the Divine
+Spirit, and in the mystical thought of the day they adumbrated
+theories of virgin birth.</p>
+<p>Now these prototypes of Christian belief had undoubtedly
+manifested themselves at Alexandria in Philo's day. His treatises
+show traces of them,<a name="FNanchor_218_218" id=
+"FNanchor_218_218"></a><a href="#Footnote_218_218">[218]</a> and
+the question is whether he countenanced them or tried to summon the
+theosophists of his generation back to the true Jewish conception
+of God. Certain Christian and philosophical critics of Philo, for
+whom the wish was perhaps father to the thought, have found in
+Philo's Logos a conception which is at times impersonal, at times
+personal, at times an aspect of the One God, and at times a second
+independent God. If we take Philo literally, this certainly is the
+case. But let it be clearly understood, this interpretation not
+only involves Philo in inconsistency, but it utterly ruins and
+destroys his religious and philosophical system. It means that the
+champion of Jewish monotheism wanders into a vague ditheism. And in
+view of this, the modern commentators of Philo, notably Professor
+Drummond,<a name="FNanchor_219_219" id=
+"FNanchor_219_219"></a><a href="#Footnote_219_219">[219]</a> have
+examined his words more carefully and studied them in relation to
+their context; and they have shown how, judged in this critical
+fashion, the personality of the Logos is only figurative. It is,
+indeed, probable that certain extreme passages, where the Logos is
+presented most explicitly as <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_156" id="page_156">[pg.156]</a></span> a separate Deity, are
+due to Christological interpolation. The Church Fathers found in
+the popular belief in the Divine Word a remarkable support of the
+Trinity, and regarding, as they did, Philo's writings as valuable
+testimony to the truth of Christianity, they had every temptation
+to bring his passages about the Logos still closer to their ideas.
+And between the first and the fifth century, when we first hear
+from Eusebius of manuscripts of Philo at the Christian monastery of
+C&aelig;sarea&mdash;from which we can trace our texts in direct
+line&mdash;there was no high standard in dealing with ancient
+authorities. It is the Christian teachers who preserved Philo, and
+they preserved him not as scholars but as missioners. The best
+editors have recognized that our text has been interfered with by
+evidenced-making scribes, as where a passage about the new
+Jerusalem appears, agreeing almost word for word with the picture
+of Revelations. Similarly, not a few passages about the Logos are
+probably spurious.<a name="FNanchor_220_220" id=
+"FNanchor_220_220"></a><a href="#Footnote_220_220">[220]</a></p>
+<p>Yet, even when we have expurgated our text of Philo, there
+remain, it will be said, numerous passages where the Logos is
+spoken of and apostrophized as a person. This is so, but the
+conclusion which is drawn, that the Logos is regarded as a second
+deity, is unjustifiable. The Jewish mind from the time of the
+prophets unto this day has thought in images and metaphors, and the
+personification of the Logos is only the most striking instance of
+Philo's regular <span class="newpage"><a name="page_157" id=
+"page_157">[pg.157]</a></span> habit of personifying all abstract
+ideas. The allegorical habit particularly conduces to this, for as
+persons are constantly resolved into ideas, so ideas come to be
+naturally represented as persons. There are thus two steps in
+Philo's theology, which seem to some extent to counteract each
+other; in the first place, he resolves the concrete physical
+expressions of the Bible into spiritual ideas, in the second he
+portrays those ideas in pictorial language and clothes them in
+personifications. The allegorizer requires an allegorist to
+interpret him aright.</p>
+<p>Nor must it be forgotten that Philo was preaching spiritual
+monotheism not only to Jews, but also to the Hellenic world, for
+whom it was a vast bound from their naturalistic polytheism.
+Zealous as he was for the pure faith, he realized that mankind
+could not attain it directly, but must approach it by conceptions
+of the One God gradually increasing in profundity and truth. The
+Greek thinkers had approximated closest to the Hebraic God-idea
+when they conceived one supreme, immanent reason in the universe;
+and Philo, in carrying his audiences beyond this to the
+transcendent-immanent Being, transformed the Greek cosmical concept
+into a Divine power of the One Being. For the true believer this is
+the stepping-stone to the perfect idea. "The Logos," he says, "is
+the God of us imperfect people, but the true sages worship the One
+Being."<a name="FNanchor_221_221" id=
+"FNanchor_221_221"></a><a href="#Footnote_221_221">[221]</a> And,
+again, "The imperfect have <span class="newpage"><a name="page_158"
+id="page_158">[pg.158]</a></span> as their law the holy
+Logos."<a name="FNanchor_222_222" id=
+"FNanchor_222_222"></a><a href="#Footnote_222_222">[222]</a> And in
+this sense, it is "intermediate <img alt="Greek: methorios" src=
+"images/image51.jpg" width="91" height="22"> between God and
+man."<a name="FNanchor_223_223" id="FNanchor_223_223"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_223_223">[223]</a> What such passages mean is that the
+separation of the Logos is a stage in man's progress up to the true
+idea of God. It is a second-best Deity, so to say, rather than a
+second Deity; for those who regard the Logos as God have no
+conception at all of the perfect Being of which it is only the
+principal attribute.</p>
+<p>The theology of Philo is characterized throughout by a tolerant
+and philosophical grasp of the difficulty of pure monotheism, and
+of the necessity of a long intellectual searching before the goal
+can be attained. To declare the Unity of God is simple enough; to
+have a real conception of it is a very different and a very
+difficult thing. And Philo's theology has a two-fold aim, in which
+either part complements the other. It explains, on the one hand,
+how God is revealed to the world through His powers or attributes
+or modes of activity, and, on the other, how man can ascend to an
+ecstatic union with the Real Being through comprehension of those
+powers. By the ideal ladder which brings down God to earth, man can
+climb again to Heaven. The three chief rungs of the ladder are the
+attributes of creation, and of ruling power, and the Logos. The
+perfect unity of the Godhead is not, of course, properly the
+subject of attributes, but the limited mind of man so conceives it
+for its own understanding, and speaks of God's justice, God's
+goodness, <span class="newpage"><a name="page_159" id=
+"page_159">[pg.159]</a></span> God's wisdom. These are, to use
+philosophical terminology, categories of the religious
+understanding, which are finally resolved by the perfect sage in
+"the synthetic apperception of Unity."</p>
+<p>Philo follows what may have been a Hebrew tradition in
+explaining the two names of God, "Elohim" and "Jehovah," as
+connoting His two chief attributes: (1) the creative or beneficent,
+(2) the ruling or judicial, or, as it is sometimes called, the
+law-giving power.<a name="FNanchor_224_224" id=
+"FNanchor_224_224"></a><a href="#Footnote_224_224">[224]</a> Names,
+as we know, were always regarded by Philo as profound symbols, and
+naturally the names of God are of vital import; and the twofold
+expression for the Hebrew Deity, of which the higher critics have
+made much destructive use, was noticed by the earliest
+commentators, but made the basis by them of a constructive
+theology. The ruling and the creative attributes of God are
+outlined and contained in the highest mode of all, the Logos, "the
+reason of God in every phase and form of it that is discoverable
+and realizable by man." For by the Logos, God is both ruler and
+good.<a name="FNanchor_225_225" id="FNanchor_225_225"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_225_225">[225]</a> This is the profound interpretation
+of the story in Genesis, that "God placed at the east of the garden
+of Eden the two Cherubim and a flaming sword, which turned every
+way to keep the way of the tree of life" (Gen. iv. 24). The
+Cherubim are the symbols of the powers of majesty and goodness; the
+flaming sword is the Logos; "because," says our author quaintly,
+"all thought and speech are the most <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_160" id="page_160">[pg.160]</a></span> mobile and the most
+ardent (<i>i.e.</i>, the most intensive) of things, and especially
+the thought and speech of the only Principle."<a name=
+"FNanchor_226_226" id="FNanchor_226_226"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_226_226">[226]</a></p>
+<p>To correspond with the descending attributes of God we have the
+ascending dispositions of man towards Him, fear, love, and thirdly
+their synthesis in loving knowledge. When we are in the first stage
+of religion we obey the law in hope of reward or fear of
+punishment; when we have progressed higher in thought, we worship
+God as the good Creator; when we have ascended one further stage,
+we surpass both fear and love in an emotion which combines them,
+realizing, as Browning puts it, that "God is law and God is love."
+In illustration of this scheme of Philo's we may examine two
+passages out of his philosophical commentary. In the first he is
+commenting upon the appearance of the three angels to Abraham as he
+sat outside his tent (Gen. xviii).<a name="FNanchor_227_227" id=
+"FNanchor_227_227"></a><a href="#Footnote_227_227">[227]</a> And,
+by the way, it may be remarked that the Midrash commenting on this
+passage notes that it begins, "And the Lord appeared unto Abraham,"
+and then continues, "And he lifted up his eyes and looked, and, lo,
+three men stood before him." Hence we may learn that it was really
+the one God who appeared to the Patriarch, and that the three
+angels were but a vision of his mind. This is the dominant note of
+Philo's interpretation, but he as usual elaborates the old Midrash
+philosophically. <span class="newpage"><a name="page_161" id=
+"page_161">[pg.161]</a></span></p>
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>"The words," he says, "are symbols of things apprehended by
+intelligence alone&mdash;the soul receives a triple expression of
+one being, of which one is the representative of the actual
+existent, and the other two are shadows, as it were, cast from
+this. So it happens also in the physical world, for there often
+occur two shadows of bodies at rest or in motion. Let no one
+suppose, however, that shadow is properly used in relation to God.
+It is only a popular use of words for the clearer understanding of
+our subject. The reality is not so, but, as one standing nearest to
+the truth might say, the middle one is the Father of the universe,
+who is called in Scripture the 'Self-existent'; and those on either
+side of Him are the two oldest and chief powers, the Creative and
+the Regal. The middle one, then, being attended by the others as by
+a bodyguard, presents to the contemplative mind a mental image or
+representation now of one and now of three; of one whenever the
+soul, being properly purified and perfectly initiated, rises to the
+idea which is unmingled and free from limitation, and requires
+nothing to complete it; but of three whenever it has not yet been
+initiated into the great mysteries, and still celebrates the lesser
+rites, unable to apprehend the Being in itself without
+modification, but apprehending it through its modes as either
+creating or ruling. This is, as the proverb says, a second-best
+course, but yet it partakes of godlike opinion. But the former does
+not partake of&mdash;for it <i>is</i> itself&mdash;the Godlike
+opinion, or rather it is truth, which is more precious than all
+opinion.</p>
+<p>"Further, there are three classes of human character, to each of
+which one of the three conceptions of God has been assigned. The
+best class goes with the first, the conception of the absolute
+Being; the next goes with the conception of Him as a Benefactor, in
+virtue of which He is called God; the third with the conception of
+Him as a Ruler, in virtue of which He is called Lord. The
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_162" id=
+"page_162">[pg.162]</a></span> noblest character serves Him who is
+in all the purity of His absolute Being; it is attracted by no
+other thing or aspect, but is solely and intently devoted to the
+honor of the one and only Being; the second is brought to the
+knowledge of the Father through His beneficent power; the third
+through His regal power."</p>
+</div>
+<p>In the second passage, which occurs in the treatise on flight
+from the world,<a name="FNanchor_228_228" id=
+"FNanchor_228_228"></a><a href="#Footnote_228_228">[228]</a> Philo
+is allegorizing the law about founding six cities of refuge (Exodus
+xxxii). These are but material symbols for the six stages of the
+ascent of the mind to the pure God-idea. The chief city, the
+metropolis, is the Divine Logos, next come the two powers already
+considered, and then three secondary powers, the retributive, the
+law-giving, and the prohibitive. "Very beautiful and well-fenced
+cities they are, worthy refuges of souls that merit salvation."
+Each of these cities is an aspect of the religious mind; when it
+settles in the first it obeys the law from fear of punishment and
+thinks of God as the Judge; in the second it observes the precepts
+in hope of reward and conceives God as the legislator of a fixed
+code; in the next it is repentant and throws itself on God's grace,
+marking the first step of the spiritual life. Then it ascends in
+order to the idea of God as the governor of the universe, and the
+emotion which the rabbis called <img alt="Hebrew; " src=
+"images/image52.jpg" width="93" height="16">, the fear of Heaven;
+and to the idea of God as the Creator and the universal Providence,
+which has as its emotional reflex the love of Heaven, <img alt=
+"Hebrew; " src="images/image53.jpg" width="99" height="22">
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_163" id=
+"page_163">[pg.163]</a></span> But even this, which is the highest
+stage for many men, is not an adequate conception. Above it is the
+contemplation of God, apart from all manifestations in the
+perceptible world, in His ideal nature, the Logos, which at once
+transcends and comprehends the universe. And the attitude of this
+man can be best expressed perhaps by Spinoza's phrase, "the
+intellectual love of God," <i>amor intellectualis Dei</i>. The
+worshipper of the Logos has grasped and has harmonized all the
+manifestations of the Deity; he sees and honors all things in God;
+he comprehends the universe as the perfect manifestation of one
+good Being.</p>
+<p>Is this the highest point which man can reach? Many religious
+philosophers have held that it is, but Philo, the mystic, yearning
+to track out God "beyond the utmost bound of human thought,"
+imagines one higher condition. The Logos is only the image or the
+shadow of the Godhead.<a name="FNanchor_229_229" id=
+"FNanchor_229_229"></a><a href="#Footnote_229_229">[229]</a> Above
+it is the one perfect reality, the transcendent Essence. Now, man
+cannot by any intellectual effort attain knowledge of the Infinite
+as He truly is, for this is above thought. But to a few blessed
+mortals God of His grace vouchsafes a mystic vision of His nature.
+Thus Moses, the perfect hierophant, had this perfect apprehension,
+and passed from intellectual love to holy adoration. And the true
+philosopher has as the goal of his aspirations the heaven-sent
+ecstasy, in which he sees God no longer through His effects, or in
+the modes of His <span class="newpage"><a name="page_164" id=
+"page_164">[pg.164]</a></span> activity, but through Himself in His
+own essence. The philosopher, when he receives this vision
+<img alt="Greek: epopteia" src="images/image54.jpg" width="84"
+height="22"> is possessed by the Shekinah,<a name=
+"FNanchor_230_230" id="FNanchor_230_230"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_230_230">[230]</a> and, losing consciousness of his
+individuality, becomes at one with God.</p>
+<p>So much for Philo's theory of man's upward progress. We may add
+a word about his treatment of the problem which troubled thinkers
+in that age, and which has harassed theologians ever since, viz.,
+to show how punishment and evil could be derived from a God who was
+all-powerful and all-good. The Gnostics were driven by the
+difficulty to imagine an evil world-power, which was in incessant
+conflict with the Good God: and popular belief had conjured up a
+legion of subordinate powers, who took part in the work of creation
+and the government of the world. When Philo is speaking popularly,
+he accepts this current theology and speaks also of a punitive
+power of God<a name="FNanchor_231_231" id=
+"FNanchor_231_231"></a><a href="#Footnote_231_231">[231]</a>
+<img alt="Greek: dunamis cholastich&ecirc;" src=
+"images/image55.jpg" width="162" height="21">; but not when he is
+the philosopher. For then, in perfect faith, he denies the absolute
+existence of evil. "It is neither in Paradise nor indeed anywhere
+whatsoever."<a name="FNanchor_232_232" id=
+"FNanchor_232_232"></a><a href="#Footnote_232_232">[232]</a> Man,
+however, by his free will causes evil in the human sphere; and when
+God formed in man a rational nature capable of choosing for itself,
+moral evil became the necessary contrary of good.<a name=
+"FNanchor_233_233" id="FNanchor_233_233"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_233_233">[233]</a> Moreover, the punitive activity of
+God, though it seems <span class="newpage"><a name="page_165" id=
+"page_165">[pg.165]</a></span> to cause suffering and misery, is in
+truth a good, simulating evil, and if men judged the universal
+process as a whole, they would find it all good. The existence of
+evil involves no derogation from the perfect unity of God.</p>
+<p>If we have understood correctly Philo's theology, neither Logos,
+nor subordinate powers, nor angels, nor demons have an objective
+existence; they are mere imaginings of varying incompleteness which
+the limited minds of men, "moving in worlds not realized," make for
+themselves of the one and only true God. Philo's theology is the
+philosophical treatment of Jewish tradition, just as Philo's legal
+exegesis is the philosophical treatment of the Torah. While
+maintaining and striving to deepen the conception of God's unity,
+he aims at expounding to the reason how, on the one hand, that
+unity is revealed in the world about us, and how, on the other, we
+may advance to its true comprehension. It was, however, unfortunate
+that Philo expressed his theology in the current language, which
+was vague and inexact, and adapted certain foreign theosophical
+ideas to Judaism; hence succeeding generations, paying regard to
+the pictorial representation rather than to the principles of his
+thought, sought and found in him evidence of theories of Divine
+government to which Judaism was pre-eminently opposed. The first
+chapter of the Fourth Gospel shows that gradual process of thought
+which finally made the Logos doctrine the antithesis of Judaism. In
+the first verse we have a thought which might well <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_166" id="page_166">[pg.166]</a></span> have
+been written by Philo himself: "In the beginning was the Word, and
+the Word was with God, and the Word was God." But in the fourteenth
+verse there is manifest the sharp cleavage: "And the Word was made
+flesh, and dwelt among us, and we beheld his glory, the glory as of
+the only begotten of the Father, full of grace and truth." There
+may be a fine spiritual thought beneath the letter here, but the
+notion of the Incarnation is not Jewish, nor philosophical, nor
+Philonic. Philo's work was made to serve as the guide of that
+Christian Gnosticism which, within the next hundred years,
+proclaimed that Judaism was the work of an evil God, and that the
+essential mission of Jesus&mdash;the good Logos&mdash;was to
+dethrone Jehovah! But though the Logos conception was turned to
+non-Jewish and anti-Jewish purposes, it was in Philo the offspring
+of a pure and philosophical monotheism. Whatever the later abuse of
+his teaching, Philo constructed a theology which, though affected
+by foreign influences, was essentially true to Judaism; and more
+than that, he was the first to weave the Jewish idea of God into
+the world's philosophy.</p>
+<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_167" id=
+"page_167">[pg.167]</a></span></p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;">
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<a name="VI" id="VI"></a>
+<h2>VI</h2>
+<p>PHILO AS A PHILOSOPHER</p>
+<br>
+<p>Save for a few monographs of no great importance, because of the
+absence of original thought, Philo's works form avowedly an
+exegesis of the Bible and not a series of philosophical writings.
+Nor must the reader expect to find an ordered system of philosophy
+in his separate works, much more than in the writings of the
+rabbis. As Professor Caird says,<a name="FNanchor_234_234" id=
+"FNanchor_234_234"></a><a href="#Footnote_234_234">[234]</a> "The
+Hebrew mind is intuitive, imaginative, incapable of analysis or
+systematic connection of ideas." Philo's philosophical conceptions
+lie scattered up and down his writings, "strung on the thread of
+the Bible narrative which determines the sequence of his thoughts."
+Nevertheless, though he has not given us explicit treatises on
+cosmology, metaphysics, ethics, psychology, etc., and though he was
+incapable of close logical thinking, he has treated all these
+subjects suggestively and originally in the course of his
+commentary, and his readers may gather together what he has
+dispersed, and find a co-ordinated body of religious philosophy.
+However loosely they are set forth in his treatises, his ideas are
+closely connected in his mind. Herein he <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_168" id="page_168">[pg.168]</a></span>
+differs from his Jewish predecessors, for the notion of the old
+historians of the Alexandrian movement, that there was a systematic
+Jewish philosophy before Philo, does not appear to have been
+well-founded. All that Aristeas and Aristobulus and the Apocryphal
+authors had done was to assimilate certain philosophemes to their
+religious ideas; they had not re-interpreted the whole system of
+philosophy from a Jewish point of view or traced an independent
+system, or an eclectic doctrine in the Holy Scriptures. This was
+the achievement of Philo. His thought is not original in the sense
+of presenting a new scheme of philosophy, but it is original in the
+sense of giving a fresh interpretation to the philosophical ideas
+of his age and environment. He ranges them under a new principle,
+puts them in a new light, and combines them in a new synthesis.
+This again is characteristic of the Jewish mind. Intent on God, it
+does not endeavor to make its own analysis of the universe by
+independent reasoning, but it utilizes the systems of other nations
+and endeavors to harmonize them with its religious convictions.
+Hence it is that nearly all Jewish philosophy appears to be
+eclectic; its writers have ranged through the fields of thought of
+many schools and culled flowers from each, which they bind together
+into a crown for their religion. They do not, with few exceptions,
+pursue philosophy with the purpose of widening the borders of
+secular knowledge; but rather in order to bring the light of reason
+to illuminate and clarify faith, to harmonize Judaism with the
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_169" id=
+"page_169">[pg.169]</a></span> general culture of its environment,
+and to revivify belief and ceremony with a new interpretation. All
+this applies to our worthy, but at the same time he was a
+philosopher at heart, because he believed that the knowledge of God
+came by contemplation as well as by practice, and, further, because
+he had a firm faith in the universalism of Judaism; and he believed
+that this universal religion must comprehend all that is highest
+and truest in human thought. Like most Jewish philosophers he is
+synthetic rather than analytic, believing in intuition and
+distrusting the discursive reason, careless of physical science and
+soaring into religious metaphysics. Again, like most Jewish
+philosophers, he is deductive, starting with a synthesis of all in
+the Divine Unity, and making no fresh inductions from phenomena. It
+has been said that, though Philo was a philosopher and a Jew, yet
+Saadia was the first Jewish philosopher. But Philo's philosophical
+ideas are in complete harmony with his Judaism; and if by the
+criticism it is meant that most of the content of his works is
+based upon Greek models, it is true on the other hand that the
+spirit which pervades them is essentially Jewish, and that by the
+new force which he breathed into it he reformed and gave a new
+direction to the Greek philosophy of his age.</p>
+<p>Philo's philosophy is certainly eclectic in some degree, and we
+find in it ideas taken from the schools of Plato, Aristotle,
+Pythagoras, and the Stoics. Its fixed point was his theology, and
+wherever he finds anything to support this he adapts it to his
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_170" id=
+"page_170">[pg.170]</a></span> purpose. He approached philosophy
+from a position opposed to that of the Greeks: they brought a
+questioning and free mind to the problems of the universe; he comes
+full of religious preconceptions. Yet in this lies his strength as
+well as his limitation, for he gains thus a point of certainty and
+a clear end, which other eclectic systems of the day did not
+possess. He welds together all the different elements of his
+thought in the heat of his passion for God. His cosmology and his
+ontology are a philosophical exposition of the Jewish conception of
+God's relation to the universe, his ethics and his psychology of
+the Jewish conception of man's relation to God.</p>
+<p>The religious preconceptions of Philo drew him to Plato above
+all other philosophers, so that his thought is essentially a
+religious development of Platonism. It is not too much to say that
+Philo's work has a double function, to interpret the Bible
+according to Platonic philosophy and to interpret Plato in the
+spirit of the Bible. The agreement was not the artificial
+production of the commentator, for in truth Plato was in sympathy
+with the religious conscience as a whole. The contrast between
+Hellenism and Hebraism is true, if we restrict it to the average
+mind of the two races. The one is intent on things secular, the
+other on God. But the greatest genius of the Hellenic race,
+influenced perhaps by contact with Oriental peoples, possessed, in
+a remarkable degree, the Hebraic spirit, which is zealous for God
+and makes for righteousness. Plato was not only a great
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_171" id=
+"page_171">[pg.171]</a></span> philosopher, but also a great
+theologian, a great religious reformer, and a great prophet, the
+most perfectly developed mind which the world, ancient or modern,
+has known. His "Ideas," which are the archetypes of sensible
+things, were not only logical concepts but also a kingdom of Heaven
+connected with the human individual by the Divine soul. And as he
+grew older so his religious feeling intensified, and he translated
+his philosophy into theology and positive religion. Platonism, it
+has been well said, is a temper as much as a doctrine; it is the
+spirit that turns from the earth to Heaven, from creation to God.
+In his last work, "The Laws," wherein he designs a theocratic
+state, which has striking points of resemblance with the Jewish
+polity, he says: "The conclusion of the matter is this, which is
+the fairest and truest of all sayings, that for the good man to
+sacrifice and hold converse with the Deity by means of prayers and
+service of every kind is the noblest thing of all and the most
+conducive to a happy life, and above all things fitting."<a name=
+"FNanchor_235_235" id="FNanchor_235_235"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_235_235">[235]</a></p>
+<p>This is typical of Plato's attitude towards life in his old age;
+and further, his metaphysical system of monistic idealism is the
+most remarkable approach to Hebrew monotheism which the Greek world
+made. The Patristic writers in the first centuries of the Christian
+era were so struck by this Hebraism in the Greek thinker, that they
+attributed it to direct borrowing. <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_172" id="page_172">[pg.172]</a></span> Aristobulus had
+written of a translation of the Pentateuch older than the
+Septuagint, which Plato was supposed to have studied. Clement
+called him the Hebrew philosopher, Origen and Augustine comment on
+his agreement with Genesis, and think that when he was in Egypt he
+listened to Jeremiah.<a name="FNanchor_236_236" id=
+"FNanchor_236_236"></a><a href="#Footnote_236_236">[236]</a>
+Eusebius worked out in detail his correspondences with the Bible.
+Some early neo-Platonist, perhaps Numenius, declared that Plato was
+only the Attic Moses; and in more modern times the Cambridge
+Platonists of the sixteenth century harbored similar ideas, and
+Nietzsche spoke bitterly of the day when "Plato went to school with
+the Jews in Egypt."</p>
+<p>Of Philo, then, we may say, as Montaigne said of himself, that
+he was a Platonist before he knew who Plato was. Yet he was the
+first Hellenistic Jew who perceived the fundamental harmony between
+the philosopher's idealism and Jewish monotheism, and he was the
+first important commentator of Plato who developed the religious
+teaching of his master into a powerful spiritual force.</p>
+<p>It is true that the seeds of neo-Platonism, <i>i.e.</i>, the
+religious re-interpretation of Platonism under the influence of
+Eastern thought, had been sown already; and Philo must have
+received from his environment to some extent the mystical version
+of the master's system, with its goal of ecstatic union with God,
+and its tendency to asceticism as a means thereto. But the earlier
+products of the movement had been crude, <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_173" id="page_173">[pg.173]</a></span> and
+had lacked a powerful moving spirit. This was provided by Philo
+when he introduced his overmastering conception of God. The popular
+saying, "Either Plato Philonizes or Philo Platonizes"<a name=
+"FNanchor_237_237" id="FNanchor_237_237"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_237_237">[237]</a> contains a deep truth in its first as
+well as in its second part. It not only marks the likeness in style
+of the two writers, but it suggests that Philo, on the one hand,
+made fruitful the religious germ in Plato's teaching by his
+Hebraism, and, on the other, nourished the philosophical seed in
+Judaism by his Platonism. Plato's teaching falls into two main
+classes, the dialectical and the mythical, and it is with the
+latter that Philo is in specially close connection. For in his
+myths Plato tries to achieve a synthesis by imaginative flight
+where he had failed by discursive reason. He unifies experience by
+striking intuitions, something in the spirit of a Hebrew prophet.
+Moreover his style, as well as his thought, has here affinity with
+Jewish modes of thought. As Zeller says, speaking of the myths:
+"From the first, in the act of producing his work he thinks in
+images. They mark the point where it becomes evident that he cannot
+be wholly a philosopher because he is still too much of a poet."
+And this is true of all Philo's writings, and to generalize
+somewhat widely, of most Jewish philosophy. In "The Tim&aelig;us,"
+particularly, Plato, throughout, is the poet-philosopher, writing
+imaginative myths, which present pictorially an idealistic scheme
+of the universe; and "The Tim&aelig;us" is for <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_174" id="page_174">[pg.174]</a></span>
+Philo, after the Bible, the most authoritative of books, the source
+of his chief philosophical ideas.</p>
+<p>The dominant philosophical principle of Plato is what is known
+as the Theory of Ideas. He imagined a world of real existences,
+invisible, incorporeal, eternal, grasped only by thought, prior to
+the objects of the physical universe, and the models or archetypes
+of them. In "The Tim&aelig;us," which is a system of cosmology at
+once religious and metaphysical, the "Ideas" are represented as the
+thoughts of the one Supreme Mind, the intermediate powers by which
+the Supreme Unity, known as the "Idea of the Good," or "the
+Creator," evolves the material universe. Thus the universe is seen
+as the manifestation of one Beneficent Spirit, who brings it into
+existence and rules over it through His "ideal" thoughts. Philo
+adopts completely and uncritically this theory of transcendental
+ideas in his philosophical exegesis of the cosmogony in Genesis.
+"Without an incorporeal archetype God brings no simple thing to
+fulfilment."<a name="FNanchor_238_238" id=
+"FNanchor_238_238"></a><a href="#Footnote_238_238">[238]</a> There
+is an idea of stars, of grass, of man, of virtue, of music. And the
+Platonic conception receives a religious sanction. The ideas are a
+necessary step between God and the material universe, and those who
+deny them throw all things into confusion.<a name=
+"FNanchor_239_239" id="FNanchor_239_239"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_239_239">[239]</a> "God would not touch matter Himself,
+but He did not grudge a share of His nature to it through His
+powers, of which the true name <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_175" id="page_175">[pg.175]</a></span> is ideas." We have
+already noticed<a name="FNanchor_240_240" id=
+"FNanchor_240_240"></a><a href="#Footnote_240_240">[240]</a> how
+ingeniously Philo deduces the Theory of Ideas from the Biblical
+account of the creation, and associates it with the Hebraic
+conception of the ministerial Wisdom and Word. He, however, gives a
+new direction to the Platonic theory, owing to his Hebraic
+conception of God. The ideas with him are not the thoughts of an
+impersonal mind, but the emanations of a personal, volitional
+Deity. Keeping close to Jewish tradition, he says that they are the
+words of the Deity speaking. As human speech consists of
+incorporeal ideas, which produce an effect upon the minds of
+others, so the Divine speech is a pattern of incorporeal ideas
+which impress themselves upon a formless void, and so create the
+material world.<a name="FNanchor_241_241" id=
+"FNanchor_241_241"></a><a href="#Footnote_241_241">[241]</a> In
+this way Philo associates his cosmology with his theology. The
+creative "Ideas" are equated collectively with the Supreme
+Logos,<a name="FNanchor_242_242" id="FNanchor_242_242"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_242_242">[242]</a> individually with the Logoi which
+represent God's particular activities. Thus the Logos represents
+the whole ideal or noetic world, "the kingdom of Heaven"; and it is
+in this metaphysical sense that the Logos is the first creation,
+"the first-born son of God," prior to the physical universe, which
+is His grandson. The whole universe is thus seen as the orderly
+manifestation of one principle. Philo, expanding a favorite image
+of the Haggadah, illustrates God's creation by the simile of a king
+founding a city. "He gets to him an architect, who first designs
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_176" id=
+"page_176">[pg.176]</a></span> in his mind the parts of the perfect
+city, and then, looking continually to his model, begins to
+construct the city of stones and wood. So when God resolved to
+found the world-city, He first brought its form into mind, and
+using this as a model he completed the visible world."<a name=
+"FNanchor_243_243" id="FNanchor_243_243"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_243_243">[243]</a></p>
+<p>The theory of religious idealism is the centre of Philo's
+philosophy, and provides the basis of his explanation of the
+material universe. Physics, indeed, he considered of small account,
+because he believed there could be no certainty in such
+speculations.<a name="FNanchor_244_244" id=
+"FNanchor_244_244"></a><a href="#Footnote_244_244">[244]</a> His
+mind was utterly unscientific; but as a religious philosopher he
+found it necessary to give a theory of the creation. Jewish dogma
+held that the world had been called into being out of nothing; the
+Greek philosophers repudiated such an idea, and held that creation
+must be the result of a reasonable process; Aristotle had imagined
+that matter was a separately existent principle with mind, and that
+the world was eternal; and the Stoics held that matter was the
+substance of all things, including the pantheistic power
+itself:</p>
+<p><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"All are but parts of one
+stupendous whole,</span><br>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Whose body nature is, and God the
+soul."</span><br></p>
+<p>Philo impugns both these theories,<a name="FNanchor_245_245" id=
+"FNanchor_245_245"></a><a href="#Footnote_245_245">[245]</a> the
+one because it denies the creative power of God, the other because
+it confuses the Creator with His creation. He looked <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_177" id="page_177">[pg.177]</a></span> for
+a system which should satisfy at once the Jewish notion that the
+world was brought out of nothing by the will of God, and the
+philosophical concept that God is all reality; and he found in
+Plato's idealism a view of the creation which he could harmonize
+with the religious view. Plato declared that the material world had
+been created out of the <i>Non-Ens</i> <img alt=
+"Greek: m&ecirc; on" src="images/image56.jpg" width="67" height=
+"22"> <i>i.e.</i>, that which has no real existence. He conceived
+space and matter as the mere passive receptacle of form, which is
+nothing till the form has given it quality. Though Philo's language
+is vague, this seems to be his view when he is speaking
+philosophically. It is, perhaps, a slight deviation from the
+earlier religious standpoint of the Jews, which looks to a direct
+and deliberate creation of the world-stuff, rather than to the
+informing of space by spirit, and regards the world as separate
+from God, and not as a manifestation of His being. But the more
+philosophical conception appears likewise in the Wisdom of Solomon.
+"For Thine all-powerful hand that created the world out of formless
+matter," says the author (xi. 17), establishing before Philo the
+compromise between two competing influences in his mind. More
+emphatically Philo rejects the notion of creation in time.<a name=
+"FNanchor_246_246" id="FNanchor_246_246"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_246_246">[246]</a> Time, he says, came into being after
+God had made the universe, and has no meaning for the Divine Ruler,
+whose life is in the eternal present. <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_178" id="page_178">[pg.178]</a></span></p>
+<p>Summing up, we may say that Philo regards the universe as the
+image of the Divine manifestation or evolution in thought produced
+by His beneficent will; and this view is true to the religious
+standpoint of traditional Judaism in spirit if not in letter.</p>
+<p>In his conception of the human soul, Philo again harmonizes the
+simple Jewish notion with the developed Greek psychology by means
+of the Platonic idealism. The soul in the Bible is the breath of
+God; in Plato it is an Idea incarnate, represented in "The
+Tim&aelig;us" as a particle of the Supreme Mind. Philo, following
+the psychology of his age, divides the soul into a higher and a
+lower part: (1) the Nous; (2) the vital functions, which include
+the senses. He lays all the stress upon the former, which gives man
+his kinship with God and the ideal world, while the other part is
+the necessary result of its incarnation in the body. He variously
+describes the Nous as an inseparable fragment of the Divine soul, a
+Divine breath which God inspires into each body, a reflection, an
+impression, or an image of the blessed Logos, sealed with its
+stamp.<a name="FNanchor_247_247" id="FNanchor_247_247"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_247_247">[247]</a> Following the Platonic conception,
+Philo occasionally speaks of the Divine soul as having a prenatal
+existence,<a name="FNanchor_248_248" id=
+"FNanchor_248_248"></a><a href="#Footnote_248_248">[248]</a>
+holding, as the English poet put it, that</p>
+<p><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"The soul that rises with us,
+our life's star,</span><br>
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hath had elsewhere its
+setting</span><br>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">And cometh from
+afar."</span><br></p>
+<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_179" id=
+"page_179">[pg.179]</a></span> Here, too, he follows an older
+Jewish-Hellenistic tradition, which appears in the Wisdom of
+Solomon (viii. 19 and 20), where it is written: "A good soul fell
+to my lot. Nay rather, being good, I came into a body undefiled."
+The Nous is in fact the god within, and it bears to the microcosm
+Man the relation which the infinite God bears to the
+macrocosm.<a name="FNanchor_249_249" id=
+"FNanchor_249_249"></a><a href="#Footnote_249_249">[249]</a>
+Indeed, it is the Logos descended from above, but yearning to
+return to its true abode. Thus Philo sings its Divine nature:</p>
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>"It is unseen, but sees all things: its essence is unknown, but
+it comprehends the essence of all things. And by arts and sciences
+it makes for itself many roads and ways, and traverses sea and
+land, searching out all things within them. And it soars aloft on
+wings, and when it has investigated the sky and its changes it is
+borne upwards towards the &aelig;ther and the revolutions of the
+heavens. It follows the stars in their orbits, and passing the
+sensible it yearns for the intelligible world."</p>
+</div>
+<p>The Nous is the king of the whole organism, the governing and
+unifying power, and hence is often called the man himself. The
+senses, resembling the powers of God, are only the bodyguard,
+subordinate instruments, and inferior modes of the Divine
+part.<a name="FNanchor_250_250" id="FNanchor_250_250"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_250_250">[250]</a> So Philo explains that all our
+faculties are derived from the Divine principle, and he draws the
+moral lesson that our true function is to bend them all to the
+Divine service, so as to foster our noblest part. The aim of the
+good man is to bring the god within <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_180" id="page_180">[pg.180]</a></span> him into union with
+the God without, and to this end he must avoid the life of the
+senses,<a name="FNanchor_251_251" id=
+"FNanchor_251_251"></a><a href="#Footnote_251_251">[251]</a> which
+mars the Divine Nous, and may entirely crush it. The Divine soul,
+as it had a life before birth, so also has a life after death; for
+what is Divine cannot perish. Immortality is man's most splendid
+hope. If the Divine Presence fills him with a mystic ecstasy, he
+has, indeed, attained it upon this earth, but this bliss is only
+for the very blessed sage; and he, too, looks forward to the more
+lasting union with the Godhead after this terrestrial life is
+over.<a name="FNanchor_252_252" id="FNanchor_252_252"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_252_252">[252]</a> True at once to the principles of
+Platonism and Judaism, Philo admits no anthropomorphic conception
+of Heaven or of Hell. He is convinced that there is a life
+hereafter, and finds in the story of Enoch the Biblical symbol
+thereof,<a name="FNanchor_253_253" id=
+"FNanchor_253_253"></a><a href="#Footnote_253_253">[253]</a> but he
+does not speculate about the nature of the Divine reward. The pious
+are taken up to God, he says, and live forever,<a name=
+"FNanchor_254_254" id="FNanchor_254_254"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_254_254">[254]</a> communing alone with the
+Alone.<a name="FNanchor_255_255" id="FNanchor_255_255"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_255_255">[255]</a> The unrighteous souls, Philo
+sometimes suggests, in accordance with current Pythagorean ideas,
+are reincarnated according to a system of transmigration within the
+human species (<img alt="Greek: palengenesia" src=
+"images/image57.jpg" width="117" height="22"> ).<a name=
+"FNanchor_256_256" id="FNanchor_256_256"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_256_256">[256]</a> Yet the sinner suffers his full doom
+on earth. The true Hades is the life of the wicked man who has not
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_181" id=
+"page_181">[pg.181]</a></span> repented, exposed to vengeance, with
+uncleansed guilt, obnoxious to every curse.<a name=
+"FNanchor_257_257" id="FNanchor_257_257"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_257_257">[257]</a> And the Divine punishment is to live
+always dying, to endure death deathless and unending, the death of
+the soul.<a name="FNanchor_258_258" id=
+"FNanchor_258_258"></a><a href="#Footnote_258_258">[258]</a></p>
+<p>The Divine Nous constitutes the true nature of man; Philo,
+however, insists with almost wearisome repetition, that the god
+within us has no power in itself, and depends entirely on the grace
+and inspiration of God without for knowledge, virtue, and
+happiness.<a name="FNanchor_259_259" id=
+"FNanchor_259_259"></a><a href="#Footnote_259_259">[259]</a> The
+Stoic dogma, that the wise man is perfectly independent and
+self-contained <img alt="Greek: autarch&ecirc;s" src=
+"images/image58.jpg" width="91" height="19"> appears to him as a
+wicked blasphemy. "Those who make God the indirect, and the mind
+the direct cause are guilty of impiety, for we are the instruments
+through which particular activities are developed, but He who gives
+the impulse to the powers of the body and the soul is the Creator
+by whom all things are moved."<a name="FNanchor_260_260" id=
+"FNanchor_260_260"></a><a href="#Footnote_260_260">[260]</a> All
+thought-functions, memory, reasoning, intuition, are referred
+directly to Divine inspiration, which is in Platonic terminology
+the illumination of the mind by the ideas. Thus, finally, all human
+activity is referred back to God.</p>
+<p>This guiding principle determines Philo's attitude to knowledge,
+involving, as it does, that we only know by Divine inspiration, or,
+as he says, by the immanence <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_182" id="page_182">[pg.182]</a></span> of the Logoi.<a name=
+"FNanchor_261_261" id="FNanchor_261_261"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_261_261">[261]</a> The possibility of knowledge was one
+of the burning questions of the age, and it was the failure of the
+old dogmatic schools to answer it which led to a great religious
+movement in Greek philosophy. How can man attain to true knowledge,
+it was asked, about the universe, seeing that perceptions vary with
+each individual, and of conceptions we have no certain standard?
+The old Hebrew attitude to this question is expressed by the verse
+of the Psalmist: "The heavens are the heavens of the Lord, but the
+earth hath He given to the sons of men" (Psalm cxv), which implies
+that man must not try to penetrate the secrets of the universe.
+Philo is sufficiently a philosopher to desire knowledge about
+things Divine and human, but at the same time he has a complete
+distrust in the powers of human sense and human reason. About the
+physical universe he is frankly a skeptic,<a name=
+"FNanchor_262_262" id="FNanchor_262_262"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_262_262">[262]</a> but his religious faith leads him to
+hold that God vouchsafes to man some knowledge of Himself and of
+the proper way of life, <i>i.e.</i>, ethics. "Man knows all things
+in God."<a name="FNanchor_263_263" id=
+"FNanchor_263_263"></a><a href="#Footnote_263_263">[263]</a> Plato
+similarly had despaired of knowledge of the physical world, and had
+turned to the heavenly ideas as the true object of thought.
+Moreover, in his early period, while his theory was still poetical
+and mystical, he had conceived that knowledge was made possible in
+the subject, <span class="newpage"><a name="page_183" id=
+"page_183">[pg.183]</a></span> by the entrance of "forms," or
+emanations, from the ideas. This theory Philo adapts to his Jewish
+outlook. Like Plato, he turns away from the physical to the ideal
+world,<a name="FNanchor_264_264" id="FNanchor_264_264"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_264_264">[264]</a> and he regards the ideas of wisdom,
+virtue, bravery, etc., which are theologically powers of God, as
+continually sending forth Logoi, forms or forces (the angels of
+popular belief), to inform and enlighten our minds. Throughout, God
+is the cause of all knowledge as well as of being, for these
+effluences are but an expression of God's activity. In Philo's
+theory, object and subject are really one. What can be known are
+the modes or attributes of God, which philosophically are" Ideas";
+what knows is the emanation of the Idea, which God sends into the
+human soul that is prepared to receive it by pious contemplation.
+"Through the heavenly Wisdom, wisdom is seen, for wisdom sees
+itself." "Through God, God is known, for He is His own
+light."<a name="FNanchor_265_265" id=
+"FNanchor_265_265"></a><a href="#Footnote_265_265">[265]</a></p>
+<p>Thus all knowledge is intuition, and man's function is not so
+much to reason as to lead a life of piety and contemplate the
+Divine work in the hope of being blessed with inspiration. It would
+be a mistake, however, to take Philo's words quite literally. He
+does not deny the need of human effort and striving for knowledge;
+for the Divine influence is not vouchsafed till we have prepared
+for it and consecrated all our faculties to God. But, devout mystic
+as he is, <span class="newpage"><a name="page_184" id=
+"page_184">[pg.184]</a></span> he ascribes every consummation to
+the direct help of the Deity. "The mind is the cause of nothing,
+but rather the Deity, who is prior to mind, generates
+thought."<a name="FNanchor_266_266" id=
+"FNanchor_266_266"></a><a href="#Footnote_266_266">[266]</a> The
+Greek philosopher had ascribed the final synthesis of knowledge to
+a superhuman force. Philo ascribes to God all the intermediate
+steps from sense-perception. It may be admitted that his passive
+notion of philosophy involves the abandonment of the Greek ideal,
+the eager searching of Plato after truth. He lived in an age in
+which, through loss of intellectual power, man had come to despair
+of the attainment of knowledge by human effort, and to rely
+entirely upon supernatural means, Divine revelations, visions, and
+the like. It is consistent with his whole position that the crown
+of life is represented, not as an intellectual state, but as a
+superhuman ecstasy of the Nous, wherein it is freed not only from
+the body but from the rest of the soul, and is, so to say, led out
+of itself.<a name="FNanchor_267_267" id=
+"FNanchor_267_267"></a><a href="#Footnote_267_267">[267]</a> He
+comments on the verse, "And the sun went down and a deep sleep fell
+on Abraham" (Gen. xv. 12). "When the Divine light," he says,
+"shines upon the mortal soul, the mortal light sinks, and our
+reason is driven out at the approach of the Divine spirit."<a name=
+"FNanchor_268_268" id="FNanchor_268_268"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_268_268">[268]</a> This is the Alexandrian
+interpretation of <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image59.jpg"
+width="145" height="16">, and though it is much affected by Greek
+mystical ideas, yet at the same time it is broadly true to the
+spirit of Jewish mysticism, as we see it <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_185" id="page_185">[pg.185]</a></span>
+presented in writers of all ages, and as the Psalmist expressed it,
+"to abide under the shadow of the Almighty."</p>
+<p>Philo's ethics, like the rest of his philosophy, exhibits the
+transfusion of Greek ideas with his Hebrew spirit. The Greek
+philosophers had evolved a rational plan of life, while the Jewish
+teachers were impregnated with burning ardor for the living God;
+and Philo brings the two things together, making ethics dependent
+on religion. The Stoics, who were the most powerful school of his
+day, regarded as the ideal of goodness life according to unbending
+reason and in complete independence of God or man. Philo
+understands God as a personal power making for righteousness, and
+man's excellence, accordingly, which is likeness to God, is piety
+and charity.<a name="FNanchor_269_269" id=
+"FNanchor_269_269"></a><a href="#Footnote_269_269">[269]</a> Above
+all he insists upon Faith <img alt="Greek: pistis" src=
+"images/image60.jpg" width="60" height="19"> and he defines virtue
+as a condition of soul which fixes its hopes upon the truly
+Existent God. The Stoics also professed to honor faith or
+confidence above all things, but the virtue which they meant was
+reliance upon man's own powers. Philo's virtue is almost the
+converse of this. Man must feel completely dependent upon God, and
+his proper attitude is humility and resignation. So only can he
+receive within his soul the seed of goodness, and finally the
+Divine Logos.<a name="FNanchor_270_270" id=
+"FNanchor_270_270"></a><a href="#Footnote_270_270">[270]</a> Yet at
+the same time Philo remains loyal to the Jewish <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_186" id="page_186">[pg.186]</a></span>
+ideal of conduct: faith without works is empty, and, as he puts it,
+"The true-born goods are faith and consistency of word and
+action."<a name="FNanchor_271_271" id=
+"FNanchor_271_271"></a><a href="#Footnote_271_271">[271]</a></p>
+<p>The attainment of the highest excellence demands severe
+discipline, save for those few blessed souls whom God perfects
+without any effort on their part. The rest can only secure
+self-realization by self-renunciation; they must avoid the bodily
+passions and bodily lusts.<a name="FNanchor_272_272" id=
+"FNanchor_272_272"></a><a href="#Footnote_272_272">[272]</a> At
+times the Divine enthusiasm causes Philo, like many a Jewish saint
+and like his master Plato, to scorn all bodily limitations and
+recommend "insensibility"<img alt="Greek: apatheia" src=
+"images/image61.jpg" width="81" height="19"><a name=
+"FNanchor_273_273" id="FNanchor_273_273"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_273_273">[273]</a> by which he means that man should
+crush his physical desires and repress his feelings. Not that the
+good life seems to him to imply absence of pleasure. On the
+contrary, it is filled with the purest of joy, for when man rises
+to the love of God "in calm of mind, all passion spent," then and
+then alone has he tasted true joyousness. The symbol of this bliss
+is Isaac <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image62.jpg" width="53"
+height="21">, the laughter of the soul.</p>
+<p>It was noticed in the second chapter that Philo modified his
+ethical ideas during his life. In the earlier period he insists
+more strongly on the need of ascetic self-denial, and has almost a
+horror of the world. Maturer experience, however, taught him that
+man is made for this world, and that a wise use of its goods was a
+surer path to happiness and to <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_187" id="page_187">[pg.187]</a></span> God than flight from
+all temptations. In his later writings, therefore, he exhibits a
+striking moderation. He reproaches the ascetics for their "savage
+enthusiasm,"<a name="FNanchor_274_274" id=
+"FNanchor_274_274"></a><a href="#Footnote_274_274">[274]</a>
+probably hinting at the extreme sects of the Essenes and the
+Therapeut&aelig;. "Those who follow a gentler wisdom seek after
+God, but at the same time do not despise human things."</p>
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>"Truth will properly blame those who without discrimination shun
+all concern with the life of the State, and say that they despise
+the acquisition of good repute and pleasure. They are only making
+grand pretensions, and they do not really despise these things.
+They go about in torn raiment and with solemn visage, and live the
+life of penury and hardship as a bait, to make people believe that
+they are lovers of good conduct, temperance, and
+self-control."<a name="FNanchor_275_275" id=
+"FNanchor_275_275"></a><a href="#Footnote_275_275">[275]</a></p>
+</div>
+<p>Philo's aphorism, which follows, "Be drunk in a sober manner,"
+is characteristic. The Stoic extreme of passionlessness is almost
+as false as the Epicurean hedonism, and the mean between them is
+the ideal Jewish life, in which godliness and humanity are
+blended.</p>
+<p>We have now examined the main divisions of Philo's philosophy,
+and we see that his metaphysics, cosmology, theory of knowledge,
+and ethics are all religious in tone, and all determined in their
+main lines by his Jewish outlook. His Hebraism is a seal which
+stamps all that enters his mind from Greek <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_188" id="page_188">[pg.188]</a></span>
+sources, and the Bible, spiritually interpreted, is the canon of
+all his wisdom.</p>
+<p>There remains one minor aspect of his work which must be briefly
+examined, because it has become closely associated with his name.
+This is his number-symbolism, by which he ascribes important powers
+to certain numbers, so that they are regarded as holy themselves
+and sanctifying that to which they are attached. This feature of
+his thought is commonly ascribed to Pythagorean influence, which
+was strong at Alexandria, and, indeed, throughout the world, at
+this era. The exact details of the holiness of four, seven, ten,
+fifty, etc., Philo may have borrowed from neo-Pythagorean sources,
+but the general tendency was the natural result of his environment
+and his stage of thought. It was a feature of the recurring
+childishness of ideas and the renascence of wonder at common things
+which is apparent on many hands. To have denied the powers of
+numbers would have seemed as absurd and eccentric then as to deny
+the powers of electricity to-day. And in all ages people have been
+found to regard numbers mystically as a link between God and earth,
+and a means of solving all physical and metaphysical problems. The
+Hebrew intellect, primitive as it was, tended particularly to the
+reverence of the numerical powers. Witness the Bible itself, which
+emphasizes certain numbers; and witness also the fifth chapter of
+the Pirke Abot, with its lists ranged under four, seven, and ten,
+which is only typical of the rabbinical attitude. Philo is not
+original in his views <span class="newpage"><a name="page_189" id=
+"page_189">[pg.189]</a></span> concerning numbers, not above nor
+below the loose thinking of his age. He accepts unquestioningly the
+potency of seven, because of its marvellous mathematical
+properties, ratios, etc., its geometrical efficacy, and because of
+the seven periods of life from infancy to old age, of the seven
+parts of the body, the seven motions, the seven strings of the
+lyre, the seven vowels, and the very name, which is connected with
+worship <img alt="Greek: sebasmos" src="images/image63.jpg" width=
+"90" height="22">. All this is trifling and trite, but what is of
+importance is the use which Philo makes of the sentiment. He
+converts it throughout to the support and glorification of Jewish
+institutions. Thus, if a man honors seven, he says, he will devote
+the Sabbath to meditation and philosophy.<a name="FNanchor_276_276"
+id="FNanchor_276_276"></a><a href="#Footnote_276_276">[276]</a>
+Further, as seven is the symbol of rest and tranquillity, the
+Sabbath must be a day of perfect rest. Ten is magnified so as to
+honor the Decalogue,<a name="FNanchor_277_277" id=
+"FNanchor_277_277"></a><a href="#Footnote_277_277">[277]</a> fifty
+so as to honor the Feast of Pentecost. So, too, the Pythagoreans'
+mathematical conceptions of God as "the beginning and limit of all
+things," or, again, as the principle of equality, are approved by
+Philo, "because they breed in the soul the fairest and most
+nourishing fruit&mdash;piety." In short, Philo's Pythagoreanism
+only emphasizes his commanding purpose&mdash;to deepen and
+recommend the Jewish God-idea and the Jewish method of life.</p>
+<p>Jewish influences throughout are the determining element of
+Philo's teaching; they are the dynamic <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_190" id="page_190">[pg.190]</a></span>
+forces working upon the Greek matter and producing the new
+Platonism, which constitutes Philo's contribution to Greek
+philosophy. It may, indeed, be said that his Hebraism makes Philo
+anti-philosophical, because he has no desire or hope of adding to
+positive knowledge, but aims only at the calm of the individual
+soul in union with its God. The Platonic Theory of Ideas,
+metaphysical in origin, plays a very important part in his works,
+but it is adapted mystically, and turned from an ideal of the human
+intellect to a support of monotheism and piety. Here Philo is at
+once the leader and the child of his generation; men were no longer
+satisfied with rational systems, but wanted a religious philosophy,
+based upon a transcendental principle and a Divine revelation which
+could give them some certainty and some positive hope in life.
+Doubtless, the strong mystical tendency in Philo destroyed the
+balance between the intuitive and the discursive reason which makes
+the perfect philosopher. In his overpowering passion for God, he
+distrusts overmuch the analytical efforts of the human mind.
+Nevertheless, his acquired Hellenism gives his Jewish conceptions a
+philosophical impress, and this has made him the model of the
+school of religious philosophers. The ministerial "Word" became the
+"ideal" expression of God's mind, the governing reason, the
+world-soul; the angels were spiritualized as a kingdom of Ideas.
+Piety received an intellectual as well as a religious value, and
+the Mosaic law was raised to a higher dignity as an ethical code of
+universal validity.</p>
+<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_191" id=
+"page_191">[pg.191]</a></span></p>
+<p>A complete harmony between the Hellenic and the Hebraic outlook
+upon life was impossible, but Philo at least accomplished a harmony
+between Hebraic monotheism and Greek metaphysics. He desired to
+show that faith and philosophy were in agreement, and that the
+imaginative and reflective conceptions of God and the Divine
+government were in unison. And he may be considered to have
+realized his desire in his synthesis of Jewish theology and
+Platonic idealism. He is through and through a great interpreter,
+elucidating points of unity between distinct systems of thought. In
+him the fusion of cultures, which began with the Septuagint
+translation, reached its culmination. It reached its zenith and
+straightway the severance began.</p>
+<p>In the next chapter we shall trace Philo's place in Jewish
+thought; here we may glance at his place in the development of
+Greek philosophy. The fusion between Eastern and Western thought,
+which he himself so strikingly illustrates, continued to dominate
+philosophy for the next four hundred years; and Plato, who, with
+his deep religious spirit, had a broad affinity with the Oriental
+conception of the universe, was the supreme philosophical master.
+All the chief teachers looked to him for the intellectual basis of
+their ideas and read into his works their particular religious
+beliefs; but they failed to maintain a true harmony between the
+two. The cultures of all countries and races mingled, even as their
+peoples mingled under the Roman Empire, but they were so combined
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_192" id=
+"page_192">[pg.192]</a></span> as to lose the purity and
+individuality of each element. The Eastern Platonists who followed
+Philo brought to their interpretation less noble conceptions of the
+Godhead, the Gnosticism of Syria, the dualism of Persia, the
+impersonal pantheism of India, and the theurgies of Egypt, and
+produced strange hybrids of the human mind. The one point of
+agreement between them is that they conceive the Supreme God as
+impersonal and entirely inactive, "a deified Zero," and endeavor by
+a system of emanation to trace the descent of this baffling
+principle into man and the universe. Philo was as unfortunate in
+his philosophical as in his religious following, who both
+transformed his poetical metaphors into fixed and rigid dogmas. His
+doctrine of the Logos was, on the one hand, the forerunner of the
+Trinity of the Church, on the other of the Trinity of the
+Alexandrian neo-Platonists. It is difficult, indeed, to trace with
+certainty the connection between Philo and the later school of
+Alexandrian Platonists, but there appears to be at least one clear
+link in the teaching of the Syrian Numenius, who flourished in the
+middle of the second century. To him are attributed the two
+sayings: "Either Plato Philonizes or Philo Platonizes," and "What
+is Plato but the Attic Moses?" Modern scholars have questioned the
+correctness of the reference, but be this as it may, it is certain
+that Numenius used the Bible as evidence of Platonic doctrines. "We
+should go back," he says, in a fragment, "to the actual writings of
+Plato and call in as testimony the ideas of the most <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_193" id="page_193">[pg.193]</a></span>
+cultured races; comparing their holy books and laws we should bring
+in support the harmonious ideas which are to be found among the
+Brahmans and the Jews."<a name="FNanchor_278_278" id=
+"FNanchor_278_278"></a><a href="#Footnote_278_278">[278]</a> Origen
+tells us,<a name="FNanchor_279_279" id=
+"FNanchor_279_279"></a><a href="#Footnote_279_279">[279]</a>
+moreover, that he often introduced excerpts from the books of Moses
+and the Prophets, and allegorized them with ingenuity. In one of
+the few remains of his writings which have come down to us, we find
+him praising the verse in the first chapter of Genesis, "The spirit
+of God was upon the waters"; because, as Philo had interpreted
+it&mdash;following perhaps a rabbinical tradition&mdash;water
+represents the primal world-stuff. And elsewhere he mentions the
+efforts of the Egyptian magicians to frustrate the miracles of
+Moses, following Philo's account in his life of the Jewish
+hero.</p>
+<p>The work of Philo helped to spread a knowledge of the Hebrew
+Scriptures far and wide and to give them general authority as a
+philosophical book; but it did not succeed in spreading the pure
+Hebrew monotheism. The exalted Hebrew idea of God was still too
+sublime for the pagan nations, even for their philosophers. The
+world in truth was decaying morally and intellectually, and most of
+all in powers of imagination; and its hunger for God found
+expression in crude and stunted conceptions of His nature. Unable
+any longer to soar to Heaven, it sullied the majesty of the Deity,
+and divided the Godhead in order to <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_194" id="page_194">[pg.194]</a></span> bridge the gap.
+Numenius represents in philosophy the Gnostic ideas about God which
+were widely held by the heretics, Jewish and Christian, of the
+second century. He divides the Godhead into two separate powers:
+(1) the impersonal Being behind all reality, free from all activity
+whatsoever; (2) the Demiurge or active governor of the universe,
+who again is subdivided into a transcendent and an immanent
+power.</p>
+<p>The teaching of Plotinus, the most famous of the later
+Alexandrian neo-Platonists, shows a further step in the development
+of religious Platonism. Viewed from its higher side it is an
+attempt to explain everything as the emanation of the One. But
+philosophy in the third century debased itself in order to support
+the tottering polytheistic religion of the pagan world against the
+modified Hebraic creed, Christianity, which was fast demolishing
+its power. Against the Trinity of the Church the philosophers set
+up a heavenly Trinity of so-called reason: the Ineffable One, the
+Demiurgic Mind, and the World Soul; and between this Trinity and
+man they placed intermediate hierarchies of gods, angels, and
+demons&mdash;in fact, the whole fugitive army of Greek polytheism
+thinly disguised. All the vulgar fancies and superstitions which
+Philo had intellectualized, these later Eastern Platonists sought
+to revive and justify by conceptions of physical emanation blended
+of false science and mysticism. They hoped to found a universal
+religion by finding room in one system for the deities of all
+nations! <span class="newpage"><a name="page_195" id=
+"page_195">[pg.195]</a></span></p>
+<p>From Plotinus down to Proclus, neo-Platonism became more
+unintellectual, more insane, more pagan, and, finally, with its
+vapid dreams, it brought the history of Greek philosophy to an
+inglorious close. Its finer teachings, however, deeply affected
+mediaeval philosophy, and not least the Arab-Jewish school. The
+theory of emanations and spiritual hierarchies pervades the
+writings of Ibn Ezra, Ibn Gabirol, and Ibn Daud, and thus
+indirectly provides a connection between the culture of Alexandrian
+Judaism and the culture of Spanish Judaism. The praise of God known
+as the <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image64.jpg" width="91"
+height="18"> by Ibn Gabirol is a splendid example of the Hebraizing
+of neo-Platonic doctrines, which, though probably quite independent
+of his teaching, recalls constantly the ideas of Philo.</p>
+<p>By his place at the head of the neo-Platonic school Philo enters
+the broad stream of the world's philosophical development, but his
+more lasting influence was exercised over the religious philosophy
+of Christianity. He was the direct master of what is known as the
+Patristic school, which sought to combine the intellectual
+conceptions of Plato with the religious ideas of the Gospels. Its
+most celebrated teachers were Clement and Origen, both of
+Alexandria, who flourished in the second century. They resorted
+largely to allegorical interpretation, learning from Philo to trace
+in the Bible principles of universal thought and profound
+philosophy; but they used his method and his lessons to support
+notions of God and the Logos which were alien to his spirit. He had
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_196" id=
+"page_196">[pg.196]</a></span> possessed pre-eminently the soaring
+imagination of poetry, which is the crown of the intellectual and
+of the religious mind, and unites them in their highest excellence;
+but they bounded their philosophy within the narrow limits of
+dogma, and thereby destroyed the harmony between Hebraism and
+Hellenism which he had contrived to effect. The controversy of
+Origen and Celsus began again the battle between reason and faith,
+"which was to destroy for centuries the independence of philosophy
+and to break the continuity of civilization." Had Philo really been
+ploughing the sand, and was an agreement between faith and reason,
+between religion and philosophy, impossible? Can the two finest
+creations of the mind only be combined on the terms that one is
+subordinate, or rather servile, to the other? In Judaism, if
+anywhere, the combination should be possible, for Judaism has as
+its basis an intuitional conception of God, which is in harmony
+with the philosophical conception of the universe, and it has
+little dogma besides. The neo-Platonists and the Church Fathers
+failed to carry on the ideal of Philo, but it was to be expected
+that among his own people, the nation of philosophers, as he had
+called them, he would have found true successors. Yet the use made
+of his work by the Christians compelled his people to regard him as
+a betrayer of the law and to avoid his goal as a treacherous snare.
+For centuries Greek philosophy was banned from Jewish thought, and
+Philo's works are not mentioned by any Jewish writer. Strangers
+possessed his inheritance, <span class="newpage"><a name="page_197"
+id="page_197">[pg.197]</a></span> and his name alone,
+"Philo-Jud&aelig;us," bore witness to his nationality. It is an
+interesting speculation to consider how different might have been
+the history, not only of the Jews, but of the world, if the
+Hellenistic Judaism of Philo had prevailed in the Roman-Greek world
+instead of "the impurer Hellenism of Christianity." When, in the
+tenth century, the leaders of Jewish thought broke the bonds of
+seclusion, and brought anew to the interpretation of their religion
+the culture of the outer world, Greek philosophy became again a
+powerful influence, though it was Aristotle rather than Plato whom
+they studied. The harmonizing spirit of Philo, which may be
+accounted part of the genius of the race, lives on in Saadia,
+Maimonides, Ibn Ezra, Ibn Gabirol, and Judah Halevi. But the
+difference between him and the Arabic school is marked. They do not
+inherit his whole object, for they aimed not at a philosophical
+Judaism which should be a world-religion, but at a philosophical
+Judaism for the more enlightened Jews alone. Philo's work was the
+culminating point, indeed, of a great development in Judaism,
+produced by the mingling of the finest products of human reason and
+human imagination, but it was particularly the expression of his
+own commanding genius. He lacked a true successor, for those who
+shared his aim did not inherit his Jewish outlook, and those who
+shared his Jewish outlook did not inherit his aim. What is
+characteristic of and peculiar to Philo is the combination of the
+missionary and the philosopher. Living at a time <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_198" id="page_198">[pg.198]</a></span> when
+the Jewish genius expanded most brilliantly, and when Judaism
+exercised its greatest influence, he hoped to make his religion
+universal by showing it to be philosophical, and to bring about by
+the aid of Plato the ideal of the prophets. <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_199" id="page_199">[pg.199]</a></span></p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;">
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<a name="VII" id="VII"></a>
+<h2>VII</h2>
+<p>PHILO AND JEWISH TRADITION</p>
+<br>
+<p>We have seen from time to time how Philo's interpretation of the
+Bible corresponds with Palestinian Jewish tradition; and we must
+now consider more in detail the relations of the two schools of
+Jewish learning. Until the last century it was commonly supposed
+that no close relation existed, and that the Alexandrian and
+Palestinian schools were independent and opposed; Scaliger, the
+greatest scholar of the seventeenth century, wrote<a name=
+"FNanchor_280_280" id="FNanchor_280_280"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_280_280">[280]</a> that "Philo was more ignorant of
+Hebraic and Aramaic lore than any Gaul or Scythian," and this was
+the opinion generally held. The researches of Freudenthal and
+Siegfried<a name="FNanchor_281_281" id=
+"FNanchor_281_281"></a><a href="#Footnote_281_281">[281]</a> have
+shown the falsity of these views; and, most important of all, Philo
+refutes them out of his own mouth. He refers in many different
+parts of his works<a name="FNanchor_282_282" id=
+"FNanchor_282_282"></a><a href="#Footnote_282_282">[282]</a> to the
+tradition and the wisdom of his ancestors, he tells us how on the
+Sabbath the Jews studied in their synagogues their special
+philosophy,<a name="FNanchor_283_283" id=
+"FNanchor_283_283"></a><a href="#Footnote_283_283">[283]</a> and he
+commences his "Life of Moses" by declaring that against the false
+calumnies of Greek writers he will set forth the true account which
+he has learnt from the sacred <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_200" id="page_200">[pg.200]</a></span> writings and "from
+certain elders of his race." In support of his statement we have
+the remark of Eusebius, the Christian historian, and our chief
+ancient authority for Philo's work,<a name="FNanchor_284_284" id=
+"FNanchor_284_284"></a><a href="#Footnote_284_284">[284]</a> that
+he set forth and expounded not only the laws of the Bible, but many
+institutions and opinions of his fathers. Apart from these direct
+references, the numerous points of correspondence between Philo's
+interpretations and those of the Talmud and later Midrash would
+compel us to admit a connection between Alexandria and
+Jerusalem.</p>
+<p>The break between the two schools did not show itself till after
+the time of Philo. Up to the first century of the Christian era the
+rabbis encouraged the union of Shem and Japheth&mdash;the two good
+sons of one parent&mdash;and the stream of ideas flowed quite
+freely between the teachers in Palestine and the Hellenized colony
+in Egypt.<a name="FNanchor_285_285" id=
+"FNanchor_285_285"></a><a href="#Footnote_285_285">[285]</a> Hence
+the Palestinian Jews, on the one hand, received the first fruits of
+this mingling of cultures, and the Alexandrian Jews, on the other,
+must have inherited the early tradition of the rabbinical
+interpreters embodied in ancient Halakah and Haggadah. By this
+common heritage, rather than by any direct borrowing, it seems more
+reasonable to account for the correspondence in the two Midrashim.
+It should be remembered that until the second century of the common
+era the mass of Jewish tradition was a floating and developing body
+of <span class="newpage"><a name="page_201" id=
+"page_201">[pg.201]</a></span> opinion not consigned to writing or
+formalized, but handed down by word of mouth from teacher to pupil,
+and preacher to congregation: in this way it was diffused
+throughout the mind of the race, indefinitely and, to some extent,
+unconsciously shaping its thought. The detailed points of agreement
+between Philo and the Talmud and Midrash are not of great moment in
+themselves, but they are the signs of a unity of development and
+the catholicity of Judaism in the East and West. Doubtless the
+development was more national and at the same time more legal in
+Jud&aelig;a, in Alexandria more Hellenistic and philosophical, but
+there is a common spiritual bond between the two expressions, pious
+images, fancies, similes, interpretations which they share. They
+are, as it were, children of one family, and despite the varying
+influences of environment they maintain a family resemblance. With
+the Sibylline oracles we may compare Daniel and the Psalms of
+Solomon; with Aristeas and his fellow-Apologists, Josephus; with
+the allegorical commentaries of Philo, the Midrashim. Modern
+scholars have gone far to prove that Philo was the expounder of an
+Hellenic Midrash upon the Bible, in which were gathered the
+thoughts and ideas that had been brought to Egypt by the Jewish
+settlers, modified, no doubt, by Greek influences, but still
+bearing the stamp of their origin. Philo, then, appears in the
+direct line of the tradition which from the time of the Great
+Synagogue was disseminated through two channels, the schools of
+Palestine and the writers of Alexandria. He developed the national
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_202" id=
+"page_202">[pg.202]</a></span> Jewish theology in a literary form,
+which made it available for the world, but with him the tradition
+as a Jewish tradition ends; in its further Hellenistic development
+it departed entirely from its original principles.</p>
+<p>It is natural that the larger number of parallels between Philo
+and the rabbis is to be found in the Haggadic portions of Talmudic
+teaching, for the Haggadah represents the same spirit as underlies
+Philo's work, though in a more peculiarly Jewish form; it is an
+allegory, a play of fancy, a tale that points a moral, or
+illustrates a question. It had, too, largely the same origin, for
+it gathered together the popular discourses given in the synagogue
+on the Sabbaths. Yet the relation of Philo to the other domain of
+the Talmud, the code of life, or the Halakah, is of great interest;
+for, as we have seen,<a name="FNanchor_286_286" id=
+"FNanchor_286_286"></a><a href="#Footnote_286_286">[286]</a> the
+Alexandrian community had a Sanhedrin of their own, of which
+Philo's brother was the president, and he himself probably a
+member; and in his exposition of the "Specific Laws" he has
+preserved for us the record of certain interpretations of the
+Jewish code, which are illuminating as much by their difference
+from, as by their agreement with, the practices of Palestine. The
+general aim of Philo's exegesis of the law was to show its broad
+principles of justice and humanity rather than to formulate its
+exact detail. It is true, he makes it an offence<a name=
+"FNanchor_287_287" id="FNanchor_287_287"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_287_287">[287]</a>&mdash;unknown to the rabbis&mdash;for
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_203" id=
+"page_203">[pg.203]</a></span> a Jew to be initiated into the Greek
+mysteries, but usually he is concerned to recommend the Halakah to
+the world rather than expand it for his own community. This is
+shown in his treatment of the civil as much as the moral law. The
+great system of jurisprudence in his day, with which every code
+claiming to have universal value had necessarily to challenge
+comparison, was Roman Law. That part of it which was applied
+throughout the Empire, the <i>jus gentium</i>, was regarded as
+"written reason." It is probable that contact with Roman
+jurisprudence had affected the practical interpretations which the
+Alexandrian Sanhedrin put upon the Biblical legislation, and was
+the cause of some of their differences from the Palestinian
+Halakah. In treating the ethical law, Philo's object was to show
+its agreement with the loftiest conceptions of Greek philosophers,
+and, indeed, its profounder truth; in treating the civil law of the
+Bible, his object likewise was to show its agreement with the
+highest principles of jurisprudence and its superiority to pagan
+codes. If at times he supports a greater severity than the
+Palestinian rabbis eventually allowed, that is where greater
+severity implies a closer relation to Roman Law. Thus he has not
+the horror of capital punishment which the Jerusalem Sanhedrin
+exhibited; he would condemn to death the man who commits wilful
+homicide, whether by his own hand or by poison;<a name=
+"FNanchor_288_288" id="FNanchor_288_288"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_288_288">[288]</a> <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_204" id="page_204">[pg.204]</a></span> whereas the other
+Halakah allows it only in the former case. He who commits perjury
+also is to suffer capital punishment.<a name="FNanchor_289_289" id=
+"FNanchor_289_289"></a><a href="#Footnote_289_289">[289]</a> He
+adds a law which finds no place in the Palestinian tradition,
+making the exposure of children a capital crime.<a name=
+"FNanchor_290_290" id="FNanchor_290_290"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_290_290">[290]</a> Again, following the text of the
+Biblical law literally (see Deut. xxi. 18), he gives power of life
+and death to parents over their rebellious children, whereas the
+Jewish law demands a trial before a court to make the death
+sentence legal. He approves of the <i>lex talionis</i>, "an eye for
+an eye, a tooth for a tooth," agreeing here, indeed, with the
+opinion of earlier rabbis like R. Eliezer (see Baba Kama 84,
+<img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image65.jpg" width="144" height=
+"19">, "the law of eye for eye is to be taken literally"), and
+disagreeing with the later Halakic interpretation, which says that
+the law of Moses means the award of the value of an eye for an eye,
+etc.</p>
+<p>This is one instance among many of Philo's adoption of the older
+tradition, established probably under the Sadduc&aelig;an
+predominance, which was modified in the rabbinical schools of the
+first and the second century. Paradoxically, in his exposition of
+the law, Philo follows the letter more closely as the expression of
+justice, while the later rabbis often allegorize it in order to
+support their humaner interpretation. Thus, commenting on the
+passage in Exodus xxii. 3 about the law of theft, "If the sun be
+risen upon him, blood shall be shed for blood," he, like R.
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_205" id=
+"page_205">[pg.205]</a></span> Eliezer, interprets <img alt=
+"Hebrew; " src="images/image66.jpg" width="98" height="15"><a name=
+"FNanchor_291_291" id="FNanchor_291_291"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_291_291">[291]</a> <i>i.e.</i>, literally. "If," he
+says, "the owner catches the thief before sunrise, he may kill him,
+but after the sun has risen he must bring him before the
+court."<a name="FNanchor_292_292" id=
+"FNanchor_292_292"></a><a href="#Footnote_292_292">[292]</a> This
+also was the Roman law, but the Halakah interprets more
+artificially: "If it were as clear as sunlight that the thief would
+not have killed the owner, then the owner may not kill him." Philo
+would justify the old law; the rabbis explain it away. On the other
+hand, in his treatment of the law relating to slaves, Philo extends
+the liberality both of the Bible and the Halakah. He declares that
+the slave is to be set free when by his master's violence he loses
+an eye or even a tooth.<a name="FNanchor_293_293" id=
+"FNanchor_293_293"></a><a href="#Footnote_293_293">[293]</a> The
+Bible and the Talmud direct emancipation only where the slave loses
+a limb; but Philo writes eloquently of the humanity of which man is
+deprived by the loss of sight; and he would apparently condemn the
+master who injured his slave more seriously to the full penalties
+of the ordinary law.<a name="FNanchor_294_294" id=
+"FNanchor_294_294"></a><a href="#Footnote_294_294">[294]</a>
+Maimonides, in his exposition of the law, approves the milder
+practice,<a name="FNanchor_295_295" id=
+"FNanchor_295_295"></a><a href="#Footnote_295_295">[295]</a> and
+this suggests that it had an old tradition behind it. Beautiful is
+Philo's stray maxim, "Behave to your servants as you pray that God
+may behave to you. For as we hear them, so shall we be heard, and
+as we regard them, so shall we <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_206" id="page_206">[pg.206]</a></span> be regarded."<a name=
+"FNanchor_296_296" id="FNanchor_296_296"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_296_296">[296]</a> In his whole treatment of slavery,
+Philo shows remarkable enlightenment for his age. He objects,
+indeed, to the institution altogether, and he tempers it
+continually with ideas of equality. Thus, following the Halakah, he
+directs the redemption of a slave seven years after his purchase,
+and he treats the laws of the seventh-year rest to the land and of
+the jubilee as of universal validity.</p>
+<p>Coming to the more specifically religious laws we find that
+Philo, missionary as he is, prohibits altogether marriage with
+Gentiles,<a name="FNanchor_297_297" id=
+"FNanchor_297_297"></a><a href="#Footnote_297_297">[297]</a> and
+that though, in the opinion of certain rabbinic teachers, the
+Biblical prohibition extended only to marriage with the Canaanite
+tribes, and unions with other Gentiles were permitted.<a name=
+"FNanchor_298_298" id="FNanchor_298_298"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_298_298">[298]</a> Philo recognizes how dangerous such
+unions are for the cause which he had so dearly at heart, the
+spreading of Judaism. "Even," says he, "if you yourself remain true
+to your religion through the influence of the excellent instruction
+of your parents, yet there is no small danger that your children by
+such a marriage may be beguiled away by bad customs to unlearn the
+true religion of the one only God."<a name="FNanchor_299_299" id=
+"FNanchor_299_299"></a><a href="#Footnote_299_299">[299]</a>
+Throughout, Philo is true to the mission of Israel in its highest
+sense. That mission is not assimilation, and it is to be brought
+about by no easy method of mixing with the surrounding people. It
+can be effected <span class="newpage"><a name="page_207" id=
+"page_207">[pg.207]</a></span> only by holding up the Torah in its
+purity as a light to the nations, and by offering them examples of
+life according to the law.</p>
+<p>Of the special ordinances for Sabbaths and festivals Philo
+mentions only those consecrated by the Biblical law or ancient
+tradition, which probably were the only ones settled in his day. He
+lays down the prohibition to kindle fire,<a name="FNanchor_300_300"
+id="FNanchor_300_300"></a><a href="#Footnote_300_300">[300]</a> to
+make or return deposits, or to plead in the law courts on the
+Sabbath; he speaks of the reading of the Haggadah and Hallel on the
+night of Passover, of the bringing of a barley cake during the
+'Omer and of the first fruits to the Temple on the Feast of Weeks,
+of the Shofar at New Year, and of the Sukkah, but not of the Lulab
+at Tabernacles. It should be remembered that the Halakah was not
+consolidated till the second or third century, and in Philo's time
+it was in the process of formation by different schools of rabbis.
+But the passage quoted in an earlier chapter, about adding to the
+law, proves his reverence for the oral law.<a name=
+"FNanchor_301_301" id="FNanchor_301_301"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_301_301">[301]</a></p>
+<p>Though his statement of the civil and religious law is of great
+interest to the student of Halakic development, Philo's work
+presents greater correspondence, on the whole, with the Haggadah,
+which in a primitive way draws philosophical and ethical lessons
+from the Bible narrative. It is a free interpretation of the
+Scriptures, the expression of the individual moralist; it loves to
+point a moral and adorn a tale, and in many cases it is in
+agreement with the <span class="newpage"><a name="page_208" id=
+"page_208">[pg.208]</a></span> Hellenistic school. To take a few
+typical examples: An early interpretation explains the story of the
+Brazen Serpent, as Philo does,<a name="FNanchor_302_302" id=
+"FNanchor_302_302"></a><a href="#Footnote_302_302">[302]</a> to
+mean that as long as Israel are looking upward to the Father in
+Heaven they will live, but when they cease to do so they will die.
+Another, like him again, finds the motive of the command to bore
+the ear of the slave who will not leave his master at the seventh
+year of redemption, in the principle that men are God's servants,
+and should not voluntarily throw away their precious freedom. So,
+too, the Haggadah agrees in numerous points with Philo's stories
+about the patriarchs.<a name="FNanchor_303_303" id=
+"FNanchor_303_303"></a><a href="#Footnote_303_303">[303]</a> If one
+were to go through the Midrashic interpretations of the Five Books
+of Moses, he would find in nearly every section interpretations
+reminiscent of Philo. In some cases, however, there are striking
+contrasts in the two commentaries. Thus the Midrash<a name=
+"FNanchor_304_304" id="FNanchor_304_304"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_304_304">[304]</a> tells that the four rivers of Eden
+symbolize the four great nations of the old world; to Philo, they
+represent the four cardinal virtues established by Greek
+philosophers. The Palestinian commentators were prone to see an
+historical where Philo saw a philosophical image.</p>
+<p>The question may be asked, Who is the originator and who the
+borrower of the common tradition? And it is a question to which
+chronology can give no certain answer, and for which dates or
+records have no <span class="newpage"><a name="page_209" id=
+"page_209">[pg.209]</a></span> meaning. For the Haggadah was not
+committed to writing till many generations had known its
+influences, and it was not finally compiled till many generations
+more had handed it down with continuous accretions. The Haggadah in
+fact is part of the permanent spirit of the race going back to a
+hoary past, and stretching down "the echoing grooves of time" to
+the tradition of Judaism in our own day. The Hebrew Word means, and
+the thing is, "what is said": the utterances of the inspired
+teacher, some tale, some happy play of fancy, some moral aphorism,
+some charming allegory which captivated the hearers, and was handed
+down the generations as a precious thought. It is significant in
+this regard that the Haggadah is remarkable for the number of
+foreign words which it contains, Greek, Persian, and Roman terms
+jostling with Hebrew and Aramaic. For while the Halakah was the
+production of the Palestinian and Babylonian schools alone, the
+Haggadah brought together the harvest of all lands; and scraps of
+Greek philosophy found their way to Palestine before the
+Alexandrian school developed its systematic allegory. In the
+Mishnah, the earliest body of Jewish lore which was definitely
+formulated and written down, one section is Haggadic, the passages
+we know as the "Ethics of the Fathers." Now, we cannot place the
+date of this compilation before the first century,<a name=
+"FNanchor_305_305" id="FNanchor_305_305"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_305_305">[305]</a> and thus it would seem to
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_210" id=
+"page_210">[pg.210]</a></span> be contemporary with Philo's work,
+to which it affords numerous parallels. But the great mass of the
+Haggadah, the Pesikta, the Mekilta, and the other Midrashim, were
+all later compilations, some of them as late as the fifth and the
+sixth century. Are we to say, then, that where they correspond to
+Philo they show his influence? At first this would appear the
+natural conclusion.</p>
+<p>There is a better test of priority, however, than the date of
+compilation, the test of the thought itself and its expression. And
+judged by this test we see that the Haggadah is the more ancient,
+the primal development of the Hebrew mind. The "Sayings of the
+Fathers" are typical of the finest and most concentrated wisdom of
+the Haggadah, and exhibit thought in its impulsive, unsystematic,
+gnomic expression, neither logical nor illogical, because it knows
+not logic. Beautiful ethical intuitions and profound guesses at
+theological truth abound; anything like a definite system of ethics
+and theology is not to be found, whence it is said, "Do not argue
+with the Haggadah." Even more so is this the case with the bulk of
+the Midrash. There, pious fancy will weave itself around the
+history and ideals of the people, and suddenly one comes across a
+sage reflection or a philosophical utterance. With Philo it is
+otherwise. Compared with the Greeks he is unsystematic, inaccurate,
+wanting in logic, exuberant in imagination. Compared with the
+rabbis he is a formal and accurate philosopher, an exact and
+scholarly <span class="newpage"><a name="page_211" id=
+"page_211">[pg.211]</a></span> theologian. The floating poetical
+ideas of the Haggadah are woven by him into the fabric of a Jewish
+philosophy and a Jewish theology, and knit together with the
+rational conceptions of Aristotle's "Metaphysics" and Plato's
+"Tim&aelig;us." We may say, then, almost with certainty, that Philo
+derives from the early Jewish tradition, though at the same time he
+introduced into that tradition many an idea taken from the Greek
+thinkers, which found its way to the later Palestinian schools of
+Jamnia and Tiberias, and was recast by the Hebraic imagination.</p>
+<p>Over and over again we find that he adopts some fancy of his
+ancestors and develops it rhetorically and philosophically in his
+commentary. To give many examples or references to examples of this
+feature of Philo's work is not within the scope of this book, but
+of his development of an old Palestinian tradition the following
+passage may serve as a typical instance:</p>
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>"There is an old story," he writes, "composed by the sages and
+handed down by memory from age to age.... They say that, when God
+had finished the world, he asked one of the angels if aught were
+wanting on land or in sea, in air or in heaven. The angel answered
+that all was perfect and complete. One thing only he desired,
+speech, to praise God's works, or to recount, rather than praise,
+the exceeding wonderfulness of all things made, even of the
+smallest and the least. For the due recital of God's works would be
+their most adequate praise, seeing that they needed no addition of
+ornament, but possessed in the sincerity of truth the most perfect
+eulogy. And the Father approved the angel's words, and afterwards
+appeared the race gifted with the muses and <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_212" id="page_212">[pg.212]</a></span> with
+song. This is the ancient story; and in accord with it, I say that
+it is God's peculiar work to do good, and the creature's work to
+give Him thanks."<a name="FNanchor_306_306" id=
+"FNanchor_306_306"></a><a href="#Footnote_306_306">[306]</a></p>
+</div>
+<p>Now this legend and moral appear in another form in the
+collection of Midrash, the Pirke Rabbi Eliezer, which apparently
+had ancient sources that have disappeared. There it is told: "When
+the Holy One, blessed be He, consulted the Torah as to the
+completeness of the work of creation, she answered him: 'Master of
+the future world, if there be no host, over whom will the King
+reign, and if there be no creatures to praise him, where is the
+glory of the King?' And the Lord of the world was pleased with her
+answer and forthwith He created man."<a name="FNanchor_307_307" id=
+"FNanchor_307_307"></a><a href="#Footnote_307_307">[307]</a></p>
+<p>The Haggadah is rich also in allegorical speculation, of which
+there are traces in the Biblical books themselves. In the book of
+Micah, for example, we find that the patriarchs are taken as types
+of certain virtues, Abraham of Kindness, <img alt="Hebrew; " src=
+"images/image67.jpg" width="40" height="14">, and Jacob of Truth,
+<img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image68.jpg" width="34" height=
+"15"> (vii. 20). And when the ideas of the people expanded
+philosophically in Palestine and in Alexandria, the profounder
+conceptions were attached to Scripture by the device of allegorical
+interpretation, <span class="newpage"><a name="page_213" id=
+"page_213">[pg.213]</a></span> and certain rabbis attributed a
+higher value to the inner than to the literal meaning. Thus Akiba,
+who wrote an elaborate allegorical work upon the Song of
+Songs,<a name="FNanchor_308_308" id="FNanchor_308_308"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_308_308">[308]</a> held that the book was the most
+profound in the Bible, and Rabbi Judah similarly regarded the book
+of Job.<a name="FNanchor_309_309" id=
+"FNanchor_309_309"></a><a href="#Footnote_309_309">[309]</a> The
+Palestinian allegorists took to themselves a wider field than the
+Alexandrian, and looked for the deeper meanings rather in the
+Wisdom Literature than in the Pentateuch, which was to them
+essentially the Book of the Law, and, therefore, not a fit subject
+for Mashal, <i>i.e.</i>, inner meanings.<a name="FNanchor_310_310"
+id="FNanchor_310_310"></a><a href="#Footnote_310_310">[310]</a>
+Hence, their allegorism was more natural, more real, and truer to
+the spirit of that which they interpreted. They allegorized when an
+allegory was invited, whereas Philo and his school often forced
+their philosophical meanings in face of the clear purport of the
+text, and without regard to the Hebrew. In the one case allegory
+was a genuine development, and might have been adopted by the
+original prophet: in the other, it was reconstruction; and the
+artificial un-Hebraic character of the Hellenistic commentary was
+one of the causes of its disappearance from Jewish tradition. While
+the Palestinian allegorists based their continuous philosophical
+interpretation upon the Wisdom Books, they, at the same time,
+looked for secondary meanings wherever opportunity offered, and
+found lessons in letters and teachings in names. An early school of
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_214" id=
+"page_214">[pg.214]</a></span> commentators was actually known as
+<img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image69.jpg" width="117" height=
+"12"> <a name="FNanchor_311_311" id="FNanchor_311_311"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_311_311">[311]</a> or interpreters of signs, and their
+method was by examination of the letters of a word, or by
+comparison of different verses, to explore homilies. For instance,
+the verse, "And God showed Moses a tree" (Exod. xvi. 26), by which
+he sweetened the waters at Marah, symbolized, by a play on the word
+<img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image70.jpg" width="51" height=
+"18">,<a name="FNanchor_312_312" id="FNanchor_312_312"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_312_312">[312]</a> that God taught Moses the Torah, of
+which it is said, "She is a tree of life" (Prov. iii. 18). Another
+happy example of this method occurs in the sixth section of the
+Pirke Abot, where the names in the itinerary, <img alt="Hebrew; "
+src="images/image71.jpg" width="258" height="19"> (Numb. xxi. 19),
+are invested with a spiritual meaning. Whoever believes in the
+Torah, it is written, shall be exalted, as it is said, "From the
+gift of the law man attains the heritage of God, and by that
+heritage he reaches Heaven."</p>
+<p>In this passage of Palestinian allegorism, it may be noticed
+that the Torah is regarded as a spiritual bond between man and God,
+and as a sort of intermediary power between them. This feature is
+almost as frequent in the Midrash as the Logos-idea in Philo, so
+that it may be said that rabbinic theology finds an idealism in the
+Torah which corresponds to the idealism of the Philonic Word. It is
+expressed, no doubt, na&iuml;vely and fancifully, even playfully,
+without attempt at philosophical deductions. It is informed by the
+same spirit as the Alexandrian allegory, but it is essentially
+poetical and impulsive, and set forth in <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_215" id="page_215">[pg.215]</a></span>
+mythical personification, not in deliberate metaphysics. The Torah
+to the rabbis was the embodiment of the Wisdom which the writer of
+Proverbs had glorified, and it takes its prerogatives. God gazes
+upon the Torah before He creates the world.<a name=
+"FNanchor_313_313" id="FNanchor_313_313"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_313_313">[313]</a> The Torah, though the chief, is not,
+however, the only object of rabbinic idealism. God and His name, it
+is said, alone existed before the world was created,<a name=
+"FNanchor_314_314" id="FNanchor_314_314"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_314_314">[314]</a> and in a Talmud legend relating the
+birth of man, the ideal power is identified with Truth, which, like
+the Logos, is pictured as God's own seal.</p>
+<p><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"From Heaven to Earth, from
+Earth once more to Heaven</span><br>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Shall Truth, with constant
+interchange, alight</span><br>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">And soar again, an everlasting
+link</span><br>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Between the world and
+Sky."</span><br>
+<br>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Translation of Emma
+Lazarus.)<a name="FNanchor_315_315" id=
+"FNanchor_315_315"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_315_315">[315]</a></span><br></p>
+<p>Correspondingly, Philo identifies the Logos with the name of God
+and with Truth.</p>
+<p>Of another piece of Talmudic idealism we catch a trace in
+Maimonides' "Guide of the Perplexed,"<a name="FNanchor_316_316" id=
+"FNanchor_316_316"></a><a href="#Footnote_316_316">[316]</a> where
+he says that the rabbis explained the designation of God, <img alt=
+"Hebrew; " src="images/image72.jpg" width="112" height="22">
+[rendered in the authorized version, "He who rideth on the heavens"
+(Ps. lxviii. 4)], to mean that He dwelt in the highest sphere of
+heaven amid the eternal ideas of Justice and Virtue, as it is said:
+"Justice and Righteousness are the base <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_216" id="page_216">[pg.216]</a></span> of
+Thy throne" (Ps. lxxxix. 15). These fancies and interpretations
+indicate that in Palestine as well as in Alexandria an idealistic
+theology and a religious metaphysics were developing at this
+period, though in the East it was more imaginative, more Hebraic,
+more in the spirit of the old prophets.</p>
+<p>The more serious metaphysical and theological speculation of the
+rabbis was embodied in the doctrine of the "Creation," and the
+"Chariot," <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image73.jpg" width="276"
+height="19">, which in form were commentaries on the early chapters
+of Genesis and the visions of Ezekiel. They were reserved for the
+wisest and most learned, for the rabbis had always a fear of
+introducing the student to philosophy until his knowledge of the
+law was well established. They held, with Plato, that metaphysical
+speculation must be the crown of knowledge, and if treated as its
+foundation, before the necessary discipline had been obtained, it
+would produce all sorts of wild ideas. Judaism for them was
+primarily not a philosophical doctrine but a system of life. The
+Hellenistic school was so far false to their standpoint that it
+laid stress for the ordinary believer upon the philosophical
+meaning as well as upon the law. And as events proved, this led to
+the neglect of the law and the dogmatic establishment of
+speculative theories as the basis of a new religion. Doubtless the
+consciousness that the philosophical development led away from
+Judaism increased the distrust of the later rabbis for such
+speculation, and made them regard esoteric as a milder term for
+heretical; <span class="newpage"><a name="page_217" id=
+"page_217">[pg.217]</a></span> but the warning is already given in
+Ben Sira: "It is not needful for thee to see the secret
+things."<a name="FNanchor_317_317" id=
+"FNanchor_317_317"></a><a href="#Footnote_317_317">[317]</a> The
+Talmud, indeed, records certain ideas about the powers of God and
+His relation to the universe in the names of the great masters; and
+in these ideas there are striking resemblances to Philo's
+conceptions. The Word is spoken of as an intermediate
+agency;<a name="FNanchor_318_318" id=
+"FNanchor_318_318"></a><a href="#Footnote_318_318">[318]</a> the
+finger of God is really the Word; the angels are sprung from the
+Words of God: Ben Zoma declared that the whole work of creation was
+carried out by the Word, as it is written, "And God said."<a name=
+"FNanchor_319_319" id="FNanchor_319_319"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_319_319">[319]</a> But on the other hand there are
+passages in which the rabbis oppose the Alexandrian attitude, and
+point out in its excessive philosophizing a danger to Judaism, so
+that in the end they exclude it. Rabbi Ishmael, we are told, warned
+his pupils of the danger of Greek wisdom.<a name="FNanchor_320_320"
+id="FNanchor_320_320"></a><a href="#Footnote_320_320">[320]</a>
+Akiba, living at a time when the Jews were fighting for spiritual
+as well as for physical life against the combined forces of the
+Greeks and Romans, proposed to ban all the <img alt="Hebrew; " src=
+"images/image74.jpg" width="120" height="18"><a name=
+"FNanchor_321_321" id="FNanchor_321_321"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_321_321">[321]</a> and the Gemara argues that among
+these were included the Apocryphal works which showed Greek
+influence. Again, Elisha ben Abuya, the arch-heretic, is held up to
+reproach because he read <img alt="Hebrew; " src=
+"images/image75.jpg" width="84" height="21">,<a name=
+"FNanchor_322_322" id="FNanchor_322_322"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_322_322">[322]</a> under which title Greek Gnostic books
+are probably implied. <span class="newpage"><a name="page_218" id=
+"page_218">[pg.218]</a></span></p>
+<p>At the time when this spirit shows itself, the appearance of
+heretical offshoots from Judaism was already pronounced. Heresy was
+the aftermath of the combination of Judaism and Hellenism, and if
+further disintegration was to be avoided, the seductive Greek
+influence had to be discouraged. There is always the danger in a
+mingling of two cultures, that each will lose its particular
+excellence in a compound which has certain qualities, but not the
+virtues, of either element. Compromises may be desirable in
+political affairs; in affairs of thought they are perilous. Down to
+the time of Philo, the fusion of thought at Alexandria had been
+beneficial, and had broadened the Jewish outlook without impairing
+its strength, but the dissolving forces of civilization never
+operated more powerfully than in the early centuries of the common
+era, when the intellect of the world was jaded and weary, and the
+great movement in culture was a jumbling together of the ideas of
+East and West. More especially in the cosmopolitan towns,
+Alexandria, Antioch, and Rome, national life, national culture, and
+national religion were undermined; and even the Jew, despite the
+stronghold of his law and tradition, was caught in the general
+vortex of mingling creeds and theologies. Out of this confusion
+(which was in one aspect a continuation of the work of Philo)
+emerged, first, fantastic Gnostic religious and philosophical
+sects, and, finally, the Christian Church, which proved the system
+best fitted to survive <span class="newpage"><a name="page_219" id=
+"page_219">[pg.219]</a></span> in the circumstances, but was in
+essence as well as in origin a blending of different outlooks, and
+true to the cardinal points of neither Hebraism nor Hellenism. The
+rabbis, with remarkable intuition, saw that the Hellenistic
+development of Judaism, which had vainly striven to make Judaism
+universal, had ended in violating its monotheism and abrogating its
+law; and in that era of disintegration, denationalization, and
+decomposition they determined to keep their heritage pure and
+inviolate. Judaism by their efforts was the only national culture
+which survived, and some sacrifice had to be made to secure this
+end. The literary monuments of the Alexandrian community from the
+Septuagint translation to the philosophy of the Christian
+scholarchs were cut out of Jewish tradition, and the Babylonian
+school was ignorant altogether of the <img alt="Hebrew; " src=
+"images/image76.jpg" width="91" height="16"> (Greek wisdom). When
+Ben Zoma desired to study the <img alt="Hebrew; " src=
+"images/image77.jpg" width="114" height="14">, and asked of his
+teacher at what hour of the day it was lawful to do so, he received
+the reply that it was permissible at an hour which was neither day
+nor night; for the precept was to study the Torah by day and night,
+as it is said, <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image78.jpg" width=
+"187" height="18"> (Josh. i. 8). Bar Kappara, indeed, a rabbi of
+the third century, explained Genesis ix. 27, "God shall enlarge
+Japheth and he shall dwell in the tents of Shem," to mean that the
+words of the Torah shall be recited in the speech of Japheth
+(<i>i.e.</i>, Greek) in the synagogues and schools,<a name=
+"FNanchor_323_323" id="FNanchor_323_323"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_323_323">[323]</a> but by <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_220" id="page_220">[pg.220]</a></span> most other teachers
+the union between Shem and Japheth was no longer encouraged,
+because Japheth had become degraded and was allied with the cruel
+children of Edom (Rome).</p>
+<p>Besides the Talmud and the Midrash we have, in the work of
+Josephus, another indication that there was in Philo's own day
+communication between Alexandria and Palestine. The Jewish
+historian marks the influence of Hellenic ideas in Palestine in
+fullest measure, and like Philo he seeks by embellishment to
+recommend the histories and Scriptures of his people to the non-Jew
+and to bring home their thought to the cultured Roman-Greek world.
+Thus, in the preface to his "Antiquities," he notes, as Philo noted
+in his commentary, that Moses begins his laws with a philosophical
+cosmology; he says also that Moses spoke some things under a
+fitting allegory, hiding beneath it a very remarkable philosophical
+theory. The allegorical commentary which Josephus declared that he
+intended to write has not&mdash;if it was written&mdash;come down
+to us, but we have in his writings certain allegorical valuations
+of names that agree directly with Philo. Abel he explains as
+signifying mourning, Cain, <img alt="Hebrew; " src=
+"images/image79.jpg" width="30" height="19">, as selfish
+possession. In the priestly garments of Aaron he sees with Philo a
+symbol of the universe, which the high priest supported when he
+entered the Holy of Holies. And the ritual vessels of the
+tabernacle have also their universal significance.</p>
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>"If," says the Palestinian Hellenist, "any man do but consider
+the fabric of the tabernacle and regard the <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_221" id="page_221">[pg.221]</a></span>
+vestments of the high priest, he will find that our legislator was
+a Divine man, and that we are unjustly reproached by those who
+attack us for tribal narrowness. For if he look upon these things
+without prejudice, he will find that each one was made by way of
+imitation and representation of the universe. When Moses ordered
+twelve loaves to be set on the table, he denoted the years as
+distinguished into so many months. By branching out the candlestick
+into seven parts, he intimated the seven divisions of the
+planets.... The vestments of the high priest, being made of linen,
+signified the earth, the blue color thereof denoted the sky, the
+pomegranates symbolized lightning, and the noise of the bells
+resembled thunder. And the fashion of the ephod showed that God had
+made the world of four elements."<a name="FNanchor_324_324" id=
+"FNanchor_324_324"></a><a href="#Footnote_324_324">[324]</a></p>
+</div>
+<p>Let us now listen now to Philo: "The raiment of the priest is
+altogether a representation and imitation of the universe, and its
+parts are the parts of the other. His tunic is all of blue linen,
+the symbol of the sky. [The rabbis had a similar fancy of the
+Tsitsith (fringes).] And the flowers embroidered thereon mark the
+earth, from which all things flower. And the pomegranates are a
+symbol of the water, being skilfully called thus (<img alt=
+"Greek: rhoischoi" src="images/image80.jpg" width="64" height=
+"19">, <i>i.e.</i>, flowing fruit) because of their juice, and the
+bells are the symbols of the harmony of all the elements."<a name=
+"FNanchor_325_325" id="FNanchor_325_325"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_325_325">[325]</a></p>
+<p>It is true that the symbolism of two allegorists is varied, but
+a common spirit and aim underlie their interpretations. This is
+true alike of their account of the ritualistic and civil law of
+Moses. Either, then, <span class="newpage"><a name="page_222" id=
+"page_222">[pg.222]</a></span> there was a common source of Jewish
+apologetic literature, or Josephus must have borrowed from Philo.
+It is significant that he is the only contemporary of Philo that
+mentions him. He speaks of him as a distinguished philosopher, the
+brother of the alabarch, and the leader of the embassy to
+Gaius.<a name="FNanchor_326_326" id="FNanchor_326_326"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_326_326">[326]</a> He knows also of the anti-Semitic
+diatribes of Philo's great enemy Apion, and two of his extant books
+are masterly reply to their outpourings. Hence it is not rash to
+assume that he knew at least that part of Philo's work which had a
+missionary and apologetic purpose&mdash;the "Life of Moses" and the
+"Hypothetica." He makes no acknowledgment to them, it is true, but
+expressions of obligation were not in the fashion of the time.
+Plagiarism was held to be no crime, and citation of authorities in
+notes or elsewhere was almost unknown in literature&mdash;save in
+the Talmud,<a name="FNanchor_327_327" id=
+"FNanchor_327_327"></a><a href="#Footnote_327_327">[327]</a> where
+to tell something in the name of somebody else is a virtue. But one
+can hardly doubt that the man who devoted himself to refuting the
+lying calumnies of Apion first made himself master of the classical
+work of Apion's opponent, which claimed to give to the Greek world
+the authoritative account of the Jewish lawgiver and his
+legislation.</p>
+<p>What Josephus knew must have been known to other cultured Jews
+of Palestine. Yet Philo, save in one doubtful case which will be
+noticed, is not mentioned by any Jewish writer between Josephus in
+the <span class="newpage"><a name="page_223" id=
+"page_223">[pg.223]</a></span> first and Azariah dei Rossi in the
+sixteenth century. The compilers of the Midrashim and the Yalkut,
+the philosophers of the Dark and Middle Ages, finally the
+Cabbalists, are continually reminiscent of his doctrines, but they
+do not mention his works or his existence. The Midrash
+Tadsh&eacute;,<a name="FNanchor_328_328" id=
+"FNanchor_328_328"></a><a href="#Footnote_328_328">[328]</a> a
+tenth century compilation of allegorical exegesis, contains
+definite parallels to Philonic passages, especially in its
+quotations from an Essene Tannaite, Pin[h.]as ben Ja&iuml;r; but
+again the trace of influence is indirect. On the other hand, the
+Christian writers from the time of Clement in the second century
+quote him freely, make anthologies of his beautiful sayings, and in
+their more imaginative moments acclaim him the comrade of Mark and
+the friend of Peter. The rise of the Christian Church, which
+coincided with the downfall of the nation, caused the rabbis to
+emphasize the national character of Judaism in order to preserve
+the old faith of their fathers in the critical condition in which
+exile, persecution, and assimilation placed it. The first century
+was a time of feverish dreams and wild hopes that were not
+realizable: men had looked for the coming of the days of universal
+peace and good-will, and the Alexandrian Jews in particular hoped
+for the spreading of Judaism over the world. The rabbis recognized
+that this consummation was far away, and that Judaism must remain
+particularist for centuries in the hope of a final universalism.
+Meantime it must <span class="newpage"><a name="page_224" id=
+"page_224">[pg.224]</a></span> hold fast to the law and, in default
+of a national home, strengthen the national religious life in each
+Jewish household. They regarded Greek as not only a strange but a
+hostile tongue, and the allegorical exegesis of the Bible, which
+had led to the whittling away of the law, as a godless wisdom. The
+Septuagint translation, which had offered a starting point for
+philosophical speculation, was replaced by a new Greek version of
+the Old Testament made by Aquila, a proselyte, in the first
+century. It gave a baldly literal translation of the Hebrew text,
+sacrificing form and even lucidity to a faithful transcript. With
+unconscious irony the rabbis, who rejoiced in its truth to the
+Hebrew, said of Aquila, "Thou art fairer than the children of men,
+grace is poured into thy lips"<a name="FNanchor_329_329" id=
+"FNanchor_329_329"></a><a href="#Footnote_329_329">[329]</a> (Ps.
+xlv). In truth the work was utterly innocent of literary grace. A
+translation of the Bible marked the end, as it had marked the
+beginning, of Jewish-Hellenistic literature, but if the first had
+suggested the admission, so the other suggested the rejection of
+Greek philosophy from the interpretation of Judaism and a return to
+the exclusive national standpoint. The rabbinical appreciation of
+Aquila's work shows that, while the Jews were in Palestine, many
+still required a Greek translation of the Bible; but when in the
+third century C.E. the centre of the religion was moved to Babylon,
+Greek was forgotten, and the rabbis for a period lost sight of
+Greek culture. It is another irony of history that our manuscripts
+of Philo go back to <span class="newpage"><a name="page_225" id=
+"page_225">[pg.225]</a></span> an archetype in the library of
+C&aelig;sarea in Palestine, which Eusebius studied in the fourth
+century. Philo came to the land of his fathers in the possession of
+his people's enemies, and at a time when he could no longer be
+understood by his people.</p>
+<p>Philo's works were not translated into Hebrew, and as Greek
+ceased to be the language of the cultured, they could not, in their
+original form, have influenced later Jewish philosophers. But the
+Christians, in their proselytizing activity, had translated them
+into Latin and Armenian before the fifth century, and through one
+of these means they may possibly have exercised an influence upon
+the new school of Jewish philosophy, which, opening with Saadia in
+the tenth century, blossomed forth in the Arabic-Spanish epoch. The
+light of historical research is beginning to illumine the obscurity
+of the Dark Ages, and has revealed traces of an Alexandrian
+allegorist in the writings of the Persian Jew Benjamin
+al-Nehawendi, himself a distinguished allegorizer of the Bible, who
+wrote in the ninth century and taught that God created the world by
+means of one ministerial angel.<a name="FNanchor_330_330" id=
+"FNanchor_330_330"></a><a href="#Footnote_330_330">[330]</a>
+Benjamin relates that the doctrine was held by a Jewish sect known
+as the Maghariya, which probably sprang up in the fourth or the
+fifth century, when sects grew like mushrooms. The Karaite
+al-Kirkisani, who wrote fifty years later, says that <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_226" id="page_226">[pg.226]</a></span> the
+Maghariya sect used in support of their doctrine the "prolegomena
+of an Alexandrian sage" who gave certain remarkable interpretations
+of the Bible; and in one of Dr. Schechter's Genizah fragments,
+which is probably to be ascribed to Kirkisani, there are contained
+examples of the Alexandrian's explanations of the Decalogue, which
+occur, and occur only, in Philo's treatise on the "Ten
+Commandments."</p>
+<p>This connection between Philo and an obscure Jewish sect, or an
+obscurer Persian-Jewish writer, may appear far-fetched and not
+worth the making. In itself doubtless it is unimportant, but it
+serves to keep Philo, however barely, within Jewish tradition. For
+it shows that Alexandrian literature, though probably through the
+medium of a Mohammedan source, was known to some Jews in the
+centuries of transition. It may be that further examination of the
+great Genizah collection, which has opened to Jewish scholarship a
+new world, will reveal further and stronger ties to unite Philo
+with his philosophical successors, of whom the first is Saadia Gaon
+(892-942 C.E.). Indeed the main interest of this newly-discovered
+connection, if it can be seriously so regarded, is that it suggests
+the possibility of Saadia's acquaintance with Philo by means of a
+translation. That Saadia read the works upon which Christian
+theologians relied, is certain; and a fragment in which he refers
+to the teaching of Judah the Alexandrian<a name="FNanchor_331_331"
+id="FNanchor_331_331"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_331_331">[331]</a>&mdash;also unearthed from the
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_227" id=
+"page_227">[pg.227]</a></span> Cairo Genizah&mdash;goes some way to
+support the suggestion. The passage refers to the connection of the
+number "fifty" with the different seasons of the year, and though
+it does not tally exactly with any piece of the extant Philo, it is
+in the Philonic manner. And Philo, who was surnamed Jud&aelig;us by
+the Church, would have been re-named by his own people, translating
+from the Church writers, <img alt="Hebrew; " src=
+"images/image81.jpg" width="46" height="13">. One would the more
+willingly catch on to this floating straw, because Saadia was at
+once a compatriot of Philo, born in the Fayyum of Egypt, and the
+first Jew who strove to carry on his work. He aimed at showing the
+philosophy of the Torah, and its harmony with Greek wisdom in
+particular. Aristotle, who had been translated into Arabic, had
+meantime supplanted Plato as the master of philosophy for
+theologians, and Saadia's <i>magnum opus</i>, <img alt="Hebrew; "
+src="images/image82.jpg" width="106" height="13">, is colored
+throughout by Aristotelian ideas. But the difference of masters
+does not obscure the likeness of aim, and, albeit unconsciously,
+Saadia renews the task of the Hellenic-Jewish school.</p>
+<p>Saadia's work was carried on and expanded in a great outburst of
+the Jewish genius, which showed itself most brilliantly in the
+Moorish-Spanish kingdom. The general cultural conditions of
+Alexandria in the first century B.C.E. were reproduced in Spain in
+the tenth century. Once again the Jews found themselves politically
+emancipated amid a sympathetic environment, and again they
+illumined their religious tradition with all the culture which
+their <span class="newpage"><a name="page_228" id=
+"page_228">[pg.228]</a></span> environment could afford. The
+mingling of thought gave birth to a great literature, both creative
+and critical; to a striking body of lyric poetry; to a systematic
+theology, and a religious philosophy.</p>
+<p>While the study of the old Talmudic lore was maintained, the
+greatest teachers developed tradition afresh by a philosophical
+restatement designed to make it appeal to the mental attitude of
+the enlightened. The sermon flourished again, collections of
+Haggadah (Yalkut) were made as storehouses of homilies, and
+metaphysical treatises modelled upon the works of the schoolmen set
+forth a philosophical Judaism for the learned world. It is notable
+also that these last were not written in Hebrew or in the Talmudic
+dialect, but in Arabic, the language of their cultured environment;
+for though the missionary spirit was dead, the controversial
+activity of the period impelled the Jewish philosophers to present
+their ideas in the form used by the philosophers of the general
+community.</p>
+<p>It is not only the general conditions of the Arab-Jewish period,
+but also the special development of Jewish ideas, which recalls the
+work of the Alexandrian school. This was, indeed, to be expected,
+seeing that in both cases there was a mingling of Hebraism and
+Hellenism. In Spain, however, the Jews acquired Hellenism at second
+hand, and through the somewhat distorted medium of Arabic
+translations or scholastic misunderstanding, and hence the harmony
+is neither complete nor pure. They endeavored to <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_229" id="page_229">[pg.229]</a></span> show
+that the teachings of Aristotle are implicit in the written and the
+oral law, but the interpretation is hardly convincing even in "The
+Guide of the Perplexed," of Maimonides, the monumental work which
+marks the culmination of medi&aelig;val Jewish philosophy.</p>
+<p>If there is one figure in Jewish tradition with whom Philo
+challenges at once comparison and contrast, it is Maimonides, the
+brightest star of the Arabic, as he was of the Hellenic,
+development of the Jewish religion. Though there is nothing on
+which to found any direct influence of the one on the other, the
+aim, the method, the scope of their philosophical work are the
+same, the relation which they hold to exist between faith and
+philosophy wellnigh identical. The metaphysics of the Bible,
+according to both, is hidden beneath an allegory, and is meant only
+for the more learned of the people. To Maimonides the Bible is not
+only the standard of all wisdom, but it is "the Divine anticipation
+of human discovery." In the words of Hosea, God has therein
+"multiplied visions and spoken in similitudes" (xii. 11). The duty
+of the Jewish philosopher is to expound these metaphors and
+similes; and Maimonides, endeavoring to knit Greek metaphysics
+closely with Jewish tradition, propounds a science of allegorical
+values, which by exact philological study traces the inner as well
+as the outer meaning of the Hebrew words. But differentiated as it
+is by greater mastery of the tradition and closer adherence to the
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_230" id=
+"page_230">[pg.230]</a></span> Hebrew text, his method is nearly as
+artificial and his thought as extraneous to the text as the method
+and thought of Philo. The content of their philosophies is, indeed,
+strikingly alike, save that the one is a Platonist, the other an
+Aristotelian. This involves not so much a difference of
+philosophical views as a difference of temper and of objective. The
+followers of Plato are mystics, yearning for the love of God; the
+followers of Aristotle are rationalists, seeking for the abstract
+knowledge of God. Hence in Maimonides there is less soaring and
+more argument than in Philo. Everything is deduced, so far as may
+be, with exactitude and logical sequence&mdash;according to the
+logic of the schoolmen&mdash;and everything is formalized according
+to scholastic principles. But the subjects treated are the
+same&mdash;the nature of God and His attributes, His relation to
+the universe and man, the manner of the creation, and the way of
+righteousness.</p>
+<p>Maimonides, who is in form more loyal to Jewish tradition, is to
+a larger degree than Philo dependent on authority for the
+philosophical ideas which he applies to religion. To a great extent
+this is due to the spirit of his age, for in the Middle Ages not
+only was the matter of thought, but also its form, accepted on
+authority, and Aristotle ruled the one as imperiously as the Bible
+ruled the other. The differences of form and substance do not,
+however, obscure the essential likeness with Philo's interpretation
+of Judaism. With him Maimonides holds that the essential nature
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_231" id=
+"page_231">[pg.231]</a></span> of God is incognizable.<a name=
+"FNanchor_332_332" id="FNanchor_332_332"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_332_332">[332]</a> No positive predication can properly
+be applied to Him, but we know Him by His activities in relation to
+man and the world, <i>i.e.</i>, by His attributes or by what Philo
+called His powers. Maimonides does not preserve the absolute
+monarchy of the Divine government, but places between God and man
+intermediate beings with subordinate creative powers&mdash;the
+separate intelligences of the stars, which are identified with the
+angels of the Bible.<a name="FNanchor_333_333" id=
+"FNanchor_333_333"></a><a href="#Footnote_333_333">[333]</a> But he
+maintains inviolate the sole causality of God and His immanence in
+the human soul. Maimonides, like Philo, gives in addition to a
+metaphysical theology a philosophical exposition of the law of
+Moses, which has the same guiding principle as the books on the
+"Specific Laws." Moses was the perfect legislator,<a name=
+"FNanchor_334_334" id="FNanchor_334_334"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_334_334">[334]</a> whose ordinances are <img alt=
+"Hebrew; " src="images/image83.jpg" width="55" height="16">,
+<i>i.e.</i>, perfectly equitable, attaining "the mean"&mdash;the
+Aristotelian conception of excellence&mdash;and identical with the
+eternal laws of nature.<a name="FNanchor_335_335" id=
+"FNanchor_335_335"></a><a href="#Footnote_335_335">[335]</a>
+Numerous details of Maimonides' interpretations agree with those
+given in the books on the "Specific Laws." Whether correspondence
+of thought is merely an indication of the similar workings of
+Jewish genius in similar conditions, or whether it is the effect of
+an early tradition common to both, or whether, finally, there was
+connection, however indirect, between the two minds, it is now
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_232" id=
+"page_232">[pg.232]</a></span> impossible to say. But at least the
+philosophy of Maimonides confirms the inner Jewishness of the
+philosophy of Philo, and its essential loyalty to Jewish
+tradition.</p>
+<p>Not less striking than his correspondence with later Jewish
+religious philosophy, though not less indefinite, is the relation
+of Philo to the later Jewish mystical and theosophical literature,
+purporting also to be a development of hoary tradition, and indeed
+calling itself simply the tradition, <img alt="Hebrew; " src=
+"images/image84.jpg" width="46" height="21">. Between Philo and the
+Cabbalah it is as difficult to establish any direct connection as
+between Philo and rabbinic Midrash, but the likeness in spirit and
+the signs of a common source are equally remarkable. To trace God
+in all things through various attributes and emanations, to bring
+God and man into direct union, to prove that there is an immanent
+God within the soul of the individual, and to show how this may be
+inspired with the transcendental Deity&mdash;this is common to
+both. In the earliest times the mystic doctrine appears to have
+been a form of Jewish Gnosticism, speculation about the nature of
+God and His connection with the world. It probably embraced the
+<img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image85.jpg" width="302" height=
+"18">, though we know not what these exactly contained.<a name=
+"FNanchor_336_336" id="FNanchor_336_336"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_336_336">[336]</a> But it was not till the Middle Ages
+that Jewish mysticism received definite and separate literary
+expression, and by that time it was mixed up with a number of
+neo-Platonic and magical <span class="newpage"><a name="page_233"
+id="page_233">[pg.233]</a></span> fancies and foreign theosophies.
+The later compilations of this character form what is more
+regularly known as the Cabbalah; but, apart from the professions of
+the later writers, a continuous train of tradition affirms the
+existence of secret teachings in Judaism from the time of the
+Babylonian captivity. Jewish mysticism is as much a continuous
+expression of the spirit of the race as the Jewish law. We may then
+without rashness conclude that the later Cabbalah is a coarser
+development, for a less enlightened and less philosophical age, of
+the Gnostic material which Philo refashioned in the light of
+Platonism for the Hellenized community at Alexandria. Modern
+scholars have favored the idea that the Essenes were the first
+systematizers of and the first practitioners in the Cabbalah, and
+have interpreted their name<a name="FNanchor_337_337" id=
+"FNanchor_337_337"></a><a href="#Footnote_337_337">[337]</a> to
+mean those engaged in secret things, but the mystic tradition
+itself is earlier than the foundation of a special mystic sect. It
+is part of the heritage from the Jewish prophets and psalmists and
+the Babylonian interaction with Hebraism.</p>
+<p>Philo had large sympathies with the Essenic development of
+Judaism, and he speaks at times as though he had joined one of
+their communities, and therein had been initiated into the great
+mysteries and secret philosophies of the sages. We have noted that
+he offers his most precious wisdom to the worthy few alone, "who in
+all humility practice genuine piety, <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_234" id="page_234">[pg.234]</a></span> free from all false
+pretence." They, in turn, are to discourse on these doctrines only
+to other members of the brotherhood. "I bid ye, initiated brethren,
+who listen with chastened ears, receive these truly sacred
+mysteries in your inmost souls, and reveal them not to one of the
+uninitiated, but laying them up in your hearts, guard them as a
+most excellent treasure in which the noblest of possessions is
+stored, the knowledge, namely, of the First Cause and of virtue,
+and moreover of what they generate."<a name="FNanchor_338_338" id=
+"FNanchor_338_338"></a><a href="#Footnote_338_338">[338]</a> These
+mysteries, it is not unlikely, represent according to some scholars
+the <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image86.jpg" width="25" height=
+"15"> of the Talmudical rabbis, which was elaborately developed in
+the Zohar and kindred writings. Be this as it may, Philo's
+religious intensity expresses the spirit of the Cabbalists, his
+mystic soaring is the prototype of their theosophical ecstasies;
+his persistent declaration that God encloses the universe, but is
+Himself not enclosed by anything, contains the root of their
+conception of the En Sof <img alt="Hebrew; " src=
+"images/image87.jpg" width="76" height="22">,<a name=
+"FNanchor_339_339" id="FNanchor_339_339"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_339_339">[339]</a> his Logos-idealism, with its Divine
+effluences, which are the true causes of all changes, physical and
+mental, is companion to their system of <img alt="Hebrew; " src=
+"images/image88.jpg" width="169" height="21"> emanations and
+spheres. His fancies about sex and the struggle between a male and
+female principle in all things<a name="FNanchor_340_340" id=
+"FNanchor_340_340"></a><a href="#Footnote_340_340">[340]</a> are a
+constant theme of their teachers, and form a special section of
+their wisdom, <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image89.jpg" width=
+"76" height="13">, the mystery of generation. His conception of the
+Logos as the heavenly <span class="newpage"><a name="page_235" id=
+"page_235">[pg.235]</a></span> archetype of the human race, the
+"Man-himself," is the Platonic counterpart of their <img alt=
+"Hebrew; " src="images/image90.jpg" width="85" height="21">, or
+"primal man," who is known in the ancient allegorizing of the Song
+of Songs. His number-mysticism and his speech-idealism reappear
+more crudely, but not obscurely, in their ideas of creative
+letters, of which the cosmogony by the twenty-two letters of the
+Hebrew alphabet in the Sefer Yezirah is typical. Finally, his
+teachings of ecstasy and Divine possession are repeated in divers
+ways in their descriptions of the pious life <img alt="Hebrew; "
+src="images/image91.jpg" width="73" height="18">.</p>
+<p>Philo, indeed, viewed from the Jewish standpoint, is the
+Hellenizer not only of the law but also of the Cabbalah, the
+philosophical adapter of the secret traditional wisdom of his
+ancestors. He brings it into close relation with Platonism and
+purifies it; he clears away its anthropomorphisms and superstitious
+fantasies, or rather he raises them into idealistic conceptions and
+sublime exaltations of the soul. By his deep knowledge of the
+intellectual ideas of Greece he refined the strange compound of
+lofty imagination and popular fancy, and raised it to a higher
+value. Plato and the Cabbalah represent the same mystic spirit in
+different degrees of intellectual sublimity and religious
+aspiration; Philo endeavored to unite the two manifestations. He
+lived in a markedly non-rational age given over to mystical
+speculation; and Alexandria especially, by her cosmopolitan
+character, "furnished the soil and seed which formed the mystic
+philosophy that knew how to blend the wisdom and <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_236" id="page_236">[pg.236]</a></span>
+folly of the ages."<a name="FNanchor_341_341" id=
+"FNanchor_341_341"></a><a href="#Footnote_341_341">[341]</a>
+Through the mass of apocalyptic literature that was poured forth in
+the first centuries of the common era, through the later books of
+the Apocrypha, through the Sefer Yezirah of the ninth and the Zohar
+of the thirteenth century, and through the vast literature inspired
+by these books, run the ideas that composed Philo's mystic
+theology. Philo himself was unknown, but his religious
+interpretation of Platonism had entered into the world's thought,
+and inspired the mystics of his own race as well as of the
+Christian world.</p>
+<p>After a thousand years of Latin domination the Renaissance
+revived the study of Greek in Western Europe, and to the most
+cultured of his race Philo was no longer a sealed book. The first
+Jewish writer to show an intimate acquaintance with him and a clear
+idea of his relation to Jewish tradition was Azariah dei Rossi, who
+lived in the sixteenth century. His "Meor Einayim" dealt largely
+with the Hellenistic epoch of Judaism, and its attitude towards it
+is summed up in the remark that "all that is good in Philo agrees
+with our law."<a name="FNanchor_342_342" id=
+"FNanchor_342_342"></a><a href="#Footnote_342_342">[342]</a> He
+pointed out many instances of agreement, and some of disagreement,
+but he objected in general to the allegorizing of the historical
+parts of the Torah and to the absence of the traditional
+interpretations in Philo's commentaries. He shared largely the
+rabbinical attitude and could not give an independent historical
+appreciation of <span class="newpage"><a name="page_237" id=
+"page_237">[pg.237]</a></span> Philo's work. That was not to come
+for two hundred years more. To Dei Rossi we owe the Jewish
+translation of Philo's name, <img alt="Hebrew; " src=
+"images/image92.jpg" width="131" height="13">.<a name=
+"FNanchor_343_343" id="FNanchor_343_343"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_343_343">[343]</a> To the outer world Philo was "the
+Jew"; to his own people, "the Alexandrian."</p>
+<p>As soon as Greek was reintroduced into the scholarly world,
+Philo began to reassert an important influence on theology. One
+remarkable school of English mystics and religious philosophers,
+the Cambridge Platonists, who wrote during the seventeenth century,
+founded upon him their method and also their general attitude to
+philosophy.<a name="FNanchor_344_344" id=
+"FNanchor_344_344"></a><a href="#Footnote_344_344">[344]</a> They
+were Christian neo-Platonists, who looked for spiritual allegories
+in the Old and New Testaments, and combined the teachings of Jesus
+with the emotional idealism of the Alexandrian interpreters of
+Plato. They affirmed enthusiastically God's revelation to the
+universe and to individual man through the Logos. Their imitation
+of Philo's allegorism serves to mark the important place that he
+occupied in the learned world during the seventeenth century; and
+supports, however slightly, the suggestion that he influenced,
+directly or indirectly, the supreme Jewish philosopher of the age,
+Baruch de Spinoza. That he was well known in Holland at the time is
+shown in divers ways. He is quoted by the famous jurist Grotius in
+his book which founded the science of international law; he is
+quoted and criticised, as we have seen, by Scaliger; <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_238" id="page_238">[pg.238]</a></span> and
+curiously enough, his name, "Philo-Jud&aelig;us," is applied by
+Rembrandt to the portrait of his own father, now in the
+Ferdinandeum at Innsbruck. It is tempting to conjecture that there
+was a direct connection between the Jewish philosophers of the
+ancient and the modern world. Whether it existed or not, there is
+certainly kinship in their ideas. Spinoza does actually refer in
+one place, in his "Theologico-Political Tractate" (ch. x), to the
+opinion of Philo-Jud&aelig;us upon the date of Psalm lxxxviii, and
+there are other places in the same book, where he almost echoes the
+words of the Jewish Platonist; as where he speaks of God's eternal
+Word being divinely inscribed in the human mind: "And this is the
+true original of God's covenant, stamped with His own seal, namely,
+the idea of Himself, as it were, with the image of His Godhead"
+(iv); or, again, "The supreme reward for keeping God's Word is that
+Word itself." Spinoza knew no Greek, but, master as he was of
+Christian theology, he may have studied Philo in a Latin
+translation, and caught some of his phrases. With or without
+influence, he developed, as Philo had done, a system of philosophy,
+starting from the Hebrew conception of God and blending Jewish
+tradition with scientific metaphysics. The Unity of God and His
+sole reality were the fundamental principles of his thought, as
+they had been of Philo's. He rejected, indeed, with scorn the
+notion that all philosophy must be deduced from the Bible, which
+was to him a book of moral and religious worth, but free from
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_239" id=
+"page_239">[pg.239]</a></span> all philosophical doctrine.
+Theology, the subject of the Bible, according to him, demands
+perfect obedience, philosophy perfect knowledge.<a name=
+"FNanchor_345_345" id="FNanchor_345_345"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_345_345">[345]</a> Both alike are saving, but the
+spheres of the two are distinct: and Moses and the prophets excel
+in law and imagination, not in reason and reflection. Hence Spinoza
+approached the Bible from the critical standpoint; and, on the
+other hand, he approached philosophy with a free mind searching for
+truth, independent of religious dogmatism, and he was, therefore,
+the founder of modern philosophy. None the less his view of the
+universe is an intellectual expression of the Hebraic monotheism,
+which unites a religious with a scientific monism. He regards God
+as the only reality, sees and knows all things in Him, and deduces
+all things from His attributes, which are the incomplete
+representations that man makes of His true nature; he explains all
+thought, all movement, and all that seems material as the working
+of His modes; and, finally, he places as the end of man's
+intellectual progress and the culmination of his moral life the
+love of God. In truth, Jewish philosophy has its unity and its
+special stamp, no less than Jewish religion and tradition, from
+which it receives its nurture. Thrice it has towered up in a great
+system: through Philo in the classical, through Maimonides in the
+medi&aelig;val, through Spinoza in the modern world. In the
+Renaissance of Jewish learning during the nineteenth century,
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_240" id=
+"page_240">[pg.240]</a></span> Philo was at last studied and
+interpreted by scholars of his own people. The first modern writer
+to reveal the philosophy of Jewish history was Nachman Krochmal
+(1785-1840), and his posthumous Hebrew book, "The Guide of the
+Perplexed of the Time," edited by Zunz, contained the first
+critical appreciation of the Hellenistic Jewish culture by a
+rabbinic scholar. He knew no Greek, but he studied the works of
+German writers, and in his account of Philo gives a summary of the
+remarks of the theologian Neander, himself a baptized Jew. In his
+own criticism he discerns the weakness and strength of Philo from
+the Jewish aspect. "There are," he says, "many strange things in
+Philo's exegesis, not only because he draws far-fetched allegories
+from the text, but also because he interprets single words without
+a sure foundation in Hebrew philology. He uses Scripture as a sort
+of clay which he moulds to convey his philosophical ideas. Yet we
+must be grateful to him because many of his interpretations are
+beautiful ornaments to the text; and we may apply to them what Ibn
+Ezra said of the teachings of the Haggadah, 'Some of them are fine
+silks, others as heavy as sack-cloth.'"</p>
+<p>Krochmal translated into Hebrew examples of Philo's allegories
+and gave parallels and contrasts from the Talmud. The relation
+between the Palestinian and the Alexandrian exegesis was more
+elaborately considered by a greater master of Hellenistic
+literature, <span class="newpage"><a name="page_241" id=
+"page_241">[pg.241]</a></span> Zacharias Frankel (1801-1875), who
+has been followed by a band of Jewish scholars. Yearly our
+understanding of the Alexandrian culture becomes fuller. Philo,
+too, has in part been translated into Hebrew. Indirect in the past,
+his influence on Jewish thought in the future bids fair to be
+direct and increasing.</p>
+<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_242" id=
+"page_242">[pg.242]</a></span></p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;">
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<a name="VIII" id="VIII"></a>
+<h2>VIII</h2>
+<p>THE INFLUENCE OF PHILO</p>
+<br>
+<p>The hope which Philo had cherished and worked for was the
+spreading of the knowledge of God and the diffusion of the true
+religion over the whole world.<a name="FNanchor_346_346" id=
+"FNanchor_346_346"></a><a href="#Footnote_346_346">[346]</a> The
+end of Jewish national life was approaching, but rabbis in
+Palestine and philosophers at Alexandria, unconscious of the
+imminent doom, thought that the promise of the prophet was soon to
+be fulfilled, and all peoples would go up to worship the one God at
+the temple upon Mount Zion, which should be the religious centre of
+the world. In Philo's day a universal Judaism seemed possible, a
+Judaism true to the Torah as well as to the Unity of God, <a name=
+"FNanchor_347_347" id="FNanchor_347_347"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_347_347">[347]</a> spread over the Megalopolis of all
+peoples; and in the light of this hope Philo welcomed proselytism.
+The Jews had a clear mission; they were to be the light of the
+world, because they alone of all peoples had perceived God. Israel
+(<img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image09.jpg" width="73" height=
+"22">), to repeat Philo's etymology, is the man who beholds God,
+and through him the other nations were to be led to the light. The
+mission of Israel was not a passive service, but an active
+preaching of God's word, and an active propagation of God's law to
+the Gentile. He must welcome the stranger <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_243" id="page_243">[pg.243]</a></span> that
+came within the gates.<a name="FNanchor_348_348" id=
+"FNanchor_348_348"></a><a href="#Footnote_348_348">[348]</a> Philo
+struggled against the separative and exclusive tendency which
+characterized a section of his race. He laid stress upon the
+valuelessness of birth, and the saving power of God's grace to the
+pagan who has come to recognize Him, in language which Christian
+commentators call incredible in a Jew, but which was in fact
+typical of the common feeling at Alexandria. Appealing to the
+Gentiles, Philo declared that "God has special regard for the
+proselyte, who is in the class of the weak and humble together with
+the widow and orphan<a name="FNanchor_349_349" id=
+"FNanchor_349_349"></a><a href="#Footnote_349_349">[349]</a>; for
+he may be alienated from his kindred when he is converted to the
+honor of the one true God, and abandons idolatrous, polytheistic
+worship, but God is all the more his advocate and helper." And
+speaking to the Jews he says:<a name="FNanchor_350_350" id=
+"FNanchor_350_350"></a><a href="#Footnote_350_350">[350]</a>
+"Kinship is not measured by blood alone when truth is the judge,
+but by likeness of conduct and by the pursuit of the same objects."
+Similarly, in the Midrash, it is said that proselytes are as dear
+to God as those who were born Jews;<a name="FNanchor_351_351" id=
+"FNanchor_351_351"></a><a href="#Footnote_351_351">[351]</a> and,
+again, that the Torah was given to Israel for the benefit of all
+peoples;<a name="FNanchor_352_352" id=
+"FNanchor_352_352"></a><a href="#Footnote_352_352">[352]</a>
+or<a name="FNanchor_353_353" id="FNanchor_353_353"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_353_353">[353]</a> that the purpose of Israel's
+dispersion was that they might make proselytes. Philo's short
+treatise on "Nobility" is an eloquent <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_244" id="page_244">[pg.244]</a></span> plea
+for the equal treatment of the stranger who joins the true faith;
+and the author finds in the Bible narratives support for his
+thesis, that not good birth but the virtue of the individual is the
+true test of merit. Of the valuelessness of the one, Cain, Ham, and
+Esau are types; of the supreme worth of the other, Abraham, who is
+set up as the model of the excellent man brought up among
+idolaters, but led by the Divine oracle, revealed to his mind, to
+embrace the true idea of God. If the founder of the Hebrew nation
+was himself a convert, then surely there was a place within the
+religion for other converts. Remarkable is the closing note of the
+book:</p>
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>"We should, therefore, blame those who spuriously appropriate as
+their own merit what they derive from others, good birth; and they
+should justly be regarded as enemies not only of the Jewish race,
+but of all mankind; of the Jewish race, because they engender
+indifference in their brethren, so that they despise the righteous
+life in their reliance upon their ancestors' virtue; and of the
+Gentiles, because they would not allow them their meed of reward
+even though they attain to the highest excellence of conduct,
+simply because they have not commendable ancestors. I know not if
+there could be a more pernicious doctrine than this: that there is
+no punishment for the wicked offspring of good parents, and no
+reward for the good offspring of evil parents. The law judges each
+man upon his own merit, and does not assign praise or blame
+according to the virtues of the forefathers."</p>
+</div>
+<p>And, again, he writes: "God judges by the fruit of the tree, not
+by the root; and in the Divine judgment <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_245" id="page_245">[pg.245]</a></span> the
+proselyte will be raised on high, and he will have a double
+distinction, because on earth he 'deserted' to God, and later he
+receives as his reward a place in Heaven."<a name=
+"FNanchor_354_354" id="FNanchor_354_354"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_354_354">[354]</a></p>
+<p>Unfortunately, the development of missionizing activity, which
+followed Philo's epoch, threatening, as it did, the fundamental
+principles of Judaism, necessitated the reassertion of its national
+character and antagonism to an attitude which sought expansion by
+compromise. It is the tragedy of Philo's work that his mission to
+the nations was of necessity distrusted by his own race, and that
+his appeal for tolerance within the community was turned to a
+mockery by the hostility which the converts of the next century
+showed to the national ideas. Christian apologists early learned to
+imitate Philo's allegorical method, and appropriated it to explain
+away the laws of Moses. Within a hundred years of Philo's death,
+his ideal, at least in the form in which he had conceived it, had
+been shattered for ages. While he was preaching a philosophical
+Judaism for the world at Alexandria, Peter and Paul were preaching
+through the Diaspora an heretical Judaism for the half-converted
+Gentiles. The disciples of Jesus spread his teaching far and wide;
+but they continually widened the breach which their Master had
+himself initiated, and so their work became, not so much a
+development of Judaism, as an attack upon it. In some of its
+principles, <span class="newpage"><a name="page_246" id=
+"page_246">[pg.246]</a></span> indeed, the message of Jesus was the
+message of Philo, emphasizing, as it did, the broad principles of
+morality and the need of an inner godliness. But it was
+fundamentally differentiated by a doctrine of God and the Messiah
+which was neither Jewish nor philosophical, and by the breaking
+away from the law of Moses, which cut at the roots of national
+life. Whatever the moral worth of the preaching of Jesus, it
+involved and involves the overthrow of the Jewish attitude to life
+and religion, which may be expressed as the sanctification of
+ordinary conduct, and as morality under the national law. To this
+ideal Philo throughout was true, and the Christian teachers were
+essentially opposed, and however much they approximated to his
+method and utilized his thought, they were always strangers to his
+spirit. Philo's philosophy was in great part a philosophy of the
+law; the Patristic school borrowed his allegorizing method and
+produced a philosophy of religious dogma! Those who spread the
+Christian doctrine among the Hellenized peoples and the
+sophisticated communities that dwelt round the Mediterranean found
+it necessary to explain and justify it by the metaphysical and
+ethical catchwords of the day, and in so doing they took Philo as
+their model. They followed both in general and in detail his
+allegorical interpretations in their recommendation of the Old
+Testament to the more cultured pagans, as the apology of Justin,
+the commentaries of Origen, and the philosophical miscellany
+(<img alt="Greek: Str&ocirc;mateis" src="images/image93.jpg" width=
+"97" height="18">) of Clement abundantly show.</p>
+<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_247" id=
+"page_247">[pg.247]</a></span> Certain parts of the New Testament
+itself exhibit the combination of Hebraism and Hellenism which
+characterizes the work of Philo. In the sayings of Jesus we have
+the Hebraic strain, but in Luke and John and the Epistles the
+mingling of cultures. Thus the Apostles seem to some the successors
+of Philo, and the Epistles the lineal descendants of the
+"Allegories of the Laws." In the Fourth Gospel and the Epistle to
+the Hebrews especially the correspondence is striking. But there
+is, in fact, despite much that is common, a great gulf between
+them. The later missionaries oppose the national religion and the
+Torah: Philo was pre-eminently their champion.</p>
+<p>The most commanding of the Apostles, Paul of Tarsus, when he
+took the new statement of Judaism out of the region of spirit and
+tried to shape it into a definite religion for the world, "forgot
+the rock from which he was hewn." As a modern Jewish theologian
+says, <a name="FNanchor_355_355" id="FNanchor_355_355"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_355_355">[355]</a> "His break with the past is violent;
+Jesus seemed to expand and spiritualize Judaism; Paul in some
+senses turns it upside down." His work may have been necessary to
+bring home the Word to the heathen, but it utterly breaks the
+continuity of development. Paul himself was little of a
+philosopher, and those to whom he preached were not usually
+philosophical communities such as Philo addressed at Alexandria,
+but congregations of half converted, superstitious pagans. The
+philosophical exposition of <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_248" id="page_248">[pg.248]</a></span> the law was too
+difficult for them, while the observance of the law in its
+strictness demanded too great a sacrifice. The spiritual teaching
+of Jesus was dissociated by his Apostle from its source, and the
+break with Judaism was deliberate and complete. The fanatical zest
+of the missionary dominated him, and he proclaimed distinctly where
+the new Hebraism which was offered to the Gentile should depart
+from the historic religion of the Jews: "For Christ is the end of
+the law for righteousness to everyone that believeth,"<a name=
+"FNanchor_356_356" id="FNanchor_356_356"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_356_356">[356]</a> he says to the Romans; and to the
+Galatians: "As many as are of the works of the law are under the
+curse."<a name="FNanchor_357_357" id=
+"FNanchor_357_357"></a><a href="#Footnote_357_357">[357]</a>
+"Christ hath redeemed us from the curse of the law.... But before
+faith came, we were kept under the law, shut up with the faith
+which should afterwards be revealed. Wherefore the law was our
+schoolmaster to bring us unto Christ that we might be justified by
+faith. But after that faith is come, we are no longer under a
+schoolmaster." Paul's position then&mdash;and he is the forerunner
+of dogmatic Christianity&mdash;involved a rejection of the Torah;
+and it is this which above all else constituted his cleavage from
+both Judaism and the Philonic presentation of it.</p>
+<p>Philo is commonly regarded as the forerunner of Christian
+teaching, and it is doubtless true that he suggested to the Church
+Fathers parts of their theology, and represented also the
+missionary spirit <span class="newpage"><a name="page_249" id=
+"page_249">[pg.249]</a></span> which inspired the teaching of some
+Apostles. But it must be clearly understood that he shared still
+more the spirit of Hillel, whose maxim was "to love thy
+fellow-creatures and draw them near to the Torah," and that he
+would have been fundamentally opposed to the new missionary
+attitude of Paul. The doctrines of the Epistle to the Romans, or
+the Epistle to the Ephesians, are absolutely antipathetic to the
+ideal of the "Allegories of the Laws." Paul is allied in
+spirit&mdash;though his expression is that of the fanatic rather
+than of the philosopher&mdash;to the extreme allegorist section of
+philosophical Jews at Alexandria, attacked by Philo for their
+shallowness in the famous passage, quoted from <i>De Migratione
+Abrahami</i> (ch. 16<a name="FNanchor_358_358" id=
+"FNanchor_358_358"></a><a href="#Footnote_358_358">[358]</a>), who,
+because they recognized the spiritual meaning of the law, rejected
+its literal commands; because they saw that circumcision symbolized
+the abandonment of the sensual life, no longer observed the
+ceremony. The same antinomian spirit is shown in the Epistle to the
+Galatians by the allegory of the children whom Abraham had by Hagar
+the bondwoman and Sarah the free wife: "For there are the two
+covenants, the one from the mount of Sinai which gendereth to
+bondage, which is Hagar.... But we, brethren, as Isaac was, are the
+children of promise." To Philo the law and the observance of the
+letter were the high-road to freedom and the Divine spirit, and,
+remaining loyal to the Jewish conception of religion, for all his
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_250" id=
+"page_250">[pg.250]</a></span> philosophical outlook, he said: "The
+rejection of the <img alt="Greek: Nomos" src="images/image94.jpg"
+width="52" height="15"> will produce chaos in our lives." To Paul
+the law was an obstacle to the spread of religious truth and a
+fetter to the spiritual life of the individual.</p>
+<p>It is possible that an extremist section of the Jews pressed the
+letter of the law to excess, so as to lose its spirit, but the
+opposite excess, into which Paul plunged the new faith, was as
+narrow. It involved a glorification of belief, which did not imply
+any relation to conduct. Philo had pleaded no less earnestly than
+the Apostle for the reliance upon grace and the saving virtue of
+faith, but he did not therefore absolve men from the law which made
+for righteousness.<a name="FNanchor_359_359" id=
+"FNanchor_359_359"></a><a href="#Footnote_359_359">[359]</a> And
+lest it be thought that the stress laid upon faith was peculiar to
+Hellenizing Judaism, we have only to note such passages as Dr.
+Schechter has adduced from the early Midrash on the rabbinic
+conception.<a name="FNanchor_360_360" id=
+"FNanchor_360_360"></a><a href="#Footnote_360_360">[360]</a> "Great
+was the merit of faith which Israel put in God; for it was by the
+merit of this faith that the Holy Spirit came over them, and they
+said the <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image95.jpg" width="45"
+height="18">, (<i>i.e.</i>, the Song of Moses) to God, as it is
+said, 'And they believed in the Lord and His servant Moses. Then
+sang Moses and the children of Israel this song unto the Lord.'" Or
+again<a name="FNanchor_361_361" id="FNanchor_361_361"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_361_361">[361]</a>&mdash;and the passage reminds us
+still more strongly of both Philo and Christian Gospel&mdash;"Our
+Father Abraham came <span class="newpage"><a name="page_251" id=
+"page_251">[pg.251]</a></span> into the possession of this world
+and the world hereafter only by the merit of his faith."</p>
+<p>What is new in the Christian position is not the magnifying of
+faith; it is the severance of faith from the law and the particular
+faith which is magnified. Philo, and the rabbis, too, believed that
+faith was the goal of virtue, and the culmination of the moral
+life; but faith to them implied the sanctification of the whole of
+life, the love of God "shown in obedience to a law of conduct."
+Paul, however, hating the law, set up a new faith in the saving
+power of Jesus and in certain beliefs about him, which afterwards
+were crystallized, or petrified, into merciless dogmas, contrary
+alike to the Jewish ideas of God and of life. The new religion,
+when it was denationalized, inevitably became ecclesiastical: for
+as the national regulation of life was rejected, in order to ensure
+some kind of uniformity, it had to bind its members together by
+definite articles of belief imposed by a central authority. The
+true alternative was not between a legal and a spiritual
+religion&mdash;for every religion must have some external
+rule&mdash;but between a law of conduct and a law of belief. Philo
+and the rabbis chose the former way; Paul and the Church, the
+latter. Christian theology, no less than the Christian conception
+of religion, exhibits also a complete breach with the Jewish spirit
+of Philo. In the Epistles there are, indeed, in many places
+doctrines of the Logos in the same images and the same Hebraic
+metaphors as Philo had worked into his system; but their purport
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_252" id=
+"page_252">[pg.252]</a></span> is entirely changed by association
+with new un-Jewish dogmas. Philo, allegorizing, <a name=
+"FNanchor_362_362" id="FNanchor_362_362"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_362_362">[362]</a> had seen the holy Word typified in
+the high priest, and in Melchizedek, the priest of the Most High;
+he had called it the son of God and His first-born. Paul,
+dogmatizing, exalts Jesus Christ, the incarnate Word, above
+Melchizedek and the high priest, and calls on the Hebrews to gain
+salvation by faith in the son of God, who died on behalf of the
+sinful human race. Philo, in his poetic fancy, speaks of God
+associating with the virgin soul and generating therein the Divine
+offspring of holy wisdom;<a name="FNanchor_363_363" id=
+"FNanchor_363_363"></a><a href="#Footnote_363_363">[363]</a> the
+Christian creed-makers enunciated the irrational dogma of the
+immaculate conception of Jesus. So, too, the earliest philosophical
+exponents of Christianity, Clement of Alexandria, and Origen, may
+have derived many of their detailed ideas from Philo, but they
+converted&mdash;one might rather say perverted&mdash;his
+monotheistic theology into a dogmatic trinitarianism. They exalted
+the Logos, to Philo the "God of the imperfect," and a second-best
+Deity, to an equal place with the perfect God. For man, indeed, he
+was nearer and the true object of human adoration. And this not
+only meant a departure from Judaism; it meant a departure from
+philosophy. The supreme unity of the pure reason was sacrificed no
+less than the unity of the soaring religious imagination. The one
+transcendental God <span class="newpage"><a name="page_253" id=
+"page_253">[pg.253]</a></span> became again, as He had been to the
+Greek theologians, an inscrutable impersonal power, who was unknown
+to man and ruled over the universe by His begotten son, the Logos.
+The sublimity of the Hebrew conception, which combines personality
+with unity, was lost, and the harmony of the intellectual and
+emotional aspirations achieved by Philo was broken straightway by
+those who professed to follow him. The skeleton of his thought was
+clothed with a body wherein his spirit could never have dwelt. It
+was the penalty which Philo paid for vagueness of expression and
+luxuriance of words that his works became the support of doctrines
+which he had combated, the guide of those who were opposed to his
+life's ideal.</p>
+<p>The experience of the Church showed how right was Philo's
+judgment when he declared that the rejection of the Torah would
+produce chaos. The fourth and fifth centuries exhibit an era of
+unparalleled disorder and confusion in the religious world,
+<a name="FNanchor_364_364" id="FNanchor_364_364"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_364_364">[364]</a> sect struggling with sect, creed with
+creed, churches rising and falling, dogmas set up by councils and
+forced upon men's souls at the point of the Roman sword! And out of
+this struggling mass of beliefs and fancies, theologies and
+superstitions, sects and political forces, there arose a
+tyrannical, dogmatic Church which laid far heavier burthens on
+men's minds than ever the most ruthless Pharisee of the
+theologian's <span class="newpage"><a name="page_254" id=
+"page_254">[pg.254]</a></span> imagination had laid upon their body
+and spirit. The yoke of the law of Moses, sanctifying the life, had
+been broken; the fiat of popes and the decrees of synods were the
+saving beliefs which ensured the Kingdom of Heaven! Was it to this
+that the allegorizing of the law, the search for the spirit beneath
+the letter, the reinterpretation of the holy law of Moses in the
+light of philosophical reason, had brought Judaism? And was the
+association of Jewish religion with Greek philosophy one long
+error? That would be a hard conclusion, if we had to admit that
+Judaism cannot stand the test of contact with foreign culture. But
+in truth the Hellenistic interpretation of the Bible, so long as it
+was genuinely philosophical, remained loyal to Judaism. Only when
+it became hardened into dogma, fixed not only as good doctrine, but
+as the only saving doctrine, as the tree of life opposed to the
+Torah, the tree of death&mdash;only then did it become anti-Jewish,
+and appear as a bastard offspring of the Hebraic God-idea and Greek
+culture. Nor should it be forgotten that the Christian theology and
+the Christian conception of religion are a falling away also from
+the highest Hellenic ideas; for to Plato as well God was a purely
+spiritual unity, and religion "a system of morality based upon a
+law of conduct and touched with emotion." In Philo, as we have
+seen, the Hebraic and Hellenic conceptions of God touch at their
+summits in their noblest expressions; the conceptions of Plato are
+interfused with the imagination of the prophets. The Christian
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_255" id=
+"page_255">[pg.255]</a></span> theology was a descent to a commoner
+Hellenism&mdash;or one should rather call it a commoner
+syncretism&mdash;as well as to an easier, impurer Hebraism.</p>
+<p>It must not be put down to the fault of the Septuagint or the
+allegorists or Philo that the Alexandrian development of Judaism
+led on to Roman Christianity. It is to be ascribed rather to the
+infirmity of human nature, which requires the ideas of its inspired
+teachers and peoples to be brought down to the common
+understanding, and causes the progress towards universal religion
+to be a slow growth. The masses of the Alexandrian Jews in his own
+day cannot have grasped his teaching; for Philo, to some degree,
+lived in a narrow world of philosophical idealism, and he did not
+calculate the forces which opposed and made impossible the spread
+of his faith in its integrity. He was aiming at what was and must
+for long remain unattainable&mdash;the establishment among the
+peoples of philosophical monotheism.</p>
+<p>No man is a prophet in his own land&mdash;or in his own
+time&mdash;and because Philo has in him much of the prophet, he
+seems to have failed. But it is the burden of our mission to sow in
+tears that we may reap in joy. And the work of the
+Alexandrian-Jewish school may be sad from one aspect of Jewish
+history, but it is nevertheless one of the dominating incidents of
+our religious annals. It did not succeed in bringing over the world
+to the pure idea of God, but it did help in undermining cruder
+paganism. It brought the nations nearer to God, and it introduced
+Hebraism into the <span class="newpage"><a name="page_256" id=
+"page_256">[pg.256]</a></span> thought of the Western peoples. It
+marked, therefore, a great step in the religious work of Israel;
+yet by the schools of rabbis who felt the hard hand of its
+offspring upon their people it was regarded as a long misfortune,
+to be blotted from memory. What seemed so ominous to them was that
+the annihilation of the nation came at the same time as the
+cleavage in the religion. Judaism seemed attacked no less by
+internal foes than by external calamity; and was likely to perish
+altogether or to drift into a lower conception of God, unless it
+could find some stalwart defence. Hence they insisted on the
+extension of the fence of the law, and abandoned for centuries the
+mission of the Jews to the outer world. This was the true Galut, or
+exile; not so much the political exclusion from the land of their
+fathers, but the enforced exclusion from the mission of the
+prophets. Philo is one of the brightest figures of a golden age of
+Jewish expansion, which passed away of a sudden, and has never
+since returned. In the silver and bronze ages which followed, his
+place in Judaism was obscured. But this age of ours, which boasts
+of its historical sense, looking back over the centuries and freed
+from the bitter dismay of the rabbis, can appraise his true worth
+and see in him one who realized for himself all that Judaism and
+Jewish culture could and still can be.</p>
+<p>Some Jewish teachers have thought that Philo's work was a
+failure, others that it provides a warning rather than an example
+for later generations of Jews, <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_257" id="page_257">[pg.257]</a></span> proving the mischief
+of expanding Judaism for the world. As well one might say that
+Isaiah's prophecy was a calamity, because the Christian synoptics
+used his words as evidences of Christianity. What is universal in
+Jewish literature is in the fullest sense Jewish, and we should
+beware of renouncing our inheritance because others have abused and
+perverted it. Other critics, again, say that Philo is wearisome and
+prolix, artificial and sophisticated. There is certainly some truth
+in this judgment; but Philo has many beautiful passages which
+compensate. Part of his message was for his own generation and the
+Alexandrian community, and with the passing away of the Hellenistic
+culture, it has lost its attraction. But part of it is of universal
+import, and is very pertinent and significant for every generation
+of Jews which, enjoying social and intellectual emancipation, lives
+amid a foreign culture. Doubtless the position of Philo and the
+Alexandrian community was to some extent different from that of the
+Jews at any time since the greater Diaspora that followed the
+destruction of the temple. They had behind them a national culture
+and a centre of Jewish life, religious and social, which was a
+powerful influence in civilization and united the Jews in every
+land. And this gave a catholicity to their development and a
+standard for their teaching which the scattered communities of Jews
+to-day do not possess. None the less Philo's ideal of Judaism as
+religion and life is an ideal for our time and for all time. Its
+keynote is that Israel <span class="newpage"><a name="page_258" id=
+"page_258">[pg.258]</a></span> is a holy people, a kingdom of
+priests, which has a special function for humanity. And the
+performance of this function demands the religious-philosophical
+ordering of life. From the negative side Philo stands for the
+struggle against Epicureanism, which in other words is the devotion
+to material pleasures and sensual enjoyments. In adversity, as he
+notes, the race is truest to its ideals, but as soon as the breeze
+of prosperity has caught its sails, then it throws overboard all
+that ennobles life. The hedonist whom he attacks, like the Epicuros
+<img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image96.jpg" width="85" height=
+"19"> of the rabbis, is not the banal thinker of one particular
+age, but a permanent type in the history of our people. We seem to
+spend nearly all our moral strength in the resistance of
+persecution, and with tranquillity from without comes degradation
+within. Emancipation, which should be but a means to the
+realization of the higher life, is taken as an end, and becomes the
+grave of idealism. With a reiteration that becomes almost
+wearisome, but which is the measure of the need for the warning,
+Philo protests against this desecration of life, of liberty, and of
+Judaism. His position is, that a free and cultured Jewry must
+pursue the mission of Israel alike by the example of the righteous
+life devoted to the service of God, and by the preaching of God's
+revealed word. This is his "burden of the word of the Lord" to the
+worldly-wise and the materialists of civilized Alexandria&mdash;and
+to Jews of other lands.</p>
+<p>From the positive side Philo stands for the spiritual
+significance of the religion. Judaism, which <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_259" id="page_259">[pg.259]</a></span> lays
+stress upon the law, the ceremonial, and the customs of our
+forefathers, is threatened at times with the neglect of the inward
+religion and the hardness of legalism. Not that the law, when it is
+understood, kills the spirit or fetters the feelings, but a formal
+observance and an unenlightened insistence upon the letter may
+crush the soul which good habits should nurture. Religion at its
+highest must be the expression of the individual soul within, not
+the acceptance of a law from without. Although Philo's estimate of
+the Torah is from the historical and philological standpoint
+uncritical, in the religious sense it is finely critical inasmuch
+as it searches out true values. Philo looks in every ordinance of
+the Bible for the spiritual light and conceives the law as an
+inspiration of spiritual truth and the guide to God, or, as he puts
+it sometimes, "the mystagogue to divine ecstasy." For the crown of
+life to him is the saint's union with God. In mysticism religion
+and philosophy blend, for mysticism is the philosophical form of
+faith. Just as the Torah to Philo has an outward and an inward
+meaning, so, too, has the religion of the Torah; and the outward
+Judaism is the symbol, the necessary bodily expression of the
+inward, even as the words of Moses are the symbol, the suggestive
+expression of the deeper truth behind them. Yet mystic and
+spiritual as he is, Philo never allows religion to sink into mere
+spirituality, because he has a true appreciation and a real love
+for the law. The Torah is the foundation of Judaism, and one of the
+three pillars of the universe, <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_260" id="page_260">[pg.260]</a></span> as the rabbis said;
+and neither the philosopher nor the mystic in Philo ever causes him
+to forget that Judaism is a religion of conduct as well as of
+belief, and that the law of righteousness is a law which must be
+practiced and show itself in active life. He holds fast, moreover,
+to the catholicity of Judaism, which restrains the individual from
+abrogating observance till the united conscience of the race calls
+for it; unless progress comes in this ordered way, the reformer
+will produce chaos.</p>
+<p>Philo is conservative then in practice, but he is pre-eminently
+liberal in thought. The perfect example himself of the assimilation
+of outside culture, he demands that Judaism shall always seek out
+the fullest knowledge, and in the light of the broadest culture of
+the age constantly reinterpret its religious ideas and its holy
+books. Above all it must be philosophical, for philosophy is "the
+breath and finer spirit of all knowledge," and it vivifies the
+knowledge of God as well as the knowledge of human things. Without
+it religion becomes bigoted, faith obscurantist, and ceremony
+superstitious. But the Jew does not merely borrow ideas or accept
+his philosophy ready-made from his environment; he interprets it
+afresh according to his peculiar God-idea and his conception of
+God's relation to man, and thereby makes it a genuine Jewish
+philosophy, forming in each age a special Jewish culture. And as
+religion without philosophy is narrow, so, to Philo, philosophy
+without religion is barren; remote from the true life, and failing
+in <span class="newpage"><a name="page_261" id=
+"page_261">[pg.261]</a></span> the true purpose of the search for
+wisdom, which is to raise man to his highest function. Philosophy,
+then, is not the enemy of the Torah: it is its true complement,
+endowing it with a deeper meaning and a profounder influence. Thus
+the saying runs in the "Ethics of the Fathers,"</p>
+<p><img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image97.jpg" width="394" height=
+"15"></p>
+<p>"If there is no Torah, there is no wisdom; if there is no
+wisdom, there is no Torah." The thought that study of the law is
+essential to Judaism Philo shares with the rabbis, and the Torah is
+in his eyes Israel's great heritage, not only her literature but
+her life. As Saadia said later, <a name="FNanchor_365_365" id=
+"FNanchor_365_365"></a><a href="#Footnote_365_365">[365]</a> "This
+nation is only a nation by reason of its Torah." It is because
+Philo starts from this conviction that his mission is so striking,
+and its results so tragical. The Judaism which he preached to the
+pagan world was no food for the soul with the strength taken out to
+render it more easily assimilated. He emphasizes its spiritual
+import, he shows its harmony, as the age demanded, with the
+philosophical and ethical conceptions of the time, but he
+steadfastly holds aloft, as the standard of humanity, the law of
+Moses. The reign of "one God and one law" seemed to him not a
+far-off Divine event, but something near, which every good Jew
+could bring nearer. He was oppressed by no craven fear of Jewish
+distinctiveness; and the Biblical saying that Israel was a chosen
+people <span class="newpage"><a name="page_262" id=
+"page_262">[pg.262]</a></span> was real to him and moved him to
+action. It meant that Israel was essentially a religious nation,
+nearer God, and possessed of the Divine law of life, and that it
+had received the Divine bidding to spread the truth about God to
+all the world. It was a creed, and more, it was an inspiration
+which constantly impelled to effort. It would be difficult to sum
+up Philo's message to his people better than by the verses in
+Deuteronomy which he, the interpreter of God's Word and the
+successor of Moses, as he loved to consider himself, proclaims
+afresh to his own age, and beyond it to the congregation of Jacob
+in all ages, "Keep therefore my commandments and do them; for this
+is your wisdom and your understanding in the sight of the nations,
+which shall hear all these statutes, and say, Surely this great
+nation is a wise and understanding people.</p>
+<p>"For what nation is there so great, who hath God so nigh unto
+them, as the Lord our God is in all things that we call upon Him
+for?</p>
+<p>"And what nation is there so great that hath statutes and
+judgments so righteous as all this law, which I set before you this
+day?" (Deut. iv. 5-7).</p>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_263" id=
+"page_263">[pg.263]</a></span>
+<h3>BIBLIOGRAPHY</h3>
+<p>The following are the chief works which have been consulted and
+are recommended to the student of Philo:</p>
+<p>The standard edition of Philo is still that of Thomas Mangey,
+<i>Philonis Jud&aelig;i opera qu&aelig; reperiri potuerunt
+omnia.</i> 1742. Londini.</p>
+<p>A far more accurate and critical edition, which is provided with
+introductory essays and notes upon the sources of Philo, is in
+course of publication for the Berlin Academy, by Dr. Leopold Cohn
+and Dr. Paul Wendland. The first five volumes have already
+appeared, and the remainder may be expected before long. The only
+complete edition which contains the Latin text of the
+<i>Quaestiones</i> as well as the Greek works is that published by
+Tauchnitz in eight volumes; but the text is not reliable.</p>
+<p>There is an English translation of Philo's works in the Bohn
+Library (G. Bell &amp; Sons) by C.D. Yonge (4 vols.), but it is
+neither accurate nor neat. The same may he said of the German
+translation of Jost, but an admirable German version edited by Dr.
+L. Cohn is now appearing, which contains notes of the parallel
+passages in rabbinic and patristic literature.</p>
+<pre>
+Works bearing on Philo and his period generally:
+
+  Sch&uuml;rer, "History of the Jewish People at the Time
+    of Jesus Christ" (English translation).
+
+  Siegfried, <i>Philo von Alexandrien als Ausleger der
+    heiligen Schrift</i>.
+
+  Zeller, <i>Geschiehte der Philosophie der Griechen</i>,
+    vol. III, sec. 2.
+
+  Drummond, "Philo-Jud&aelig;us and the Jewish Alexandrian
+    School." 2 vols. (London.)
+
+  Herriot, <i>Philon le Juif</i>.
+
+  Vacherot, <i>&eacute;cole d'Alexandrie</i>, vol. I.
+
+  Eusebius, <i>Pr&aelig;paratio Evangelica</i>, ed. Gifford.
+
+  Freudenthal, J., <i>Hellenistische Studien</i>.
+
+  Harnack, "History of Dogma," vol. I.
+
+  Josephus, "Wars of the Jews"; "Antiquities of the Jews."
+
+  Mommsen, Th., "The Roman Provinces."
+
+Works bearing on the special subjects of the different
+chapters:
+
+  I. THE JEWISH COMMUNITY AT ALEXANDRIA
+    Graetz, "History of the Jews" (Eng. trans.), vol. II.
+    Swete, "introduction to the Septuagint."
+    Hirsch, S.A., "The Temple of Onias," in the
+    Jews' College Jubilee Volume.
+    Friedl&auml;nder, M. (Vienna), <i>Geschichte der j&uuml;dischen
+    Apologetitc</i> and <i>Religi&ouml;se Bewegungen
+    der Juden irn Zeitalter von Jesus.</i>
+
+  II. THE LIFE AND TIMES OF PHILO
+    Conybeare, edition of <i>De Vita Contemplativa</i>. (Oxford.)
+    Hils, <i>Les juifs en Rome. Revue des Etudes
+    Juives</i>, vols. 8 and 11.
+    Reinach, Th&eacute;odor, <i>Textes d'auteurs grecs et romains
+    r&eacute;latifs au Judaisme</i>.
+    Br&eacute;hier et Massebieau, <i>Essai sur la chronologie
+    de Philon. Revue de l'Histoire des Religions,  </i> 1906.
+
+  III. PHILO'S WORKS AND METHOD
+    Hart, J.H.A., "Philo of Alexandria," Jewish
+    Quarterly Review, vols. XVII and XVIII.
+    Massebieau, <i>Du classement des oeuvres de Philon</i>.
+    Cohn, Leopold, <i>Einteilung und Chronologie der
+    Schriften Philon</i>.
+
+  IV. PHILO AND THE TORAH
+    Treitel, L., <i>Der Nomos in Philon. Monatsschrift
+    f&uuml;r Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judenthums</i>, 1905.
+
+  V. PHILO'S THEOLOGY
+    Montefiore, C., <i>Florilegium Philonis</i>, Jewish
+    Quarterly Review, vol. VIII.
+    Caird, Ed., "Evolution of Theology in the
+    Greek Philosophers."
+    Heinze, <i>Die Lefire vom Logos</i>,
+    Bucher, <i>Philonische Studien</i>.
+    Von Arnim, <i>Philonische Studien.</i>
+
+  VI. PHILO AS A PHILOSOPHER
+    Freudenthal, Max, <i>Die Erkenntnisstheorie von Philo.</i>
+    Bigg, "The Christian neo-Platonists of Alexandria."
+    Bussell, "The School of Plato."
+    Stewart, J.A., "The Myths of Plato."
+    Cuyot, H., <i>Les reminiscences de Philon chez Plotin</i>. 1906.
+    Neumark, <i>Geschichte der jildischen Philosophie
+    des Mittelalters</i>.
+
+
+  VII. PHILO AND JEWISH TRADITION
+    Schechter, "Aspects of Rabbinic Theology."
+    Taylor, "Ethics of the Fathers."
+    Ritter, Bernhard, <i>Philo und die Halacha</i>. Breslau, 1879.
+    Dei Rossi, "Meor Einayim," ed. Cassel.
+    Krochmal, "Moreh Nebuchei Hazeman," ed. Zunz.
+    Frankel, Z., <i>Ueber den Einfluss der pal&auml;stinensischen
+    Exegese auf die alexandrinische Hermeneutik</i>.
+    Epstein, <i>Le livre des Jubilis, Philon et le Midrasch
+    Tadsch&eacute;</i>, Revue des Etudes Juives, XXI.
+    Ginzberg, L., "Allegorical Interpretation," in
+    Jewish Encyclopedia.
+    Joel, M., <i>Blicke in die Religionsgeschichte</i>.
+    Treitel, L., <i>Agadah bei Philo. Monatsschrift
+    f&uuml;r Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judenthums</i>, 1909.
+
+
+</pre>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_266" id=
+"page_266">[pg.266]</a></span>
+<h3>ABBREVIATIONS USED FOR THE REFERENCES</h3>
+<p>The references to Philo's works are made according to the
+chapters in Conn and Wendland's edition, so far as it has appeared.
+In referring to the works which they have not edited, I have used
+the pages of Mangey'a edition; but I have frequently mentioned the
+name of the treatise in which the passage occurs, as well as the
+page-number.</p>
+<p>I have employed the following abbreviations in the
+references:</p>
+<br>
+<pre>
+L.A. I-III Legum Allegoriae.
+
+De Mundi Op. De Mundi Opificio.
+
+De Sacrif. De Sacrifices Abelis.
+
+Quod Det. Quod Deterius Potiori Insidiatur.
+
+De Post. C. De Posteritate Caini.
+
+De Gigant. De Gigantibus.
+
+Quod Deus Quod Deus Sit Immutabilis.
+
+De Agric. De Agricultura.
+
+De Plant. De Plantatione.
+
+De Ebr. De Ebrietate.
+
+De Confus. De Confusione Linguarum.
+
+De Migr. De Migratione Abrahami.
+
+Quis Rer. Div. Quis Rerum Divinarum Heres.
+
+De Cong. De Congressu Eruditorum Causa.
+
+De Fuga De Fuga et Inventione.
+
+De Mut. Nom. De Mutatione Nominum.
+
+De Somn. De Somniis.
+
+De Abr. De Vita Abrahami.
+
+De Jos. De Vita Josephi.
+
+De V. Mos. De Vita Mosis.
+
+De Mon. De Monarchia.
+
+De Spec. Leg. De Specialibus Legibus.
+
+De Sac. De Sacerdotum Honoribus et de Victimis.
+
+De Leg. De Legatione ad Gaium.
+
+In Flacc. In Flaccum.
+
+De Decal. De Decalogo.
+
+De Septen. De Septenario.
+
+De Concupisc. De Concupiscentia.
+
+De Just. De Justitia.
+
+De Exsecr. De Exsecrationibus.
+
+Ant. Josephus: Antiquities of the Jews, tr. by Whiston.
+
+Bell. Jud. Wars of the Jews.
+
+C. Apion. Contra Apionem.
+
+Hist. Ecclesiast. Eusebius: Historia Ecclesiastica.
+
+Praep. Evang. Eusebius: Praeparatio Evangelica.
+
+Photius, Cod. Photius: Codex.
+</pre>
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_269" id=
+"page_269">[pg.269]</a></span>
+<h3>INDEX</h3>
+<ul>
+<li>Abraham (<i>see</i> Lives of Abraham and Joseph), <a href=
+"#page_83">83</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">model of the excellent man, <a href=
+"#page_244">244</a>.</li>
+<li>Agrippa (King), Philo's life covers reign of, <a href=
+"#page_45">45</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Philo in Jerusalem during reign of, <a href=
+"#page_50">50</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">arrives at Alexandria, <a href=
+"#page_65">65</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">advanced to Kingdom of Judea, <a href=
+"#page_69">69</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">intercedes at Rome for his people, <a href=
+"#page_69">69</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">death of, <a href="#page_70">70</a>.</li>
+<li>Alexander (the Great), a notable figure in Talmud, <a href=
+"#page_13">13</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">settles Jews in Greek colonies, <a href=
+"#page_14">14</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">result of his work <a href=
+"#page_23">23</a>.</li>
+<li>Alexander Lysimachus, Alabarch of Delta region, <a href=
+"#page_46">46</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">guardian of Antony's daughter, <a href=
+"#page_46">46</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">restored to honor after imprisonment, <a href=
+"#page_70">70</a>.</li>
+<li>Alexandria, Jewish community at (<i>see</i> Jewish), <a href=
+"#page_13">13</a> ff., <a href="#page_41">41</a>, <a href=
+"#page_42">42</a> f.;</li>
+<li class="indent">Jewish population of, under Ptolemy I, <a href=
+"#page_15">15</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">meeting-place of civilizations, <a href=
+"#page_14">14</a>, <a href="#page_48">48</a>, <a href=
+"#page_95">95</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">centre of Jewish life, <a href=
+"#page_15">15</a>, <a href="#page_129">129</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">two sections occupied by Jews, <a href=
+"#page_16">16</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">prosperity of Jews in, <a href=
+"#page_21">21</a>, <a href="#page_22">22</a>, <a href=
+"#page_32">32</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">anti-Semitic literature and influences in,
+<a href="#page_22">22</a>, <a href="#page_62">62</a>, <a href=
+"#page_67">67</a>, <a href="#page_74">74</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Jewish tradition at, <a href=
+"#page_27">27</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">synagogues at, <a href="#page_37">37</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">deputation to Jerusalem from, <a href=
+"#page_41">41</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">rabbis flee to, <a href="#page_42">42</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Agrippa finds a refuge at, <a href=
+"#page_51">51</a>, <a href="#page_65">65</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">mystical and ascetic ideas of people at,
+<a href="#page_55"></a>, <a href="#page_59">59</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">philosophical schools at, <a href=
+"#page_63">63</a>, <a href="#page_90">90</a>, <a href=
+"#page_92">92</a>, <a href="#page_94">94</a>, <a href=
+"#page_140">140</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">development of Judaism in, <a href=
+"#page_77">77</a>, <a href="#page_255">255</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Egyptian caste-system adopted at, <a href=
+"#page_16">16</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Jews of, popularize teachings of Bible, <a href=
+"#page_34">34</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Jews of, referred to, in Talmud, <a href=
+"#page_42">42</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Philo forced into Sanhedrin of, <a href=
+"#page_61">61</a>, <a href="#page_202">202</a>, <a href=
+"#page_203">203</a> f.;</li>
+<li class="indent">Philo member of, <a href="#page_61">61</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">disintegration of community at, <a href=
+"#page_71">71</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Zealots flee to, on fall of Jerusalem, <a href=
+"#page_71">71</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">replaced by Babylon as centre of Jewish
+intellect, <a href="#page_73">73</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Samaritans in, <a href="#page_106">106</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">antinomian movement in, <a href=
+"#page_130">130</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">prototypes of Christian belief at, <a href=
+"#page_155">155</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Pythagorean influence at, <a href=
+"#page_188">188</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">national life and culture undermined at
+(<i>see</i> National), <a href="#page_218">218</a>.</li>
+<li>Alexandrian, exegesis, characteristic of, <a href=
+"#page_36">36</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">church, departs from Jewish standpoint, <a href=
+"#page_72">72</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Platonists, connection between Philo and later
+school of, <a href="#page_192">192</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">schools, relation of, to Palestinian, <a href=
+"#page_199">199</a> f., <a href="#page_213">213</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">literature in the Dark and Middle Ages, <a href=
+"#page_225">225</a> f.</li>
+<li><i>Allegories of the Laws</i>, an allegorical commentary,
+<a href="#page_74">74</a>, <a href="#page_87">87</a> f.;</li>
+<li class="indent">attacks Stoic doctrines, <a href=
+"#page_94">94</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">the <i>Epistles</i>, lineal descendants of,
+<a href="#page_247">247</a>.</li>
+<li>Angels, doctrine of, in Palestine, <a href=
+"#page_140">140</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Philo's treatment of, <a href=
+"#page_150">150-1</a>.</li>
+<li>Antiochus Epiphanes, Palestine passes to, <a href=
+"#page_17">17</a>.</li>
+<li>Anti-Semitic, party, Flaccus won over by, <a href=
+"#page_65">65</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">literature and influences in Alexandria,
+<a href="#page_22">22</a>, <a href="#page_62">62</a>, <a href=
+"#page_67">67</a>, <a href="#page_74">74</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">party, punishment of, at Rome, <a href=
+"#page_70">70</a>.</li>
+<li>Apion, a Stoic leader, <a href="#page_63">63</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">accuses Jews, <a href="#page_63">63</a>,
+<a href="#page_67">67</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Philo's references to, <a href=
+"#page_63">63</a>, <a href="#page_101">101</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Josephus' reply to, <a href=
+"#page_65">65</a>.</li>
+<li>Aquila, new Greek version of Old Testament made by, <a href=
+"#page_224">224</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">rabbis' views of, <a href=
+"#page_224">224</a>.</li>
+<li>Aristeas, spirit of, glorified in Philo, <a href=
+"#page_77">77</a>.</li>
+<li>Aristobulus, first allegorist of Alexandria, <a href=
+"#page_38">38</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">his spirit inherited by Philo, <a href=
+"#page_77">77</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">on wisdom, <a href="#page_143">143</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">on the Word of God, <a href=
+"#page_146">146</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">difference between Philo and, <a href=
+"#page_168">168</a>.</li>
+<li>Artapanus, Jewish apologist, <a href="#page_77">77</a>.</li>
+<li>Assouan, Aramaic papyri at, <a href="#page_15">15</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Babylon, replaces Alexandria as centre of Jewish intellect,
+<a href="#page_73">73</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Greek culture forgotten in, <a href=
+"#page_224">224</a>.</li>
+<li>Bible, the, Philo's interpretation</li>
+<li class="indent">and views on, <a href="#page_49">49</a>,
+<a href="#page_102">102</a>, <a href="#page_108">108</a> ff.;</li>
+<li class="indent">Philo reveals spiritual message of, <a href=
+"#page_83">83</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">authority of, challenged at Alexandria, <a href=
+"#page_92">92</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">wisdom personified in, <a href=
+"#page_141">141</a>, <a href="#page_142">142</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Cabbalah, the, Essenes practitioners in, <a href=
+"#page_233">233</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Philo as the Hellenizer of, <a href=
+"#page_235">235</a>.</li>
+<li>Caligula. <i>See</i> Gaius.</li>
+<li>Chaldean, thought, Philo's acquaintance with, <a href=
+"#page_48">48</a>.</li>
+<li>Christian, monastic communities, <a href=
+"#page_73">73</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">heresy, a severance from main community,
+<a href="#page_72">72</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">theologians, fail to realize spirit of Philo,
+<a href="#page_124">124</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">reformers, and the yoke of the law, <a href=
+"#page_130">130</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">teachers preserve Philo's works, <a href=
+"#page_156">156</a>, <a href="#page_248"></a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">writers quote Philo, <a href=
+"#page_223">223</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">apologists imitate allegorical method, <a href=
+"#page_245">245</a>.</li>
+<li>Christianity, the movement towards, <a href=
+"#page_28">28</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">rise of, <a href="#page_42">42</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">conflict with Judaism at Alexandria, <a href=
+"#page_72">72</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Philo's writings regarded as testimony to,
+<a href="#page_156">156</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Philo's influence over religious philosophy of,
+<a href="#page_195">195</a>.</li>
+<li>Conversion to Judaism, in Egypt and Rome, <a href=
+"#page_32">32</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Courage</i>, tractate appended to <i>Life of Moses</i>,
+<a href="#page_75">75</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Creation of the World</i>, description of, <a href=
+"#page_83">83</a>.</li>
+<li>Croiset, criticism of Philo by, <a href="#page_90">90</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li><i>Decalogue, The</i>, contents of, <a href=
+"#page_83">83</a>.</li>
+<li>Derash, Philo a master of, <a href="#page_103">103</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Dreams of the Bible</i>, classed with Allegories of the
+Laws, <a href="#page_74">74</a>.</li>
+<li>Dubnow, on Alexandrian Judaism, <a href=
+"#page_129">129</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Egypt, Alexander's march to, <a href="#page_14">14</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">settlement of Jews in, <a href=
+"#page_14">14</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">connection between Israel and, <a href=
+"#page_14">14</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">visited by Plato, <a href="#page_15">15</a>,
+<a href="#page_172">172</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Diaspora in, after Jeremiah, <a href=
+"#page_15">15</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">a favored home of the Jews, <a href=
+"#page_21">21</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">conversion widespread in (<i>see</i> Rome),
+<a href="#page_32">32</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Flaccus, governor of, <a href=
+"#page_65">65</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Jews of, under same rule as Palestine Jews,
+<a href="#page_15">15</a>.</li>
+<li>Egyptian, populace, Philo on, <a href="#page_62">62</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">thought, Philo's acquaintance with, <a href=
+"#page_48">48</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Epistles</i>, the Pauline, lineal descendants of Allegories
+of the Laws, <a href="#page_247">247</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">doctrines of the Logos in, <a href=
+"#page_250">250</a>.</li>
+<li>Essenes, rise of, <a href="#page_34">34</a>, <a href=
+"#page_54">54</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">account of, in Philo's works, <a href=
+"#page_78">78</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">type of the philosophical life, <a href=
+"#page_79">79</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">practitioners in the Cabbalah, <a href=
+"#page_233">233</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Flaccus, won over by Anti-Semites, <a href=
+"#page_65">65</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">indifference of, to attacks of Jews, <a href=
+"#page_66">66</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">recall of, <a href="#page_66">66</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Philo on the persecutions of, <a href=
+"#page_78">78</a>.</li>
+<li>Frankel Z., writes on Alexandrian-Jewish culture, <a href=
+"#page_241">241</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Gaius (Roman Emperor), comes to the imperial chair, <a href=
+"#page_65">65</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Jews appeal directly to, <a href=
+"#page_66">66</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">receives Jewish deputation, <a href=
+"#page_67">67</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">death of, <a href="#page_69">69</a>.</li>
+<li>Greek philosophers, Philo's relation to, <a href=
+"#page_48"></a>, <a href="#page_52">52</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">philosophy, Philo's influence on, <a href=
+"#page_49">49</a>, <a href="#page_191">191</a> f.;</li>
+<li class="indent">colonies, Alexander settles Jews in, <a href=
+"#page_14">14</a>.</li>
+<li>Greek culture, various branches of, <a href=
+"#page_47">47</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">the chief schools of, <a href="#page_48">48</a>,
+<a href="#page_54">54</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">fertilizing influence of ideas of, <a href=
+"#page_58">58</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">and Jewish Scripture, <a href=
+"#page_76">76</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">neglected in Babylon, <a href=
+"#page_224">224</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Haggadah, the, in Philo's works, <a href="#page_202">202</a>,
+<a href="#page_207">207 f.</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">antiquity of, <a href="#page_209">209</a>
+f.;</li>
+<li class="indent">allegorical speculation in, <a href=
+"#page_212">212</a>.</li>
+<li>Halakah, outcome of devotion to Torah, <a href=
+"#page_99">99</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Palestinian Jews determine, <a href=
+"#page_105">105</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">observance of oral law standardized in, <a href=
+"#page_126">126</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">relation of Philo to, <a href=
+"#page_202">202</a> f.;</li>
+<li class="indent">differences between Alexandrian Sanhedrin and
+Palestinian, <a href="#page_203">203 f.</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">codification of, <a href=
+"#page_207">207</a>.</li>
+<li>Hebrew, language, evidence of Philo's knowledge of, <a href=
+"#page_49">49</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">included in barbarian languages, <a href=
+"#page_97">97</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Philo's derivations from, <a href=
+"#page_50">50</a>, <a href="#page_101">101</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">race, the three founders of, <a href=
+"#page_110">110</a> f.;</li>
+<li class="indent">tradition, Philo follows, <a href=
+"#page_159">159</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">mind, Professor Caird on, <a href=
+"#page_167">167</a>.</li>
+<li>Hellenism, of Palestine, <a href="#page_24">24</a>, <a href=
+"#page_25">25</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">of Alexandria (<i>see</i> Greek culture),
+<a href="#page_25">25</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">influence of, in Palestine, <a href=
+"#page_51"></a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">and the interpretation of the Bible, <a href=
+"#page_254">254</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">New Testament, a combination of Hebraism and,
+<a href="#page_247">247</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Christian theology a descent to a commoner,
+<a href="#page_254">254</a>.</li>
+<li>Hillel, Philo contemporary with, <a href=
+"#page_45">45</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">shows expansion of Hebrew mind, <a href=
+"#page_45">45</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">on chief lesson of Torah, <a href=
+"#page_117">117</a>, <a href="#page_118">118</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">spirit of, shared by Philo, <a href=
+"#page_249">249</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Humanity</i>, tractate appended to a <i>Life of Moses</i>,
+<a href="#page_75">75</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Incarnation, notion of, not Jewish, <a href=
+"#page_166">166</a>.</li>
+<li>Indian, thought, Philo's acquaintance with, <a href=
+"#page_48">48</a>.</li>
+<li>Isaac, <i>See Lives of Isaac and Jacob</i>, <a href=
+"#page_83">83</a>.</li>
+<li>Israel, Philo's derivation of the name, <a href=
+"#page_50">50</a>, <a href="#page_138">138</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">God's special providence for, <a href=
+"#page_77">77</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">the mission of, <a href="#page_206">206</a>,
+<a href="#page_242">242</a>.</li>
+<li>Italy, Philo visits, <a href="#page_66">66</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Jacob, <i>See Lives of Isaac and Jacob</i>, <a href=
+"#page_83">83</a>.</li>
+<li>Jeremiah, prophesies in Egypt, <a href="#page_14">14</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">heard by Plato, <a href="#page_15">15</a>.</li>
+<li>Jerusalem, Alexander's visit to, <a href=
+"#page_14">14</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Philo, on national centre at, <a href=
+"#page_20">20</a>, <a href="#page_41">41</a>, <a href=
+"#page_86">86</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">spiritual headship of, <a href=
+"#page_41">41</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">special synagogues for Alexandrians in, <a href=
+"#page_41">41</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">derivation of name of, <a href=
+"#page_50">50</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Philo's sojourn at, <a href=
+"#page_50">50</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">downfall of, <a href="#page_71">71</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Judaism at, <a href="#page_129">129</a>.</li>
+<li>Jesus, spread of his teaching, <a href=
+"#page_245">245</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">his message compared with that of Philo,
+<a href="#page_245">245</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">preaching of, effect on Jewish attitude to life,
+<a href="#page_246">246</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Paul sets up a new faith in, <a href=
+"#page_251">251</a>.</li>
+<li>Jewish, community at Alexandria (<i>see</i> Alexandria),
+<a href="#page_13">13</a> ff., <a href="#page_72">72</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">temple at Elephantine, <a href=
+"#page_15">15</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">kingdom reaches its height, <a href=
+"#page_45">45</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">mind, religous conception of, <a href=
+"#page_49">49</a>, <a href="#page_137">137</a>, <a href=
+"#page_166">166</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">law and ceremony, elucidation of, <a href=
+"#page_49">49</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">race, symbol of the unity of, <a href=
+"#page_51">51</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">aspiration toward "freedom under the law,"
+<a href="#page_124">124</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">influences, dominant in Philo, <a href=
+"#page_133">133</a>, <a href="#page_189">189</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">philosophy, eclectic, <a href=
+"#page_168">168</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">philosophy, new school of in Middle Ages,
+<a href="#page_225">225</a> f.</li>
+<li>Joseph (<i>see Lives of Abraham and Joseph</i>), <a href=
+"#page_83">83</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">as Egyptian statesman, <a href=
+"#page_23">23</a>.</li>
+<li>Josephus, on Onias and Dositheus, <a href=
+"#page_18">18</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">inconsistent accounts of Onias temple, <a href=
+"#page_19">19</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">on Egyptian Jews, <a href=
+"#page_20">20</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">account of Herod's temple by, <a href=
+"#page_41">41</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">writes a reply to Apion, <a href=
+"#page_65">65</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">description of Gaius' conduct to Jewish
+deputation, <a href="#page_68">68</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">on the spreading of Judaism, <a href=
+"#page_115">115</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">indicates communication between schools of
+Alexandria and Palestine, <a href="#page_220">220</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">relation to Philo and his works, <a href=
+"#page_222">222</a>.</li>
+<li>Jowett, on sermons, <a href="#page_90">90</a>.</li>
+<li>Judaism, genius of, <a href="#page_46">46</a>, <a href=
+"#page_196">196</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Philo's exposition of, <a href=
+"#page_52">52</a>, <a href="#page_74">74</a>, <a href=
+"#page_78">78</a>, <a href="#page_81">81</a>, <a href=
+"#page_84">84</a>, <a href="#page_105">105</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Philo protests against desecration of, <a href=
+"#page_258">258</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">mysticism in, <a href="#page_58">58</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">philosophical, <a href="#page_72">72</a>,
+<a href="#page_230">230</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Alexandrian development of, <a href=
+"#page_77">77</a>, <a href="#page_92">92</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">moral teachings of, <a href=
+"#page_85">85</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">religion of the law, <a href=
+"#page_106">106</a>, <a href="#page_116">116</a>, <a href=
+"#page_260">260</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Josephus on the spreading of, <a href=
+"#page_115">115</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">a religion of universal validity, <a href=
+"#page_121">121</a>, <a href="#page_169">169</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">at Jerusalem and Alexandria, <a href=
+"#page_129">129</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">catholic conscience of, <a href=
+"#page_130">130</a>, <a href="#page_131">131</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Darmesteter on, <a href=
+"#page_132">132</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Logos doctrine and, <a href=
+"#page_165">165</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">danger of union with Gentiles to, <a href=
+"#page_206">206</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">a national culture, <a href=
+"#page_219">219</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">influences of Jesus and Paul on, <a href=
+"#page_247">247</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Hellenistic interpretation of the Bible and,
+<a href="#page_254">254</a>.</li>
+<li>Judas Maccab&aelig;us, struggles against Hellenizing party,
+<a href="#page_18">18</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Krochmal, Nachman, criticism of Philo, <a href=
+"#page_240">240</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li><i>Life of Moses</i>, contents of, <a href="#page_75">75</a>,
+<a href="#page_79">79</a> f.;</li>
+<li class="indent">an attempt to set monotheism before the world,
+<a href="#page_80">80</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">tractates appended to, <a href=
+"#page_75">75</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Lives of Abraham and Joseph</i>, description of, <a href=
+"#page_83">83</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Lives of Isaac and Jacob</i>, contents of, <a href=
+"#page_83">83</a>.</li>
+<li>Logos, <a href="#page_143">143</a> ff.;</li>
+<li class="indent">its relation to God's Providence, <a href=
+"#page_143">143</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">meaning of, <a href="#page_164">164</a>,
+<a href="#page_148">148</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Aristobulus on, <a href=
+"#page_146">146</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">regarded as the effluence of God, <a href=
+"#page_149">149</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">spoken of as a person, <a href=
+"#page_156">156</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">the soul, an image of, <a href=
+"#page_178">178</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">development of Philo's doctrine of, <a href=
+"#page_192">192</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Maimonides, object of his Moreh, <a href=
+"#page_91">91</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">principles of, <a href="#page_99">99</a>,
+<a href="#page_229">229</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">comparison of Philo with, <a href=
+"#page_229">229</a> f.</li>
+<li>Mark Antony, Alexander Lysimachus in the confidence of,
+<a href="#page_46">46</a>.</li>
+<li>Monastic communities, supposed record of Christian, in Philo,
+<a href="#page_73">73</a>.</li>
+<li>Moses, Philo a follower of, <a href="#page_60">60</a>, <a href=
+"#page_113">113</a> f.;</li>
+<li class="indent">Philo's ideal type, <a href="#page_79">79</a>
+f.;</li>
+<li class="indent">Philo, as interpreter of his revelation,
+<a href="#page_104">104</a>, <a href="#page_106">106</a> f.</li>
+<li class="indent"><i>See Life of Moses</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>National, centre at Jerusalem, Philo on, <a href=
+"#page_20">20</a>, <a href="#page_41">41</a>, <a href=
+"#page_86">86</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">life undermined at Rome and Alexandria, <a href=
+"#page_218">218</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Old Testament, Septuagint translation of, <a href=
+"#page_25">25-30</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Aquila's new Greek version of, <a href=
+"#page_224">224</a>.</li>
+<li>Onias, leader of army of Egyptian monarch, <a href=
+"#page_18">18</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">successor to high priesthood, <a href=
+"#page_18">18</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">builds temple, <a href="#page_18">18</a>,
+<a href="#page_19">19</a> f.;</li>
+<li class="indent">temple of, dismantled, <a href=
+"#page_71">71</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Jewish writers silent about work of, <a href=
+"#page_19">19</a>.</li>
+<li>Oral law, observance of, standardized in the Halakah, <a href=
+"#page_126">126</a>.</li>
+<li>Origen, distinguishes three methods of interpretation, <a href=
+"#page_76">76</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">teacher of Patristic school, <a href=
+"#page_195">195</a>; imitates Philo, <a href=
+"#page_186">186</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Palestine, struggle for, between Ptolemies and Seleucids,
+<a href="#page_17">17</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Hellenism of, compared with that of Athens,
+<a href="#page_24">24</a>, <a href="#page_25">25</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">rabbis of, <a href="#page_28">28</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Philo visits, <a href="#page_50">50</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">effect of Hellenic influence in, <a href=
+"#page_54">54</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">New Moon a solemn day in, <a href=
+"#page_121">121</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">aims of Jewish thought in, <a href=
+"#page_140">140</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">doctrine of angels in, <a href=
+"#page_140"></a>.</li>
+<li>Palestinian Jews, under same rule as Egyptian Jews, <a href=
+"#page_15">15</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">rabbis, oral tradition, <a href=
+"#page_34">34</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">development of Jewish culture, <a href=
+"#page_42">42</a> f., <a href="#page_200">200</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Midrash, Philo's acquaintance with, <a href=
+"#page_52">52</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">schools, relation existing between Alexandrian
+and, <a href="#page_199">199</a> f., <a href="#page_203">203</a>
+f., <a href="#page_213">213</a>.</li>
+<li>Paul, the most commanding of the apostles, <a href=
+"#page_247">247</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">influence of, compared with that of Jesus,
+<a href="#page_247">247</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">rejection of the Torah by, <a href=
+"#page_248">248</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">sets up a new faith in Jesus, <a href=
+"#page_251">251</a>.</li>
+<li>Pentateuch, Samaritan doctrines with reference to, <a href=
+"#page_106">105</a>.</li>
+<li>Peshat, as a form of interpretation, <a href=
+"#page_103">103</a>.</li>
+<li>Philo, contemporary with Herod, <a href="#page_45">45</a>,
+<a href="#page_50">50</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">family of, <a href="#page_46">46</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">works of <a href="#page_74">74</a> ff.;</li>
+<li class="indent">philosophical training of, <a href=
+"#page_49">49</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">flees from Alexandria, <a href=
+"#page_60">60</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">meeting of Peter and Mark with, <a href=
+"#page_73">73</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">forced into Sanhedrin of Alexandria, <a href=
+"#page_61">61</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">writings of, regarded as testimony to
+Christianity, <a href="#page_73">73</a>, <a href=
+"#page_156">156</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">influence of, over Christian religious
+philosophy, <a href="#page_195">195</a>, <a href=
+"#page_242">242</a> ff.;</li>
+<li class="indent">relation of, to Greek philosophers, <a href=
+"#page_48">48</a>, <a href="#page_52">52</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">acquaintance of, with Chaldean and Indian
+thought, <a href="#page_48">48</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">his interpretation and views of the Bible,
+<a href="#page_49">49</a>, <a href="#page_102">102</a>, <a href=
+"#page_108">108</a> ff.;</li>
+<li class="indent">evidence of his knowledge of Hebrew language,
+<a href="#page_49">49</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">follows Hebrew tradition, <a href=
+"#page_159">159</a>, <a href="#page_199">199</a> ff.;</li>
+<li class="indent">compared with Spinoza, <a href=
+"#page_73">73</a>, <a href="#page_134">134</a>, <a href=
+"#page_163">163</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">on persecutions of Sejanus and Flaccus, <a href=
+"#page_62">62</a>, <a href="#page_78">78</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">replies to attacks of stoics, <a href=
+"#page_64">64</a>, <a href="#page_95">95</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">stoics' view of God compared with that of,
+<a href="#page_185">185</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">goes to Italy, <a href="#page_66">66</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">refers to Apion, <a href="#page_63">63</a>,
+<a href="#page_101">101</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Josephus' knowledge of the works of, <a href=
+"#page_222">222</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Christian teachers preserve works of, <a href=
+"#page_156">156</a>, <a href="#page_247">247</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">relation of, to the Halakah, <a href=
+"#page_202">202</a> f.;</li>
+<li class="indent">comparison of Maimonides with, <a href=
+"#page_229">229</a> f.;</li>
+<li class="indent">doctrine of the Logos (<i>see</i> Logos),
+<a href="#page_144">144</a> ff.;</li>
+<li class="indent">connection between Saadia and, <a href=
+"#page_226">226</a> f.;</li>
+<li class="indent">the Hellenizer of the Cabbalah, <a href=
+"#page_235">235</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">opposed to missionary attitude of Paul, <a href=
+"#page_249">249</a>.</li>
+<li>Plato, hears Jeremiah, <a href="#page_15">15</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Philo's style reminiscent of, <a href=
+"#page_48">48</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">conception of the Law in, <a href=
+"#page_131">131</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Philo's philosophy compared with that of,
+<a href="#page_170">170</a> ff.;</li>
+<li class="indent">dominant philosophical principle of, <a href=
+"#page_174">174</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">a mystic, <a href="#page_230">230</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">conception of God in, <a href=
+"#page_254">254</a>.</li>
+<li>Ptolemies, the: Ptolemy I, increases number of Jewish
+inhabitants in Alexandria, <a href="#page_15">15</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">IV, gives Heliopolis to Onias, <a href=
+"#page_16">16</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">admirers of Scriptures, <a href=
+"#page_23">23</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li><i>Questions and Answers to Genesis and Exodus</i>, now
+incomplete, <a href="#page_75">75</a>, <a href="#page_81">81</a>
+f.;</li>
+<li class="indent">a preliminary study to more elaborate works,
+<a href="#page_81">81</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Hebraic in form, <a href="#page_82">82</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li><i>Repentance</i>, tractate appended to <i>Life of Moses</i>,
+<a href="#page_75">75</a>.</li>
+<li>Rome, Alexandria second to, <a href="#page_14">14</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">conversion widespread in (<i>see</i> Egypt),
+<a href="#page_32">32</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Agrippa an exile from, <a href=
+"#page_51">51</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">power of Jews at, <a href=
+"#page_62">62</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Jewish struggle with, <a href=
+"#page_220">220</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Philo's apocryphal meeting with Peter at,
+<a href="#page_73">73</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">national life and culture undermined at
+(<i>see</i> National), <a href="#page_218">218</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Saadia, founds new school of Jewish philosophy, <a href=
+"#page_225">225</a> f.;</li>
+<li class="indent">connection between Philo and, <a href=
+"#page_226">226</a>f.</li>
+<li>Samaritan, doctrines with reference to Pentateuch, <a href=
+"#page_106">106</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Jew, story of, <a href="#page_98">98</a>.</li>
+<li>Sanhedrin, Hillel, president of, <a href=
+"#page_45">45</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Philo forced into Alexandrian, <a href=
+"#page_61">61</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">duties of members of, <a href=
+"#page_61">61</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">of Alexandrian community, <a href=
+"#page_202"></a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">of Jerusalem and capital punishment, <a href=
+"#page_203">203</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">differences between Palestinian Halakah and
+Alexandrian, <a href="#page_203">203</a> f.</li>
+<li>Sejanus, Tiberius falls under influence of, <a href=
+"#page_62">62</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Antonia opponent of, <a href=
+"#page_62">62</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Philo's book on persecution of, <a href=
+"#page_62">62</a>, <a href="#page_78">78</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">disgrace and death of, <a href=
+"#page_65">65</a>.</li>
+<li>Septuagint, Hellenistic development marked by, <a href=
+"#page_25">25</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Philo's version of origin of, <a href=
+"#page_26">26</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">celebrations in honor of, <a href=
+"#page_27">27</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">infusion of Greek philosophic ideas into,
+<a href="#page_28">28</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Christianizing influence of, <a href=
+"#page_29">29</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">value of, to the cultured Gentile, <a href=
+"#page_33">33</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">replaced by new Greek version of Old Testament,
+<a href="#page_224">224</a>.</li>
+<li>Solomon, Wisdom of, written at Alexandria, <a href=
+"#page_31">31</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Specific Laws, The</i>, description of, <a href=
+"#page_83">83</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">socialism of Bible emphasized in, <a href=
+"#page_86">86</a>.</li>
+<li>Spinoza, his ideal of life, <a href="#page_53">53</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">compared with Philo's, <a href=
+"#page_73">73</a>, <a href="#page_134">134</a>, <a href=
+"#page_163">163</a>, <a href="#page_239">239</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">on Jewish thought, <a href=
+"#page_137">137</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">influenced by Philo, <a href="#page_237">237</a>
+ff.;</li>
+<li class="indent">approaches Bible from critical standpoint,
+<a href="#page_239">239</a>.</li>
+<li>Stoics, the chief Anti-Semites, <a href="#page_63">63</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Philo replies to attacks of, <a href=
+"#page_64">64</a>, <a href="#page_95">95</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">in conflict with Jews at Alexandria, <a href=
+"#page_94">94</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">beliefs of, <a href="#page_64">64</a>, <a href=
+"#page_94">94</a>, <a href="#page_116">116</a>, <a href=
+"#page_176">176</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">view of God compared with that of Philo,
+<a href="#page_185">185</a>.</li>
+<li>Synagogues,</li>
+<li class="indent">at Alexandria, <a href="#page_16">16</a>,
+<a href="#page_37">37</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Tiberius Alexander,</li>
+<li class="indent">nephew of Philo, <a href="#page_71">71</a>.</li>
+<li>Tradition, Jewish,</li>
+<li class="indent">at Alexandria, <a href="#page_27">27</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Philo and Jewish, <a href="#page_199">199</a>
+ff.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Zealots, flight of,</li>
+<li class="indent">to Alexandria, <a href="#page_71">71</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<hr style="width: 65%;">
+<a name="FOOTNOTES" id="FOOTNOTES"></a>
+<h2>FOOTNOTES:</h2>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Comp. Leviticus
+Rabba 13.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Comp. Josephus,
+Ant. IX. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Sukkah
+51<sup>b</sup>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Quoted by
+Josephus, Ant. XIV. 7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Ant. XII. 5, 9,
+XX. 10.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Josephus,
+<i>Bell. Jud.</i> VII. 10.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Comp. the
+passages in the "Antiquities" above and the <i>Bell. Jud.</i> V.
+5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Menahot 109,
+Abodah Zarah 52<sup>b</sup>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> <i>De Leg.</i>
+II. 578.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Comp. <i>De
+Mon.</i> I. 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Dr. Hirseh,
+in The Jews' College Jubilee Volume, p.39.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Menahot
+119.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Comp. Ant.
+XIV. 14-16.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Ant. XVI.
+7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Philo, <i>In
+Flacc.</i> 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> <i>C.
+Apion.</i> II. 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> I have used
+the word anti-Semite because, though the hatred at Alexandria was
+not racial, but national, it has now become synonymous with
+Jew-hater generally.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> Quoted in
+<i>C. Apion</i>. I. 22.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> <i>De V.
+Mos</i>. II. 6, 7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> See p. 22,
+above.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Preface to
+Ecclesiasticus.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> Tract.
+Soferim I. 7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> Tanhuma
+<img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image98.jpg" width="69" height=
+"12"></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> See p. 23,
+above.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> <i>Orac.
+Sib</i>., ed. Alexandre, III. 8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>,
+III. 195.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> Comp. Strabo,
+Frag. 6, Didot.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> <i>De
+Post.C.</i> 24.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> <i>De V.
+Mos</i>. II. 28.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> Comp. <i>De
+Decal</i>. 20.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> Comp. Yer.
+Berakot 24c.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> <i>Praep.
+Evang</i>. VIII. 10, XIII. 12.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> Comp. <i>De
+Abr</i>. 15 and 37, <i>De Jos</i>. II. 63, <i>De Spec. Leg.</i>
+III. 32, <i>De Migr</i>. 89.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> <i>Quod
+Deus</i> 11, <i>De Abr.</i> 36.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> Comp. Acts of
+the Apostles VI. 9, and Tosef. Meg. III. 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> Yoma
+83<sup>a</sup>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> <i>Bell.
+Jud.</i> V. 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> Comp. Niddah
+69<sup>b</sup>, Sotah 47<sup>a</sup>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> "Heroes and
+Hero-Worship," ch. 3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> Ant. XIX.
+5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> Photius,
+<i>Cod.</i> 108.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> Comp. <i>De
+Confus.</i> 15.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> Comp. <i>De
+Mon.</i> I. 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> Comp.
+Maimonides, Moreh II, ch. 36.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> <i>L.A.</i>
+I. 135.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> Comp. <i>De
+Cong.</i> 6 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> Comp.
+Croiset, <i>Histoire de la litt&eacute;rature grecque</i>, V, pp.
+425 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> Comp. Mills,
+"Zoroaster, Philo, and Israel."</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> Comp. <i>Quis
+Rer. Div.</i> 43, <i>De Judice</i> II, <i>De V. Mos.</i> II. 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> Ritter,
+<i>Philon und die Halacha</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> Comp. <i>De
+V. Mos.</i> I. 1, <i>In Flacc.</i> 23 and 33, <i>De Mut. Nom.</i>
+39.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a>
+<i>Pr&aelig;p. Evang.</i> VIII. v.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> <i>De
+Mon.</i> II. 1-3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>Bell. Jud.</i> VI. 9. 3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> Comp. <i>De
+V. Mos.</i> II. 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> <i>De Spec.
+Leg.</i> III. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> Comp. <i>De
+Migr.</i> 4, <i>L.A.</i> III. 45.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> Comp. Graetz,
+"History of the Jews" III. 91 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> Comp. <i>Quod
+Omnis Probus Liber</i> 11 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> The
+authenticity of this book is elaborately discussed by Conybeare in
+his edition of it.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> "Ethics of
+the Fathers" VI. 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> <i>De Mundi
+Op.</i> I. 42.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> Comp. <i>De
+Migr.</i> 6 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> <i>L.A.</i>
+II. 21.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> <i>De
+Fuga</i> 7 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> Comp. <i>De
+Spec. Leg.</i> II. 260.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> Comp. <i>De
+Cherubim</i> 9.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> <i>De
+Migr.</i> 7-9.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> II, ch. 36
+ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> Comp. <i>De
+Spec. Leg.</i> III. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> Massebieau,
+<i>Du classement des oeuvres de Philon</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> <i>In
+Flacc.</i> 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> Comp. Th.
+Reinach, <i>Textes d'auteurs romains et grecs relatifs au
+Judaisme</i>, pp. 120 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> Comp. <i>De
+Confus.</i>, <i>passim</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> Josephus,
+<i>C. Apion.</i>, Introduction.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> <i>In
+Flacc.</i> 10.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> <i>De
+Leg</i>. 27 and 28.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> Ant. XVIII.
+8. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> <i>De Leg.,
+ad fin</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> Ant. XIX.
+5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_81_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> Frag,
+preserved by John of Damascus, p. 404.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_82_82" id="Footnote_82_82"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_82_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> Comp. Ant.
+XX. 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_83_83" id="Footnote_83_83"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_83_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> Comp.
+Massebieau, <i>op. cit.</i></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_84_84" id="Footnote_84_84"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_84_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> Comp.
+Bernays, <i>Ueber die unter Philos Werken stehenden Schriften</i>
+<img alt="Greek: peri t&ecirc;s aphtharsias Kosmou" src=
+"images/image99.jpg" width="183" height="12"> and Siegfried, art.
+"Philo" in the Jewish Encyclopedia.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_85_85" id="Footnote_85_85"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_85_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> <i>Quod
+Deus</i> 86.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_86_86" id="Footnote_86_86"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_86_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> <i>Quod Omnis
+Probus Liber</i> 12 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_87_87" id="Footnote_87_87"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_87_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> <i>De V.
+Mos.</i> I. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_88_88" id="Footnote_88_88"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_88_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> <i>De V.
+Mos</i>. II. 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_89_89" id="Footnote_89_89"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_89_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> "On
+Repentance," II.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_90_90" id="Footnote_90_90"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_90_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> Comp.
+Treitel, <i>Agadah bei Philo. Monatsschrift</i>, 1909.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_91_91" id="Footnote_91_91"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_91_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> <i>De
+Abr.</i> 12.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_92_92" id="Footnote_92_92"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_92_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> Comp.
+Bereshit Rabba 47.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_93_93" id="Footnote_93_93"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_93_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> <i>De Sac. et
+Victimis</i> 5 and 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_94_94" id="Footnote_94_94"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_94_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> <i>De
+Mon.</i> II. 3 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_95_95" id="Footnote_95_95"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_95_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> Comp. Plato,
+<i>Rep</i>. V, <i>ad fin</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_96_96" id="Footnote_96_96"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_96_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> <i>De
+Exsecr</i>. II. 587.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_97_97" id="Footnote_97_97"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_97_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> <i>De
+Abr.</i> 3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_98_98" id="Footnote_98_98"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_98_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>L.A.</i> II. 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_99_99" id="Footnote_99_99"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_99_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> <i>L.A.</i>
+I. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_100_100" id="Footnote_100_100"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_100_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> Comp.
+Freudenthal, <i>Hellenistische Studien</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_101_101" id="Footnote_101_101"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_101_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a> Croiset,
+<i>op. cit.</i> V, p. 427.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_102_102" id="Footnote_102_102"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_102_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>De Cherubim</i>, <i>passim</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_103_103" id="Footnote_103_103"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_103_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a> Comp.
+Zohar III.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_104_104" id="Footnote_104_104"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_104_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a> <i>De
+Cherubim</i>, 9 and 14, <i>De Somn.</i> 8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_105_105" id="Footnote_105_105"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_105_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a> <i>De
+Migr.</i> 12.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_106_106" id="Footnote_106_106"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_106_106"><span class="label">[106]</span></a> <i>De
+Post. C.</i> 22.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_107_107" id="Footnote_107_107"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_107_107"><span class="label">[107]</span></a> Midrash
+Esther I.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_108_108" id="Footnote_108_108"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_108_108"><span class="label">[108]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>De Sac.</i> II. 245.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_109_109" id="Footnote_109_109"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_109_109"><span class="label">[109]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>De Migr.</i> 32.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_110_110" id="Footnote_110_110"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_110_110"><span class="label">[110]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>De Post C</i>, 11.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_111_111" id="Footnote_111_111"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_111_111"><span class="label">[111]</span></a>
+<i>Quaestiones in Gen.</i> III. 33.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_112_112" id="Footnote_112_112"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_112_112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a> <i>De
+Cong.</i> 10.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_113_113" id="Footnote_113_113"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_113_113"><span class="label">[113]</span></a> Comp.
+Berakot 51<sup>b</sup>, <i>De Agric.</i> 12, <i>De Somn.</i> II.
+25.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_114_114" id="Footnote_114_114"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_114_114"><span class="label">[114]</span></a> <i>De
+Confus.</i> 38.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_115_115" id="Footnote_115_115"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_115_115"><span class="label">[115]</span></a> <i>De Mut.
+Nom.</i> 8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_116_116" id="Footnote_116_116"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_116_116"><span class="label">[116]</span></a> Comp.
+Bereshit Rabba 64.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_117_117" id="Footnote_117_117"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_117_117"><span class="label">[117]</span></a> <i>De
+Somn.</i> I. 16 and 17.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_118_118" id="Footnote_118_118"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_118_118"><span class="label">[118]</span></a> Comp.
+"Ethics of the Fathers" V. 25.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_119_119" id="Footnote_119_119"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_119_119"><span class="label">[119]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>De Somn.</i> I. 13.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_120_120" id="Footnote_120_120"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_120_120"><span class="label">[120]</span></a> <i>De Mut.
+Nom.</i> 9.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_121_121" id="Footnote_121_121"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_121_121"><span class="label">[121]</span></a> <i>De
+Somn.</i> I. 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_122_122" id="Footnote_122_122"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_122_122"><span class="label">[122]</span></a> Berakot
+10<sup>a</sup>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_123_123" id="Footnote_123_123"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_123_123"><span class="label">[123]</span></a> <i>De
+Cong.</i> 12.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_124_124" id="Footnote_124_124"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_124_124"><span class="label">[124]</span></a> <i>De
+Cong.</i> 14.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_125_125" id="Footnote_125_125"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_125_125"><span class="label">[125]</span></a>
+"Theologico-Political Tractate" VII.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_126_126" id="Footnote_126_126"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_126_126"><span class="label">[126]</span></a> <i>De
+Abr.</i> 19.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_127_127" id="Footnote_127_127"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_127_127"><span class="label">[127]</span></a> <i>De
+Mon.</i> II. 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_128_128" id="Footnote_128_128"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_128_128"><span class="label">[128]</span></a> Harvard
+Studies, "Hellenism and Hebraism."</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_129_129" id="Footnote_129_129"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_129_129"><span class="label">[129]</span></a> Comp.
+Schechter, "Aspects of Rabbinic Theology," p. 119.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_130_130" id="Footnote_130_130"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_130_130"><span class="label">[130]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>De V. Mos.</i> II. 9 and 10, III. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_131_131" id="Footnote_131_131"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_131_131"><span class="label">[131]</span></a>
+<i>L.A.</i> I. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_132_132" id="Footnote_132_132"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_132_132"><span class="label">[132]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>De Mundi Op.</i> 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_133_133" id="Footnote_133_133"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_133_133"><span class="label">[133]</span></a> Comp. p.
+85, above.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_134_134" id="Footnote_134_134"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_134_134"><span class="label">[134]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>L.A.</i> I, <i>passim</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_135_135" id="Footnote_135_135"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_135_135"><span class="label">[135]</span></a>
+<i>L.A.</i> III. 12.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_136_136" id="Footnote_136_136"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_136_136"><span class="label">[136]</span></a> <i>De
+Post. C.</i> 11.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_137_137" id="Footnote_137_137"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_137_137"><span class="label">[137]</span></a> <i>De
+Abr.</i> 3 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_138_138" id="Footnote_138_138"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_138_138"><span class="label">[138]</span></a>
+<i>Ibid.</i> 6-10.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_139_139" id="Footnote_139_139"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_139_139"><span class="label">[139]</span></a> The LXX
+renders the verse Gen. iv. 26, which is translated in the
+Authorized Version: "Then began men to call upon the name of the
+Lord," <img alt=
+"Greek: outos &ecirc;lpisen epi ton t&ocirc;n ol&ocirc;n patera, &lt;i&gt;i.e.&lt;/i&gt;"
+src="images/image100.jpg" width="283" height="15"> , "He hoped in
+the Father of all."</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_140_140" id="Footnote_140_140"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_140_140"><span class="label">[140]</span></a> <i>Quod
+Det.</i> 38.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_141_141" id="Footnote_141_141"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_141_141"><span class="label">[141]</span></a> <i>De
+Jos.</i> 21.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_142_142" id="Footnote_142_142"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_142_142"><span class="label">[142]</span></a> <i>De
+Jos.</i> 22.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_143_143" id="Footnote_143_143"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_143_143"><span class="label">[143]</span></a> <i>De
+Jos.</i> 42.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_144_144" id="Footnote_144_144"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_144_144"><span class="label">[144]</span></a> <i>Hist.
+Ecclesiast.</i> II. 18, 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_145_145" id="Footnote_145_145"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_145_145"><span class="label">[145]</span></a> <i>De V.
+Mos.</i> III. 4 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_146_146" id="Footnote_146_146"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_146_146"><span class="label">[146]</span></a> <i>De V.
+Mos.</i> II. 3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_147_147" id="Footnote_147_147"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_147_147"><span class="label">[147]</span></a> <i>De V.
+Mos.</i> II. 5, Josephus, <i>C. Apion.</i> II. 37.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_148_148" id="Footnote_148_148"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_148_148"><span class="label">[148]</span></a> Comp.
+Horace, Satires I. 4, 138; I. 9, 60.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_149_149" id="Footnote_149_149"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_149_149"><span class="label">[149]</span></a> Frag.
+preserved in Josephus, Ant. XIV. 7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_150_150" id="Footnote_150_150"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_150_150"><span class="label">[150]</span></a> Comp.
+Reinach, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 262.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_151_151" id="Footnote_151_151"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_151_151"><span class="label">[151]</span></a> <i>De V.
+Mos.</i> II. 3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_152_152" id="Footnote_152_152"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_152_152"><span class="label">[152]</span></a> "Ethics of
+the Fathers" I. 17.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_153_153" id="Footnote_153_153"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_153_153"><span class="label">[153]</span></a> <i>De
+Fuga</i> 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_154_154" id="Footnote_154_154"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_154_154"><span class="label">[154]</span></a> <i>De
+Decal.</i> 12.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_155_155" id="Footnote_155_155"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_155_155"><span class="label">[155]</span></a> <i>De
+Decal.</i> 23.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_156_156" id="Footnote_156_156"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_156_156"><span class="label">[156]</span></a> <i>De
+Septen.</i> 9.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_157_157" id="Footnote_157_157"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_157_157"><span class="label">[157]</span></a> Kiddushin
+20<sup>a</sup>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_158_158" id="Footnote_158_158"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_158_158"><span class="label">[158]</span></a> <i>De
+Decal.</i> 20.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_159_159" id="Footnote_159_159"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_159_159"><span class="label">[159]</span></a> <i>De
+Septen.</i> 7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_160_160" id="Footnote_160_160"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_160_160"><span class="label">[160]</span></a> <i>De
+Septen.</i> 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_161_161" id="Footnote_161_161"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_161_161"><span class="label">[161]</span></a> Ch. 2.
+31.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_162_162" id="Footnote_162_162"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_162_162"><span class="label">[162]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>De Migr.</i> 23.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_163_163" id="Footnote_163_163"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_163_163"><span class="label">[163]</span></a> <i>De
+Septen.</i> 1. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_164_164" id="Footnote_164_164"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_164_164"><span class="label">[164]</span></a> <i>De
+Septen.</i> 18 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_165_165" id="Footnote_165_165"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_165_165"><span class="label">[165]</span></a> <i>De
+Concupisc.</i> 1-3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_166_166" id="Footnote_166_166"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_166_166"><span class="label">[166]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>De Just.</i> II. 360.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_167_167" id="Footnote_167_167"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_167_167"><span class="label">[167]</span></a> Ch.
+16.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_168_168" id="Footnote_168_168"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_168_168"><span class="label">[168]</span></a> I have
+taken this translation and that on the next page from Mr. Claude
+Montefiore's <i>Florilegium Philonis</i>. Jewish Quarterly Review,
+vol. VII.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_169_169" id="Footnote_169_169"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_169_169"><span class="label">[169]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>De Ebr.</i> 40, and <i>De Spec. Leg.</i> II. 414.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_170_170" id="Footnote_170_170"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_170_170"><span class="label">[170]</span></a> <i>De
+Leg.</i> II. 574.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_171_171" id="Footnote_171_171"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_171_171"><span class="label">[171]</span></a> <i>Essais,
+Les Proph&egrave;tes d'Isra&euml;l</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_172_172" id="Footnote_172_172"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_172_172"><span class="label">[172]</span></a> Frag.
+cited by Porphyry, <i>De Abstinentia</i> II. 25.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_173_173" id="Footnote_173_173"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_173_173"><span class="label">[173]</span></a> <i>De
+Cong.</i> 10.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_174_174" id="Footnote_174_174"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_174_174"><span class="label">[174]</span></a> Comp.
+Schechter, "Aspects of Rabbinic Theology," pp. 21 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_175_175" id="Footnote_175_175"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_175_175"><span class="label">[175]</span></a>
+<i>L.A.</i> I. 7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_176_176" id="Footnote_176_176"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_176_176"><span class="label">[176]</span></a>
+<i>L.A.</i> I. 14.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_177_177" id="Footnote_177_177"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_177_177"><span class="label">[177]</span></a> <i>De
+Confus.</i> 2, <i>De Post. C.</i> 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_178_178" id="Footnote_178_178"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_178_178"><span class="label">[178]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>De Somn.</i> I. 11, <i>De Mut. Nom.</i> 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_179_179" id="Footnote_179_179"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_179_179"><span class="label">[179]</span></a> Caird,
+"Life of Spinoza" II.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_180_180" id="Footnote_180_180"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_180_180"><span class="label">[180]</span></a> <i>De
+Mon.</i> I. 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_181_181" id="Footnote_181_181"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_181_181"><span class="label">[181]</span></a> Comp. "The
+Authorised Prayer Book." p. 78.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_182_182" id="Footnote_182_182"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_182_182"><span class="label">[182]</span></a> <i>Quod
+Deus</i> 23.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_183_183" id="Footnote_183_183"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_183_183"><span class="label">[183]</span></a> <i>De
+Mundi Op.</i> 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_184_184" id="Footnote_184_184"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_184_184"><span class="label">[184]</span></a>
+<i>L.A.</i> III. 24.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_185_185" id="Footnote_185_185"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_185_185"><span class="label">[185]</span></a> <i>De
+Somn.</i> II. 38.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_186_186" id="Footnote_186_186"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_186_186"><span class="label">[186]</span></a>
+<i>L.A.</i> III. 24.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_187_187" id="Footnote_187_187"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_187_187"><span class="label">[187]</span></a> See p. 77,
+above.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_188_188" id="Footnote_188_188"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_188_188"><span class="label">[188]</span></a>
+<i>L.A.</i> I. 3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_189_189" id="Footnote_189_189"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_189_189"><span class="label">[189]</span></a> <i>De
+Plant.</i> 7, <i>Quod Det.</i> 31.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_190_190" id="Footnote_190_190"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_190_190"><span class="label">[190]</span></a> <i>De
+Cherubim</i> 35.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_191_191" id="Footnote_191_191"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_191_191"><span class="label">[191]</span></a>
+<i>L.A.</i> II. 70.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_192_192" id="Footnote_192_192"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_192_192"><span class="label">[192]</span></a> <i>De
+Cherubim</i> 32, <i>De Somn.</i> II, 56.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_193_193" id="Footnote_193_193"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_193_193"><span class="label">[193]</span></a> <i>De
+Post. C.</i> 11.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_194_194" id="Footnote_194_194"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_194_194"><span class="label">[194]</span></a> Essay on
+the Talmud.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_195_195" id="Footnote_195_195"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_195_195"><span class="label">[195]</span></a> Bereshit
+Rabba 21, and Yalkut 26.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_196_196" id="Footnote_196_196"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_196_196"><span class="label">[196]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>De Plant.</i> 30.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_197_197" id="Footnote_197_197"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_197_197"><span class="label">[197]</span></a> Comp.
+[H.]agigah 14.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_198_198" id="Footnote_198_198"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_198_198"><span class="label">[198]</span></a> Quoted by
+Euseb., <i>op. cit.</i> XIII. 8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_199_199" id="Footnote_199_199"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_199_199"><span class="label">[199]</span></a> <i>De
+Decal.</i> 11.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_200_200" id="Footnote_200_200"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_200_200"><span class="label">[200]</span></a> <i>De
+Mundi Op.</i> 24.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_201_201" id="Footnote_201_201"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_201_201"><span class="label">[201]</span></a>
+<i>Ibid.</i> 20.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_202_202" id="Footnote_202_202"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_202_202"><span class="label">[202]</span></a> <i>De
+Migr.</i> 9.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_203_203" id="Footnote_203_203"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_203_203"><span class="label">[203]</span></a> <i>De
+Decal.</i> 11.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_204_204" id="Footnote_204_204"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_204_204"><span class="label">[204]</span></a> <i>De
+Somn.</i> II. 37.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_205_205" id="Footnote_205_205"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_205_205"><span class="label">[205]</span></a> <i>De
+Somn.</i> I. 23.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_206_206" id="Footnote_206_206"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_206_206"><span class="label">[206]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>De Somn.</i> II. 11.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_207_207" id="Footnote_207_207"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_207_207"><span class="label">[207]</span></a> <i>De
+Somn.</i> I. 22.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_208_208" id="Footnote_208_208"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_208_208"><span class="label">[208]</span></a> Comp.
+[H.]agigah 14<sup>a</sup>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_209_209" id="Footnote_209_209"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_209_209"><span class="label">[209]</span></a> <i>Quod
+Deus</i> 26 and 32.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_210_210" id="Footnote_210_210"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_210_210"><span class="label">[210]</span></a> <i>De
+Confus.</i> 14.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_211_211" id="Footnote_211_211"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_211_211"><span class="label">[211]</span></a> <i>De
+Gigant.</i> 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_212_212" id="Footnote_212_212"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_212_212"><span class="label">[212]</span></a> "Ethics of
+the Fathers" III.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_213_213" id="Footnote_213_213"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_213_213"><span class="label">[213]</span></a> Comp.
+Schechter, <i>op. cit.</i>, "The Law as Personified in
+Literature."</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_214_214" id="Footnote_214_214"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_214_214"><span class="label">[214]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>L.A.</i> III. 73, <i>De Somn.</i> II. 33.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_215_215" id="Footnote_215_215"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_215_215"><span class="label">[215]</span></a> <i>De
+Cong.</i> 31.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_216_216" id="Footnote_216_216"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_216_216"><span class="label">[216]</span></a> <i>De
+Confus.</i> 14, Fragments I, <i>L.A.</i> III. 23, <i>Quis Rer.
+Div.</i> 42, <i>De Gigant.</i> 12.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_217_217" id="Footnote_217_217"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_217_217"><span class="label">[217]</span></a> Comp.
+Graetz, "Gnosticism and Judaism," pp. 15 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_218_218" id="Footnote_218_218"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_218_218"><span class="label">[218]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>De Cherubim</i> 14 and 17, <i>De Gigant.</i> 12.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_219_219" id="Footnote_219_219"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_219_219"><span class="label">[219]</span></a> Drummond,
+"Philo-Jud&aelig;us and the Jewish Hellenistic School," vol.
+II.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_220_220" id="Footnote_220_220"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_220_220"><span class="label">[220]</span></a> <i>De
+Somn.</i> I. 32, <i>De Confus.</i> 14, <i>L.A.</i> III. 25, <i>De
+V. Mos.</i> III. 14.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_221_221" id="Footnote_221_221"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_221_221"><span class="label">[221]</span></a>
+<i>L.A.</i> III. 73.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_222_222" id="Footnote_222_222"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_222_222"><span class="label">[222]</span></a> <i>De
+Sacrif.</i> 38.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_223_223" id="Footnote_223_223"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_223_223"><span class="label">[223]</span></a> <i>Quis
+Rer. Div.</i> 42.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_224_224" id="Footnote_224_224"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_224_224"><span class="label">[224]</span></a> <i>De
+Plant.</i> 21.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_225_225" id="Footnote_225_225"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_225_225"><span class="label">[225]</span></a>
+<i>L.A.</i> III.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_226_226" id="Footnote_226_226"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_226_226"><span class="label">[226]</span></a> <i>De
+Cherubim</i> 9.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_227_227" id="Footnote_227_227"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_227_227"><span class="label">[227]</span></a> <i>De
+Abr.</i> 24 and 25.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_228_228" id="Footnote_228_228"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_228_228"><span class="label">[228]</span></a> <i>De
+Fuga</i> 18.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_229_229" id="Footnote_229_229"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_229_229"><span class="label">[229]</span></a>
+<i>L.A.</i> II.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_230_230" id="Footnote_230_230"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_230_230"><span class="label">[230]</span></a>
+<i>L.A.</i> I. 13, II. 15, <i>Quis Rer. Div.</i> 53.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_231_231" id="Footnote_231_231"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_231_231"><span class="label">[231]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>De Decal.</i>, <i>ad fin</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_232_232" id="Footnote_232_232"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_232_232"><span class="label">[232]</span></a>
+<i>L.A.</i> I. 2232, <i>De Fuga</i> 12.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_233_233" id="Footnote_233_233"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_233_233"><span class="label">[233]</span></a> <i>De
+Mundi Op.</i> 54, <i>De Fuga</i> 11.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_234_234" id="Footnote_234_234"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_234_234"><span class="label">[234]</span></a> "The
+Evolution of Theology in the Greek Philosophers" VIII.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_235_235" id="Footnote_235_235"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_235_235"><span class="label">[235]</span></a> Plato,
+"Laws" 718.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_236_236" id="Footnote_236_236"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_236_236"><span class="label">[236]</span></a> Comp. Bk.
+12 of the <i>Pr&aelig;p. Evang.</i></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_237_237" id="Footnote_237_237"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_237_237"><span class="label">[237]</span></a> Quoted by
+Suidas, <i>s.v.</i> Philo.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_238_238" id="Footnote_238_238"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_238_238"><span class="label">[238]</span></a> <i>De
+Mundi Op.</i> 43.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_239_239" id="Footnote_239_239"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_239_239"><span class="label">[239]</span></a> <i>De
+Victimis</i> II. 260-262.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_240_240" id="Footnote_240_240"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_240_240"><span class="label">[240]</span></a> Comp. p.
+81, above.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_241_241" id="Footnote_241_241"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_241_241"><span class="label">[241]</span></a> <i>De
+Sacrif.</i> 24, <i>Quod Det.</i> 24.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_242_242" id="Footnote_242_242"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_242_242"><span class="label">[242]</span></a> <i>De
+Mundi Op.</i> 24.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_243_243" id="Footnote_243_243"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_243_243"><span class="label">[243]</span></a> <i>De
+Mundi Op.</i> 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_244_244" id="Footnote_244_244"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_244_244"><span class="label">[244]</span></a> <i>De
+Somn.</i> I. 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_245_245" id="Footnote_245_245"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_245_245"><span class="label">[245]</span></a> <i>De
+Victimis</i> II. 260.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_246_246" id="Footnote_246_246"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_246_246"><span class="label">[246]</span></a> <i>Quod
+Deus</i> 6, <i>De Post. C.</i> 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_247_247" id="Footnote_247_247"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_247_247"><span class="label">[247]</span></a> <i>Quod
+Det.</i> 24, <i>De Mundi Op.</i> 45 and 51.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_248_248" id="Footnote_248_248"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_248_248"><span class="label">[248]</span></a>
+<i>L.A.</i> I. 32, <i>De Confus.</i> 27.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_249_249" id="Footnote_249_249"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_249_249"><span class="label">[249]</span></a> <i>De
+Mon</i>. II. 214, <i>De Mundi Op</i>. I. 16.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_250_250" id="Footnote_250_250"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_250_250"><span class="label">[250]</span></a> <i>De
+Mundi Op</i>. 22 and 48, <i>L.A.</i> I. 13 and II. 12 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_251_251" id="Footnote_251_251"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_251_251"><span class="label">[251]</span></a> <i>De
+Sacrif.</i> 32.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_252_252" id="Footnote_252_252"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_252_252"><span class="label">[252]</span></a> <i>De
+Plant.</i> 9.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_253_253" id="Footnote_253_253"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_253_253"><span class="label">[253]</span></a>
+<i>Quaestiones in Gen.</i> II. 59.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_254_254" id="Footnote_254_254"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_254_254"><span class="label">[254]</span></a> <i>De
+Fuga</i> 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_255_255" id="Footnote_255_255"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_255_255"><span class="label">[255]</span></a>
+<i>Quaestiones in Gen.</i> IV. 140.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_256_256" id="Footnote_256_256"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_256_256"><span class="label">[256]</span></a> <i>De
+Cherubim</i> 32.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_257_257" id="Footnote_257_257"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_257_257"><span class="label">[257]</span></a>
+<i>L.A.</i> I. 15.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_258_258" id="Footnote_258_258"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_258_258"><span class="label">[258]</span></a>
+<i>L.A.</i> II. 25.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_259_259" id="Footnote_259_259"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_259_259"><span class="label">[259]</span></a>
+<i>L.A.</i> I. 11 ff., II. 12-14.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_260_260" id="Footnote_260_260"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_260_260"><span class="label">[260]</span></a> <i>De
+Cherubim</i> 35.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_261_261" id="Footnote_261_261"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_261_261"><span class="label">[261]</span></a> <i>De
+Somn.</i> I. 12.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_262_262" id="Footnote_262_262"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_262_262"><span class="label">[262]</span></a> <i>De
+Somn.</i> I. 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_263_263" id="Footnote_263_263"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_263_263"><span class="label">[263]</span></a> <i>De
+Plant.</i> 7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_264_264" id="Footnote_264_264"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_264_264"><span class="label">[264]</span></a> <i>Quod
+Det.</i> 31.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_265_265" id="Footnote_265_265"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_265_265"><span class="label">[265]</span></a> <i>De
+Migr.</i> 8, <i>De Spec. Leg.</i> I. 9.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_266_266" id="Footnote_266_266"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_266_266"><span class="label">[266]</span></a>
+<i>L.A.</i> I. 13.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_267_267" id="Footnote_267_267"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_267_267"><span class="label">[267]</span></a>
+<i>L.A.</i> III. 13, 14.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_268_268" id="Footnote_268_268"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_268_268"><span class="label">[268]</span></a> <i>Quis
+Rer. Div.</i> 53.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_269_269" id="Footnote_269_269"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_269_269"><span class="label">[269]</span></a> <i>De
+Mundi Op.</i> 54.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_270_270" id="Footnote_270_270"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_270_270"><span class="label">[270]</span></a> <i>De
+Abr.</i> 31.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_271_271" id="Footnote_271_271"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_271_271"><span class="label">[271]</span></a> <i>De
+Fuga</i> 27.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_272_272" id="Footnote_272_272"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_272_272"><span class="label">[272]</span></a>
+<i>L.A.</i> I. 32, II. 25.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_273_273" id="Footnote_273_273"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_273_273"><span class="label">[273]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>L.A.</i> III. 45.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_274_274" id="Footnote_274_274"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_274_274"><span class="label">[274]</span></a> <i>Quod
+Det.</i> 7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_275_275" id="Footnote_275_275"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_275_275"><span class="label">[275]</span></a> <i>De
+Fuga</i> 5 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_276_276" id="Footnote_276_276"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_276_276"><span class="label">[276]</span></a> <i>De
+Mundi Op.</i> 15, <i>L.A.</i> I. 46.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_277_277" id="Footnote_277_277"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_277_277"><span class="label">[277]</span></a> <i>De
+Decal.</i> 6-8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_278_278" id="Footnote_278_278"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_278_278"><span class="label">[278]</span></a> Comp.
+Euseb., <i>Praep. Evang.</i> IX 411A.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_279_279" id="Footnote_279_279"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_279_279"><span class="label">[279]</span></a> <i>C.
+Celsum</i> IV. 51.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_280_280" id="Footnote_280_280"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_280_280"><span class="label">[280]</span></a> <i>De
+Sectis Judaicis</i> XVIII.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_281_281" id="Footnote_281_281"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_281_281"><span class="label">[281]</span></a> Comp.
+Freudenthal, <i>Hellenistische Studien</i>, and Siegfried, <i>Philo
+als Ausleger der hieligen Schrift</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_282_282" id="Footnote_282_282"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_282_282"><span class="label">[282]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>Quis Rer. Div.</i> XLIII, and Chapter II above.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_283_283" id="Footnote_283_283"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_283_283"><span class="label">[283]</span></a> <i>De
+Mon</i>. II. 212.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_284_284" id="Footnote_284_284"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_284_284"><span class="label">[284]</span></a> <i>Hist.
+Ecclesiast.</i> II. iv. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_285_285" id="Footnote_285_285"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_285_285"><span class="label">[285]</span></a> Comp.
+Graetz, "History" II. xviii.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_286_286" id="Footnote_286_286"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_286_286"><span class="label">[286]</span></a> Comp.
+Chapter I, p. 17, above.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_287_287" id="Footnote_287_287"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_287_287"><span class="label">[287]</span></a> <i>De
+Spec. Leg</i>. II. 260.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_288_288" id="Footnote_288_288"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_288_288"><span class="label">[288]</span></a> <i>De
+Spec. Leg.</i> III. 17.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_289_289" id="Footnote_289_289"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_289_289"><span class="label">[289]</span></a>
+<i>Ibid.</i> II. 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_290_290" id="Footnote_290_290"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_290_290"><span class="label">[290]</span></a> <i>De
+Parentibus Colendis</i> 56.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_291_291" id="Footnote_291_291"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_291_291"><span class="label">[291]</span></a> Comp.
+Sifre Debarim 237.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_292_292" id="Footnote_292_292"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_292_292"><span class="label">[292]</span></a> <i>De
+Spec. Leg.</i> IV.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_293_293" id="Footnote_293_293"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_293_293"><span class="label">[293]</span></a> <i>De
+Spec. Leg.</i> III. 36.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_294_294" id="Footnote_294_294"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_294_294"><span class="label">[294]</span></a> <i>De
+Spec. Leg.</i> III. 33 and 34.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_295_295" id="Footnote_295_295"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_295_295"><span class="label">[295]</span></a> Moreh
+Nebukim III, ch. 39.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_296_296" id="Footnote_296_296"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_296_296"><span class="label">[296]</span></a>
+<i>Fragmenta ex Antonio</i> II. 672.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_297_297" id="Footnote_297_297"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_297_297"><span class="label">[297]</span></a> <i>De
+Spec. Leg.</i> III. 5, II. 304, 305.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_298_298" id="Footnote_298_298"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_298_298"><span class="label">[298]</span></a> Deut. vii.
+3, and Abodah Zarah 36<sup>b</sup>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_299_299" id="Footnote_299_299"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_299_299"><span class="label">[299]</span></a> <i>De
+Spec. Leg.</i> III. 5, II. 304.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_300_300" id="Footnote_300_300"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_300_300"><span class="label">[300]</span></a> <i>De
+Septen.</i> 5 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_301_301" id="Footnote_301_301"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_301_301"><span class="label">[301]</span></a>See Chapter
+IV, p. 125, above.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_302_302" id="Footnote_302_302"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_302_302"><span class="label">[302]</span></a> Mishnah
+Rosh Hashanah III. 8, and Philo, <i>De Somn.</i> II. 11.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_303_303" id="Footnote_303_303"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_303_303"><span class="label">[303]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>Agadah bei Philo</i>, by Treitel, <i>Monatsschrift</i>,
+1909.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_304_304" id="Footnote_304_304"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_304_304"><span class="label">[304]</span></a> Comp.
+Bereshit Rabba 16, 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_305_305" id="Footnote_305_305"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_305_305"><span class="label">[305]</span></a> Comp.
+Taylor's edition.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_306_306" id="Footnote_306_306"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_306_306"><span class="label">[306]</span></a> <i>De
+Plant.</i> 30.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_307_307" id="Footnote_307_307"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_307_307"><span class="label">[307]</span></a> It is
+impossible for me to make an adequate acknowledgment of my debt to
+Dr. Schechter, President of the Jewish Theological Seminary of
+America. But I should say that I have borrowed freely from his
+articles on rabbinic theology in the Jewish Quarterly Review, vols.
+VI and VII, now included in his "Aspects of Rabbinic Theology."</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_308_308" id="Footnote_308_308"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_308_308"><span class="label">[308]</span></a> Mishnah
+Yodayim III. 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_309_309" id="Footnote_309_309"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_309_309"><span class="label">[309]</span></a> Bereshit
+Rabba 26. 7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_310_310" id="Footnote_310_310"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_310_310"><span class="label">[310]</span></a> Comp.
+Schechter, <i>op. cit.</i>, Introduction.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_311_311" id="Footnote_311_311"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_311_311"><span class="label">[311]</span></a> Berakot
+24<sup>b</sup>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_312_312" id="Footnote_312_312"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_312_312"><span class="label">[312]</span></a> Mekilta
+<img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image101.jpg" width="45" height=
+"16"> I. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_313_313" id="Footnote_313_313"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_313_313"><span class="label">[313]</span></a> Bereshit
+Rabba I. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_314_314" id="Footnote_314_314"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_314_314"><span class="label">[314]</span></a> Pirke R.
+Eliezer III.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_315_315" id="Footnote_315_315"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_315_315"><span class="label">[315]</span></a> Comp.
+Poems, II, p. 25.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_316_316" id="Footnote_316_316"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_316_316"><span class="label">[316]</span></a> Moreh II,
+ch. 70.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_317_317" id="Footnote_317_317"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_317_317"><span class="label">[317]</span></a>Eccles.
+III. 15.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_318_318" id="Footnote_318_318"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_318_318"><span class="label">[318]</span></a> [H.]agigah
+14 ff., Sanhedrin 37<sup>a</sup>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_319_319" id="Footnote_319_319"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_319_319"><span class="label">[319]</span></a> Bereshit
+Rabba 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_320_320" id="Footnote_320_320"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_320_320"><span class="label">[320]</span></a> Mena[h.]ot
+99.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_321_321" id="Footnote_321_321"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_321_321"><span class="label">[321]</span></a> Mishnah
+Sanhedrin II. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_322_322" id="Footnote_322_322"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_322_322"><span class="label">[322]</span></a> 322:
+[H.]agigah 15<sup>b</sup>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_323_323" id="Footnote_323_323"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_323_323"><span class="label">[323]</span></a> Bereshit
+Rabba 36. 8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_324_324" id="Footnote_324_324"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_324_324"><span class="label">[324]</span></a> Ant. III.
+2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_325_325" id="Footnote_325_325"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_325_325"><span class="label">[325]</span></a> <i>De V.
+Mos.</i> II. 12.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_326_326" id="Footnote_326_326"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_326_326"><span class="label">[326]</span></a> Comp. Ant.
+XVIII. 8. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_327_327" id="Footnote_327_327"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_327_327"><span class="label">[327]</span></a> Comp.
+"Ethics of the Fathers" VI. 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_328_328" id="Footnote_328_328"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_328_328"><span class="label">[328]</span></a> See
+Epstein, <i>Philon et le Midrasch Tadsch&eacute;</i>, Revue des
+Etudes Juives, XXI, p. 80.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_329_329" id="Footnote_329_329"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_329_329"><span class="label">[329]</span></a> Yer. Meg.
+I. 71<sup>c</sup>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_330_330" id="Footnote_330_330"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_330_330"><span class="label">[330]</span></a> Comp. an
+article by Dr. Pozn&agrave;nski in the <i>Revue des &eacute;tudes
+Juives</i>, 1905, <i>Philo dans l'ancienne litt&eacute;rature
+jud&eacute;o-arabe</i>, pp. 10 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_331_331" id="Footnote_331_331"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_331_331"><span class="label">[331]</span></a> Comp.
+Pozn&agrave;nski, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 27.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_332_332" id="Footnote_332_332"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_332_332"><span class="label">[332]</span></a> Moreh II.
+ch. 1 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_333_333" id="Footnote_333_333"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_333_333"><span class="label">[333]</span></a>
+<i>Ibid.</i> 31.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_334_334" id="Footnote_334_334"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_334_334"><span class="label">[334]</span></a>
+<i>Ibid.</i> 31.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_335_335" id="Footnote_335_335"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_335_335"><span class="label">[335]</span></a> Moreh III.
+43 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_336_336" id="Footnote_336_336"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_336_336"><span class="label">[336]</span></a> Comp.
+Ginzberg, art. "Cabbalah," Jewish Encyclopedia.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_337_337" id="Footnote_337_337"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_337_337"><span class="label">[337]</span></a> Comp.
+Taylor's "Ethics of the Fathers," ch. 5, notes.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_338_338" id="Footnote_338_338"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_338_338"><span class="label">[338]</span></a> <i>De
+Cherubim</i> 12 and 14. Comp. <i>De Somn.</i> I. 8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_339_339" id="Footnote_339_339"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_339_339"><span class="label">[339]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>De Somn.</i> I. 12.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_340_340" id="Footnote_340_340"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_340_340"><span class="label">[340]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>De Fuga</i> 9.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_341_341" id="Footnote_341_341"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_341_341"><span class="label">[341]</span></a> Comp.
+Hort, Introduction to Clement's <img alt="Greek: Etr&ocirc;mateis"
+src="images/image102.jpg" width="81" height="15"></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_342_342" id="Footnote_342_342"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_342_342"><span class="label">[342]</span></a> Ed.
+Cassel, pp. 4 and 15<sup>b</sup>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_343_343" id="Footnote_343_343"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_343_343"><span class="label">[343]</span></a> Comp. Imre
+Binah. Meor Einayim, ch. 30.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_344_344" id="Footnote_344_344"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_344_344"><span class="label">[344]</span></a> Comp. J.A.
+Stewart, "Myths of Plato," <i>ad fin.</i></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_345_345" id="Footnote_345_345"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_345_345"><span class="label">[345]</span></a> Comp.
+"Theologico-Political Tractate" XV.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_346_346" id="Footnote_346_346"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_346_346"><span class="label">[346]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>De Humanitate</i> II. 395.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_347_347" id="Footnote_347_347"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_347_347"><span class="label">[347]</span></a> <i>De V.
+Mos.</i> II. 1-5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_348_348" id="Footnote_348_348"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_348_348"><span class="label">[348]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>De Mon.</i> II. 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_349_349" id="Footnote_349_349"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_349_349"><span class="label">[349]</span></a> <i>De
+Just.</i> 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_350_350" id="Footnote_350_350"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_350_350"><span class="label">[350]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>De Nobilitate</i> 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_351_351" id="Footnote_351_351"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_351_351"><span class="label">[351]</span></a> Bamidbar
+Rabba 8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_352_352" id="Footnote_352_352"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_352_352"><span class="label">[352]</span></a> Tan[h.]uma
+to Debarim.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_353_353" id="Footnote_353_353"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_353_353"><span class="label">[353]</span></a> Comp.
+Pesa[h.]im 87<sup>b</sup>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_354_354" id="Footnote_354_354"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_354_354"><span class="label">[354]</span></a> <i>De
+Exsecr.</i> 6. II. 433.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_355_355" id="Footnote_355_355"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_355_355"><span class="label">[355]</span></a> Comp.
+Montefiore, Jewish Quarterly Review, VI, p. 428.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_356_356" id="Footnote_356_356"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_356_356"><span class="label">[356]</span></a> Epistle to
+the Romans V.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_357_357" id="Footnote_357_357"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_357_357"><span class="label">[357]</span></a> Epistle to
+the Galatians III. 10.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_358_358" id="Footnote_358_358"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_358_358"><span class="label">[358]</span></a> Comp.
+Chapter IV, above, p. 126.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_359_359" id="Footnote_359_359"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_359_359"><span class="label">[359]</span></a> <i>De
+Abr.</i> 46.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_360_360" id="Footnote_360_360"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_360_360"><span class="label">[360]</span></a> Comp.
+Schechter, <i>op. cit.</i>, Introduction.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_361_361" id="Footnote_361_361"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_361_361"><span class="label">[361]</span></a> Comp.
+Mekilta 33<sup>a</sup>, ed. Friedmann.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_362_362" id="Footnote_362_362"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_362_362"><span class="label">[362]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>L.A.</i> III. 26, and Chapter V, above, p. 154.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_363_363" id="Footnote_363_363"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_363_363"><span class="label">[363]</span></a> <i>De
+Cherubim</i> 12.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_364_364" id="Footnote_364_364"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_364_364"><span class="label">[364]</span></a> Comp.
+Gibbon, "Decline of the Roman Empire," ch. 15.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_365_365" id="Footnote_365_365"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_365_365"><span class="label">[365]</span></a> <img alt=
+"Hebrew; " src="images/image103.jpg" width="103" height="18">
+III.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 14657 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image01.jpg b/14657-h/images/image01.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..28cd726
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image01.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image02.jpg b/14657-h/images/image02.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..764fa31
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image02.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image03.jpg b/14657-h/images/image03.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fd4e56a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image03.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image04.jpg b/14657-h/images/image04.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2e5fca2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image04.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image05.jpg b/14657-h/images/image05.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1cd3014
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image05.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image06.jpg b/14657-h/images/image06.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8a84361
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image06.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image07.jpg b/14657-h/images/image07.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..eef8781
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image07.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image08.jpg b/14657-h/images/image08.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0910594
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image08.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image09.jpg b/14657-h/images/image09.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..03aabd6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image09.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image10.jpg b/14657-h/images/image10.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6c427ce
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image10.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image100.jpg b/14657-h/images/image100.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f3a3d46
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image100.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image101.jpg b/14657-h/images/image101.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..011d2de
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image101.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image102.jpg b/14657-h/images/image102.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..78909f8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image102.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image103.jpg b/14657-h/images/image103.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f573ff3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image103.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image11.jpg b/14657-h/images/image11.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e764729
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image11.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image12.jpg b/14657-h/images/image12.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6685385
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image12.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image13.jpg b/14657-h/images/image13.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..37b574a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image13.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image14.jpg b/14657-h/images/image14.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..474c51c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image14.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image15.jpg b/14657-h/images/image15.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c44841c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image15.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image16.jpg b/14657-h/images/image16.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4e9a67e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image16.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image17.jpg b/14657-h/images/image17.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..314553e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image17.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image18.jpg b/14657-h/images/image18.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..db12db7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image18.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image19.jpg b/14657-h/images/image19.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..42a44eb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image19.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image20.jpg b/14657-h/images/image20.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4d39ef9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image20.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image21.jpg b/14657-h/images/image21.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..02dc9ed
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image21.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image22.jpg b/14657-h/images/image22.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0e7da39
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image22.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image23.jpg b/14657-h/images/image23.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..64f6e65
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image23.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image24.jpg b/14657-h/images/image24.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..86dbcb9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image24.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image25.jpg b/14657-h/images/image25.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..81fc366
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image25.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image26.jpg b/14657-h/images/image26.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..deb9689
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image26.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image27.jpg b/14657-h/images/image27.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0969755
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image27.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image28.jpg b/14657-h/images/image28.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7adc4ed
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image28.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image29.jpg b/14657-h/images/image29.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..41a7ba8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image29.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image30.jpg b/14657-h/images/image30.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..caf2792
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image30.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image31.jpg b/14657-h/images/image31.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..16b8781
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image31.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image32.jpg b/14657-h/images/image32.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cd97f13
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image32.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image33.jpg b/14657-h/images/image33.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..64fb69a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image33.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image34.jpg b/14657-h/images/image34.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..72c9b3f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image34.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image35.jpg b/14657-h/images/image35.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b472a22
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image35.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image36.jpg b/14657-h/images/image36.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e464028
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image36.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image37.jpg b/14657-h/images/image37.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f3bbb5d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image37.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image38.jpg b/14657-h/images/image38.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b7d0151
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image38.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image39.jpg b/14657-h/images/image39.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6ec3435
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image39.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image40.jpg b/14657-h/images/image40.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1dee087
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image40.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image41.jpg b/14657-h/images/image41.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..02ad2b3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image41.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image42.jpg b/14657-h/images/image42.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7740cd1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image42.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image43.jpg b/14657-h/images/image43.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4cb18b5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image43.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image44.jpg b/14657-h/images/image44.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..277abfa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image44.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image45.jpg b/14657-h/images/image45.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fbbf9db
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image45.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image46.jpg b/14657-h/images/image46.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..864e4ec
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image46.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image47.jpg b/14657-h/images/image47.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c85fede
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image47.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image48.jpg b/14657-h/images/image48.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..032f49a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image48.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image49.jpg b/14657-h/images/image49.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5bcd89d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image49.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image50.jpg b/14657-h/images/image50.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..51c6339
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image50.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image51.jpg b/14657-h/images/image51.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..211e499
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image51.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image52.jpg b/14657-h/images/image52.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ad0be7a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image52.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image53.jpg b/14657-h/images/image53.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ef0e59a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image53.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image54.jpg b/14657-h/images/image54.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..63d8269
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image54.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image55.jpg b/14657-h/images/image55.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e93825c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image55.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image56.jpg b/14657-h/images/image56.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9aaae05
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image56.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image57.jpg b/14657-h/images/image57.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5f1be20
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image57.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image58.jpg b/14657-h/images/image58.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6dba196
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image58.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image59.jpg b/14657-h/images/image59.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4c54cb4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image59.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image60.jpg b/14657-h/images/image60.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f3c9277
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image60.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image61.jpg b/14657-h/images/image61.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6005e5e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image61.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image62.jpg b/14657-h/images/image62.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2768d6b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image62.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image63.jpg b/14657-h/images/image63.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..61b451c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image63.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image64.jpg b/14657-h/images/image64.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..28368fb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image64.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image65.jpg b/14657-h/images/image65.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b155a32
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image65.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image66.jpg b/14657-h/images/image66.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3768f05
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image66.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image67.jpg b/14657-h/images/image67.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b39f4d0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image67.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image68.jpg b/14657-h/images/image68.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7c7f28e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image68.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image69.jpg b/14657-h/images/image69.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a679027
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image69.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image70.jpg b/14657-h/images/image70.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..22963aa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image70.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image71.jpg b/14657-h/images/image71.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..67836ad
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image71.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image72.jpg b/14657-h/images/image72.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..93b1c26
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image72.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image73.jpg b/14657-h/images/image73.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..067fc71
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image73.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image74.jpg b/14657-h/images/image74.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2e6b232
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image74.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image75.jpg b/14657-h/images/image75.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..994e125
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image75.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image76.jpg b/14657-h/images/image76.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4506c5b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image76.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image77.jpg b/14657-h/images/image77.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..61d35d9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image77.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image78.jpg b/14657-h/images/image78.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..78a1abc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image78.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image79.jpg b/14657-h/images/image79.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..463fc32
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image79.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image80.jpg b/14657-h/images/image80.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..731c21e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image80.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image81.jpg b/14657-h/images/image81.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..14f8526
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image81.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image82.jpg b/14657-h/images/image82.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dbc9c36
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image82.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image83.jpg b/14657-h/images/image83.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..221a3ac
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image83.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image84.jpg b/14657-h/images/image84.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..53146bc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image84.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image85.jpg b/14657-h/images/image85.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6478fcf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image85.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image86.jpg b/14657-h/images/image86.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..005badc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image86.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image87.jpg b/14657-h/images/image87.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9404448
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image87.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image88.jpg b/14657-h/images/image88.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bc3128a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image88.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image89.jpg b/14657-h/images/image89.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a9a8ec4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image89.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image90.jpg b/14657-h/images/image90.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..55d1feb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image90.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image91.jpg b/14657-h/images/image91.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a0d494b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image91.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image92.jpg b/14657-h/images/image92.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..931f59d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image92.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image93.jpg b/14657-h/images/image93.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..63178d5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image93.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image94.jpg b/14657-h/images/image94.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..67504ad
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image94.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image95.jpg b/14657-h/images/image95.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..194a211
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image95.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image96.jpg b/14657-h/images/image96.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ea049be
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image96.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image97.jpg b/14657-h/images/image97.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..028aa68
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image97.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image98.jpg b/14657-h/images/image98.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..81c89b9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image98.jpg
diff --git a/14657-h/images/image99.jpg b/14657-h/images/image99.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e1a583d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/14657-h/images/image99.jpg
diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6312041
--- /dev/null
+++ b/LICENSE.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4d5d6d6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #14657 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/14657)
diff --git a/old/14657-8.txt b/old/14657-8.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..23bfde4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-8.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,7760 @@
+Project Gutenberg's Philo-Judaeus of Alexandria, by Norman Bentwich
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Philo-Judaeus of Alexandria
+
+Author: Norman Bentwich
+
+Release Date: January 10, 2005 [EBook #14657]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PHILO-JUDAEUS OF ALEXANDRIA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Ted Garvin, jayam, David King, and the PG Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+PHILO-JUDÆUS
+
+OF ALEXANDRIA,
+
+
+
+BY
+
+
+
+NORMAN BENTWICH
+Sometime Scholar of Trinity College,
+Cambridge.
+
+
+
+
+PHILADELPHIA
+THE JEWISH PUBLICATION SOCIETY OF AMERICA
+1910
+
+
+
+COPYRIGHT, 1910,
+BY THE JEWISH PUBLICATION SOCIETY OF AMERICA
+
+
+
+
+
+TO MY MOTHER [Greek: threptêria]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+It is a melancholy reflection upon the history of the Jews that they
+have failed to pay due honor to their two greatest philosophers.
+Spinoza was rejected by his contemporaries from the congregation of
+Israel; Philo-Judæus was neglected by the generations that followed
+him. Maimonides, our third philosopher, was in danger of meeting the
+same fate, and his philosophical work was for long viewed with
+suspicion by a large part of the community. Philosophers, by the very
+excellence of their thought, have in all races towered above the
+comprehension of the people, and aroused the suspicion of the
+religious teachers. Elsewhere, however, though rejected by the Church,
+they have left their influence upon the nation, and taken a commanding
+place in its history, because they have founded secular schools of
+thought, which perpetuated their work. In Judaism, where religion and
+nationality are inextricably combined, that could not be. The history
+of Judaism since the extinction of political independence is the
+history of a national religious culture; what was national in its
+thought alone found favor; and unless a philosopher's work bore this
+national religious stamp it dropped out of Jewish history.
+
+Philo certainly had an intensely strong Jewish feeling, but his work
+had also another aspect, which was seized upon and made use of by
+those who wished to denationalize Judaism and convert it into a
+philosophical monotheism. The favor which the Church Fathers showed to
+his writings induced and was balanced by the neglect of the rabbis.
+
+It was left till recently to non-Jews to study the works of Philo, to
+present his philosophy, and estimate its value. So far from taking a
+Jewish standpoint in their work, they emphasized the parts of his
+teaching that are least Jewish; for they were writing as Christian
+theologians or as historians of Greek philosophy. They searched him
+primarily for traces of Christian, neo-Platonic, or Stoic doctrines,
+and commiserated with him, or criticised him as a weak-kneed eclectic,
+a half-blind groper for the true light.
+
+Even during the last hundred years, which have marked a revival of the
+historical consciousness of the Jews, as of all peoples, it has still
+been left in the main to non-Jewish scholars to write of Philo in
+relation to his time and his environment. The purpose of this little
+book is frankly to give a presentation of Philo from the Jewish
+standpoint. I hold that Philo is essentially and splendidly a Jew, and
+that his thought is through and through Jewish. The surname given him
+in the second century, "Judæus," not only distinguishes him from an
+obscure Christian bishop, but it expresses the predominant
+characteristic of his teaching. It may be objected that I have pointed
+the moral and adorned the tale in accordance with preconceived
+opinions, which--as Mr. Claude Montefiore says in his essay on
+Philo--it is easy to do with so strange and curious a writer. I
+confess that my worthy appeals to me most strongly as an exponent of
+Judaism, and it may be that in this regard I have not always looked on
+him as the calm, dispassionate student should; for I experience
+towards him that warmth of feeling which his name, [Greek: philon],
+"the beloved one," suggests. But I have tried so to write this
+biography as neither to show partiality on the one side nor
+impartiality on the other. If nevertheless I have exaggerated the
+Jewishness of my worthy's thought, my excuse must be that my
+predecessors have so often exaggerated other aspects of his teaching
+that it was necessary to call a new picture into being, in order to
+redress the balance of the old.
+
+Although I have to some extent taken a line of my own in this Life, my
+obligations to previous writers upon Philo are very great. I have used
+freely the works of Drummond, Schürer, Massebieau, Zeller, Conybeare,
+Cohn, and Wendland; and among those who have treated of Philo in
+relation to Jewish tradition I have read and borrowed from Siegfried
+(_Philon als Ausleger der heiligen Schrift_), Freudenthal
+(_Hellenistische Studien_), Ritter (_Philo und die Halacha_), and Mr.
+Claude Montefiore's _Florilegium Philonis_, which is printed in the
+seventh volume of the Jewish Quarterly Review. Once for all Mr.
+Montefiore has selected many of the most beautiful and most vital
+passages of Philo, and much as I should have liked to unearth new
+gems, as beautiful and as illuminating, I have often found myself
+irresistibly attracted to Mr. Montefiore's passages. Dr. Neumark's
+book, _Geschichte der jüdischen Philosophie des Mittelalters_,
+appeared after my manuscript was set up, or I should have dealt with
+his treatment of Philo. With what he says of the relation of Plato to
+Judaism I am in great part in agreement, and I had independently come
+to the conclusion that Plato was the main Greek influence on Philo's
+thought.
+
+To these various books I owe much, but not so much as to the teaching,
+influence, and help of one whose name I have not the boldness to
+associate with this little volume, but whose notes on my manuscript
+have given it whatever value it may possess. The index I owe to the
+kindly help of a sister, who would also be nameless. Lastly I have to
+thank Dr. Lionel Barnett, professor of Sanscrit at University College,
+London, and my father, who read my manuscript before it was sent to
+the printers. The one gave me the benefit of his wide and accurate
+scholarship, the other gave me much valuable advice and removed many a
+blazing indiscretion.
+
+NORMAN BENTWICH.
+
+_February 28, 1907._
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+  PAGE
+
+      I. THE JEWISH COMMUNITY AT ALEXANDRIA
+
+     II. THE LIFE AND TIMES OF PHILO
+
+    III. PHILO'S WORKS AND METHOD
+
+     IV. PHILO AND THE TORAH
+
+      V. PHILO'S THEOLOGY
+
+     VI. PHILO AS A PHILOSOPHER
+
+    VII. PHILO AND JEWISH TRADITION
+
+   VIII. THE INFLUENCE OF PHILO
+
+         BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+         ABBREVIATIONS USED FOR THE REFERENCES
+
+         INDEX
+
+
+
+
+
+
+PHILO-JUDÆUS OF ALEXANDRIA
+
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+THE JEWISH COMMUNITY AT ALEXANDRIA
+
+
+The three great world-conquerors known to history, Alexander, Julius
+Cæsar, and Napoleon, recognized the pre-eminent value of the Jew as a
+bond of empire, an intermediary between the heterogeneous nations
+which they brought beneath their sway. Each in turn showed favor to
+his religion, and accorded him political privileges. The petty tyrants
+of all ages have persecuted Jews on the plea of securing uniformity
+among their subjects; but the great conqueror-statesmen who have made
+history, realizing that progress is brought about by unity in
+difference, have recognized in Jewish individuality a force making for
+progress. Whereas the pure Hellenes had put all the other peoples of
+the world in the single category of barbarians, their Macedonian
+conqueror forced upon them a broader view, and, regarding his empire
+as a world-state, made Greeks and Orientals live together, and
+prepared the way for a mingling of races and culture. Alexander the
+Great became a notable figure in the Talmud and Midrashim, and many a
+marvellous legend was told about his passing visit to Jerusalem during
+his march to Egypt.[1] The high priest--whether it was Jaddua, Simon,
+or Onias the records do not make clear--is said to have gone out to
+meet him, and to have compelled the reverence and homage of the
+monarch by the majesty of his presence and the lustre of his robes. Be
+this as it may, it is certain that Alexander settled a considerable
+number of Jews in the Greek colonies which he founded as centres of
+cosmopolitan culture in his empire, and especially in the town by the
+mouth of the Nile that received his own name, and was destined to
+become within two centuries the second town in the world; second only
+to Rome in population and power, equal to it in culture. By its
+geographical position, the nature of its foundation, and the sources
+of its population, and by the wonderful organization of its Museum, in
+which the records of all nations were stored and studied, Alexandria
+was fitted to become the meeting-place of civilizations.
+
+There was already a considerable settlement of Jews in Egypt before
+Alexander's transplantation in 332 B.C.E. Throughout Bible times the
+connection between Israel and Egypt had been close. Isaiah speaks of
+the day when five cities in the land of Egypt should speak the
+language of Canaan and swear to the Lord of hosts (xix. 18); and when
+Nebuchadnezzar led away the first captivity, many of the people had
+fled from Palestine to the old "cradle of the nation." Jeremiah (xliv)
+went down with them to prophesy against their idolatrous practices and
+their backslidings; and Jewish and Christian writers in later times,
+daring boldly against chronology, told how Plato, visiting Egypt, had
+heard Jeremiah and learnt from him his lofty monotheism. Doubt was
+thrown in the last century upon the continuance of the Diaspora in
+Egypt between the time of Jeremiah and Alexander, but the recent
+discovery of a Jewish temple at Elephantine and of Aramaic papyri at
+Assouan dated in the fifth and fourth centuries B.C.E. has proved that
+these doubts were not well founded, and that there was a
+well-established community during the interval.
+
+From the time of the post-exilic prophets Judaism developed in three
+main streams, one flowing from Jerusalem, another from Babylon, the
+third from Egypt. Alexandria soon took precedence of existing
+settlements of Jews, and became a great centre of Jewish life. The
+first Ptolemy, to whom at the dismemberment of Alexander's empire
+Egypt had fallen,[2] continued to the Jewish settlers the privileges
+of full citizenship which Alexander had granted them. He increased
+also the number of Jewish inhabitants, for following his conquest of
+Palestine (or Coele-Syria, as it was then called), he brought back to
+his capital a large number of Jewish families and settled thirty
+thousand Jewish soldiers in garrisons. For the next hundred years the
+Palestinian and Egyptian Jews were under the same rule, and for the
+most part the Ptolemies treated them well. They were easy-going and
+tolerant, and while they encouraged the higher forms of Greek culture,
+art, letters, and philosophy, both at their own court and through
+their dominions, they made no attempt to impose on their subjects the
+Greek religion and ceremonial. Under their tolerant sway the Jewish
+community thrived, and became distinguished in the handicrafts as well
+as in commerce. Two of the five sections into which Alexandria was
+divided were almost exclusively occupied by them; these lay in the
+north-east along the shore and near the royal palace--a favorable
+situation for the large commercial enterprises in which they were
+engaged. The Jews had full permission to carry on their religious
+observances, and besides many smaller places of worship, each marked
+by its surrounding plantation of trees, they built a great synagogue,
+of which it is said in the Talmud, "He who has not seen it has not
+seen the glory of Israel."[3] It was in the form of a basilica, with a
+double row of columns, and so vast that an official standing upon a
+platform had to wave his head-cloth or veil to inform the people at
+the back of the edifice when to say "Amen" in response to the Reader.
+The congregation was seated according to trade-guilds, as was also
+customary during the Middle Ages; the goldsmiths, silversmiths,
+coppersmiths, and weavers had their own places, for the Alexandrian
+Jews seem to have partially adopted the Egyptian caste-system. The
+Jews enjoyed a large amount of self-government, having their own
+governor, the ethnarch, and in Roman times their own council
+(Sanhedrin), which administered their own code of laws. Of the
+ethnarch Strabo says that he was like an independent ruler, and it was
+his function to secure the proper fulfilment of duties by the
+community and compliance with their peculiar laws.[4] Thus the people
+formed a sort of state within a state, preserving their national life
+in the foreign environment. They possessed as much political
+independence as the Palestinian community when under Roman rule; and
+enjoyed all the advantages without any of the narrowing influences,
+physical or intellectual, of a ghetto. They were able to remain an
+independent body, and foster a Jewish spirit, a Jewish view of life, a
+Jewish culture, while at the same time they assimilated the different
+culture of the Greeks around them, and took their part in the general
+social and political life.
+
+At the end of the third and the beginning of the second century
+Palestine was a shuttlecock tossed between the Ptolemies and the
+Seleucids; but in the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes (_c._ 150 B.C.E.)
+it finally passed out of the power of the Ptolemaic house, and from
+this time the Palestinian Jews had a different political history from
+the Egyptian. The compulsory Hellenization by Antiochus aroused the
+best elements of the Jewish nation, which had seemed likely to lose by
+a gradual assimilation its adherence to pure monotheism and the Mosaic
+law. The struggle of foe as against the Hellenizing party of his own
+people, which, led by the high priests Jason, Menelaus, and Alcimus,
+tried to crush both the national and the religious spirit. The
+Maccabæan rule brought not only a renaissance of national life and
+national culture, but also a revival of the national religion. Before,
+however, the deliverance of the Jews had been accomplished by the
+noble band of brothers, many of the faithful Palestinian families had
+fled for protection from the tyranny of Antiochus to the refuge of his
+enemy Ptolemy Philometor. Among the fugitives were Onias and
+Dositheus, who, according to Josephus,[5] became the trusted leaders
+of the armies of the Egyptian monarch. Onias, moreover, was the
+rightful successor to the high-priesthood, and despairing of obtaining
+his dignity in Jerusalem, where the office had been given to the
+worthless Hellenist Alcimus, he conceived the idea of setting up a
+local centre of the Jewish religion in the country of his exile. He
+persuaded Ptolemy to grant him a piece of territory upon which he
+might build a temple for Jewish worship, assuring him that his action
+would have the effect of securing forever the loyalty of his Jewish
+subjects. Ptolemy "gave him a place one hundred and eighty furlongs
+distant from Memphis, in the nomos of Heliopolis, where he built a
+fortress and a temple, not like that at Jerusalem, but such as
+resembled a tower."[6] Professor Flinders Petrie has recently
+discovered remains at Tell-el-Yehoudiyeh, the "mound of the Jews,"
+near the ancient Leontopolis, which tally with the description of
+Josephus, and may be presumed to be the ruins of the temple.
+
+It is difficult to arrive at an accurate idea of the nature and
+importance of the Onias temple, because our chief authority,
+Josephus,[7] gives two inconsistent accounts of it, and the Talmud
+references[8] are equally involved. But certain negative facts are
+clear. First, the temple did not become, even if it were designed to
+be, a rival to the temple of Jerusalem: it did not diminish in any way
+the tribute which the Egyptian Jews paid to the sacred centre of the
+religion. They did not cease to send their tithes for the benefit of
+the poor in Judæa, or their representatives to the great festivals,
+and they dispatched messengers each year with contributions of gold
+and silver, who, says Philo,[9] "travelled over almost impassable
+roads, which they looked upon as easy, in that they led them to
+piety." The Alexandrian-Jewish writers, without exception, are silent
+about the work of Onias; Philo does not give a single hint of it, and
+on the other hand speaks[10] several times of the great national
+centre at Jerusalem as "the most beautiful and renowned temple which
+is honored by the whole East and West." The Egyptian Jews, according
+to Josephus, claimed that the prophecy of Isaiah had been
+accomplished, "that there shall be an altar to the Lord in the midst
+of the land of Egypt" (Is. xix. 19). But the altar, it has recently
+been suggested,[11] was rather a "Bamah" (a high place) than a temple.
+It served as a temporary sanctuary while the Jerusalem temple was
+defiled, and afterwards it was a place where the priestly ritual was
+carried out day by day, and offerings were brought by those who could
+not make the pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Though the synagogue was the
+main seat of religious life in the Diaspora, there was still a desire
+for the sacrificial worship, and for a long time the rabbis looked
+with favor upon the establishment of Onias. But when the tendency to
+found a new ritual there showed itself, they denied its holiness.[12]
+The religious importance of the temple, however, was never great, and
+its chief interest is that it shows the survival of the affection for
+the priestly service among the Hellenized community, and helps
+therefore to disprove the myth that the Alexandrians allegorized away
+the Levitical laws.
+
+During the checkered history of Egypt in the first century B.C.E.,
+when it was in turn the plaything of the corrupt Roman Senate, who
+supported the claims of a series of feeble puppet-Ptolemies, the prize
+of the warriors, who successively aspired to be masters of the world,
+Julius Cæsar, Mark Antony, and Octavian, and finally a province of the
+Roman Empire, the political and material prosperity of the Alexandrian
+Jews remained for the most part undisturbed. Julius Cæsar and
+Augustus, who everywhere showed special favor to their Jewish
+subjects, confirmed the privileges of full citizenship and limited
+self-government which the early Ptolemies had bestowed.[13] Josephus
+records a letter of Augustus to the Jewish community at Cyrene, in
+which he ordains: "Since the nation of the Jews hath been found
+grateful to the Roman people, it seemed good to me and my counsellors
+that the Jews have liberty to make use of their own customs, and that
+their sacred money be not touched, but sent to Jerusalem, and that
+they be not obliged to go before the judge on the Sabbath day nor on
+the day of preparation for it after the ninth hour," _i.e._, after the
+early evening.[14] This decree is typical of the emperor's attitude to
+his Jewish subjects; and Egypt became more and more a favored home of
+the race, so that the Jewish population in the land, from the Libyan
+desert to the border of Ethiopia, was estimated in Philo's time at not
+less than one million.[15]
+
+The prosperity and privileges of the Jews, combined with their
+peculiar customs and their religious separateness, did not fail at
+Alexandria, as they have not failed in any country of the Diaspora, to
+arouse the mixed envy and dislike of the rude populace, and give a
+handle to the agitations of self-seeking demagogues. The third book of
+the Maccabees tells of a Ptolemaic persecution during which Jewish
+victims were turned into the arena at Alexandria, to be trodden down
+by elephants made fierce with the blood of grapes, and of their
+deliverance by Divine Providence. Some fiction is certainly mixed with
+this recital, but it may well be that during the rule of the stupid
+and cruel usurper Ptolemy Physcon (_c._ 120 B.C.E.) the protection of
+the royal house was for political reasons removed for a time from the
+Jews. Josephus[16] relates that the anniversary of the deliverance was
+celebrated as a festival in Egypt. The popular feeling against the
+peculiar people was of an abiding character, for it had abiding
+causes, envy and dislike of a separate manner of life; and the
+professional anti-Semite,[17] who had his forerunners before the reign
+of the first Ptolemy, was able from time to time to fan popular
+feelings into flame. In those days, when history and fiction were not
+clearly distinguished, he was apt to hide his attacks under the guise
+of history, and stir up odium by scurrilous and offensive accounts of
+the ancient Hebrews. Hence anti-Jewish literature originated at
+Alexandria.
+
+Manetho, an historian of the second century B.C.E., in his chronicles
+of Egypt, introduced an anti-Jewish pamphlet with an original account
+of the Exodus, which became the model for a school of scribes more
+virulent and less distinguished than himself. The Battle of Histories
+was taken up with spirit by the Jews, and it was round the history of
+the Israelites in Egypt that the conflict chiefly raged. In reply to
+the offensive picture of a Manetho and the diatribes of some
+"starveling Greekling," there appeared the eulogistic picture of an
+Aristeas, the improved Exodus of an Artapanus. Joseph and Moses
+figured as the most brilliant of Egyptian statesmen, and the Ptolemies
+as admirers of the Scriptures. The morality of this apologetic
+literature, and more particularly of the literary forgeries which
+formed part of it, has been impugned by certain German theologians.
+But apart from the necessities of the case, it is not fair to apply to
+an age in which Cicero declared that artistic lying was legitimate in
+history, the standard of modern German accuracy. The fabrications of
+Jewish apologists were in the spirit of the time.
+
+The outward history of the Alexandrian community is far less
+interesting and of far less importance than its intellectual progress.
+When Alexander planted the colony of Jews in his greatest foundation,
+he probably intended to facilitate the fusion of Eastern and Western
+thought through their mediation. Such, at any rate, was the result of
+his work. His marvellous exploits had put an end for a time to the
+political strife between Asia and Europe, and had started the movement
+between the two realms of culture, which was fated to produce the
+greatest combination of ideas that the world has known. Now, at last,
+the Hebrew, with his lofty conception of God, came into close contact
+with the Greek, who had developed an equally noble conception of man.
+Disraeli, in his usual sweeping manner, makes one of his characters in
+"Lothair" tell how the Aryan and Semitic races, after centuries of
+wandering upon opposite courses, met again and, represented by their
+two choicest families, the Hellenes and the Hebrews, brought together
+the treasures of their accumulated wisdom and secured the civilization
+of man. Apart from the question of the original common source, of
+which we are no longer sure, his rhetoric is broadly true; but for two
+centuries the influence was nearly all upon one side. The Jew,
+attracted by the brilliant art, literature, science, and philosophy of
+the Hellene, speedily Hellenized, and as early as the third century
+B.C.E. Clearchus, the pupil of Aristotle, tells of a Jew whom his
+master met, who was "Greek not only in language but also in mind."[18]
+The Greek, on the other hand, who had not yet comprehended the majesty
+of his neighbor's monotheism, for lack of adequate presentation, did
+not Hebraize. In Palestine the adoption of Greek ways and the
+introduction of Greek ideas proceeded rapidly to the point of
+demoralization, until the Maccabees stayed it. Unfortunately, the
+Hellenism that was brought to Palestine was not the lofty culture, the
+eager search for truth and knowledge, that marked Athens in the
+classical age; it was a bastard product of Greek elegance and Oriental
+luxury and sensuousness, a seeking after base pleasures, an assertion
+of naturalistic polytheism. And hence came the strong reaction against
+Greek ideas among the bulk of the people, which prevented any
+permanent fusion of cultures in the land of Israel.
+
+The Hellenism of Alexandria was a more genuine product. The liberal
+policy of the early Ptolemies made their capital a centre of art,
+literature, science, and philosophy. To their court were gathered the
+chief poets, savants, and thinkers of their age. The Museum was the
+most celebrated literary academy, and the Library the most noted
+collection of books in the world. Dwelling in this atmosphere of
+culture and research, the Hebrew mind rapidly expanded and began to
+take its part as an active force in civilization. It acquired the love
+of knowledge in a wider sense than it had recognized before, and
+assimilated the teachings of Hellas in all their variety. Within a
+hundred years of their settlement Hebrew or Aramaic had become to the
+Jews a strange language, and they spoke and thought in Greek. Hence it
+was necessary to have an authoritative Greek translation of the Holy
+Scriptures, and the first great step in the Jewish-Hellenistic
+development is marked by the Septuagint version of the Bible.
+
+Fancy and legend attached themselves early to an event fraught with
+such importance for the history of the race and mankind as the
+translation of the Scriptures into the language of the cultured world.
+From this overgrowth it is difficult to construct a true narrative;
+still, the research of latter-day scholars has gone far to prove a
+basis of truth in the statements made in the famous letter of the
+pseudo-Aristeas, which professes to describe the origin of the work.
+We may extract from his story that the Septuagint was written in the
+reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, about 250 B.C.E., with the approval, if
+not at the express request, of the king, and with the help of rabbis
+brought from Palestine to give authority to the work. But we need not
+believe with later legend that each of the seventy translators was
+locked up in a separate cell for seventy days till he had finished the
+whole work, and that when they were let out they were all found to
+have written exactly the same words. Philo gives us a version of the
+event, romantic, indeed, but more rational, in his "Life of
+Moses."[19] He tells how Ptolemy, having conceived a great admiration
+for the laws of Moses, sent ambassadors to the high priest of Juddea,
+requesting him to choose out a number of learned men that might
+translate them into Greek. "These were duly chosen, and came to the
+king's court, and were allotted the Isle of Pharos as the most
+tranquil spot in the city for carrying out their work; by God's grace
+they all found the exact Greek words to correspond to the Hebrew
+words, so that they were not mere translators, but prophets to whom
+it had been granted to follow in the divinity of their minds the
+sublime spirit of Moses." "On which account," he adds, "even to this
+day there is in every year celebrated a festival in the Island of
+Pharos, to which not only Jews but many persons of other nations sail
+across, reverencing the place in which the light of interpretation
+first shone forth, and thanking God for His ancient gift to man, which
+has eternal youth and freshness." It is significant that Philo makes
+no mention in his books of the festival of Hanukah, while the Talmud
+has no mention of this feast of Pharos; the Alexandrian Jews
+celebrated the day when the Bible was brought within reach of the
+Greek world, the Palestinians the day when the Greeks were driven out
+of the temple. At the same time the celebrations in honor of the
+Septuagint and of the deliverance from the Ptolemaic persecution[20]
+are remarkable illustrations of a living Jewish tradition at
+Alexandria, which attached a religious consecration to the special
+history of the community.
+
+It is not correct to say with Philo that the translator rendered each
+word of the Hebrew with literal faithfulness, so as to give its proper
+force. Rather may we accept the words of the Greek translator of Ben
+Sira: "Things originally spoken in Hebrew have not the same force in
+them when they are translated into another tongue, and not only these,
+but the law itself (the Torah) and the prophecies and the rest of the
+books have no small difference when they are spoken in their original
+language."[21]
+
+From the making of the translation one can trace the movement that
+ended in Christianity. By reading their Scriptures in Greek, Jews
+began to think them in Greek and according to Greek conceptions.
+Certain commentators have seen in the Septuagint itself the infusion
+of Greek philosophical ideas. Be this as it may, it is certain that
+the version facilitated the introduction of Greek philosophy into the
+interpretation of Scripture, and gave a new meaning to certain Hebraic
+conceptions, by suggesting comparison with strange notions. This
+aspect of the work led the rabbis of Palestine and Babylon in later
+days, when the spread of Hellenized Judaism was fraught with misery to
+the race, to regard it as an awful calamity, and to recount a tale of
+a plague of darkness which fell upon Palestine for three days when it
+was made;[22] and they observed a fast day in place of the old
+Alexandrian feast on the anniversary of its completion. They felt as
+the old Italian proverb has it, _Traduttori, traditori!_ ("Translators
+are traitors!"). And the Midrash in the same spirit declares[23] that
+the oral law was not written down, because God knew that otherwise it
+would be translated into Greek, and He wished it to be the special
+mystery of His people, as the Bible no longer was.
+
+The Septuagint translation of the Bible was one answer to the lying
+accounts of Israel's early history concocted by anti-Semitic writers.
+As we have seen,[24] the Alexandrian Jews began early to write
+histories and re-edit the Bible stories to the same purpose. And for
+some time their writings were mainly apologetic, designed, whatever
+their form, to serve a defensive purpose. But later they took the
+offensive against the paganism and immorality of the peoples about
+them, and the missionary spirit became predominant. Alexander
+Polyhistor, who lived in the first century, included in his "History
+of the Jews" fragments of these early Jewish historians and
+apologists, which the Christian bishop Eusebius has handed down to us.
+From them we can gather some notion of the strange medley of fact and
+imagination which was composed to influence the Gentile world. Abraham
+is said to have instructed the Egyptians in astrology; Joseph devised
+a great system of agriculture; Moses was identified variously with the
+legendary Greek seer Musaeus and the god Hermes. A favorite device for
+rebutting the calumnies of detractors and attracting the outer world
+to Jewish ideas, was the attachment to some ancient source of
+panegyrics upon Judaism and monotheism. To the Greek philosopher
+Heraclitus and the Greek historian Hecatæeus, who wrote a history of
+the world, passages which glorify the Hebrew people and the Hebrew God
+were ascribed. Still more daring was the conversion into archaic
+hexameter verse of the stories of Genesis and Exodus, and of Messianic
+prophecies in the guise of Sibylline oracles. The Sibyl, whom the
+superstitions of the time revered as an inspired seeress of
+prehistoric ages, was made to recite the building of the tower of
+Babel, or the virtues of Abraham, and again to prophesy the day when
+the heathen nations should be wiped out, and the God of Israel be the
+God of all the world. Although the fabrication of oracles is not
+entirely defensible, it is unnecessary to see, with Schürer, in these
+writings a low moral standard among the Egyptian Jews. They were not
+meant to suggest, to the cultured at any rate, that the Sibyl in one
+case or Heraclitus in another had really written the words ascribed to
+them. The so-called forgery was a literary device of a like nature
+with the dialogues of Plato or the political fantasies of More and
+Swift. By the striking nature of their utterances the writers hoped to
+catch the ear of the Gentile world for the saving doctrine which they
+taught. The form is Greek, but the spirit is Hebraic; in the third
+Sibylline oracle, particularly, the call to monotheism and the
+denunciation of idolatry, with the pictures of the Divine reward for
+the righteous, and of the Divine judgment for the ungodly, remind us
+of the prophecies of Isaiah and Jeremiah; as when the poet says,[25]
+"Witless mortals, who cling to an image that ye have fashioned to be
+your god, why do ye vainly go astray, and march along a path which is
+not straight? Why remember ye not the eternal founder of All? One only
+God there is who ruleth alone." And again: "The children of Israel
+shall mark out the path of life to all mortals, for they are the
+interpreters of God, exalted by Him, and bearing a great joy to all
+mankind."[26] The consciousness of the Jewish mission is the dominant
+note. Masters now of Greek culture, the Jews believed that they had a
+philosophy of their own, which it was their privilege to teach to the
+Greeks; their conception of God and the government of the world was
+truer than any other; their conception of man's duty more righteous;
+even their conception of the state more ideal.
+
+The apocryphal book, the Wisdom of Solomon, which was probably written
+at Alexandria during the first century B.C.E., is marked by the same
+spirit. There again we meet with the glorification of the one true God
+of Israel, and the denunciation of pagan idolatry; and while the
+author writes in Greek and shows the influence of Greek ideas, he
+makes the Psalms and the Proverbs his models of literary form. "Love
+righteousness," he begins, "ye that be judges of the earth; think ye
+of the Lord with a good mind and in singleness of heart seek ye Him."
+His appeal for godliness is addressed to the Gentile world in a
+language which they understood, but in a spirit to which most of them
+were strangers. The early history of the Israelites in Egypt comes
+home to him with especial force, for he sees it "in the light of
+eternity," a striking moral lesson for the godless Egyptian world
+around him in which the house of Jacob dwelt again. With poetical
+imagination he tells anew the story of the ten plagues as though he
+had lived through them, and seen with his own eyes the punishment of
+the idolatrous land. He ends with a pæan to the God who had saved His
+people. "For in all things Thou didst magnify them, and Thou didst
+glorify them, and not lightly regard them, standing by their side in
+every time and place."
+
+At this epoch, and at Alexandria especially, Judaism was no
+self-centred, exclusive faith afraid of expansion. The mission of
+Israel was a very real thing, and conversion was widespread in Rome,
+in Egypt, and all along the Mediterranean countries. The Jews, says
+the letter of Aristeas, "eagerly seek intercourse with other nations,
+and they pay special care to this, and emulate each other therein."
+And one of the most reliable pagan writers says of them, "They have
+penetrated into every state, and it is hard to find a place where they
+have not become powerful."[27] Nor was it merely material power which
+they acquired. The days had come which the prophet Amos (viii. 11) had
+predicted, when "God will send a famine in the land, not a famine of
+bread, nor a thirst for water, but a famine of hearing the words of
+the Lord." The Greek world had lost faith in the poetical gods of its
+mythology and in the metaphysical powers of its philosophical schools,
+and was searching for a more real object to revere and lean on. The
+people were thirsting for the living God. And in place of the gods of
+nature, whom they had found unsatisfying, or the impersonal
+world-force, with which they sought in vain to come into harmony, the
+Jews offered them the God of history, who had preserved their race
+through the ages, and revealed to them the law of Moses.
+
+The missionary purpose was largely responsible for the rise of a
+philosophical school of Bible commentators. The Hellenistic world was
+thoroughly sophisticated, and Alexandria was distinguished above all
+towns as the home of philosophical lectures and book-making. One of
+Philo's contemporaries is said to have written over one thousand
+treatises, and in one of his rare touches of satire Philo relates[28]
+how bands of sophists talked to eager crowds of men and women day and
+night about virtue being the only good, and the blessedness of life
+according to nature, all without producing the slightest effect, save
+noise. The Jews also studied philosophy, and began to talk in the
+catchwords of philosophy, and then to re-interpret their Scriptures
+according to the ideas of philosophy. The Septuagint translation of
+the Pentateuch was to the cultured Gentile an account in rather bald
+and impure Greek of the history of a family which grew into a petty
+nation, and of their tribal and national laws. The prophets, it is
+true, set forth teachings which were more obviously of general moral
+import; but the books of the prophets were not God's special
+revelation to the Jews, but rather individual utterances and
+exhortations: and their teaching was treated as subordinate to the
+Divine revelation in the Five Books of Moses. Those, then, who aimed
+at the spread of Jewish monotheism were impelled to draw out a
+philosophical meaning, a universal value from the Books of Moses.
+Nowadays the Bible is the holy book of so much of the civilized world
+that it is somewhat difficult for us to form a proper conception of
+what it was to the civilized world before the Christian era. We have
+to imagine a state of culture in which it was only the Book of books
+to one small nation, while to others it was at best a curious record
+of ancient times, just as the Code of Hammurabi or the Egyptian Book
+of Life is to us. The Alexandrian Jews were the first to popularize
+its teachings, to bring Jewish religion into line with the thought of
+the Greek world. It was to this end that they founded a particular
+form of Midrash--the allegorical interpretation, which is largely a
+distinctive product of the Alexandrian age. The Palestinian rabbis of
+the time were on the one hand developing by dialectic discussion the
+oral tradition into a vast system of religious ritual and legal
+jurisprudence; on the other, weaving around the law, by way of
+adornment to it, a variegated fabric of philosophy, fable, allegory,
+and legend. Simultaneously the Alexandrian preachers--they were never
+quite the same as the rabbis--were emphasizing for the outer world as
+well as their own people the spiritual side of the religion,
+elaborating a theology that should satisfy the reason, and seeking to
+establish the harmony of Greek philosophy with Jewish monotheism and
+the Mosaic legislation. Allegorical interpretation is "based upon the
+supposition or fiction that the author who is interpreted intended
+something 'other' [Greek: allo] than what is expressed"; it is the
+method used to read thought into a text which its words do not
+literally bear, by attaching to each phrase some deeper, usually some
+philosophical meaning. It enables the interpreter to bring writings of
+antiquity into touch with the culture of his or any age; "the gates of
+allegory are never closed, and they open upon a path which stretches
+without a break through the centuries." In the region of jurisprudence
+there is an institution with a similar purpose, which is known as
+"legal fiction," whereby old laws by subtle interpretation are made to
+serve new conditions and new needs. Allegorical interpretation must be
+carefully distinguished from the writing of allegory, of which
+Bunyan's "Pilgrim's Progress" is the best-known type. One is the
+converse of the other; for in allegories moral ideas are represented
+as persons and moral lessons enforced by what purports to be a story
+of life. In allegorical interpretation persons are transformed into
+ideas and their history into a system of philosophy. The Greek
+philosophers had applied this method to Homer since the fourth century
+B.C.E., in order to read into the epic poet, whose work they regarded
+almost as a Divine revelation, their reflective theories of the
+universe. And doubtless the Jewish philosophers were influenced by
+their example.
+
+Their allegorical treatment of the Bible was intended, not merely to
+adapt it to the Greek world, but to strengthen its hold on the
+Alexandrian Jews themselves. These, as they acquired Hellenic culture,
+found that the Bible in its literal sense did not altogether satisfy
+their conceptions. They detected in it a certain primitiveness, and
+having eaten further of the tree of knowledge, they were aware of its
+philosophical nakedness. It was full of anthropomorphism, and it
+seemed wanting in that which the Greek world admired above all
+things--a systematic theology and systematic ethics. The idea that the
+words of the Bible contained some hidden meanings goes back to the
+earliest Jewish tradition and is one of the bases of the oral law; but
+the special characteristic of the Alexandrian exegesis is that it
+searched out theories of God and life like those which the Greek
+philosophers had developed. The device was necessary to secure the
+allegiance of the people to the Torah. And from the need of expounding
+the Bible in this way to the Jewish public at Alexandria, there arose
+a new form of religious literature, the sermon, and a new form of
+commentary, the homiletical. The words "homiletical" and "homily"
+suggest what they originally connoted; they are derived from the Greek
+word [Greek: homilia], "an assembly," and a homily was a discourse
+delivered to an assembly. The Meturgeman of Palestine and Babylon, who
+expounded the Hebrew text in Aramaic, became the preacher of
+Alexandria, who gave, in Greek, of course, homiletical expositions of
+the law. In the great synagogue each Sabbath some leader in the
+community would give a harangue to the assembly, starting from a
+Biblical text and deducing from it or weaving into it the ideas of
+Hellenic wisdom, touched by Jewish influence; for the synagogues at
+Alexandria as elsewhere were the schools (_Schule_) as much as the
+houses of prayer; schools, as Philo says, of "temperance, bravery,
+prudence, justice, piety, holiness, and in short of all virtues by
+which things human and Divine are well ordered."[29] He speaks
+repeatedly of the Sabbath gatherings, when the Jews would become, as
+he puts it, a community of philosophers,[30] as they listened to the
+exegesis of the preacher, who by allegorical and homiletical fancies
+would make a verse or chapter of the Torah live again with a new
+meaning to his audience. The Alexandrian Jews, though the form of
+their writing was influenced by the Greeks, probably brought with them
+from Palestine primitive traces of allegorism. Allegory and its
+counterpart, allegorical interpretation, are deeply imbedded in the
+Oriental mind, and we hear of ancient schools of symbolists in the
+oldest portions of the Talmud.[31] At what period the Alexandrians
+began to use allegorical interpretation for the purpose of harmonizing
+Greek ideas with the Bible we do not know, but the first writer in
+this style of whom we have record (though scholars consider that his
+fragments are of doubtful authenticity) is Aristobulus. He is said to
+have been the tutor of Ptolemy Philometor, and he must have written at
+the beginning of the first century B.C.E. He dedicated to the king his
+"Exegesis of the Mosaic Law," which was an attempt to reveal the
+teachings of the Peripatetic system, _i.e._, the philosophy of
+Aristotle, within the text of the Pentateuch. All anthropomorphic
+expressions are explained away allegorically, and God's activity in
+the material universe is ascribed to his [Greek: Dunamis] or power,
+which pervades all creation. Whether the power is independent and
+treated as a separate person is not clear from the fragments that
+Eusebius[32] has preserved for us. Aristobulus was only one link in a
+continuous chain, though his is the only name among Philo's
+predecessors that has come down to us. Philo speaks, fifteen times in
+all, of explanations of allegorists who read into the Bible this or
+that system of thought[33] regarding the words of the law as "manifest
+symbols of things invisible and hints of things inexpressible." And if
+their work were before us, it is likely that Philo would appear as the
+central figure of an Alexandrian Midrash gathered from many sources,
+instead of the sole authority for a vast development of the Torah. We
+must not regard him as a single philosophical genius who suddenly
+springs up, but as the culmination of a long development, the supreme
+master of an old tradition.
+
+If the allegorical method appears now as artificial and frigid, it
+must be remembered that it was one which recommended itself strongly
+to the age. The great creative era of the Greek mind had passed away
+with the absorption of the city-state in Alexander's empire. Then
+followed the age of criticism, during which the works of the great
+masters were interpreted, annotated, and compared. Next, as creative
+thought became rarer, and confidence in human reason began to be
+shaken, men fell back more and more for their ideas and opinions upon
+some authority of the distant past, whom they regarded as an inspired
+teacher. The sayings of Homer and Pythagoras were considered as
+divinely revealed truths; and when treated allegorically, they were
+shown to contain the philosophical tenets of the Platonic, the
+Aristotelian, or the Stoic school. Thus, in the first century B.C.E.,
+the Greek mind, which had earlier been devoted to the free search for
+knowledge and truth, was approaching the Hebraic standpoint, which
+considered that the highest truth had once for all been revealed to
+mankind in inspired writings, and that the duty of later generations
+was to interpret this revealed doctrine rather than search
+independently for knowledge. On the other hand, the Jewish
+interpreters were trying to reach the Greek standpoint when they set
+themselves to show that the writers of the Bible had anticipated the
+philosophers of Hellas with systems of theology, psychology, ethics,
+and cosmology. Allegorism, it may be said, is the instrument by which
+Greek and Hebrew thought were brought together. Its development was in
+its essence a sign of intellectual vigor and religious activity; but
+in the time of Philo it threatened to have one evil consequence, which
+did in the end undermine the religion of the Alexandrian community.
+Some who allegorized the Torah were not content with discovering a
+deeper meaning beneath the law, but went on to disregard the literal
+sense, _i.e._, they allegorized away the law, and held in contempt the
+symbolic observance to which they had attached a spiritual meaning. On
+the other hand, there was a party which adhered strictly to the
+literal sense ([Greek: to hrêton]) and rejected allegorism.[34] Philo
+protested against these extremes and was the leader of those who were
+liberal in thought and conservative in practice, and who venerated the
+law both for its literal and for its allegorical sense. To effect the
+true harmony between the literal and the allegorical sense of the
+Torah, between the spiritual and the legal sides of Judaism, between
+Greek philosophy and revealed religion--that was the great work of
+Philo-Judæus.
+
+Though the religious and intellectual development of the Alexandrian
+community proceeded on different lines from that of the main body of
+the nation in Palestine, yet the connection between the two was
+maintained closely for centuries. The colony, as we have noticed,
+recognized whole-heartedly the spiritual headship of Jerusalem, and at
+the great festivals of the year a deputation went from Alexandria to
+the holy sanctuary, bearing offerings from the whole community. In
+Jerusalem, on the other hand, special synagogues, where Greek was the
+language,[35] were built for Alexandrian visitors. Alexandrian
+artisans and craftsmen took part in the building of Herod's temple,
+but were found inferior to native workmen.[36] The notices within the
+building were written in Greek as well as in Aramaic, and the golden
+gates to the inner court were, we are told by Josephus,[37] the gift
+of Philo's brother, the head of the Alexandrian community. Some
+fragments have come down to us of a poem about Jerusalem in Greek
+verse by a certain Philo, who lived in the first century B.C.E., and
+was perhaps an ancestor of our worthy. He glorifies the Holy City,
+extols its fertility, and speaks of its ever-flowing waters beneath
+the earth. His greater namesake says that wherever the Jews live they
+consider Jerusalem as their metropolis. The Talmud again tells how
+Judah Ben Tabbai and Joshua Ben Perahya, during the persecution of the
+Pharisees by Hyreanus, fled to Alexandria, and how later Joshua Ben
+Hanania[38] sojourned there and gave answers to twelve questions which
+the Jews propounded to him, three of them dealing with "the Wisdom."
+The Talmud has frequent reference to Alexandrian Jews, and that it
+makes little direct mention of the Alexandrian exegesis is explained
+by the distrust of the whole Hellenistic movement, which the rise of
+Christianity and the growth of Gnosticism induced in the rabbis of the
+second and third centuries. They lived at a time when it had been
+proved that that movement led away from Judaism, and its main tenets
+had been adopted or perverted by an antagonistic creed. It was a
+tragic necessity which compelled the severance between the Eastern and
+Western developments of the religion. In Philo's day the breach was
+already threatened, through the anti-legal tendencies of the extreme
+allegorists. His own aim was to maintain the catholic tradition of
+Judaism, while at the same time expounding the Torah according to the
+conceptions of ancient philosophy. Unfortunately, the balance was not
+preserved by those who followed him, and the branch of Judaism that
+had blossomed forth so fruitfully fell off from the parent tree. But
+till the middle of the first century of the common era the Alexandrian
+and the Palestinian developments of Jewish culture were complementary:
+on the one side there was legal, on the other, philosophical
+expansion. Moreover, the Judæo-Alexandrian school, though, through its
+abandonment of the Hebrew tongue, it lies outside the main stream of
+Judaism, was an immense force in the religious history of the world,
+and Philo, its greatest figure, stands out in our annals as the
+embodiment of the Jewish religious mission, which is to preach to the
+nations the knowledge of the one God, and the law of righteousness.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+THE LIFE AND TIMES OF PHILO
+
+
+"The hero," says Carlyle, "can be poet, prophet, king, priest, or what
+you will, according to the kind of world he finds himself born
+into."[39] The Jews have not been a great political people, but their
+excellence has been a peculiar spiritual development: and therefore
+most of their heroes have been men of thought rather than action,
+writers rather than statesmen, men whose influence has been greater on
+posterity than upon their own generation. Of Philo's life we know one
+incident in very full detail, the rest we can only reconstruct from
+stray hints in his writings, and a few short notices of the
+commentators. From that incident also, which we know to have taken
+place in the year 40 C.E., we can fix the general chronology of his
+life and works. He speaks of himself as an old man in relating it, so
+that his birth may be safely placed at about 20 B.C.E. The first part
+of his life therefore was passed during the tranquil era in which
+Augustus and Tiberius were reorganizing the Roman Empire after a
+half-century of war; but he was fated to see more troublesome times
+for his people, when the emperor Gaius, for a miserable eight years,
+harassed the world with his mad escapades. In the riots which ensued
+upon the attempt to deprive the Jews of their religious freedom his
+brother the alabarch was imprisoned;[40] and he himself was called
+upon to champion the Alexandrian community in its hour of need.
+Although the ascent of the stupid but honest Claudius dispelled
+immediate danger from the Jews and brought them a temporary increase
+of favor in Alexandria as well as in Palestine, Philo did not return
+entirely to the contemplative life which he loved; and throughout the
+latter portion of his life he was the public defender as well as the
+teacher of his people. He probably died before the reign of Nero,
+between 50 and 60 C.E. In Jewish history his life covered the reigns
+of King Herod, his sons, and King Agrippa, when the Jewish kingdom
+reached its height of outward magnificence; and it extended probably
+up to the ill-omened conversion of Judæa into a Roman province under
+the rule of a procurator. It is noteworthy also that Philo was partly
+contemporary with Hillel, who came from Babylon to Jerusalem in 30
+B.C.E., and according to the accepted tradition was president of the
+Sanhedrin till his death in 10 C.E. In this epoch Judaism, by contact
+with external forces, was thoroughly self-conscious, and the world was
+most receptive of its teaching; hence it spread itself far and wide,
+and at the same time reached its greatest spiritual intensity. Hillel
+and Philo show the splendid expansion of the Hebrew mind. In the
+history of most races national greatness and national genius appear
+together. The two grandest expressions of Jewish genius immediately
+preceded the national downfall. For the genius of Judaism is
+religious, and temporal power is not one of the conditions of its
+development.
+
+Philo belonged to the most distinguished Jewish family of
+Alexandria,[41] and according to Jerome and Photius, the ancient
+authorities for his life, was of the priestly rank; his brother
+Alexander Lysimachus was not only the governor of the Jewish
+community, but also the alabarch, _i.e._, ruler of the whole Delta
+region, and enjoyed the confidence of Mark Antony, who appointed him
+guardian of his second daughter Antonia, the mother of Germanicus and
+the Roman emperor Claudius. Born in an atmosphere of power and
+affluence, Philo, who might have consorted with princes, devoted
+himself from the first with all his soul to a life of contemplation;
+like a Palestinian rabbi he regarded as man's highest duty the study
+of the law and the knowledge of God.[42] This is the way in which he
+understood the philosopher's life[43]: man's true function is to know
+God, and to make God known: he can know God only through His
+revelation, and he can comprehend that revelation only by continued
+study. [Hebrew: v-nbi' lbb hkma], God's interpreter must have a wise
+heart,[44] as the rabbis explained. Philo then considered that the true
+understanding of the law required a complete knowledge of general culture,
+and that secular philosophy was a necessary preparation for the deeper
+mysteries of the Holy Word. "He who is practicing to abide in the city
+of perfect virtue, before he can be inscribed as a citizen thereof,
+must sojourn with the 'encyclic' sciences, so that through them he may
+advance securely to perfect goodness."[45] The "encyclic," or
+encyclopædic sciences, to which he refers, are the various branches of
+Greek culture, and Philo finds a symbol of their place in life in the
+story of Abraham. Abraham is the eternal type of the seeker after God,
+and as he first consorted with the foreign woman Hagar and had
+offspring by her, and afterwards in his mature age had offspring by
+Sarah, so in Philo's interpretation the true philosopher must first
+apply himself to outside culture and enlarge his mind with that
+training; and when his ideas have thus expanded, he passes on to the
+more sublime philosophy of the Divine law, and his mind is fruitful in
+lofty thoughts.[46]
+
+As a prelude to the study of Greek philosophy he built up a harmony of
+the mind by a study of Greek poetry, rhetoric, music, mathematics, and
+the natural sciences. His works bear witness to the thoroughness with
+which he imbibed all that was best in Greek literature. His Jewish
+predecessors had written in the impure dialect of the Hellenistic
+colonies (the [Greek: koinê dialektos]), and had shown little
+literary charm; but Philo's style is more graceful than that of any
+Greek prose writer since the golden age of the fourth century. Like
+his thought, indeed, it is eclectic and not always clear, but full of
+reminiscences of the epic and tragic poets on the one hand, and of
+Plato on the other,[47] it gives a happy blending of prose and poetry,
+which admirably fits the devotional philosophy that forms its subject.
+And what was said of Plato by a Greek critic applies equally well to
+Philo: "He rises at times above the spirit of prose in such a way that
+he appears to be instinct, not with human understanding, but with a
+Divine oracle." From the study of literature and kindred subjects
+Philo passed on to philosophy, and he made himself master of the
+teachings of all the chief schools. There was a mingling of all the
+world's wisdom at Alexandria in his day; and Philo, like the other
+philosophers of the time, shows acquaintance with the ideas of
+Egyptian, Chaldean, Persian,[48] and even Indian thought. The chief
+Greek schools in his age were the Stoic, the Platonic, the Skeptic and
+the Pythagorean, which had each its professors in the Museum and its
+popular preachers in the public lecture-halls. Later we will notice
+more closely Philo's relations to the Greek philosophers: suffice it
+here to say that he was the most distinguished Platonist of his age.
+
+Philo's education therefore was largely Greek, and his method of
+thought, and the forms in which his ideas were associated and
+impressed, were Greek. It must not be thought, however, that this
+involved any weakening of his Judaism, or detracted from the purity of
+his belief. Far from it. The Torah remained for him the supreme
+standard to which all outside knowledge had to be subordinated, and
+for which it was a preparation.[49] But Philo brought to bear upon the
+elucidation of the Torah and Jewish law and ceremony not only the
+religious conceptions of the Jewish mind, but also the intellectual
+ideas of Greek philosophy, and he interpreted the Bible in the light
+of the broadest culture of his day. Beautiful as are the thoughts and
+fancies of the Talmudic rabbis, their Midrash was a purely national
+monument, closed by its form as by its language to the general world;
+Philo applied to the exposition of Judaism the most highly-trained
+philosophic mind of Alexandria, and brought out clearly for the
+Hellenistic people the latent philosophy of the Torah.
+
+Greek was his native language, but at the same time he was not, as has
+been suggested, entirely ignorant of Hebrew. The Septuagint
+translation was the version of the Bible which he habitually used, but
+there are passages in his works which show that he knew and
+occasionally employed the Hebrew Bible.[50] Moreover, his etymologies
+are evidence of his knowledge of the Hebrew language; though he
+sometimes gives a symbolic value to Biblical names according to their
+Greek equivalent, he more frequently bases his allegory upon a Hebrew
+derivation. That all names had a profound meaning, and signified the
+true nature of that which they designated, is among the most firmly
+established of Philo's ideas. Of his more striking derivations one may
+cite Israel, [Hebrew: v-shr-'l], the man who beholdeth God; Jerusalem,
+[Hebrew: yrv-shlom], the sight of peace; Hebrew, [Hebrew: 'bri], one who
+has passed over from the life of the passions to virtue; Isaac, [Hebrew:
+ytshk], the joy or laughter of the soul. These etymologies are more
+ingenious than convincing, and are not entirely true to Hebrew philology,
+but neither were those of the early rabbis; and they at least show that
+Philo had acquired a superficial knowledge of the language of Scripture.
+Nor can it be doubted that he was acquainted with the Palestinian Midrash,
+both Halakic and Haggadic. At the beginning of the "Life of Moses" he
+declares that he has based it upon "many traditions which I have
+received from the elders of my nation,"[51] and in several places he
+speaks of the "ancestral philosophy," which must mean the Midrash
+which embodied tradition. Eusebius also, the early Christian
+authority, bears witness to his knowledge of the traditional
+interpretations of the law.[52]
+
+It is fairly certain, moreover, that Philo sojourned some time in
+Jerusalem. He was there probably during the reign of Agrippa (_c._ 30
+C.E.), who was an intimate friend of his family, and had found a
+refuge at Alexandria when an exile from Palestine and Rome. In the
+first book on the Mosaic laws[53] Philo speaks with enthusiasm of the
+great temple, to which "vast assemblies of men from a countless
+variety of cities, some by land, some by sea, from East, West, North,
+and South, come at every festival as if to some common refuge and
+harbor from the troubles of this harassed and anxious life, seeking to
+find there tranquillity and gain a new hope in life by its joyous
+festivities." These gatherings, at which, according to Josephus,[54]
+over two million people assembled, must, indeed, have been a striking
+symbol of the unity of the Jewish race, which was at once national and
+international; magnificent embassies from Babylon and Persia, from
+Egypt and Cyrene, from Rome and Greece, even from distant Spain and
+Gaul, went in procession together through the gate of Xistus up the
+temple-mount, which was crowned by the golden sanctuary, shining in
+the full Eastern sun like a sea of light above the town. Philo
+describes in detail the form of the edifice that moved the admiration
+of all who beheld it, and for the Jew, moreover, was invested with the
+most cherished associations. Its outer courts consisted of double
+porticoes of marble columns burnished with gold, then came the inner
+courts of simple columns, and "within these stood the temple itself,
+beautiful beyond all possible description, as one may tell even from
+what is seen in the outer court; for the innermost sanctuary is
+invisible to every being except the high priest." The majesty of the
+ceremonial within equalled the splendor without. The high priest, in
+the words of Ben Sira (xlv), "beautified with comely ornament and
+girded about with a robe of glory," seemed a high priest fit for the
+whole world. Upon his head the mitre with a crown of gold engraved
+with holiness, upon his breast the mystic Urim and Thummim and the
+ephod with its twelve brilliant jewels, upon his tunic golden
+pomegranates and silver bells, which for the mystic ear pealed the
+harmony of the world as he moved. Little wonder that, inspired by the
+striking gathering and the solemn ritual, Philo regarded the temple as
+the shrine of the universe,[55] and thought the day was near when all
+nations should go up there together, to do worship to the One God.
+
+Sparse as are the direct proofs of Philo's connection with Palestinian
+Judaism, his account of the temple and its service, apart from the
+general standpoint of his writings, proves to us that he was a loyal
+son of his nation, and loved Judaism for its national institutions as
+well as its great moral sublimity. His aspiration was to bring home
+the truths of the religion to the cultured world, and therefore he
+devised a new expression for the wisdom of his people, and transformed
+it into a literary system. Judaism forms the kernel, but Greek
+philosophy and literature the shell, of his work; for the audience to
+which he appealed, whether Jewish or Gentile, thought in Greek, and
+would be moved only by ideas presented in Greek form, and by Greek
+models he himself was inspired.
+
+Philo's first ideal of life was to attain to the profoundest knowledge
+of God so as to be fitted for the mission of interpreting His Word:
+and he relates in one of his treatises how he spent his youth and his
+first manhood in philosophy and the contemplation of the universe.[56]
+"I feasted with the truly blessed mind, which is the object of all
+desire (_i.e._, God), communing continually in joy with the Divine
+words and doctrines. I entertained no low or mean thought, nor did I
+ever crawl about glory or wealth or worldly comfort, but I seemed to
+be carried aloft in a kind of spiritual inspiration and to be borne
+along in harmony with the whole universe." The intense religious
+spirit which seeks to perceive all things in a supreme unity Philo
+shares with Spinoza, whose life-ideal was the intuitional knowledge of
+the universe and "the intellectual love of God." Both men show the
+pursuit of righteousness raised to philosophical grandeur.
+
+In his early days the way to virtue and happiness appeared to Philo to
+lie in the solitary and ascetic life. He was possessed by a noble
+pessimism, that the world was an evil place,[57] and the worldly life
+an evil thing for a man's soul, that man must die to live, and
+renounce the pleasures not only of the body but also of society in
+order to know God. The idea was a common one of the age, and was the
+outcome of the mingling of Greek ethics and psychology and the Jewish
+love of righteousness. For the Greek thinkers taught a psychological
+dualism, by which the body and the senses were treated as antagonistic
+to the higher intellectual soul, which was immortal, and linked man
+with the principle of creation. The most remarkable and enduring
+effect of Hellenic influence in Palestine was the rise of the sect of
+Essenes,[58] Jewish mystics, who eschewed private property and the
+general social life, and forming themselves into communistic
+congregations which were a sort of social Utopia, devoted their lives
+to the cult of piety and saintliness. It cannot be doubted that their
+manner of life was to some degree an imitation of the Pythagorean
+brotherhoods, which ever since the sixth century had spread a sort of
+monasticism through the Greek world. Nor is it unlikely that Hindu
+teachings exercised an influence over them, for Buddhism was at this
+age, like Judaism, a missionizing religion, and had teachers in the
+West. Philo speaks in several places of its doctrines.[59] Whatever
+its moulding influences, Essenism represented the spirit of the age,
+and it spread far and wide. At Alexandria, above all places, where the
+life of luxury and dissoluteness repelled the serious, ascetic ideas
+took firm hold of the people, and the Therapeutic life, _i.e._, the
+life of prayer and labor devoted to God, which corresponded to the
+system of the Essenes, had numerous votaries. The first century
+witnessed the extremes of the religious and irreligious sentiments.
+The world was weary and jaded; it had lost confidence in human reason
+and faith in social ideals, and while the materialists abandoned
+themselves to hideous orgies and sensual debaucheries, the
+higher-minded went to the opposite excess and sought by flight from
+the world and mortification of the flesh to attain to supernatural
+states of ecstasy. A book has come down to us under the name of
+Philo[60] which describes "the contemplative life" of a Jewish
+brotherhood that lived apart on the shores of Lake Mareotis by the
+mouth of the Nile. Men and women lived in the settlement, though all
+intercourse between the sexes was rigidly avoided. During six days of
+the week they met in prayer, morning and evening, and in the interval
+devoted themselves in solitude to the practice of virtue and the study
+of the holy allegories, and the composition of hymns and psalms. On
+the Sabbath they sat in common assembly, but with the women separated
+from the men, and listened to the allegorical homily of an elder; they
+paid special honor to the Feast of Pentecost, reverencing the mystical
+attributes of the number fifty, and they celebrated a religious
+banquet thereon. During the rest of the year they only partook of the
+sustenance necessary for life, and thus in their daily conduct
+realized the way which the rabbis set out as becoming for the study of
+the Torah: "A morsel of bread with salt thou must eat, and water by
+measure thou must drink; thou must sleep upon the ground and live a
+life of hardship, the while thou toilest in the Torah."[61]
+
+We do not know whether Philo attached himself to one of these
+brotherhoods of organized solitude, or whether he lived even more
+strictly the solitary life out in the wilderness by himself. Certainly
+he was at one period in sympathy with ascetic ideas. It seemed to him
+that as God was alone, so man must be alone in order to be like
+God.[62] In his earlier writings he is constantly praising the ascetic
+life, as a means, indeed, to virtue rather than as a good in itself,
+and as a helpful discipline to the man of incomplete moral strength,
+though inferior to the spontaneous goodness which God vouchsafes to
+the righteous. Isaac is the type of this highest bliss, while the life
+of Jacob is the type of the progress to virtue through asceticism.[63]
+The flight from Laban represents the abandonment of family and social
+life for the practical service of God, and as Jacob, the ascetic,
+became Israel, "the man who beholdeth God," so Philo determined "to
+scorn delights and live laborious days" in order to be drawn nearer to
+the true Being. But he seems to have been disappointed in his hopes,
+and to have discovered that the attempt to cut out the natural desires
+of man was not the true road to righteousness. "I often," he says,[64]
+"left my kindred and friends and fatherland, and went into a solitary
+place, in order that I might have knowledge of things worthy of
+contemplation, but I profited nothing: for my mind was sore tempted by
+desire and turned to opposite things. But now, sometimes even when I
+am in a multitude of men, my mind is tranquil, and God scatters aside
+all unworthy desires, teaching me that it is not differences of place
+which affect the welfare of the soul, but God alone, who knows and
+directs its activity howsoever he pleases."
+
+The noble pessimism of Philo's early days was replaced by a noble
+optimism in his maturity, in which he trusted implicitly in God's
+grace, and believed that God vouchsafed to the good man the knowledge
+of Himself without its being necessary for him to inflict
+chastisements upon his body or uproot his inclinations. In this mood
+moderation is represented as the way of salvation; the abandonment of
+family and social life is selfish, and betrays a lack of the humanity
+which the truly good man must possess.[65] Of Philo's own domestic
+life we catch only a fleeting glimpse in his writings. He realized the
+place of woman in the home; "her absence is its destruction," he said;
+and of his wife it is told in another of the "Fragments" that when
+asked one day in an assembly of women why she alone did not wear any
+golden ornament, she replied, "The virtue of a husband is a sufficient
+ornament for his wife."
+
+Though in his maturity Philo renounced the ascetic life, his ideal
+throughout was a mystical union with the Divine Being. To a certain
+school of Judaism, which loves to make everything rational and
+moderate, mysticism is alien; it was alien indeed to the Sadducee
+realist and the Karaite literalist; it was alien to the systematic
+Aristotelianism of Maimonides, and it is alien alike to Western
+orthodox and Reform Judaism. But though often obscured and crushed by
+formal systems, mysticism is deeply seated in the religious feelings,
+and the race which has developed the Cabbalah and Hasidism cannot be
+accused of lack of it. Every great religion fosters man's aspiration
+to have direct communion with God in some super-rational way.
+Particularly should this be the case with a religion which recognizes
+no intermediary. The Talmudic conceptions of [Hebrew: nb'a], prophecy,
+[Hebrew: shkyna], the Divine Presence, and [Hebrew: rua hkdsh], the
+holy spirit, which was vouchsafed to the saint, certainly are mystic, and
+at Alexandria similar ideas inspired a striking development. Once again we
+can trace the fertilizing influence of Greek ideas. Even when the old
+naturalistic cults had flourished in Greece, and political life had
+provided a worthy goal for man, mystical beliefs and ceremonies had a
+powerful attraction for the Hellene; and, when the belief in the old
+gods had been shattered, and with the national greatness the liberal
+life of the State had passed away, he turned more and more to those
+rites which professed to provide healing and rest for the sickening
+soul. Many of the Alexandrian Jews must have been initiated into these
+Greek mysteries, for Philo introduces into his exegesis of the law of
+Moses an ordinance forbidding the practice.[66] He himself advocates a
+more spiritual mysticism, and it is a cardinal principle of his
+philosophy to treat the human soul as a god within and its absorption
+in the universal Godhead as supreme bliss, the end of all endeavor. He
+claimed to have attained, himself, to this union, and to have received
+direct inspiration. Giving a Greek coloring to the Hebrew notion of
+prophecy, "My soul," he says, "is wont to be affected with a Divine
+trance and to prophesy about things of which it has no knowledge"[67]....
+"Many a time have I come with the intention of writing, and knowing
+exactly what I ought to set down, but I have found my mind barren and
+fruitless, and I have gone away with nothing done, but at times I have
+come empty, and suddenly been full, for ideas were invisibly rained
+down upon me from above, so that I was seized by a Divine frenzy, and
+was lost to everything, place, people, self, speech, and thought. I
+had gotten a stream of interpretation, a gift of light, a clear survey
+of things, the clearest that eye can give."[68]
+
+In his "Guide of the Perplexed,"[69] Maimonides describes the various
+degrees of the [Hebrew: rua hkdsh], or what we call religious "genius,"
+with which man may be blessed. He distinguishes between the man who
+possesses it only for his own exaltation, and the man who feels
+himself compelled to impart it to others for their happiness. To this
+higher order of genius Philo advanced in his maturity. He consciously
+regarded himself as a follower of Moses, who was the perfect
+interpreter of God's thought. So he, though in a lesser degree, was an
+inspired interpreter, a hierophant (as he expressed it in the language
+of the Greek mystics) who expounded the Divine Word to his own
+generation by the gift of the Divine wisdom. When he had fled from
+Alexandria, to secure virtue by contemplation, he had as his final
+goal the attainment of the true knowledge of God, and as he advanced
+in age, he advanced in decision and authority. He was conscious of his
+philosophic grasp of the Torah, and the diffidence with which he
+allegorized in his early works gave place to a serene confidence that
+he had a lesson for his own and for future generations. Hoping for the
+time when Judaism should be a world-religion, he spoke his message for
+Jew and Gentile. We can imagine him preaching on Sabbaths to the great
+congregation which filled the synagogue at Alexandria, and on other
+days of the week expounding his philosophical ideas to a smaller
+circle which he collected around him.
+
+Essentially, then, he was a philosopher and a teacher, but he was
+called upon to play a part in the world of action. Following the
+passage already quoted, wherein Philo speaks of the blessings of the
+life of contemplation that he had led in the past,[70] he goes on to
+relate how that "envy, the most grievous of all evils, attacked me,
+and threw me into the vast sea of public affairs, in which I am still
+tossed about without being able to make my way out." A French
+scholar[71] conjectures that this is only a metaphorical way of saying
+that he was forced into some public office, probably, a seat in the
+Alexandrian Sanhedrin; and he ascribes the language to the bitter
+disappointment of one who was devoted to philosophical pursuits and
+found himself diverted from them. Philo's language points rather to
+duties which he was compelled to undertake less congenial than those
+of a member of the Sanhedrin would have been; and probably must refer
+to the polemical activity which he was called upon to exert in
+defending his people against misrepresentation and persecution. During
+the reign of Augustus and the early years of Tiberius (30 B.C.E.-20
+C.E.) the Roman provinces were firmly ruled, and the governors were as
+firmly controlled by the emperor. To Rectus, who was the prefect of
+Egypt till 14 C.E., and who was removed for attempted extortion,
+Tiberius addressed the rebuke, "I want my sheep to be shorn, not
+strangled." But when Tiberius fell under the influence of Sejanus, and
+left to his hated minister the active control of the empire, harder
+times began for the provincials, and especially for the Jews. Sejanus
+was an upstart, and like most upstarts a tyrant; and for some
+reason--it may be jealousy of the power of the Jews at Rome--he hated
+the Jewish race and persecuted it. The great opponent of Sejanus was
+Antonia, the ward of Philo's brother, and a loyal friend to his
+people; and this, too, may have incited Sejanus' ill-feeling. Whatever
+the reason, the Alexandrian Jews felt the heavy hand, and when Philo
+came to write the story of his people in his own times, he devoted one
+book to the persecution by Sejanus. Unfortunately it has not survived,
+but veiled hints of the period of stress through which the people
+passed are not wanting in the commentary on the law.
+
+There were always anti-Semites spoiling for a fight at Alexandria, and
+there was always inflammable material which they could stir up. The
+Egyptian populace were by nature, says Philo, "jealous and envious,
+and were filled moreover with an ancient and inveterate enmity towards
+the Jews,"[72] and of the degenerate Greek population, many were
+anxious from motives of private gain as well as from religious enmity
+to incite an outbreak; since the Jews were wealthy and the booty would
+be great. Among the cultured, too, there was one philosophical school
+powerful at Alexandria, which maintained a persistent attitude of
+hostility towards the Jews. The chief literary anti-Semites of whom we
+have record at this period were Stoics, and it is probably their
+"envy" to which Philo refers when he complains of being drawn into the
+sea of politics. In writings and in speeches the Stoic leaders Apion
+and Chæremon carried on a campaign of misrepresentation, and sought to
+give their attacks a fine humanitarian justification by drawing fancy
+pictures of the Jewish religion and Jewish laws. The Jews worshipped
+the head of an ass,[73] they hated the Gentiles, and would have no
+communication with them, they killed Gentile children at the Passover,
+and their law allowed them to commit any offences against all but
+their own people, and inculcated a low morality. When it was not
+morally bad, it was degraded and superstitious. Whereas the modern
+anti-Semite usually complains about Jewish success and dangerous
+cleverness, Apion accused them of having produced no original ideas
+and no great men, and no citizen as worthy of Alexandria as himself!
+Against these charges Philo, the most philosophical Jew of the time
+and the most distinguished member of the Alexandrian community, was
+called upon to defend his people, and that part of his works which
+Eusebius calls [Greek: Hypotheticha]; _i.e._ apologetics, was probably
+written in reply to the Stoic attacks. The hatred of the Stoics was a
+religious hatred, which is the bitterest of all; the Stoics were the
+propagators of a rival religious system, which had originally been
+founded by Hellenized Semites and borrowed much from Semitic sources.
+They had their missionaries everywhere and aspired to found a
+universal philosophical religion. In their proselytizing activity they
+tried to assimilate to their pantheism the mythological religion of
+the masses, and thus they became the philosophical supporters of
+idolatry. Their greatest religious opponents were the Jews, who not
+only refused to accept their teachings, but preached to the nations a
+transcendental monotheism against their impersonal and accommodating
+pantheism, and a divinely-revealed law of conduct against their vague
+natural reason. In the Stoic pantheism the first stand of the pagan
+national deities was made against the God of Israel, and at Alexandria
+during the first century the fight waxed fierce. It was a fight of
+ideas in which persons only were victims, but at the back of the
+intermittent persecutions of which we have record we may always
+surmise the influence of the Stoic anti-Semites. The war of words
+translated itself from time to time into the breaking of heads.
+
+Philo, indeed, never mentions Apion by name, but he refers covertly in
+many places to his insolence and unscrupulousness.[74] Josephus wrote
+a famous reply to his attacks, refuting "his vulgar abuse, gross
+ignorance and demagogic claptrap,"[75] and the fact that a Palestinian
+Jew thought this apology necessary, proves the wide dissemination of
+the poison. The disgrace and death of Sejanus seem to have brought a
+relief from actual persecution to the Alexandrian Jews; but the
+ill-will between the two races in the city smouldered on, and it only
+required a weakening of the controlling hand at Rome to set the
+passions aflame again. Right through Philo's treatise "On the
+Confusion of Tongues," we can trace the tension. As soon as Gaius,
+surnamed Caligula, came to the imperial chair, the opportunity of the
+anti-Semites returned. Gaius, after reigning well a few months, fell
+ill, was seized with madness, and proved how much evil can be done in
+a short space by an imbecile autocrat. Flaccus, the governor of Egypt,
+who had hitherto ruled fairly, hoping to ingratiate himself by
+misrule, allowed himself to be led by worthless minions, who, from
+motives of private greed, desired a riot at Alexandria; he was won
+over by the anti-Semites and gave the mob a free hand in their attacks
+upon the "alien Jews."[76] The arrival of Agrippa, the grandson of
+Herod, who was on his way to his kingdom of Palestine, which the
+capricious emperor had just conferred upon him, excited the ill-will
+of the Alexandrian mob. Flaccus looked on while the people attacked
+the Jewish quarters, sacked the houses, and assailed everyone that
+came within their reach. The most distinguished Jews were not spared,
+and thirty members of the Council of Elders were dragged to the
+marketplace and scourged. Philo's account gives a picture strikingly
+similar to that of a modern pogrom. The brutal indifference of Flaccus
+did not indeed avail to ingratiate him with the emperor, and he was
+recalled to Italy, exiled, and afterwards executed.
+
+The recall of Flaccus did not, however, put an end to the troubles;
+the mob had got out of hand, the anti-Semitic demagogues were elated,
+and a fresh opportunity for outrage soon presented itself. The mad
+emperor, having exhausted ordinary human follies, went on to imagine
+himself first a god and then the Supreme God, and finally ordered his
+image to be set up in every temple throughout his dominion. The Jews
+could not obey the order, and the mob rushed into fresh excesses upon
+them, defiled the synagogues with images of the lunatic, and in the
+great synagogue itself set up a bronze statue of him, inscribed with
+the name of Jupiter. With bitterness Philo points out that it was easy
+enough for the vile Egyptians, who worshipped reptiles and beasts, to
+erect a statue of the emperor in their temples; for the Jews, with
+their lofty idea of God, it was impossible. Against the attack upon
+their liberty of conscience they appealed directly to Gaius. An
+embassy was sent to lay their case before him, and Philo went to Italy
+at the head of the embassy. "He who is learned, gentle, and modest,
+and who is beloved of men, he shall be leader in the city." So said
+one of the rabbis of old, and the maxim is especially appropriate to
+Philo, who in name and deed was "beloved of men." Philo has left us a
+very full account of his mission, so that this incident of his life is
+a patch of bright light, which stands out almost glaringly from the
+general shadow. The account is not merely, nor, indeed, entirely
+history. Looking always for a sermon or a subject for a philosophical
+lesson, Philo has tricked out the record of the facts with much
+moralizing observation on the general lot of mankind, and elaborated
+the part of Providence more in the spirit of religious romance than of
+scientific history. Yet the main facts are clear. Philo prepared a
+long philosophical "apologia" for the Jews and set out with five
+colleagues for Italy. Nor were the enemies of the Jews remiss; and
+Apion, the Alexandrian anti-Semite, was sent at the head of a hostile
+deputation. The emperor, Gaius, was in one of his most flippant moods
+and little inclined to listen to philosophical or literary
+disquisitions. At first he received the Jewish deputation in a
+friendly way, and led them to think that he was favorable; but when
+they came to plead their cause, they had a rude awakening. Philo, who
+was not likely to appreciate the bitter humor of the situation,
+tells[77] with gravity that he expected that the emperor would hear
+the two contending parties in all proper judicial form, but that in
+fact he behaved like an insolent, overbearing tyrant. The audience--if
+it can be so called--took place in the gardens of the palace, and the
+emperor dragged the unfortunate deputation after him about the place,
+while he gave orders to his gardeners, builders, and workmen. Whenever
+they tried to put forward their arguments, he would rush ahead,
+enjoying the fright and dismay of his helpless victims. At times he
+would stop to make some ribald and jeering remark, as, "Why don't you
+eat pork, you fools?" at which the Egyptians following loudly
+applauded. Philo and his comrades, half-dead with agony, could only
+pray; and in response to the prayer, says our moralizing chronicler,
+the emperor's heart was turned to pity, so that he dismissed them
+without giving any hostile answer. According to Josephus, he drove
+them away in a passion, and Philo had to cheer his companions by
+assuring them of the Divine aid.[78]
+
+The affair was a pathetic farce, and the Jewish actors in it had a
+sorry time. The people about the palace, taking their lead from the
+emperor, treated them as clowns, and hissed and mocked them, and even
+beat them. The scene is somewhat revolting when one conjures up the
+picture of the aged Jewish philosopher being roughly handled by the
+set of ruffians and impudent slaves who surrounded a Roman emperor.
+Happily Gaius jeered once too often in his mad life. One Chaerea, a
+Roman of position, nursed an insult of the emperor, and stabbed him
+shortly after these events; and the world had the respite of a
+tolerably sane emperor before the crowning horror of Nero was let
+loose upon it.
+
+The murder of the capricious tyrant released not only the Jews of
+Alexandria, but also the Jews of Palestine, from the burden of fear
+for their religion. The order had been given to set up a bronze statue
+of the emperor in the temple; the Roman governor Petronius was averse
+to obeying the edict, but the emperor insisted. King Agrippa, who had
+been but lately advanced by him to the kingdom of Judæa, interceded
+zealously on behalf of his people. Philo gives us an account of this
+appeal by the Jewish king,[79] which recalls at every turn the scenes
+of the book of Esther. We have again the fasting, the banquet, the
+emperor's request, the appeal of the royal favorite for his people.
+One higher critic, indeed, has been found to suggest that the Biblical
+book really relates Agrippa's intercession at Rome disguised in the
+setting of a Persian story. Agrippa secured for a short time the
+rescission of the fateful decree, but the capricious madman soon
+returned to his old frame of mind, and ordered his image to be set up
+immediately. Had not his death intervened, there would certainly have
+been rebellion in Palestine. As it was, the great revolt was postponed
+for thirty years. For a little the Jews prevailed over their
+adversaries; the anti-Semitic influences were put down in Judæa and
+in Alexandria, and in both places "there was light and joy and
+gladness for the Jews." Their political privileges were reaffirmed by
+imperial decree, and Philo's brother Alexander, who had been
+imprisoned, was restored to honor.[80] "It is fitting," ran the
+rescript of Claudius, "to permit the Jews everywhere under our sway to
+observe their ancient customs without hindrance. And I charge them to
+use my indulgence with moderation, and not to show contempt for the
+religious rites of other peoples."
+
+The note of triumph rings through the political references to be found
+in the last parts of Philo's allegorical commentary, and no doubt it
+was accentuated in the lost book which he added as an epilogue, or
+palinode, to his history of the embassy. God had again preserved his
+people, and discomfited their foes; recently-discovered papyri have
+revealed that the arch anti-Semites, Isidorus and Lampon, were tried
+at Rome and executed. Claudius was well-disposed to the Jewish race,
+and before the final storm there was a calm. Howbeit, after the death
+of Agrippa, in 44 C.E., Judæa became a Roman province, and under the
+rapacious governorship of Felix Florus and Cestius Gallus, the
+hostility of the people to the Romans grew more and more bitter. But
+in Alexandria there was tranquillity, or at least we know of no
+disquieting events during the next decade.
+
+"Old age," said Philo, "is an unruffled harbor,"[81] and the saying
+refers possibly to his own experience. For he must have died full of
+years and full of honors. Through his life he was the spiritual and
+philosophical guide, and finally he had become the champion of his
+people against their persecutors, giving dignity to their cause and
+inspiring respect even in their enemies. He was happy in the time of
+his death, for he did not live to see the destruction of the national
+home of his people and of that temple which he had loved to
+contemplate as the future centre of a universal religion. The
+disintegration of his own community at Alexandria followed full soon
+on the greater disaster; the temple of Onias was dismantled and
+interdicted against Jewish worship by Vespasian in the year 73 C.E.,
+and though, as has been noted, this was not in itself of great
+importance, it is symbolic of the uprooting of national life in the
+Diaspora as well as in Palestine itself. On the downfall of Jerusalem
+in 70 C.E. many of the extreme anti-Roman party, known as the Zealots,
+fled to Alexandria and stirred up rebellion and dissension. Nothing
+but disaster could have attended the outbreak, but it is a sad
+reflection that the governor who put it down and ruthlessly
+exterminated the rebels was none other than Tiberius Alexander, the
+nephew of Philo, who was in turn procurator of Judæa and Egypt. By
+another irony of history he had in the previous year been largely
+instrumental in securing for Vespasian, who was besieging Jerusalem,
+the imperial throne of Rome.[82] With him ends our knowledge of
+Philo's family, and it ends significantly with one who has ceased to
+be a Jew. The ruin of the Jewish-Alexandrian community was completed
+by a desperate revolt in the reign of Trajan, 114-117 C.E., after
+which they were deprived of their chief political privileges; and
+finally, after incessant conflicts with the Christians, they were
+expelled from the city by the all-powerful Bishop Cyril (415 C.E.).
+
+Philo himself passed out of Jewish tradition within a short time, to
+become a Christian worthy. The destruction of the nation and the
+gradual severance of the Christian heresy from the main community
+compelled the abandonment of missionary activity and distrust of the
+work of its exponents. The dangerous aspect of the Alexandrian
+development was revealed. Its philosophical allegorizing might attract
+the Gentile to the Jewish Scriptures, but it also led the Jew away
+from his special conduct of life. The Alexandrian Church, which
+claimed to continue the tradition of Philo, departed further and
+further from the Jewish standpoint, and formulated a dogmatic creed
+that was utterly opposed to Jewish monotheism. A philosophical Judaism
+for the whole world was a splendid ideal, but unfortunately in Philo's
+time it was incapable of accomplishment. The result of the attempt to
+found it was the establishment of a religion in which, together with
+the adoption of Hebraic teachings about God, certain ideas of
+Alexandrian mysticism became stereotyped as dogmas, and Jewish law was
+abrogated. When Babylon replaced Palestine as the centre of Jewish
+intellect, the works of Philo, like the rest of the Hellenistic-Jewish
+literature, written as they were in a strange tongue, fell into
+disuse, and before long were entirely forgotten. The Christians, on
+the other hand, found in Philo a notable evidence for many of their
+beliefs and a philosophical testimony for the dogmas of their creed.
+They claimed him as their own, and the Church Fathers, to bind him
+more closely to their tradition, invented fables of his meeting with
+Peter at Rome and Mark at Alexandria, They traced, in the treatise "On
+the Contemplative Life," a record of early Christian monastic
+communities, and on account of this book especially regarded Philo
+almost with the reverence of an apostle. To the Christian theologians
+of Alexandria we owe it that the interpretation of Judaism to the
+Hellenic world in the light of Hellenic philosophy has been preserved.
+Of the two Jewish philosophers who have made a great contribution to
+the world's intellectual development, Spinoza was excommunicated in
+his lifetime, and Philo suffered moral excommunication after his
+death. The writings of both exercised their chief influence outside
+the community; but the emancipated Jewry of our own day can in either
+case recognize the worth of the thinker, and point with pride to the
+saintliness of the man.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+PHILO'S WORKS AND METHOD
+
+
+The first thing that strikes a reader of Philo is the great volume of
+his work: he is the first Jewish writer to produce a large and
+systematic body of writings, the first to develop anything in the
+nature of a complete Jewish philosophy. He had essentially the
+literary gift, the capacity of giving lasting expression to his own
+thought and the thought of his generation. Treating him merely as a
+man of letters, he is one of the chief figures in Greek literature of
+the first century. We have extant over forty books of his composition,
+and nearly as many again have disappeared. His works are one and all
+expositions of Judaism, but they fall into six distinct classes of
+exegesis:
+
+I. The allegorical commentary, or "Allegories of the Laws," which is a
+series of philosophical treatises based upon continuous texts in
+Genesis, from the first to the eighteenth chapter. Together with this,
+the best authorities place the two remaining books on the "Dreams of
+the Bible," which are a portion of a larger work, and deal
+allegorically with the dreams of Jacob and Joseph.
+
+II. The Midrashic commentary on the Five Books of Moses, for which we
+have no single name, but which was clearly intended to be an ethical
+and philosophical treatise upon the whole law.
+
+III. A commentary in the form of "Questions and Answers to Genesis and
+Exodus," which is incomplete now, and save for detached fragments
+exists only in a Latin translation. In its original form it provided a
+short running exegesis, verse by verse, to the whole of the first
+three books of the Pentateuch, and was contained in twelve parts.
+
+IV. A popular and missionizing presentation of the Jewish system in
+the form of a "Life of Moses," and three appended tractates on the
+virtues "Courage," "Humanity," and "Repentance." Scholars[83] are of
+opinion that there are gaps in the extant "Life of Moses," but the
+general plan of the work is clear. It is at once an abstract and an
+interpretation of Jewish law for the Greek world, and also an ideal
+biography of the Jewish lawgiver.
+
+V. Philosophical monographs, not so intimately connected with the
+Bible as the preceding works; but in the nature of rhetorical
+exercises upon the stock subjects of the schools, which receive a
+Jewish coloring by reason of Biblical illustrations.
+
+VI. Historical and apologetic works that set out the case of the
+contemporary Jews against their persecutors and traducers. Of these
+writings the larger part has disappeared, and of a portion of those
+which remain the genuineness has been doubted.
+
+Lastly, there is a miscellaneous number of works ascribed to Philo,
+which all good scholars[84] now admit to be spurious: "On the
+Incorruptibility of the World," "On the Universe," "On Samson," and
+"On Jonah," etc.
+
+It will be seen from this classification of Philo's works, that he has
+dealt in several ways with the Biblical material. The reason of this
+is partly that his mind developed, and the interpretation of his
+maturer years differed widely from that of his earliest writings.
+Partly, however, it arises from the fact that the different treatments
+were meant for different audiences, and Philo always took the measure
+of those whom he was addressing. His most representative works are "a
+triple cord" with which he binds the Jewish Scripture to Greek
+culture. For the Greek-speaking populace he set out a broad statement
+of the Mosaic law; for the cultured community of Alexandria, Jew and
+Gentile, a more elaborate exegesis, in which each character and each
+ordinance of the Pentateuch received a particular ethical value; and,
+finally, for the esoteric circle of Hellenic-Jewish philosophers, a
+theological and psychological study of the allegories of the law.
+Origen, the first great Christian exegete of the Bible and a close
+student of the Philonic writings, distinguished three forms of
+interpreting: the historical, the moral, and the philosophical; he
+probably took the distinction from Philo, who exemplifies it in his
+commentaries upon the Books of Moses.
+
+Varied as is its scope, the religious idea dominates all his work, and
+endows it with one spirit. Whether he is writing philosophical,
+ethical, or mystical commentary, whether history, apology, or essay,
+his purpose is to assert the true notion of the one God, and the
+Divine excellence of God's revelation to His chosen people. Thus he
+regards history as a theodicy, vindicating the ways of God to man, and
+His special providence for Israel; philosophy as the inner meaning of
+the Scriptures, revealed by God in mystic communion with His holy
+prophets,[85] and, if comprehended aright, able to lead us on to a
+true conception of His Divine being. The greater part of the
+Hellenistic-Jewish literature has disappeared, but Philo sums up for
+us the whole of the Alexandrian development of Judaism. He represents
+it worthily in both its main aspects: the infusion of Greek culture
+into the Jewish pursuit of righteousness, and the recommendation of
+Jewish monotheism and the Torah to the Greek world. Aristaeus,
+Aristobulus, and Artapanus are hardly more than names, but their
+spirit is inherited and glorified in Philo-Judæus. His work,
+therefore, is more than the expression of one great mind; it is the
+record and expression of a great culture.
+
+The chronology of Philo's writings is as uncertain as the chronology
+of his life. Yet it is possible to trace a deepening of outlook and an
+increasing originality, if we work our way up from the sixth to the
+first division of the classification. It does not follow that the
+works were written in this order--and it may well be that Philo was
+producing at one and the same time books of several classes--but we
+may use this order as an ideal scale by which to mark off the stages
+of his philosophical progress. In the first place come the [Greek:
+Hypotheticha], or apologetic works, which have a practical purpose.
+With these we may associate the moralizing history that dealt in five
+books respectively with the persecutions of Sejanus, Flaccus, and
+Caligula, the ill-starred embassy, and the final triumph of the Jews
+over their enemies. The [Greek: Hypotheticha] proper, as we gather
+from Eusebius, contained a general apology for Judaism, and an account
+of the Essenes--which have disappeared--and the suspected book on the
+Therapeutic sect known by the title "On the Contemplative Life."
+Whether they received this generic name because they are suggestions
+for the Jewish cause, or because they are written to answer the
+insinuations ([Greek: kath' hypothesin]) of adversaries, is a moot
+point. But their general purport is clear: they were an apologetic
+presentation of Jewish life, written to show the falsity of
+anti-Semitic calumnies. The Jews are good citizens and their manner of
+life is humanitarian. The Essene sect is a living proof of Jewish
+practical socialism and practical philosophy, the Therapeutae show the
+Jewish zeal for the contemplative life.
+
+Next we come to Philo's philosophical monographs, which are not, as
+one might expect, the work of his mature thought, but rather the
+exercises of youth. Dissertations or declamations upon hackneyed
+subjects were part of the regular course of the university student at
+Alexandria, and Philo prepared himself for his Jewish philosophy by
+composing in the approved style essays upon "Providence," "The Liberty
+of the Good," and "The Slavery of the Wicked," etc. What chiefly
+distinguishes them above other collections of commonplaces is the
+appeal to the Bible for types of goodness, and here again the Essenes
+figure as the type of the philosophical life.[86] The writer, while
+still engaged in the studies of the Greek university, is feeling his
+way towards his system of universal Mosaism.
+
+This he expounds confidently and enthusiastically in his "Life of
+Moses." Philo in this book is not any longer the apt pupil of Greek
+philosophers, nor the eloquent defender of the Jewish-Alexandrian
+community against lying detractors. He preaches a mission to the whole
+world, and he lays before it his gospel of monotheism and humanity.
+Each Greek school has its ideal type, its Socrates, Diogenes, or
+Pythagoras; but Philo places above them all "the most perfect man that
+ever lived, Moses, the legislator of the Jews,[87] as some hold, but
+according to others the interpreter of the sacred laws, and the
+greatest of men in every way." And above all the ethical systems of
+the day he sets the law of life that God revealed to His greatest
+prophet: "The laws of the Greek legislators are continually subject to
+change; the laws of Moses alone remain steady, unmoved, unshaken,
+stamped as it were with the seal of nature herself, from the day when
+they were written to the present day, and will so remain for all time
+so long as the world endures. Not only the Jews but all other peoples
+who care for righteousness adopt them.... Let all men follow this code
+and the age of universal peace will come about, the kingdom of God on
+earth will be established."[88] Nor is the Greek to fear the lot of a
+proselyte. "God loves the man who turns from idolatry to the true
+faith not less than the man who has been a believer all his life;"[89]
+and in the little essays upon Repentance and Nobility, which are
+attached to the larger treatise, Philo appeals to his own people to
+welcome the stranger within the community. "The Life of Moses" is the
+greatest attempt to set monotheism before the world made before the
+Christian gospels. And it is truer to the Jewish spirit, because it
+breathes on every page love for the Torah. Philo in very truth wished
+to fulfil the law.
+
+If Judaism was to be the universal religion, it must be shown to
+contain the ultimate truth both about real being, _i.e._ God, and
+about ethics; for the philosophical world in that age--and the
+philosophical world included all educated people--demanded of religion
+that it should be philosophical, and of philosophy that it should be
+religious. The desire to expound Judaism in this way is the motive of
+Philo's three Biblical commentaries. The "Questions and Answers to
+Genesis and Exodus" constitute a preliminary study to the more
+elaborate works which followed. In them Philo is collecting his
+material, formulating his ideas, and determining the main lines of his
+allegory. They are a type of Midrash in its elementary stage, the
+explanation of the teacher to the pupil who has difficulties about the
+words of the law: at once like and unlike the old Tannaitic Midrash;
+like in that they deal with difficulties in the literal text of the
+Bible; unlike in that the reply of Philo is Agadic more usually than
+Halakic, speculative rather than practical. In these books,[90] as has
+been pointed out, there are numerous interpretations which Philo
+shares with the Palestinian schools. A few specimens taken from the
+first book will illustrate Philo's plan, but it should be mentioned
+that in every case he sets out the simple meaning of the text, the
+_Peshat_, as well as the inner meaning, or _Derash_.
+
+"Why does it say: 'And God made every green herb of the field before
+it was upon the earth'? (Gen. ii. 4.)
+
+"By these words he suggests symbolically the incorporeal Idea. The
+phrase, 'before it was upon the earth,' marks the original perfection
+of every plant and herb. The eternal types were first created in the
+noetic world, and the physical objects on earth, perceptible by the
+senses, were made in their likeness."
+
+In this way Philo reads into the first chapter of the Bible the
+Platonic idealism which we shall see was a fundamental part of his
+philosophy.
+
+"Why, when Enoch died, does it say, 'And he pleased God'? (Gen. v.
+24.)
+
+"He says this to teach that the soul is immortal, inasmuch as after it
+is released from the body it continues to please."
+
+"What is the meaning of the expression, 'And Noah opened the roof of
+the ark'? (Gen. viii. 13.)
+
+"The text appears to need no interpretation; but in its symbolical
+meaning the ark is our body, and that which covers the body and for a
+long time preserves its strength is spoken of as its roof. And this is
+appetite. Hence when the mind is attracted by a desire for heavenly
+things, it springs upwards and makes away with all material desires.
+It removes that which threw a shade over it so as to reach the eternal
+Ideas."
+
+The "Questions and Answers" are essentially Hebraic in form, designed
+for Jews who knew and studied their Bible; and we can feel in them the
+influences of a training in traditional Mishnah and Midrash; but Philo
+passed from them to a more artistic expression and a more thoroughly
+Hellenized presentation of the philosophy of the Bible. This work is
+the largest extant expression of his thought and mission; it embraces
+the treatises which we know as "On the Creation of the World," "The
+Lives of Abraham and Joseph," "On the Decalogue," and finally those
+"On the Specific Laws," which are partly thus entitled and partly have
+separate ethical names, as "On Honoring Parents," "On Rewards and
+Punishments," "On Justice," etc. Large portions of it have
+disappeared, notably the "Lives of Isaac and Jacob"; and also the
+"Life of Moses," which was introductory to his laws. For the book
+which we have under that name does not belong to the series, but is
+separate. The purpose of the work broadly is to deepen the value of
+the Bible for the Jews by revealing its constant spiritual message,
+and to assert its value for the whole of humanity by showing in it a
+philosophical conception of the universe and its creation, the most
+lofty ethical and moral types, the most admirable laws, and, above
+all, the purest ideas of God and His relation to man. All that seems
+tribal and particularist is explained away, and the spiritual aspect
+of every chapter--of every word almost--of the Torah is emphasized.
+Philo expounds the sacred book, not of one particular nation, but of
+mankind. The Roman and Greek peoples were waiting for a religious
+message which should at once harmonize with rational ideas and satisfy
+their longing for God. All the philosophical schools were converting
+the scientific systems of the classical age into [Greek: Tropoi Biou],
+"plans of life," and Philo challenges them all with a new faith which
+has as its basis a God who not only was the sole Creator and Ruler of
+the world, but who had revealed to man the way of happiness, and the
+good life, social as well as individual. To-day, when the world about
+us has accepted--or has professed to accept--the ethical law of the
+Bible, we are apt to regard the essentials of Judaism as the belief in
+One God and the observance of ceremonies. But to Philo Judaism was
+something more comprehensive. It was the spiritual life, and the
+Mosaic law is the complete code of the Divine Republic, of which all
+are or can be citizens. In the introduction to the "Life of Abraham,"
+Philo explains the scheme of his work:[91]
+
+     "'The Sacred Laws' [as he regularly calls the Bible] were
+     written in five books, of which the first is entitled
+     Genesis. It derives its title from the account of the
+     creation which it contains, though it deals also with
+     endless other subjects, peace and war, hunger and plenty,
+     great cataclysms, and the histories of good and evil men. We
+     have examined with great care the accounts of the creation
+     in our former treatise ['On the Making of the Universe'],
+     and we now go on naturally to inquire into the laws; and
+     postponing the particular laws, which are as it were copies,
+     we will first of all examine the more universal, which are
+     their models. Now men who have lived irreproachable lives
+     are these laws, and their virtues are recorded in the Holy
+     Scriptures not only by way of eulogy, but in order to lead
+     on those who read about them to emulate their life. They are
+     become living standards of right reason, whom the lawgiver
+     has glorified for two reasons: (1) To show that the laws
+     laid down are consistent with nature [the conception of a
+     natural law binding upon all peoples was one of the fixed
+     ideas of the age]. (2) To show that it is not a matter of
+     terrible labor to live according to our positive laws if a
+     man has the will to do so; seeing that the patriarchs
+     spontaneously followed the unwritten principles before any
+     of the particular laws were written. So that a man may
+     properly say that the code of law is only a memorial of the
+     lives of the patriarchs. For the patriarchs, of their own
+     accord and impulse, chose to follow nature, and, regarding
+     her course with truth as the most ancient ordinance, they
+     lived a life according to the law."
+
+Philo dwells affectionately on the patriarchs, because, as he held,
+they proved the Jewish life to be truest to man's nature and to the
+highest ideal of humanity, and served therefore as examples to the
+Gentile world of the universal truth of the religion. The rabbis also
+took the patriarchs as the perfect type of our life, saying,
+"Everything that happens to them is a sign to future generations,"[92]
+and again: "The patriarchs are the true [Hebrew: mrbba], manifestation of
+God." But while he emphasized the broad moral teachings of Judaism
+exemplified by the patriarchs, Philo nevertheless upheld in its
+integrity the Mosaic law, and found in every one of the six hundred
+and thirteen precepts a spiritual meaning. Even the details of the
+tabernacle offerings have their universal lesson when he expounds them
+as symbols. Voltaire speaks cynically of Judaism as a religion of
+sacrifices: Philo shows that the ritual of sacrifice suggests moral
+lessons. The command of the red heifer, a part of the law which was
+particularly subject to attack, emphasizes the law of moral as well as
+of physical cleanliness. The prohibition to add honey or leaven to the
+sacrifice[93] (Lev. ii. 13) points the lesson that all superfluous
+pleasure is unrighteous; and so on with each prescription.
+
+The Mosaic code in his exposition is commensurate with life in all its
+aspects. It deals not only with the duties of the individual but also
+with the good government of the state. The life of Joseph is made the
+text of a political treatise, and throughout the books "On the
+Specific Laws," the socialism of the Bible is emphasized,[94] and held
+up as the ideal order of the future. The Jewish State is enlarged in
+Philo's vision from a national theocracy into a world-city inspired by
+the two ideas of love of God and love of humanity. In this conception,
+no doubt, the influence of Greek philosophy is to be seen; the Jewish
+interpreter keeps before him the "Republic" of Plato, and the "Polity"
+of Aristotle. With him, however, the ideal state is not a vision
+"laid up in heaven";[95] its foundation is already laid upon earth,
+its capital is Jerusalem, and it is the mission of his people to
+extend its borders till it embraces all nations[96]--an idea which
+permeates the Jewish litany.
+
+This commentary of the law is allegorical in the sense that beneath
+the particular law the interpreter constantly reveals a spiritual
+idea, but it is not allegorical in the sense that he makes an exchange
+of values. He is not for the most part reading into the text
+conceptions which are not suggested by it, but really and truly
+expounding; and where he gives a philosophical piece of exegesis, as
+when he explains the visit of the three angels to Abraham as a theory
+of the human soul about God's being,[97] he does so with diffidence or
+with reference to authorities that have founded a tradition. It is
+quite otherwise with the last class of Philo's work, the fruit of his
+maturest thought, with which it remains to deal.
+
+Throughout the "Allegories of the Laws" he takes the verse of the
+Bible not so much as a text to be amplified and interpreted, but as a
+pretext for a philosophical disquisition. The allegories indeed are
+only in form a commentary on the Bible; in one aspect they are a
+history of the human soul, which, if they had been completed, would
+have traced the upward progress from Adam to Moses. It is not to be
+expected, however, that Philo should adhere closely to any plan in the
+allegories. Theology, metaphysics, and ethics have as large a part in
+the medley of philosophical ideas as the story of the soul. His
+Hebraic mind, even when fortified by the mastery of philosophy, was
+unable to present its ideas systematically; it passed from subject to
+subject, weaving the whole together only by the thread of a continuous
+commentary upon Genesis. Parts of the work are missing, it is true,
+which adds to the seeming want of plan; and--greatest loss of all--the
+first part, which gave the philosophical account of the first chapter
+of Genesis, the first six days of creation, referred to as "The
+Hexameron" [Greek: to Hexêmeron], has disappeared.[98] Here must
+have been the general introduction to the allegories, wherein Philo
+declared his purpose and his method of exposition. The first treatise
+that we possess starts abruptly with a comment on the first verse of
+the second chapter, "'And the heaven and earth and all their world
+were completed.' Moses has previously related the creation of the mind
+and sense, and now he proceeds to describe their perfection. Their
+perfection is not the individual mind or sense, but their archetypal
+'ideas.' And symbolically he calls the mind heaven, because in heaven
+are the ideas of the mind, and the sense he calls earth, because it is
+corporeal and material."[99]
+
+So in a rambling, unsystematic way Philo embarks upon a discourse on
+idealism and psychology, making a fresh start continually from a verse
+or a phrase of the Bible. The Biblical narrative in the earliest
+chapters offered a congenial soil for his explorations, but no ground
+is too stubborn for his seed. The genealogy of Noah's sons is as
+fertile in suggestion as the story of Adam and Eve, for each name
+represents some hidden power or possesses some ethical import.
+
+The allegorical commentary is clearly the work of Philo's maturity,
+wherein he exhibits full mastery of an original method of exegesis.
+His allegories are no longer tentative, and he writes with the
+confidence of the sage, who has received not only the admiration of
+his people, but the inspiration of God. Another sign of their maturity
+is that asceticism seems no longer the true path to virtue, as it was
+to the author of "The Lives of the Patriarchs" and "The Specific
+Laws," but, on the contrary, a moderate use of the world's goods and a
+share in political life are marks of the perfect man. These
+characteristics bespeak the firmer hand and the profounder experience.
+Yet the series of works which form together Philo's esoteric doctrine
+were certainly put together over a long period of years, as the varied
+political references indicate. It has indeed been suggested by a
+modern German scholar[100] that large parts were originally given in
+the form of detached lectures and sermons, and that Philo later
+composed them together into a continuous commentary, working them up
+with much literary elaboration. In support of this theory, it may be
+urged that several of the treatises contain political addresses to
+public audiences, notably the _De Agricultura_ and _De Confusione
+Linguarum_, while in others there are invocations to prayer, or a
+summons to read a passage in the Bible, addressed apparently by the
+preacher to the Hazan, who had before him the scroll of the law. From
+Philo's own statements we know that the wisest men used to deliver
+philosophical homilies upon the Bible on the Sabbath day; and it is
+natural that the man who was appointed to head the Jewish embassy to
+Gaius had made himself known in the past to his brethren for oratory
+and wisdom of speech. "Sermons," said Jowett, "though they deal with
+eternal subjects, are the most evanescent form of literature." The
+dictum is true for the most part, but occasionally the sermon, by its
+depth of thought, the universality of its message, and the beauty of
+its expression, has become part of the world's heritage from the ages.
+Moreover, at Alexandria philosophy was associated with preaching. And
+the sermons of the Jewish-Hellenistic writer, in their style as well
+as in their thought, represent an epoch. Philo spoke in the language
+of the intellectual world of his day, and strove to associate the
+intellectual precepts of Hellenism with the Hebraic passion for
+righteousness. In his great moments, however, the Hebraic spirit
+towers supreme. "He was," said Croiset, the historian of Greek
+literature, "the first Greek prose writer who could speak to God and
+of God to man with the ardent piety and reverence of the Jewish
+prophets."[101]
+
+It is a serious misconception to imagine that Philo's philosophical
+allegories were meant for the general body of Alexandrian Jews. He
+frequently[102] declares that he is speaking to a specially initiated
+sect, and warns his hearers not to divulge his teaching. The
+notion of an esoteric doctrine for the aristocracy of intellect had
+become a fixed idea in the Greek schools for three centuries, ever
+since the days of Aristotle; and whether through Greek influence or
+otherwise it had been generally adopted by the Jewish teachers. The
+rabbis of the Talmud derived from the first chapters of Genesis the
+inner mystery of the law, which was cognizable only by the sage; and
+the same idea is found in later Jewish tradition, which, expounding
+Paradise ([Hebrew: prds]) as four stages of interpretation, each
+marked by a letter of the word, Peshat, Remez, Derash, and Sod
+([Hebrew: sod]),[103] regarded the last as the final reward of the
+devoted seeker after God, as it is said in the Psalms, "The secret of
+the Lord is for those who fear Him." Jewish religious philosophers
+have in all ages designed their work for a select few. The Halakah, or
+way of life, is the fit study of the many. So Maimonides wrote his
+Moreh only for those who already were masters of the law. And Philo
+likewise at Alexandria taught an esoteric doctrine to an esoteric
+circle, which alone was fitted to receive the profoundest
+theology.[104] The allegories of the law do not take the place of the
+law itself, nor of its ethical ordinances. They are additional to the
+other exegesis and distinct, destined only for the man of learning.
+And as we shall see, he asserts emphatically in the midst of his
+allegories[105] that the perception of the philosophical value does
+not release man from the practice itself. The wise man even as the
+fool must obey the law.
+
+Why, it may be asked, does Philo artificially attach his philosophy to
+the Scriptures? He does so for two reasons: first, because he holds
+and wishes to prove that between faith and philosophy there is no
+conflict, and his generation worked out the agreement by this method;
+he does so also because he wishes to establish the Torah and Judaism
+upon a sure foundation for the man of outside culture. The pursuit of
+philosophy must have menaced the attachment to Judaism and challenged
+the authority of the Bible at Alexandria. A superficial knowledge of
+the materialistic or rationalistic theories, which were propagated
+respectively by the Epicurean and Stoic schools, was made the excuse
+for indifference to the law. Then as now the advanced Jew would mask
+his self-indulgence under the guise of a banal philosophy, and jeer
+easily at archaic myths and tribal laws. The dominating motive of
+Philo's work is to show that the Bible contains for those who will
+seek it the richest treasures of wisdom, that its ethical teaching is
+more ideal and yet more real than that which hundreds of sophists
+poured forth daily in the lecture-theatres[106] to the gaping
+dilettanti of learning, and lastly that the cultured Jew may search
+out knowledge and truth to their depths, and find them expressed in
+his holy books and in his religious beliefs and practices. Philo
+frequently introduces into his philosophical interpretation a polemic
+against the disintegrating and demoralizing forces which were at work
+in the Alexandria of his day. His commentary therefore is a strange
+medley, compounded of idealistic speculation, theology, homiletics,
+moral denunciation, and polemical rhetoric. The idea, which is not
+uncommon, that Philo represents the extreme Hellenic development of
+Judaism, and that he gathered into his writings the opinions of all
+Greek schools to the ruin of his Jewish individuality, is utterly
+erroneous. In fact, he chooses out only the valuable parts of Greek
+thought, which could enter into a true harmony with the Hebraic
+spirit; and he not only rejects, but he attacks unsparingly those
+elements which were antagonistic to holiness and righteousness. With
+the enthusiasm of a Maccabee, if with other weapons, he fought against
+the bastard culture, which meant self-indulgence and the excessive
+attention to the body, the idol-worship, the degraded ideas of the
+Divine power, and the disregard of truth and justice, that were
+current in the pagan society about him. The seeking after sensual
+pleasure and luxury was the most glaring evil of his city--as the
+Talmud says,[107] of ten parts of lust nine were given to
+Alexandria--and with every variety of denunciation he returns again
+and again to the charge. Epicureanism is detestable not only for its
+low idea of human life, but for its godless conception of the
+universe. Its theory that the world was a fortuitous concourse of
+atoms, which was governed by blind chance, and that the gods lived
+apart in complete indifference to men--this was to Philo utter
+atheism, and as such the greatest of sins. He attacked paganism not
+only in its crude form of idolatry,[108] but in its more seductive
+disguise of a pretentious philosophy. Always and entirely he was the
+champion of monotheism.
+
+Nearly as godless, and therefore as vile in his eyes as the follower
+of Epicurus, is the follower of the Stoic doctrines. It has been shown
+that the Jews and the Stoics were continually in conflict at
+Alexandria; and the "Allegories of the Laws" are filled with attacks,
+overt and hidden, upon the Stoic doctrines. The Stoics, indeed,
+believed in one supreme Divine Power, not however in a transcendental
+and personal God, but a cosmic, impersonal, fatalistic world-force.[109]
+To Philo this conception, with its denial of the Divine will and the
+Divine care for the individual, was as atheistic as the Epicurean
+"chance." Equally repulsive to his religious standpoint was the Stoic
+dogma, that man is, or should be, independent of all help, and that
+the human reason is all-powerful and can comprehend the universe by
+its own unaided power.[110] Repulsive also were their pride, their
+rejection of the emotions, their hard rationalism. The battle of Philo
+against the Stoics is the battle of personal monotheism against
+impersonal pantheism, of religious faith and revelation against
+arrogant rationalism, and of idealism against materialism. Hostile as
+he is to the Stoic intellectual dogmatism, Philo is none the less
+opposed to its converse, intellectual skepticism and agnosticism. Man,
+he is convinced, has a Divine revelation[111] which he may not deny
+without ruin. He holds with Pope that we have
+
+  "Too much of knowledge for the Skeptic side,
+  Too much of weakness for the Stoic's pride,"
+
+and he attacks the Skeptics of the day who devoted their minds to
+destructive dialectical quibbling and sophistry[112] instead of
+seeking for God and the human good. They are the Ishmaels of
+philosophy.
+
+Philo's polemic is directed less against the Greek schools in
+themselves than against the Jewish followers of the Greek schools. He
+saw the danger to Judaism in the teachings of these anti-religious
+philosophers, and deeply as he loved Greek culture, he loved more
+deeply his religion. He wanted to reveal a philosophy in the Bible
+which should win back to Judaism the men who had been captivated by
+foreign thought. In one aspect, therefore, his master-work is a plea
+for unity. The community at Alexandria was a very heterogeneous body;
+not only were the sects which had appeared in Palestine, the Sadducees,
+Samaritans, Pharisees, and Essenes, represented there too, but in
+addition there were parties who attached themselves to one or other of
+the Greek schools, the Pythagoreans, Skeptics, and the like, and
+lastly Gnostic groups, who cultivated an esoteric doctrine of the
+Godhead, and were lax in their observance of the law, which they held
+to be purely symbolical and of no account in its literal meaning. The
+mental activity which this growth of sects exemplified was in some
+respects a healthy sign, but it contained seeds of religious chaos,
+which bore their fruit in the next century. Men started by thinking
+out a philosophical Judaism for themselves; they ended by ceasing to
+be Jews and philosophers. Philo foresaw this danger, and he tried to
+combat it by presenting his people with a commentary of the Bible
+which should satisfy their intellectual and speculative bent, but at
+the same time preserve their loyalty to the Bible and the law. To the
+Greek world he offered a philosophical religion, to his own people a
+religious philosophy. Thus the allegorical commentary is the crowning
+point of his work, the offering of his deepest thought to the most
+cultured of the community; and though much of its detail had only
+relevancy for its own time, and its method may repel our modern taste,
+yet the spirit which animates it is of value to all ages, and should
+be an inspiration to every generation of emancipated Jews. That spirit
+is one of fearless acceptance of the finest culture of the age
+combined with unswerving love of the law and loyalty to catholic
+Judaism.
+
+We have already treated of the general characteristics of Philo's
+method of allegorical interpretation, but we must now consider rather
+more closely the way in which he employs it. The general principle
+upon which he depends is, that besides and in addition to the literal
+meaning which the Bible bears for the common man, it has a hidden and
+deeper meaning for the philosopher. It is, as it were, a sort of
+palimpsest; the writing on the top all may read, the writing below the
+student alone can decipher. With the rabbis Philo holds that the Torah
+was written "in the language of the sons of man,"[113] but he believes
+with them again that it contains all wisdom. And if the ideas of
+reason do not appear in its literal meaning, then they must be
+searched out in some inner interpretation. Commenting on the verse in
+Genesis (xi. 7), "Let us confound their language, that they may not
+understand one another's speech," he says: "Those who follow the
+literal and obvious interpretation think that the origin of the Greek
+and barbarian languages is here described; [the contrast between
+Greek, on the one hand, and barbarian--in which Hebrew, it seems, is
+included--on the other, is remarkable]. I would not find fault with
+them, because they also, perhaps, employ right reason, but I would
+call on them not to remain content with this, but to follow me to the
+metaphorical renderings, considering that the actual words of the holy
+oracle are, as it were, shadows of the real bodies, and the powers
+which they reflect are the true underlying ideas."[114]
+
+Elsewhere he tells a story of the condign punishment which befell a
+godless and impious man, perchance a Samaritan Jew, who made mock of
+the race of allegorical interpreters, jeering at the idea that the
+change of names from Abram to Abraham and from Sarai to Sarah
+contained some deep meaning. He soon paid a fitting penalty for his
+wicked wit, for on some very trivial pretext he went and hanged
+himself. Which was just, says Philo; for such a rascal deserved a
+rascal's death.[115] It is noteworthy that the Talmud also lays stress
+upon the deep meaning of the patriarch's change of name.[116] "He who
+calls Abraham Abram," said Bar Kappara, "transgresses a positive
+command" [Hebrew: mtsva 'sha]. "Nay," said Rabbi Levi, "he transgresses
+both a positive and a negative command (and commits a double sin)." Clearly
+this was a test-question and an article of faith, possibly because the
+letter [Hebrew: h], which was added to the name, was a letter of
+mystical import in the opinion of the age. Both the rejection of the
+literal and the rejection of the allegorical value of the Bible, Philo
+regarded as impious, and he had to struggle against opposite factions
+that were one-sided. The true son of the law believes in both [Greek:
+to hrêton] and [Greek: to en hyponoiais].[117] Seeing that the
+Bible was the inspired revelation of God, who is the fountain of all
+wisdom and knowledge--this is Philo's cardinal dogma--it is not to be
+supposed, on the one hand, that it was silent about the profoundest
+ideas of the human mind, or, on the other, that it contained ideas
+opposed to right reason and truth. Yet at first sight it seemed to
+lack any definite philosophy and to offer anthropomorphic views of
+God. Hence the true interpreter must use the actual words of the sage
+as metaphors, following the maxim, "Turn it about and about, because
+all is in it, and contemplate it and wax grey over it, for thou canst
+have no better rule than this."[118] The principle upon which Philo,
+Saadia, Maimonides, and in fact the whole line of Jewish philosophical
+exegetes have worked, is that the "words of the law are fruitful and
+multiply"; or, as the Bible phrase runs, "The Torah which Moses
+commanded unto us is the inheritance of the congregation of Jacob." It
+is the separate inheritance of each generation, which each must
+cultivate so as to gather therefrom its own fruit.
+
+The Halakah is the outcome of this devotion in one aspect, the
+philosophical exegesis in another. In the one case Jewish
+jurisprudence and the body of legal tradition, in the other,
+philosophical ideas inspired by outer civilization, are attached to
+the text of the Bible by ingenious devices of association. The device
+is partly a pious fiction, partly a genuine belief; in other words,
+the teachers honestly thought that there was respectively a hidden
+philosophical meaning in the Bible and an oral tradition,
+supplementary to the written law and arising out of it; but on the
+other hand they would not have urged that their particular
+interpretation alone was portended by the Scriptures. This is shown in
+the Talmud by the fact that different rabbis deduced the same lessons
+from different verses, and contrary laws from the same verse; in Philo
+by the fact that he often gives various interpretations of one text in
+different parts of his work. All that was claimed was that knowledge
+and truth must be primarily referred to the Divine revelation, and all
+law and practice to the authority of the Mosaic code. Philo, then, in
+the same way as the rabbis, deduces all his teaching from the Bible,
+not because he holds that it was explicitly contained there, but
+because he desires to give to his philosophical notions Divine
+authority. Like the rabbis, again, he suggests definite rules of
+interpretation which may always be applied [Greek: kanones tês
+allêgorias].[119] He declares that every name in the Torah has a deep
+symbolical meaning, and symbolizes some power.[120] Thus the names of
+the sons of Jacob typify each some moral quality, and these qualities
+together make the perfect man and the perfect nation. Reuben is "the
+son of insight" [Hebrew: ru'bn], Simeon is learning [Hebrew: shm'-on],
+Judah [Hebrew: yhuda] stands for the praise of God.[121] It may be noted,
+by the way, that all these values show traces of Hebrew etymology. Again,
+the synonyms in the Bible are to be carefully studied, while even
+particles and parts of words have their special value and importance.
+And the skilful exegete may for homiletical purposes make slight
+changes in a word, following the rabbinical rule,[122] "Read not so,
+but so." Thus he plays upon the name Esau, and takes the Hebrew word
+as though it were written, not [Hebrew: 'eshaw] but [Hebrew: 'ashav], a
+thing made.[123] Whence he shows that Esau represents the sham
+(made-up) greatness, which is boastful and insolent and shameless.
+Philo is referring perhaps to Apion, the vainglorious anti-Semite,
+whom he often covertly attacks. Again, whenever there is repetition in
+the text, a deeper meaning is portended. Dealing with the verse,
+"Sarah the wife of Abraham took Hagar the Egyptian" (Gen. xvi. 3),
+Philo comments, that we already knew that Sarah was Abraham's wife:
+why, then, does the Bible mention it again? And following certain
+values which he has made, he draws the lesson that the study of
+philosophy must always go together with the study of general
+culture.[124] These examples are not isolated; yet it is rather a
+barren science to search for the canons of Philo's allegory, as
+Siegfried has done.
+
+For his allegory is a very flexible instrument, which can be employed
+at pleasure to deduce anything from anything. And Philo regards these
+"points of construction" as the excuse, not as the motive, of his
+ethical and philosophical teaching. He does not depend on such
+devices, for he wanders into allegory more often than not without any
+pretext of the kind.
+
+The modern reader may consider the allegorical method artificial and
+unconvincing, even if he does not go so far as Spinoza, and say that
+it is "useless, harmful, and absurd."[125] We prefer to-day to show
+the inner agreement of philosophical with Biblical teaching, rather
+than pretend that all philosophy is contained within the Bible; and we
+accept the Bible as it stands, as a book of supreme religious worth,
+without requiring more of it. But that is mainly a difference of taste
+or of method, and in Philo's day, and in fact down to the time of the
+sixteenth-century Renaissance, Jew and Gentile alike preferred the
+other way. For thought, ancient and mediæval, was pervaded with the
+craving for authority or a plausible show of it. The Bible was not
+only the great book of morality, but the standard of truth, that from
+which knowledge in all its branches started, and that by which it was
+to be judged. As all knowledge came from God, so all knowledge was in
+God's Book; and allegory was the method by which the intellectual
+conceptions of succeeding ages were attached to it.
+
+The two main heads of Biblical interpretation which the Jewish
+religious genius developed, Peshat and Derash,--these represent two
+permanent attitudes of mind. In the first the commentator tries to get
+at the exact meaning of the text before him, to make its lesson clear
+and discuss the circumstances of the composition, the exact relations
+of its parts. He is satisfied to take the writer of the Biblical book
+for what he says in his own form of utterance. In the second the
+commentator is more anxious to inculcate ideas and lessons which do
+not arise obviously from the text, and to widen the significance of
+what he finds in the Bible. The interpretation ceases to be a mere
+exposition; it becomes creative or conciliating thought, and the
+interpreter becomes a religious reformer, a philosopher, a prophet. To
+this school Philo belongs, and the framework of his teaching or the
+ingenuity by which he develops it from his text is of small account.
+It is what he teaches and what he considers to be the vital things in
+religion and life to which we must pay attention. Judged on this
+ground Philo is a supreme master of Derash, and must take a place
+among the most creative of the interpreters of the Bible.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+PHILO AND THE TORAH
+
+
+Over and over again Philo declares that his function is to expound the
+law of Moses. Moses was the interpreter of God's word to Israel; and
+Philo aspired to be the interpreter of the revelation of Moses to the
+Hellenistic world, "the living voice of the holy law." He believed
+that Israel was a chosen people in the sense that it had received the
+Divine message on behalf of the whole human race,[126] a Kingdom of
+Priests, in that it occupied to other nations the position which the
+priest--using the word in the fullest sense--occupied to the common
+people.[127] The Torah is God's covenant, not only with one small
+nation, but with all His children, and its teachings are true for all
+times and for all places. "The Bible," as Professor Butcher says,[128]
+"is the one book which appears to have the capacity of eternal
+self-adjustment, of uninterrupted correspondence with an ever-shifting
+and ever-widening environment." Nowadays this appears a truism, but
+the truth first presented itself to the Jewish-Alexandrian community
+when they came in contact with external culture. The Palestinian and
+Babylonian Jews, free for the most part from outside influences,
+developed the Torah for the Jewish people, amplified the tradition,
+and determined the Halakah, the practical law. But the Alexandrian
+Jews in the first place found their own attitude to the Torah affected
+by their acquaintance with Greek ethics and metaphysics, and also
+found it necessary to interpret the Bible in a new fashion in order to
+make its value known to their environment. The Greek world required to
+be shown the general principle, the broad ethical idea in each
+ordinance. And thus it came about that the Alexandrian interpreters
+always emphasized the universal beneath the particular, the moral
+spirit beneath the forms.
+
+It had been one of the chief functions of the prophets to demonstrate
+the moral import of the law. In their vision the God of Israel became
+the God of the universe, and His law of conduct was spread over all
+mankind. "For the law shall go forth from Zion, and the word of the
+Lord from Jerusalem" (Micah iv. 2). Philo in effect expounds Judaism
+in their spirit, though he speaks their message in the voice of Plato
+and to a people whose minds were trained in Greek culture. Yet it is
+significant that he wrote all his commentaries round the Five Books of
+Moses, and used the prophets and other Biblical books only to
+illustrate and support the Mosaic teaching, which contains the whole
+way of life and the whole religious philosophy. According to the
+rabbis also the Prophets formed only a complement to the Torah, "a
+species of Agadah";[129] and the prophetic vision of Moses was much
+clearer than that of his successors. Philo, too, clearly realized that
+Judaism was the religion of the law. His view of the Torah is what the
+modern world would call uncritical: that is to say, he accepts the
+idea that the whole of the Five Books was an objective revelation to
+Moses at Sinai. But though--or because--he is innocent of the higher
+criticism, and believes in the literal inspiration of the Torah, his
+conception is none the less enlightened and spiritual. The law--the
+Divine Logos--is not the enactment of an outside power, arbitrarily
+imposed, and to be obeyed because of its miraculous origin; it is the
+expression of the human soul within, when raised to its highest power
+by the Divine inspiration. Every man may fit himself to receive the
+Divine word, which is, in modern language, revelation.[130] Moses,
+then, is distinguished above all other legislators, not because he
+alone received it, but because he received it in its purest form, and
+because he was the most noble interpreter of it. It is for this reason
+that the law of Moses is of universal validity for conduct. The Divine
+spirit possessed him so fully that his Logos, or revelation, is
+eternally true, and by following it all men become fit to be blessed
+with the Divine gift themselves. This is true of the other prophets of
+the Bible to a smaller degree, and in a still minor degree Philo hoped
+that it was true of himself.
+
+It should be premised that the "law of nature" was at the time of
+Philo an idea as widely accepted as "evolution" is to-day. Men
+believed that by a study of the processes of the universe the
+individual might discover the law of conduct that should bring his
+action into harmony with the whole. What the Greek philosophers
+declared to be the privilege of the few, Philo declared to have been
+imparted by God to His people as their law of life. Hence the Mosaic
+legislation is the code of nature and reason, and the righteous man
+directs his conduct in accordance with those rules of nature by which
+the cosmos is ordered.[131] Obedience to the law should not be
+obedience to an outward prescription, but rather the following out of
+our own highest nature. The ideal which the Stoic sage continually
+aspired for and never attained to--the life according to nature and
+right reason--this Philo claimed had been accomplished in the Mosaic
+revelation, handed down by God to Israel and through them to the
+world.
+
+Before we deal with Philo's treatment of the law in its narrower
+sense, it will be as well to consider briefly his interpretation of
+the historical parts of the Torah. Here likewise he finds ideas of
+natural reason and eternal truths embodied. To Philo, as we have seen,
+the Torah is a unity, and every part of it has equal validity and
+value. He had to contend against certain higher critics of his day,
+who declared that Genesis was a collection of myths ([Greek:
+mythôn plasmata]).[132] Moreover, the long catalogues of
+genealogies in Genesis and the longer recitals of sacrifices in
+Leviticus and Numbers seemed to refute those who declared that every
+part of the Pentateuch was a Divine revelation. In the third book of
+the "Questions to Genesis" Philo directly grapples with this
+objection. Commenting on the verse (Gen. xv. 9), "Take for me a heifer
+of three years old and a goat of three years old," etc., he says that
+in interpreting any part or any verse of Scripture we must look to the
+purpose of the whole and explain it from this outlook, "without
+dissecting or disturbing its harmony or disintegrating its
+unity."[133] Why should God, asked the scoffer, reveal these trivial
+or prolix details? Philo's answer is in fact to spiritualize
+everything that is material, and universalize everything that is
+particular. While he believes in the literal inspiration of the Bible,
+he does not insist upon the literal truth of every word of it, and in
+the opening chapters of Genesis in particular, he treats the tales as
+symbolical or allegorical myths. His philosophical commentary on the
+creation, corresponding to the [Hebrew: m'sha br'shit] of the
+rabbis, is found in the book _De Mundi Opificio_, which stands in
+modern editions at the head of his writings. Its main theme is to
+trace in the text the Platonic idealism, _i.e._, the theory that God
+first created transcendental, incorporeal archetypes of all
+physical and material things. Philo uses the double account of the
+creation of man in the first and second chapters of Genesis as clear
+evidence that the Bible describes--for those who have the mind to
+see--the creation of an ideal before the terrestrial man.
+
+In the "Allegories of the Laws," which is the profounder philosophical
+doctrine, the account of Adam and Eve is deliberately chosen by Philo
+as the text of a psychological treatise, in which he analyzes[134] the
+relations of the mind, the senses, and the pleasures, represented
+respectively by Adam, Eve, and the Serpent. The necessity of
+explaining the story symbolically is professedly based on the fact
+that otherwise we are driven to the idea that the Bible spoke
+inaccurately about God. "It is silly," he says, "to suppose that Adam
+and Eve can have hidden themselves in the Garden of Eden, for God
+filled the whole." We are driven then to suggest another meaning; and
+Philo passes into a homily about the false opinion of the man who
+follows the bidding of the senses (Eve) at the instigation of pleasure
+(the Serpent).[135]
+
+The story of Cain and Abel is another piece of moral philosophy
+embodied in a concrete form. Abel symbolizes pious humility, Cain the
+deadly sin of atheism and intellectual pride, which denies the
+absolute and ever-present power of the Deity. Philo asks himself the
+question that other commentators have frequently raised, some in
+reverence, some in ridicule, "Who was Cain's wife?"[136] And he
+answers that the Bible expression about the children of Cain cannot be
+taken literally, but suggests the union of the ill-ruled mind with
+impious opinions, which have as their issue false pride and sin.
+
+Philo here treats the stories in the opening of Genesis as pure
+allegories, in which the men and women represent symbolically
+characters and qualities. It should be remembered, however, that these
+interpretations occur in the commentary where our author is not so
+much expounding the Torah as deducing secret doctrines from it. His
+proper exposition of the law proceeds from the book on the Creation to
+the lives of the patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, and then to the
+lives of Joseph and Moses. And in this commentary the Bible narrative
+is taken as historical truth: only in addition to the historical fact
+there is a moral and universal value in every figure and every
+episode. The patriarchs' lives represent the unwritten law which the
+Greek world held in high honor, for it was considered to contain the
+broad principles of individual and social conduct, and to be prior
+logically and chronologically to the written codes. Moses, therefore,
+the perfect legislator, according to Philo, has presented in the three
+founders of the Hebrew race embodiments of the unwritten law of good
+conduct for all mankind. Each of them is a moral type of eternal
+validity and represents one of the ways in which blessedness may be
+attained.[137] Abraham represents the goodness which comes from
+instruction; Isaac, the spontaneous goodness that is innate, and the
+joy (or laughter) of the soul that is God's gift to his favored sons;
+Jacob, the goodness that comes after long effort, through the life of
+practice and severe discipline. Before this triad, the Bible presents
+another group of three, who represent the virtues preparatory to the
+acquisition of perfect goodness: Enosh, Enoch, and Noah.[138] They
+typify respectively, as their names indicate, hope, repentance, and
+justice. It is a pretty thought, helped by an error in the Septuagint
+translation,[139] which sees in the name of the first (_i.e._, man,
+[Hebrew: 'nosh]) the symbol of hope. Hope, the commentator suggests, is the
+distinguishing characteristic of man[140] as compared with other
+animals, and hope therefore is our first step towards the Divine
+nature, the seed of which faith is the fruit. Next in order come
+repentance and natural justice, and from these stepping-stones we can
+rise to the higher self. Philo's interpretation of these Bible figures
+would appear to have behind it an old Midrashic tradition. As far back
+as the book of Ben Sira, in the passage on "the Praises of Famous Men"
+(xliv), they are taken as typical of the different virtues, and Enoch
+notably is the type of repentance. In the first century the world was
+becoming incapable of understanding abstract ideas, and required
+ethics to be concretely embodied in examples of life. Philo found
+within the Jewish Scriptures what the Christian apostles later
+transferred to other events.
+
+Joseph, whose life followed that of the patriarchs, is the type of the
+political life, the model of the man of action and ambition. Taken
+alone, this is inferior to the life of the saint and philosopher, but
+mixed with the other it produces the perfect man, for the truly good
+man must take his part in public life. The story of Joseph, then,
+illustrates the full humanity of Moses' scheme, and it marks also,
+according to Philo, the great moral lesson, that if there be one spark
+of nobility in a man's soul, God will find it and cause it to shine
+forth.[141] For Joseph, until he comes down to Egypt, is not a
+virtuous man, but full of conceit and unworthy aspiration for
+supremacy; he shows his true worth when he is sold into slavery; and
+then by the Divine inspiration he becomes the ideal statesman. Very
+suggestive is Philo's homily, by which he develops the Bible
+narrative, that the function of the statesman is to expound
+dreams;[142] because his task is to interpret the life of man, which
+is one long dream of changing scenes, wherein we forget what has gone
+before, as the fleeting shadow leads us from childhood to youth, from
+youth to manhood, from manhood to old age. Lastly, from the story of
+Joseph he draws the lesson that when the Hebrew has attained to a high
+position in a foreign land, as in Egypt, where there is utter
+blindness about the true God, he can and should retain his national
+laws,[143] and not assimilate the practices of his environment.
+
+Eusebius[144] mentions, among the works of Philo which he had before
+him, a book on "The Statesman," in which doubtless the principles of
+government and social life were more fully treated. The book has
+disappeared, but the life of Joseph suffices to show that Philo
+recognized the place of public service in the human ideal.
+
+Moses is not only the divinely inspired legislator, but he typifies
+also the perfection of the human soul, the highest example of the man
+at one with God, supreme as king, lawgiver, priest, and prophet. He is
+the link between God and man, the perfect interpreter of the Divine
+Word; and though Philo avoids the suggestion of any Divine power
+incarnate in man, he speaks imaginatively of the Logos of Moses,[145]
+_i.e._, his reason, as identical with the Logos of God, the Divine law
+of the universe. It is significant of his attitude to religion that he
+lays no stress upon the miracles of the Bible narrative. Not that he
+rationalizes them away; he rejects all rationalizing whatsoever; but
+he interprets them as great spiritual signs, rather than as diversions
+from the laws of nature. His allegory of the burning bush, which Moses
+saw at Horeb is typical, and presents a truth to which the whole
+history of Israel bears witness. The weak thorn-bush, which was not
+consumed by the fire, is the image of the idea of Israel, which almost
+cries to the people in their misfortune: "Do not despair! Your
+weakness is your strength, and by it you shall wound race after race.
+You will be preserved by those who wish to destroy you, and you shall
+not perish. In evil days you shall not suffer, and when a tyrant
+thinks to uproot you, you shall shine forth the more in brighter
+glory."[146] The passage is typical also of the rhetorical artifice
+with which Philo, following the taste of the time, recommended the
+Bible to the Greeks.
+
+We turn now to Philo's treatment of the Mosaic legislation, the Torah
+in its narrower sense, which is to modern Jewry perhaps the most
+striking part of his commentary. His problem was the same as ours--to
+bring the ancient law into harmony with the ideas of a non-Jewish
+environment, and to show its essential value when tried by an external
+cultural standard. Briefly his solution is that he sees everything in
+the Torah _sub specie æternitatis_, in the light of eternity; and by
+his faithfulness to the law, combined with his spiritual
+interpretation of it, he stands forth as the greatest Jewish
+missionary of his age. Unfortunately for Judaism, depth of thought and
+philosophical judgment are not the qualities which mark the successful
+religious missionary. Philo's philosophical treatment of the Torah was
+understood only of the few; the fanatical Pauline rejection of the law
+appealed to the masses. The spirit of the age demanded, indeed, the
+ethical interpretation of the Bible, and it was carried out in many
+ways, some true, some untrue to Judaism. Philo and Josephus tell us
+how Judaism was spreading over the world.[147] "There is not any city
+of the Greeks," says the historian, "nor of the barbarians, nor of any
+nation whatsoever, to which our custom of resting on the seventh day
+has not been introduced, and where our fasts and our dietary laws are
+not observed.... As God Himself pervadeth all the universe, so hath
+our law passed through the world." And their testimony is supported by
+the frequent gibes against Judaizing Romans in the Roman poets,[148]
+and by the explicit statements of Strabo,[149] the famous geographer,
+and, more remarkable still, of Seneca, the Stoic
+philosopher-statesman. The bitter foe of the Jews, he confessed that
+this superstitious pest was infecting the whole world, and that the
+conquered people (Judæa had lately been made a Roman province) were
+taking their conquerors captive.[150] Philo, with his ardent hope,
+looked for the near coming of the time when the worship of the Jewish
+God would prevail over the world, and sought to show that the Jewish
+law, which is the expression of Jewish belief, and which differs from
+all others, not only in the extent of its sway, but in its
+unchangeableness, could be universalized to fit its new service. To
+this end he interpreted the Mosaic code, which "no war, tyrant,
+persecution, or visitation, human or Divine, can destroy: for it is
+eternal."[151] In the arrangement of the Torah, Philo finds a proof of
+its universality. It begins with the account of the creation, to teach
+us that the same Being that is the Creator and Father of the universe
+is also its Legislator, and, again, that he who follows the law will
+choose to live in harmony with nature, and will exhibit consistency of
+action with words and of words with action. Other philosophers,
+notably the Stoics, claimed to lay down a plan of life that followed
+the law of nature; but their practice notoriously fell below their
+unrealizable professions. In Judaism alone spirit and practice were at
+one, so that each inspired the other and secured human excellence.
+"Not theory but practice is the root of the matter" ([Hebrew: l' hmdrsh
+'kr 'l' hm'sha]), according to the rabbis:[152] and Philo, who,
+contemplative philosopher as he was, yet recognized the all-importance of
+conduct, writes in the same spirit:[153] "We must first study and then act,
+for we learn, not for learning's sake, but in order to action."
+
+Philo seeks to arrange the law under general moral heads, and he finds
+in the Decalogue the holy text upon which the rest of the code is but
+a commentary. He may be following a tradition common among all the
+Jews, for in the Midrash to Numbers (xiii) it is said that the six
+hundred and thirteen precepts are all contained in the Ten
+Commandments: [Hebrew: shtrig mtsvt klilit bhn]. We do not know, however,
+in what way the early rabbis carried out this idea, whereas we possess
+Philo's arrangement; and some of its features are very suggestive.[154]
+To the first two commandments he attaches the ritual laws relating to
+priests and sacrifices, to the fourth the laws of all the festivals, to
+the seventh the criminal and civil law, to the tenth the dietary laws.
+The Decalogue he conceives as falling into two divisions, between which
+the fifth commandment is a link. For the first four commandments are
+ordinances that determine man's relation to God, and the last five
+those which determine his relation to his fellows. Honor of the
+parents is the link between the Divine and the human virtues, even as
+parents themselves are a link between immortal God and mortal man.
+Corresponding to the two divisions of the Decalogue are the two
+generic virtues which the Mosaic legislation has set as its goal,
+piety, and humanity, or what the rabbis called charity ([Hebrew: tsdka]).
+"He who loves God, but does not show love towards his own kind,
+has but the half of virtue."[155] Thus in one and the same age Hillel,
+incited by a single scoffer, and Philo, moved by the taunts of a tribe
+of anti-Semites, looked for the most vital lesson of the Torah, and
+they found it alike in "the love of our neighbor." That was Judaism on
+its practical side.
+
+In order to show the humanitarian spirit of the Torah, Philo
+emphasizes its socialistic institutions, the law of the seventh year's
+rest to the land ([Hebrew: shnt hshmita]), of the emancipation of the
+slaves, and of the Jubilee. These to him are not tribal laws, but the
+ideal institutions for the whole world, which shall one day be set up
+when the theocracy has been established over all mankind. And in an age
+when slavery was as accepted a condition as factory-labor is to-day,
+he ventured to assert the principle of the equality of man. "If,"
+saith the law, "one of thy brethren be sold to thee, let him serve
+thee for six years, and in the seventh year let him go free without
+payment." And Philo thereon comments:[156] "A second time Moses calls
+our fellow-creature brother, to impress upon the master that he has a
+tie with his servant, so that he may not neglect him as a stranger.
+Nay, but if he follows the direction of the law, he will feel sympathy
+with him, and will not be vexed when he is about to liberate him. For
+though we call our servants slaves, yet in verity they are only
+dependents who serve us in order to have the means of life." This
+corresponds with the Talmud dictum, "Whoever buys a Jewish slave buys
+a master for himself."[157] Commenting again upon the verse in Exodus
+xxi. 6, which says with seeming harshness that a servant who wishes to
+stay with his master after the year of emancipation has arrived, shall
+be nailed by the ear to a door, he explains that no man should consent
+of his own will to be a slave, for we should only be servants of God;
+and if a man deliberately rejects freedom for comfort, he should wear
+a mark of degradation. The so-called Christian principle of the
+dignity of human life and the equality of man, Philo shows to be the
+spirit of the Mosaic law, not limited within the confines of one
+nation, but valid for the world. Nor is it contained therein as a mere
+sentimental aspiration, but it is realized in the institutions of the
+Jewish polity.
+
+Philo looked for the same broad principles in his treatment of the
+ceremonial law. The Sabbath day is the central observance, one might
+say, the lodestar of the Jewish life, round which the other ceremonies
+revolve. The Sabbath is the call to man's higher nature, for it is the
+day on which we are bidden to devote ourselves to the Divine power
+within us and to seek to know God. "The six days in which the Creator
+made the universe are an example to us to work, but the seventh day,
+on which He rested, is an example to us to meditate. As on that day
+God is said to have looked upon His work, so we, too, should
+contemplate the universe thereon, and consider our highest welfare.
+Let us never neglect the example of the best life, the combination of
+action and thought, but keeping a clear vision of it before our minds,
+so far as our human nature will permit, let us liken ourselves to
+immortal God by word and deed."[158] High-flown this language may be,
+but what Philo wishes to mark is the spiritual value of the Sabbath.
+It is not merely a day of rest from workaday toil, but it is a day
+upon which we devote all our thoughts to God, and enter into closer
+communion with Him, [Hebrew: mnoht 'hba vndba], a repose of love and
+devotion. Heine said that on one day of the week the lowliest Jew became
+a prince, Philo that he became a philosopher. As in all of Philo's
+interpretations of Jewish custom, there is something mystic in his
+conception of the Sabbath. For he regards all Divine service and all
+prayer as a mystic rite which leads the human soul unto God. In the
+special ordinances of the day he finds a spiritual motive. We may not
+touch fire, because fire is the seed and beginning of industry.[159]
+The servant of the house may not work,[160] because on this day he
+shall have a taste of freedom and humanity, and he will work the more
+cheerfully during the remaining six days. Some rabbis later, when
+numbers of Gentiles had adopted this without the other institutions of
+Judaism, claimed the Sabbath as the special heritage of Israel; and in
+the book of Jubilees[161] it is said that Israel alone has the right
+to observe the Sabbath. Not so Philo, who, desiring to give the day a
+value for all, regards it as God's covenant with the whole of
+humanity.[162]
+
+The Sabbath idea is reflected in all the festivals, which have as
+their dominating idea man's joyful gratitude to God. Influenced
+probably by a mystic fondness for certain numbers, Philo enumerates
+ten festivals, as follows:[163] (1) Each day in the year, if we use it
+aright--a truly Philonic conception; (2) The Sabbath; (3) The new
+moon--then in Alexandria, as in Palestine, a solemn day; (4) The
+Passover; (5) The bringing of the first barley ('Omer); (6) The Feast
+of Unleavened Bread. These last three are separate aspects of one
+celebration, which is divided up so as to produce the holy decad. (7)
+Pentecost; (8) New Year; (9) Atonement (to the mystic the Feast of
+feasts); (10) Tabernacles. Following his design of revealing in
+Judaism a religion of universal validity, Philo points out in all
+these festivals a double meaning. On the one hand, they mark God's
+providence to His chosen people, shown in some great event of their
+history--this is the special meaning for the Israelite--and, on the
+other, they indicate God's goodness as revealed in the march of
+nature, and thus help to bind man to the universal process. So
+Passover is the festival of the spring and a memorial of the creation
+([Hebrew: zbr lm'sha br'shit]) as well as the memorial of the great Exodus,
+and of our gratitude for the deliverance from the inhospitable land of
+Egypt. And those who look for a deeper moral meaning may find in it a
+symbol of the passing over from the life of the senses to the life with
+God. Similarly, Philo deals with the other festivals,[164] and in their
+particular ceremonies he finds symbols which stamp eternal lessons of
+history and of morality upon our hearts. The unleavened bread is the
+mark of the simple life, the New Year Shofar of the Divine rule of
+peace, the Sukkot booth of the equality of all men, and, as he puts it
+elsewhere, of man's duty in prosperity to remember the troubles of his
+past, so that he may worthily recognize God's goodness. Much of this
+may appear trite to us; and the association of the festivals with the
+seasons of nature may to some appear a false development of historical
+Judaism; nevertheless Philo's treatment of this part of the Torah is
+notable. It shows remarkable feeling for the ethical import of the
+law, and it establishes the harmony between the Greek and Hebrew
+conceptions of the Deity by combining the God of history with the God
+of nature in the same festival. The ideas were not unknown to
+Palestinian rabbis; Philo, by giving them a Greek dress, opened them
+to the world.
+
+Equally remarkable and equally suggestive is Philo's treatment of the
+dietary laws. We have seen that he placed them under the governing
+principle of the tenth commandment, "Thou shalt not covet," or, more
+broadly, "Thou shalt not have base desires." The dietary laws are at
+once a symbol and a discipline of temperance and self-control. We know
+that the Greeks, as soon as they had a superficial knowledge of Jewish
+observance, jeered at the barbarous and stupid superstition of
+refusing to eat pork. Again we are told in the letter of the false
+Aristeas that when Ptolemy's ambassadors went to Jerusalem, to summon
+learned men to translate the Torah into Greek, Eleazar, the high
+priest, instructed them in the deeper moral meaning of the dietary
+laws. Further, in the fourth book of the Maccabees--an Alexandrian
+sermon upon the Empire of Right Reason--we find an eloquent defence of
+these same laws as the precepts of reason which fortify our minds.
+Philo, then, is following a tradition, but he improves upon it.
+Accepting the Platonic psychology, which divided the soul into reason,
+temper (_i.e._, will), and desire, he shows how the aim of the Mosaic
+law about food is to control desire and will, so as to make them
+subservient to reason. By practicing self-restraint in the two
+commonest actions of life--eating and drinking--the Israelite acquires
+it in all things. The hard ascetic who would root out bodily desires
+errs against human nature, but the wise legislator controls them and
+curbs them by precepts, so that they are bent to the higher reason.
+
+Modern apologists for Judaism have been found who, trying to force
+science to support their tottering faith, allege that the dietary law
+is hygienic. Philo relies on no such treacherous reed. We may not eat,
+he says,[165] the flesh of the pig or shell-fish, not because they are
+unhealthy, but because they are the sweetest and most delightful of
+all food, and for that very reason they are marks of the sensual life.
+This and this alone is the true religious justification of the dietary
+law.
+
+In this way, by showing how the letter represents the spirit, Philo
+fulfils the law; his religion is liberal in thought, conservative in
+practice. He sees clearly that to throw off the law and reject
+tradition involves in the end chaos and the overthrow of
+righteousness. And certain Christian--and other--theologians, if one
+may make bold to say so, fail to realize the spirit of Philo, when
+they speak of him as a man who approached the light, but was too tied
+down by the old traditions to receive the full illumination. Rather is
+it true that the Jewish aspiration of "freedom under the law," or
+spirit through the letter, is absolutely fundamental in Philo, and
+loyalty to the Torah is a guiding principle in his religious outlook.
+He asserts it clearly and strikingly, not only in his ethical
+commentary on the law, but in his philosophical allegories. Both
+passages deserve quotation, since they mark the fundamental contrast
+between Philo and non-Jewish allegorists of the law. In the first
+Philo is commenting upon the command "Thou shalt not add to or take
+away from the law" (Deut. xix. 14).[166] He shows first how each of
+the virtues is marred by excess in either direction; virtue in fact,
+according to the Aristotelian formula, is "a mean."
+
+     "And in the same way, if we add anything great or small to
+     piety, the queen of virtues, or take anything away, we mar
+     it and change its form. Addition will engender superstition,
+     and diminution impiety, and true piety will disappear, which
+     above all things we should pray for to enlighten our souls:
+     for it is the cause of the greatest of goods, inducing in us
+     a knowledge of our conduct towards God, which is a thing
+     more royal and kingly than any public office or distinction.
+     Further, Moses lays down another general command, 'Do not
+     remove the boundary stone of thy neighbor, which thy
+     ancestors have set up.' This, methinks, does not refer
+     merely to inheritances and the boundary of land, but it is
+     ordained with a view to the preservation of ancient customs.
+     For customs are unwritten laws, the decrees of men of old,
+     not carved indeed upon pillars and inscribed upon parchment,
+     but engraved upon the souls of the generations who through
+     the ages maintain the chosen community. Children should take
+     over the paternal customs from their parents as part of
+     their inheritance, for they were reared on them, and lived
+     on them from their swaddling days, and they should not
+     neglect them merely because the tradition is not written.
+     The man who obeys the written laws is not, indeed, worthy of
+     praise, for he may be constrained thereto by fear of
+     punishment. But he who holds fast to the unwritten laws
+     gives proof of a voluntary goodness and is worthy of our
+     eulogy."
+
+Clearly he is arguing here for the observance of the oral law, which
+later was standardized in the Halakah.
+
+In the other passage, which occurs in the philosophical book "On the
+Migration of Abraham,"[167] he sets forth the reason of the authority
+of the law with more argument, and controverts those who would
+allegorize away the ordinances.
+
+     "To whom, then, God has granted both to be and to seem good,
+     he is truly happy and truly renowned. And we must have a
+     great care for reputation, as a matter of great importance
+     and of much value, for our social and bodily life. [By
+     reputation Philo means reputation of being loyal Jews. He is
+     addressing here an esoteric circle who, if they were lax,
+     would bring philosophy into disrepute.] And almost all can
+     secure it, who are well content not to disturb established
+     customs, but diligently preserve the constitution of their
+     nation. But there are some who, looking upon the written
+     laws as symbols of intellectual things, lay great stress on
+     these, but neglect the former. Such men I would blame for
+     their shallowness of mind [Greek: euchereia]. For they
+     ought to give good heed to both--to the accurate
+     investigation of the unseen meaning, but also to the
+     blameless observance of the visible letter. But now, as if
+     they were living by themselves in a desert, and were souls
+     without bodies, and knew nothing of city or village or house
+     or intercourse with men, they despise all that seems
+     valuable to the many, and search for bare and naked truth as
+     it is in itself. Such people the sacred Scripture teaches to
+     give good heed to a good reputation, and to abolish none of
+     those customs which greater and more inspired men than we
+     instituted in the past. For, because the seventh day teaches
+     us symbolically concerning the power of the uncreated God,
+     and the inactivity of the creature, we must not therefore
+     abolish its ordinances, so as to light a fire, or till the
+     ground, or bear a burden, or prosecute a lawsuit, or demand
+     the restoration of a deposit, or exact the repayment of a
+     loan, or do any other thing, which on week-days is allowed.
+     Because the festivals are symbols of spiritual joy and of
+     our gratitude to God, we must not therefore give up the
+     fixed assemblies at the proper seasons of the year. Nor,
+     because circumcision symbolizes the excision of all lusts
+     and passions, and the destruction of the impious opinion
+     according to which the mind imagines that it is itself
+     capable of production, must we therefore abolish the law of
+     fleshly circumcision. We should have to neglect the service
+     of the temple, and a thousand other things, if we were to
+     restrict ourselves only to the allegorical or symbolic
+     sense. That sense resembles the soul, the other sense the
+     body. Just as we must be careful of the body, as the house
+     of the soul, so must we give heed to the letter of the
+     written laws. For only when these are faithfully observed,
+     will the inner meaning, of which they are the symbols,
+     become more clearly realized, and, at the same time, the
+     blame and accusation of the multitude will be avoided."[168]
+
+Philo's position is, then, that man on the one hand owes loyalty to
+his nation, and on the other is not only a creature of spirit, but has
+a body and bodily passions. He cannot, therefore, have a religion
+which is individual or merely spiritual, but he requires common forms
+and ceremonies that can bind him with the rest of the community, and
+train his body by good habit to obey his reason. We do not reach the
+spirit by denying but by obeying the letter. To the mere formal
+observance of the law and the unreasoning custom which blindly follows
+the practice of our fathers [Greek: synêtheia] Philo is equally
+opposed, and he protests, with the earnestness of an Isaiah, against
+superstitious sacrifice and against the lip-service of the
+materialist.[169]
+
+     "If a man practices ablutions and purifications, but defiles
+     his mind while he cleanses his body; or if, through his
+     wealth, he founds a temple at a large outlay and expense; or
+     if he offers hecatombs and sacrifices oxen without number,
+     or adorns the shrine with rich ornaments, or gives endless
+     timber and cunningly wrought work, more precious than silver
+     or gold--let him none the more be called religious ([Greek:
+     eusebês]). For he has wandered far from the path of
+     religion, mistaking ritual for holiness, and attempting to
+     bribe the Incorruptible, and to flatter Him whom none can
+     flatter. God welcomes genuine service, and that is the
+     service of a soul that offers the bare and simple sacrifice
+     of truth, but from false service, the mere display of
+     material wealth, he turns away."
+
+Lot's daughter, born of a pillar of stone, symbolizes this unthinking,
+hypertrophied religion; and custom, its mother, which always lags
+behind and has no seed of life, is the enemy of truth. The religious
+man pursueth righteousness righteously, the superstitious
+unrighteously.
+
+Thus Philo holds the balance between a formless spirituality and an
+unspiritual formalism. The end of religious observance is the love of
+God, but the love of God requires more than feeling; it must
+impregnate life. Dubnow, in his summary of Jewish history, formulates
+an epigram, which, like most of its kind, becomes in its conciseness
+and pointed antithesis a half-truth. "At Jerusalem," he says, "Judaism
+appeared as a system of practical ceremonies; at Alexandria as a
+complex of abstract symbols." No doubt it is true that at Jerusalem
+the practical side of the law was most prominent, but the spiritual
+exaltation to which it should lead was appraised as the true end by
+the great rabbis. Witness Hillel, and indeed all the writers of the
+gnomic wisdom in the "Ethics of the Fathers." At Alexandria, again,
+while the philosophical principle underlying the outward practice was
+especially emphasized, the practice itself was loyally observed, and
+its value perceived, by those who most thoroughly understood Judaism.
+Witness the writings of Philo, the Wisdom of Solomon, and the fourth
+book of the Maccabees. The antithesis between letter and spirit, faith
+and works, is in truth a false one; and wherever the significance of
+Judaism has been fully comprehended, the two aspects of the law have
+been inextricably intertwined. As Philo understood the Jewish mission,
+it was not merely to diffuse the Jewish God-idea, but quite as much to
+diffuse the Jewish attitude to God, the way of life. Abstract ideas,
+however lofty, can never be the bond of a religious community, nor can
+they be a safeguard for moral conduct. Sooner or later congregations
+must submit themselves to some law, be it a law of dogma, or be it a
+law of conduct. Antinomianism, the opposition to the law, to which
+Paul later gave powerful, even fanatical, expression, was a strong
+movement at Alexandria in Philo's day. Preparatory to the spread of
+Christianity, numerous sects sprang up there which purported to follow
+a spiritual Judaism wherein the law was abrogated because, forsooth,
+its symbolism was understood! In the extreme allegorists, whom Philo
+attacks for their shallowness, one may discern the prototypes of the
+Cainites, Ophites, Melchizedecians, and the rest of the heretical
+parties that produced the religious chaos of the next centuries. From
+that welter of opinions there at last emerged dogmatic Christianity.
+The Christian reformers came to free man from the yoke of the law; but
+their successors imposed on the mind the fetters of dogma, and, in
+order to check the passions of the body, advocated renunciation and
+asceticism. So that not only Judaism as a system of belief, but
+Judaism as a system of life was lost in their handiwork. Spirituality
+lacking knowledge and allegorism in excess led to this result. In
+Philo they are controlled by affection for the Torah, and by a
+conviction of the need for national cohesion.
+
+Philo is loyal to the Jewish tradition not only because he had a deep
+feeling for what a modern teacher has called the catholic conscience
+and the historical continuity of Judaism, but because his philosophy
+was based on a conviction that the Jewish religion was the truest
+guide to conduct and righteousness and to the love of God. To him, as
+to Plato and Aristotle, the law was the outward register of the moral
+ideal; the "word-and-deed symbols" of ceremonial and prayer were
+emblems indeed of moral principles, but at the same time they had an
+intrinsic value, in that they impressed these principles upon the
+mind, and brought belief and action into harmony. "Religion is law,
+not philosophy," said Hobbes. With Philo, religion is law _and_
+philosophy. Thus the love of the Torah is of the essence of his
+religious thought. As he puts it in the exhortation to his
+fellow-ambassadors before Gaius,[170] "to die in defence of it is a
+kind of life." In his philosophical Judaism he sought always for the
+universal and the spiritual, but so as always to increase the honor of
+the law, and not only of the law but of the customs of his ancestors,
+thinking with the Psalmist that "the Torah is a tree of life to those
+who keep fast hold of her, and those who support her are blessed."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+PHILO'S THEOLOGY
+
+
+"The most remarkable feature about Judaism," says Darmesteter, "is
+that without a philosophical system it had reached a philosophical
+conclusion about the government of the world and the nature of
+God."[171] The same idea underlies the statement of the Peripatetic
+writer Theophrastus (who lived in the latter part of the fourth
+century B.C.E.) that the Jews are a people of philosophers,[172] and
+the epigram of Heine, that they pray in metaphysics. Intuitively, the
+lawgiver and prophets of the Hebrew race had attained a conception of
+monotheism to which the greatest of the Greek philosophers had hardly
+struggled by reason. The Greeks had started with separate
+nature-powers, which they had finally resolved into a supreme
+nature-force; the Hebrews had started with the historical God of their
+fathers, whom they had universalized into the Creator of the world and
+Father of all the human race. Wellhausen has suggested that the
+intellectual development of Judaism with its tendency to become a
+purified monotheism moved in the same direction towards which Greek
+thought tended in its philosophical speculation of the universe. The
+difference between the two conceptions of God, however, remained even
+in their universalized aspect; the one was an impersonal world-force,
+the other a personal God in direct relation with individual man.
+Elsewhere than in Judæa, it has been well said, religious development
+reaches unity only by sacrificing personality. But the prophets, whose
+conception of God was imaginative rather than rational, preserved His
+nearness while expanding His sway. Israel, to use Philo's etymology,
+is the man who sees God,[173] and his religious genius gave to the
+world a personal incorporeal Deity, who is both transcendent and
+immanent, personal and yet above human conception. It is unnecessary
+to quote evidence of this view of the Godhead in the Bible, and it
+would be superfluous to adduce passages from the rabbis, did they not
+bear a striking similarity to the words of Philo. God to them is not
+only the Creator of the world, but also the Father of the world, the
+Governor of the world, the Only One of the world, the Space of the
+world, filling it as the soul fills the body.[174] Now, this Jewish
+conception of God is dominant in Philo. To him also God is not only
+the Creator but the Father of the universe.[175] He is the One and the
+All.[176] He is ever at rest, yet he outstrippeth everything, nearest
+to everyone, yet far removed, everywhere and nowhere, above and
+outside the universe, yet filling creation with Himself.[177] Philo
+loves to attach to the Deity these opposite predicates, for in this
+way alone can we form for ourselves some conception, however
+inadequate, of His Being. Strictly, God is unconditioned, and cannot
+be the subject of predication, for all determination involves
+negation, and hence in one aspect He is not conceivable nor
+describable, nor nameable.[178] Siegfried and Zeller press this
+negative attitude to the Deity, and find that there is an inherent
+contradiction in Philo's system, which ruins it, in that his God, upon
+whom all depends and who is the object of all knowledge, is absolutely
+unknowable and unapproachable. But this is to take Philo according to
+the strict letter to the neglect of the spirit, and to do that with
+one so eloquent and so careless of verbal accuracy is utterly to
+misunderstand him.
+
+The Greek philosophers in their attempt to formulate an exact notion
+of the First Being by abstract metaphysics had, indeed, conceived it
+in this fashion; and Philo, harmonizing Greek metaphysics and Hebrew
+intuition, is drawn at times into a presentation of God which appears
+to deny His personality and make of Him an abstraction. What has been
+said of Spinoza is true no less of Philo.[179] "The tendency to unity,
+to the infinite, to religion, overbalanced itself till, by its mere
+excess, it seemed to be changed into its opposite. But this is not his
+spirit, only the dead ultimate result of an imperfect logic that
+confuses an abstract with a concrete unity." In truth, the moment man
+tries to define his conception of God's essence in words, he either
+impairs and perverts his idea, or he must use words that do not really
+make the idea any clearer than it was unexpressed. Thus in the Hymn of
+[Hebrew: ygdl] the writer, versifying the creeds of Maimonides, seeks to
+define God: "He is a Unity, but there is no Unity like His; He is
+hidden and there is no end to His oneness." But nobody can claim that
+this gives any adequate conception of what he means; so, too, Philo,
+when he tries to analyze God's being metaphysically, only obscures the
+God of his soul, who was the historical God of Israel.
+
+The Hebraic God, like the Greek First Being, has no qualities, but
+unlike the other He has ethical attributes, and it is by these that we
+know Him and by these that He is related to the universe and to man.
+"Failing to comprehend Him in His essence we must aim at the next best
+thing, to comprehend Him as He is manifested to the world."[180] So in
+the "Hymn of Unity" it is written, "In images they told of Thee, but
+not according to Thy essence! They but likened Thee in accordance with
+Thy works."[181] And this is the manner in which Philo conceives Him:
+"God's grace and goodness it is which are the causes of creation."[182]
+"The just man, seeking the nature of all things, makes this most
+excellent discovery, that all things are due to the grace of God." "To
+those who ask the origin of creation, one could most easily reply that
+it is the goodness and grace of God which He bestowed on the race that
+is after His image."[183] "For all that is in the universe and the
+universe itself are the gift and bounty and grace of God."[184] Again,
+"God is omnipotent; He could make all evil, but He wills only what is
+best."[185] "All is due to God's grace, though nothing is worthy of
+it;[186] but God looked to His own eternal goodness, and considered
+that to do good befitted His own blessed and happy nature."
+
+Philo's life-aim, as we have seen,[187] was to see God in all things
+and all things in God. He is the sole principle of being, exercising
+continuous causality; and yet He is always at rest, for His energy is
+the expression of His being. "He never ceases to create, for creation
+is as proper to Him as it is proper to fire to burn and to snow to
+cause cold."[188] Further, to Him all human activity and excellence
+are directly due. He fertilizes virtue by sending down the seed from
+Heaven,[189] and He brings forth wisdom from the human mind by His own
+Divine effluence. "It is the distinctive feature of Jewish thought,"
+said Spinoza, "never to make account of particular and secondary
+causes, but in a spirit of devotion, piety, and godliness to refer all
+things directly to the Deity." No Jewish thinker ever applied this
+principle more thoroughly than Philo; and it gives an unique color to
+his work in the history of ancient philosophy. All our lives are one
+unceasing miracle, due to the constant manifestation of God's power;
+and the miracles of the Bible are examples of the universal working of
+Divine care rather than exceptions from it.
+
+The dominant feeling behind Greek thought is that man is the measure
+of all things: Plato, attacking the standpoint of his nation, had
+declared that God is the measure, and Philo repeats his maxim with a
+new intensity. It means for him that man's mind is a fragment or
+particle of the Divine universal mind, which, however, is impotent
+till called into activity by the further Divine gift of inspiration.
+Knowledge and happiness, therefore, come not through God, but from
+God.[190] "The Divine Word streams down from the fount of wisdom, and
+waters the plants of virtuous souls."[191] "To God alone is it fitting
+to use the word 'my,'"[192] or, put in another way, man has only the
+usufruct and God the ownership of his powers. Pride of intellect is
+therefore a deadly sin, because it involves a false, incomplete idea
+of God, and true knowledge involves reverence. The ideal of the Greek
+sage, the independent reason, is a godless thing, and those in whom a
+knowledge of Greek philosophy produces intellectual pride are not
+disciples of Divine Wisdom. In a fine passage Philo charges with
+hypocrisy those who talk in high-sounding language about the
+all-powerful Deity, and yet declare that by their own intellect they
+can comprehend the world.[193] This was the attitude not only of the
+proud Stoic, but of certain kindred Jewish sects, which were subject
+to Greek influences, such as the Gnostics and the Cainites. And upon
+them Philo appears to be pouring his wrath when he exclaims: "How have
+you the effrontery to go on making and listening to fine professions
+about piety and the honor of God, when you have within you, forsooth,
+the mind equal to God that comprehends all human things, and can
+combine good and evil portions, giving to some a mixed, to others an
+unmixed lot? And when anybody accuses you of impiety, you brazenly
+declare that you belong to the school of that noble guide and teacher
+Cain (_i.e._ insolent reason), who bade you pay honor to the secondary
+rather than the primary cause."
+
+Philo has often been reproached with intellectualism, and excessive
+regard to acquired wisdom, and it may be urged that by his allegorical
+method he tried to find in the Bible the sanction of two degrees of
+religious faith, the higher for the philosopher and the lower for the
+ordinary man. At the same time, however, before his God he retains the
+childlike simplicity of the most un-Hellenic rabbi, and the perfect
+humility of the Hasid. His conviction of the dependence of all upon
+God's grace is the perfect corrective of his intellectual
+exclusiveness. The idea of God as the unity which comprehends
+everything and causes everything is the great Jewish contribution to
+thought, and binds our literature together in all its manifestations.
+It characterizes and unites the poetical utterance of the Bible
+prophets, the pious wisdom of the rabbis, the philosophical systems of
+Philo and Maimonides.
+
+The more sublime and exalted the conception of God, the more
+imperative became the need for the thinking Jew to explain how the
+perfect infinite Being came into relation with the imperfect finite
+world of man and matter. How can the incorporeal God be the founder of
+the material universe? How can the infinite mind be present in the
+finite thought of man? How can the all-good Power be the creator of
+the evil which we see in the material world and of the wickedness that
+flourisheth among men? These questions presented themselves to the
+Israelite after he had consummated his marvellous religious intuition,
+and became the starting-point of a theology which is nascent in the
+Wisdom literature of the Bible. Theology is the reasoning about God
+which follows always in the footsteps of religious certitude. First,
+man by his intuitive reason rises to some idea of the Godhead
+satisfying to his emotion; next, by his discursive reason, he
+endeavors to justify that idea to his experience in analyzing God's
+operations. Renan, disposing sweepingly of a great question, declares
+that the Jewish monotheism excluded any true theology. But, in fact,
+in Palestine, and still more in Alexandria from the third century
+B.C.E., Jewish thought had as one of its constant aims to develop a
+theory of the operations of the one God in the world of material
+plurality. When the Jews came in contact with the cosmological
+mythology of Babylon, their God seemed to soar beyond the reach of
+men, and they looked to powers nearer them to bridge the widening
+gulf. To some extent this aim engendered a modification in the
+religious monotheism, and led to the interposition of intermediate
+conceptions between the Inconceivable and man. "The whole angelology,"
+says Deutsch,[194] "so strikingly simple before the Captivity and so
+wonderfully complex after it, owes its quick development in Babylonian
+soil to some awe-stricken desire which grows with growing culture,
+removing the inconceivable Being further and further from human touch
+or knowledge." Speaking generally, it may be said that reflection
+about God's relations produced in Palestine the doctrine of angels, in
+Alexandria the doctrine of Wisdom and the Logos. At the same time the
+Wisdom and the Word were not unknown to the Palestinian Midrash, and
+the hierarchies of angels to the Alexandrian, for the suggestion of
+the different subordinate powers had been evolved before the two
+traditions had become independent. The doctrine of angels never indeed
+won recognition from the rabbis, but it was for centuries an element
+of popular belief.
+
+More philosophical than the doctrine of angels was the conception of
+different attributes of God [Hebrew: mdot], which were different
+manifestations of His activity, to the human mind separable and
+distinguishable from each other, though absolutely they were
+inseparable aspects of the Godhead. Chief among these were the
+attribute of mercy and the attribute of justice, [Hebrew: mdt hrhmim]
+and [Hebrew: mdt hdin],[195] by which, according to a Midrash, Adam
+was driven from Eden. And these conceptions, though distrusted by the
+Synagogue, entered into later parts of the Prayer Book. "Attribute of
+Mercy, reveal thyself for us; make our supplication to fall at the feet of
+Thy Creator; and on behalf of Thy people beseech for mercy"; thus runs
+a fine prayer in the Ne'ilah service of the Day of Atonement, and many
+of the other Selihot prove the persistence of this development of
+Jewish belief. The theory of Divine attributes was common to Palestine
+and Alexandria, and plays, as we shall see, an important part in
+Philo's[196] thought; but the distinctive Hellenistic theology is the
+hypostasis of the Wisdom and the Word of God. In the Bible itself, and
+notably in Proverbs, we find Wisdom personified--the first vague,
+poetical suggestion of a Jewish theology. As the Jews came into
+contact with Hellenic influence, the tendency to develop the
+personification into a power increased, and may be traced through the
+first flower of Græco-Jewish culture, the Wisdom literature. The Greek
+philosophers had conceived the First Cause as a ruling Mind, or
+universal Reason, and influenced by this conception, yet loyal to
+their monotheistic faith, the Jewish writers of the Hellenistic age
+spoke of the Wisdom as the minister of God, the power by which He
+ruled creation. The apocryphal books of Ecclesiasticus and the Wisdom
+of Solomon exhibit Wisdom passing from the poetical personification of
+the Bible to the separate hypostasis of theology. In the verse of the
+Bible sage, "Wisdom hath builded her house, she hath hewn out her
+seven pillars" (Prov. ix. 1), she is the creation of the purely
+poetical fancy, but in the Wisdom of Solomon she has become a link
+between Heaven and earth, the creation of the theologian's reflection.
+"She reacheth from one end of the world to the other with strength,
+and ordereth all things graciously. She is settled by God on His
+throne, and by her He made the world, by her the righteous were saved.
+She watched over the father of the human race, and she delivered
+Israel from Egypt." In Ecclesiasticus it is written, "All Wisdom is
+from the Lord and is with Him forever. She cometh forth from the mouth
+of the Most High, and was created before all things. God having
+fashioned her from the beginning placed her over all His works. Then
+she covered the earth as a mist, she pitched her tent in high places
+and her palace was in a pillar of cloud. She ministered in the
+tabernacle, and was established in Zion, in Jerusalem, the beloved
+city." In similar strain, in the apocalyptic book of Enoch (xxx), God
+says, "On the sixth day I ordered My Wisdom to make man"; and in the
+Sibylline Oracles and Aristobulus she appears as the assessor of God
+who ruleth over men.
+
+Parallel with Wisdom, the Word of God was developed into something
+between a poetical image and a separate power. Again the development
+starts from a Biblical metaphor. "By the word of the Lord were the
+heavens created, and all their host by the breath of His mouth" (Ps.
+xxxiii). "God of our Fathers and Lord of Mercy, who didst make all
+things by Thy word," says the writer of the Wisdom of Solomon.
+Inspired again by the phrase of the Psalmist, "He sent His word, and
+healed them" (Ps. cvi. 20), he hymns the Divine Logos as the
+all-powerful emissary doing God's bidding among men. "It was neither
+herb nor emollient that cured Israel in the wilderness (when bitten by
+the fiery scorpions), but Thy Logos, O Lord, which heals all things."
+Later, when he describes the destruction of the first-born in Egypt,
+he rises in a pæan to a finer poetical flight: "When tranquil silence
+folded all things, and night in her own swiftness was in the midst of
+her course, Thy all-powerful Logos leaped from heaven, from his royal
+throne, a stern warrior into the midst of the doomed land, bearing as
+a sharp sword Thy Divine commandment, and having taken his stand
+filled all things with death: and he touched heaven and walked upon
+earth." The Jewish poet, rejecting the idea that the perfect God could
+descend to earth and slay men, brushes away the anthropomorphism of
+the Bible, and summons from his mind this creation mixed of Hebrew
+imagination and Greek reason. So, too, Onkelos, wherever activity upon
+earth was ascribed to God, wrote, in his translation (Targum) of
+Scripture, "the word of the Lord," and for the material hand he
+substituted the more abstract might. The same development,[197] under
+the names of Memra and (less frequently) of [Hebrew: dbor], shows that
+the word-agent of God appealed to certain of the rabbis in their
+desire to explain away, on the one hand, expressions in the Bible
+which seemed to invest the Deity with corporeal qualities, and, on the
+other, so to divide His infinite perfection as to make His presence
+immanent upon earth.
+
+The teachers at Alexandria were above all others induced to develop
+the Word into the active power, since they seemed thereby to find in
+the Bible a remarkable anticipation of Greek philosophy. The Greek
+Logos, by which "the Word" was translated in the Septuagint, meant
+also thought and reason, and during the Hellenistic age was the
+regular term by which the philosophical schools expressed the
+impersonal world-force which governed all things. The Logos idea among
+the Jews was a modification of intuitive and naïve monotheism; among
+the Greeks it was a step upwards, demanded by reason, from polytheism
+to a monistic view of the universe. By the first century its
+recognition as the ruling power in both the physical and moral
+universe had become a point of union in all philosophical schools--the
+common stamp of philosophical theology. Between the Semitic
+ministerial word uttered by a personal Being and the Greek pantheistic
+governing reason, there was probably an early connection, due to
+Eastern influences which operated upon the founders of Greek
+philosophy, which later schools lost sight of. When the Hebrew
+Scriptures were translated, the two coalesced more fruitfully in the
+Greek term Logos, and a point of union was provided between the
+philosophical and the Jewish theology. Moreover the local Egyptian
+influence aided the union, for the god Thoth was also identified with
+the Logos, which thus appeared as a religious conception common to all
+races, the basis of a universal creed. And besides the world-reason of
+the philosophers, another Greek influence no doubt tended to further
+the development of the Logos in Jewish thought. One of the most marked
+characteristics of the Hellenistic age is the renascence of wonder at
+the institutions of human life, and more especially at numbers and
+speech.
+
+Numbers were held to contain the essence of things, and the marvellous
+powers of four, seven, and ten received honor from all sects and
+schools. Words, too, were regarded almost as a mystic power, distinct
+from thought, incorporeal things which made thought real and gave it
+expression. The mystical susceptibility of Philo to the power of
+numbers has been noticed by every critic and exaggerated by not a few;
+his mystical valuation of words and speech, though far more important
+in his thought, has been commonly passed over. The analysis which
+Greek writers made of the relation between the mental thought, the
+sound which utters it, and the mind which thinks it, was invested with
+special importance for the Jewish thinker, who transferred it from the
+human to the Divine sphere. He applied it to interpret the constant
+Biblical phrases "and God said" or "and God spoke," according to
+notions in which philosophy and theology are mixed; and propounded a
+mystic idealism and a mystic cosmology, in which God's thought or
+comprehensive Word becomes the archetype of the visible universe, His
+single words the substantive universe and the laws of nature. A
+century before Philo, Aristobulus--assuming the genuineness of his
+Fragments--wrote:[198] "We must understand the Word of God, not as a
+spoken word, but as the establishment of actual things, seeing that we
+find throughout the Torah that Moses has declared the whole creation
+to be words of God." Philo, following his predecessor, says, "God
+speaks not words but things,"[199] and, again, commenting on the first
+chapter of Genesis, "God, even as He spake, at the same moment
+created."[200] And of human speech he has this pretty conceit a little
+before: "Into the mouth there enter food and drink, the perishable
+food of a perishable body; out of it issue words, immortal laws of an
+immortal soul, by which rational life is guided."[201] If human speech
+is "immortal law," much more is the speech of God. His words are ideas
+seen by the eye of the soul, not heard by the ear.[202] The ten
+commandments given at Sinai were "ideas" of this incorporeal nature,
+and the voice that Israel heard was no voice such as men possess, but
+the [Hebrew: shkina], the Divine Presence itself, which exalted the
+multitude.[203] Philo is here expanding and developing Jewish
+tradition. In the "Ethics of the Fathers" (v) we read: "By ten words
+was the world created"; and in the pages of the Midrash the [Hebrew:
+bt-kol], i.e._, the mystic emanation of the Deity, which revealed itself
+after the spirit of prophecy had ceased to be vouchsafed, is credited
+with wondrous and varied powers, now revealing the Decalogue, now
+performing some miracle, now appearing in a vision to the blessed, now
+prophesying the future fate of the race to a pious rabbi. The
+fertilizing stream of Greek philosophical idealism nourished the
+growth of the Jewish pious imagination, and in the Logos of Philo the
+fruit matured. It is idle to try to formulate a single definite notion
+of Philo's Logos. For it is the expression of God in all His multiple
+and manifold activity, the instrument of creation, the seat of ideas,
+the world of thought which God first established as the model of the
+visible universe, the guiding providence, the sower of virtue, the
+fount of wisdom, described sometimes in religious ecstasy, sometimes
+in philosophical metaphysics, sometimes in the spirit of the mystical
+poet. Of his last manner let us take a specimen singled out by a
+Christian and a Jewish theologian as of surprising beauty. Commenting
+on the verse of the Psalmist, "The river of God is filled with water,"
+Philo declares that it is absurd to call any earthly stream the river
+of God.
+
+     "The poet clearly refers to the Divine Logos that is full of
+     the fountain of wisdom, and is in no part itself empty. Nay,
+     it is diffused through the universe, and is raised up on
+     high. In another verse the Psalmist says, 'The course of the
+     river gladdens the city of God.' And in truth the continuous
+     rush of the Divine Logos is borne along with eager but
+     regular onset, and overflows and gladdens all things. In one
+     sense he calls the world the city of God, for it has
+     received the 'full cup' of the Divine draught, and has
+     quaffed a perpetual, eternal joy. But in another sense he
+     gave this name to the soul of the wise, wherein God is said
+     to walk as in a city. And who can pour out the sacred
+     measures of their joy to the blissful soul which holds out
+     the holy cup, that is its own reason, save the Logos, the
+     cupbearer of God, the master of the feast? Nor is the Logos
+     cupbearer only, but it is itself the pure draught, itself
+     the joy and exultation, itself the pouring forth and the
+     delight, itself the ambrosial philtre and potion of
+     bliss."[204]
+
+Through the luxury of metaphor and imagination one may discern the
+underlying thought of the mystic writer, that the Logos is the
+effluence of God, either in the whole universe or the individual man,
+filling the one as the other with the Divine Shekinah. It is the link
+which joins God and man, the ladder of Jacob's dream, which stretches
+from Heaven to earth.[205] That man can attain the Divine state by the
+help of God's effluence was a cardinal thought of Philo's; this,
+indeed, is the form in which he conceives the Messianic hope. God does
+not come down to earth incarnate in man's form, but God's active
+influence possesses the soul of man, and makes it live with God, and
+if man be peculiarly blessed, carries it up to the ineffable Spirit.
+Similarly his idea of the Messiah is more spiritual than that of the
+popular belief. The ascent of man to God's height, not the descent of
+God to man's level, will produce the age of universal peace.
+
+There are various degrees of the Divine influence, stretching from
+complete possession by the Deity Himself to the advent of single
+Divine thoughts. These Philo regards as [Greek: logoi], words or
+thoughts--for he does not clearly distinguish between the two--and he
+resolves the realistic angels of the Bible into this spiritual
+conception.[206] Thus he says, "the place" where Jacob alighted and
+had the vision (Gen. xxvii. 11) is the symbol of the perfect
+contemplation of God; the angels which he saw ascending and descending
+are the inferior light of Divine precepts. These thoughts are
+continually vouchsafed to all of us, prompting us to noble actions,
+comforting us in times of sadness, inspiring lofty ideas.
+
+     "Up and down through the whole soul the Logoi of God move
+     without end; when they ascend, drawing it up with them, and
+     severing it from the mortal part, and showing only the
+     vision of ideal things; but when they descend, not casting
+     it down, but descending with it from humanity or compassion
+     towards our race, so as to give assistance and help, in
+     order that, inspiring what is noble, they may revive the
+     soul which is borne along on the stream of the body."[207]
+
+Conversely, the rabbis taught that from each word that proceeded from
+the mouth of God an angel was created, as it is said: "By the word of
+the Lord the Heavens were made, and all the host of them by the breath
+of His mouth."[208]
+
+Apart from these sudden and occasional emanations of the Divine
+Spirit, the individual man has within him a permanent Divine Logos by
+which he may direct his conduct aright. Viewed in this aspect, the
+Logos, _i.e._, the activity of God, is conscience, the Judge in the
+soul, which is the true man dwelling within,[209] ruler and king,
+judge and arbiter, witness and accuser, correcting and restraining.
+Rising to bolder personification, Philo, who loves to present a
+spiritual thought in a concrete image, calls it the undefiled high
+priest in us.[210] In this power he finds a sure refutation of
+skepticism; for in virtue of the Divine voice man may secure moral
+certitude: and he finds also a philosophical value for popular
+superstition. It was a common notion of the pagans as well as
+the Jews of the time that an intermediate order of beings passed
+between heaven and earth and brought supernatural aid to men; and also
+that a familiar spirit, or Dæmon, dwelt within the soul of each man.
+The finer spirit of Philo resolves the attendant Dæmon and the
+messenger-dæmons or angels into the spiritual effluences of the one
+Deity; save for a few places where he makes a pose of agreement with
+popular notions and speaks of winged denizens of Heaven[211] who
+descend to earth, he habitually expounds angels as inward revelations
+of God.
+
+As the revelation of God to the individual is a Logos, so, too, is his
+revelation to the whole of mankind. It was pointed out in the last
+chapter that Philo identified the Torah with the law of nature, and he
+did this by regarding it as the Divine Logos. The more perfect
+emanation of God is in one view the power by which He directs the
+physical creation, in another the perfect law which He set up as the
+model of conduct for His highest creatures. The rabbis, indeed, were
+prone to glorify the law as the primal creation of God, and the
+instrument of all the later creations, [Hebrew: kli hmra shbu gbrao
+shmim].[212] They speak of it as the light, the pillar, and the bond
+of the universe, the model whereon the architect looked;[213] and Philo
+amplifies this simple poetical concept and develops it afresh in the
+light of Greek idealistic and cosmical notions,[214] so that the Torah,
+as the Logos of God, is equated with the source of all being, wisdom, and
+knowledge, with the ideal world which is the archetype of the
+material, and with all the law and order of nature. And as the Torah
+is the Logos, so also its particular precepts are Logoi.
+
+It seems difficult to trace the unity among all these different
+aspects of the "Word," but in fact they are only different expressions
+of the Divine activity in the universe. All these are comprehended in
+the Logos, and then again divided out of it, so that it is, as it
+were, a crystal prism reflecting the light of the Godhead in a myriad
+different ways. One curious illustration of the universal sense in
+which Philo understood the Logos is his interpretation of the manna;
+it is typical also of his manner of exegesis and his habit of
+spiritualizing the material. It is related in Exodus (xvi. 15) that
+when the Israelites saw the heavenly food they exclaimed [Hebrew: mn
+hu'], "What is it?" and hence the food obtained its name of manna. Now the
+Greek Septuagint word for [Hebrew: mn] is [Greek: ti], which means not
+only "what" but "anything." Philo sees in the gift of the heavenly
+food a symbol of the inspiration of the chosen people by the Divine
+Logos, and says that the Logos is rightly called manna, _i.e._,
+anything, because it is the "most generic of all things, and that by
+which man may be nourished."[215]
+
+The central thought of Philo's system is that God is immanent in all
+His work; but it would seem to him sacrilegious to apply to the
+Godhead itself this universal, unceasing activity, and so he develops
+the Logos as the most ideal attribute of the Deity, and the sum of all
+His immanence and effluence. He preferred the Logos to the older
+Wisdom, probably because he could by this conception bring his idea of
+God into closer relation with Greek philosophical notions, for already
+the Hellenistic world had come spontaneously to revere the cosmical
+Logos. Only Philo gave to the expression of their physical and
+metaphysical speculation a religious warmth new to it, when he
+associated it with the word uttered by the personal God. Philosophy,
+theology, and religion were all joined and harmonized in his
+conception.
+
+If we have followed thus far the spirit of Philo aright, the Logos is
+only the immanent manifestation of the One God, who is both
+transcendental and immanent, metaphorically, not metaphysically,
+separate. In other words, it is the complete aspect of God as He
+reveals Himself to the world. Above it and including it is the being
+or essence of God, seen in Himself, and not in relation to His outward
+activity. But it is often suggested that the Logos appears to Philo as
+a second God, subordinate, indeed, to the Supreme Being, but yet a
+separate personality. It is said, with truth, that he speaks of it as
+a person, now calling it king, priest, primal man, the first-born son
+of God, even the second God, and identifying it at other times with
+some personal being, Melchizedek or Moses, and apostrophizing it as
+man's helper, guide, and advocate.[216] Now we have reason to think
+that Gnostic sects of Jews, both in Alexandria and in Palestine, were
+at this time tending towards the division of the Godhead into separate
+powers. The heresy of "Minut," frequently mentioned in the Talmud,
+consisted originally, in the opinion of modern scholars, of a Gnostic
+ditheism;[217] and during the latter part of the first century and
+thereafter we hear of sects in Egypt and Syria which supported similar
+theories. Theology here produced its fantastic offspring theosophy,
+and the followers of the esoteric wisdom let their speculations carry
+them away from the cardinal principle of Judaism. Influenced by
+Egyptian speculation, they imagined an incarnation of the Divine
+Spirit, and in the mystical thought of the day they adumbrated
+theories of virgin birth.
+
+Now these prototypes of Christian belief had undoubtedly manifested
+themselves at Alexandria in Philo's day. His treatises show traces of
+them,[218] and the question is whether he countenanced them or tried
+to summon the theosophists of his generation back to the true Jewish
+conception of God. Certain Christian and philosophical critics of
+Philo, for whom the wish was perhaps father to the thought, have found
+in Philo's Logos a conception which is at times impersonal, at times
+personal, at times an aspect of the One God, and at times a second
+independent God. If we take Philo literally, this certainly is the
+case. But let it be clearly understood, this interpretation not only
+involves Philo in inconsistency, but it utterly ruins and destroys his
+religious and philosophical system. It means that the champion of
+Jewish monotheism wanders into a vague ditheism. And in view of this,
+the modern commentators of Philo, notably Professor Drummond,[219]
+have examined his words more carefully and studied them in relation to
+their context; and they have shown how, judged in this critical
+fashion, the personality of the Logos is only figurative. It is,
+indeed, probable that certain extreme passages, where the Logos is
+presented most explicitly as a separate Deity, are due to
+Christological interpolation. The Church Fathers found in the popular
+belief in the Divine Word a remarkable support of the Trinity, and
+regarding, as they did, Philo's writings as valuable testimony to the
+truth of Christianity, they had every temptation to bring his passages
+about the Logos still closer to their ideas. And between the first and
+the fifth century, when we first hear from Eusebius of manuscripts of
+Philo at the Christian monastery of Cæsarea--from which we can trace
+our texts in direct line--there was no high standard in dealing with
+ancient authorities. It is the Christian teachers who preserved Philo,
+and they preserved him not as scholars but as missioners. The best
+editors have recognized that our text has been interfered with by
+evidenced-making scribes, as where a passage about the new Jerusalem
+appears, agreeing almost word for word with the picture of
+Revelations. Similarly, not a few passages about the Logos are
+probably spurious.[220]
+
+Yet, even when we have expurgated our text of Philo, there remain, it
+will be said, numerous passages where the Logos is spoken of and
+apostrophized as a person. This is so, but the conclusion which is
+drawn, that the Logos is regarded as a second deity, is unjustifiable.
+The Jewish mind from the time of the prophets unto this day has
+thought in images and metaphors, and the personification of the Logos
+is only the most striking instance of Philo's regular habit of
+personifying all abstract ideas. The allegorical habit particularly
+conduces to this, for as persons are constantly resolved into ideas,
+so ideas come to be naturally represented as persons. There are thus
+two steps in Philo's theology, which seem to some extent to counteract
+each other; in the first place, he resolves the concrete physical
+expressions of the Bible into spiritual ideas, in the second he
+portrays those ideas in pictorial language and clothes them in
+personifications. The allegorizer requires an allegorist to interpret
+him aright.
+
+Nor must it be forgotten that Philo was preaching spiritual monotheism
+not only to Jews, but also to the Hellenic world, for whom it was a
+vast bound from their naturalistic polytheism. Zealous as he was for
+the pure faith, he realized that mankind could not attain it directly,
+but must approach it by conceptions of the One God gradually
+increasing in profundity and truth. The Greek thinkers had
+approximated closest to the Hebraic God-idea when they conceived one
+supreme, immanent reason in the universe; and Philo, in carrying his
+audiences beyond this to the transcendent-immanent Being, transformed
+the Greek cosmical concept into a Divine power of the One Being. For
+the true believer this is the stepping-stone to the perfect idea. "The
+Logos," he says, "is the God of us imperfect people, but the true
+sages worship the One Being."[221] And, again, "The imperfect have as
+their law the holy Logos."[222] And in this sense, it is "intermediate
+([Greek: methorios]) between God and man."[223] What such passages
+mean is that the separation of the Logos is a stage in man's progress
+up to the true idea of God. It is a second-best Deity, so to say,
+rather than a second Deity; for those who regard the Logos as God have
+no conception at all of the perfect Being of which it is only the
+principal attribute.
+
+The theology of Philo is characterized throughout by a tolerant and
+philosophical grasp of the difficulty of pure monotheism, and of the
+necessity of a long intellectual searching before the goal can be
+attained. To declare the Unity of God is simple enough; to have a real
+conception of it is a very different and a very difficult thing. And
+Philo's theology has a two-fold aim, in which either part complements
+the other. It explains, on the one hand, how God is revealed to the
+world through His powers or attributes or modes of activity, and, on
+the other, how man can ascend to an ecstatic union with the Real Being
+through comprehension of those powers. By the ideal ladder which
+brings down God to earth, man can climb again to Heaven. The three
+chief rungs of the ladder are the attributes of creation, and of
+ruling power, and the Logos. The perfect unity of the Godhead is not,
+of course, properly the subject of attributes, but the limited mind of
+man so conceives it for its own understanding, and speaks of God's
+justice, God's goodness, God's wisdom. These are, to use philosophical
+terminology, categories of the religious understanding, which are
+finally resolved by the perfect sage in "the synthetic apperception of
+Unity."
+
+Philo follows what may have been a Hebrew tradition in explaining the
+two names of God, "Elohim" and "Jehovah," as connoting His two chief
+attributes: (1) the creative or beneficent, (2) the ruling or
+judicial, or, as it is sometimes called, the law-giving power.[224]
+Names, as we know, were always regarded by Philo as profound symbols,
+and naturally the names of God are of vital import; and the twofold
+expression for the Hebrew Deity, of which the higher critics have made
+much destructive use, was noticed by the earliest commentators, but
+made the basis by them of a constructive theology. The ruling and the
+creative attributes of God are outlined and contained in the highest
+mode of all, the Logos, "the reason of God in every phase and form of
+it that is discoverable and realizable by man." For by the Logos, God
+is both ruler and good.[225] This is the profound interpretation of
+the story in Genesis, that "God placed at the east of the garden of
+Eden the two Cherubim and a flaming sword, which turned every way to
+keep the way of the tree of life" (Gen. iv. 24). The Cherubim are the
+symbols of the powers of majesty and goodness; the flaming sword is
+the Logos; "because," says our author quaintly, "all thought and
+speech are the most mobile and the most ardent (_i.e._, the most
+intensive) of things, and especially the thought and speech of the
+only Principle."[226]
+
+To correspond with the descending attributes of God we have the
+ascending dispositions of man towards Him, fear, love, and thirdly
+their synthesis in loving knowledge. When we are in the first stage of
+religion we obey the law in hope of reward or fear of punishment; when
+we have progressed higher in thought, we worship God as the good
+Creator; when we have ascended one further stage, we surpass both fear
+and love in an emotion which combines them, realizing, as Browning
+puts it, that "God is law and God is love." In illustration of this
+scheme of Philo's we may examine two passages out of his philosophical
+commentary. In the first he is commenting upon the appearance of the
+three angels to Abraham as he sat outside his tent (Gen. xviii).[227]
+And, by the way, it may be remarked that the Midrash commenting on
+this passage notes that it begins, "And the Lord appeared unto
+Abraham," and then continues, "And he lifted up his eyes and looked,
+and, lo, three men stood before him." Hence we may learn that it was
+really the one God who appeared to the Patriarch, and that the three
+angels were but a vision of his mind. This is the dominant note of
+Philo's interpretation, but he as usual elaborates the old Midrash
+philosophically.
+
+     "The words," he says, "are symbols of things apprehended by
+     intelligence alone--the soul receives a triple expression of
+     one being, of which one is the representative of the actual
+     existent, and the other two are shadows, as it were, cast
+     from this. So it happens also in the physical world, for
+     there often occur two shadows of bodies at rest or in
+     motion. Let no one suppose, however, that shadow is properly
+     used in relation to God. It is only a popular use of words
+     for the clearer understanding of our subject. The reality is
+     not so, but, as one standing nearest to the truth might say,
+     the middle one is the Father of the universe, who is called
+     in Scripture the 'Self-existent'; and those on either side
+     of Him are the two oldest and chief powers, the Creative and
+     the Regal. The middle one, then, being attended by the
+     others as by a bodyguard, presents to the contemplative mind
+     a mental image or representation now of one and now of
+     three; of one whenever the soul, being properly purified and
+     perfectly initiated, rises to the idea which is unmingled
+     and free from limitation, and requires nothing to complete
+     it; but of three whenever it has not yet been initiated into
+     the great mysteries, and still celebrates the lesser rites,
+     unable to apprehend the Being in itself without
+     modification, but apprehending it through its modes as
+     either creating or ruling. This is, as the proverb says, a
+     second-best course, but yet it partakes of godlike opinion.
+     But the former does not partake of--for it _is_ itself--the
+     Godlike opinion, or rather it is truth, which is more
+     precious than all opinion.
+
+     "Further, there are three classes of human character, to
+     each of which one of the three conceptions of God has been
+     assigned. The best class goes with the first, the conception
+     of the absolute Being; the next goes with the conception of
+     Him as a Benefactor, in virtue of which He is called God;
+     the third with the conception of Him as a Ruler, in virtue
+     of which He is called Lord. The noblest character serves Him
+     who is in all the purity of His absolute Being; it is
+     attracted by no other thing or aspect, but is solely and
+     intently devoted to the honor of the one and only Being; the
+     second is brought to the knowledge of the Father through His
+     beneficent power; the third through His regal power."
+
+In the second passage, which occurs in the treatise on flight from the
+world,[228] Philo is allegorizing the law about founding six cities of
+refuge (Exodus xxxii). These are but material symbols for the six
+stages of the ascent of the mind to the pure God-idea. The chief city,
+the metropolis, is the Divine Logos, next come the two powers already
+considered, and then three secondary powers, the retributive, the
+law-giving, and the prohibitive. "Very beautiful and well-fenced
+cities they are, worthy refuges of souls that merit salvation." Each
+of these cities is an aspect of the religious mind; when it settles in
+the first it obeys the law from fear of punishment and thinks of God
+as the Judge; in the second it observes the precepts in hope of reward
+and conceives God as the legislator of a fixed code; in the next it is
+repentant and throws itself on God's grace, marking the first step of
+the spiritual life. Then it ascends in order to the idea of God as the
+governor of the universe, and the emotion which the rabbis called
+[Hebrew: yrat shmim], the fear of Heaven; and to the idea of God as the
+Creator and the universal Providence, which has as its emotional
+reflex the love of Heaven, [Hebrew: 'hbt shmim].
+
+But even this, which is the highest stage for many men, is not an
+adequate conception. Above it is the contemplation of God, apart from
+all manifestations in the perceptible world, in His ideal nature, the
+Logos, which at once transcends and comprehends the universe. And the
+attitude of this man can be best expressed perhaps by Spinoza's
+phrase, "the intellectual love of God," _amor intellectualis Dei_. The
+worshipper of the Logos has grasped and has harmonized all the
+manifestations of the Deity; he sees and honors all things in God; he
+comprehends the universe as the perfect manifestation of one good
+Being.
+
+Is this the highest point which man can reach? Many religious
+philosophers have held that it is, but Philo, the mystic, yearning to
+track out God "beyond the utmost bound of human thought," imagines one
+higher condition. The Logos is only the image or the shadow of the
+Godhead.[229] Above it is the one perfect reality, the transcendent
+Essence. Now, man cannot by any intellectual effort attain knowledge
+of the Infinite as He truly is, for this is above thought. But to a
+few blessed mortals God of His grace vouchsafes a mystic vision of His
+nature. Thus Moses, the perfect hierophant, had this perfect
+apprehension, and passed from intellectual love to holy adoration. And
+the true philosopher has as the goal of his aspirations the
+heaven-sent ecstasy, in which he sees God no longer through His
+effects, or in the modes of His activity, but through Himself in His
+own essence. The philosopher, when he receives this vision ([Greek:
+epopteia]) is possessed by the Shekinah,[230] and, losing
+consciousness of his individuality, becomes at one with God.
+
+So much for Philo's theory of man's upward progress. We may add a word
+about his treatment of the problem which troubled thinkers in that
+age, and which has harassed theologians ever since, viz., to show how
+punishment and evil could be derived from a God who was all-powerful
+and all-good. The Gnostics were driven by the difficulty to imagine an
+evil world-power, which was in incessant conflict with the Good God:
+and popular belief had conjured up a legion of subordinate powers, who
+took part in the work of creation and the government of the world.
+When Philo is speaking popularly, he accepts this current theology and
+speaks also of a punitive power of God[231] ([Greek: dunamis
+kolastikê]); but not when he is the philosopher. For then, in
+perfect faith, he denies the absolute existence of evil. "It is
+neither in Paradise nor indeed anywhere whatsoever."[232] Man,
+however, by his free will causes evil in the human sphere; and when
+God formed in man a rational nature capable of choosing for itself,
+moral evil became the necessary contrary of good.[233] Moreover, the
+punitive activity of God, though it seems to cause suffering and
+misery, is in truth a good, simulating evil, and if men judged the
+universal process as a whole, they would find it all good. The
+existence of evil involves no derogation from the perfect unity of
+God.
+
+If we have understood correctly Philo's theology, neither Logos, nor
+subordinate powers, nor angels, nor demons have an objective
+existence; they are mere imaginings of varying incompleteness which
+the limited minds of men, "moving in worlds not realized," make for
+themselves of the one and only true God. Philo's theology is the
+philosophical treatment of Jewish tradition, just as Philo's legal
+exegesis is the philosophical treatment of the Torah. While
+maintaining and striving to deepen the conception of God's unity, he
+aims at expounding to the reason how, on the one hand, that unity is
+revealed in the world about us, and how, on the other, we may advance
+to its true comprehension. It was, however, unfortunate that Philo
+expressed his theology in the current language, which was vague and
+inexact, and adapted certain foreign theosophical ideas to Judaism;
+hence succeeding generations, paying regard to the pictorial
+representation rather than to the principles of his thought, sought
+and found in him evidence of theories of Divine government to which
+Judaism was pre-eminently opposed. The first chapter of the Fourth
+Gospel shows that gradual process of thought which finally made the
+Logos doctrine the antithesis of Judaism. In the first verse we have a
+thought which might well have been written by Philo himself: "In the
+beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was
+God." But in the fourteenth verse there is manifest the sharp
+cleavage: "And the Word was made flesh, and dwelt among us, and we
+beheld his glory, the glory as of the only begotten of the Father,
+full of grace and truth." There may be a fine spiritual thought
+beneath the letter here, but the notion of the Incarnation is not
+Jewish, nor philosophical, nor Philonic. Philo's work was made to
+serve as the guide of that Christian Gnosticism which, within the next
+hundred years, proclaimed that Judaism was the work of an evil God,
+and that the essential mission of Jesus--the good Logos--was to
+dethrone Jehovah! But though the Logos conception was turned to
+non-Jewish and anti-Jewish purposes, it was in Philo the offspring of
+a pure and philosophical monotheism. Whatever the later abuse of his
+teaching, Philo constructed a theology which, though affected by
+foreign influences, was essentially true to Judaism; and more than
+that, he was the first to weave the Jewish idea of God into the
+world's philosophy.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+PHILO AS A PHILOSOPHER
+
+
+Save for a few monographs of no great importance, because of the
+absence of original thought, Philo's works form avowedly an exegesis
+of the Bible and not a series of philosophical writings. Nor must the
+reader expect to find an ordered system of philosophy in his separate
+works, much more than in the writings of the rabbis. As Professor
+Caird says,[234] "The Hebrew mind is intuitive, imaginative, incapable
+of analysis or systematic connection of ideas." Philo's philosophical
+conceptions lie scattered up and down his writings, "strung on the
+thread of the Bible narrative which determines the sequence of his
+thoughts." Nevertheless, though he has not given us explicit treatises
+on cosmology, metaphysics, ethics, psychology, etc., and though he was
+incapable of close logical thinking, he has treated all these subjects
+suggestively and originally in the course of his commentary, and his
+readers may gather together what he has dispersed, and find a
+co-ordinated body of religious philosophy. However loosely they are
+set forth in his treatises, his ideas are closely connected in his
+mind. Herein he differs from his Jewish predecessors, for the notion
+of the old historians of the Alexandrian movement, that there was a
+systematic Jewish philosophy before Philo, does not appear to have
+been well-founded. All that Aristeas and Aristobulus and the
+Apocryphal authors had done was to assimilate certain philosophemes to
+their religious ideas; they had not re-interpreted the whole system of
+philosophy from a Jewish point of view or traced an independent
+system, or an eclectic doctrine in the Holy Scriptures. This was the
+achievement of Philo. His thought is not original in the sense of
+presenting a new scheme of philosophy, but it is original in the sense
+of giving a fresh interpretation to the philosophical ideas of his age
+and environment. He ranges them under a new principle, puts them in a
+new light, and combines them in a new synthesis. This again is
+characteristic of the Jewish mind. Intent on God, it does not endeavor
+to make its own analysis of the universe by independent reasoning, but
+it utilizes the systems of other nations and endeavors to harmonize
+them with its religious convictions. Hence it is that nearly all
+Jewish philosophy appears to be eclectic; its writers have ranged
+through the fields of thought of many schools and culled flowers from
+each, which they bind together into a crown for their religion. They
+do not, with few exceptions, pursue philosophy with the purpose of
+widening the borders of secular knowledge; but rather in order to
+bring the light of reason to illuminate and clarify faith, to
+harmonize Judaism with the general culture of its environment, and to
+revivify belief and ceremony with a new interpretation. All this
+applies to our worthy, but at the same time he was a philosopher at
+heart, because he believed that the knowledge of God came by
+contemplation as well as by practice, and, further, because he had a
+firm faith in the universalism of Judaism; and he believed that this
+universal religion must comprehend all that is highest and truest in
+human thought. Like most Jewish philosophers he is synthetic rather
+than analytic, believing in intuition and distrusting the discursive
+reason, careless of physical science and soaring into religious
+metaphysics. Again, like most Jewish philosophers, he is deductive,
+starting with a synthesis of all in the Divine Unity, and making no
+fresh inductions from phenomena. It has been said that, though Philo
+was a philosopher and a Jew, yet Saadia was the first Jewish
+philosopher. But Philo's philosophical ideas are in complete harmony
+with his Judaism; and if by the criticism it is meant that most of the
+content of his works is based upon Greek models, it is true on the
+other hand that the spirit which pervades them is essentially Jewish,
+and that by the new force which he breathed into it he reformed and
+gave a new direction to the Greek philosophy of his age.
+
+Philo's philosophy is certainly eclectic in some degree, and we find
+in it ideas taken from the schools of Plato, Aristotle, Pythagoras,
+and the Stoics. Its fixed point was his theology, and wherever he
+finds anything to support this he adapts it to his purpose. He
+approached philosophy from a position opposed to that of the Greeks:
+they brought a questioning and free mind to the problems of the
+universe; he comes full of religious preconceptions. Yet in this lies
+his strength as well as his limitation, for he gains thus a point of
+certainty and a clear end, which other eclectic systems of the day did
+not possess. He welds together all the different elements of his
+thought in the heat of his passion for God. His cosmology and his
+ontology are a philosophical exposition of the Jewish conception of
+God's relation to the universe, his ethics and his psychology of the
+Jewish conception of man's relation to God.
+
+The religious preconceptions of Philo drew him to Plato above all
+other philosophers, so that his thought is essentially a religious
+development of Platonism. It is not too much to say that Philo's work
+has a double function, to interpret the Bible according to Platonic
+philosophy and to interpret Plato in the spirit of the Bible. The
+agreement was not the artificial production of the commentator, for in
+truth Plato was in sympathy with the religious conscience as a whole.
+The contrast between Hellenism and Hebraism is true, if we restrict it
+to the average mind of the two races. The one is intent on things
+secular, the other on God. But the greatest genius of the Hellenic
+race, influenced perhaps by contact with Oriental peoples, possessed,
+in a remarkable degree, the Hebraic spirit, which is zealous for God
+and makes for righteousness. Plato was not only a great philosopher,
+but also a great theologian, a great religious reformer, and a great
+prophet, the most perfectly developed mind which the world, ancient or
+modern, has known. His "Ideas," which are the archetypes of sensible
+things, were not only logical concepts but also a kingdom of Heaven
+connected with the human individual by the Divine soul. And as he grew
+older so his religious feeling intensified, and he translated his
+philosophy into theology and positive religion. Platonism, it has been
+well said, is a temper as much as a doctrine; it is the spirit that
+turns from the earth to Heaven, from creation to God. In his last
+work, "The Laws," wherein he designs a theocratic state, which has
+striking points of resemblance with the Jewish polity, he says: "The
+conclusion of the matter is this, which is the fairest and truest of
+all sayings, that for the good man to sacrifice and hold converse with
+the Deity by means of prayers and service of every kind is the noblest
+thing of all and the most conducive to a happy life, and above all
+things fitting."[235]
+
+This is typical of Plato's attitude towards life in his old age; and
+further, his metaphysical system of monistic idealism is the most
+remarkable approach to Hebrew monotheism which the Greek world made.
+The Patristic writers in the first centuries of the Christian era were
+so struck by this Hebraism in the Greek thinker, that they attributed
+it to direct borrowing. Aristobulus had written of a translation of
+the Pentateuch older than the Septuagint, which Plato was supposed to
+have studied. Clement called him the Hebrew philosopher, Origen and
+Augustine comment on his agreement with Genesis, and think that when
+he was in Egypt he listened to Jeremiah.[236] Eusebius worked out in
+detail his correspondences with the Bible. Some early neo-Platonist,
+perhaps Numenius, declared that Plato was only the Attic Moses; and in
+more modern times the Cambridge Platonists of the sixteenth century
+harbored similar ideas, and Nietzsche spoke bitterly of the day when
+"Plato went to school with the Jews in Egypt."
+
+Of Philo, then, we may say, as Montaigne said of himself, that he was
+a Platonist before he knew who Plato was. Yet he was the first
+Hellenistic Jew who perceived the fundamental harmony between the
+philosopher's idealism and Jewish monotheism, and he was the first
+important commentator of Plato who developed the religious teaching of
+his master into a powerful spiritual force.
+
+It is true that the seeds of neo-Platonism, _i.e._, the religious
+re-interpretation of Platonism under the influence of Eastern thought,
+had been sown already; and Philo must have received from his
+environment to some extent the mystical version of the master's
+system, with its goal of ecstatic union with God, and its tendency to
+asceticism as a means thereto. But the earlier products of the
+movement had been crude, and had lacked a powerful moving spirit. This
+was provided by Philo when he introduced his overmastering conception
+of God. The popular saying, "Either Plato Philonizes or Philo
+Platonizes"[237] contains a deep truth in its first as well as in its
+second part. It not only marks the likeness in style of the two
+writers, but it suggests that Philo, on the one hand, made fruitful
+the religious germ in Plato's teaching by his Hebraism, and, on the
+other, nourished the philosophical seed in Judaism by his Platonism.
+Plato's teaching falls into two main classes, the dialectical and the
+mythical, and it is with the latter that Philo is in specially close
+connection. For in his myths Plato tries to achieve a synthesis by
+imaginative flight where he had failed by discursive reason. He
+unifies experience by striking intuitions, something in the spirit of
+a Hebrew prophet. Moreover his style, as well as his thought, has here
+affinity with Jewish modes of thought. As Zeller says, speaking of the
+myths: "From the first, in the act of producing his work he thinks in
+images. They mark the point where it becomes evident that he cannot be
+wholly a philosopher because he is still too much of a poet." And this
+is true of all Philo's writings, and to generalize somewhat widely, of
+most Jewish philosophy. In "The Timæus," particularly, Plato,
+throughout, is the poet-philosopher, writing imaginative myths, which
+present pictorially an idealistic scheme of the universe; and "The
+Timæus" is for Philo, after the Bible, the most authoritative of
+books, the source of his chief philosophical ideas.
+
+The dominant philosophical principle of Plato is what is known as the
+Theory of Ideas. He imagined a world of real existences, invisible,
+incorporeal, eternal, grasped only by thought, prior to the objects of
+the physical universe, and the models or archetypes of them. In "The
+Timæus," which is a system of cosmology at once religious and
+metaphysical, the "Ideas" are represented as the thoughts of the one
+Supreme Mind, the intermediate powers by which the Supreme Unity,
+known as the "Idea of the Good," or "the Creator," evolves the
+material universe. Thus the universe is seen as the manifestation of
+one Beneficent Spirit, who brings it into existence and rules over it
+through His "ideal" thoughts. Philo adopts completely and uncritically
+this theory of transcendental ideas in his philosophical exegesis of
+the cosmogony in Genesis. "Without an incorporeal archetype God brings
+no simple thing to fulfilment."[238] There is an idea of stars, of
+grass, of man, of virtue, of music. And the Platonic conception
+receives a religious sanction. The ideas are a necessary step between
+God and the material universe, and those who deny them throw all
+things into confusion.[239] "God would not touch matter Himself, but
+He did not grudge a share of His nature to it through His powers, of
+which the true name is ideas." We have already noticed[240] how
+ingeniously Philo deduces the Theory of Ideas from the Biblical
+account of the creation, and associates it with the Hebraic conception
+of the ministerial Wisdom and Word. He, however, gives a new direction
+to the Platonic theory, owing to his Hebraic conception of God. The
+ideas with him are not the thoughts of an impersonal mind, but the
+emanations of a personal, volitional Deity. Keeping close to Jewish
+tradition, he says that they are the words of the Deity speaking. As
+human speech consists of incorporeal ideas, which produce an effect
+upon the minds of others, so the Divine speech is a pattern of
+incorporeal ideas which impress themselves upon a formless void, and
+so create the material world.[241] In this way Philo associates his
+cosmology with his theology. The creative "Ideas" are equated
+collectively with the Supreme Logos,[242] individually with the Logoi
+which represent God's particular activities. Thus the Logos represents
+the whole ideal or noetic world, "the kingdom of Heaven"; and it is in
+this metaphysical sense that the Logos is the first creation, "the
+first-born son of God," prior to the physical universe, which is His
+grandson. The whole universe is thus seen as the orderly manifestation
+of one principle. Philo, expanding a favorite image of the Haggadah,
+illustrates God's creation by the simile of a king founding a city.
+"He gets to him an architect, who first designs in his mind the parts
+of the perfect city, and then, looking continually to his model,
+begins to construct the city of stones and wood. So when God resolved
+to found the world-city, He first brought its form into mind, and
+using this as a model he completed the visible world."[243]
+
+The theory of religious idealism is the centre of Philo's philosophy,
+and provides the basis of his explanation of the material universe.
+Physics, indeed, he considered of small account, because he believed
+there could be no certainty in such speculations.[244] His mind was
+utterly unscientific; but as a religious philosopher he found it
+necessary to give a theory of the creation. Jewish dogma held that the
+world had been called into being out of nothing; the Greek
+philosophers repudiated such an idea, and held that creation must be
+the result of a reasonable process; Aristotle had imagined that matter
+was a separately existent principle with mind, and that the world was
+eternal; and the Stoics held that matter was the substance of all
+things, including the pantheistic power itself:
+
+  "All are but parts of one stupendous whole,
+  Whose body nature is, and God the soul."
+
+Philo impugns both these theories,[245] the one because it denies the
+creative power of God, the other because it confuses the Creator with
+His creation. He looked for a system which should satisfy at once the
+Jewish notion that the world was brought out of nothing by the will of
+God, and the philosophical concept that God is all reality; and he
+found in Plato's idealism a view of the creation which he could
+harmonize with the religious view. Plato declared that the material
+world had been created out of the _Non-Ens_ ([Greek: mê on]) _i.e._,
+that which has no real existence. He conceived space and matter as the
+mere passive receptacle of form, which is nothing till the form has
+given it quality. Though Philo's language is vague, this seems to be
+his view when he is speaking philosophically. It is, perhaps, a slight
+deviation from the earlier religious standpoint of the Jews, which
+looks to a direct and deliberate creation of the world-stuff, rather
+than to the informing of space by spirit, and regards the world as
+separate from God, and not as a manifestation of His being. But the
+more philosophical conception appears likewise in the Wisdom of
+Solomon. "For Thine all-powerful hand that created the world out of
+formless matter," says the author (xi. 17), establishing before Philo
+the compromise between two competing influences in his mind. More
+emphatically Philo rejects the notion of creation in time.[246] Time,
+he says, came into being after God had made the universe, and has no
+meaning for the Divine Ruler, whose life is in the eternal present.
+
+Summing up, we may say that Philo regards the universe as the image of
+the Divine manifestation or evolution in thought produced by His
+beneficent will; and this view is true to the religious standpoint of
+traditional Judaism in spirit if not in letter.
+
+In his conception of the human soul, Philo again harmonizes the simple
+Jewish notion with the developed Greek psychology by means of the
+Platonic idealism. The soul in the Bible is the breath of God; in
+Plato it is an Idea incarnate, represented in "The Timæus" as a
+particle of the Supreme Mind. Philo, following the psychology of his
+age, divides the soul into a higher and a lower part: (1) the Nous;
+(2) the vital functions, which include the senses. He lays all the
+stress upon the former, which gives man his kinship with God and the
+ideal world, while the other part is the necessary result of its
+incarnation in the body. He variously describes the Nous as an
+inseparable fragment of the Divine soul, a Divine breath which God
+inspires into each body, a reflection, an impression, or an image of
+the blessed Logos, sealed with its stamp.[247] Following the Platonic
+conception, Philo occasionally speaks of the Divine soul as having a
+prenatal existence,[248] holding, as the English poet put it, that
+
+  "The soul that rises with us, our life's star,
+    Hath had elsewhere its setting
+  And cometh from afar."
+
+Here, too, he follows an older Jewish-Hellenistic tradition, which
+appears in the Wisdom of Solomon (viii. 19 and 20), where it is
+written: "A good soul fell to my lot. Nay rather, being good, I came
+into a body undefiled." The Nous is in fact the god within, and it
+bears to the microcosm Man the relation which the infinite God bears
+to the macrocosm.[249] Indeed, it is the Logos descended from above,
+but yearning to return to its true abode. Thus Philo sings its Divine
+nature:
+
+     "It is unseen, but sees all things: its essence is unknown,
+     but it comprehends the essence of all things. And by arts
+     and sciences it makes for itself many roads and ways, and
+     traverses sea and land, searching out all things within
+     them. And it soars aloft on wings, and when it has
+     investigated the sky and its changes it is borne upwards
+     towards the æther and the revolutions of the heavens. It
+     follows the stars in their orbits, and passing the sensible
+     it yearns for the intelligible world."
+
+The Nous is the king of the whole organism, the governing and unifying
+power, and hence is often called the man himself. The senses,
+resembling the powers of God, are only the bodyguard, subordinate
+instruments, and inferior modes of the Divine part.[250] So Philo
+explains that all our faculties are derived from the Divine principle,
+and he draws the moral lesson that our true function is to bend them
+all to the Divine service, so as to foster our noblest part. The aim
+of the good man is to bring the god within him into union with the God
+without, and to this end he must avoid the life of the senses,[251]
+which mars the Divine Nous, and may entirely crush it. The Divine
+soul, as it had a life before birth, so also has a life after death;
+for what is Divine cannot perish. Immortality is man's most splendid
+hope. If the Divine Presence fills him with a mystic ecstasy, he has,
+indeed, attained it upon this earth, but this bliss is only for the
+very blessed sage; and he, too, looks forward to the more lasting union
+with the Godhead after this terrestrial life is over.[252] True at
+once to the principles of Platonism and Judaism, Philo admits no
+anthropomorphic conception of Heaven or of Hell. He is convinced that
+there is a life hereafter, and finds in the story of Enoch the
+Biblical symbol thereof,[253] but he does not speculate about the
+nature of the Divine reward. The pious are taken up to God, he says, and
+live forever,[254] communing alone with the Alone.[255] The unrighteous
+souls, Philo sometimes suggests, in accordance with current Pythagorean
+ideas, are reincarnated according to a system of transmigration within
+the human species ([Greek: palengenesia]).[256] Yet the sinner
+suffers his full doom on earth. The true Hades is the life of the
+wicked man who has not repented, exposed to vengeance, with uncleansed
+guilt, obnoxious to every curse.[257] And the Divine punishment is to
+live always dying, to endure death deathless and unending, the death
+of the soul.[258]
+
+The Divine Nous constitutes the true nature of man; Philo, however,
+insists with almost wearisome repetition, that the god within us has
+no power in itself, and depends entirely on the grace and inspiration
+of God without for knowledge, virtue, and happiness.[259] The Stoic
+dogma, that the wise man is perfectly independent and self-contained
+([Greek: autarchês]) appears to him as a wicked blasphemy. "Those
+who make God the indirect, and the mind the direct cause are guilty of
+impiety, for we are the instruments through which particular
+activities are developed, but He who gives the impulse to the powers
+of the body and the soul is the Creator by whom all things are
+moved."[260] All thought-functions, memory, reasoning, intuition, are
+referred directly to Divine inspiration, which is in Platonic
+terminology the illumination of the mind by the ideas. Thus, finally,
+all human activity is referred back to God.
+
+This guiding principle determines Philo's attitude to knowledge,
+involving, as it does, that we only know by Divine inspiration, or, as
+he says, by the immanence of the Logoi.[261] The possibility of
+knowledge was one of the burning questions of the age, and it was the
+failure of the old dogmatic schools to answer it which led to a great
+religious movement in Greek philosophy. How can man attain to true
+knowledge, it was asked, about the universe, seeing that perceptions
+vary with each individual, and of conceptions we have no certain
+standard? The old Hebrew attitude to this question is expressed by the
+verse of the Psalmist: "The heavens are the heavens of the Lord, but
+the earth hath He given to the sons of men" (Psalm cxv), which implies
+that man must not try to penetrate the secrets of the universe. Philo
+is sufficiently a philosopher to desire knowledge about things Divine
+and human, but at the same time he has a complete distrust in the
+powers of human sense and human reason. About the physical universe he
+is frankly a skeptic,[262] but his religious faith leads him to hold
+that God vouchsafes to man some knowledge of Himself and of the proper
+way of life, _i.e._, ethics. "Man knows all things in God."[363] Plato
+similarly had despaired of knowledge of the physical world, and had
+turned to the heavenly ideas as the true object of thought. Moreover,
+in his early period, while his theory was still poetical and mystical,
+he had conceived that knowledge was made possible in the subject, by
+the entrance of "forms," or emanations, from the ideas. This theory
+Philo adapts to his Jewish outlook. Like Plato, he turns away from the
+physical to the ideal world,[264] and he regards the ideas of wisdom,
+virtue, bravery, etc., which are theologically powers of God, as
+continually sending forth Logoi, forms or forces (the angels of
+popular belief), to inform and enlighten our minds. Throughout, God is
+the cause of all knowledge as well as of being, for these effluences
+are but an expression of God's activity. In Philo's theory, object and
+subject are really one. What can be known are the modes or attributes
+of God, which philosophically are "Ideas"; what knows is the emanation
+of the Idea, which God sends into the human soul that is prepared to
+receive it by pious contemplation. "Through the heavenly Wisdom,
+wisdom is seen, for wisdom sees itself." "Through God, God is known,
+for He is His own light."[265]
+
+Thus all knowledge is intuition, and man's function is not so much to
+reason as to lead a life of piety and contemplate the Divine work in
+the hope of being blessed with inspiration. It would be a mistake,
+however, to take Philo's words quite literally. He does not deny the
+need of human effort and striving for knowledge; for the Divine
+influence is not vouchsafed till we have prepared for it and
+consecrated all our faculties to God. But, devout mystic as he is,
+he ascribes every consummation to the direct help of the Deity. "The
+mind is the cause of nothing, but rather the Deity, who is prior to
+mind, generates thought."[266] The Greek philosopher had ascribed the
+final synthesis of knowledge to a superhuman force. Philo ascribes to
+God all the intermediate steps from sense-perception. It may be
+admitted that his passive notion of philosophy involves the
+abandonment of the Greek ideal, the eager searching of Plato after
+truth. He lived in an age in which, through loss of intellectual
+power, man had come to despair of the attainment of knowledge by human
+effort, and to rely entirely upon supernatural means, Divine
+revelations, visions, and the like. It is consistent with his whole
+position that the crown of life is represented, not as an intellectual
+state, but as a superhuman ecstasy of the Nous, wherein it is freed
+not only from the body but from the rest of the soul, and is, so to
+say, led out of itself.[267] He comments on the verse, "And the sun
+went down and a deep sleep fell on Abraham" (Gen. xv. 12). "When the
+Divine light," he says, "shines upon the mortal soul, the mortal light
+sinks, and our reason is driven out at the approach of the Divine
+spirit."[268] This is the Alexandrian interpretation of [Hebrew: shkina]
+and [Hebrew: nboah], and though it is much affected by Greek mystical
+ideas, yet at the same time it is broadly true to the spirit of Jewish
+mysticism, as we see it presented in writers of all ages, and as the
+Psalmist expressed it, "to abide under the shadow of the Almighty."
+
+Philo's ethics, like the rest of his philosophy, exhibits the
+transfusion of Greek ideas with his Hebrew spirit. The Greek
+philosophers had evolved a rational plan of life, while the Jewish
+teachers were impregnated with burning ardor for the living God; and
+Philo brings the two things together, making ethics dependent on
+religion. The Stoics, who were the most powerful school of his day,
+regarded as the ideal of goodness life according to unbending reason
+and in complete independence of God or man. Philo understands God as a
+personal power making for righteousness, and man's excellence,
+accordingly, which is likeness to God, is piety and charity.[269]
+Above all he insists upon Faith ([Greek: pistis]) and he defines
+virtue as a condition of soul which fixes its hopes upon the truly
+Existent God. The Stoics also professed to honor faith or confidence
+above all things, but the virtue which they meant was reliance upon
+man's own powers. Philo's virtue is almost the converse of this. Man
+must feel completely dependent upon God, and his proper attitude is
+humility and resignation. So only can he receive within his soul the
+seed of goodness, and finally the Divine Logos.[270] Yet at the same
+time Philo remains loyal to the Jewish ideal of conduct: faith without
+works is empty, and, as he puts it, "The true-born goods are faith and
+consistency of word and action."[271]
+
+The attainment of the highest excellence demands severe discipline,
+save for those few blessed souls whom God perfects without any effort
+on their part. The rest can only secure self-realization by
+self-renunciation; they must avoid the bodily passions and bodily
+lusts.[272] At times the Divine enthusiasm causes Philo, like many a
+Jewish saint and like his master Plato, to scorn all bodily
+limitations and recommend "insensibility" ([Greek: apatheia])[273]
+by which he means that man should crush his physical desires and
+repress his feelings. Not that the good life seems to him to imply
+absence of pleasure. On the contrary, it is filled with the purest of
+joy, for when man rises to the love of God "in calm of mind, all
+passion spent," then and then alone has he tasted true joyousness. The
+symbol of this bliss is Isaac ([Hebrew: ytshk]), the laughter of the
+soul.
+
+It was noticed in the second chapter that Philo modified his ethical
+ideas during his life. In the earlier period he insists more strongly
+on the need of ascetic self-denial, and has almost a horror of the
+world. Maturer experience, however, taught him that man is made for
+this world, and that a wise use of its goods was a surer path to
+happiness and to God than flight from all temptations. In his later
+writings, therefore, he exhibits a striking moderation. He reproaches
+the ascetics for their "savage enthusiasm,"[274] probably hinting at
+the extreme sects of the Essenes and the Therapeutæ. "Those who follow
+a gentler wisdom seek after God, but at the same time do not despise
+human things."
+
+     "Truth will properly blame those who without discrimination
+     shun all concern with the life of the State, and say that
+     they despise the acquisition of good repute and pleasure.
+     They are only making grand pretensions, and they do not
+     really despise these things. They go about in torn raiment
+     and with solemn visage, and live the life of penury and
+     hardship as a bait, to make people believe that they are
+     lovers of good conduct, temperance, and self-control."[275]
+
+Philo's aphorism, which follows, "Be drunk in a sober manner," is
+characteristic. The Stoic extreme of passionlessness is almost as
+false as the Epicurean hedonism, and the mean between them is the
+ideal Jewish life, in which godliness and humanity are blended.
+
+We have now examined the main divisions of Philo's philosophy, and we
+see that his metaphysics, cosmology, theory of knowledge, and ethics
+are all religious in tone, and all determined in their main lines by
+his Jewish outlook. His Hebraism is a seal which stamps all that
+enters his mind from Greek sources, and the Bible, spiritually
+interpreted, is the canon of all his wisdom.
+
+There remains one minor aspect of his work which must be briefly
+examined, because it has become closely associated with his name. This
+is his number-symbolism, by which he ascribes important powers to
+certain numbers, so that they are regarded as holy themselves and
+sanctifying that to which they are attached. This feature of his
+thought is commonly ascribed to Pythagorean influence, which was
+strong at Alexandria, and, indeed, throughout the world, at this era.
+The exact details of the holiness of four, seven, ten, fifty, etc.,
+Philo may have borrowed from neo-Pythagorean sources, but the general
+tendency was the natural result of his environment and his stage of
+thought. It was a feature of the recurring childishness of ideas and
+the renascence of wonder at common things which is apparent on many
+hands. To have denied the powers of numbers would have seemed as
+absurd and eccentric then as to deny the powers of electricity to-day.
+And in all ages people have been found to regard numbers mystically as
+a link between God and earth, and a means of solving all physical and
+metaphysical problems. The Hebrew intellect, primitive as it was,
+tended particularly to the reverence of the numerical powers. Witness
+the Bible itself, which emphasizes certain numbers; and witness also
+the fifth chapter of the Pirke Abot, with its lists ranged under four,
+seven, and ten, which is only typical of the rabbinical attitude.
+Philo is not original in his views concerning numbers, not above nor
+below the loose thinking of his age. He accepts unquestioningly the
+potency of seven, because of its marvellous mathematical properties,
+ratios, etc., its geometrical efficacy, and because of the seven
+periods of life from infancy to old age, of the seven parts of the
+body, the seven motions, the seven strings of the lyre, the seven
+vowels, and the very name, which is connected with worship ([Greek:
+sebasmos]). All this is trifling and trite, but what is of
+importance is the use which Philo makes of the sentiment. He converts
+it throughout to the support and glorification of Jewish institutions.
+Thus, if a man honors seven, he says, he will devote the Sabbath to
+meditation and philosophy.[276] Further, as seven is the symbol of
+rest and tranquillity, the Sabbath must be a day of perfect rest. Ten
+is magnified so as to honor the Decalogue,[277] fifty so as to honor
+the Feast of Pentecost. So, too, the Pythagoreans' mathematical
+conceptions of God as "the beginning and limit of all things," or,
+again, as the principle of equality, are approved by Philo, "because
+they breed in the soul the fairest and most nourishing fruit--piety."
+In short, Philo's Pythagoreanism only emphasizes his commanding
+purpose--to deepen and recommend the Jewish God-idea and the Jewish
+method of life.
+
+Jewish influences throughout are the determining element of Philo's
+teaching; they are the dynamic forces working upon the Greek matter
+and producing the new Platonism, which constitutes Philo's
+contribution to Greek philosophy. It may, indeed, be said that his
+Hebraism makes Philo anti-philosophical, because he has no desire or
+hope of adding to positive knowledge, but aims only at the calm of the
+individual soul in union with its God. The Platonic Theory of Ideas,
+metaphysical in origin, plays a very important part in his works, but
+it is adapted mystically, and turned from an ideal of the human
+intellect to a support of monotheism and piety. Here Philo is at once
+the leader and the child of his generation; men were no longer
+satisfied with rational systems, but wanted a religious philosophy,
+based upon a transcendental principle and a Divine revelation which
+could give them some certainty and some positive hope in life.
+Doubtless, the strong mystical tendency in Philo destroyed the balance
+between the intuitive and the discursive reason which makes the
+perfect philosopher. In his overpowering passion for God, he distrusts
+overmuch the analytical efforts of the human mind. Nevertheless, his
+acquired Hellenism gives his Jewish conceptions a philosophical
+impress, and this has made him the model of the school of religious
+philosophers. The ministerial "Word" became the "ideal" expression of
+God's mind, the governing reason, the world-soul; the angels were
+spiritualized as a kingdom of Ideas. Piety received an intellectual as
+well as a religious value, and the Mosaic law was raised to a higher
+dignity as an ethical code of universal validity.
+
+A complete harmony between the Hellenic and the Hebraic outlook upon
+life was impossible, but Philo at least accomplished a harmony between
+Hebraic monotheism and Greek metaphysics. He desired to show that
+faith and philosophy were in agreement, and that the imaginative and
+reflective conceptions of God and the Divine government were in
+unison. And he may be considered to have realized his desire in his
+synthesis of Jewish theology and Platonic idealism. He is through and
+through a great interpreter, elucidating points of unity between
+distinct systems of thought. In him the fusion of cultures, which
+began with the Septuagint translation, reached its culmination. It
+reached its zenith and straightway the severance began.
+
+In the next chapter we shall trace Philo's place in Jewish thought;
+here we may glance at his place in the development of Greek
+philosophy. The fusion between Eastern and Western thought, which he
+himself so strikingly illustrates, continued to dominate philosophy
+for the next four hundred years; and Plato, who, with his deep
+religious spirit, had a broad affinity with the Oriental conception of
+the universe, was the supreme philosophical master. All the chief
+teachers looked to him for the intellectual basis of their ideas and
+read into his works their particular religious beliefs; but they
+failed to maintain a true harmony between the two. The cultures of all
+countries and races mingled, even as their peoples mingled under the
+Roman Empire, but they were so combined as to lose the purity and
+individuality of each element. The Eastern Platonists who followed
+Philo brought to their interpretation less noble conceptions of the
+Godhead, the Gnosticism of Syria, the dualism of Persia, the
+impersonal pantheism of India, and the theurgies of Egypt, and
+produced strange hybrids of the human mind. The one point of agreement
+between them is that they conceive the Supreme God as impersonal and
+entirely inactive, "a deified Zero," and endeavor by a system of
+emanation to trace the descent of this baffling principle into man and
+the universe. Philo was as unfortunate in his philosophical as in his
+religious following, who both transformed his poetical metaphors into
+fixed and rigid dogmas. His doctrine of the Logos was, on the one
+hand, the forerunner of the Trinity of the Church, on the other of the
+Trinity of the Alexandrian neo-Platonists. It is difficult, indeed, to
+trace with certainty the connection between Philo and the later school
+of Alexandrian Platonists, but there appears to be at least one clear
+link in the teaching of the Syrian Numenius, who flourished in the
+middle of the second century. To him are attributed the two sayings:
+"Either Plato Philonizes or Philo Platonizes," and "What is Plato but
+the Attic Moses?" Modern scholars have questioned the correctness of
+the reference, but be this as it may, it is certain that Numenius used
+the Bible as evidence of Platonic doctrines. "We should go back," he
+says, in a fragment, "to the actual writings of Plato and call in as
+testimony the ideas of the most cultured races; comparing their holy
+books and laws we should bring in support the harmonious ideas which
+are to be found among the Brahmans and the Jews."[278] Origen tells
+us,[279] moreover, that he often introduced excerpts from the books of
+Moses and the Prophets, and allegorized them with ingenuity. In one of
+the few remains of his writings which have come down to us, we find
+him praising the verse in the first chapter of Genesis, "The spirit of
+God was upon the waters"; because, as Philo had interpreted
+it--following perhaps a rabbinical tradition--water represents the
+primal world-stuff. And elsewhere he mentions the efforts of the
+Egyptian magicians to frustrate the miracles of Moses, following
+Philo's account in his life of the Jewish hero.
+
+The work of Philo helped to spread a knowledge of the Hebrew
+Scriptures far and wide and to give them general authority as a
+philosophical book; but it did not succeed in spreading the pure
+Hebrew monotheism. The exalted Hebrew idea of God was still too
+sublime for the pagan nations, even for their philosophers. The world
+in truth was decaying morally and intellectually, and most of all in
+powers of imagination; and its hunger for God found expression in
+crude and stunted conceptions of His nature. Unable any longer to soar
+to Heaven, it sullied the majesty of the Deity, and divided the
+Godhead in order to bridge the gap. Numenius represents in philosophy
+the Gnostic ideas about God which were widely held by the heretics,
+Jewish and Christian, of the second century. He divides the Godhead
+into two separate powers: (1) the impersonal Being behind all reality,
+free from all activity whatsoever; (2) the Demiurge or active governor
+of the universe, who again is subdivided into a transcendent and an
+immanent power.
+
+The teaching of Plotinus, the most famous of the later Alexandrian
+neo-Platonists, shows a further step in the development of religious
+Platonism. Viewed from its higher side it is an attempt to explain
+everything as the emanation of the One. But philosophy in the third
+century debased itself in order to support the tottering polytheistic
+religion of the pagan world against the modified Hebraic creed,
+Christianity, which was fast demolishing its power. Against the
+Trinity of the Church the philosophers set up a heavenly Trinity of
+so-called reason: the Ineffable One, the Demiurgic Mind, and the World
+Soul; and between this Trinity and man they placed intermediate
+hierarchies of gods, angels, and demons--in fact, the whole fugitive
+army of Greek polytheism thinly disguised. All the vulgar fancies and
+superstitions which Philo had intellectualized, these later Eastern
+Platonists sought to revive and justify by conceptions of physical
+emanation blended of false science and mysticism. They hoped to found
+a universal religion by finding room in one system for the deities of
+all nations!
+
+From Plotinus down to Proclus, neo-Platonism became more
+unintellectual, more insane, more pagan, and, finally, with its vapid
+dreams, it brought the history of Greek philosophy to an inglorious
+close. Its finer teachings, however, deeply affected mediaeval
+philosophy, and not least the Arab-Jewish school. The theory of
+emanations and spiritual hierarchies pervades the writings of Ibn
+Ezra, Ibn Gabirol, and Ibn Daud, and thus indirectly provides a
+connection between the culture of Alexandrian Judaism and the culture
+of Spanish Judaism. The praise of God known as the [Hebrew: ktr mlkot] by
+Ibn Gabirol is a splendid example of the Hebraizing of neo-Platonic
+doctrines, which, though probably quite independent of his teaching,
+recalls constantly the ideas of Philo.
+
+By his place at the head of the neo-Platonic school Philo enters the
+broad stream of the world's philosophical development, but his more
+lasting influence was exercised over the religious philosophy of
+Christianity. He was the direct master of what is known as the
+Patristic school, which sought to combine the intellectual conceptions
+of Plato with the religious ideas of the Gospels. Its most celebrated
+teachers were Clement and Origen, both of Alexandria, who flourished
+in the second century. They resorted largely to allegorical
+interpretation, learning from Philo to trace in the Bible principles
+of universal thought and profound philosophy; but they used his method
+and his lessons to support notions of God and the Logos which were
+alien to his spirit. He had possessed pre-eminently the soaring
+imagination of poetry, which is the crown of the intellectual and of
+the religious mind, and unites them in their highest excellence; but
+they bounded their philosophy within the narrow limits of dogma, and
+thereby destroyed the harmony between Hebraism and Hellenism which he
+had contrived to effect. The controversy of Origen and Celsus began
+again the battle between reason and faith, "which was to destroy for
+centuries the independence of philosophy and to break the continuity
+of civilization." Had Philo really been ploughing the sand, and was an
+agreement between faith and reason, between religion and philosophy,
+impossible? Can the two finest creations of the mind only be combined
+on the terms that one is subordinate, or rather servile, to the other?
+In Judaism, if anywhere, the combination should be possible, for
+Judaism has as its basis an intuitional conception of God, which is in
+harmony with the philosophical conception of the universe, and it has
+little dogma besides. The neo-Platonists and the Church Fathers failed
+to carry on the ideal of Philo, but it was to be expected that among
+his own people, the nation of philosophers, as he had called them, he
+would have found true successors. Yet the use made of his work by the
+Christians compelled his people to regard him as a betrayer of the law
+and to avoid his goal as a treacherous snare. For centuries Greek
+philosophy was banned from Jewish thought, and Philo's works are not
+mentioned by any Jewish writer. Strangers possessed his inheritance,
+and his name alone, "Philo-Judæus," bore witness to his nationality.
+It is an interesting speculation to consider how different might have
+been the history, not only of the Jews, but of the world, if the
+Hellenistic Judaism of Philo had prevailed in the Roman-Greek world
+instead of "the impurer Hellenism of Christianity." When, in the tenth
+century, the leaders of Jewish thought broke the bonds of seclusion,
+and brought anew to the interpretation of their religion the culture
+of the outer world, Greek philosophy became again a powerful
+influence, though it was Aristotle rather than Plato whom they
+studied. The harmonizing spirit of Philo, which may be accounted part
+of the genius of the race, lives on in Saadia, Maimonides, Ibn Ezra,
+Ibn Gabirol, and Judah Halevi. But the difference between him and the
+Arabic school is marked. They do not inherit his whole object, for
+they aimed not at a philosophical Judaism which should be a
+world-religion, but at a philosophical Judaism for the more
+enlightened Jews alone. Philo's work was the culminating point,
+indeed, of a great development in Judaism, produced by the mingling of
+the finest products of human reason and human imagination, but it was
+particularly the expression of his own commanding genius. He lacked a
+true successor, for those who shared his aim did not inherit his
+Jewish outlook, and those who shared his Jewish outlook did not
+inherit his aim. What is characteristic of and peculiar to Philo is
+the combination of the missionary and the philosopher. Living at a
+time when the Jewish genius expanded most brilliantly, and when
+Judaism exercised its greatest influence, he hoped to make his
+religion universal by showing it to be philosophical, and to bring
+about by the aid of Plato the ideal of the prophets.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+PHILO AND JEWISH TRADITION
+
+
+We have seen from time to time how Philo's interpretation of the Bible
+corresponds with Palestinian Jewish tradition; and we must now
+consider more in detail the relations of the two schools of Jewish
+learning. Until the last century it was commonly supposed that no
+close relation existed, and that the Alexandrian and Palestinian
+schools were independent and opposed; Scaliger, the greatest scholar
+of the seventeenth century, wrote[280] that "Philo was more ignorant
+of Hebraic and Aramaic lore than any Gaul or Scythian," and this was
+the opinion generally held. The researches of Freudenthal and
+Siegfried[281] have shown the falsity of these views; and, most
+important of all, Philo refutes them out of his own mouth. He refers
+in many different parts of his works[282] to the tradition and the
+wisdom of his ancestors, he tells us how on the Sabbath the Jews
+studied in their synagogues their special philosophy,[283] and he
+commences his "Life of Moses" by declaring that against the false
+calumnies of Greek writers he will set forth the true account which he
+has learnt from the sacred writings and "from certain elders of his
+race." In support of his statement we have the remark of Eusebius, the
+Christian historian, and our chief ancient authority for Philo's
+work,[284] that he set forth and expounded not only the laws of the
+Bible, but many institutions and opinions of his fathers. Apart from
+these direct references, the numerous points of correspondence between
+Philo's interpretations and those of the Talmud and later Midrash
+would compel us to admit a connection between Alexandria and
+Jerusalem.
+
+The break between the two schools did not show itself till after the
+time of Philo. Up to the first century of the Christian era the rabbis
+encouraged the union of Shem and Japheth--the two good sons of one
+parent--and the stream of ideas flowed quite freely between the
+teachers in Palestine and the Hellenized colony in Egypt.[285] Hence
+the Palestinian Jews, on the one hand, received the first fruits of
+this mingling of cultures, and the Alexandrian Jews, on the other,
+must have inherited the early tradition of the rabbinical interpreters
+embodied in ancient Halakah and Haggadah. By this common heritage,
+rather than by any direct borrowing, it seems more reasonable to
+account for the correspondence in the two Midrashim. It should be
+remembered that until the second century of the common era the mass of
+Jewish tradition was a floating and developing body of opinion not
+consigned to writing or formalized, but handed down by word of mouth
+from teacher to pupil, and preacher to congregation: in this way it
+was diffused throughout the mind of the race, indefinitely and, to
+some extent, unconsciously shaping its thought. The detailed points of
+agreement between Philo and the Talmud and Midrash are not of great
+moment in themselves, but they are the signs of a unity of development
+and the catholicity of Judaism in the East and West. Doubtless the
+development was more national and at the same time more legal in
+Judæa, in Alexandria more Hellenistic and philosophical, but there is
+a common spiritual bond between the two expressions, pious images,
+fancies, similes, interpretations which they share. They are, as it
+were, children of one family, and despite the varying influences of
+environment they maintain a family resemblance. With the Sibylline
+oracles we may compare Daniel and the Psalms of Solomon; with Aristeas
+and his fellow-Apologists, Josephus; with the allegorical commentaries
+of Philo, the Midrashim. Modern scholars have gone far to prove that
+Philo was the expounder of an Hellenic Midrash upon the Bible, in
+which were gathered the thoughts and ideas that had been brought to
+Egypt by the Jewish settlers, modified, no doubt, by Greek influences,
+but still bearing the stamp of their origin. Philo, then, appears in
+the direct line of the tradition which from the time of the Great
+Synagogue was disseminated through two channels, the schools of
+Palestine and the writers of Alexandria. He developed the national
+Jewish theology in a literary form, which made it available for the
+world, but with him the tradition as a Jewish tradition ends; in its
+further Hellenistic development it departed entirely from its original
+principles.
+
+It is natural that the larger number of parallels between Philo and
+the rabbis is to be found in the Haggadic portions of Talmudic
+teaching, for the Haggadah represents the same spirit as underlies
+Philo's work, though in a more peculiarly Jewish form; it is an
+allegory, a play of fancy, a tale that points a moral, or illustrates
+a question. It had, too, largely the same origin, for it gathered
+together the popular discourses given in the synagogue on the
+Sabbaths. Yet the relation of Philo to the other domain of the Talmud,
+the code of life, or the Halakah, is of great interest; for, as we
+have seen,[286] the Alexandrian community had a Sanhedrin of their
+own, of which Philo's brother was the president, and he himself
+probably a member; and in his exposition of the "Specific Laws" he has
+preserved for us the record of certain interpretations of the Jewish
+code, which are illuminating as much by their difference from, as by
+their agreement with, the practices of Palestine. The general aim of
+Philo's exegesis of the law was to show its broad principles of
+justice and humanity rather than to formulate its exact detail. It is
+true, he makes it an offence[287]--unknown to the rabbis--for
+a Jew to be initiated into the Greek mysteries, but usually he is
+concerned to recommend the Halakah to the world rather than expand it
+for his own community. This is shown in his treatment of the civil as
+much as the moral law. The great system of jurisprudence in his day,
+with which every code claiming to have universal value had necessarily
+to challenge comparison, was Roman Law. That part of it which was
+applied throughout the Empire, the _jus gentium_, was regarded as
+"written reason." It is probable that contact with Roman jurisprudence
+had affected the practical interpretations which the Alexandrian
+Sanhedrin put upon the Biblical legislation, and was the cause of some
+of their differences from the Palestinian Halakah. In treating the
+ethical law, Philo's object was to show its agreement with the
+loftiest conceptions of Greek philosophers, and, indeed, its
+profounder truth; in treating the civil law of the Bible, his object
+likewise was to show its agreement with the highest principles of
+jurisprudence and its superiority to pagan codes. If at times he
+supports a greater severity than the Palestinian rabbis eventually
+allowed, that is where greater severity implies a closer relation to
+Roman Law. Thus he has not the horror of capital punishment which the
+Jerusalem Sanhedrin exhibited; he would condemn to death the man who
+commits wilful homicide, whether by his own hand or by poison;[288]
+whereas the other Halakah allows it only in the former case. He who
+commits perjury also is to suffer capital punishment.[289] He adds a
+law which finds no place in the Palestinian tradition, making the
+exposure of children a capital crime.[290] Again, following the text
+of the Biblical law literally (see Deut. xxi. 18), he gives power of
+life and death to parents over their rebellious children, whereas the
+Jewish law demands a trial before a court to make the death sentence
+legal. He approves of the _lex talionis_, "an eye for an eye, a tooth
+for a tooth," agreeing here, indeed, with the opinion of earlier
+rabbis like R. Eliezer (see Baba Kama 84, [Hebrew: 'yn tht 'yn mmsh],
+"the law of eye for eye is to be taken literally"), and disagreeing with
+the later Halakic interpretation, which says that the law of Moses means
+the award of the value of an eye for an eye, etc.
+
+This is one instance among many of Philo's adoption of the older
+tradition, established probably under the Sadducæan predominance,
+which was modified in the rabbinical schools of the first and the
+second century. Paradoxically, in his exposition of the law, Philo
+follows the letter more closely as the expression of justice, while
+the later rabbis often allegorize it in order to support their humaner
+interpretation. Thus, commenting on the passage in Exodus xxii. 3
+about the law of theft, "If the sun be risen upon him, blood shall be
+shed for blood," he, like R. Eliezer, interprets [Hebrew: dbrim kktbm][291]
+_i.e._, literally. "If," he says, "the owner catches the thief before
+sunrise, he may kill him, but after the sun has risen he must bring him
+before the court."[292] This also was the Roman law, but the Halakah
+interprets more artificially: "If it were as clear as sunlight that
+the thief would not have killed the owner, then the owner may not kill
+him." Philo would justify the old law; the rabbis explain it away. On
+the other hand, in his treatment of the law relating to slaves, Philo
+extends the liberality both of the Bible and the Halakah. He declares
+that the slave is to be set free when by his master's violence he loses
+an eye or even a tooth.[293] The Bible and the Talmud direct emancipation
+only where the slave loses a limb; but Philo writes eloquently of the
+humanity of which man is deprived by the loss of sight; and he would
+apparently condemn the master who injured his slave more seriously to the
+full penalties of the ordinary law.[294] Maimonides, in his exposition of
+the law, approves the milder practice,[295] and this suggests that it
+had an old tradition behind it. Beautiful is Philo's stray maxim,
+"Behave to your servants as you pray that God may behave to you. For
+as we hear them, so shall we be heard, and as we regard them, so shall
+we be regarded."[296] In his whole treatment of slavery, Philo shows
+remarkable enlightenment for his age. He objects, indeed, to the
+institution altogether, and he tempers it continually with ideas of
+equality. Thus, following the Halakah, he directs the redemption of a
+slave seven years after his purchase, and he treats the laws of the
+seventh-year rest to the land and of the jubilee as of universal
+validity.
+
+Coming to the more specifically religious laws we find that Philo,
+missionary as he is, prohibits altogether marriage with Gentiles,[297]
+and that though, in the opinion of certain rabbinic teachers, the
+Biblical prohibition extended only to marriage with the Canaanite
+tribes, and unions with other Gentiles were permitted.[298] Philo
+recognizes how dangerous such unions are for the cause which he had so
+dearly at heart, the spreading of Judaism. "Even," says he, "if you
+yourself remain true to your religion through the influence of the
+excellent instruction of your parents, yet there is no small danger
+that your children by such a marriage may be beguiled away by bad
+customs to unlearn the true religion of the one only God."[299]
+Throughout, Philo is true to the mission of Israel in its highest
+sense. That mission is not assimilation, and it is to be brought about
+by no easy method of mixing with the surrounding people. It can be
+effected only by holding up the Torah in its purity as a light to the
+nations, and by offering them examples of life according to the law.
+
+Of the special ordinances for Sabbaths and festivals Philo mentions
+only those consecrated by the Biblical law or ancient tradition, which
+probably were the only ones settled in his day. He lays down the
+prohibition to kindle fire,[300] to make or return deposits, or to
+plead in the law courts on the Sabbath; he speaks of the reading of
+the Haggadah and Hallel on the night of Passover, of the bringing of a
+barley cake during the 'Omer and of the first fruits to the Temple on
+the Feast of Weeks, of the Shofar at New Year, and of the Sukkah, but
+not of the Lulab at Tabernacles. It should be remembered that the
+Halakah was not consolidated till the second or third century, and in
+Philo's time it was in the process of formation by different schools
+of rabbis. But the passage quoted in an earlier chapter, about adding
+to the law, proves his reverence for the oral law.[301]
+
+Though his statement of the civil and religious law is of great
+interest to the student of Halakic development, Philo's work presents
+greater correspondence, on the whole, with the Haggadah, which in a
+primitive way draws philosophical and ethical lessons from the Bible
+narrative. It is a free interpretation of the Scriptures, the
+expression of the individual moralist; it loves to point a moral and
+adorn a tale, and in many cases it is in agreement with the
+Hellenistic school. To take a few typical examples: An early
+interpretation explains the story of the Brazen Serpent, as Philo
+does,[302] to mean that as long as Israel are looking upward to the
+Father in Heaven they will live, but when they cease to do so they
+will die. Another, like him again, finds the motive of the command to
+bore the ear of the slave who will not leave his master at the seventh
+year of redemption, in the principle that men are God's servants, and
+should not voluntarily throw away their precious freedom. So, too, the
+Haggadah agrees in numerous points with Philo's stories about the
+patriarchs.[303] If one were to go through the Midrashic
+interpretations of the Five Books of Moses, he would find in nearly
+every section interpretations reminiscent of Philo. In some cases,
+however, there are striking contrasts in the two commentaries. Thus
+the Midrash[304] tells that the four rivers of Eden symbolize the four
+great nations of the old world; to Philo, they represent the four
+cardinal virtues established by Greek philosophers. The Palestinian
+commentators were prone to see an historical where Philo saw a
+philosophical image.
+
+The question may be asked, Who is the originator and who the borrower
+of the common tradition? And it is a question to which chronology can
+give no certain answer, and for which dates or records have no
+meaning. For the Haggadah was not committed to writing till many
+generations had known its influences, and it was not finally compiled
+till many generations more had handed it down with continuous
+accretions. The Haggadah in fact is part of the permanent spirit of
+the race going back to a hoary past, and stretching down "the echoing
+grooves of time" to the tradition of Judaism in our own day. The
+Hebrew Word means, and the thing is, "what is said": the utterances of
+the inspired teacher, some tale, some happy play of fancy, some moral
+aphorism, some charming allegory which captivated the hearers, and was
+handed down the generations as a precious thought. It is significant
+in this regard that the Haggadah is remarkable for the number of
+foreign words which it contains, Greek, Persian, and Roman terms
+jostling with Hebrew and Aramaic. For while the Halakah was the
+production of the Palestinian and Babylonian schools alone, the
+Haggadah brought together the harvest of all lands; and scraps of
+Greek philosophy found their way to Palestine before the Alexandrian
+school developed its systematic allegory. In the Mishnah, the earliest
+body of Jewish lore which was definitely formulated and written down,
+one section is Haggadic, the passages we know as the "Ethics of the
+Fathers." Now, we cannot place the date of this compilation before the
+first century,[305] and thus it would seem to be contemporary with
+Philo's work, to which it affords numerous parallels. But the great
+mass of the Haggadah, the Pesikta, the Mekilta, and the other
+Midrashim, were all later compilations, some of them as late as the
+fifth and the sixth century. Are we to say, then, that where they
+correspond to Philo they show his influence? At first this would
+appear the natural conclusion.
+
+There is a better test of priority, however, than the date of
+compilation, the test of the thought itself and its expression. And
+judged by this test we see that the Haggadah is the more ancient, the
+primal development of the Hebrew mind. The "Sayings of the Fathers"
+are typical of the finest and most concentrated wisdom of the
+Haggadah, and exhibit thought in its impulsive, unsystematic, gnomic
+expression, neither logical nor illogical, because it knows not logic.
+Beautiful ethical intuitions and profound guesses at theological truth
+abound; anything like a definite system of ethics and theology is not
+to be found, whence it is said, "Do not argue with the Haggadah." Even
+more so is this the case with the bulk of the Midrash. There, pious
+fancy will weave itself around the history and ideals of the people,
+and suddenly one comes across a sage reflection or a philosophical
+utterance. With Philo it is otherwise. Compared with the Greeks he is
+unsystematic, inaccurate, wanting in logic, exuberant in imagination.
+Compared with the rabbis he is a formal and accurate philosopher, an
+exact and scholarly theologian. The floating poetical ideas of the
+Haggadah are woven by him into the fabric of a Jewish philosophy and a
+Jewish theology, and knit together with the rational conceptions of
+Aristotle's "Metaphysics" and Plato's "Timæus." We may say, then,
+almost with certainty, that Philo derives from the early Jewish
+tradition, though at the same time he introduced into that tradition
+many an idea taken from the Greek thinkers, which found its way to the
+later Palestinian schools of Jamnia and Tiberias, and was recast by
+the Hebraic imagination.
+
+Over and over again we find that he adopts some fancy of his ancestors
+and develops it rhetorically and philosophically in his commentary. To
+give many examples or references to examples of this feature of
+Philo's work is not within the scope of this book, but of his
+development of an old Palestinian tradition the following passage may
+serve as a typical instance:
+
+     "There is an old story," he writes, "composed by the sages
+     and handed down by memory from age to age.... They say that,
+     when God had finished the world, he asked one of the angels
+     if aught were wanting on land or in sea, in air or in
+     heaven. The angel answered that all was perfect and
+     complete. One thing only he desired, speech, to praise God's
+     works, or to recount, rather than praise, the exceeding
+     wonderfulness of all things made, even of the smallest and
+     the least. For the due recital of God's works would be their
+     most adequate praise, seeing that they needed no addition of
+     ornament, but possessed in the sincerity of truth the most
+     perfect eulogy. And the Father approved the angel's words,
+     and afterwards appeared the race gifted with the muses and
+     with song. This is the ancient story; and in accord with it,
+     I say that it is God's peculiar work to do good, and the
+     creature's work to give Him thanks."[306]
+
+Now this legend and moral appear in another form in the collection of
+Midrash, the Pirke Rabbi Eliezer, which apparently had ancient sources
+that have disappeared. There it is told: "When the Holy One, blessed
+be He, consulted the Torah as to the completeness of the work of
+creation, she answered him: 'Master of the future world, if there be
+no host, over whom will the King reign, and if there be no creatures
+to praise him, where is the glory of the King?' And the Lord of the
+world was pleased with her answer and forthwith He created man."[307]
+
+The Haggadah is rich also in allegorical speculation, of which there are
+traces in the Biblical books themselves. In the book of Micah, for
+example, we find that the patriarchs are taken as types of certain
+virtues, Abraham of Kindness, [Hebrew: hsd], and Jacob of Truth,
+[Hebrew: 'mt] (vii. 20). And when the ideas of the people expanded
+philosophically in Palestine and in Alexandria, the profounder
+conceptions were attached to Scripture by the device of allegorical
+interpretation, and certain rabbis attributed a higher value to the
+inner than to the literal meaning. Thus Akiba, who wrote an elaborate
+allegorical work upon the Song of Songs,[308] held that the book was the
+most profound in the Bible, and Rabbi Judah similarly regarded the book
+of Job.[309] The Palestinian allegorists took to themselves a wider
+field than the Alexandrian, and looked for the deeper meanings rather in
+the Wisdom Literature than in the Pentateuch, which was to them
+essentially the Book of the Law, and, therefore, not a fit subject for
+Mashal, _i.e._, inner meanings.[310] Hence, their allegorism was more
+natural, more real, and truer to the spirit of that which they
+interpreted. They allegorized when an allegory was invited, whereas
+Philo and his school often forced their philosophical meanings in face
+of the clear purport of the text, and without regard to the Hebrew. In
+the one case allegory was a genuine development, and might have been
+adopted by the original prophet: in the other, it was reconstruction;
+and the artificial un-Hebraic character of the Hellenistic commentary
+was one of the causes of its disappearance from Jewish tradition. While
+the Palestinian allegorists based their continuous philosophical
+interpretation upon the Wisdom Books, they, at the same time, looked for
+secondary meanings wherever opportunity offered, and found lessons in
+letters and teachings in names. An early school of commentators was
+actually known as [Hebrew: dorsh rshomot][311] or interpreters of signs,
+and their method was by examination of the letters of a word, or by
+comparison of different verses, to explore homilies. For instance, the
+verse, "And God showed Moses a tree" (Exod. xvi. 26), by which he
+sweetened the waters at Marah, symbolized, by a play on the word
+[Hebrew: vyvrhu],[312] that God taught Moses the Torah, of which it is
+said, "She is a tree of life" (Prov. iii. 18). Another happy example of
+this method occurs in the sixth section of the Pirke Abot, where the
+names in the itinerary, [Hebrew: mmtna nhlial, vmnhlial bmot] (Numb.
+xxi. 19), are invested with a spiritual meaning. Whoever believes in the
+Torah, it is written, shall be exalted, as it is said, "From the gift of
+the law man attains the heritage of God, and by that heritage he reaches
+Heaven."
+
+In this passage of Palestinian allegorism, it may be noticed that the
+Torah is regarded as a spiritual bond between man and God, and as a
+sort of intermediary power between them. This feature is almost as
+frequent in the Midrash as the Logos-idea in Philo, so that it may be
+said that rabbinic theology finds an idealism in the Torah which
+corresponds to the idealism of the Philonic Word. It is expressed, no
+doubt, naïvely and fancifully, even playfully, without attempt at
+philosophical deductions. It is informed by the same spirit as the
+Alexandrian allegory, but it is essentially poetical and impulsive,
+and set forth in mythical personification, not in deliberate
+metaphysics. The Torah to the rabbis was the embodiment of the Wisdom
+which the writer of Proverbs had glorified, and it takes its
+prerogatives. God gazes upon the Torah before He creates the
+world.[313] The Torah, though the chief, is not, however, the only
+object of rabbinic idealism. God and His name, it is said, alone
+existed before the world was created,[314] and in a Talmud legend
+relating the birth of man, the ideal power is identified with Truth,
+which, like the Logos, is pictured as God's own seal.
+
+  "From Heaven to Earth, from Earth once more to Heaven
+  Shall Truth, with constant interchange, alight
+  And soar again, an everlasting link
+  Between the world and Sky."
+
+  (Translation of Emma Lazarus.)[315]
+
+Correspondingly, Philo identifies the Logos with the name of God and
+with Truth.
+
+Of another piece of Talmudic idealism we catch a trace in Maimonides'
+"Guide of the Perplexed,"[316] where he says that the rabbis explained
+the designation of God, [Hebrew: lrubb b'rbot] [rendered in the authorized
+version, "He who rideth on the heavens" (Ps. lxviii. 4)], to mean that
+He dwelt in the highest sphere of heaven amid the eternal ideas of
+Justice and Virtue, as it is said: "Justice and Righteousness are the
+base of Thy throne" (Ps. lxxxix. 15). These fancies and
+interpretations indicate that in Palestine as well as in Alexandria an
+idealistic theology and a religious metaphysics were developing at
+this period, though in the East it was more imaginative, more Hebraic,
+more in the spirit of the old prophets.
+
+The more serious metaphysical and theological speculation of the
+rabbis was embodied in the doctrine of the "Creation," and the
+"Chariot," [Hebrew: m'sha br'shit] and [Hebrew: m'sha mrkba], which in
+form were commentaries on the early chapters of Genesis and the visions
+of Ezekiel. They were reserved for the wisest and most learned, for the
+rabbis had always a fear of introducing the student to philosophy until
+his knowledge of the law was well established. They held, with Plato, that
+metaphysical speculation must be the crown of knowledge, and if treated as
+its foundation, before the necessary discipline had been obtained, it
+would produce all sorts of wild ideas. Judaism for them was primarily
+not a philosophical doctrine but a system of life. The Hellenistic
+school was so far false to their standpoint that it laid stress for
+the ordinary believer upon the philosophical meaning as well as upon
+the law. And as events proved, this led to the neglect of the law and
+the dogmatic establishment of speculative theories as the basis of a
+new religion. Doubtless the consciousness that the philosophical
+development led away from Judaism increased the distrust of the later
+rabbis for such speculation, and made them regard esoteric as a milder
+term for heretical; but the warning is already given in Ben Sira: "It
+is not needful for thee to see the secret things."[317] The Talmud,
+indeed, records certain ideas about the powers of God and His relation
+to the universe in the names of the great masters; and in these ideas
+there are striking resemblances to Philo's conceptions. The Word is
+spoken of as an intermediate agency;[318] the finger of God is really
+the Word; the angels are sprung from the Words of God: Ben Zoma
+declared that the whole work of creation was carried out by the Word,
+as it is written, "And God said."[319] But on the other hand there are
+passages in which the rabbis oppose the Alexandrian attitude, and
+point out in its excessive philosophizing a danger to Judaism, so that
+in the end they exclude it. Rabbi Ishmael, we are told, warned his
+pupils of the danger of Greek wisdom.[320] Akiba, living at a time
+when the Jews were fighting for spiritual as well as for physical life
+against the combined forces of the Greeks and Romans, proposed to ban
+all the [Hebrew: sfrim hitsonim],[321] and the Gemara argues that among
+these were included the Apocryphal works which showed Greek influence.
+Again, Elisha ben Abuya, the arch-heretic, is held up to reproach because
+he read [Hebrew: sfri minim],[322] under which title Greek Gnostic books
+are probably implied.
+
+At the time when this spirit shows itself, the appearance of heretical
+offshoots from Judaism was already pronounced. Heresy was the
+aftermath of the combination of Judaism and Hellenism, and if further
+disintegration was to be avoided, the seductive Greek influence had to
+be discouraged. There is always the danger in a mingling of two
+cultures, that each will lose its particular excellence in a compound
+which has certain qualities, but not the virtues, of either element.
+Compromises may be desirable in political affairs; in affairs of
+thought they are perilous. Down to the time of Philo, the fusion of
+thought at Alexandria had been beneficial, and had broadened the
+Jewish outlook without impairing its strength, but the dissolving
+forces of civilization never operated more powerfully than in the
+early centuries of the common era, when the intellect of the world was
+jaded and weary, and the great movement in culture was a jumbling
+together of the ideas of East and West. More especially in the
+cosmopolitan towns, Alexandria, Antioch, and Rome, national life,
+national culture, and national religion were undermined; and even the
+Jew, despite the stronghold of his law and tradition, was caught in
+the general vortex of mingling creeds and theologies. Out of this
+confusion (which was in one aspect a continuation of the work of
+Philo) emerged, first, fantastic Gnostic religious and philosophical
+sects, and, finally, the Christian Church, which proved the system
+best fitted to survive in the circumstances, but was in essence as
+well as in origin a blending of different outlooks, and true to the
+cardinal points of neither Hebraism nor Hellenism. The rabbis, with
+remarkable intuition, saw that the Hellenistic development of Judaism,
+which had vainly striven to make Judaism universal, had ended in
+violating its monotheism and abrogating its law; and in that era of
+disintegration, denationalization, and decomposition they determined
+to keep their heritage pure and inviolate. Judaism by their efforts
+was the only national culture which survived, and some sacrifice had
+to be made to secure this end. The literary monuments of the
+Alexandrian community from the Septuagint translation to the
+philosophy of the Christian scholarchs were cut out of Jewish
+tradition, and the Babylonian school was ignorant altogether of the
+[Hebrew: hkma yonit] (Greek wisdom). When Ben Zoma desired to study the
+[Hebrew: sfrim hitsonim], and asked of his teacher at what hour of the
+day it was lawful to do so, he received the reply that it was permissible
+at an hour which was neither day nor night; for the precept was to study
+the Torah by day and night, as it is said, [Hebrew: ] (Josh. i. 8). Bar
+Kappara, indeed, a rabbi of the third century, explained Genesis ix. 27,
+"God shall enlarge Japheth and he shall dwell in the tents of Shem," to
+mean that the words of the Torah shall be recited in the speech of
+Japheth (_i.e._, Greek) in the synagogues and schools,[323] but by
+most other teachers the union between Shem and Japheth was no longer
+encouraged, because Japheth had become degraded and was allied with
+the cruel children of Edom (Rome).
+
+Besides the Talmud and the Midrash we have, in the work of Josephus,
+another indication that there was in Philo's own day communication
+between Alexandria and Palestine. The Jewish historian marks the
+influence of Hellenic ideas in Palestine in fullest measure, and like
+Philo he seeks by embellishment to recommend the histories and
+Scriptures of his people to the non-Jew and to bring home their
+thought to the cultured Roman-Greek world. Thus, in the preface to his
+"Antiquities," he notes, as Philo noted in his commentary, that Moses
+begins his laws with a philosophical cosmology; he says also that
+Moses spoke some things under a fitting allegory, hiding beneath it a
+very remarkable philosophical theory. The allegorical commentary which
+Josephus declared that he intended to write has not--if it was
+written--come down to us, but we have in his writings certain
+allegorical valuations of names that agree directly with Philo. Abel
+he explains as signifying mourning, Cain, [Hebrew: kin], as selfish
+possession. In the priestly garments of Aaron he sees with Philo a
+symbol of the universe, which the high priest supported when he
+entered the Holy of Holies. And the ritual vessels of the tabernacle
+have also their universal significance.
+
+     "If," says the Palestinian Hellenist, "any man do but
+     consider the fabric of the tabernacle and regard the
+     vestments of the high priest, he will find that our
+     legislator was a Divine man, and that we are unjustly
+     reproached by those who attack us for tribal narrowness. For
+     if he look upon these things without prejudice, he will find
+     that each one was made by way of imitation and
+     representation of the universe. When Moses ordered twelve
+     loaves to be set on the table, he denoted the years as
+     distinguished into so many months. By branching out the
+     candlestick into seven parts, he intimated the seven
+     divisions of the planets.... The vestments of the high
+     priest, being made of linen, signified the earth, the blue
+     color thereof denoted the sky, the pomegranates symbolized
+     lightning, and the noise of the bells resembled thunder. And
+     the fashion of the ephod showed that God had made the world
+     of four elements."[324]
+
+Let us now listen now to Philo: "The raiment of the priest is
+altogether a representation and imitation of the universe, and its
+parts are the parts of the other. His tunic is all of blue linen, the
+symbol of the sky. [The rabbis had a similar fancy of the Tsitsith
+(fringes).] And the flowers embroidered thereon mark the earth, from
+which all things flower. And the pomegranates are a symbol of the
+water, being skilfully called thus ([Greek: rhoischoi], _i.e._,
+flowing fruit) because of their juice, and the bells are the symbols
+of the harmony of all the elements."[325]
+
+It is true that the symbolism of two allegorists is varied, but a
+common spirit and aim underlie their interpretations. This is true
+alike of their account of the ritualistic and civil law of Moses.
+Either, then, there was a common source of Jewish apologetic
+literature, or Josephus must have borrowed from Philo. It is
+significant that he is the only contemporary of Philo that mentions
+him. He speaks of him as a distinguished philosopher, the brother of
+the alabarch, and the leader of the embassy to Gaius.[326] He knows
+also of the anti-Semitic diatribes of Philo's great enemy Apion, and
+two of his extant books are masterly reply to their outpourings. Hence
+it is not rash to assume that he knew at least that part of Philo's
+work which had a missionary and apologetic purpose--the "Life of
+Moses" and the "Hypothetica." He makes no acknowledgment to them, it
+is true, but expressions of obligation were not in the fashion of the
+time. Plagiarism was held to be no crime, and citation of authorities
+in notes or elsewhere was almost unknown in literature--save in the
+Talmud,[327] where to tell something in the name of somebody else is a
+virtue. But one can hardly doubt that the man who devoted himself to
+refuting the lying calumnies of Apion first made himself master of the
+classical work of Apion's opponent, which claimed to give to the Greek
+world the authoritative account of the Jewish lawgiver and his
+legislation.
+
+What Josephus knew must have been known to other cultured Jews of
+Palestine. Yet Philo, save in one doubtful case which will be noticed,
+is not mentioned by any Jewish writer between Josephus in the first
+and Azariah dei Rossi in the sixteenth century. The compilers of the
+Midrashim and the Yalkut, the philosophers of the Dark and Middle
+Ages, finally the Cabbalists, are continually reminiscent of his
+doctrines, but they do not mention his works or his existence. The
+Midrash Tadshé,[328] a tenth century compilation of allegorical
+exegesis, contains definite parallels to Philonic passages, especially
+in its quotations from an Essene Tannaite, Pin[h.]as ben Jaïr; but
+again the trace of influence is indirect. On the other hand, the
+Christian writers from the time of Clement in the second century quote
+him freely, make anthologies of his beautiful sayings, and in their
+more imaginative moments acclaim him the comrade of Mark and the
+friend of Peter. The rise of the Christian Church, which coincided
+with the downfall of the nation, caused the rabbis to emphasize the
+national character of Judaism in order to preserve the old faith of
+their fathers in the critical condition in which exile, persecution,
+and assimilation placed it. The first century was a time of feverish
+dreams and wild hopes that were not realizable: men had looked for the
+coming of the days of universal peace and good-will, and the
+Alexandrian Jews in particular hoped for the spreading of Judaism over
+the world. The rabbis recognized that this consummation was far away,
+and that Judaism must remain particularist for centuries in the hope
+of a final universalism. Meantime it must hold fast to the law and, in
+default of a national home, strengthen the national religious life in
+each Jewish household. They regarded Greek as not only a strange but a
+hostile tongue, and the allegorical exegesis of the Bible, which had
+led to the whittling away of the law, as a godless wisdom. The
+Septuagint translation, which had offered a starting point for
+philosophical speculation, was replaced by a new Greek version of the
+Old Testament made by Aquila, a proselyte, in the first century. It
+gave a baldly literal translation of the Hebrew text, sacrificing form
+and even lucidity to a faithful transcript. With unconscious irony the
+rabbis, who rejoiced in its truth to the Hebrew, said of Aquila, "Thou
+art fairer than the children of men, grace is poured into thy
+lips"[329] (Ps. xlv). In truth the work was utterly innocent of
+literary grace. A translation of the Bible marked the end, as it had
+marked the beginning, of Jewish-Hellenistic literature, but if the
+first had suggested the admission, so the other suggested the
+rejection of Greek philosophy from the interpretation of Judaism and a
+return to the exclusive national standpoint. The rabbinical
+appreciation of Aquila's work shows that, while the Jews were in
+Palestine, many still required a Greek translation of the Bible; but
+when in the third century C.E. the centre of the religion was moved to
+Babylon, Greek was forgotten, and the rabbis for a period lost sight
+of Greek culture. It is another irony of history that our manuscripts
+of Philo go back to an archetype in the library of Cæsarea in
+Palestine, which Eusebius studied in the fourth century. Philo came to
+the land of his fathers in the possession of his people's enemies, and
+at a time when he could no longer be understood by his people.
+
+Philo's works were not translated into Hebrew, and as Greek ceased to
+be the language of the cultured, they could not, in their original
+form, have influenced later Jewish philosophers. But the Christians,
+in their proselytizing activity, had translated them into Latin and
+Armenian before the fifth century, and through one of these means they
+may possibly have exercised an influence upon the new school of Jewish
+philosophy, which, opening with Saadia in the tenth century, blossomed
+forth in the Arabic-Spanish epoch. The light of historical research is
+beginning to illumine the obscurity of the Dark Ages, and has revealed
+traces of an Alexandrian allegorist in the writings of the Persian Jew
+Benjamin al-Nehawendi, himself a distinguished allegorizer of the
+Bible, who wrote in the ninth century and taught that God created the
+world by means of one ministerial angel.[330] Benjamin relates that
+the doctrine was held by a Jewish sect known as the Maghariya, which
+probably sprang up in the fourth or the fifth century, when sects grew
+like mushrooms. The Karaite al-Kirkisani, who wrote fifty years later,
+says that the Maghariya sect used in support of their doctrine the
+"prolegomena of an Alexandrian sage" who gave certain remarkable
+interpretations of the Bible; and in one of Dr. Schechter's Genizah
+fragments, which is probably to be ascribed to Kirkisani, there are
+contained examples of the Alexandrian's explanations of the Decalogue,
+which occur, and occur only, in Philo's treatise on the "Ten
+Commandments."
+
+This connection between Philo and an obscure Jewish sect, or an
+obscurer Persian-Jewish writer, may appear far-fetched and not worth
+the making. In itself doubtless it is unimportant, but it serves to
+keep Philo, however barely, within Jewish tradition. For it shows that
+Alexandrian literature, though probably through the medium of a
+Mohammedan source, was known to some Jews in the centuries of
+transition. It may be that further examination of the great Genizah
+collection, which has opened to Jewish scholarship a new world, will
+reveal further and stronger ties to unite Philo with his philosophical
+successors, of whom the first is Saadia Gaon (892-942 C.E.). Indeed
+the main interest of this newly-discovered connection, if it can be
+seriously so regarded, is that it suggests the possibility of Saadia's
+acquaintance with Philo by means of a translation. That Saadia read
+the works upon which Christian theologians relied, is certain; and a
+fragment in which he refers to the teaching of Judah the
+Alexandrian[331]--also unearthed from the Cairo Genizah--goes some way
+to support the suggestion. The passage refers to the connection of the
+number "fifty" with the different seasons of the year, and though it
+does not tally exactly with any piece of the extant Philo, it is in
+the Philonic manner. And Philo, who was surnamed Judæus by the Church,
+would have been re-named by his own people, translating from the
+Church writers, [Hebrew: yhuda]. One would the more willingly catch on to
+this floating straw, because Saadia was at once a compatriot of Philo,
+born in the Fayyum of Egypt, and the first Jew who strove to carry on
+his work. He aimed at showing the philosophy of the Torah, and its
+harmony with Greek wisdom in particular. Aristotle, who had been
+translated into Arabic, had meantime supplanted Plato as the master of
+philosophy for theologians, and Saadia's _magnum opus_, [Hebrew: amonot
+tsd'ot], is colored throughout by Aristotelian ideas. But the difference
+of masters does not obscure the likeness of aim, and, albeit
+unconsciously, Saadia renews the task of the Hellenic-Jewish school.
+
+Saadia's work was carried on and expanded in a great outburst of the
+Jewish genius, which showed itself most brilliantly in the
+Moorish-Spanish kingdom. The general cultural conditions of Alexandria
+in the first century B.C.E. were reproduced in Spain in the tenth
+century. Once again the Jews found themselves politically emancipated
+amid a sympathetic environment, and again they illumined their
+religious tradition with all the culture which their environment could
+afford. The mingling of thought gave birth to a great literature, both
+creative and critical; to a striking body of lyric poetry; to a
+systematic theology, and a religious philosophy.
+
+While the study of the old Talmudic lore was maintained, the greatest
+teachers developed tradition afresh by a philosophical restatement
+designed to make it appeal to the mental attitude of the enlightened.
+The sermon flourished again, collections of Haggadah (Yalkut) were
+made as storehouses of homilies, and metaphysical treatises modelled
+upon the works of the schoolmen set forth a philosophical Judaism for
+the learned world. It is notable also that these last were not written
+in Hebrew or in the Talmudic dialect, but in Arabic, the language of
+their cultured environment; for though the missionary spirit was dead,
+the controversial activity of the period impelled the Jewish
+philosophers to present their ideas in the form used by the
+philosophers of the general community.
+
+It is not only the general conditions of the Arab-Jewish period, but
+also the special development of Jewish ideas, which recalls the work
+of the Alexandrian school. This was, indeed, to be expected, seeing
+that in both cases there was a mingling of Hebraism and Hellenism. In
+Spain, however, the Jews acquired Hellenism at second hand, and
+through the somewhat distorted medium of Arabic translations or
+scholastic misunderstanding, and hence the harmony is neither complete
+nor pure. They endeavored to show that the teachings of Aristotle are
+implicit in the written and the oral law, but the interpretation is
+hardly convincing even in "The Guide of the Perplexed," of Maimonides,
+the monumental work which marks the culmination of mediæval Jewish
+philosophy.
+
+If there is one figure in Jewish tradition with whom Philo challenges
+at once comparison and contrast, it is Maimonides, the brightest star
+of the Arabic, as he was of the Hellenic, development of the Jewish
+religion. Though there is nothing on which to found any direct
+influence of the one on the other, the aim, the method, the scope of
+their philosophical work are the same, the relation which they hold to
+exist between faith and philosophy wellnigh identical. The metaphysics
+of the Bible, according to both, is hidden beneath an allegory, and
+is meant only for the more learned of the people. To Maimonides the
+Bible is not only the standard of all wisdom, but it is "the Divine
+anticipation of human discovery." In the words of Hosea, God has
+therein "multiplied visions and spoken in similitudes" (xii. 11). The
+duty of the Jewish philosopher is to expound these metaphors and
+similes; and Maimonides, endeavoring to knit Greek metaphysics closely
+with Jewish tradition, propounds a science of allegorical values,
+which by exact philological study traces the inner as well as the
+outer meaning of the Hebrew words. But differentiated as it is by
+greater mastery of the tradition and closer adherence to the Hebrew
+text, his method is nearly as artificial and his thought as extraneous
+to the text as the method and thought of Philo. The content of their
+philosophies is, indeed, strikingly alike, save that the one is a
+Platonist, the other an Aristotelian. This involves not so much a
+difference of philosophical views as a difference of temper and of
+objective. The followers of Plato are mystics, yearning for the love
+of God; the followers of Aristotle are rationalists, seeking for the
+abstract knowledge of God. Hence in Maimonides there is less soaring
+and more argument than in Philo. Everything is deduced, so far as may
+be, with exactitude and logical sequence--according to the logic of
+the schoolmen--and everything is formalized according to scholastic
+principles. But the subjects treated are the same--the nature of God
+and His attributes, His relation to the universe and man, the manner
+of the creation, and the way of righteousness.
+
+Maimonides, who is in form more loyal to Jewish tradition, is to a
+larger degree than Philo dependent on authority for the philosophical
+ideas which he applies to religion. To a great extent this is due to
+the spirit of his age, for in the Middle Ages not only was the matter
+of thought, but also its form, accepted on authority, and Aristotle
+ruled the one as imperiously as the Bible ruled the other. The
+differences of form and substance do not, however, obscure the
+essential likeness with Philo's interpretation of Judaism. With him
+Maimonides holds that the essential nature of God is incognizable.[332]
+No positive predication can properly be applied to Him, but we know
+Him by His activities in relation to man and the world, _i.e._, by His
+attributes or by what Philo called His powers. Maimonides does not
+preserve the absolute monarchy of the Divine government, but places
+between God and man intermediate beings with subordinate creative
+powers--the separate intelligences of the stars, which are identified
+with the angels of the Bible.[333] But he maintains inviolate the sole
+causality of God and His immanence in the human soul. Maimonides, like
+Philo, gives in addition to a metaphysical theology a philosophical
+exposition of the law of Moses, which has the same guiding principle
+as the books on the "Specific Laws." Moses was the perfect
+legislator,[334] whose ordinances are [Hebrew: tsdikim], _i.e._, perfectly
+equitable, attaining "the mean"--the Aristotelian conception of
+excellence--and identical with the eternal laws of nature.[335]
+Numerous details of Maimonides' interpretations agree with those given
+in the books on the "Specific Laws." Whether correspondence of thought
+is merely an indication of the similar workings of Jewish genius in
+similar conditions, or whether it is the effect of an early tradition
+common to both, or whether, finally, there was connection, however
+indirect, between the two minds, it is now impossible to say. But at
+least the philosophy of Maimonides confirms the inner Jewishness of
+the philosophy of Philo, and its essential loyalty to Jewish
+tradition.
+
+Not less striking than his correspondence with later Jewish religious
+philosophy, though not less indefinite, is the relation of Philo to
+the later Jewish mystical and theosophical literature, purporting also
+to be a development of hoary tradition, and indeed calling itself
+simply the tradition, [Hebrew: kbla]. Between Philo and the Cabbalah it is
+as difficult to establish any direct connection as between Philo and
+rabbinic Midrash, but the likeness in spirit and the signs of a common
+source are equally remarkable. To trace God in all things through
+various attributes and emanations, to bring God and man into direct
+union, to prove that there is an immanent God within the soul of the
+individual, and to show how this may be inspired with the
+transcendental Deity--this is common to both. In the earliest times
+the mystic doctrine appears to have been a form of Jewish Gnosticism,
+speculation about the nature of God and His connection with the world.
+It probably embraced the [Hebrew: m'sha br'shit] and the [Hebrew: m'sha
+mrkba], though we know not what these exactly contained.[336] But it was
+not till the Middle Ages that Jewish mysticism received definite and
+separate literary expression, and by that time it was mixed up with a
+number of neo-Platonic and magical fancies and foreign theosophies. The
+later compilations of this character form what is more regularly known
+as the Cabbalah; but, apart from the professions of the later writers,
+a continuous train of tradition affirms the existence of secret
+teachings in Judaism from the time of the Babylonian captivity. Jewish
+mysticism is as much a continuous expression of the spirit of the race
+as the Jewish law. We may then without rashness conclude that the
+later Cabbalah is a coarser development, for a less enlightened and
+less philosophical age, of the Gnostic material which Philo
+refashioned in the light of Platonism for the Hellenized community at
+Alexandria. Modern scholars have favored the idea that the Essenes
+were the first systematizers of and the first practitioners in the
+Cabbalah, and have interpreted their name[337] to mean those engaged
+in secret things, but the mystic tradition itself is earlier than the
+foundation of a special mystic sect. It is part of the heritage from
+the Jewish prophets and psalmists and the Babylonian interaction with
+Hebraism.
+
+Philo had large sympathies with the Essenic development of Judaism, and
+he speaks at times as though he had joined one of their communities, and
+therein had been initiated into the great mysteries and secret
+philosophies of the sages. We have noted that he offers his most
+precious wisdom to the worthy few alone, "who in all humility practice
+genuine piety, free from all false pretence." They, in turn, are to
+discourse on these doctrines only to other members of the brotherhood.
+"I bid ye, initiated brethren, who listen with chastened ears, receive
+these truly sacred mysteries in your inmost souls, and reveal them not
+to one of the uninitiated, but laying them up in your hearts, guard them
+as a most excellent treasure in which the noblest of possessions is
+stored, the knowledge, namely, of the First Cause and of virtue, and
+moreover of what they generate."[338] These mysteries, it is not
+unlikely, represent according to some scholars the [Hebrew: sod] of the
+Talmudical rabbis, which was elaborately developed in the Zohar and
+kindred writings. Be this as it may, Philo's religious intensity
+expresses the spirit of the Cabbalists, his mystic soaring is the
+prototype of their theosophical ecstasies; his persistent declaration
+that God encloses the universe, but is Himself not enclosed by anything,
+contains the root of their conception of the En Sof ([Hebrew: 'yn
+sof]),[339] his Logos-idealism, with its Divine effluences, which are
+the true causes of all changes, physical and mental, is companion to
+their system of [Hebrew: 'olmim] and [Hebrew: sfirot], emanations and
+spheres. His fancies about sex and the struggle between a male and
+female principle in all things[340] are a constant theme of their
+teachers, and form a special section of their wisdom, [Hebrew: sof
+htsrog], the mystery of generation. His conception of the Logos as the
+heavenly archetype of the human race, the "Man-himself," is the Platonic
+counterpart of their [Hebrew: adm kdmon], or "primal man," who is known
+in the ancient allegorizing of the Song of Songs. His number-mysticism
+and his speech-idealism reappear more crudely, but not obscurely, in
+their ideas of creative letters, of which the cosmogony by the
+twenty-two letters of the Hebrew alphabet in the Sefer Yezirah is
+typical. Finally, his teachings of ecstasy and Divine possession are
+repeated in divers ways in their descriptions of the pious life
+([Hebrew: hnanot]).
+
+Philo, indeed, viewed from the Jewish standpoint, is the Hellenizer
+not only of the law but also of the Cabbalah, the philosophical
+adapter of the secret traditional wisdom of his ancestors. He brings
+it into close relation with Platonism and purifies it; he clears away
+its anthropomorphisms and superstitious fantasies, or rather he raises
+them into idealistic conceptions and sublime exaltations of the soul.
+By his deep knowledge of the intellectual ideas of Greece he refined
+the strange compound of lofty imagination and popular fancy, and
+raised it to a higher value. Plato and the Cabbalah represent the same
+mystic spirit in different degrees of intellectual sublimity and
+religious aspiration; Philo endeavored to unite the two
+manifestations. He lived in a markedly non-rational age given over to
+mystical speculation; and Alexandria especially, by her cosmopolitan
+character, "furnished the soil and seed which formed the mystic
+philosophy that knew how to blend the wisdom and folly of the
+ages."[341] Through the mass of apocalyptic literature that was poured
+forth in the first centuries of the common era, through the later
+books of the Apocrypha, through the Sefer Yezirah of the ninth and the
+Zohar of the thirteenth century, and through the vast literature
+inspired by these books, run the ideas that composed Philo's mystic
+theology. Philo himself was unknown, but his religious interpretation
+of Platonism had entered into the world's thought, and inspired the
+mystics of his own race as well as of the Christian world.
+
+After a thousand years of Latin domination the Renaissance revived the
+study of Greek in Western Europe, and to the most cultured of his race
+Philo was no longer a sealed book. The first Jewish writer to show an
+intimate acquaintance with him and a clear idea of his relation to
+Jewish tradition was Azariah dei Rossi, who lived in the sixteenth
+century. His "Meor Einayim" dealt largely with the Hellenistic epoch
+of Judaism, and its attitude towards it is summed up in the remark
+that "all that is good in Philo agrees with our law."[342] He pointed
+out many instances of agreement, and some of disagreement, but he
+objected in general to the allegorizing of the historical parts of the
+Torah and to the absence of the traditional interpretations in Philo's
+commentaries. He shared largely the rabbinical attitude and could not
+give an independent historical appreciation of Philo's work. That was
+not to come for two hundred years more. To Dei Rossi we owe the Jewish
+translation of Philo's name, [Hebrew: ydydim 'lksndri].[343] To the outer
+world Philo was "the Jew"; to his own people, "the Alexandrian."
+
+As soon as Greek was reintroduced into the scholarly world, Philo
+began to reassert an important influence on theology. One remarkable
+school of English mystics and religious philosophers, the Cambridge
+Platonists, who wrote during the seventeenth century, founded upon him
+their method and also their general attitude to philosophy.[344] They
+were Christian neo-Platonists, who looked for spiritual allegories in
+the Old and New Testaments, and combined the teachings of Jesus with
+the emotional idealism of the Alexandrian interpreters of Plato. They
+affirmed enthusiastically God's revelation to the universe and to
+individual man through the Logos. Their imitation of Philo's
+allegorism serves to mark the important place that he occupied in the
+learned world during the seventeenth century; and supports, however
+slightly, the suggestion that he influenced, directly or indirectly,
+the supreme Jewish philosopher of the age, Baruch de Spinoza. That he
+was well known in Holland at the time is shown in divers ways. He is
+quoted by the famous jurist Grotius in his book which founded the
+science of international law; he is quoted and criticised, as we have
+seen, by Scaliger; and curiously enough, his name, "Philo-Judæus," is
+applied by Rembrandt to the portrait of his own father, now in the
+Ferdinandeum at Innsbruck. It is tempting to conjecture that there was
+a direct connection between the Jewish philosophers of the ancient and
+the modern world. Whether it existed or not, there is certainly
+kinship in their ideas. Spinoza does actually refer in one place, in
+his "Theologico-Political Tractate" (ch. x), to the opinion of
+Philo-Judæus upon the date of Psalm lxxxviii, and there are other
+places in the same book, where he almost echoes the words of the
+Jewish Platonist; as where he speaks of God's eternal Word being
+divinely inscribed in the human mind: "And this is the true original
+of God's covenant, stamped with His own seal, namely, the idea of
+Himself, as it were, with the image of His Godhead" (iv); or, again,
+"The supreme reward for keeping God's Word is that Word itself."
+Spinoza knew no Greek, but, master as he was of Christian theology, he
+may have studied Philo in a Latin translation, and caught some of his
+phrases. With or without influence, he developed, as Philo had done, a
+system of philosophy, starting from the Hebrew conception of God and
+blending Jewish tradition with scientific metaphysics. The Unity of
+God and His sole reality were the fundamental principles of his
+thought, as they had been of Philo's. He rejected, indeed, with scorn
+the notion that all philosophy must be deduced from the Bible, which
+was to him a book of moral and religious worth, but free from all
+philosophical doctrine. Theology, the subject of the Bible, according
+to him, demands perfect obedience, philosophy perfect knowledge.[345]
+Both alike are saving, but the spheres of the two are distinct: and
+Moses and the prophets excel in law and imagination, not in reason and
+reflection. Hence Spinoza approached the Bible from the critical
+standpoint; and, on the other hand, he approached philosophy with a
+free mind searching for truth, independent of religious dogmatism, and
+he was, therefore, the founder of modern philosophy. None the less his
+view of the universe is an intellectual expression of the Hebraic
+monotheism, which unites a religious with a scientific monism. He
+regards God as the only reality, sees and knows all things in Him, and
+deduces all things from His attributes, which are the incomplete
+representations that man makes of His true nature; he explains all
+thought, all movement, and all that seems material as the working of
+His modes; and, finally, he places as the end of man's intellectual
+progress and the culmination of his moral life the love of God. In
+truth, Jewish philosophy has its unity and its special stamp, no less
+than Jewish religion and tradition, from which it receives its
+nurture. Thrice it has towered up in a great system: through Philo in
+the classical, through Maimonides in the mediæval, through Spinoza in
+the modern world. In the Renaissance of Jewish learning during the
+nineteenth century, Philo was at last studied and interpreted by scholars
+of his own people. The first modern writer to reveal the philosophy of
+Jewish history was Nachman Krochmal (1785-1840), and his posthumous Hebrew
+book, "The Guide of the Perplexed of the Time," edited by Zunz,
+contained the first critical appreciation of the Hellenistic Jewish
+culture by a rabbinic scholar. He knew no Greek, but he studied the
+works of German writers, and in his account of Philo gives a summary
+of the remarks of the theologian Neander, himself a baptized Jew. In
+his own criticism he discerns the weakness and strength of Philo from
+the Jewish aspect. "There are," he says, "many strange things in
+Philo's exegesis, not only because he draws far-fetched allegories
+from the text, but also because he interprets single words without a
+sure foundation in Hebrew philology. He uses Scripture as a sort of
+clay which he moulds to convey his philosophical ideas. Yet we must be
+grateful to him because many of his interpretations are beautiful
+ornaments to the text; and we may apply to them what Ibn Ezra said of
+the teachings of the Haggadah, 'Some of them are fine silks, others as
+heavy as sack-cloth.'"
+
+Krochmal translated into Hebrew examples of Philo's allegories and
+gave parallels and contrasts from the Talmud. The relation between the
+Palestinian and the Alexandrian exegesis was more elaborately
+considered by a greater master of Hellenistic literature, Zacharias
+Frankel (1801-1875), who has been followed by a band of Jewish scholars.
+Yearly our understanding of the Alexandrian culture becomes fuller.
+Philo, too, has in part been translated into Hebrew. Indirect in the
+past, his influence on Jewish thought in the future bids fair to be
+direct and increasing.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+VIII
+
+THE INFLUENCE OF PHILO
+
+
+The hope which Philo had cherished and worked for was the spreading of
+the knowledge of God and the diffusion of the true religion over the
+whole world.[346] The end of Jewish national life was approaching, but
+rabbis in Palestine and philosophers at Alexandria, unconscious of the
+imminent doom, thought that the promise of the prophet was soon to be
+fulfilled, and all peoples would go up to worship the one God at the
+temple upon Mount Zion, which should be the religious centre of the
+world. In Philo's day a universal Judaism seemed possible, a Judaism
+true to the Torah as well as to the Unity of God,[347] spread over the
+Megalopolis of all peoples; and in the light of this hope Philo
+welcomed proselytism. The Jews had a clear mission; they were to be
+the light of the world, because they alone of all peoples had
+perceived God. Israel ([Hebrew: 'shr'l]), to repeat Philo's etymology, is
+the man who beholds God, and through him the other nations were to be
+led to the light. The mission of Israel was not a passive service, but
+an active preaching of God's word, and an active propagation of God's
+law to the Gentile. He must welcome the stranger that came within the
+gates.[348] Philo struggled against the separative and exclusive
+tendency which characterized a section of his race. He laid stress
+upon the valuelessness of birth, and the saving power of God's grace
+to the pagan who has come to recognize Him, in language which
+Christian commentators call incredible in a Jew, but which was in fact
+typical of the common feeling at Alexandria. Appealing to the
+Gentiles, Philo declared that "God has special regard for the
+proselyte, who is in the class of the weak and humble together with
+the widow and orphan[349]; for he may be alienated from his kindred
+when he is converted to the honor of the one true God, and abandons
+idolatrous, polytheistic worship, but God is all the more his advocate
+and helper." And speaking to the Jews he says:[350] "Kinship is not
+measured by blood alone when truth is the judge, but by likeness of
+conduct and by the pursuit of the same objects." Similarly, in the
+Midrash, it is said that proselytes are as dear to God as those who
+were born Jews;[351] and, again, that the Torah was given to Israel
+for the benefit of all peoples;[352] or[353] that the purpose of
+Israel's dispersion was that they might make proselytes. Philo's short
+treatise on "Nobility" is an eloquent plea for the equal treatment of
+the stranger who joins the true faith; and the author finds in the
+Bible narratives support for his thesis, that not good birth but the
+virtue of the individual is the true test of merit. Of the
+valuelessness of the one, Cain, Ham, and Esau are types; of the
+supreme worth of the other, Abraham, who is set up as the model of the
+excellent man brought up among idolaters, but led by the Divine
+oracle, revealed to his mind, to embrace the true idea of God. If the
+founder of the Hebrew nation was himself a convert, then surely there
+was a place within the religion for other converts. Remarkable is the
+closing note of the book:
+
+     "We should, therefore, blame those who spuriously
+     appropriate as their own merit what they derive from others,
+     good birth; and they should justly be regarded as enemies
+     not only of the Jewish race, but of all mankind; of the
+     Jewish race, because they engender indifference in their
+     brethren, so that they despise the righteous life in their
+     reliance upon their ancestors' virtue; and of the Gentiles,
+     because they would not allow them their meed of reward even
+     though they attain to the highest excellence of conduct,
+     simply because they have not commendable ancestors. I know
+     not if there could be a more pernicious doctrine than this:
+     that there is no punishment for the wicked offspring of good
+     parents, and no reward for the good offspring of evil
+     parents. The law judges each man upon his own merit, and
+     does not assign praise or blame according to the virtues of
+     the forefathers."
+
+And, again, he writes: "God judges by the fruit of the tree, not by
+the root; and in the Divine judgment the proselyte will be raised on
+high, and he will have a double distinction, because on earth he
+'deserted' to God, and later he receives as his reward a place in
+Heaven."[354]
+
+Unfortunately, the development of missionizing activity, which
+followed Philo's epoch, threatening, as it did, the fundamental
+principles of Judaism, necessitated the reassertion of its national
+character and antagonism to an attitude which sought expansion by
+compromise. It is the tragedy of Philo's work that his mission to the
+nations was of necessity distrusted by his own race, and that his
+appeal for tolerance within the community was turned to a mockery by
+the hostility which the converts of the next century showed to the
+national ideas. Christian apologists early learned to imitate Philo's
+allegorical method, and appropriated it to explain away the laws of
+Moses. Within a hundred years of Philo's death, his ideal, at least in
+the form in which he had conceived it, had been shattered for ages.
+While he was preaching a philosophical Judaism for the world at
+Alexandria, Peter and Paul were preaching through the Diaspora an
+heretical Judaism for the half-converted Gentiles. The disciples of
+Jesus spread his teaching far and wide; but they continually widened
+the breach which their Master had himself initiated, and so their work
+became, not so much a development of Judaism, as an attack upon it. In
+some of its principles, indeed, the message of Jesus was the message
+of Philo, emphasizing, as it did, the broad principles of morality and
+the need of an inner godliness. But it was fundamentally
+differentiated by a doctrine of God and the Messiah which was neither
+Jewish nor philosophical, and by the breaking away from the law of
+Moses, which cut at the roots of national life. Whatever the moral
+worth of the preaching of Jesus, it involved and involves the
+overthrow of the Jewish attitude to life and religion, which may be
+expressed as the sanctification of ordinary conduct, and as morality
+under the national law. To this ideal Philo throughout was true, and
+the Christian teachers were essentially opposed, and however much they
+approximated to his method and utilized his thought, they were always
+strangers to his spirit. Philo's philosophy was in great part a
+philosophy of the law; the Patristic school borrowed his allegorizing
+method and produced a philosophy of religious dogma! Those who spread
+the Christian doctrine among the Hellenized peoples and the
+sophisticated communities that dwelt round the Mediterranean found it
+necessary to explain and justify it by the metaphysical and ethical
+catchwords of the day, and in so doing they took Philo as their model.
+They followed both in general and in detail his allegorical
+interpretations in their recommendation of the Old Testament to the
+more cultured pagans, as the apology of Justin, the commentaries of
+Origen, and the philosophical miscellany ([Greek: Strômateis]) of
+Clement abundantly show.
+
+Certain parts of the New Testament itself exhibit the combination of
+Hebraism and Hellenism which characterizes the work of Philo. In the
+sayings of Jesus we have the Hebraic strain, but in Luke and John and
+the Epistles the mingling of cultures. Thus the Apostles seem to some
+the successors of Philo, and the Epistles the lineal descendants of
+the "Allegories of the Laws." In the Fourth Gospel and the Epistle to
+the Hebrews especially the correspondence is striking. But there is,
+in fact, despite much that is common, a great gulf between them. The
+later missionaries oppose the national religion and the Torah: Philo
+was pre-eminently their champion.
+
+The most commanding of the Apostles, Paul of Tarsus, when he took the
+new statement of Judaism out of the region of spirit and tried to
+shape it into a definite religion for the world, "forgot the rock from
+which he was hewn." As a modern Jewish theologian says,[355] "His
+break with the past is violent; Jesus seemed to expand and
+spiritualize Judaism; Paul in some senses turns it upside down." His
+work may have been necessary to bring home the Word to the heathen,
+but it utterly breaks the continuity of development. Paul himself was
+little of a philosopher, and those to whom he preached were not
+usually philosophical communities such as Philo addressed at
+Alexandria, but congregations of half converted, superstitious pagans.
+The philosophical exposition of the law was too difficult for them,
+while the observance of the law in its strictness demanded too great a
+sacrifice. The spiritual teaching of Jesus was dissociated by his
+Apostle from its source, and the break with Judaism was deliberate and
+complete. The fanatical zest of the missionary dominated him, and he
+proclaimed distinctly where the new Hebraism which was offered to the
+Gentile should depart from the historic religion of the Jews: "For Christ
+is the end of the law for righteousness to everyone that believeth,"[356]
+he says to the Romans; and to the Galatians: "As many as are of the works
+of the law are under the curse."[357] "Christ hath redeemed us from the
+curse of the law.... But before faith came, we were kept under the law,
+shut up with the faith which should afterwards be revealed. Wherefore
+the law was our schoolmaster to bring us unto Christ that we might be
+justified by faith. But after that faith is come, we are no longer
+under a schoolmaster." Paul's position then--and he is the forerunner
+of dogmatic Christianity--involved a rejection of the Torah; and it is
+this which above all else constituted his cleavage from both Judaism
+and the Philonic presentation of it.
+
+Philo is commonly regarded as the forerunner of Christian teaching,
+and it is doubtless true that he suggested to the Church Fathers parts
+of their theology, and represented also the missionary spirit which
+inspired the teaching of some Apostles. But it must be clearly
+understood that he shared still more the spirit of Hillel, whose maxim
+was "to love thy fellow-creatures and draw them near to the Torah,"
+and that he would have been fundamentally opposed to the new
+missionary attitude of Paul. The doctrines of the Epistle to the
+Romans, or the Epistle to the Ephesians, are absolutely antipathetic
+to the ideal of the "Allegories of the Laws." Paul is allied in
+spirit--though his expression is that of the fanatic rather than of
+the philosopher--to the extreme allegorist section of philosophical
+Jews at Alexandria, attacked by Philo for their shallowness in the
+famous passage, quoted from _De Migratione Abrahami_ (ch. 16[358]),
+who, because they recognized the spiritual meaning of the law,
+rejected its literal commands; because they saw that circumcision
+symbolized the abandonment of the sensual life, no longer observed the
+ceremony. The same antinomian spirit is shown in the Epistle to the
+Galatians by the allegory of the children whom Abraham had by Hagar
+the bondwoman and Sarah the free wife: "For there are the two
+covenants, the one from the mount of Sinai which gendereth to bondage,
+which is Hagar.... But we, brethren, as Isaac was, are the children of
+promise." To Philo the law and the observance of the letter were the
+high-road to freedom and the Divine spirit, and, remaining loyal to
+the Jewish conception of religion, for all his philosophical outlook,
+he said: "The rejection of the [Greek: Nomos] will produce chaos in
+our lives." To Paul the law was an obstacle to the spread of religious
+truth and a fetter to the spiritual life of the individual.
+
+It is possible that an extremist section of the Jews pressed the
+letter of the law to excess, so as to lose its spirit, but the
+opposite excess, into which Paul plunged the new faith, was as narrow.
+It involved a glorification of belief, which did not imply any
+relation to conduct. Philo had pleaded no less earnestly than the
+Apostle for the reliance upon grace and the saving virtue of faith,
+but he did not therefore absolve men from the law which made for
+righteousness.[359] And lest it be thought that the stress laid upon
+faith was peculiar to Hellenizing Judaism, we have only to note such
+passages as Dr. Schechter has adduced from the early Midrash on the
+rabbinic conception.[360] "Great was the merit of faith which Israel
+put in God; for it was by the merit of this faith that the Holy Spirit
+came over them, and they said the [Hebrew: shira], (_i.e._, the Song of
+Moses) to God, as it is said, 'And they believed in the Lord and His
+servant Moses. Then sang Moses and the children of Israel this song
+unto the Lord.'" Or again[361]--and the passage reminds us still more
+strongly of both Philo and Christian Gospel--"Our Father Abraham came
+into the possession of this world and the world hereafter only by the
+merit of his faith."
+
+What is new in the Christian position is not the magnifying of faith;
+it is the severance of faith from the law and the particular faith
+which is magnified. Philo, and the rabbis, too, believed that faith
+was the goal of virtue, and the culmination of the moral life; but
+faith to them implied the sanctification of the whole of life, the
+love of God "shown in obedience to a law of conduct." Paul, however,
+hating the law, set up a new faith in the saving power of Jesus and in
+certain beliefs about him, which afterwards were crystallized, or
+petrified, into merciless dogmas, contrary alike to the Jewish ideas
+of God and of life. The new religion, when it was denationalized,
+inevitably became ecclesiastical: for as the national regulation of
+life was rejected, in order to ensure some kind of uniformity, it had
+to bind its members together by definite articles of belief imposed by
+a central authority. The true alternative was not between a legal and
+a spiritual religion--for every religion must have some external
+rule--but between a law of conduct and a law of belief. Philo and the
+rabbis chose the former way; Paul and the Church, the latter.
+Christian theology, no less than the Christian conception of religion,
+exhibits also a complete breach with the Jewish spirit of Philo. In
+the Epistles there are, indeed, in many places doctrines of the Logos
+in the same images and the same Hebraic metaphors as Philo had worked
+into his system; but their purport is entirely changed by association
+with new un-Jewish dogmas. Philo, allegorizing,[362] had seen the holy
+Word typified in the high priest, and in Melchizedek, the priest of
+the Most High; he had called it the son of God and His first-born.
+Paul, dogmatizing, exalts Jesus Christ, the incarnate Word, above
+Melchizedek and the high priest, and calls on the Hebrews to gain
+salvation by faith in the son of God, who died on behalf of the sinful
+human race. Philo, in his poetic fancy, speaks of God associating with
+the virgin soul and generating therein the Divine offspring of holy
+wisdom;[363] the Christian creed-makers enunciated the irrational
+dogma of the immaculate conception of Jesus. So, too, the earliest
+philosophical exponents of Christianity, Clement of Alexandria, and
+Origen, may have derived many of their detailed ideas from Philo, but
+they converted--one might rather say perverted--his monotheistic
+theology into a dogmatic trinitarianism. They exalted the Logos, to
+Philo the "God of the imperfect," and a second-best Deity, to an equal
+place with the perfect God. For man, indeed, he was nearer and the
+true object of human adoration. And this not only meant a departure
+from Judaism; it meant a departure from philosophy. The supreme unity
+of the pure reason was sacrificed no less than the unity of the
+soaring religious imagination. The one transcendental God became
+again, as He had been to the Greek theologians, an inscrutable
+impersonal power, who was unknown to man and ruled over the universe
+by His begotten son, the Logos. The sublimity of the Hebrew
+conception, which combines personality with unity, was lost, and the
+harmony of the intellectual and emotional aspirations achieved by
+Philo was broken straightway by those who professed to follow him. The
+skeleton of his thought was clothed with a body wherein his spirit
+could never have dwelt. It was the penalty which Philo paid for
+vagueness of expression and luxuriance of words that his works became
+the support of doctrines which he had combated, the guide of those who
+were opposed to his life's ideal.
+
+The experience of the Church showed how right was Philo's judgment
+when he declared that the rejection of the Torah would produce chaos.
+The fourth and fifth centuries exhibit an era of unparalleled disorder
+and confusion in the religious world,[364] sect struggling with sect,
+creed with creed, churches rising and falling, dogmas set up by
+councils and forced upon men's souls at the point of the Roman sword!
+And out of this struggling mass of beliefs and fancies, theologies and
+superstitions, sects and political forces, there arose a tyrannical,
+dogmatic Church which laid far heavier burthens on men's minds than
+ever the most ruthless Pharisee of the theologian's imagination had
+laid upon their body and spirit. The yoke of the law of Moses,
+sanctifying the life, had been broken; the fiat of popes and the
+decrees of synods were the saving beliefs which ensured the Kingdom of
+Heaven! Was it to this that the allegorizing of the law, the search
+for the spirit beneath the letter, the reinterpretation of the holy
+law of Moses in the light of philosophical reason, had brought
+Judaism? And was the association of Jewish religion with Greek
+philosophy one long error? That would be a hard conclusion, if we had
+to admit that Judaism cannot stand the test of contact with foreign
+culture. But in truth the Hellenistic interpretation of the Bible, so
+long as it was genuinely philosophical, remained loyal to Judaism.
+Only when it became hardened into dogma, fixed not only as good
+doctrine, but as the only saving doctrine, as the tree of life opposed
+to the Torah, the tree of death--only then did it become anti-Jewish,
+and appear as a bastard offspring of the Hebraic God-idea and Greek
+culture. Nor should it be forgotten that the Christian theology and
+the Christian conception of religion are a falling away also from the
+highest Hellenic ideas; for to Plato as well God was a purely
+spiritual unity, and religion "a system of morality based upon a law
+of conduct and touched with emotion." In Philo, as we have seen, the
+Hebraic and Hellenic conceptions of God touch at their summits in
+their noblest expressions; the conceptions of Plato are interfused
+with the imagination of the prophets. The Christian theology was a
+descent to a commoner Hellenism--or one should rather call it a
+commoner syncretism--as well as to an easier, impurer Hebraism.
+
+It must not be put down to the fault of the Septuagint or the
+allegorists or Philo that the Alexandrian development of Judaism led
+on to Roman Christianity. It is to be ascribed rather to the infirmity
+of human nature, which requires the ideas of its inspired teachers and
+peoples to be brought down to the common understanding, and causes the
+progress towards universal religion to be a slow growth. The masses of
+the Alexandrian Jews in his own day cannot have grasped his teaching;
+for Philo, to some degree, lived in a narrow world of philosophical
+idealism, and he did not calculate the forces which opposed and made
+impossible the spread of his faith in its integrity. He was aiming at
+what was and must for long remain unattainable--the establishment
+among the peoples of philosophical monotheism.
+
+No man is a prophet in his own land--or in his own time--and because
+Philo has in him much of the prophet, he seems to have failed. But it
+is the burden of our mission to sow in tears that we may reap in joy.
+And the work of the Alexandrian-Jewish school may be sad from one
+aspect of Jewish history, but it is nevertheless one of the dominating
+incidents of our religious annals. It did not succeed in bringing over
+the world to the pure idea of God, but it did help in undermining
+cruder paganism. It brought the nations nearer to God, and it
+introduced Hebraism into the thought of the Western peoples. It
+marked, therefore, a great step in the religious work of Israel; yet
+by the schools of rabbis who felt the hard hand of its offspring upon
+their people it was regarded as a long misfortune, to be blotted from
+memory. What seemed so ominous to them was that the annihilation of
+the nation came at the same time as the cleavage in the religion.
+Judaism seemed attacked no less by internal foes than by external
+calamity; and was likely to perish altogether or to drift into a lower
+conception of God, unless it could find some stalwart defence. Hence
+they insisted on the extension of the fence of the law, and abandoned
+for centuries the mission of the Jews to the outer world. This was the
+true Galut, or exile; not so much the political exclusion from the
+land of their fathers, but the enforced exclusion from the mission of
+the prophets. Philo is one of the brightest figures of a golden age of
+Jewish expansion, which passed away of a sudden, and has never since
+returned. In the silver and bronze ages which followed, his place in
+Judaism was obscured. But this age of ours, which boasts of its
+historical sense, looking back over the centuries and freed from the
+bitter dismay of the rabbis, can appraise his true worth and see in
+him one who realized for himself all that Judaism and Jewish culture
+could and still can be.
+
+Some Jewish teachers have thought that Philo's work was a failure,
+others that it provides a warning rather than an example for later
+generations of Jews, proving the mischief of expanding Judaism for the
+world. As well one might say that Isaiah's prophecy was a calamity,
+because the Christian synoptics used his words as evidences of
+Christianity. What is universal in Jewish literature is in the fullest
+sense Jewish, and we should beware of renouncing our inheritance because
+others have abused and perverted it. Other critics, again, say that
+Philo is wearisome and prolix, artificial and sophisticated. There is
+certainly some truth in this judgment; but Philo has many beautiful
+passages which compensate. Part of his message was for his own
+generation and the Alexandrian community, and with the passing away of
+the Hellenistic culture, it has lost its attraction. But part of it is
+of universal import, and is very pertinent and significant for every
+generation of Jews which, enjoying social and intellectual emancipation,
+lives amid a foreign culture. Doubtless the position of Philo and the
+Alexandrian community was to some extent different from that of the Jews
+at any time since the greater Diaspora that followed the destruction of
+the temple. They had behind them a national culture and a centre of
+Jewish life, religious and social, which was a powerful influence in
+civilization and united the Jews in every land. And this gave a
+catholicity to their development and a standard for their teaching which
+the scattered communities of Jews to-day do not possess. None the less
+Philo's ideal of Judaism as religion and life is an ideal for our time
+and for all time. Its keynote is that Israel is a holy people, a kingdom
+of priests, which has a special function for humanity. And the
+performance of this function demands the religious-philosophical
+ordering of life. From the negative side Philo stands for the struggle
+against Epicureanism, which in other words is the devotion to material
+pleasures and sensual enjoyments. In adversity, as he notes, the race is
+truest to its ideals, but as soon as the breeze of prosperity has caught
+its sails, then it throws overboard all that ennobles life. The hedonist
+whom he attacks, like the Epicuros ([Hebrew: 'fikuros]) of the rabbis,
+is not the banal thinker of one particular age, but a permanent type in
+the history of our people. We seem to spend nearly all our moral
+strength in the resistance of persecution, and with tranquillity from
+without comes degradation within. Emancipation, which should be but a
+means to the realization of the higher life, is taken as an end, and
+becomes the grave of idealism. With a reiteration that becomes almost
+wearisome, but which is the measure of the need for the warning, Philo
+protests against this desecration of life, of liberty, and of Judaism.
+His position is, that a free and cultured Jewry must pursue the mission
+of Israel alike by the example of the righteous life devoted to the
+service of God, and by the preaching of God's revealed word. This is his
+"burden of the word of the Lord" to the worldly-wise and the
+materialists of civilized Alexandria--and to Jews of other lands.
+
+From the positive side Philo stands for the spiritual significance of
+the religion. Judaism, which lays stress upon the law, the ceremonial,
+and the customs of our forefathers, is threatened at times with the
+neglect of the inward religion and the hardness of legalism. Not that
+the law, when it is understood, kills the spirit or fetters the
+feelings, but a formal observance and an unenlightened insistence upon
+the letter may crush the soul which good habits should nurture.
+Religion at its highest must be the expression of the individual soul
+within, not the acceptance of a law from without. Although Philo's
+estimate of the Torah is from the historical and philological
+standpoint uncritical, in the religious sense it is finely critical
+inasmuch as it searches out true values. Philo looks in every
+ordinance of the Bible for the spiritual light and conceives the law
+as an inspiration of spiritual truth and the guide to God, or, as he
+puts it sometimes, "the mystagogue to divine ecstasy." For the crown
+of life to him is the saint's union with God. In mysticism religion
+and philosophy blend, for mysticism is the philosophical form of
+faith. Just as the Torah to Philo has an outward and an inward
+meaning, so, too, has the religion of the Torah; and the outward
+Judaism is the symbol, the necessary bodily expression of the inward,
+even as the words of Moses are the symbol, the suggestive expression
+of the deeper truth behind them. Yet mystic and spiritual as he is,
+Philo never allows religion to sink into mere spirituality, because he
+has a true appreciation and a real love for the law. The Torah is the
+foundation of Judaism, and one of the three pillars of the universe,
+as the rabbis said; and neither the philosopher nor the mystic in
+Philo ever causes him to forget that Judaism is a religion of conduct
+as well as of belief, and that the law of righteousness is a law which
+must be practiced and show itself in active life. He holds fast,
+moreover, to the catholicity of Judaism, which restrains the
+individual from abrogating observance till the united conscience of
+the race calls for it; unless progress comes in this ordered way, the
+reformer will produce chaos.
+
+Philo is conservative then in practice, but he is pre-eminently
+liberal in thought. The perfect example himself of the assimilation of
+outside culture, he demands that Judaism shall always seek out the
+fullest knowledge, and in the light of the broadest culture of the age
+constantly reinterpret its religious ideas and its holy books. Above
+all it must be philosophical, for philosophy is "the breath and finer
+spirit of all knowledge," and it vivifies the knowledge of God as well
+as the knowledge of human things. Without it religion becomes bigoted,
+faith obscurantist, and ceremony superstitious. But the Jew does not
+merely borrow ideas or accept his philosophy ready-made from his
+environment; he interprets it afresh according to his peculiar
+God-idea and his conception of God's relation to man, and thereby
+makes it a genuine Jewish philosophy, forming in each age a special
+Jewish culture. And as religion without philosophy is narrow, so, to
+Philo, philosophy without religion is barren; remote from the true
+life, and failing in the true purpose of the search for wisdom, which
+is to raise man to his highest function. Philosophy, then, is not the
+enemy of the Torah: it is its true complement, endowing it with a
+deeper meaning and a profounder influence. Thus the saying runs in the
+"Ethics of the Fathers,"
+
+[Hebrew: 'm 'yn tora 'yn hkma; 'm 'yn hkma 'yn tora]
+
+"If there is no Torah, there is no wisdom; if there is no wisdom,
+there is no Torah." The thought that study of the law is essential to
+Judaism Philo shares with the rabbis, and the Torah is in his eyes
+Israel's great heritage, not only her literature but her life. As
+Saadia said later,[365] "This nation is only a nation by reason of its
+Torah." It is because Philo starts from this conviction that his
+mission is so striking, and its results so tragical. The Judaism which
+he preached to the pagan world was no food for the soul with the
+strength taken out to render it more easily assimilated. He emphasizes
+its spiritual import, he shows its harmony, as the age demanded, with
+the philosophical and ethical conceptions of the time, but he
+steadfastly holds aloft, as the standard of humanity, the law of
+Moses. The reign of "one God and one law" seemed to him not a far-off
+Divine event, but something near, which every good Jew could bring
+nearer. He was oppressed by no craven fear of Jewish distinctiveness;
+and the Biblical saying that Israel was a chosen people was real to
+him and moved him to action. It meant that Israel was essentially a
+religious nation, nearer God, and possessed of the Divine law of life,
+and that it had received the Divine bidding to spread the truth about
+God to all the world. It was a creed, and more, it was an inspiration
+which constantly impelled to effort. It would be difficult to sum up
+Philo's message to his people better than by the verses in Deuteronomy
+which he, the interpreter of God's Word and the successor of Moses, as
+he loved to consider himself, proclaims afresh to his own age, and
+beyond it to the congregation of Jacob in all ages, "Keep therefore my
+commandments and do them; for this is your wisdom and your
+understanding in the sight of the nations, which shall hear all these
+statutes, and say, Surely this great nation is a wise and
+understanding people.
+
+"For what nation is there so great, who hath God so nigh unto them, as
+the Lord our God is in all things that we call upon Him for?
+
+"And what nation is there so great that hath statutes and judgments so
+righteous as all this law, which I set before you this day?" (Deut.
+iv. 5-7).
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+
+  The following are the chief works which have been
+  consulted and are recommended to the student of Philo:
+
+  The standard edition of Philo is still that of Thomas
+  Mangey, _Philonis Judæi opera quæ reperiri potuerunt
+  omnia._ 1742. Londini.
+
+  A far more accurate and critical edition, which is
+  provided with introductory essays and notes upon the
+  sources of Philo, is in course of publication for the
+  Berlin Academy, by Dr. Leopold Cohn and Dr. Paul Wendland.
+  The first five volumes have already appeared, and
+  the remainder may be expected before long. The only
+  complete edition which contains the Latin text of the
+  _Quaestiones_ as well as the Greek works is that published
+  by Tauchnitz in eight volumes; but the text is not reliable.
+
+  There is an English translation of Philo's works in
+  the Bohn Library (G. Bell & Sons) by C.D. Yonge (4 vols.),
+  but it is neither accurate nor neat. The same may
+  he said of the German translation of Jost, but an
+  admirable German version edited by Dr. L. Cohn is now
+  appearing, which contains notes of the parallel passages
+  in rabbinic and patristic literature.
+
+  Works bearing on Philo and his period generally:
+
+  Schürer, "History of the Jewish People at the Time
+  of Jesus Christ" (English translation).
+
+  Siegfried, _Philo von Alexandrien als Ausleger der
+  heiligen Schrift_.
+
+  Zeller, _Geschiehte der Philosophie der Griechen_,
+  vol. III, sec. 2.
+
+  Drummond, "Philo-Judæus and the Jewish Alexandrian
+  School." 2 vols. (London.)
+
+  Herriot, _Philon le Juif_.
+
+  Vacherot, _École d'Alexandrie_, vol. I.
+
+  Eusebius, _Præparatio Evangelica_, ed. Gifford.
+
+  Freudenthal, J., _Hellenistische Studien_.
+
+  Harnack, "History of Dogma," vol. I.
+
+  Josephus, "Wars of the Jews"; "Antiquities of the Jews."
+
+  Mommsen, Th., "The Roman Provinces."
+
+  Works bearing on the special subjects of the different
+  chapters:
+
+  I. THE JEWISH COMMUNITY AT ALEXANDRIA
+    Graetz, "History of the Jews" (Eng. trans.), vol. II.
+    Swete, "introduction to the Septuagint."
+    Hirsch, S.A., "The Temple of Onias," in the
+  Jews' College Jubilee Volume.
+    Friedländer, M. (Vienna), _Geschichte der jüdischen
+  Apologetitc_ and _Religiöse Bewegungen
+  der Juden irn Zeitalter von Jesus._
+
+  II. THE LIFE AND TIMES OF PHILO
+    Conybeare, edition of _De Vita Contemplativa_. (Oxford.)
+    Hils, _Les juifs en Rome. Revue des Etudes
+  Juives_, vols. 8 and 11.
+    Reinach, Théodor, _Textes d'auteurs grecs et romains
+  rélatifs au Judaisme_.
+    Bréhier et Massebieau, _Essai sur la chronologie
+  de Philon. Revue de l'Histoire des Religions,_ 1906.
+
+  III. PHILO'S WORKS AND METHOD
+    Hart, J.H.A., "Philo of Alexandria," Jewish
+  Quarterly Review, vols. XVII and XVIII.
+    Massebieau, _Du classement des oeuvres de Philon_.
+    Cohn, Leopold, _Einteilung und Chronologie der
+  Schriften Philon_.
+
+  IV. PHILO AND THE TORAH
+    Treitel, L., _Der Nomos in Philon. Monatsschrift
+  für Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judenthums_, 1905.
+
+  V. PHILO'S THEOLOGY
+    Montefiore, C., _Florilegium Philonis_, Jewish
+  Quarterly Review, vol. VIII.
+    Caird, Ed., "Evolution of Theology in the
+  Greek Philosophers."
+    Heinze, _Die Lefire vom Logos_,
+    Bucher, _Philonische Studien_.
+    Von Arnim, _Philonische Studien._
+
+  VI. PHILO AS A PHILOSOPHER
+    Freudenthal, Max, _Die Erkenntnisstheorie von Philo._
+    Bigg, "The Christian neo-Platonists of Alexandria."
+    Bussell, "The School of Plato."
+    Stewart, J.A., "The Myths of Plato."
+    Cuyot, H., _Les reminiscences de Philon chez Plotin_. 1906.
+    Neumark, _Geschichte der jildischen Philosophie
+  des Mittelalters_.
+
+  VII. PHILO AND JEWISH TRADITION
+    Schechter, "Aspects of Rabbinic Theology."
+    Taylor, "Ethics of the Fathers."
+    Ritter, Bernhard, _Philo und die Halacha_. Breslau, 1879.
+    Dei Rossi, "Meor Einayim," ed. Cassel.
+    Krochmal, "Moreh Nebuchei Hazeman," ed. Zunz.
+    Frankel, Z., _Ueber den Einfluss der palästinensischen
+  Exegese auf die alexandrinische Hermeneutik_.
+    Epstein, _Le livre des Jubilis, Philon et le Midrasch
+  Tadsché_, Revue des Etudes Juives, XXI.
+    Ginzberg, L., "Allegorical Interpretation," in
+  Jewish Encyclopedia.
+    Joel, M., _Blicke in die Religionsgeschichte_.
+    Treitel, L., _Agadah bei Philo. Monatsschrift
+    für Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judenthums_, 1909.
+
+
+
+
+ABBREVIATIONS USED FOR THE REFERENCES
+
+
+The references to Philo's works are made according to the chapters in
+Conn and Wendland's edition, so far as it has appeared. In referring
+to the works which they have not edited, I have used the pages of
+Mangey'a edition; but I have frequently mentioned the name of the
+treatise in which the passage occurs, as well as the page-number.
+
+I have employed the following abbreviations in the references:
+
+  L.A. I-III Legum Allegoriae.
+  De Mundi Op. De Mundi Opificio.
+  De Sacrif. De Sacrifices Abelis.
+  Quod Det. Quod Deterius Potiori Insidiatur.
+  De Post. C. De Posteritate Caini.
+  De Gigant. De Gigantibus.
+  Quod Deus. Quod Deus Sit Immutabilis.
+  De Agric. De Agricultura.
+  De Plant. De Plantatione.
+  De Ebr. De Ebrietate.
+  De Confus. De Confusione Linguarum.
+  De Migr. De Migratione Abrahami.
+  Quis Rer. Div. Quis Rerum Divinarum Heres.
+  De Cong. De Congressu Eruditorum Causa.
+  De Fuga. De Fuga et Inventione.
+  De Mut. Nom. De Mutatione Nominum.
+  De Somn. De Somniis.
+  De Abr. De Vita Abrahami.
+  De Jos. De Vita Josephi.
+  De V. Mos. De Vita Mosis.
+  De Mon. De Monarchia.
+  De Spec. Leg. De Specialibus Legibus.
+  De Sac. De Sacerdotum Honoribus et de Victimis.
+  De Leg. De Legatione ad Gaium.
+  In Flacc. In Flaccum.
+  De Decal. De Decalogo.
+  De Septen. De Septenario.
+  De Concupisc. De Concupiscentia.
+  De Just. De Justitia.
+  De Exsecr. De Exsecrationibus.
+  Ant. Josephus: Antiquities of the Jews,
+                            tr. by Whiston.
+  Bell. Jud. Wars of the Jews.
+  C. Apion. Contra Apionem.
+  Hist. Ecclesiast. Eusebius: Historia Ecclesiastica.
+  Praep. Evang. Eusebius: Praeparatio Evangelica.
+  Photius, Cod. Photius: Codex.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+  Abraham (_see_ Lives of Abraham and Joseph), 83;
+    model of the excellent man, 244.
+
+  Agrippa (King), Philo's life covers reign of, 45;
+    Philo in Jerusalem during reign of, 50;
+    arrives at Alexandria, 65;
+    advanced to Kingdom of Judea, 69;
+    intercedes at Rome for his people, 69;
+    death of, 70.
+
+  Alexander (the Great), a notable figure in Talmud, 13;
+    settles Jews in Greek colonies, 14;
+    result of his work, 23.
+
+  Alexander Lysimachus, Alabarch of Delta region, 46;
+    guardian of Antony's daughter, 46;
+    restored to honor after imprisonment, 70.
+
+  Alexandria, Jewish community at (_see_ Jewish), 13 ff., 41, 42 f.;
+    Jewish population of, under Ptolemy I, 15;
+    meeting-place of civilizations, 14, 48, 95;
+    centre of Jewish life, 15, 129;
+    two sections occupied by Jews, 16;
+    prosperity of Jews in, 21, 22, 32;
+    anti-Semitic literature and influences in, 22, 62, 67, 74;
+    Jewish tradition at, 27;
+    synagogues at, 37;
+    deputation to Jerusalem from, 41;
+    rabbis flee to, 42;
+    Agrippa finds a refuge at, 51, 65;
+    mystical and ascetic ideas of people at, 55, 59;
+    philosophical schools at, 63, 90, 92, 94, 140;
+    development of Judaism in, 77, 255;
+    Egyptian caste-system adopted at, 16;
+    Jews of, popularize teachings of Bible, 34;
+    Jews of, referred to, in Talmud, 42;
+    Philo forced into Sanhedrin of, 61, 202, 203 f.;
+    Philo member of, 61;
+    disintegration of community at, 71;
+    Zealots flee to, on fall of Jerusalem, 71;
+    replaced by Babylon as centre of Jewish intellect, 73;
+    Samaritans in, 106;
+    antinomian movement in, 130;
+    prototypes of Christian belief at, 155;
+    Pythagorean influence at, 188;
+    national life and culture undermined at (_see_ National), 218.
+
+  Alexandrian, exegesis, characteristic of, 36;
+    church, departs from Jewish standpoint, 72;
+    Platonists, connection between Philo and later school of, 192;
+    schools, relation of, to Palestinian, 199 f., 213;
+    literature in the Dark and Middle Ages, 225 f.
+
+  _Allegories of the Laws_, an allegorical commentary, 74, 87 f.;
+    attacks Stoic doctrines, 94;
+    the _Epistles_, lineal descendants of, 247.
+
+  Angels, doctrine of, in Palestine, 140;
+    Philo's treatment of, 150-1.
+
+  Antiochus Epiphanes, Palestine passes to, 17.
+
+  Anti-Semitic, party, Flaccus won over by, 65;
+    literature and influences in Alexandria, 22, 62, 67, 74;
+    party, punishment of, at Rome, 70.
+
+  Apion, a Stoic leader, 63;
+    accuses Jews, 63, 67;
+    Philo's references to, 63, 101;
+    Josephus' reply to, 65.
+
+  Aquila, new Greek version of Old Testament made by, 224;
+    rabbis' views of, 224.
+
+  Aristeas, spirit of, glorified in Philo, 77.
+
+  Aristobulus, first allegorist of Alexandria, 38;
+    his spirit inherited by Philo, 77;
+    on wisdom, 143;
+    on the Word of God, 146;
+    difference between Philo and, 168.
+
+  Artapanus, Jewish apologist, 77.
+
+  Assouan, Aramaic papyri at, 15.
+
+
+  Babylon, replaces Alexandria as centre of Jewish intellect, 73;
+    Greek culture forgotten in, 224.
+
+  Bible, the, Philo's interpretation
+    and views on, 49, 102, 108 ff.;
+    Philo reveals spiritual message of, 83;
+    authority of, challenged at Alexandria, 92;
+    wisdom personified in, 141, 142.
+
+
+  Cabbalah, the, Essenes practitioners in, 233;
+    Philo as the Hellenizer of, 235.
+
+  Caligula. _See_ Gaius.
+
+  Chaldean, thought, Philo's acquaintance with, 48.
+
+  Christian, monastic communities, 73;
+    heresy, a severance from main community, 72;
+    theologians, fail to realize spirit of Philo, 124;
+    reformers, and the yoke of the law, 130;
+    teachers preserve Philo's works, 156, 248;
+    writers quote Philo, 223;
+    apologists imitate allegorical method, 245.
+
+  Christianity, the movement towards, 28;
+    rise of, 42;
+    conflict with Judaism at Alexandria, 72;
+    Philo's writings regarded as testimony to, 156;
+    Philo's influence over religious philosophy of, 195.
+
+  Conversion to Judaism, in Egypt and Rome, 32.
+
+  _Courage_, tractate appended to _Life of Moses_, 75.
+
+  _Creation of the World_, description of, 83.
+
+  Croiset, criticism of Philo by, 90.
+
+
+  _Decalogue, The_, contents of, 83.
+
+  Derash, Philo a master of, 103.
+
+  _Dreams of the Bible_, classed with Allegories of the Laws, 74.
+
+  Dubnow, on Alexandrian Judaism, 129.
+
+
+  Egypt, Alexander's march to, 14;
+    settlement of Jews in, 14;
+    connection between Israel and, 14;
+    visited by Plato, 15, 172;
+    Diaspora in, after Jeremiah, 15;
+    a favored home of the Jews, 21;
+    conversion widespread in (_see_ Rome), 32;
+    Flaccus, governor of, 65;
+    Jews of, under same rule as Palestine Jews, 15.
+
+  Egyptian, populace, Philo on, 62;
+    thought, Philo's acquaintance with, 48.
+
+  _Epistles_, the Pauline, lineal descendants of Allegories of the
+    Laws, 247;
+    doctrines of the Logos in, 250.
+
+  Essenes, rise of, 34, 54;
+    account of, in Philo's works, 78;
+    type of the philosophical life, 79;
+    practitioners in the Cabbalah, 233.
+
+
+  Flaccus, won over by Anti-Semites, 65;
+    indifference of, to attacks of Jews, 66;
+    recall of, 66;
+    Philo on the persecutions of, 78.
+
+  Frankel Z., writes on Alexandrian-Jewish culture, 241.
+
+
+  Gaius (Roman Emperor), comes to the imperial chair, 65;
+    Jews appeal directly to, 66;
+    receives Jewish deputation, 67;
+    death of, 69.
+
+  Greek philosophers, Philo's relation to, 48, 52;
+    philosophy, Philo's influence on, 49, 191 f.;
+    colonies, Alexander settles Jews in, 14.
+
+  Greek culture, various branches of, 47;
+    the chief schools of, 48, 54;
+    fertilizing influence of ideas of, 58;
+    and Jewish Scripture, 76;
+    neglected in Babylon, 224.
+
+
+  Haggadah, the, in Philo's works, 202, 207 f.;
+    antiquity of, 209 f.;
+    allegorical speculation in, 212.
+
+  Halakah, outcome of devotion to Torah, 99;
+    Palestinian Jews determine, 105;
+    observance of oral law standardized in, 126;
+    relation of Philo to, 202 f.;
+    differences between Alexandrian Sanhedrin and Palestinian, 203 f.;
+    codification of, 207.
+
+  Hebrew, language, evidence of Philo's knowledge of, 49;
+    included in barbarian languages, 97;
+    Philo's derivations from, 50, 101;
+    race, the three founders of, 110 f.;
+    tradition, Philo follows, 159;
+    mind, Professor Caird on, 167.
+
+  Hellenism, of Palestine, 24, 25;
+    of Alexandria (_see_ Greek culture), 25;
+    influence of, in Palestine, 51;
+    and the interpretation of the Bible, 254;
+    New Testament, a combination of Hebraism and, 247;
+    Christian theology a descent to a commoner, 254.
+
+  Hillel, Philo contemporary with, 45;
+    shows expansion of Hebrew mind, 45;
+    on chief lesson of Torah, 117, 118;
+    spirit of, shared by Philo, 249.
+
+  _Humanity_, tractate appended to a _Life of Moses_, 75.
+
+
+  Incarnation, notion of, not Jewish, 166.
+
+  Indian, thought, Philo's acquaintance with, 48.
+
+  Isaac, _See Lives of Isaac and Jacob_, 83.
+
+  Israel, Philo's derivation of the name, 50, 138;
+    God's special providence for, 77;
+    the mission of, 206, 242.
+
+  Italy, Philo visits, 66.
+
+
+  Jacob, _See Lives of Isaac and Jacob_, 83.
+
+  Jeremiah, prophesies in Egypt, 14;
+    heard by Plato, 15.
+
+  Jerusalem, Alexander's visit to, 14;
+    Philo, on national centre at, 20, 41, 86;
+    spiritual headship of, 41;
+    special synagogues for Alexandrians in, 41;
+    derivation of name of, 50;
+    Philo's sojourn at, 50;
+    downfall of, 71;
+    Judaism at, 129.
+
+  Jesus, spread of his teaching, 245;
+    his message compared with that of Philo, 245;
+    preaching of, effect on Jewish attitude to life, 246;
+    Paul sets up a new faith in, 251.
+
+  Jewish, community at Alexandria (_see_ Alexandria), 13 ff., 72;
+    temple at Elephantine, 15;
+    kingdom reaches its height, 45;
+    mind, religous conception of, 49, 137, 166;
+    law and ceremony, elucidation of, 49;
+    race, symbol of the unity of, 51;
+    aspiration toward "freedom under the law," 124;
+    influences, dominant in Philo, 133, 189;
+    philosophy, eclectic, 168;
+    philosophy, new school of in Middle Ages, 225 f.
+
+  Joseph (_see Lives of Abraham and Joseph_), 83;
+    as Egyptian statesman, 23.
+
+  Josephus, on Onias and Dositheus, 18;
+    inconsistent accounts of Onias temple, 19;
+    on Egyptian Jews, 20;
+    account of Herod's temple by, 41;
+    writes a reply to Apion, 65;
+    description of Gaius' conduct to Jewish deputation, 68;
+    on the spreading of Judaism, 115;
+    indicates communication between schools of Alexandria and Palestine,
+    220;
+    relation to Philo and his works, 222.
+
+  Jowett, on sermons, 90.
+
+  Judaism, genius of, 46, 196;
+    Philo's exposition of, 52, 74, 78, 81, 84, 105;
+    Philo protests against desecration of, 258;
+    mysticism in, 58;
+    philosophical, 72, 230;
+    Alexandrian development of, 77, 92;
+    moral teachings of, 85;
+    religion of the law, 106, 116, 260;
+    Josephus on the spreading of, 115;
+    a religion of universal validity, 121, 169;
+    at Jerusalem and Alexandria, 129;
+    catholic conscience of, 130, 131;
+    Darmesteter on, 132;
+    Logos doctrine and, 165;
+    danger of union with Gentiles to, 206;
+    a national culture, 219;
+    influences of Jesus and Paul on, 247;
+    Hellenistic interpretation of the Bible and, 254.
+
+  Judas Maccabæus, struggles against Hellenizing party, 18.
+
+  Krochmal, Nachman, criticism of Philo, 240.
+
+
+  _Life of Moses_, contents of, 75, 79 f.;
+    an attempt to set monotheism before the world, 80;
+    tractates appended to, 75.
+
+  _Lives of Abraham and Joseph_, description of, 83.
+
+  _Lives of Isaac and Jacob_, contents of, 83.
+
+  Logos, 143 ff.;
+    its relation to God's Providence, 143;
+    meaning of, 144-164, 148;
+    Aristobulus on, 146;
+    regarded as the effluence of God, 149;
+    spoken of as a person, 156;
+    the soul, an image of, 178;
+    development of Philo's doctrine of, 192.
+
+
+  Maimonides, object of his Moreh, 91;
+    principles of, 99, 229;
+    comparison of Philo with, 229 f.
+
+  Mark Antony, Alexander Lysimachus in the confidence of, 46.
+
+  Monastic communities, supposed record of Christian, in Philo, 73.
+
+  Moses, Philo a follower of, 60, 113 f.;
+    Philo's ideal type, 79 f.;
+    Philo, as interpreter of his revelation, 104, 106 f.
+    _See Life of Moses_.
+
+
+  National, centre at Jerusalem, Philo on, 20, 41, 86;
+    life undermined at Rome and Alexandria, 218.
+
+
+  Old Testament, Septuagint translation of, 25-30;
+    Aquila's new Greek version of, 224.
+
+  Onias, leader of army of Egyptian monarch, 18;
+    successor to high priesthood, 18;
+    builds temple, 18, 19 f.;
+    temple of, dismantled, 71;
+    Jewish writers silent about work of, 19.
+
+  Oral law, observance of, standardized in the Halakah, 126.
+
+  Origen, distinguishes three methods of interpretation, 76;
+    teacher of Patristic school, 195; imitates Philo, 186.
+
+
+  Palestine, struggle for, between Ptolemies and Seleucids, 17;
+    Hellenism of, compared with that of Athens, 24, 25;
+    rabbis of, 28;
+    Philo visits, 50;
+    effect of Hellenic influence in, 54;
+    New Moon a solemn day in, 121;
+    aims of Jewish thought in, 140;
+    doctrine of angels in, 140.
+
+  Palestinian Jews, under same rule as Egyptian Jews, 15;
+    rabbis, oral tradition, 34;
+    development of Jewish culture, 42 f., 200;
+    Midrash, Philo's acquaintance with, 52;
+    schools, relation existing between Alexandrian and, 199 f., 203 f.,
+    213.
+
+  Paul, the most commanding of the apostles, 247;
+    influence of, compared with that of Jesus, 247;
+    rejection of the Torah by, 248;
+    sets up a new faith in Jesus, 251.
+
+ Pentateuch, Samaritan doctrines with reference to, 106.
+
+  Peshat, as a form of interpretation, 103.
+
+  Philo, contemporary with Herod, 45, 50;
+    family of, 46;
+    works of 74 ff.;
+    philosophical training of, 49;
+    flees from Alexandria, 60;
+    meeting of Peter and Mark with, 73;
+    forced into Sanhedrin of Alexandria, 61;
+    writings of, regarded as testimony to Christianity, 73, 156;
+    influence of, over Christian religious philosophy, 195, 242 ff.;
+    relation of, to Greek philosophers, 48, 52;
+    acquaintance of, with Chaldean and Indian thought, 48;
+    his interpretation and views of the Bible, 49, 102, 108 ff.;
+    evidence of his knowledge of Hebrew language, 49;
+    follows Hebrew tradition, 159, 199 ff.;
+    compared with Spinoza, 73, 134, 163;
+    on persecutions of Sejanus and Flaccus, 62, 78;
+    replies to attacks of stoics, 64, 95;
+    stoics' view of God compared with that of, 185;
+    goes to Italy, 66;
+    refers to Apion, 63, 101;
+    Josephus' knowledge of the works of, 222;
+    Christian teachers preserve works of, 156, 247;
+    relation of, to the Halakah, 202 f.;
+    comparison of Maimonides with, 229 f.;
+    doctrine of the Logos (_see_ Logos), 144 ff.;
+    connection between Saadia and, 226 f.;
+    the Hellenizer of the Cabbalah, 235;
+    opposed to missionary attitude of Paul, 249.
+
+  Plato, hears Jeremiah, 15;
+    Philo's style reminiscent of, 48;
+    conception of the Law in, 131;
+    Philo's philosophy compared with that of, 170 ff.;
+    dominant philosophical principle of, 174;
+    a mystic, 230;
+    conception of God in, 254.
+
+  Ptolemies, the: Ptolemy I, increases number of Jewish inhabitants in
+    Alexandria, 15;
+    IV, gives Heliopolis to Onias, 16;
+    admirers of Scriptures, 23.
+
+
+  _Questions and Answers to Genesis and Exodus_, now incomplete, 75, 81 f.;
+    a preliminary study to more elaborate works, 81;
+    Hebraic in form, 82.
+
+
+  _Repentance_, tractate appended to _Life of Moses_, 75.
+
+  Rome, Alexandria second to, 14;
+    conversion widespread in (_see_ Egypt), 32;
+    Agrippa an exile from, 51;
+    power of Jews at, 62;
+    Jewish struggle with, 220;
+    Philo's apocryphal meeting with Peter at, 73;
+    national life and culture undermined at (_see_ National), 218.
+
+
+  Saadia, founds new school of Jewish philosophy, 225 f.;
+    connection between Philo and, 226 f.
+
+  Samaritan, doctrines with reference to Pentateuch, 106;
+    Jew, story of, 98.
+
+  Sanhedrin, Hillel, president of, 45;
+    Philo forced into Alexandrian, 61;
+    duties of members of, 61;
+    of Alexandrian community, 202;
+    of Jerusalem and capital punishment, 203;
+    differences between Palestinian Halakah and Alexandrian, 203 f.
+
+  Sejanus, Tiberius falls under influence of, 62;
+    Antonia opponent of, 62;
+    Philo's book on persecution of, 62, 78;
+    disgrace and death of, 65.
+
+  Septuagint, Hellenistic development marked by, 25;
+    Philo's version of origin of, 26;
+    celebrations in honor of, 27;
+    infusion of Greek philosophic ideas into, 28;
+    Christianizing influence of, 29;
+    value of, to the cultured Gentile, 33;
+    replaced by new Greek version of Old Testament, 224.
+
+  Solomon, Wisdom of, written at Alexandria, 31.
+
+  _Specific Laws, The_, description of, 83;
+    socialism of Bible emphasized in, 86.
+
+  Spinoza, his ideal of life, 53;
+    compared with Philo's, 73, 134, 163, 239;
+    on Jewish thought, 137;
+    influenced by Philo, 237 ff.;
+    approaches Bible from critical standpoint, 239.
+
+  Stoics, the chief Anti-Semites, 63;
+    Philo replies to attacks of, 64, 95;
+    in conflict with Jews at Alexandria, 94;
+    beliefs of, 64, 94, 116, 176;
+    view of God compared with that of Philo, 185.
+
+  Synagogues,
+    at Alexandria, 16, 37.
+
+
+  Tiberius Alexander,
+    nephew of Philo, 71.
+
+  Tradition, Jewish,
+    at Alexandria, 27;
+    Philo and Jewish, 199 ff.
+
+
+  Zealots, flight of,
+    to Alexandria, 71.
+
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 1: Comp. Leviticus Rabba 13.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Comp. Josephus, Ant. IX. 1.]
+
+[Footnote 3: Sukkah 51^{b}.]
+
+[Footnote 4: Quoted by Josephus, Ant. XIV. 7.]
+
+[Footnote 5: Ant. XII. 5, 9, XX. 10.]
+
+[Footnote 6: Josephus, _Bell. Jud._ VII. 10.]
+
+[Footnote 7: Comp. the passages in the "Antiquities" above and the
+_Bell. Jud._ V. 5.]
+
+[Footnote 8: Menahot 109, Abodah Zarah 52^{b}.]
+
+[Footnote 9: _De Leg._ II. 578.]
+
+[Footnote 10: Comp. _De Mon._ I. 5.]
+
+[Footnote 11: Dr. Hirseh, in The Jews' College Jubilee Volume, p.39.]
+
+[Footnote 12: Menahot 119.]
+
+[Footnote 13: Comp. Ant. XIV. 14-16.]
+
+[Footnote 14: Ant. XVI. 7.]
+
+[Footnote 15: Philo, _In Flacc._ 6.]
+
+[Footnote 16: _C. Apion._ II. 5.]
+
+[Footnote 17: I have used the word anti-Semite because, though the
+hatred at Alexandria was not racial, but national, it has now become
+synonymous with Jew-hater generally.]
+
+[Footnote 18: Quoted in _C. Apion_. I. 22.]
+
+[Footnote 19: _De V. Mos_. II. 6, 7.]
+
+[Footnote 20: See p. 22, above.]
+
+[Footnote 21: Preface to Ecclesiasticus.]
+
+[Footnote 22: Tract. Soferim I. 7.]
+
+[Footnote 23: Tanhuma [Hebrew: ki tsha]]
+
+[Footnote 24: See p. 23, above.]
+
+[Footnote 25: _Orac. Sib_., ed. Alexandre, III. 8.]
+
+[Footnote 26: _Ibid._, III. 195.]
+
+[Footnote 27: Comp. Strabo, Frag. 6, Didot.]
+
+[Footnote 28: _De Post.C._ 24.]
+
+[Footnote 29: _De V. Mos_. II. 28.]
+
+[Footnote 30: Comp. _De Decal_. 20.]
+
+[Footnote 31: Comp. Yer. Berakot 24c.]
+
+[Footnote 32: _Praep. Evang_. VIII. 10, XIII. 12.]
+
+[Footnote 33: Comp. _De Abr_. 15 and 37, _De Jos_. II. 63, _De Spec.
+Leg._ III. 32, _De Migr_. 89.]
+
+[Footnote 34: _Quod Deus_ 11, _De Abr._ 36.]
+
+[Footnote 35: Comp. Acts of the Apostles VI. 9, and Tosef. Meg. III.
+6.]
+
+[Footnote 36: Yoma 83^{a}.]
+
+[Footnote 37: _Bell. Jud._ V. 5.]
+
+[Footnote 38: Comp. Niddah 69^{b}, Sotah 47^{a}.]
+
+[Footnote 39: "Heroes and Hero-Worship," ch. 3.]
+
+[Footnote 40: Ant. XIX. 5.]
+
+[Footnote 41: Photius, _Cod._ 108.]
+
+[Footnote 42: Comp. _De Confus._ 15.]
+
+[Footnote 43: Comp. _De Mon._ I. 6.]
+
+[Footnote 44: Comp. Maimonides, Moreh II, ch. 36.]
+
+[Footnote 45: _L.A._ I. 135.]
+
+[Footnote 46: Comp. _De Cong._ 6 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 47: Comp. Croiset, _Histoire de la littérature grecque_, V,
+pp. 425 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 48: Comp. Mills, "Zoroaster, Philo, and Israel."]
+
+[Footnote 49: Comp. _Quis Rer. Div._ 43, _De Judice_ II, _De V. Mos._
+II. 4.]
+
+[Footnote 50: Ritter, _Philon und die Halacha_.]
+
+[Footnote 51: Comp. _De V. Mos._ I. 1, _In Flacc._ 23 and 33, _De Mut.
+Nom._ 39.]
+
+[Footnote 52: _Præp. Evang._ VIII. v.]
+
+[Footnote 53: _De Mon._ II. 1-3.]
+
+[Footnote 54: Comp. _Bell. Jud._ VI. 9. 3.]
+
+[Footnote 55: Comp. _De V. Mos._ II. 4.]
+
+[Footnote 56: _De Spec. Leg._ III. 1.]
+
+[Footnote 57: Comp. _De Migr._ 4, _L.A._ III. 45.]
+
+[Footnote 58: Comp. Graetz, "History of the Jews" III. 91 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 59: Comp. _Quod Omnis Probus Liber_ 11 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 60: The authenticity of this book is elaborately discussed
+by Conybeare in his edition of it.]
+
+[Footnote 61: "Ethics of the Fathers" VI. 4.]
+
+[Footnote 62: _De Mundi Op._ I. 42.]
+
+[Footnote 63: Comp. _De Migr._ 6 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 64: _L.A._ II. 21.]
+
+[Footnote 65: _De Fuga_ 7 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 66: Comp. _De Spec. Leg._ II. 260.]
+
+[Footnote 67: Comp. _De Cherubim_ 9.]
+
+[Footnote 68: _De Migr._ 7-9.]
+
+[Footnote 69: II, ch. 36 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 70: Comp. _De Spec. Leg._ III. 1.]
+
+[Footnote 71: Massebieau, _Du classement des oeuvres de Philon_.]
+
+[Footnote 72: _In Flacc._ 5.]
+
+[Footnote 73: Comp. Th. Reinach, _Textes d'auteurs romains et grecs
+relatifs au Judaisme_, pp. 120 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 74: Comp. _De Confus._, _passim_.]
+
+[Footnote 75: Josephus, _C. Apion._, Introduction.]
+
+[Footnote 76: _In Flacc._ 10.]
+
+[Footnote 77: _De Leg_. 27 and 28.]
+
+[Footnote 78: Ant. XVIII. 8. 1.]
+
+[Footnote 79: _De Leg., ad fin_.]
+
+[Footnote 80: Ant. XIX. 5.]
+
+[Footnote 81: Frag, preserved by John of Damascus, p. 404.]
+
+[Footnote 82: Comp. Ant. XX. 5.]
+
+[Footnote 83: Comp. Massebieau, _op. cit._]
+
+[Footnote 84: Comp. Bernays, _Ueber die unter Philos Werken stehenden
+Schriften [Greek: peri tês aphtharsias Kosmou]_, and Siegfried, art.
+"Philo" in the Jewish Encyclopedia.]
+
+[Footnote 85: _Quod Deus_ 86.]
+
+[Footnote 86: _Quod Omnis Probus Liber_ 12 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 87: _De V. Mos._ I. 1.]
+
+[Footnote 88: _De V. Mos_. II. 5.]
+
+[Footnote 89: "On Repentance," II.]
+
+[Footnote 90: Comp. Treitel, _Agadah bei Philo. Monatsschrift_, 1909.]
+
+[Footnote 91: _De Abr._ 12.]
+
+[Footnote 92: Comp. Bereshit Rabba 47.]
+
+[Footnote 93: _De Sac. et Victimis_ 5 and 6.]
+
+[Footnote 94: _De Mon._ II. 3 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 95: Comp. Plato, _Rep_. V, _ad fin_.]
+
+[Footnote 96: _De Exsecr_. II. 587.]
+
+[Footnote 97: _De Abr._ 3.]
+
+[Footnote 98: Comp. _L.A._ II. 4.]
+
+[Footnote 99: _L.A._ I. 1.]
+
+[Footnote 100: Comp. Freudenthal, _Hellenistische Studien_.]
+
+[Footnote 101: Croiset, _op. cit._ V, p. 427.]
+
+[Footnote 102: Comp. _De Cherubim_, _passim_.]
+
+[Footnote 103: Comp. Zohar III.]
+
+[Footnote 104: _De Cherubim_, 9 and 14, _De Somn._ 8.]
+
+[Footnote 105: _De Migr._ 12.]
+
+[Footnote 106: _De Post. C._ 22.]
+
+[Footnote 107: Midrash Esther I.]
+
+[Footnote 108: Comp. _De Sac._ II. 245.]
+
+[Footnote 109: Comp. _De Migr._ 32.]
+
+[Footnote 110: Comp. _De Post C_, 11.]
+
+[Footnote 111: _Quaestiones in Gen._ III. 33.]
+
+[Footnote 112: _De Cong._ 10.]
+
+[Footnote 113: Comp. Berakot 51^{b}, _De Agric._ 12, _De Somn._ II. 25.]
+
+[Footnote 114: _De Confus._ 38.]
+
+[Footnote 115: _De Mut. Nom._ 8.]
+
+[Footnote 116: Comp. Bereshit Rabba 64.]
+
+[Footnote 117: _De Somn._ I. 16 and 17.]
+
+[Footnote 118: Comp. "Ethics of the Fathers" V. 25.]
+
+[Footnote 119: Comp. _De Somn._ I. 13.]
+
+[Footnote 120: _De Mut. Nom._ 9.]
+
+[Footnote 121: _De Somn._ I. 5.]
+
+[Footnote 122: Berakot 10^{a}.]
+
+[Footnote 123: _De Cong._ 12.]
+
+[Footnote 124: _De Cong._ 14.]
+
+[Footnote 125: "Theologico-Political Tractate" VII.]
+
+[Footnote 126: _De Abr._ 19.]
+
+[Footnote 127: _De Mon._ II. 6.]
+
+[Footnote 128: Harvard Studies, "Hellenism and Hebraism."]
+
+[Footnote 129: Comp. Schechter, "Aspects of Rabbinic Theology," p.
+119.]
+
+[Footnote 130: Comp. _De V. Mos._ II. 9 and 10, III. 1.]
+
+[Footnote 131: _L.A._ I. 2.]
+
+[Footnote 132: Comp. _De Mundi Op._ 2.]
+
+[Footnote 133: Comp. p. 85, above.]
+
+[Footnote 134: Comp. _L.A._ I, _passim_.]
+
+[Footnote 135: _L.A._ III. 12.]
+
+[Footnote 136: _De Post. C._ 11.]
+
+[Footnote 137: _De Abr._ 3 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 138: _Ibid._ 6-10.]
+
+[Footnote 139: The LXX renders the verse Gen. iv. 26, which is
+translated in the Authorized Version: "Then began men to call upon the
+name of the Lord," [Greek: outos êlpisen epi ton tôn olôn patera]
+_i.e._, "He hoped in the Father of all."]
+
+[Footnote 140: _Quod Det._ 38.]
+
+[Footnote 141: _De Jos._ 21.]
+
+[Footnote 142: _De Jos._ 22.]
+
+[Footnote 143: _De Jos._ 42.]
+
+[Footnote 144: _Hist. Ecclesiast._ II. 18, 1.]
+
+[Footnote 145: _De V. Mos._ III. 4 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 146: _De V. Mos._ II. 3.]
+
+[Footnote 147: _De V. Mos._ II. 5, Josephus, _C. Apion._ II. 37.]
+
+[Footnote 148: Comp. Horace, Satires I. 4, 138; I. 9, 60.]
+
+[Footnote 149: Frag. preserved in Josephus, Ant. XIV. 7.]
+
+[Footnote 150: Comp. Reinach, _op. cit._, p. 262.]
+
+[Footnote 151: _De V. Mos._ II. 3.]
+
+[Footnote 152: "Ethics of the Fathers" I. 17.]
+
+[Footnote 153: _De Fuga_ 6.]
+
+[Footnote 154: _De Decal._ 12.]
+
+[Footnote 155: _De Decal._ 23.]
+
+[Footnote 156: _De Septen._ 9.]
+
+[Footnote 157: Kiddushin 20^{a}.]
+
+[Footnote 158: _De Decal._ 20.]
+
+[Footnote 159: _De Septen._ 7.]
+
+[Footnote 160: _De Septen._ 6.]
+
+[Footnote 161: Ch. 2. 31.]
+
+[Footnote 162: Comp. _De Migr._ 23.]
+
+[Footnote 163: _De Septen._ 1. 2.]
+
+[Footnote 164: _De Septen._ 18 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 165: _De Concupisc._ 1-3.]
+
+[Footnote 166: Comp. _De Just._ II. 360.]
+
+[Footnote 167: Ch. 16.]
+
+[Footnote 168: I have taken this translation and that on the next page
+from Mr. Claude Montefiore's _Florilegium Philonis_. Jewish Quarterly
+Review, vol. VII.]
+
+[Footnote 169: Comp. _De Ebr._ 40, and _De Spec. Leg._ II. 414.]
+
+[Footnote 170: _De Leg._ II. 574.]
+
+[Footnote 171: _Essais, Les Prophètes d'Israël_.]
+
+[Footnote 172: Frag. cited by Porphyry, _De Abstinentia_ II. 25.]
+
+[Footnote 173: _De Cong._ 10.]
+
+[Footnote 174: Comp. Schechter, "Aspects of Rabbinic Theology," pp. 21
+ff.]
+
+[Footnote 175: _L.A._ I. 7.]
+
+[Footnote 176: _L.A._ I. 14.]
+
+[Footnote 177: _De Confus._ 2, _De Post. C._ 5.]
+
+[Footnote 178: Comp. _De Somn._ I. 11, _De Mut. Nom._ 4.]
+
+[Footnote 179: Caird, "Life of Spinoza" II.]
+
+[Footnote 180: _De Mon._ I. 5.]
+
+[Footnote 181: Comp. "The Authorised Prayer Book." p. 78.]
+
+[Footnote 182: _Quod Deus_ 23.]
+
+[Footnote 183: _De Mundi Op._ 5.]
+
+[Footnote 184: _L.A._ III. 24.]
+
+[Footnote 185: _De Somn._ II. 38.]
+
+[Footnote 186: _L.A._ III. 24.]
+
+[Footnote 187: See p. 77, above.]
+
+[Footnote 188: _L.A._ I. 3.]
+
+[Footnote 189: _De Plant._ 7, _Quod Det._ 31.]
+
+[Footnote 190: _De Cherubim_ 35.]
+
+[Footnote 191: _L.A._ II. 70.]
+
+[Footnote 192: _De Cherubim_ 32, _De Somn._ II, 56.]
+
+[Footnote 193: _De Post. C._ 11.]
+
+[Footnote 194: Essay on the Talmud.]
+
+[Footnote 195: Bereshit Rabba 21, and Yalkut 26.]
+
+[Footnote 196: Comp. _De Plant._ 30.]
+
+[Footnote 197: Comp. [H.]agigah 14.]
+
+[Footnote 198: Quoted by Euseb., _op. cit._ XIII. 8.]
+
+[Footnote 199: _De Decal._ 11.]
+
+[Footnote 200: _De Mundi Op._ 24.]
+
+[Footnote 201: _Ibid._ 20.]
+
+[Footnote 202: _De Migr._ 9.]
+
+[Footnote 203: _De Decal._ 11.]
+
+[Footnote 204: _De Somn._ II. 37.]
+
+[Footnote 205: _De Somn._ I. 23.]
+
+[Footnote 206: Comp. _De Somn._ II. 11.]
+
+[Footnote 207: _De Somn._ I. 22.]
+
+[Footnote 208: Comp. [H.]agigah 14^{a}.]
+
+[Footnote 209: _Quod Deus_ 26 and 32.]
+
+[Footnote 210: _De Confus._ 14.]
+
+[Footnote 211: _De Gigant._ 2.]
+
+[Footnote 212: "Ethics of the Fathers" III.]
+
+[Footnote 213: Comp. Schechter, _op. cit._, "The Law as Personified in
+Literature."]
+
+[Footnote 214: Comp. _L.A._ III. 73, _De Somn._ II. 33.]
+
+[Footnote 215: _De Cong._ 31.]
+
+[Footnote 216: _De Confus._ 14, Fragments I, _L.A._ III. 23, _Quis
+Rer. Div._ 42, _De Gigant._ 12.]
+
+[Footnote 217: Comp. Graetz, "Gnosticism and Judaism," pp. 15 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 218: Comp. _De Cherubim_ 14 and 17, _De Gigant._ 12.]
+
+[Footnote 219: Drummond, "Philo-Judæus and the Jewish Hellenistic
+School," vol. II.]
+
+[Footnote 220: _De Somn._ I. 32, _De Confus._ 14, _L.A._ III. 25, _De
+V. Mos._ III. 14.]
+
+[Footnote 221: _L.A._ III. 73.]
+
+[Footnote 222: _De Sacrif._ 38.]
+
+[Footnote 223: _Quis Rer. Div._ 42.]
+
+[Footnote 224: _De Plant._ 21.]
+
+[Footnote 225: _L.A._ III.]
+
+[Footnote 226: _De Cherubim_ 9.]
+
+[Footnote 227: _De Abr._ 24 and 25.]
+
+[Footnote 228: _De Fuga_ 18.]
+
+[Footnote 229: _L.A._ II.]
+
+[Footnote 230: _L.A._ I. 13, II. 15, _Quis Rer. Div._ 53.]
+
+[Footnote 231: Comp. _De Decal._, _ad fin_.]
+
+[Footnote 232: _L.A._ I. 20, _De Fuga_ 12.]
+
+[Footnote 233: _De Mundi Op._ 54, _De Fuga_ 11.]
+
+[Footnote 234: "The Evolution of Theology in the Greek Philosophers"
+VIII.]
+
+[Footnote 235: Plato, "Laws" 718.]
+
+[Footnote 236: Comp. Bk. 12 of the _Præp. Evang._]
+
+[Footnote 237: Quoted by Suidas, _s.v._ Philo.]
+
+[Footnote 238: _De Mundi Op._ 43.]
+
+[Footnote 239: _De Victimis_ II. 260-262.]
+
+[Footnote 240: Comp. p. 81, above.]
+
+[Footnote 241: _De Sacrif._ 24, _Quod Det._ 24.]
+
+[Footnote 242: _De Mundi Op._ 24.]
+
+[Footnote 243: _De Mundi Op._ 4.]
+
+[Footnote 244: _De Somn._ I. 4.]
+
+[Footnote 245: _De Victimis_ II. 260.]
+
+[Footnote 246: _Quod Deus_ 6, _De Post. C._ 5.]
+
+[Footnote 247: _Quod Det._ 24, _De Mundi Op._ 45 and 51.]
+
+[Footnote 248: _L.A._ I. 32, _De Confus._ 27.]
+
+[Footnote 249: _De Mon_. II. 214, _De Mundi Op_. I. 16.]
+
+[Footnote 250: _De Mundi Op_. 22 and 48, _L.A._ I. 13 and II. 12 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 251: _De Sacrif._ 32.]
+
+[Footnote 252: _De Plant._ 9.]
+
+[Footnote 253: _Quaestiones in Gen._ II. 59.]
+
+[Footnote 254: _De Fuga_ 6.]
+
+[Footnote 255: _Quaestiones in Gen._ IV. 140.]
+
+[Footnote 256: _De Cherubim_ 32.]
+
+[Footnote 257: _L.A._ I. 15.]
+
+[Footnote 258: _L.A._ II. 25.]
+
+[Footnote 259: _L.A._ I. 11 ff., II. 12-14.]
+
+[Footnote 260: _De Cherubim_ 35.]
+
+[Footnote 261: _De Somn._ I. 12.]
+
+[Footnote 262: _De Somn._ I. 4.]
+
+[Footnote 263: _De Plant._ 7.]
+
+[Footnote 264: _Quod Det._ 31.]
+
+[Footnote 265: _De Migr._ 8, _De Spec. Leg._ I. 9.]
+
+[Footnote 266: _L.A._ I. 13.]
+
+[Footnote 267: _L.A._ III. 13, 14.]
+
+[Footnote 268: _Quis Rer. Div._ 53.]
+
+[Footnote 269: _De Mundi Op._ 54.]
+
+[Footnote 270: _De Abr._ 31.]
+
+[Footnote 271: _De Fuga_ 27.]
+
+[Footnote 272: _L.A._ I. 32, II. 25.]
+
+[Footnote 273: Comp. _L.A._ III. 45.]
+
+[Footnote 274: _Quod Det._ 7.]
+
+[Footnote 275: _De Fuga_ 5 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 276: _De Mundi Op._ 15, _L.A._ I. 46.]
+
+[Footnote 277: _De Decal._ 6-8.]
+
+[Footnote 278: Comp. Euseb., _Praep. Evang._ IX 411A.]
+
+[Footnote 279: _C. Celsum_ IV. 51.]
+
+[Footnote 280: _De Sectis Judaicis_ XVIII.]
+
+[Footnote 281: Comp. Freudenthal, _Hellenistische Studien_, and
+Siegfried, _Philo als Ausleger der hieligen Schrift_.]
+
+[Footnote 282: Comp. _Quis Rer. Div._ XLIII, and Chapter II above.]
+
+[Footnote 283: _De Mon_. II. 212.]
+
+[Footnote 284: _Hist. Ecclesiast._ II. iv. 2.]
+
+[Footnote 285: Comp. Graetz, "History" II. xviii.]
+
+[Footnote 286: Comp. Chapter I, p. 17, above.]
+
+[Footnote 287: _De Spec. Leg_. II. 260.]
+
+[Footnote 288: _De Spec. Leg._ III. 17.]
+
+[Footnote 289: _Ibid._ II. 6.]
+
+[Footnote 290: _De Parentibus Colendis_ 56.]
+
+[Footnote 291: Comp. Sifre Debarim 237.]
+
+[Footnote 292: _De Spec. Leg._ IV.]
+
+[Footnote 293: _De Spec. Leg._ III. 36.]
+
+[Footnote 294: _De Spec. Leg._ III. 33 and 34.]
+
+[Footnote 295: Moreh Nebukim III, ch. 39.]
+
+[Footnote 296: _Fragmenta ex Antonio_ II. 672.]
+
+[Footnote 297: _De Spec. Leg._ III. 5, II. 304, 305.]
+
+[Footnote 298: Deut. vii. 3, and Abodah Zarah 36^{b}.]
+
+[Footnote 299: _De Spec. Leg._ III. 5, II. 304.]
+
+[Footnote 300: _De Septen._ 5 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 301: See Chapter IV, p. 125, above.]
+
+[Footnote 302: Mishnah Rosh Hashanah III. 8, and Philo, _De Somn._ II.
+11.]
+
+[Footnote 303: Comp. _Agadah bei Philo_, by Treitel, _Monatsschrift_,
+1909.]
+
+[Footnote 304: Comp. Bereshit Rabba 16, 4.]
+
+[Footnote 305: Comp. Taylor's edition.]
+
+[Footnote 306: _De Plant._ 30.]
+
+[Footnote 307: It is impossible for me to make an adequate
+acknowledgment of my debt to Dr. Schechter, President of the Jewish
+Theological Seminary of America. But I should say that I have borrowed
+freely from his articles on rabbinic theology in the Jewish Quarterly
+Review, vols. VI and VII, now included in his "Aspects of Rabbinic
+Theology."]
+
+[Footnote 308: Mishnah Yodayim III. 5.]
+
+[Footnote 309: Bereshit Rabba 26. 7.]
+
+[Footnote 310: Comp. Schechter, _op. cit._, Introduction.]
+
+[Footnote 311: Berakot 24^{b}.]
+
+[Footnote 312: Mekilta [Hebrew: kshla] I. 1.]
+
+[Footnote 313: Bereshit Rabba I. 2.]
+
+[Footnote 314: Pirke R. Eliezer III.]
+
+[Footnote 315: Comp. Poems, II, p. 25.]
+
+[Footnote 316: Moreh II, ch. 70.]
+
+[Footnote 317: Eccles. III. 15.]
+
+[Footnote 318: [H.]agigah 14 ff., Sanhedrin 37^{a}.]
+
+[Footnote 319: Bereshit Rabba 4.]
+
+[Footnote 320: Mena[h.]ot 99.]
+
+[Footnote 321: Mishnah Sanhedrin II. 1.]
+
+[Footnote 322: [H.]agigah 15^{b}.]
+
+[Footnote 323: Bereshit Rabba 36. 8.]
+
+[Footnote 324: Ant. III. 2.]
+
+[Footnote 325: _De V. Mos._ II. 12.]
+
+[Footnote 326: Comp. Ant. XVIII. 8. 1.]
+
+[Footnote 327: Comp. "Ethics of the Fathers" VI. 6.]
+
+[Footnote 328: See Epstein, _Philon et le Midrasch Tadsché_, Revue des
+Etudes Juives, XXI, p. 80.]
+
+[Footnote 329: Yer. Meg. I. 71^{c}.]
+
+[Footnote 330: Comp. an article by Dr. Poznànski in the _Revue des
+Études Juives_, 1905, _Philo dans l'ancienne littérature judéo-arabe_,
+pp. 10 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 331: Comp. Poznànski, _op. cit._, p. 27.]
+
+[Footnote 332: Moreh II. ch. 1 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 333: _Ibid._ 31.]
+
+[Footnote 334: _Ibid._ 31.]
+
+[Footnote 335: Moreh III. 43 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 336: Comp. Ginzberg, art. "Cabbalah," Jewish Encyclopedia.]
+
+[Footnote 337: Comp. Taylor's "Ethics of the Fathers," ch. 5, notes.]
+
+[Footnote 338: _De Cherubim_ 12 and 14. Comp. _De Somn._ I. 8.]
+
+[Footnote 339: Comp. _De Somn._ I. 12.]
+
+[Footnote 340: Comp. _De Fuga_ 9.]
+
+[Footnote 341: Comp. Hort, Introduction to Clement's [Greek:
+Etrômateis].]
+
+[Footnote 342: Ed. Cassel, pp. 4 and 15^{b}.]
+
+[Footnote 343: Comp. Imre Binah. Meor Einayim, ch. 30.]
+
+[Footnote 344: Comp. J.A. Stewart, "Myths of Plato," _ad fin._]
+
+[Footnote 345: Comp. "Theologico-Political Tractate" XV.]
+
+[Footnote 346: Comp. _De Humanitate_ II. 395.]
+
+[Footnote 347: _De V. Mos._ II. 1-5.]
+
+[Footnote 348: Comp. _De Mon._ II. 6.]
+
+[Footnote 349: _De Just._ 6.]
+
+[Footnote 350: Comp. _De Nobilitate_ 6.]
+
+[Footnote 351: Bamidbar Rabba 8.]
+
+[Footnote 352: Tan[h.]uma to Debarim.]
+
+[Footnote 353: Comp. Pesa[h.]im 87^{b}.]
+
+[Footnote 354: _De Exsecr._ 6. II. 433.]
+
+[Footnote 355: Comp. Montefiore, Jewish Quarterly Review, VI, p. 428.]
+
+[Footnote 356: Epistle to the Romans V.]
+
+[Footnote 357: Epistle to the Galatians III. 10.]
+
+[Footnote 358: Comp. Chapter IV, above, p. 126.]
+
+[Footnote 359: _De Abr._ 46.]
+
+[Footnote 360: Comp. Schechter, _op. cit._, Introduction.]
+
+[Footnote 361: Comp. Mekilta 33^{a}, ed. Friedmann.]
+
+[Footnote 362: Comp. _L.A._ III. 26, and Chapter V, above, p. 154.]
+
+[Footnote 363: _De Cherubim_ 12.]
+
+[Footnote 364: Comp. Gibbon, "Decline of the Roman Empire," ch. 15.]
+
+[Footnote 365: [Hebrew: 'monot vd'ot] III.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Philo-Judaeus of Alexandria, by Norman Bentwich
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PHILO-JUDAEUS OF ALEXANDRIA ***
+
+***** This file should be named 14657-8.txt or 14657-8.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        https://www.gutenberg.org/1/4/6/5/14657/
+
+Produced by Ted Garvin, jayam, David King, and the PG Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+https://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+https://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at https://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit https://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
+donations.  To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     https://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/old/14657-8.zip b/old/14657-8.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..53347e2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-8.zip
diff --git a/old/14657-h.zip b/old/14657-h.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b945855
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h.zip
diff --git a/old/14657-h/14657-h.htm b/old/14657-h/14657-h.htm
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4526070
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/14657-h.htm
@@ -0,0 +1,10337 @@
+<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.0 Transitional//EN">
+<html>
+<head>
+<meta name="generator" content=
+"HTML Tidy for Windows (vers 1st March 2004), see www.w3.org">
+<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Philo-Jud&aelig;us by Norman
+Bentwich</title>
+<meta http-equiv="content-type" content=
+"text/html; charset=us-ascii">
+<style type="text/css">
+A {
+    TEXT-DECORATION: none;
+}
+P {
+    MARGIN-TOP: 0.75em; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 0.75em; TEXT-ALIGN: justify;
+}
+H1 {
+    TEXT-ALIGN: center;
+}
+H2 {
+    TEXT-ALIGN: center;
+}
+H3 {
+    TEXT-ALIGN: center;
+}
+H4 {
+    TEXT-ALIGN: center;
+}
+H5 {
+    TEXT-ALIGN: center;
+}
+H6 {
+    TEXT-ALIGN: center;
+}
+
+HR {
+    WIDTH: 33%;
+}
+HR.full {
+    WIDTH: 100%; HEIGHT: 5px;
+}
+A:link {
+    COLOR: blue; TEXT-DECORATION: none;
+}
+LINK {
+    COLOR: blue; TEXT-DECORATION: none;
+}
+A:visited {
+    COLOR: blue; TEXT-DECORATION: none;
+}
+A:hover {
+    COLOR: red;
+}
+
+
+BODY {
+    MARGIN-LEFT: 7%; MARGIN-RIGHT: 8%;
+}
+.linenum {
+    LEFT: 4%; POSITION: absolute; TOP: auto;
+}
+.note {
+    MARGIN-BOTTOM: 1em; MARGIN-LEFT: 2em; MARGIN-RIGHT: 2em;
+}
+.blkquot {
+    MARGIN-LEFT: 4em; MARGIN-RIGHT: 4em;
+}
+.pagenum {
+    FONT-SIZE: smaller; LEFT: 92%; POSITION: absolute;
+    TEXT-ALIGN: right;
+}
+.newpage { display: none;
+}
+.sidenote {
+    CLEAR: right; MARGIN-TOP: 1em; PADDING-LEFT: 1em;
+    FONT-SIZE: smaller; FLOAT: right;
+    MARGIN-BOTTOM: 1em; WIDTH: 20%;
+}
+
+ins.correction {border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-color: red;
+       border-bottom-width:1px;
+}
+
+.poem {
+    MARGIN-LEFT: 10%; MARGIN-RIGHT: 10%; TEXT-ALIGN: left;
+}
+
+
+.poem BR {
+    DISPLAY: none;
+}
+.poem .stanza {
+    MARGIN: 1em 0em;
+}
+.poem SPAN {
+    DISPLAY: block; PADDING-LEFT: 3em; MARGIN: 0px; TEXT-INDENT: -3em;
+}
+.poem SPAN.i2 {
+    DISPLAY: block; MARGIN-LEFT: 2em;
+}
+.poem SPAN.i4 {
+    DISPLAY: block; MARGIN-LEFT: 4em;
+}
+.poem .caesura {
+    VERTICAL-ALIGN: -200%;
+}
+LI.indent {
+    MARGIN-LEFT: 5%;
+}
+</style>
+</head>
+<body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+Project Gutenberg's Philo-Judaeus of Alexandria, by Norman Bentwich
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Philo-Judaeus of Alexandria
+
+Author: Norman Bentwich
+
+Release Date: January 10, 2005 [EBook #14657]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PHILO-JUDAEUS OF ALEXANDRIA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Ted Garvin, jayam, David King, and the PG Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+<div style=
+" background-color: white; color: black; border-style: ridge;">
+<center>
+<h1>PHILO-JUD&AElig;US</h1>
+</center>
+</div>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<h3>BY</h3>
+<br>
+<h2>NORMAN BENTWICH</h2>
+<h3>Sometime Scholar of Trinity College,<br>
+Cambridge</h3>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<h4>COPYRIGHT, 1910, BY<br>
+THE JEWISH PUBLICATION SOCIETY OF AMERICA</h4>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<h2>PHILO-JUD&AElig;US<br>
+OF ALEXANDRIA,</h2>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<h3>TO MY MOTHER</h3>
+<center><img alt="Greek: thrept&ecirc;ria " src=
+"images/image01.jpg" width="91" height="24"></center>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>
+<h3>CONTENTS</h3>
+<table summary="toc">
+<tr>
+<td><b>CHAPTER</b></td>
+<td></td>
+<td align="right">page</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><a href="#PREFACE"></a><b>PREFACE</b></td>
+<td></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page_7">7</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>I. THE JEWISH COMMUNITY AT ALEXANDRIA</td>
+<td></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page_13">13</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>II. THE LIFE AND TIMES OF PHILO</td>
+<td></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page_44">44</a></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>III. PHILO'S WORKS AND METHOD</td>
+<td></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page_74">74</a></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>IV. PHILO AND THE TORAH</td>
+<td></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page_104">104</a></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>V. PHILO'S THEOLOGY</td>
+<td></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page_132">132</a></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>VI. PHILO AS A PHILOSOPHER</td>
+<td></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page_167">167</a></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>VII. PHILO AND JEWISH TRADITION</td>
+<td></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page_199">199</a></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>VIII. THE INFLUENCE OF PHILO</td>
+<td></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page_242">242</a></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>BIBLIOGRAPHY</td>
+<td></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page_263">263</a></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>ABBREVIATIONS USED FOR THE REFERENCES</td>
+<td></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page_266">266</a></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>INDEX</td>
+<td></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page_269">269</a></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_7" id=
+"page_7">[pg.7]</a></span>
+<hr style="width: 65%;">
+<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE">PREFACE</a></h2>
+<hr style="width: 65%;">
+<p>It is a melancholy reflection upon the history of the Jews that
+they have failed to pay due honor to their two greatest
+philosophers. Spinoza was rejected by his contemporaries from the
+congregation of Israel; Philo-Jud&aelig;us was neglected by the
+generations that followed him. Maimonides, our third philosopher,
+was in danger of meeting the same fate, and his philosophical work
+was for long viewed with suspicion by a large part of the
+community. Philosophers, by the very excellence of their thought,
+have in all races towered above the comprehension of the people,
+and aroused the suspicion of the religious teachers. Elsewhere,
+however, though rejected by the Church, they have left their
+influence upon the nation, and taken a commanding place in its
+history, because they have founded secular schools of thought,
+which perpetuated their work. In Judaism, where religion and
+nationality are inextricably combined, that could not be. The
+history of Judaism since the extinction of political independence
+is the history of a national religious culture; what was national
+in its thought alone found favor; and unless a philosopher's work
+bore this national religious stamp it dropped out of Jewish
+history.</p>
+<p>Philo certainly had an intensely strong Jewish feeling, but his
+work had also another aspect, which <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_8" id="page_8">[pg.8]</a></span> was seized upon and made use
+of by those who wished to denationalize Judaism and convert it into
+a philosophical monotheism. The favor which the Church Fathers
+showed to his writings induced and was balanced by the neglect of
+the rabbis.</p>
+<p>It was left till recently to non-Jews to study the works of
+Philo, to present his philosophy, and estimate its value. So far
+from taking a Jewish standpoint in their work, they emphasized the
+parts of his teaching that are least Jewish; for they were writing
+as Christian theologians or as historians of Greek philosophy. They
+searched him primarily for traces of Christian, neo-Platonic, or
+Stoic doctrines, and commiserated with him, or criticised him as a
+weak-kneed eclectic, a half-blind groper for the true light.</p>
+<p>Even during the last hundred years, which have marked a revival
+of the historical consciousness of the Jews, as of all peoples, it
+has still been left in the main to non-Jewish scholars to write of
+Philo in relation to his time and his environment. The purpose of
+this little book is frankly to give a presentation of Philo from
+the Jewish standpoint. I hold that Philo is essentially and
+splendidly a Jew, and that his thought is through and through
+Jewish. The surname given him in the second century,
+"Jud&aelig;us," not only distinguishes him from an obscure
+Christian bishop, but it expresses the predominant characteristic
+of his teaching. It may be objected that I have pointed the moral
+and adorned the tale in accordance with preconceived opinions,
+which&mdash;as Mr. Claude <span class="newpage"><a name="page_9"
+id="page_9">[pg.9]</a></span> Montefiore says in his essay on
+Philo&mdash;it is easy to do with so strange and curious a writer.
+I confess that my worthy appeals to me most strongly as an exponent
+of Judaism, and it may be that in this regard I have not always
+looked on him as the calm, dispassionate student should; for I
+experience towards him that warmth of feeling which his name,
+<img alt="Greek: philon " src="images/image02.jpg" width="52"
+height="24">, "the beloved one," suggests. But I have tried so to
+write this biography as neither to show partiality on the one side
+nor impartiality on the other. If nevertheless I have exaggerated
+the Jewishness of my worthy's thought, my excuse must be that my
+predecessors have so often exaggerated other aspects of his
+teaching that it was necessary to call a new picture into being, in
+order to redress the balance of the old.</p>
+<p>Although I have to some extent taken a line of my own in this
+Life, my obligations to previous writers upon Philo are very great.
+I have used freely the works of Drummond, Sch&uuml;rer, Massebieau,
+Zeller, Conybeare, Cohn, and Wendland; and among those who have
+treated of Philo in relation to Jewish tradition I have read and
+borrowed from Siegfried (<i>Philon als Ausleger der heiligen
+Schrift</i>), Freudenthal (<i>Hellenistische Studien</i>), Ritter
+(<i>Philo und die Halacha</i>), and Mr. Claude Montefiore's
+<i>Florilegium Philonis</i>, which is printed in the seventh volume
+of the Jewish Quarterly Review. Once for all Mr. Montefiore has
+selected many of the most beautiful and most vital passages of
+Philo, and much as I should have liked to unearth new gems, as
+beautiful and as <span class="newpage"><a name="page_10" id=
+"page_10">[pg.10]</a></span> illuminating, I have often found
+myself irresistibly attracted to Mr. Montefiore's passages. Dr.
+Neumark's book, <i>Geschichte der j&uuml;dischen Philosophie des
+Mittelalters</i>, appeared after my manuscript was set up, or I
+should have dealt with his treatment of Philo. With what he says of
+the relation of Plato to Judaism I am in great part in agreement,
+and I had independently come to the conclusion that Plato was the
+main Greek influence on Philo's thought.</p>
+<p>To these various books I owe much, but not so much as to the
+teaching, influence, and help of one whose name I have not the
+boldness to associate with this little volume, but whose notes on
+my manuscript have given it whatever value it may possess. The
+index I owe to the kindly help of a sister, who would also be
+nameless. Lastly I have to thank Dr. Lionel Barnett, professor of
+Sanscrit at University College, London, and my father, who read my
+manuscript before it was sent to the printers. The one gave me the
+benefit of his wide and accurate scholarship, the other gave me
+much valuable advice and removed many a blazing indiscretion.</p>
+<p>NORMAN BENTWICH.</p>
+<p><i>February 28, 1907.</i> <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_11" id="page_11">[pg.11]</a></span></p>
+<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_12" id=
+"page_12">[pg.12]</a></span> <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_13" id="page_13">[pg.13]</a></span></p>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<hr style="width: 65%;">
+<h3>PHILO-JUD&AElig;US OF ALEXANDRIA</h3>
+<hr style="width: 65%;">
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<h2>I</h2>
+<p>THE JEWISH COMMUNITY AT ALEXANDRIA</p>
+<br>
+<p>The three great world-conquerors known to history, Alexander,
+Julius C&aelig;sar, and Napoleon, recognized the pre-eminent value
+of the Jew as a bond of empire, an intermediary between the
+heterogeneous nations which they brought beneath their sway. Each
+in turn showed favor to his religion, and accorded him political
+privileges. The petty tyrants of all ages have persecuted Jews on
+the plea of securing uniformity among their subjects; but the great
+conqueror-statesmen who have made history, realizing that progress
+is brought about by unity in difference, have recognized in Jewish
+individuality a force making for progress. Whereas the pure
+Hellenes had put all the other peoples of the world in the single
+category of barbarians, their Macedonian conqueror forced upon them
+a broader view, and, regarding his empire as a world-state, made
+Greeks and Orientals live together, and prepared the way for a
+mingling of races and culture. Alexander the Great became a notable
+figure in the Talmud and Midrashim, and many a marvellous legend
+was told about his passing <span class="newpage"><a name="page_14"
+id="page_14">[pg.14]</a></span> visit to Jerusalem during his march
+to Egypt.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_1_1">[1]</a> The high priest&mdash;whether it was
+Jaddua, Simon, or Onias the records do not make clear&mdash;is said
+to have gone out to meet him, and to have compelled the reverence
+and homage of the monarch by the majesty of his presence and the
+lustre of his robes. Be this as it may, it is certain that
+Alexander settled a considerable number of Jews in the Greek
+colonies which he founded as centres of cosmopolitan culture in his
+empire, and especially in the town by the mouth of the Nile that
+received his own name, and was destined to become within two
+centuries the second town in the world; second only to Rome in
+population and power, equal to it in culture. By its geographical
+position, the nature of its foundation, and the sources of its
+population, and by the wonderful organization of its Museum, in
+which the records of all nations were stored and studied,
+Alexandria was fitted to become the meeting-place of
+civilizations.</p>
+<p>There was already a considerable settlement of Jews in Egypt
+before Alexander's transplantation in 332 B.C.E. Throughout Bible
+times the connection between Israel and Egypt had been close.
+Isaiah speaks of the day when five cities in the land of Egypt
+should speak the language of Canaan and swear to the Lord of hosts
+(xix. 18); and when Nebuchadnezzar led away the first captivity,
+many of the people had fled from Palestine to the old "cradle of
+the nation." Jeremiah (xliv) went down with them <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_15" id="page_15">[pg.15]</a></span> to
+prophesy against their idolatrous practices and their backslidings;
+and Jewish and Christian writers in later times, daring boldly
+against chronology, told how Plato, visiting Egypt, had heard
+Jeremiah and learnt from him his lofty monotheism. Doubt was thrown
+in the last century upon the continuance of the Diaspora in Egypt
+between the time of Jeremiah and Alexander, but the recent
+discovery of a Jewish temple at Elephantine and of Aramaic papyri
+at Assouan dated in the fifth and fourth centuries B.C.E. has
+proved that these doubts were not well founded, and that there was
+a well-established community during the interval.</p>
+<p>From the time of the post-exilic prophets Judaism developed in
+three main streams, one flowing from Jerusalem, another from
+Babylon, the third from Egypt. Alexandria soon took precedence of
+existing settlements of Jews, and became a great centre of Jewish
+life. The first Ptolemy, to whom at the dismemberment of
+Alexander's empire Egypt had fallen,<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id=
+"FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2">[2]</a> continued to the
+Jewish settlers the privileges of full citizenship which Alexander
+had granted them. He increased also the number of Jewish
+inhabitants, for following his conquest of Palestine (or
+Coele-Syria, as it was then called), he brought back to his capital
+a large number of Jewish families and settled thirty thousand
+Jewish soldiers in garrisons. For the next hundred years the
+Palestinian and Egyptian Jews were under the same rule, and for the
+most part the Ptolemies <span class="newpage"><a name="page_16" id=
+"page_16">[pg.16]</a></span> treated them well. They were
+easy-going and tolerant, and while they encouraged the higher forms
+of Greek culture, art, letters, and philosophy, both at their own
+court and through their dominions, they made no attempt to impose
+on their subjects the Greek religion and ceremonial. Under their
+tolerant sway the Jewish community thrived, and became
+distinguished in the handicrafts as well as in commerce. Two of the
+five sections into which Alexandria was divided were almost
+exclusively occupied by them; these lay in the north-east along the
+shore and near the royal palace&mdash;a favorable situation for the
+large commercial enterprises in which they were engaged. The Jews
+had full permission to carry on their religious observances, and
+besides many smaller places of worship, each marked by its
+surrounding plantation of trees, they built a great synagogue, of
+which it is said in the Talmud, "He who has not seen it has not
+seen the glory of Israel."<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id=
+"FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3">[3]</a> It was in the
+form of a basilica, with a double row of columns, and so vast that
+an official standing upon a platform had to wave his head-cloth or
+veil to inform the people at the back of the edifice when to say
+"Amen" in response to the Reader. The congregation was seated
+according to trade-guilds, as was also customary during the Middle
+Ages; the goldsmiths, silversmiths, coppersmiths, and weavers had
+their own places, for the Alexandrian Jews seem to have partially
+adopted the Egyptian caste-system. The Jews enjoyed a large amount
+of <span class="newpage"><a name="page_17" id=
+"page_17">[pg.17]</a></span> self-government, having their own
+governor, the ethnarch, and in Roman times their own council
+(Sanhedrin), which administered their own code of laws. Of the
+ethnarch Strabo says that he was like an independent ruler, and it
+was his function to secure the proper fulfilment of duties by the
+community and compliance with their peculiar laws.<a name=
+"FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_4_4">[4]</a> Thus the people formed a sort of state
+within a state, preserving their national life in the foreign
+environment. They possessed as much political independence as the
+Palestinian community when under Roman rule; and enjoyed all the
+advantages without any of the narrowing influences, physical or
+intellectual, of a ghetto. They were able to remain an independent
+body, and foster a Jewish spirit, a Jewish view of life, a Jewish
+culture, while at the same time they assimilated the different
+culture of the Greeks around them, and took their part in the
+general social and political life.</p>
+<p>At the end of the third and the beginning of the second century
+Palestine was a shuttlecock tossed between the Ptolemies and the
+Seleucids; but in the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes (<i>c.</i> 150
+B.C.E.) it finally passed out of the power of the Ptolemaic house,
+and from this time the Palestinian Jews had a different political
+history from the Egyptian. The compulsory Hellenization by
+Antiochus aroused the best elements of the Jewish nation, which had
+seemed likely to lose by a gradual assimilation its adherence to
+pure monotheism and the Mosaic law. The struggle of <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_18" id="page_18">[pg.18]</a></span> foe as
+against the Hellenizing party of his own people, which, led by the
+high priests Jason, Menelaus, and Alcimus, tried to crush both the
+national and the religious spirit. The Maccab&aelig;an rule brought
+not only a renaissance of national life and national culture, but
+also a revival of the national religion. Before, however, the
+deliverance of the Jews had been accomplished by the noble band of
+brothers, many of the faithful Palestinian families had fled for
+protection from the tyranny of Antiochus to the refuge of his enemy
+Ptolemy Philometor. Among the fugitives were Onias and Dositheus,
+who, according to Josephus,<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id=
+"FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5">[5]</a> became the
+trusted leaders of the armies of the Egyptian monarch. Onias,
+moreover, was the rightful successor to the high-priesthood, and
+despairing of obtaining his dignity in Jerusalem, where the office
+had been given to the worthless Hellenist Alcimus, he conceived the
+idea of setting up a local centre of the Jewish religion in the
+country of his exile. He persuaded Ptolemy to grant him a piece of
+territory upon which he might build a temple for Jewish worship,
+assuring him that his action would have the effect of securing
+forever the loyalty of his Jewish subjects. Ptolemy "gave him a
+place one hundred and eighty furlongs distant from Memphis, in the
+nomos of Heliopolis, where he built a fortress and a temple, not
+like that at Jerusalem, but such as <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_19" id="page_19">[pg.19]</a></span> resembled a
+tower."<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_6_6">[6]</a> Professor Flinders Petrie has recently
+discovered remains at Tell-el-Yehoudiyeh, the "mound of the Jews,"
+near the ancient Leontopolis, which tally with the description of
+Josephus, and may be presumed to be the ruins of the temple.</p>
+<p>It is difficult to arrive at an accurate idea of the nature and
+importance of the Onias temple, because our chief authority,
+Josephus,<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_7_7">[7]</a> gives two inconsistent accounts of it, and
+the Talmud references<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id=
+"FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8">[8]</a> are equally
+involved. But certain negative facts are clear. First, the temple
+did not become, even if it were designed to be, a rival to the
+temple of Jerusalem: it did not diminish in any way the tribute
+which the Egyptian Jews paid to the sacred centre of the religion.
+They did not cease to send their tithes for the benefit of the poor
+in Jud&aelig;a, or their representatives to the great festivals,
+and they dispatched messengers each year with contributions of gold
+and silver, who, says Philo,<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id=
+"FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9">[9]</a> "travelled over
+almost impassable roads, which they looked upon as easy, in that
+they led them to piety." The Alexandrian-Jewish writers, without
+exception, are silent about the work of Onias; Philo does not give
+a single hint of it, and on the other hand speaks<a name=
+"FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_10_10">[10]</a> several times of the great <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_20" id="page_20">[pg.20]</a></span>
+national centre at Jerusalem as "the most beautiful and renowned
+temple which is honored by the whole East and West." The Egyptian
+Jews, according to Josephus, claimed that the prophecy of Isaiah
+had been accomplished, "that there shall be an altar to the Lord in
+the midst of the land of Egypt" (Is. xix. 19). But the altar, it
+has recently been suggested,<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id=
+"FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11">[11]</a> was rather
+a "Bamah" (a high place) than a temple. It served as a temporary
+sanctuary while the Jerusalem temple was defiled, and afterwards it
+was a place where the priestly ritual was carried out day by day,
+and offerings were brought by those who could not make the
+pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Though the synagogue was the main seat of
+religious life in the Diaspora, there was still a desire for the
+sacrificial worship, and for a long time the rabbis looked with
+favor upon the establishment of Onias. But when the tendency to
+found a new ritual there showed itself, they denied its
+holiness.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_12_12">[12]</a> The religious importance of the temple,
+however, was never great, and its chief interest is that it shows
+the survival of the affection for the priestly service among the
+Hellenized community, and helps therefore to disprove the myth that
+the Alexandrians allegorized away the Levitical laws.</p>
+<p>During the checkered history of Egypt in the first century
+B.C.E., when it was in turn the plaything of the corrupt Roman
+Senate, who supported the claims <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_21" id="page_21">[pg.21]</a></span> of a series of feeble
+puppet-Ptolemies, the prize of the warriors, who successively
+aspired to be masters of the world, Julius C&aelig;sar, Mark
+Antony, and Octavian, and finally a province of the Roman Empire,
+the political and material prosperity of the Alexandrian Jews
+remained for the most part undisturbed. Julius C&aelig;sar and
+Augustus, who everywhere showed special favor to their Jewish
+subjects, confirmed the privileges of full citizenship and limited
+self-government which the early Ptolemies had bestowed.<a name=
+"FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_13_13">[13]</a> Josephus records a letter of Augustus to
+the Jewish community at Cyrene, in which he ordains: "Since the
+nation of the Jews hath been found grateful to the Roman people, it
+seemed good to me and my counsellors that the Jews have liberty to
+make use of their own customs, and that their sacred money be not
+touched, but sent to Jerusalem, and that they be not obliged to go
+before the judge on the Sabbath day nor on the day of preparation
+for it after the ninth hour," <i>i.e.</i>, after the early
+evening.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_14_14">[14]</a> This decree is typical of the emperor's
+attitude to his Jewish subjects; and Egypt became more and more a
+favored home of the race, so that the Jewish population in the
+land, from the Libyan desert to the border of Ethiopia, was
+estimated in Philo's time at not less than one million.<a name=
+"FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_15_15">[15]</a></p>
+<p>The prosperity and privileges of the Jews, combined with their
+peculiar customs and their religious <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_22" id="page_22">[pg.22]</a></span> separateness, did not
+fail at Alexandria, as they have not failed in any country of the
+Diaspora, to arouse the mixed envy and dislike of the rude
+populace, and give a handle to the agitations of self-seeking
+demagogues. The third book of the Maccabees tells of a Ptolemaic
+persecution during which Jewish victims were turned into the arena
+at Alexandria, to be trodden down by elephants made fierce with the
+blood of grapes, and of their deliverance by Divine Providence.
+Some fiction is certainly mixed with this recital, but it may well
+be that during the rule of the stupid and cruel usurper Ptolemy
+Physcon (<i>c.</i> 120 B.C.E.) the protection of the royal house
+was for political reasons removed for a time from the Jews.
+Josephus<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_16_16">[16]</a> relates that the anniversary of the
+deliverance was celebrated as a festival in Egypt. The popular
+feeling against the peculiar people was of an abiding character,
+for it had abiding causes, envy and dislike of a separate manner of
+life; and the professional anti-Semite,<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id=
+"FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17">[17]</a> who had his
+forerunners before the reign of the first Ptolemy, was able from
+time to time to fan popular feelings into flame. In those days,
+when history and fiction were not clearly distinguished, he was apt
+to hide his attacks under the guise of history, and stir up odium
+by scurrilous and offensive accounts of the ancient Hebrews. Hence
+anti-Jewish literature originated at Alexandria.</p>
+<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_23" id=
+"page_23">[pg.23]</a></span> Manetho, an historian of the second
+century B.C.E., in his chronicles of Egypt, introduced an
+anti-Jewish pamphlet with an original account of the Exodus, which
+became the model for a school of scribes more virulent and less
+distinguished than himself. The Battle of Histories was taken up
+with spirit by the Jews, and it was round the history of the
+Israelites in Egypt that the conflict chiefly raged. In reply to
+the offensive picture of a Manetho and the diatribes of some
+"starveling Greekling," there appeared the eulogistic picture of an
+Aristeas, the improved Exodus of an Artapanus. Joseph and Moses
+figured as the most brilliant of Egyptian statesmen, and the
+Ptolemies as admirers of the Scriptures. The morality of this
+apologetic literature, and more particularly of the literary
+forgeries which formed part of it, has been impugned by certain
+German theologians. But apart from the necessities of the case, it
+is not fair to apply to an age in which Cicero declared that
+artistic lying was legitimate in history, the standard of modern
+German accuracy. The fabrications of Jewish apologists were in the
+spirit of the time.</p>
+<p>The outward history of the Alexandrian community is far less
+interesting and of far less importance than its intellectual
+progress. When Alexander planted the colony of Jews in his greatest
+foundation, he probably intended to facilitate the fusion of
+Eastern and Western thought through their mediation. Such, at any
+rate, was the result of his work. His marvellous exploits had put
+an end for a time to the political strife between Asia and Europe,
+and had <span class="newpage"><a name="page_24" id=
+"page_24">[pg.24]</a></span> started the movement between the two
+realms of culture, which was fated to produce the greatest
+combination of ideas that the world has known. Now, at last, the
+Hebrew, with his lofty conception of God, came into close contact
+with the Greek, who had developed an equally noble conception of
+man. Disraeli, in his usual sweeping manner, makes one of his
+characters in "Lothair" tell how the Aryan and Semitic races, after
+centuries of wandering upon opposite courses, met again and,
+represented by their two choicest families, the Hellenes and the
+Hebrews, brought together the treasures of their accumulated wisdom
+and secured the civilization of man. Apart from the question of the
+original common source, of which we are no longer sure, his
+rhetoric is broadly true; but for two centuries the influence was
+nearly all upon one side. The Jew, attracted by the brilliant art,
+literature, science, and philosophy of the Hellene, speedily
+Hellenized, and as early as the third century B.C.E. Clearchus, the
+pupil of Aristotle, tells of a Jew whom his master met, who was
+"Greek not only in language but also in mind."<a name=
+"FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_18_18">[18]</a> The Greek, on the other hand, who had
+not yet comprehended the majesty of his neighbor's monotheism, for
+lack of adequate presentation, did not Hebraize. In Palestine the
+adoption of Greek ways and the introduction of Greek ideas
+proceeded rapidly to the point of demoralization, until the
+Maccabees stayed it. Unfortunately, the Hellenism that was brought
+to Palestine was not <span class="newpage"><a name="page_25" id=
+"page_25">[pg.25]</a></span> the lofty culture, the eager search
+for truth and knowledge, that marked Athens in the classical age;
+it was a bastard product of Greek elegance and Oriental luxury and
+sensuousness, a seeking after base pleasures, an assertion of
+naturalistic polytheism. And hence came the strong reaction against
+Greek ideas among the bulk of the people, which prevented any
+permanent fusion of cultures in the land of Israel.</p>
+<p>The Hellenism of Alexandria was a more genuine product. The
+liberal policy of the early Ptolemies made their capital a centre
+of art, literature, science, and philosophy. To their court were
+gathered the chief poets, savants, and thinkers of their age. The
+Museum was the most celebrated literary academy, and the Library
+the most noted collection of books in the world. Dwelling in this
+atmosphere of culture and research, the Hebrew mind rapidly
+expanded and began to take its part as an active force in
+civilization. It acquired the love of knowledge in a wider sense
+than it had recognized before, and assimilated the teachings of
+Hellas in all their variety. Within a hundred years of their
+settlement Hebrew or Aramaic had become to the Jews a strange
+language, and they spoke and thought in Greek. Hence it was
+necessary to have an authoritative Greek translation of the Holy
+Scriptures, and the first great step in the Jewish-Hellenistic
+development is marked by the Septuagint version of the Bible.</p>
+<p>Fancy and legend attached themselves early to an <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_26" id="page_26">[pg.26]</a></span> event
+fraught with such importance for the history of the race and
+mankind as the translation of the Scriptures into the language of
+the cultured world. From this overgrowth it is difficult to
+construct a true narrative; still, the research of latter-day
+scholars has gone far to prove a basis of truth in the statements
+made in the famous letter of the pseudo-Aristeas, which professes
+to describe the origin of the work. We may extract from his story
+that the Septuagint was written in the reign of Ptolemy
+Philadelphus, about 250 B.C.E., with the approval, if not at the
+express request, of the king, and with the help of rabbis brought
+from Palestine to give authority to the work. But we need not
+believe with later legend that each of the seventy translators was
+locked up in a separate cell for seventy days till he had finished
+the whole work, and that when they were let out they were all found
+to have written exactly the same words. Philo gives us a version of
+the event, romantic, indeed, but more rational, in his "Life of
+Moses."<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_19_19">[19]</a> He tells how Ptolemy, having conceived a
+great admiration for the laws of Moses, sent ambassadors to the
+high priest of Juddea, requesting him to choose out a number of
+learned men that might translate them into Greek. "These were duly
+chosen, and came to the king's court, and were allotted the Isle of
+Pharos as the most tranquil spot in the city for carrying out their
+work; by God's grace they all found the exact Greek words to
+correspond <span class="newpage"><a name="page_27" id=
+"page_27">[pg.27]</a></span> to the Hebrew words, so that they were
+not mere translators, but prophets to whom it had been granted to
+follow in the divinity of their minds the sublime spirit of Moses."
+"On which account," he adds, "even to this day there is in every
+year celebrated a festival in the Island of Pharos, to which not
+only Jews but many persons of other nations sail across,
+reverencing the place in which the light of interpretation first
+shone forth, and thanking God for His ancient gift to man, which
+has eternal youth and freshness." It is significant that Philo
+makes no mention in his books of the festival of Hanukah, while the
+Talmud has no mention of this feast of Pharos; the Alexandrian Jews
+celebrated the day when the Bible was brought within reach of the
+Greek world, the Palestinians the day when the Greeks were driven
+out of the temple. At the same time the celebrations in honor of
+the Septuagint and of the deliverance from the Ptolemaic
+persecution<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id=
+"FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20">[20]</a> are
+remarkable illustrations of a living Jewish tradition at
+Alexandria, which attached a religious consecration to the special
+history of the community.</p>
+<p>It is not correct to say with Philo that the translator rendered
+each word of the Hebrew with literal faithfulness, so as to give
+its proper force. Rather may we accept the words of the Greek
+translator of Ben Sira: "Things originally spoken in Hebrew have
+not the same force in them when they are translated into another
+tongue, and not only these, but the law itself <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_28" id="page_28">[pg.28]</a></span> (the
+Torah) and the prophecies and the rest of the books have no small
+difference when they are spoken in their original
+language."<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_21_21">[21]</a></p>
+<p>From the making of the translation one can trace the movement
+that ended in Christianity. By reading their Scriptures in Greek,
+Jews began to think them in Greek and according to Greek
+conceptions. Certain commentators have seen in the Septuagint
+itself the infusion of Greek philosophical ideas. Be this as it
+may, it is certain that the version facilitated the introduction of
+Greek philosophy into the interpretation of Scripture, and gave a
+new meaning to certain Hebraic conceptions, by suggesting
+comparison with strange notions. This aspect of the work led the
+rabbis of Palestine and Babylon in later days, when the spread of
+Hellenized Judaism was fraught with misery to the race, to regard
+it as an awful calamity, and to recount a tale of a plague of
+darkness which fell upon Palestine for three days when it was
+made;<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_22_22">[22]</a> and they observed a fast day in place of
+the old Alexandrian feast on the anniversary of its completion.
+They felt as the old Italian proverb has it, <i>Traduttori,
+traditori!</i> ("Translators are traitors!"). And the Midrash in
+the same spirit declares<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id=
+"FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23">[23]</a> that the
+oral law was not written down, because God knew that otherwise it
+would be translated into Greek, and He wished it to be the special
+mystery of His people, as the Bible no longer was. <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_29" id="page_29">[pg.29]</a></span> The
+Septuagint translation of the Bible was one answer to the lying
+accounts of Israel's early history concocted by anti-Semitic
+writers. As we have seen,<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id=
+"FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24">[24]</a> the
+Alexandrian Jews began early to write histories and re-edit the
+Bible stories to the same purpose. And for some time their writings
+were mainly apologetic, designed, whatever their form, to serve a
+defensive purpose. But later they took the offensive against the
+paganism and immorality of the peoples about them, and the
+missionary spirit became predominant. Alexander Polyhistor, who
+lived in the first century, included in his "History of the Jews"
+fragments of these early Jewish historians and apologists, which
+the Christian bishop Eusebius has handed down to us. From them we
+can gather some notion of the strange medley of fact and
+imagination which was composed to influence the Gentile world.
+Abraham is said to have instructed the Egyptians in astrology;
+Joseph devised a great system of agriculture; Moses was identified
+variously with the legendary Greek seer Musaeus and the god Hermes.
+A favorite device for rebutting the calumnies of detractors and
+attracting the outer world to Jewish ideas, was the attachment to
+some ancient source of panegyrics upon Judaism and monotheism. To
+the Greek philosopher Heraclitus and the Greek historian
+Hecat&aelig;eus, who wrote a history of the world, passages which
+glorify the Hebrew people and the Hebrew God were ascribed. Still
+more daring was <span class="newpage"><a name="page_30" id=
+"page_30">[pg.30]</a></span> the conversion into archaic hexameter
+verse of the stories of Genesis and Exodus, and of Messianic
+prophecies in the guise of Sibylline oracles. The Sibyl, whom the
+superstitions of the time revered as an inspired seeress of
+prehistoric ages, was made to recite the building of the tower of
+Babel, or the virtues of Abraham, and again to prophesy the day
+when the heathen nations should be wiped out, and the God of Israel
+be the God of all the world. Although the fabrication of oracles is
+not entirely defensible, it is unnecessary to see, with
+Sch&uuml;rer, in these writings a low moral standard among the
+Egyptian Jews. They were not meant to suggest, to the cultured at
+any rate, that the Sibyl in one case or Heraclitus in another had
+really written the words ascribed to them. The so-called forgery
+was a literary device of a like nature with the dialogues of Plato
+or the political fantasies of More and Swift. By the striking
+nature of their utterances the writers hoped to catch the ear of
+the Gentile world for the saving doctrine which they taught. The
+form is Greek, but the spirit is Hebraic; in the third Sibylline
+oracle, particularly, the call to monotheism and the denunciation
+of idolatry, with the pictures of the Divine reward for the
+righteous, and of the Divine judgment for the ungodly, remind us of
+the prophecies of Isaiah and Jeremiah; as when the poet
+says,<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_25_25">[25]</a> "Witless mortals, who cling to an image
+that ye have fashioned to be your god, why do ye vainly go astray,
+and march along a path which is <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_31" id="page_31">[pg.31]</a></span> not straight? Why
+remember ye not the eternal founder of All? One only God there is
+who ruleth alone." And again: "The children of Israel shall mark
+out the path of life to all mortals, for they are the interpreters
+of God, exalted by Him, and bearing a great joy to all
+mankind."<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_26_26">[26]</a> The consciousness of the Jewish mission
+is the dominant note. Masters now of Greek culture, the Jews
+believed that they had a philosophy of their own, which it was
+their privilege to teach to the Greeks; their conception of God and
+the government of the world was truer than any other; their
+conception of man's duty more righteous; even their conception of
+the state more ideal.</p>
+<p>The apocryphal book, the Wisdom of Solomon, which was probably
+written at Alexandria during the first century B.C.E., is marked by
+the same spirit. There again we meet with the glorification of the
+one true God of Israel, and the denunciation of pagan idolatry; and
+while the author writes in Greek and shows the influence of Greek
+ideas, he makes the Psalms and the Proverbs his models of literary
+form. "Love righteousness," he begins, "ye that be judges of the
+earth; think ye of the Lord with a good mind and in singleness of
+heart seek ye Him." His appeal for godliness is addressed to the
+Gentile world in a language which they understood, but in a spirit
+to which most of them were strangers. The early history of the
+Israelites in Egypt comes home to him <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_32" id="page_32">[pg.32]</a></span> with
+especial force, for he sees it "in the light of eternity," a
+striking moral lesson for the godless Egyptian world around him in
+which the house of Jacob dwelt again. With poetical imagination he
+tells anew the story of the ten plagues as though he had lived
+through them, and seen with his own eyes the punishment of the
+idolatrous land. He ends with a p&aelig;an to the God who had saved
+His people. "For in all things Thou didst magnify them, and Thou
+didst glorify them, and not lightly regard them, standing by their
+side in every time and place."</p>
+<p>At this epoch, and at Alexandria especially, Judaism was no
+self-centred, exclusive faith afraid of expansion. The mission of
+Israel was a very real thing, and conversion was widespread in
+Rome, in Egypt, and all along the Mediterranean countries. The
+Jews, says the letter of Aristeas, "eagerly seek intercourse with
+other nations, and they pay special care to this, and emulate each
+other therein." And one of the most reliable pagan writers says of
+them, "They have penetrated into every state, and it is hard to
+find a place where they have not become powerful."<a name=
+"FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_27_27">[27]</a> Nor was it merely material power which
+they acquired. The days had come which the prophet Amos (viii. 11)
+had predicted, when "God will send a famine in the land, not a
+famine of bread, nor a thirst for water, but a famine of hearing
+the words of the Lord." The Greek world had lost faith in the
+poetical gods of its <span class="newpage"><a name="page_33" id=
+"page_33">[pg.33]</a></span> mythology and in the metaphysical
+powers of its philosophical schools, and was searching for a more
+real object to revere and lean on. The people were thirsting for
+the living God. And in place of the gods of nature, whom they had
+found unsatisfying, or the impersonal world-force, with which they
+sought in vain to come into harmony, the Jews offered them the God
+of history, who had preserved their race through the ages, and
+revealed to them the law of Moses.</p>
+<p>The missionary purpose was largely responsible for the rise of a
+philosophical school of Bible commentators. The Hellenistic world
+was thoroughly sophisticated, and Alexandria was distinguished
+above all towns as the home of philosophical lectures and
+book-making. One of Philo's contemporaries is said to have written
+over one thousand treatises, and in one of his rare touches of
+satire Philo relates<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id=
+"FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28">[28]</a> how bands
+of sophists talked to eager crowds of men and women day and night
+about virtue being the only good, and the blessedness of life
+according to nature, all without producing the slightest effect,
+save noise. The Jews also studied philosophy, and began to talk in
+the catchwords of philosophy, and then to re-interpret their
+Scriptures according to the ideas of philosophy. The Septuagint
+translation of the Pentateuch was to the cultured Gentile an
+account in rather bald and impure Greek of the history of a family
+which grew into a petty nation, and of their tribal and national
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_34" id=
+"page_34">[pg.34]</a></span> laws. The prophets, it is true, set
+forth teachings which were more obviously of general moral import;
+but the books of the prophets were not God's special revelation to
+the Jews, but rather individual utterances and exhortations: and
+their teaching was treated as subordinate to the Divine revelation
+in the Five Books of Moses. Those, then, who aimed at the spread of
+Jewish monotheism were impelled to draw out a philosophical
+meaning, a universal value from the Books of Moses. Nowadays the
+Bible is the holy book of so much of the civilized world that it is
+somewhat difficult for us to form a proper conception of what it
+was to the civilized world before the Christian era. We have to
+imagine a state of culture in which it was only the Book of books
+to one small nation, while to others it was at best a curious
+record of ancient times, just as the Code of Hammurabi or the
+Egyptian Book of Life is to us. The Alexandrian Jews were the first
+to popularize its teachings, to bring Jewish religion into line
+with the thought of the Greek world. It was to this end that they
+founded a particular form of Midrash&mdash;the allegorical
+interpretation, which is largely a distinctive product of the
+Alexandrian age. The Palestinian rabbis of the time were on the one
+hand developing by dialectic discussion the oral tradition into a
+vast system of religious ritual and legal jurisprudence; on the
+other, weaving around the law, by way of adornment to it, a
+variegated fabric of philosophy, fable, allegory, and legend.
+Simultaneously the Alexandrian preachers&mdash;they <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_35" id="page_35">[pg.35]</a></span> were
+never quite the same as the rabbis&mdash;were emphasizing for the
+outer world as well as their own people the spiritual side of the
+religion, elaborating a theology that should satisfy the reason,
+and seeking to establish the harmony of Greek philosophy with
+Jewish monotheism and the Mosaic legislation. Allegorical
+interpretation is "based upon the supposition or fiction that the
+author who is interpreted intended something 'other' <img alt=
+"Greek: allo " src="images/image03.jpg" width="55" height="20">
+than what is expressed"; it is the method used to read thought into
+a text which its words do not literally bear, by attaching to each
+phrase some deeper, usually some philosophical meaning. It enables
+the interpreter to bring writings of antiquity into touch with the
+culture of his or any age; "the gates of allegory are never closed,
+and they open upon a path which stretches without a break through
+the centuries." In the region of jurisprudence there is an
+institution with a similar purpose, which is known as "legal
+fiction," whereby old laws by subtle interpretation are made to
+serve new conditions and new needs. Allegorical interpretation must
+be carefully distinguished from the writing of allegory, of which
+Bunyan's "Pilgrim's Progress" is the best-known type. One is the
+converse of the other; for in allegories moral ideas are
+represented as persons and moral lessons enforced by what purports
+to be a story of life. In allegorical interpretation persons are
+transformed into ideas and their history into a system of
+philosophy. The Greek philosophers had applied this method to Homer
+since the <span class="newpage"><a name="page_36" id=
+"page_36">[pg.36]</a></span> fourth century B.C.E., in order to
+read into the epic poet, whose work they regarded almost as a
+Divine revelation, their reflective theories of the universe. And
+doubtless the Jewish philosophers were influenced by their
+example.</p>
+<p>Their allegorical treatment of the Bible was intended, not
+merely to adapt it to the Greek world, but to strengthen its hold
+on the Alexandrian Jews themselves. These, as they acquired
+Hellenic culture, found that the Bible in its literal sense did not
+altogether satisfy their conceptions. They detected in it a certain
+primitiveness, and having eaten further of the tree of knowledge,
+they were aware of its philosophical nakedness. It was full of
+anthropomorphism, and it seemed wanting in that which the Greek
+world admired above all things&mdash;a systematic theology and
+systematic ethics. The idea that the words of the Bible contained
+some hidden meanings goes back to the earliest Jewish tradition and
+is one of the bases of the oral law; but the special characteristic
+of the Alexandrian exegesis is that it searched out theories of God
+and life like those which the Greek philosophers had developed. The
+device was necessary to secure the allegiance of the people to the
+Torah. And from the need of expounding the Bible in this way to the
+Jewish public at Alexandria, there arose a new form of religious
+literature, the sermon, and a new form of commentary, the
+homiletical. The words "homiletical" and "homily" suggest what they
+originally connoted; they are derived from the Greek word <img alt=
+"Greek: homilia " src="images/image04.jpg" width="55" height="22">,
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_37" id=
+"page_37">[pg.37]</a></span> "an assembly," and a homily was a
+discourse delivered to an assembly. The Meturgeman of Palestine and
+Babylon, who expounded the Hebrew text in Aramaic, became the
+preacher of Alexandria, who gave, in Greek, of course, homiletical
+expositions of the law. In the great synagogue each Sabbath some
+leader in the community would give a harangue to the assembly,
+starting from a Biblical text and deducing from it or weaving into
+it the ideas of Hellenic wisdom, touched by Jewish influence; for
+the synagogues at Alexandria as elsewhere were the schools
+(<i>Schule</i>) as much as the houses of prayer; schools, as Philo
+says, of "temperance, bravery, prudence, justice, piety, holiness,
+and in short of all virtues by which things human and Divine are
+well ordered."<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id=
+"FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29">[29]</a> He speaks
+repeatedly of the Sabbath gatherings, when the Jews would become,
+as he puts it, a community of philosophers,<a name="FNanchor_30_30"
+id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30">[30]</a> as they
+listened to the exegesis of the preacher, who by allegorical and
+homiletical fancies would make a verse or chapter of the Torah live
+again with a new meaning to his audience. The Alexandrian Jews,
+though the form of their writing was influenced by the Greeks,
+probably brought with them from Palestine primitive traces of
+allegorism. Allegory and its counterpart, allegorical
+interpretation, are deeply imbedded in the Oriental mind, and we
+hear of ancient schools of symbolists in the oldest portions of the
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_38" id=
+"page_38">[pg.38]</a></span> Talmud.<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id=
+"FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31">[31]</a> At what
+period the Alexandrians began to use allegorical interpretation for
+the purpose of harmonizing Greek ideas with the Bible we do not
+know, but the first writer in this style of whom we have record
+(though scholars consider that his fragments are of doubtful
+authenticity) is Aristobulus. He is said to have been the tutor of
+Ptolemy Philometor, and he must have written at the beginning of
+the first century B.C.E. He dedicated to the king his "Exegesis of
+the Mosaic Law," which was an attempt to reveal the teachings of
+the Peripatetic system, <i>i.e.</i>, the philosophy of Aristotle,
+within the text of the Pentateuch. All anthropomorphic expressions
+are explained away allegorically, and God's activity in the
+material universe is ascribed to his <img alt="Greek: Dunamis" src=
+"images/image05.jpg" width="73" height="17"> or power, which
+pervades all creation. Whether the power is independent and treated
+as a separate person is not clear from the fragments that
+Eusebius<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_32_32">[32]</a> has preserved for us. Aristobulus was
+only one link in a continuous chain, though his is the only name
+among Philo's predecessors that has come down to us. Philo speaks,
+fifteen times in all, of explanations of allegorists who read into
+the Bible this or that system of thought<a name="FNanchor_33_33"
+id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33">[33]</a>
+regarding the words of the law as "manifest symbols of things
+invisible and hints of things inexpressible." And if their work
+were <span class="newpage"><a name="page_39" id=
+"page_39">[pg.39]</a></span> before us, it is likely that Philo
+would appear as the central figure of an Alexandrian Midrash
+gathered from many sources, instead of the sole authority for a
+vast development of the Torah. We must not regard him as a single
+philosophical genius who suddenly springs up, but as the
+culmination of a long development, the supreme master of an old
+tradition.</p>
+<p>If the allegorical method appears now as artificial and frigid,
+it must be remembered that it was one which recommended itself
+strongly to the age. The great creative era of the Greek mind had
+passed away with the absorption of the city-state in Alexander's
+empire. Then followed the age of criticism, during which the works
+of the great masters were interpreted, annotated, and compared.
+Next, as creative thought became rarer, and confidence in human
+reason began to be shaken, men fell back more and more for their
+ideas and opinions upon some authority of the distant past, whom
+they regarded as an inspired teacher. The sayings of Homer and
+Pythagoras were considered as divinely revealed truths; and when
+treated allegorically, they were shown to contain the philosophical
+tenets of the Platonic, the Aristotelian, or the Stoic school.
+Thus, in the first century B.C.E., the Greek mind, which had
+earlier been devoted to the free search for knowledge and truth,
+was approaching the Hebraic standpoint, which considered that the
+highest truth had once for all been revealed to mankind in inspired
+writings, and that the duty of later generations was to interpret
+this revealed doctrine rather than <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_40" id="page_40">[pg.40]</a></span> search independently for
+knowledge. On the other hand, the Jewish interpreters were trying
+to reach the Greek standpoint when they set themselves to show that
+the writers of the Bible had anticipated the philosophers of Hellas
+with systems of theology, psychology, ethics, and cosmology.
+Allegorism, it may be said, is the instrument by which Greek and
+Hebrew thought were brought together. Its development was in its
+essence a sign of intellectual vigor and religious activity; but in
+the time of Philo it threatened to have one evil consequence, which
+did in the end undermine the religion of the Alexandrian community.
+Some who allegorized the Torah were not content with discovering a
+deeper meaning beneath the law, but went on to disregard the
+literal sense, <i>i.e.</i>, they allegorized away the law, and held
+in contempt the symbolic observance to which they had attached a
+spiritual meaning. On the other hand, there was a party which
+adhered strictly to the literal sense <img alt=
+"Greek: to hr&ecirc;ton" src="images/image06.jpg" width="86"
+height="24"> and rejected allegorism.<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id=
+"FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34">[34]</a> Philo
+protested against these extremes and was the leader of those who
+were liberal in thought and conservative in practice, and who
+venerated the law both for its literal and for its allegorical
+sense. To effect the true harmony between the literal and the
+allegorical sense of the Torah, between the spiritual and the legal
+sides of Judaism, between Greek philosophy and revealed
+religion&mdash;that was the great work of Philo-Jud&aelig;us.
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_41" id=
+"page_41">[pg.41]</a></span> Though the religious and intellectual
+development of the Alexandrian community proceeded on different
+lines from that of the main body of the nation in Palestine, yet
+the connection between the two was maintained closely for
+centuries. The colony, as we have noticed, recognized
+whole-heartedly the spiritual headship of Jerusalem, and at the
+great festivals of the year a deputation went from Alexandria to
+the holy sanctuary, bearing offerings from the whole community. In
+Jerusalem, on the other hand, special synagogues, where Greek was
+the language,<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id=
+"FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35">[35]</a> were built
+for Alexandrian visitors. Alexandrian artisans and craftsmen took
+part in the building of Herod's temple, but were found inferior to
+native workmen.<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id=
+"FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36">[36]</a> The notices
+within the building were written in Greek as well as in Aramaic,
+and the golden gates to the inner court were, we are told by
+Josephus,<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_37_37">[37]</a> the gift of Philo's brother, the head of
+the Alexandrian community. Some fragments have come down to us of a
+poem about Jerusalem in Greek verse by a certain Philo, who lived
+in the first century B.C.E., and was perhaps an ancestor of our
+worthy. He glorifies the Holy City, extols its fertility, and
+speaks of its ever-flowing waters beneath the earth. His greater
+namesake says that wherever the Jews live they consider Jerusalem
+as their metropolis. The Talmud again <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_42" id="page_42">[pg.42]</a></span> tells
+how Judah Ben Tabbai and Joshua Ben Perahya, during the persecution
+of the Pharisees by Hyreanus, fled to Alexandria, and how later
+Joshua Ben Hanania<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id=
+"FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38">[38]</a> sojourned
+there and gave answers to twelve questions which the Jews
+propounded to him, three of them dealing with "the Wisdom." The
+Talmud has frequent reference to Alexandrian Jews, and that it
+makes little direct mention of the Alexandrian exegesis is
+explained by the distrust of the whole Hellenistic movement, which
+the rise of Christianity and the growth of Gnosticism induced in
+the rabbis of the second and third centuries. They lived at a time
+when it had been proved that that movement led away from Judaism,
+and its main tenets had been adopted or perverted by an
+antagonistic creed. It was a tragic necessity which compelled the
+severance between the Eastern and Western developments of the
+religion. In Philo's day the breach was already threatened, through
+the anti-legal tendencies of the extreme allegorists. His own aim
+was to maintain the catholic tradition of Judaism, while at the
+same time expounding the Torah according to the conceptions of
+ancient philosophy. Unfortunately, the balance was not preserved by
+those who followed him, and the branch of Judaism that had
+blossomed forth so fruitfully fell off from the parent tree. But
+till the middle of the first century of the common era the
+Alexandrian and the Palestinian developments of Jewish <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_43" id="page_43">[pg.43]</a></span> culture
+were complementary: on the one side there was legal, on the other,
+philosophical expansion. Moreover, the Jud&aelig;o-Alexandrian
+school, though, through its abandonment of the Hebrew tongue, it
+lies outside the main stream of Judaism, was an immense force in
+the religious history of the world, and Philo, its greatest figure,
+stands out in our annals as the embodiment of the Jewish religious
+mission, which is to preach to the nations the knowledge of the one
+God, and the law of righteousness. <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_44" id="page_44">[pg.44]</a></span></p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;">
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<a name="II" id="II"></a>
+<h2>II</h2>
+<p>THE LIFE AND TIMES OF PHILO</p>
+<br>
+<p>"The hero," says Carlyle, "can be poet, prophet, king, priest,
+or what you will, according to the kind of world he finds himself
+born into."<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id=
+"FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39">[39]</a> The Jews
+have not been a great political people, but their excellence has
+been a peculiar spiritual development: and therefore most of their
+heroes have been men of thought rather than action, writers rather
+than statesmen, men whose influence has been greater on posterity
+than upon their own generation. Of Philo's life we know one
+incident in very full detail, the rest we can only reconstruct from
+stray hints in his writings, and a few short notices of the
+commentators. From that incident also, which we know to have taken
+place in the year 40 C.E., we can fix the general chronology of his
+life and works. He speaks of himself as an old man in relating it,
+so that his birth may be safely placed at about 20 B.C.E. The first
+part of his life therefore was passed during the tranquil era in
+which Augustus and Tiberius were reorganizing the Roman Empire
+after a half-century of war; but he was fated to see more
+troublesome times for his people, when the emperor Gaius, for a
+miserable eight years, harassed the world with his mad escapades.
+In the riots which ensued upon the attempt to deprive the Jews of
+their religious freedom his brother the alabarch was <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_45" id="page_45">[pg.45]</a></span>
+imprisoned;<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id=
+"FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40">[40]</a> and he
+himself was called upon to champion the Alexandrian community in
+its hour of need. Although the ascent of the stupid but honest
+Claudius dispelled immediate danger from the Jews and brought them
+a temporary increase of favor in Alexandria as well as in
+Palestine, Philo did not return entirely to the contemplative life
+which he loved; and throughout the latter portion of his life he
+was the public defender as well as the teacher of his people. He
+probably died before the reign of Nero, between 50 and 60 C.E. In
+Jewish history his life covered the reigns of King Herod, his sons,
+and King Agrippa, when the Jewish kingdom reached its height of
+outward magnificence; and it extended probably up to the ill-omened
+conversion of Jud&aelig;a into a Roman province under the rule of a
+procurator. It is noteworthy also that Philo was partly
+contemporary with Hillel, who came from Babylon to Jerusalem in 30
+B.C.E., and according to the accepted tradition was president of
+the Sanhedrin till his death in 10 C.E. In this epoch Judaism, by
+contact with external forces, was thoroughly self-conscious, and
+the world was most receptive of its teaching; hence it spread
+itself far and wide, and at the same time reached its greatest
+spiritual intensity. Hillel and Philo show the splendid expansion
+of the Hebrew mind. In the history of most races national greatness
+and national genius appear together. The two grandest expressions
+of Jewish genius immediately <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_46" id="page_46">[pg.46]</a></span> preceded the national
+downfall. For the genius of Judaism is religious, and temporal
+power is not one of the conditions of its development.</p>
+<p>Philo belonged to the most distinguished Jewish family of
+Alexandria,<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id=
+"FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41">[41]</a> and
+according to Jerome and Photius, the ancient authorities for his
+life, was of the priestly rank; his brother Alexander Lysimachus
+was not only the governor of the Jewish community, but also the
+alabarch, <i>i.e.</i>, ruler of the whole Delta region, and enjoyed
+the confidence of Mark Antony, who appointed him guardian of his
+second daughter Antonia, the mother of Germanicus and the Roman
+emperor Claudius. Born in an atmosphere of power and affluence,
+Philo, who might have consorted with princes, devoted himself from
+the first with all his soul to a life of contemplation; like a
+Palestinian rabbi he regarded as man's highest duty the study of
+the law and the knowledge of God.<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id=
+"FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42">[42]</a> This is the
+way in which he understood the philosopher's life<a name=
+"FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_43_43">[43]</a>: man's true function is to know God, and
+to make God known: he can know God only through His revelation, and
+he can comprehend that revelation only by continued study.
+<img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image07.jpg" width="100" height=
+"14">, God's interpreter must have a wise heart,<a name=
+"FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_44_44">[44]</a> as the rabbis explained. Philo then
+considered that the true understanding of the law required a
+complete knowledge of general culture, and that secular philosophy
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_47" id=
+"page_47">[pg.47]</a></span> was a necessary preparation for the
+deeper mysteries of the Holy Word. "He who is practicing to abide
+in the city of perfect virtue, before he can be inscribed as a
+citizen thereof, must sojourn with the 'encyclic' sciences, so that
+through them he may advance securely to perfect goodness."<a name=
+"FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_45_45">[45]</a> The "encyclic," or encyclop&aelig;dic
+sciences, to which he refers, are the various branches of Greek
+culture, and Philo finds a symbol of their place in life in the
+story of Abraham. Abraham is the eternal type of the seeker after
+God, and as he first consorted with the foreign woman Hagar and had
+offspring by her, and afterwards in his mature age had offspring by
+Sarah, so in Philo's interpretation the true philosopher must first
+apply himself to outside culture and enlarge his mind with that
+training; and when his ideas have thus expanded, he passes on to
+the more sublime philosophy of the Divine law, and his mind is
+fruitful in lofty thoughts.<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id=
+"FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46">[46]</a></p>
+<p>As a prelude to the study of Greek philosophy he built up a
+harmony of the mind by a study of Greek poetry, rhetoric, music,
+mathematics, and the natural sciences. His works bear witness to
+the thoroughness with which he imbibed all that was best in Greek
+literature. His Jewish predecessors had written in the impure
+dialect of the Hellenistic colonies (the <img alt=
+"Greek: koin&ecirc; dialektos" src="images/image08.jpg" width="142"
+height="19">, and had shown little literary charm; but Philo's
+style is more graceful than that of any Greek prose writer since
+the golden age of the fourth <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_48" id="page_48">[pg.48]</a></span> century. Like his
+thought, indeed, it is eclectic and not always clear, but full of
+reminiscences of the epic and tragic poets on the one hand, and of
+Plato on the other,<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id=
+"FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47">[47]</a> it gives a
+happy blending of prose and poetry, which admirably fits the
+devotional philosophy that forms its subject. And what was said of
+Plato by a Greek critic applies equally well to Philo: "He rises at
+times above the spirit of prose in such a way that he appears to be
+instinct, not with human understanding, but with a Divine oracle."
+From the study of literature and kindred subjects Philo passed on
+to philosophy, and he made himself master of the teachings of all
+the chief schools. There was a mingling of all the world's wisdom
+at Alexandria in his day; and Philo, like the other philosophers of
+the time, shows acquaintance with the ideas of Egyptian, Chaldean,
+Persian,<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_48_48">[48]</a> and even Indian thought. The chief Greek
+schools in his age were the Stoic, the Platonic, the Skeptic and
+the Pythagorean, which had each its professors in the Museum and
+its popular preachers in the public lecture-halls. Later we will
+notice more closely Philo's relations to the Greek philosophers:
+suffice it here to say that he was the most distinguished Platonist
+of his age.</p>
+<p>Philo's education therefore was largely Greek, and his method of
+thought, and the forms in which his ideas were associated and
+impressed, were Greek. It <span class="newpage"><a name="page_49"
+id="page_49">[pg.49]</a></span> must not be thought, however, that
+this involved any weakening of his Judaism, or detracted from the
+purity of his belief. Far from it. The Torah remained for him the
+supreme standard to which all outside knowledge had to be
+subordinated, and for which it was a preparation.<a name=
+"FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_49_49">[49]</a> But Philo brought to bear upon the
+elucidation of the Torah and Jewish law and ceremony not only the
+religious conceptions of the Jewish mind, but also the intellectual
+ideas of Greek philosophy, and he interpreted the Bible in the
+light of the broadest culture of his day. Beautiful as are the
+thoughts and fancies of the Talmudic rabbis, their Midrash was a
+purely national monument, closed by its form as by its language to
+the general world; Philo applied to the exposition of Judaism the
+most highly-trained philosophic mind of Alexandria, and brought out
+clearly for the Hellenistic people the latent philosophy of the
+Torah.</p>
+<p>Greek was his native language, but at the same time he was not,
+as has been suggested, entirely ignorant of Hebrew. The Septuagint
+translation was the version of the Bible which he habitually used,
+but there are passages in his works which show that he knew and
+occasionally employed the Hebrew Bible.<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id=
+"FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50">[50]</a> Moreover,
+his etymologies are evidence of his knowledge of the Hebrew
+language; though he sometimes gives a symbolic value to Biblical
+names according to <span class="newpage"><a name="page_50" id=
+"page_50">[pg.50]</a></span> their Greek equivalent, he more
+frequently bases his allegory upon a Hebrew derivation. That all
+names had a profound meaning, and signified the true nature of that
+which they designated, is among the most firmly established of
+Philo's ideas. Of his more striking derivations one may cite
+Israel, <img alt="Hebrew: " src="images/image09.jpg" width="73"
+height="22"> the man who beholdeth God; Jerusalem, <img alt=
+"Hebrew; " src="images/image10.jpg" width="73" height="25">, the
+sight of peace; Hebrew, <img alt="Hebrew; " src=
+"images/image11.jpg" width="46" height="22"> one who has passed
+over from the life of the passions to virtue; Isaac, <img alt=
+"Hebrew; " src="images/image12.jpg" width="51" height="25"> the joy
+or laughter of the soul. These etymologies are more ingenious than
+convincing, and are not entirely true to Hebrew philology, but
+neither were those of the early rabbis; and they at least show that
+Philo had acquired a superficial knowledge of the language of
+Scripture. Nor can it be doubted that he was acquainted with the
+Palestinian Midrash, both Halakic and Haggadic. At the beginning of
+the "Life of Moses" he declares that he has based it upon "many
+traditions which I have received from the elders of my
+nation,"<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_51_51">[51]</a> and in several places he speaks of the
+"ancestral philosophy," which must mean the Midrash which embodied
+tradition. Eusebius also, the early Christian authority, bears
+witness to his knowledge of the traditional interpretations of the
+law.<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_52_52">[52]</a></p>
+<p>It is fairly certain, moreover, that Philo sojourned some time
+in Jerusalem. He was there probably during the reign of Agrippa
+(<i>c.</i> 30 C.E.), who was an <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_51" id="page_51">[pg.51]</a></span> intimate friend of his
+family, and had found a refuge at Alexandria when an exile from
+Palestine and Rome. In the first book on the Mosaic laws<a name=
+"FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_53_53">[53]</a> Philo speaks with enthusiasm of the
+great temple, to which "vast assemblies of men from a countless
+variety of cities, some by land, some by sea, from East, West,
+North, and South, come at every festival as if to some common
+refuge and harbor from the troubles of this harassed and anxious
+life, seeking to find there tranquillity and gain a new hope in
+life by its joyous festivities." These gatherings, at which,
+according to Josephus,<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id=
+"FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54">[54]</a> over two
+million people assembled, must, indeed, have been a striking symbol
+of the unity of the Jewish race, which was at once national and
+international; magnificent embassies from Babylon and Persia, from
+Egypt and Cyrene, from Rome and Greece, even from distant Spain and
+Gaul, went in procession together through the gate of Xistus up the
+temple-mount, which was crowned by the golden sanctuary, shining in
+the full Eastern sun like a sea of light above the town. Philo
+describes in detail the form of the edifice that moved the
+admiration of all who beheld it, and for the Jew, moreover, was
+invested with the most cherished associations. Its outer courts
+consisted of double porticoes of marble columns burnished with
+gold, then came the inner courts of simple columns, and "within
+these stood the temple itself, beautiful beyond all possible
+description, as one may <span class="newpage"><a name="page_52" id=
+"page_52">[pg.52]</a></span> tell even from what is seen in the
+outer court; for the innermost sanctuary is invisible to every
+being except the high priest." The majesty of the ceremonial within
+equalled the splendor without. The high priest, in the words of Ben
+Sira (xlv), "beautified with comely ornament and girded about with
+a robe of glory," seemed a high priest fit for the whole world.
+Upon his head the mitre with a crown of gold engraved with
+holiness, upon his breast the mystic Urim and Thummim and the ephod
+with its twelve brilliant jewels, upon his tunic golden
+pomegranates and silver bells, which for the mystic ear pealed the
+harmony of the world as he moved. Little wonder that, inspired by
+the striking gathering and the solemn ritual, Philo regarded the
+temple as the shrine of the universe,<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id=
+"FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55">[55]</a> and thought
+the day was near when all nations should go up there together, to
+do worship to the One God.</p>
+<p>Sparse as are the direct proofs of Philo's connection with
+Palestinian Judaism, his account of the temple and its service,
+apart from the general standpoint of his writings, proves to us
+that he was a loyal son of his nation, and loved Judaism for its
+national institutions as well as its great moral sublimity. His
+aspiration was to bring home the truths of the religion to the
+cultured world, and therefore he devised a new expression for the
+wisdom of his people, and transformed it into a literary system.
+Judaism forms the kernel, but Greek philosophy and literature the
+shell, <span class="newpage"><a name="page_53" id=
+"page_53">[pg.53]</a></span> of his work; for the audience to which
+he appealed, whether Jewish or Gentile, thought in Greek, and would
+be moved only by ideas presented in Greek form, and by Greek models
+he himself was inspired.</p>
+<p>Philo's first ideal of life was to attain to the profoundest
+knowledge of God so as to be fitted for the mission of interpreting
+His Word: and he relates in one of his treatises how he spent his
+youth and his first manhood in philosophy and the contemplation of
+the universe.<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id=
+"FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56">[56]</a> "I feasted
+with the truly blessed mind, which is the object of all desire
+(<i>i.e.</i>, God), communing continually in joy with the Divine
+words and doctrines. I entertained no low or mean thought, nor did
+I ever crawl about glory or wealth or worldly comfort, but I seemed
+to be carried aloft in a kind of spiritual inspiration and to be
+borne along in harmony with the whole universe." The intense
+religious spirit which seeks to perceive all things in a supreme
+unity Philo shares with Spinoza, whose life-ideal was the
+intuitional knowledge of the universe and "the intellectual love of
+God." Both men show the pursuit of righteousness raised to
+philosophical grandeur.</p>
+<p>In his early days the way to virtue and happiness appeared to
+Philo to lie in the solitary and ascetic life. He was possessed by
+a noble pessimism, that the world was an evil place,<a name=
+"FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_57_57">[57]</a> and the worldly life an <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_54" id="page_54">[pg.54]</a></span> evil
+thing for a man's soul, that man must die to live, and renounce the
+pleasures not only of the body but also of society in order to know
+God. The idea was a common one of the age, and was the outcome of
+the mingling of Greek ethics and psychology and the Jewish love of
+righteousness. For the Greek thinkers taught a psychological
+dualism, by which the body and the senses were treated as
+antagonistic to the higher intellectual soul, which was immortal,
+and linked man with the principle of creation. The most remarkable
+and enduring effect of Hellenic influence in Palestine was the rise
+of the sect of Essenes,<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id=
+"FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58">[58]</a> Jewish
+mystics, who eschewed private property and the general social life,
+and forming themselves into communistic congregations which were a
+sort of social Utopia, devoted their lives to the cult of piety and
+saintliness. It cannot be doubted that their manner of life was to
+some degree an imitation of the Pythagorean brotherhoods, which
+ever since the sixth century had spread a sort of monasticism
+through the Greek world. Nor is it unlikely that Hindu teachings
+exercised an influence over them, for Buddhism was at this age,
+like Judaism, a missionizing religion, and had teachers in the
+West. Philo speaks in several places of its doctrines.<a name=
+"FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_59_59">[59]</a> Whatever its moulding influences,
+Essenism represented the spirit of the age, and it spread far and
+wide. At Alexandria, above all places, where the life of luxury and
+dissoluteness <span class="newpage"><a name="page_55" id=
+"page_55">[pg.55]</a></span> repelled the serious, ascetic ideas
+took firm hold of the people, and the Therapeutic life,
+<i>i.e.</i>, the life of prayer and labor devoted to God, which
+corresponded to the system of the Essenes, had numerous votaries.
+The first century witnessed the extremes of the religious and
+irreligious sentiments. The world was weary and jaded; it had lost
+confidence in human reason and faith in social ideals, and while
+the materialists abandoned themselves to hideous orgies and sensual
+debaucheries, the higher-minded went to the opposite excess and
+sought by flight from the world and mortification of the flesh to
+attain to supernatural states of ecstasy. A book has come down to
+us under the name of Philo<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id=
+"FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60">[60]</a> which
+describes "the contemplative life" of a Jewish brotherhood that
+lived apart on the shores of Lake Mareotis by the mouth of the
+Nile. Men and women lived in the settlement, though all intercourse
+between the sexes was rigidly avoided. During six days of the week
+they met in prayer, morning and evening, and in the interval
+devoted themselves in solitude to the practice of virtue and the
+study of the holy allegories, and the composition of hymns and
+psalms. On the Sabbath they sat in common assembly, but with the
+women separated from the men, and listened to the allegorical
+homily of an elder; they paid special honor to the Feast of
+Pentecost, reverencing the mystical attributes of the number fifty,
+and they celebrated a religious banquet <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_56" id="page_56">[pg.56]</a></span>
+thereon. During the rest of the year they only partook of the
+sustenance necessary for life, and thus in their daily conduct
+realized the way which the rabbis set out as becoming for the study
+of the Torah: "A morsel of bread with salt thou must eat, and water
+by measure thou must drink; thou must sleep upon the ground and
+live a life of hardship, the while thou toilest in the
+Torah."<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_61_61">[61]</a></p>
+<p>We do not know whether Philo attached himself to one of these
+brotherhoods of organized solitude, or whether he lived even more
+strictly the solitary life out in the wilderness by himself.
+Certainly he was at one period in sympathy with ascetic ideas. It
+seemed to him that as God was alone, so man must be alone in order
+to be like God.<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id=
+"FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62">[62]</a> In his
+earlier writings he is constantly praising the ascetic life, as a
+means, indeed, to virtue rather than as a good in itself, and as a
+helpful discipline to the man of incomplete moral strength, though
+inferior to the spontaneous goodness which God vouchsafes to the
+righteous. Isaac is the type of this highest bliss, while the life
+of Jacob is the type of the progress to virtue through
+asceticism.<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id=
+"FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63">[63]</a> The flight
+from Laban represents the abandonment of family and social life for
+the practical service of God, and as Jacob, the ascetic, became
+Israel, "the man who beholdeth God," so Philo determined "to scorn
+delights and live laborious days" in order to be drawn <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_57" id="page_57">[pg.57]</a></span> nearer
+to the true Being. But he seems to have been disappointed in his
+hopes, and to have discovered that the attempt to cut out the
+natural desires of man was not the true road to righteousness. "I
+often," he says,<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id=
+"FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64">[64]</a> "left my
+kindred and friends and fatherland, and went into a solitary place,
+in order that I might have knowledge of things worthy of
+contemplation, but I profited nothing: for my mind was sore tempted
+by desire and turned to opposite things. But now, sometimes even
+when I am in a multitude of men, my mind is tranquil, and God
+scatters aside all unworthy desires, teaching me that it is not
+differences of place which affect the welfare of the soul, but God
+alone, who knows and directs its activity howsoever he
+pleases."</p>
+<p>The noble pessimism of Philo's early days was replaced by a
+noble optimism in his maturity, in which he trusted implicitly in
+God's grace, and believed that God vouchsafed to the good man the
+knowledge of Himself without its being necessary for him to inflict
+chastisements upon his body or uproot his inclinations. In this
+mood moderation is represented as the way of salvation; the
+abandonment of family and social life is selfish, and betrays a
+lack of the humanity which the truly good man must possess.<a name=
+"FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_65_65">[65]</a> Of Philo's own domestic life we catch
+only a fleeting glimpse in his writings. He realized the place of
+woman in the home; "her absence is its destruction," <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_58" id="page_58">[pg.58]</a></span><br>
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">he said; and of his wife it is
+told in another of the "Fragments"</span><br>
+that when asked one day in an assembly of women why she alone did
+not wear any golden ornament, she replied, "The virtue of a husband
+is a sufficient ornament for his wife."</p>
+<p>Though in his maturity Philo renounced the ascetic life, his
+ideal throughout was a mystical union with the Divine Being. To a
+certain school of Judaism, which loves to make everything rational
+and moderate, mysticism is alien; it was alien indeed to the
+Sadducee realist and the Karaite literalist; it was alien to the
+systematic Aristotelianism of Maimonides, and it is alien alike to
+Western orthodox and Reform Judaism. But though often obscured and
+crushed by formal systems, mysticism is deeply seated in the
+religious feelings, and the race which has developed the Cabbalah
+and Hasidism cannot be accused of lack of it. Every great religion
+fosters man's aspiration to have direct communion with God in some
+super-rational way. Particularly should this be the case with a
+religion which recognizes no intermediary. The Talmudic conceptions
+of <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image13.jpg" width="208" height=
+"21">, the Divine Presence, and <img alt="Hebrew; " src=
+"images/image14.jpg" width="100" height="22"> the holy spirit,
+which was vouchsafed to the saint, certainly are mystic, and at
+Alexandria similar ideas inspired a striking development. Once
+again we can trace the fertilizing influence of Greek ideas. Even
+when the old naturalistic cults had flourished in Greece, and
+political life had provided a worthy goal for man, mystical beliefs
+and ceremonies had a powerful <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_59" id="page_59">[pg.59]</a></span> attracion for the
+Hellene; and, when the belief in the old gods had been shattered,
+and with the national greatness the liberal life of the State had
+passed away, he turned more and more to those rites which professed
+to provide healing and rest for the sickening soul. Many of the
+Alexandrian Jews must have been initiated into these Greek
+mysteries, for Philo introduces into his exegesis of the law of
+Moses an ordinance forbidding the practice.<a name="FNanchor_66_66"
+id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66">[66]</a> He
+himself advocates a more spiritual mysticism, and it is a cardinal
+principle of his philosophy to treat the human soul as a god within
+and its absorption in the universal Godhead as supreme bliss, the
+end of all endeavor. He claimed to have attained, himself, to this
+union, and to have received direct inspiration. Giving a Greek
+coloring to the Hebrew notion of prophecy, "My soul," he says, "is
+wont to be affected with a Divine trance and to prophesy about
+things of which it has no knowledge"<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id=
+"FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67">[67]</a>.... "Many a
+time have I come with the intention of writing, and knowing exactly
+what I ought to set down, but I have found my mind barren and
+fruitless, and I have gone away with nothing done, but at times I
+have come empty, and suddenly been full, for ideas were invisibly
+rained down upon me from above, so that I was seized by a Divine
+frenzy, and was lost to everything, place, people, self, speech,
+and thought. I had gotten a stream of interpretation, <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_60" id="page_60">[pg.60]</a></span> a gift
+of light, a clear survey of things, the clearest that eye can
+give."<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_68_68">[68]</a></p>
+<p>In his "Guide of the Perplexed,"<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id=
+"FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69">[69]</a> Maimonides
+describes the various degrees of the <img alt="Hebrew; " src=
+"images/image14.jpg" width="100" height="22">, or what we call
+religious "genius," with which man may be blessed. He distinguishes
+between the man who possesses it only for his own exaltation, and
+the man who feels himself compelled to impart it to others for
+their happiness. To this higher order of genius Philo advanced in
+his maturity. He consciously regarded himself as a follower of
+Moses, who was the perfect interpreter of God's thought. So he,
+though in a lesser degree, was an inspired interpreter, a
+hierophant (as he expressed it in the language of the Greek
+mystics) who expounded the Divine Word to his own generation by the
+gift of the Divine wisdom. When he had fled from Alexandria, to
+secure virtue by contemplation, he had as his final goal the
+attainment of the true knowledge of God, and as he advanced in age,
+he advanced in decision and authority. He was conscious of his
+philosophic grasp of the Torah, and the diffidence with which he
+allegorized in his early works gave place to a serene confidence
+that he had a lesson for his own and for future generations. Hoping
+for the time when Judaism should be a world-religion, he spoke his
+message for Jew and Gentile. We can imagine him preaching on
+Sabbaths to the <span class="newpage"><a name="page_61" id=
+"page_61">[pg.61]</a></span> great congregation which filled the
+synagogue at Alexandria, and on other days of the week expounding
+his philosophical ideas to a smaller circle which he collected
+around him.</p>
+<p>Essentially, then, he was a philosopher and a teacher, but he
+was called upon to play a part in the world of action. Following
+the passage already quoted, wherein Philo speaks of the blessings
+of the life of contemplation that he had led in the past,<a name=
+"FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_70_70">[70]</a> he goes on to relate how that "envy, the
+most grievous of all evils, attacked me, and threw me into the vast
+sea of public affairs, in which I am still tossed about without
+being able to make my way out." A French scholar<a name=
+"FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_71_71">[71]</a> conjectures that this is only a
+metaphorical way of saying that he was forced into some public
+office, probably, a seat in the Alexandrian Sanhedrin; and he
+ascribes the language to the bitter disappointment of one who was
+devoted to philosophical pursuits and found himself diverted from
+them. Philo's language points rather to duties which he was
+compelled to undertake less congenial than those of a member of the
+Sanhedrin would have been; and probably must refer to the polemical
+activity which he was called upon to exert in defending his people
+against misrepresentation and persecution. During the reign of
+Augustus and the early years of Tiberius (30 B.C.E.-20 C.E.) the
+Roman provinces were firmly ruled, and <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_62" id="page_62">[pg.62]</a></span> the
+governors were as firmly controlled by the emperor. To Rectus, who
+was the prefect of Egypt till 14 C.E., and who was removed for
+attempted extortion, Tiberius addressed the rebuke, "I want my
+sheep to be shorn, not strangled." But when Tiberius fell under the
+influence of Sejanus, and left to his hated minister the active
+control of the empire, harder times began for the provincials, and
+especially for the Jews. Sejanus was an upstart, and like most
+upstarts a tyrant; and for some reason&mdash;it may be jealousy of
+the power of the Jews at Rome&mdash;he hated the Jewish race and
+persecuted it. The great opponent of Sejanus was Antonia, the ward
+of Philo's brother, and a loyal friend to his people; and this,
+too, may have incited Sejanus' ill-feeling. Whatever the reason,
+the Alexandrian Jews felt the heavy hand, and when Philo came to
+write the story of his people in his own times, he devoted one book
+to the persecution by Sejanus. Unfortunately it has not survived,
+but veiled hints of the period of stress through which the people
+passed are not wanting in the commentary on the law.</p>
+<p>There were always anti-Semites spoiling for a fight at
+Alexandria, and there was always inflammable material which they
+could stir up. The Egyptian populace were by nature, says Philo,
+"jealous and envious, and were filled moreover with an ancient and
+inveterate enmity towards the Jews,"<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id=
+"FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72">[72]</a> and of the
+degenerate Greek population, many were anxious from motives
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_63" id=
+"page_63">[pg.63]</a></span> of private gain as well as from
+religious enmity to incite an outbreak; since the Jews were wealthy
+and the booty would be great. Among the cultured, too, there was
+one philosophical school powerful at Alexandria, which maintained a
+persistent attitude of hostility towards the Jews. The chief
+literary anti-Semites of whom we have record at this period were
+Stoics, and it is probably their "envy" to which Philo refers when
+he complains of being drawn into the sea of politics. In writings
+and in speeches the Stoic leaders Apion and Ch&aelig;remon carried
+on a campaign of misrepresentation, and sought to give their
+attacks a fine humanitarian justification by drawing fancy pictures
+of the Jewish religion and Jewish laws. The Jews worshipped the
+head of an ass,<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id=
+"FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73">[73]</a> they hated
+the Gentiles, and would have no communication with them, they
+killed Gentile children at the Passover, and their law allowed them
+to commit any offences against all but their own people, and
+inculcated a low morality. When it was not morally bad, it was
+degraded and superstitious. Whereas the modern anti-Semite usually
+complains about Jewish success and dangerous cleverness, Apion
+accused them of having produced no original ideas and no great men,
+and no citizen as worthy of Alexandria as himself! Against these
+charges Philo, the most philosophical Jew of the time and the most
+distinguished member of the Alexandrian <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_64" id="page_64">[pg.64]</a></span>
+community, was called upon to defend his people, and that part of
+his works which Eusebius calls <img alt="Greek: Hypotheticha" src=
+"images/image15.jpg" width="84" height="19">; <i>i.e.</i>
+apologetics, was probably written in reply to the Stoic attacks.
+The hatred of the Stoics was a religious hatred, which is the
+bitterest of all; the Stoics were the propagators of a rival
+religious system, which had originally been founded by Hellenized
+Semites and borrowed much from Semitic sources. They had their
+missionaries everywhere and aspired to found a universal
+philosophical religion. In their proselytizing activity they tried
+to assimilate to their pantheism the mythological religion of the
+masses, and thus they became the philosophical supporters of
+idolatry. Their greatest religious opponents were the Jews, who not
+only refused to accept their teachings, but preached to the nations
+a transcendental monotheism against their impersonal and
+accommodating pantheism, and a divinely-revealed law of conduct
+against their vague natural reason. In the Stoic pantheism the
+first stand of the pagan national deities was made against the God
+of Israel, and at Alexandria during the first century the fight
+waxed fierce. It was a fight of ideas in which persons only were
+victims, but at the back of the intermittent persecutions of which
+we have record we may always surmise the influence of the Stoic
+anti-Semites. The war of words translated itself from time to time
+into the breaking of heads.</p>
+<p>Philo, indeed, never mentions Apion by name, but he refers
+covertly in many places to his insolence and <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_65" id="page_65">[pg.65]</a></span>
+unscrupulousness.<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id=
+"FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74">[74]</a> Josephus
+wrote a famous reply to his attacks, refuting "his vulgar abuse,
+gross ignorance and demagogic claptrap,"<a name="FNanchor_75_75"
+id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75">[75]</a> and the
+fact that a Palestinian Jew thought this apology necessary, proves
+the wide dissemination of the poison. The disgrace and death of
+Sejanus seem to have brought a relief from actual persecution to
+the Alexandrian Jews; but the ill-will between the two races in the
+city smouldered on, and it only required a weakening of the
+controlling hand at Rome to set the passions aflame again. Right
+through Philo's treatise "On the Confusion of Tongues," we can
+trace the tension. As soon as Gaius, surnamed Caligula, came to the
+imperial chair, the opportunity of the anti-Semites returned.
+Gaius, after reigning well a few months, fell ill, was seized with
+madness, and proved how much evil can be done in a short space by
+an imbecile autocrat. Flaccus, the governor of Egypt, who had
+hitherto ruled fairly, hoping to ingratiate himself by misrule,
+allowed himself to be led by worthless minions, who, from motives
+of private greed, desired a riot at Alexandria; he was won over by
+the anti-Semites and gave the mob a free hand in their attacks upon
+the "alien Jews."<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id=
+"FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76">[76]</a> The arrival
+of Agrippa, the grandson of Herod, who was on his way to his
+kingdom of Palestine, which the capricious emperor had just
+conferred upon him, excited the ill-will of the Alexandrian
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_66" id=
+"page_66">[pg.66]</a></span> mob. Flaccus looked on while the
+people attacked the Jewish quarters, sacked the houses, and
+assailed everyone that came within their reach. The most
+distinguished Jews were not spared, and thirty members of the
+Council of Elders were dragged to the marketplace and scourged.
+Philo's account gives a picture strikingly similar to that of a
+modern pogrom. The brutal indifference of Flaccus did not indeed
+avail to ingratiate him with the emperor, and he was recalled to
+Italy, exiled, and afterwards executed.</p>
+<p>The recall of Flaccus did not, however, put an end to the
+troubles; the mob had got out of hand, the anti-Semitic demagogues
+were elated, and a fresh opportunity for outrage soon presented
+itself. The mad emperor, having exhausted ordinary human follies,
+went on to imagine himself first a god and then the Supreme God,
+and finally ordered his image to be set up in every temple
+throughout his dominion. The Jews could not obey the order, and the
+mob rushed into fresh excesses upon them, defiled the synagogues
+with images of the lunatic, and in the great synagogue itself set
+up a bronze statue of him, inscribed with the name of Jupiter. With
+bitterness Philo points out that it was easy enough for the vile
+Egyptians, who worshipped reptiles and beasts, to erect a statue of
+the emperor in their temples; for the Jews, with their lofty idea
+of God, it was impossible. Against the attack upon their liberty of
+conscience they appealed directly to Gaius. An embassy was sent to
+lay their case before him, and Philo went to Italy at the
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_67" id=
+"page_67">[pg.67]</a></span> head of the embassy. "He who is
+learned, gentle, and modest, and who is beloved of men, he shall be
+leader in the city." So said one of the rabbis of old, and the
+maxim is especially appropriate to Philo, who in name and deed was
+"beloved of men." Philo has left us a very full account of his
+mission, so that this incident of his life is a patch of bright
+light, which stands out almost glaringly from the general shadow.
+The account is not merely, nor, indeed, entirely history. Looking
+always for a sermon or a subject for a philosophical lesson, Philo
+has tricked out the record of the facts with much moralizing
+observation on the general lot of mankind, and elaborated the part
+of Providence more in the spirit of religious romance than of
+scientific history. Yet the main facts are clear. Philo prepared a
+long philosophical "apologia" for the Jews and set out with five
+colleagues for Italy. Nor were the enemies of the Jews remiss; and
+Apion, the Alexandrian anti-Semite, was sent at the head of a
+hostile deputation. The emperor, Gaius, was in one of his most
+flippant moods and little inclined to listen to philosophical or
+literary disquisitions. At first he received the Jewish deputation
+in a friendly way, and led them to think that he was favorable; but
+when they came to plead their cause, they had a rude awakening.
+Philo, who was not likely to appreciate the bitter humor of the
+situation, tells<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id=
+"FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77">[77]</a> with
+gravity that he expected that <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_68" id="page_68">[pg.68]</a></span> the emperor would hear
+the two contending parties in all proper judicial form, but that in
+fact he behaved like an insolent, overbearing tyrant. The
+audience&mdash;if it can be so called&mdash;took place in the
+gardens of the palace, and the emperor dragged the unfortunate
+deputation after him about the place, while he gave orders to his
+gardeners, builders, and workmen. Whenever they tried to put
+forward their arguments, he would rush ahead, enjoying the fright
+and dismay of his helpless victims. At times he would stop to make
+some ribald and jeering remark, as, "Why don't you eat pork, you
+fools?" at which the Egyptians following loudly applauded. Philo
+and his comrades, half-dead with agony, could only pray; and in
+response to the prayer, says our moralizing chronicler, the
+emperor's heart was turned to pity, so that he dismissed them
+without giving any hostile answer. According to Josephus, he drove
+them away in a passion, and Philo had to cheer his companions by
+assuring them of the Divine aid.<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id=
+"FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78">[78]</a></p>
+<p>The affair was a pathetic farce, and the Jewish actors in it had
+a sorry time. The people about the palace, taking their lead from
+the emperor, treated them as clowns, and hissed and mocked them,
+and even beat them. The scene is somewhat revolting when one
+conjures up the picture of the aged Jewish philosopher being
+roughly handled by the set of ruffians and impudent slaves who
+surrounded a Roman emperor. Happily Gaius jeered once too often in
+his <span class="newpage"><a name="page_69" id=
+"page_69">[pg.69]</a></span> mad life. One Chaerea, a Roman of
+position, nursed an insult of the emperor, and stabbed him shortly
+after these events; and the world had the respite of a tolerably
+sane emperor before the crowning horror of Nero was let loose upon
+it.</p>
+<p>The murder of the capricious tyrant released not only the Jews
+of Alexandria, but also the Jews of Palestine, from the burden of
+fear for their religion. The order had been given to set up a
+bronze statue of the emperor in the temple; the Roman governor
+Petronius was averse to obeying the edict, but the emperor
+insisted. King Agrippa, who had been but lately advanced by him to
+the kingdom of Jud&aelig;a, interceded zealously on behalf of his
+people. Philo gives us an account of this appeal by the Jewish
+king,<a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_79_79">[79]</a> which recalls at every turn the scenes
+of the book of Esther. We have again the fasting, the banquet, the
+emperor's request, the appeal of the royal favorite for his people.
+One higher critic, indeed, has been found to suggest that the
+Biblical book really relates Agrippa's intercession at Rome
+disguised in the setting of a Persian story. Agrippa secured for a
+short time the rescission of the fateful decree, but the capricious
+madman soon returned to his old frame of mind, and ordered his
+image to be set up immediately. Had not his death intervened, there
+would certainly have been rebellion in Palestine. As it was, the
+great revolt was postponed for thirty years. For a little the Jews
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_70" id=
+"page_70">[pg.70]</a></span> prevailed over their adversaries; the
+anti-Semitic influences were put down in Jud&aelig;a and in
+Alexandria, and in both places "there was light and joy and
+gladness for the Jews." Their political privileges were reaffirmed
+by imperial decree, and Philo's brother Alexander, who had been
+imprisoned, was restored to honor.<a name="FNanchor_80_80" id=
+"FNanchor_80_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80_80">[80]</a> "It is
+fitting," ran the rescript of Claudius, "to permit the Jews
+everywhere under our sway to observe their ancient customs without
+hindrance. And I charge them to use my indulgence with moderation,
+and not to show contempt for the religious rites of other
+peoples."</p>
+<p>The note of triumph rings through the political references to be
+found in the last parts of Philo's allegorical commentary, and no
+doubt it was accentuated in the lost book which he added as an
+epilogue, or palinode, to his history of the embassy. God had again
+preserved his people, and discomfited their foes;
+recently-discovered papyri have revealed that the arch
+anti-Semites, Isidorus and Lampon, were tried at Rome and executed.
+Claudius was well-disposed to the Jewish race, and before the final
+storm there was a calm. Howbeit, after the death of Agrippa, in 44
+C.E., Jud&aelig;a became a Roman province, and under the rapacious
+governorship of Felix Florus and Cestius Gallus, the hostility of
+the people to the Romans grew more and more bitter. But in
+Alexandria there was tranquillity, or at least we know of no
+disquieting events during the next decade. <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_71" id="page_71">[pg.71]</a></span> "Old
+age," said Philo, "is an unruffled harbor,"<a name="FNanchor_81_81"
+id="FNanchor_81_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_81">[81]</a> and the
+saying refers possibly to his own experience. For he must have died
+full of years and full of honors. Through his life he was the
+spiritual and philosophical guide, and finally he had become the
+champion of his people against their persecutors, giving dignity to
+their cause and inspiring respect even in their enemies. He was
+happy in the time of his death, for he did not live to see the
+destruction of the national home of his people and of that temple
+which he had loved to contemplate as the future centre of a
+universal religion. The disintegration of his own community at
+Alexandria followed full soon on the greater disaster; the temple
+of Onias was dismantled and interdicted against Jewish worship by
+Vespasian in the year 73 C.E., and though, as has been noted, this
+was not in itself of great importance, it is symbolic of the
+uprooting of national life in the Diaspora as well as in Palestine
+itself. On the downfall of Jerusalem in 70 C.E. many of the extreme
+anti-Roman party, known as the Zealots, fled to Alexandria and
+stirred up rebellion and dissension. Nothing but disaster could
+have attended the outbreak, but it is a sad reflection that the
+governor who put it down and ruthlessly exterminated the rebels was
+none other than Tiberius Alexander, the nephew of Philo, who was in
+turn procurator of Jud&aelig;a and Egypt. By another irony of
+history he had in the previous year been largely instrumental in
+securing for Vespasian, <span class="newpage"><a name="page_72" id=
+"page_72">[pg.72]</a></span> who was besieging Jerusalem, the
+imperial throne of Rome.<a name="FNanchor_82_82" id=
+"FNanchor_82_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82_82">[82]</a> With him
+ends our knowledge of Philo's family, and it ends significantly
+with one who has ceased to be a Jew. The ruin of the
+Jewish-Alexandrian community was completed by a desperate revolt in
+the reign of Trajan, 114-117 C.E., after which they were deprived
+of their chief political privileges; and finally, after incessant
+conflicts with the Christians, they were expelled from the city by
+the all-powerful Bishop Cyril (415 C.E.).</p>
+<p>Philo himself passed out of Jewish tradition within a short
+time, to become a Christian worthy. The destruction of the nation
+and the gradual severance of the Christian heresy from the main
+community compelled the abandonment of missionary activity and
+distrust of the work of its exponents. The dangerous aspect of the
+Alexandrian development was revealed. Its philosophical
+allegorizing might attract the Gentile to the Jewish Scriptures,
+but it also led the Jew away from his special conduct of life. The
+Alexandrian Church, which claimed to continue the tradition of
+Philo, departed further and further from the Jewish standpoint, and
+formulated a dogmatic creed that was utterly opposed to Jewish
+monotheism. A philosophical Judaism for the whole world was a
+splendid ideal, but unfortunately in Philo's time it was incapable
+of accomplishment. The result of the attempt to found it was the
+establishment of a religion in which, together with the adoption of
+Hebraic <span class="newpage"><a name="page_73" id=
+"page_73">[pg.73]</a></span> teachings about God, certain ideas of
+Alexandrian mysticism became stereotyped as dogmas, and Jewish law
+was abrogated. When Babylon replaced Palestine as the centre of
+Jewish intellect, the works of Philo, like the rest of the
+Hellenistic-Jewish literature, written as they were in a strange
+tongue, fell into disuse, and before long were entirely forgotten.
+The Christians, on the other hand, found in Philo a notable
+evidence for many of their beliefs and a philosophical testimony
+for the dogmas of their creed. They claimed him as their own, and
+the Church Fathers, to bind him more closely to their tradition,
+invented fables of his meeting with Peter at Rome and Mark at
+Alexandria, They traced, in the treatise "On the Contemplative
+Life," a record of early Christian monastic communities, and on
+account of this book especially regarded Philo almost with the
+reverence of an apostle. To the Christian theologians of Alexandria
+we owe it that the interpretation of Judaism to the Hellenic world
+in the light of Hellenic philosophy has been preserved. Of the two
+Jewish philosophers who have made a great contribution to the
+world's intellectual development, Spinoza was excommunicated in his
+lifetime, and Philo suffered moral excommunication after his death.
+The writings of both exercised their chief influence outside the
+community; but the emancipated Jewry of our own day can in either
+case recognize the worth of the thinker, and point with pride to
+the saintliness of the man. <span class="newpage"><a name="page_74"
+id="page_74">[pg.74]</a></span></p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;">
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<a name="III" id="III"></a>
+<h2>III</h2>
+<p>PHILO'S WORKS AND METHOD</p>
+<br>
+<p>The first thing that strikes a reader of Philo is the great
+volume of his work: he is the first Jewish writer to produce a
+large and systematic body of writings, the first to develop
+anything in the nature of a complete Jewish philosophy. He had
+essentially the literary gift, the capacity of giving lasting
+expression to his own thought and the thought of his generation.
+Treating him merely as a man of letters, he is one of the chief
+figures in Greek literature of the first century. We have extant
+over forty books of his composition, and nearly as many again have
+disappeared. His works are one and all expositions of Judaism, but
+they fall into six distinct classes of exegesis:</p>
+<p>I. The allegorical commentary, or "Allegories of the Laws,"
+which is a series of philosophical treatises based upon continuous
+texts in Genesis, from the first to the eighteenth chapter.
+Together with this, the best authorities place the two remaining
+books on the "Dreams of the Bible," which are a portion of a larger
+work, and deal allegorically with the dreams of Jacob and
+Joseph.</p>
+<p>II. The Midrashic commentary on the Five Books of Moses, for
+which we have no single name, but <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_75" id="page_75">[pg.75]</a></span> which was clearly
+intended to be an ethical and philosophical treatise upon the whole
+law.</p>
+<p>III. A commentary in the form of "Questions and Answers to
+Genesis and Exodus," which is incomplete now, and save for detached
+fragments exists only in a Latin translation. In its original form
+it provided a short running exegesis, verse by verse, to the whole
+of the first three books of the Pentateuch, and was contained in
+twelve parts.</p>
+<p>IV. A popular and missionizing presentation of the Jewish system
+in the form of a "Life of Moses," and three appended tractates on
+the virtues "Courage," "Humanity," and "Repentance."
+Scholars<a name="FNanchor_83_83" id="FNanchor_83_83"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_83_83">[83]</a> are of opinion that there are gaps in
+the extant "Life of Moses," but the general plan of the work is
+clear. It is at once an abstract and an interpretation of Jewish
+law for the Greek world, and also an ideal biography of the Jewish
+lawgiver.</p>
+<p>V. Philosophical monographs, not so intimately connected with
+the Bible as the preceding works; but in the nature of rhetorical
+exercises upon the stock subjects of the schools, which receive a
+Jewish coloring by reason of Biblical illustrations.</p>
+<p>VI. Historical and apologetic works that set out the case of the
+contemporary Jews against their persecutors and traducers. Of these
+writings the larger part has disappeared, and of a portion of those
+which remain the genuineness has been doubted.</p>
+<p>Lastly, there is a miscellaneous number of works <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_76" id="page_76">[pg.76]</a></span>
+ascribed to Philo, which all good scholars<a name="FNanchor_84_84"
+id="FNanchor_84_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84_84">[84]</a> now
+admit to be spurious: "On the Incorruptibility of the World," "On
+the Universe," "On Samson," and "On Jonah," etc.</p>
+<p>It will be seen from this classification of Philo's works, that
+he has dealt in several ways with the Biblical material. The reason
+of this is partly that his mind developed, and the interpretation
+of his maturer years differed widely from that of his earliest
+writings. Partly, however, it arises from the fact that the
+different treatments were meant for different audiences, and Philo
+always took the measure of those whom he was addressing. His most
+representative works are "a triple cord" with which he binds the
+Jewish Scripture to Greek culture. For the Greek-speaking populace
+he set out a broad statement of the Mosaic law; for the cultured
+community of Alexandria, Jew and Gentile, a more elaborate
+exegesis, in which each character and each ordinance of the
+Pentateuch received a particular ethical value; and, finally, for
+the esoteric circle of Hellenic-Jewish philosophers, a theological
+and psychological study of the allegories of the law. Origen, the
+first great Christian exegete of the Bible and a close student of
+the Philonic writings, distinguished three forms of interpreting:
+the historical, the moral, and the philosophical; he probably took
+the distinction from Philo, who exemplifies it in his commentaries
+upon the Books of Moses. <span class="newpage"><a name="page_77"
+id="page_77">[pg.77]</a></span> Varied as is its scope, the
+religious idea dominates all his work, and endows it with one
+spirit. Whether he is writing philosophical, ethical, or mystical
+commentary, whether history, apology, or essay, his purpose is to
+assert the true notion of the one God, and the Divine excellence of
+God's revelation to His chosen people. Thus he regards history as a
+theodicy, vindicating the ways of God to man, and His special
+providence for Israel; philosophy as the inner meaning of the
+Scriptures, revealed by God in mystic communion with His holy
+prophets,<a name="FNanchor_85_85" id="FNanchor_85_85"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_85_85">[85]</a> and, if comprehended aright, able to
+lead us on to a true conception of His Divine being. The greater
+part of the Hellenistic-Jewish literature has disappeared, but
+Philo sums up for us the whole of the Alexandrian development of
+Judaism. He represents it worthily in both its main aspects: the
+infusion of Greek culture into the Jewish pursuit of righteousness,
+and the recommendation of Jewish monotheism and the Torah to the
+Greek world. Aristaeus, Aristobulus, and Artapanus are hardly more
+than names, but their spirit is inherited and glorified in
+Philo-Jud&aelig;us. His work, therefore, is more than the
+expression of one great mind; it is the record and expression of a
+great culture.</p>
+<p>The chronology of Philo's writings is as uncertain as the
+chronology of his life. Yet it is possible to trace a deepening of
+outlook and an increasing originality, if we work our way up from
+the sixth to the <span class="newpage"><a name="page_78" id=
+"page_78">[pg.78]</a></span> first division of the classification.
+It does not follow that the works were written in this
+order&mdash;and it may well be that Philo was producing at one and
+the same time books of several classes&mdash;but we may use this
+order as an ideal scale by which to mark off the stage of his
+philosophical progress. In the first place come the <img alt=
+"Greek: Hypotheticha" src="images/image15.jpg" width="84" height=
+"19">, or apologetic works, which have a practical purpose. With
+these we may associate the moralizing history that dealt in five
+books respectively with the persecutions of Sejanus, Flaccus, and
+Caligula, the ill-starred embassy, and the final triumph of the
+Jews over their enemies. The <img alt="Greek: Hypotheticha " src=
+"images/image15.jpg" width="84" height="19"> proper, as we gather
+from Eusebius, contained a general apology for Judaism, and an
+account of the Essenes&mdash;which have disappeared&mdash;and the
+suspected book on the Therapeutic sect known by the title "On the
+Contemplative Life." Whether they received this generic name
+because they are suggestions for the Jewish cause, or because they
+are written to answer the insinuations <img alt=
+"Greek: chath' hypothesin" src="images/image16.jpg" width="135"
+height="25"> of adversaries, is a moot point. But their general
+purport is clear: they were an apologetic presentation of Jewish
+life, written to show the falsity of anti-Semitic calumnies. The
+Jews are good citizens and their manner of life is humanitarian.
+The Essene sect is a living proof of Jewish practical socialism and
+practical philosophy, the Therapeutae show the Jewish zeal for the
+contemplative life.</p>
+<p>Next we come to Philo's philosophical monographs, which are not,
+as one might expect, the work of his <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_79" id="page_79">[pg.79]</a></span> mature thought, but
+rather the exercises of youth. Dissertations or declamations upon
+hackneyed subjects were part of the regular course of the
+university student at Alexandria, and Philo prepared himself for
+his Jewish philosophy by composing in the approved style essays
+upon "Providence," "The Liberty of the Good," and "The Slavery of
+the Wicked," etc. What chiefly distinguishes them above other
+collections of commonplaces is the appeal to the Bible for types of
+goodness, and here again the Essenes figure as the type of the
+philosophical life.<a name="FNanchor_86_86" id=
+"FNanchor_86_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86_86">[86]</a> The writer,
+while still engaged in the studies of the Greek university, is
+feeling his way towards his system of universal Mosaism.</p>
+<p>This he expounds confidently and enthusiastically in his "Life
+of Moses." Philo in this book is not any longer the apt pupil of
+Greek philosophers, nor the eloquent defender of the
+Jewish-Alexandrian community against lying detractors. He preaches
+a mission to the whole world, and he lays before it his gospel of
+monotheism and humanity. Each Greek school has its ideal type, its
+Socrates, Diogenes, or Pythagoras; but Philo places above them all
+"the most perfect man that ever lived, Moses, the legislator of the
+Jews,<a name="FNanchor_87_87" id="FNanchor_87_87"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_87_87">[87]</a> as some hold, but according to others
+the interpreter of the sacred laws, and the greatest of men in
+every way." And above all the ethical systems of the day he sets
+the law of life that God <span class="newpage"><a name="page_80"
+id="page_80">[pg.80]</a></span> revealed to His greatest prophet:
+"The laws of the Greek legislators are continually subject to
+change; the laws of Moses alone remain steady, unmoved, unshaken,
+stamped as it were with the seal of nature herself, from the day
+when they were written to the present day, and will so remain for
+all time so long as the world endures. Not only the Jews but all
+other peoples who care for righteousness adopt them.... Let all men
+follow this code and the age of universal peace will come about,
+the kingdom of God on earth will be established."<a name=
+"FNanchor_88_88" id="FNanchor_88_88"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_88_88">[88]</a> Nor is the Greek to fear the lot of a
+proselyte. "God loves the man who turns from idolatry to the true
+faith not less than the man who has been a believer all his
+life;"<a name="FNanchor_89_89" id="FNanchor_89_89"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_89_89">[89]</a> and in the little essays upon Repentance
+and Nobility, which are attached to the larger treatise, Philo
+appeals to his own people to welcome the stranger within the
+community. "The Life of Moses" is the greatest attempt to set
+monotheism before the world made before the Christian gospels. And
+it is truer to the Jewish spirit, because it breathes on every page
+love for the Torah. Philo in very truth wished to fulfil the
+law.</p>
+<p>If Judaism was to be the universal religion, it must be shown to
+contain the ultimate truth both about real being, <i>i.e.</i> God,
+and about ethics; for the philosophical world in that age&mdash;and
+the philosophical world included all educated people&mdash;demanded
+of <span class="newpage"><a name="page_81" id=
+"page_81">[pg.81]</a></span> religion that it should be
+philosophical, and of philosophy that it should be religious. The
+desire to expound Judaism in this way is the motive of Philo's
+three Biblical commentaries. The "Questions and Answers to Genesis
+and Exodus" constitute a preliminary study to the more elaborate
+works which followed. In them Philo is collecting his material,
+formulating his ideas, and determining the main lines of his
+allegory. They are a type of Midrash in its elementary stage, the
+explanation of the teacher to the pupil who has difficulties about
+the words of the law: at once like and unlike the old Tannaitic
+Midrash; like in that they deal with difficulties in the literal
+text of the Bible; unlike in that the reply of Philo is Agadic more
+usually than Halakic, speculative rather than practical. In these
+books,<a name="FNanchor_90_90" id="FNanchor_90_90"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_90_90">[90]</a> as has been pointed out, there are
+numerous interpretations which Philo shares with the Palestinian
+schools. A few specimens taken from the first book will illustrate
+Philo's plan, but it should be mentioned that in every case he sets
+out the simple meaning of the text, the <i>Peshat</i>, as well as
+the inner meaning, or <i>Derash</i>.</p>
+<p>"Why does it say: 'And God made every green herb of the field
+before it was upon the earth'? (Gen. ii. 4.)</p>
+<p>"By these words he suggests symbolically the incorporeal Idea.
+The phrase, 'before it was upon the earth,' marks the original
+perfection of every plant <span class="newpage"><a name="page_82"
+id="page_82">[pg.82]</a></span> and herb. The eternal types were
+first created in the noetic world, and the physical objects on
+earth, perceptible by the senses, were made in their likeness."</p>
+<p>In this way Philo reads into the first chapter of the Bible the
+Platonic idealism which we shall see was a fundamental part of his
+philosophy.</p>
+<p>"Why, when Enoch died, does it say, 'And he pleased God'? (Gen.
+v. 24.)</p>
+<p>"He says this to teach that the soul is immortal, inasmuch as
+after it is released from the body it continues to please."</p>
+<p>"What is the meaning of the expression, 'And Noah opened the
+roof of the ark'? (Gen. viii. 13.)</p>
+<p>"The text appears to need no interpretation; but in its
+symbolical meaning the ark is our body, and that which covers the
+body and for a long time preserves its strength is spoken of as its
+roof. And this is appetite. Hence when the mind is attracted by a
+desire for heavenly things, it springs upwards and makes away with
+all material desires. It removes that which threw a shade over it
+so as to reach the eternal Ideas."</p>
+<p>The "Questions and Answers" are essentially Hebraic in form,
+designed for Jews who knew and studied their Bible; and we can feel
+in them the influences of a training in traditional Mishnah and
+Midrash; but Philo passed from them to a more artistic expression
+and a more thoroughly Hellenized presentation of the philosophy of
+the Bible. This work is the largest extant expression of his
+thought and mission; it embraces the treatises which we know
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_83" id=
+"page_83">[pg.83]</a></span> as "On the Creation of the World,"
+"The Lives of Abraham and Joseph," "On the Decalogue," and finally
+those "On the Specific Laws," which are partly thus entitled and
+partly have separate ethical names, as "On Honoring Parents," "On
+Rewards and Punishments," "On Justice," etc. Large portions of it
+have disappeared, notably the "Lives of Isaac and Jacob"; and also
+the "Life of Moses," which was introductory to his laws. For the
+book which we have under that name does not belong to the series,
+but is separate. The purpose of the work broadly is to deepen the
+value of the Bible for the Jews by revealing its constant spiritual
+message, and to assert its value for the whole of humanity by
+showing in it a philosophical conception of the universe and its
+creation, the most lofty ethical and moral types, the most
+admirable laws, and, above all, the purest ideas of God and His
+relation to man. All that seems tribal and particularist is
+explained away, and the spiritual aspect of every chapter&mdash;of
+every word almost&mdash;of the Torah is emphasized. Philo expounds
+the sacred book, not of one particular nation, but of mankind. The
+Roman and Greek peoples were waiting for a religious message which
+should at once harmonize with rational ideas and satisfy their
+longing for God. All the philosophical schools were converting the
+scientific systems of the classical age into <img alt=
+"Greek: Tropoi Biou" src="images/image17.jpg" width="103" height=
+"22">, "plans of life," and Philo challenges them all with a new
+faith which has as its basis a God who not only was the sole
+Creator and Ruler of <span class="newpage"><a name="page_84" id=
+"page_84">[pg.84]</a></span> the world, but who had revealed to man
+the way of happiness, and the good life, social as well as
+individual. To-day, when the world about us has accepted&mdash;or
+has professed to accept&mdash;the ethical law of the Bible, we are
+apt to regard the essentials of Judaism as the belief in One God
+and the observance of ceremonies. But to Philo Judaism was
+something more comprehensive. It was the spiritual life, and the
+Mosaic law is the complete code of the Divine Republic, of which
+all are or can be citizens. In the introduction to the "Life of
+Abraham," Philo explains the scheme of his work:<a name=
+"FNanchor_91_91" id="FNanchor_91_91"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_91_91">[91]</a></p>
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>"'The Sacred Laws' [as he regularly calls the Bible] were
+written in five books, of which the first is entitled Genesis. It
+derives its title from the account of the creation which it
+contains, though it deals also with endless other subjects, peace
+and war, hunger and plenty, great cataclysms, and the histories of
+good and evil men. We have examined with great care the accounts of
+the creation in our former treatise ['On the Making of the
+Universe'], and we now go on naturally to inquire into the laws;
+and postponing the particular laws, which are as it were copies, we
+will first of all examine the more universal, which are their
+models. Now men who have lived irreproachable lives are these laws,
+and their virtues are recorded in the Holy Scriptures not only by
+way of eulogy, but in order to lead on those who read about them to
+emulate their life. They are become living standards of right
+reason, whom the lawgiver has glorified for two reasons: (1) To
+show that the laws laid down are consistent with nature [the
+conception of a <span class="newpage"><a name="page_85" id=
+"page_85">[pg.85]</a></span> natural law binding upon all peoples
+was one of the fixed ideas of the age]. (2) To show that it is not
+a matter of terrible labor to live according to our positive laws
+if a man has the will to do so; seeing that the patriarchs
+spontaneously followed the unwritten principles before any of the
+particular laws were written. So that a man may properly say that
+the code of law is only a memorial of the lives of the patriarchs.
+For the patriarchs, of their own accord and impulse, chose to
+follow nature, and, regarding her course with truth as the most
+ancient ordinance, they lived a life according to the law."</p>
+</div>
+<p>Philo dwells affectionately on the patriarchs, because, as he
+held, they proved the Jewish life to be truest to man's nature and
+to the highest ideal of humanity, and served therefore as examples
+to the Gentile world of the universal truth of the religion. The
+rabbis also took the patriarchs as the perfect type of our life,
+saying, "Everything that happens to them is a sign to future
+generations,"<a name="FNanchor_92_92" id=
+"FNanchor_92_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92_92">[92]</a> and again:
+"The patriarchs are the true <img alt="Hebrew; " src=
+"images/image18.jpg" width="56" height="16">, manifestation of
+God." But while he emphasized the broad moral teachings of Judaism
+exemplified by the patriarchs, Philo nevertheless upheld in its
+integrity the Mosaic law, and found in every one of the six hundred
+and thirteen precepts a spiritual meaning. Even the details of the
+tabernacle offerings have their universal lesson when he expounds
+them as symbols. Voltaire speaks cynically of Judaism as a religion
+of sacrifices: Philo shows that the ritual of sacrifice
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_86" id=
+"page_86">[pg.86]</a></span> suggests moral lessons. The command of
+the red heifer, a part of the law which was particularly subject to
+attack, emphasizes the law of moral as well as of physical
+cleanliness. The prohibition to add honey or leaven to the
+sacrifice<a name="FNanchor_93_93" id="FNanchor_93_93"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_93_93">[93]</a> (Lev. ii. 13) points the lesson that all
+superfluous pleasure is unrighteous; and so on with each
+prescription.</p>
+<p>The Mosaic code in his exposition is commensurate with life in
+all its aspects. It deals not only with the duties of the
+individual but also with the good government of the state. The life
+of Joseph is made the text of a political treatise, and throughout
+the books "On the Specific Laws," the socialism of the Bible is
+emphasized,<a name="FNanchor_94_94" id=
+"FNanchor_94_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94_94">[94]</a> and held up
+as the ideal order of the future. The Jewish State is enlarged in
+Philo's vision from a national theocracy into a world-city inspired
+by the two ideas of love of God and love of humanity. In this
+conception, no doubt, the influence of Greek philosophy is to be
+seen; the Jewish interpreter keeps before him the "Republic" of
+Plato, and the "Polity" of Aristotle. With him, however, the ideal
+state is not a vision "laid up in heaven";<a name="FNanchor_95_95"
+id="FNanchor_95_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95_95">[95]</a> its
+foundation is already laid upon earth, its capital is Jerusalem,
+and it is the mission of his people to extend its borders till it
+embraces all nations<a name="FNanchor_96_96" id=
+"FNanchor_96_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96_96">[96]</a>&mdash;an
+idea which permeates the Jewish litany.</p>
+<p>This commentary of the law is allegorical in the <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_87" id="page_87">[pg.87]</a></span> sense
+that beneath the particular law the interpreter constantly reveals
+a spiritual idea, but it is not allegorical in the sense that he
+makes an exchange of values. He is not for the most part reading
+into the text conceptions which are not suggested by it, but really
+and truly expounding; and where he gives a philosophical piece of
+exegesis, as when he explains the visit of the three angels to
+Abraham as a theory of the human soul about God's being,<a name=
+"FNanchor_97_97" id="FNanchor_97_97"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_97_97">[97]</a> he does so with diffidence or with
+reference to authorities that have founded a tradition. It is quite
+otherwise with the last class of Philo's work, the fruit of his
+maturest thought, with which it remains to deal.</p>
+<p>Throughout the "Allegories of the Laws" he takes the verse of
+the Bible not so much as a text to be amplified and interpreted,
+but as a pretext for a philosophical disquisition. The allegories
+indeed are only in form a commentary on the Bible; in one aspect
+they are a history of the human soul, which, if they had been
+completed, would have traced the upward progress from Adam to
+Moses. It is not to be expected, however, that Philo should adhere
+closely to any plan in the allegories. Theology, metaphysics, and
+ethics have as large a part in the medley of philosophical ideas as
+the story of the soul. His Hebraic mind, even when fortified by the
+mastery of philosophy, was unable to present its ideas
+systematically; it passed from subject to subject, weaving the
+whole together only by the thread of a continuous <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_88" id="page_88">[pg.88]</a></span>
+commentary upon Genesis. Parts of the work are missing, it is true,
+which adds to the seeming want of plan; and&mdash;greatest loss of
+all&mdash;the first part, which gave the philosophical account of
+the first chapter of Genesis, the first six days of creation,
+referred to as "The Hexameron" <img alt="Greek: to Hex&ecirc;meron"
+src="images/image19.jpg" width="127" height="28">, has
+disappeared.<a name="FNanchor_98_98" id=
+"FNanchor_98_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98_98">[98]</a> Here must
+have been the general introduction to the allegories, wherein Philo
+declared his purpose and his method of exposition. The first
+treatise that we possess starts abruptly with a comment on the
+first verse of the second chapter, "'And the heaven and earth and
+all their world were completed.' Moses has previously related the
+creation of the mind and sense, and now he proceeds to describe
+their perfection. Their perfection is not the individual mind or
+sense, but their archetypal 'ideas.' And symbolically he calls the
+mind heaven, because in heaven are the ideas of the mind, and the
+sense he calls earth, because it is corporeal and
+material."<a name="FNanchor_99_99" id="FNanchor_99_99"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_99_99">[99]</a></p>
+<p>So in a rambling, unsystematic way Philo embarks upon a
+discourse on idealism and psychology, making a fresh start
+continually from a verse or a phrase of the Bible. The Biblical
+narrative in the earliest chapters offered a congenial soil for his
+explorations, but no ground is too stubborn for his seed. The
+genealogy of Noah's sons is as fertile in suggestion as the story
+of Adam and Eve, for each name represents some hidden power or
+possesses some ethical import.</p>
+<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_89" id=
+"page_89">[pg.89]</a></span> The allegorical commentary is clearly
+the work of Philo's maturity, wherein he exhibits full mastery of
+an original method of exegesis. His allegories are no longer
+tentative, and he writes with the confidence of the sage, who has
+received not only the admiration of his people, but the inspiration
+of God. Another sign of their maturity is that asceticism seems no
+longer the true path to virtue, as it was to the author of "The
+Lives of the Patriarchs" and "The Specific Laws," but, on the
+contrary, a moderate use of the world's goods and a share in
+political life are marks of the perfect man. These characteristics
+bespeak the firmer hand and the profounder experience. Yet the
+series of works which form together Philo's esoteric doctrine were
+certainly put together over a long period of years, as the varied
+political references indicate. It has indeed been suggested by a
+modern German scholar<a name="FNanchor_100_100" id=
+"FNanchor_100_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100_100">[100]</a> that
+large parts were originally given in the form of detached lectures
+and sermons, and that Philo later composed them together into a
+continuous commentary, working them up with much literary
+elaboration. In support of this theory, it may be urged that
+several of the treatises contain political addresses to public
+audiences, notably the <i>De Agricultura</i> and <i>De Confusione
+Linguarum</i>, while in others there are invocations to prayer, or
+a summons to read a passage in the Bible, addressed apparently by
+the preacher to the Hazan, who had before him the scroll of the
+law. From Philo's own statements we know that the wisest men used
+to deliver philosophical <span class="newpage"><a name="page_90"
+id="page_90">[pg.90]</a></span> homilies upon the Bible on the
+Sabbath day; and it is natural that the man who was appointed to
+head the Jewish embassy to Gaius had made himself known in the past
+to his brethren for oratory and wisdom of speech. "Sermons," said
+Jowett, "though they deal with eternal subjects, are the most
+evanescent form of literature." The dictum is true for the most
+part, but occasionally the sermon, by its depth of thought, the
+universality of its message, and the beauty of its expression, has
+become part of the world's heritage from the ages. Moreover, at
+Alexandria philosophy was associated with preaching. And the
+sermons of the Jewish-Hellenistic writer, in their style as well as
+in their thought, represent an epoch. Philo spoke in the language
+of the intellectual world of his day, and strove to associate the
+intellectual precepts of Hellenism with the Hebraic passion for
+righteousness. In his great moments, however, the Hebraic spirit
+towers supreme. "He was," said Croiset, the historian of Greek
+literature, "the first Greek prose writer who could speak to God
+and of God to man with the ardent piety and reverence of the Jewish
+prophets."<a name="FNanchor_101_101" id=
+"FNanchor_101_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101_101">[101]</a></p>
+<p>It is a serious misconception to imagine that Philo's
+philosophical allegories were meant for the general body of
+Alexandrian Jews. He frequently<a name="FNanchor_102_102" id=
+"FNanchor_102_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_102_102">[102]</a>
+declares that he is speaking to a specially initiated sect, and
+warns his hearers not to divulge his teaching. The <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_91" id="page_91">[pg.91]</a></span> notion
+of an esoteric doctrine for the aristocracy of intellect had become
+a fixed idea in the Greek schools for three centuries, ever since
+the days of Aristotle; and whether through Greek influence or
+otherwise it had been generally adopted by the Jewish teachers. The
+rabbis of the Talmud derived from the first chapters of Genesis the
+inner mystery of the law, which was cognizable only by the sage;
+and the same idea is found in later Jewish tradition, which,
+expounding Paradise <img alt="Hebrew:prds " src=
+"images/image20.jpg" width="58" height="27"> as four stages of
+interpretation, each marked by a letter of the word, Peshat, Remez,
+Derash, and Sod <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image21.jpg" width=
+"52" height="24">, <a name="FNanchor_103_103" id=
+"FNanchor_103_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_103_103">[103]</a>
+regarded the last as the final reward of the devoted seeker after
+God, as it is said in the Psalms, "The secret of the Lord is for
+those who fear Him." Jewish religious philosophers have in all ages
+designed their work for a select few. The Halakah, or way of life,
+is the fit study of the many. So Maimonides wrote his Moreh only
+for those who already were masters of the law. And Philo likewise
+at Alexandria taught an esoteric doctrine to an esoteric circle,
+which alone was fitted to receive the profoundest theology.<a name=
+"FNanchor_104_104" id="FNanchor_104_104"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_104_104">[104]</a> The allegories of the law do not take
+the place of the law itself, nor of its ethical ordinances. They
+are additional to the other exegesis and distinct, destined only
+for the man of learning. And as we shall see, he asserts
+emphatically in the midst of his allegories<a name=
+"FNanchor_105_105" id="FNanchor_105_105"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_105_105">[105]</a> that the <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_92" id="page_92">[pg.92]</a></span>
+perception of the philosophical value does not release man from the
+practice itself. The wise man even as the fool must obey the
+law.</p>
+<p>Why, it may be asked, does Philo artificially attach his
+philosophy to the Scriptures? He does so for two reasons: first,
+because he holds and wishes to prove that between faith and
+philosophy there is no conflict, and his generation worked out the
+agreement by this method; he does so also because he wishes to
+establish the Torah and Judaism upon a sure foundation for the man
+of outside culture. The pursuit of philosophy must have menaced the
+attachment to Judaism and challenged the authority of the Bible at
+Alexandria. A superficial knowledge of the materialistic or
+rationalistic theories, which were propagated respectively by the
+Epicurean and Stoic schools, was made the excuse for indifference
+to the law. Then as now the advanced Jew would mask his
+self-indulgence under the guise of a banal philosophy, and jeer
+easily at archaic myths and tribal laws. The dominating motive of
+Philo's work is to show that the Bible contains for those who will
+seek it the richest treasures of wisdom, that its ethical teaching
+is more ideal and yet more real than that which hundreds of
+sophists poured forth daily in the lecture-theatres<a name=
+"FNanchor_106_106" id="FNanchor_106_106"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_106_106">[106]</a> to the gaping dilettanti of learning,
+and lastly that the cultured Jew may search out knowledge and truth
+to their depths, and find them expressed in his holy books and
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_93" id=
+"page_93">[pg.93]</a></span> in his religious beliefs and
+practices. Philo frequently introduces into his philosophical
+interpretation a polemic against the disintegrating and
+demoralizing forces which were at work in the Alexandria of his
+day. His commentary therefore is a strange medley, compounded of
+idealistic speculation, theology, homiletics, moral denunciation,
+and polemical rhetoric. The idea, which is not uncommon, that Philo
+represents the extreme Hellenic development of Judaism, and that he
+gathered into his writings the opinions of all Greek schools to the
+ruin of his Jewish individuality, is utterly erroneous. In fact, he
+chooses out only the valuable parts of Greek thought, which could
+enter into a true harmony with the Hebraic spirit; and he not only
+rejects, but he attacks unsparingly those elements which were
+antagonistic to holiness and righteousness. With the enthusiasm of
+a Maccabee, if with other weapons, he fought against the bastard
+culture, which meant self-indulgence and the excessive attention to
+the body, the idol-worship, the degraded ideas of the Divine power,
+and the disregard of truth and justice, that were current in the
+pagan society about him. The seeking after sensual pleasure and
+luxury was the most glaring evil of his city&mdash;as the Talmud
+says,<a name="FNanchor_107_107" id="FNanchor_107_107"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_107_107">[107]</a> of ten parts of lust nine were given
+to Alexandria&mdash;and with every variety of denunciation he
+returns again and again to the charge. Epicureanism is detestable
+not only for its low idea of <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_94" id="page_94">[pg.94]</a></span> human life, but for its
+godless conception of the universe. Its theory that the world was a
+fortuitous concourse of atoms, which was governed by blind chance,
+and that the gods lived apart in complete indifference to
+men&mdash;this was to Philo utter atheism, and as such the greatest
+of sins. He attacked paganism not only in its crude form of
+idolatry,<a name="FNanchor_108_108" id=
+"FNanchor_108_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_108_108">[108]</a> but in
+its more seductive disguise of a pretentious philosophy. Always and
+entirely he was the champion of monotheism.</p>
+<p>Nearly as godless, and therefore as vile in his eyes as the
+follower of Epicurus, is the follower of the Stoic doctrines. It
+has been shown that the Jews and the Stoics were continually in
+conflict at Alexandria; and the "Allegories of the Laws" are filled
+with attacks, overt and hidden, upon the Stoic doctrines. The
+Stoics, indeed, believed in one supreme Divine Power, not however
+in a transcendental and personal God, but a cosmic, impersonal,
+fatalistic world-force.<a name="FNanchor_109_109" id=
+"FNanchor_109_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_109_109">[109]</a> To
+Philo this conception, with its denial of the Divine will and the
+Divine care for the individual, was as atheistic as the Epicurean
+"chance." Equally repulsive to his religious standpoint was the
+Stoic dogma, that man is, or should be, independent of all help,
+and that the human reason is all-powerful and can comprehend the
+universe by its own unaided power.<a name="FNanchor_110_110" id=
+"FNanchor_110_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_110_110">[110]</a>
+Repulsive also were their pride, their rejection of the emotions,
+their hard rationalism. The <span class="newpage"><a name="page_95"
+id="page_95">[pg.95]</a></span> battle of Philo against the Stoics
+is the battle of personal monotheism against impersonal pantheism,
+of religious faith and revelation against arrogant rationalism, and
+of idealism against materialism. Hostile as he is to the Stoic
+intellectual dogmatism, Philo is none the less opposed to its
+converse, intellectual skepticism and agnosticism. Man, he is
+convinced, has a Divine revelation<a name="FNanchor_111_111" id=
+"FNanchor_111_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_111_111">[111]</a> which
+he may not deny without ruin. He holds with Pope that we have</p>
+<p><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Too much of knowledge for the
+Skeptic side,</span><br>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Too much of weakness for the
+Stoic's pride,"</span><br></p>
+<p>and he attacks the Skeptics of the day who devoted their minds
+to destructive dialectical quibbling and sophistry<a name=
+"FNanchor_112_112" id="FNanchor_112_112"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_112_112">[112]</a> instead of seeking for God and the
+human good. They are the Ishmaels of philosophy.</p>
+<p>Philo's polemic is directed less against the Greek schools in
+themselves than against the Jewish followers of the Greek schools.
+He saw the danger to Judaism in the teachings of these
+anti-religious philosophers, and deeply as he loved Greek culture,
+he loved more deeply his religion. He wanted to reveal a philosophy
+in the Bible which should win back to Judaism the men who had been
+captivated by foreign thought. In one aspect, therefore, his
+master-work is a plea for unity. The community at Alexandria was a
+very heterogeneous body; not only were the sects which had appeared
+in Palestine, the Sadducees, <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_96" id="page_96">[pg.96]</a></span> Samaritans, Pharisees,
+and Essenes, represented there too, but in addition there were
+parties who attached themselves to one or other of the Greek
+schools, the Pythagoreans, Skeptics, and the like, and lastly
+Gnostic groups, who cultivated an esoteric doctrine of the Godhead,
+and were lax in their observance of the law, which they held to be
+purely symbolical and of no account in its literal meaning. The
+mental activity which this growth of sects exemplified was in some
+respects a healthy sign, but it contained seeds of religious chaos,
+which bore their fruit in the next century. Men started by thinking
+out a philosophical Judaism for themselves; they ended by ceasing
+to be Jews and philosophers. Philo foresaw this danger, and he
+tried to combat it by presenting his people with a commentary of
+the Bible which should satisfy their intellectual and speculative
+bent, but at the same time preserve their loyalty to the Bible and
+the law. To the Greek world he offered a philosophical religion, to
+his own people a religious philosophy. Thus the allegorical
+commentary is the crowning point of his work, the offering of his
+deepest thought to the most cultured of the community; and though
+much of its detail had only relevancy for its own time, and its
+method may repel our modern taste, yet the spirit which animates it
+is of value to all ages, and should be an inspiration to every
+generation of emancipated Jews. That spirit is one of fearless
+acceptance of the finest culture of the age combined with
+unswerving love of the law and loyalty to catholic Judaism.</p>
+<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_97" id=
+"page_97">[pg.97]</a></span> We have already treated of the general
+characteristics of Philo's method of allegorical interpretation,
+but we must now consider rather more closely the way in which he
+employs it. The general principle upon which he depends is, that
+besides and in addition to the literal meaning which the Bible
+bears for the common man, it has a hidden and deeper meaning for
+the philosopher. It is, as it were, a sort of palimpsest; the
+writing on the top all may read, the writing below the student
+alone can decipher. With the rabbis Philo holds that the Torah was
+written "in the language of the sons of man,"<a name=
+"FNanchor_113_113" id="FNanchor_113_113"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_113_113">[113]</a> but he believes with them again that
+it contains all wisdom. And if the ideas of reason do not appear in
+its literal meaning, then they must be searched out in some inner
+interpretation. Commenting on the verse in Genesis (xi. 7), "Let us
+confound their language, that they may not understand one another's
+speech," he says: "Those who follow the literal and obvious
+interpretation think that the origin of the Greek and barbarian
+languages is here described; [the contrast between Greek, on the
+one hand, and barbarian&mdash;in which Hebrew, it seems, is
+included&mdash;on the other, is remarkable]. I would not find fault
+with them, because they also, perhaps, employ right reason, but I
+would call on them not to remain content with this, but to follow
+me to the metaphorical renderings, considering that the actual
+words of the holy oracle are, <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_98" id="page_98">[pg.98]</a></span> as it were, shadows of
+the real bodies, and the powers which they reflect are the true
+underlying ideas."<a name="FNanchor_114_114" id=
+"FNanchor_114_114"></a><a href="#Footnote_114_114">[114]</a></p>
+<p>Elsewhere he tells a story of the condign punishment which
+befell a godless and impious man, perchance a Samaritan Jew, who
+made mock of the race of allegorical interpreters, jeering at the
+idea that the change of names from Abram to Abraham and from Sarai
+to Sarah contained some deep meaning. He soon paid a fitting
+penalty for his wicked wit, for on some very trivial pretext he
+went and hanged himself. Which was just, says Philo; for such a
+rascal deserved a rascal's death.<a name="FNanchor_115_115" id=
+"FNanchor_115_115"></a><a href="#Footnote_115_115">[115]</a> It is
+noteworthy that the Talmud also lays stress upon the deep meaning
+of the patriarch's change of name.<a name="FNanchor_116_116" id=
+"FNanchor_116_116"></a><a href="#Footnote_116_116">[116]</a> "He
+who calls Abraham Abram," said Bar Kappara, "transgresses a
+positive command" <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image22.jpg"
+width="105" height="21">. "Nay," said Rabbi Levi, "he transgresses
+both a positive and a negative command (and commits a double sin)."
+Clearly this was a test-question and an article of faith, possibly
+because the letter <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image24.jpg"
+width="22" height="13"> , which was added to the name, was a letter
+of mystical import in the opinion of the age. Both the rejection of
+the literal and the rejection of the allegorical value of the
+Bible, Philo regarded as impious, and he had to struggle against
+opposite factions that were one-sided. The true son of the law
+believes in both <img alt=
+"Greek: to rh&ecirc;ton and to en hyponoiais" src=
+"images/image23.jpg" width="256" height="22">.<a name=
+"FNanchor_117_117" id="FNanchor_117_117"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_117_117">[117]</a> Seeing that the Bible was the
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_99" id=
+"page_99">[pg.99]</a></span> inspired revelation of God, who is the
+fountain of all wisdom and knowledge&mdash;this is Philo's cardinal
+dogma&mdash;it is not to be supposed, on the one hand, that it was
+silent about the profoundest ideas of the human mind, or, on the
+other, that it contained ideas opposed to right reason and truth.
+Yet at first sight it seemed to lack any definite philosophy and to
+offer anthropomorphic views of God. Hence the true interpreter must
+use the actual words of the sage as metaphors, following the maxim,
+"Turn it about and about, because all is in it, and contemplate it
+and wax grey over it, for thou canst have no better rule than
+this."<a name="FNanchor_118_118" id="FNanchor_118_118"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_118_118">[118]</a> The principle upon which Philo,
+Saadia, Maimonides, and in fact the whole line of Jewish
+philosophical exegetes have worked, is that the "words of the law
+are fruitful and multiply"; or, as the Bible phrase runs, "The
+Torah which Moses commanded unto us is the inheritance of the
+congregation of Jacob." It is the separate inheritance of each
+generation, which each must cultivate so as to gather therefrom its
+own fruit.</p>
+<p>The Halakah is the outcome of this devotion in one aspect, the
+philosophical exegesis in another. In the one case Jewish
+jurisprudence and the body of legal tradition, in the other,
+philosophical ideas inspired by outer civilization, are attached to
+the text of the Bible by ingenious devices of association. The
+device is partly a pious fiction, partly a genuine belief; in other
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_100" id=
+"page_100">[pg.100]</a></span> words, the teachers honestly thought
+that there was respectively a hidden philosophical meaning in the
+Bible and an oral tradition, supplementary to the written law and
+arising out of it; but on the other hand they would not have urged
+that their particular interpretation alone was portended by the
+Scriptures. This is shown in the Talmud by the fact that different
+rabbis deduced the same lessons from different verses, and contrary
+laws from the same verse; in Philo by the fact that he often gives
+various interpretations of one text in different parts of his work.
+All that was claimed was that knowledge and truth must be primarily
+referred to the Divine revelation, and all law and practice to the
+authority of the Mosaic code. Philo, then, in the same way as the
+rabbis, deduces all his teaching from the Bible, not because he
+holds that it was explicitly contained there, but because he
+desires to give to his philosophical notions Divine authority. Like
+the rabbis, again, he suggests definite rules of interpretation
+which may always be applied <img alt=
+"Greek: kanones t&ecirc;s all&ecirc;gorias" src=
+"images/image25.jpg" width="193" height="19"> .<a name=
+"FNanchor_119_119" id="FNanchor_119_119"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_119_119">[119]</a> He declares that every name in the
+Torah has a deep symbolical meaning, and symbolizes some
+power.<a name="FNanchor_120_120" id="FNanchor_120_120"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_120_120">[120]</a> Thus the names of the sons of Jacob
+typify each some moral quality, and these qualities together make
+the perfect man and the perfect nation. Reuben is "the son of
+insight" <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image26.jpg" width="65"
+height="21">, Simeon is learning <img alt="Hebrew; " src=
+"images/image27.jpg" width="67" height="24">, Judah <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_101" id="page_101">[pg.101]</a></span>
+<img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image28.jpg" width="65" height=
+"21"> stands for the praise of God.<a name="FNanchor_121_121" id=
+"FNanchor_121_121"></a><a href="#Footnote_121_121">[121]</a> It may
+be noted, by the way, that all these values show traces of Hebrew
+etymology. Again, the synonyms in the Bible are to be carefully
+studied, while even particles and parts of words have their special
+value and importance. And the skilful exegete may for homiletical
+purposes make slight changes in a word, following the rabbinical
+rule,<a name="FNanchor_122_122" id="FNanchor_122_122"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_122_122">[122]</a> "Read not so, but so." Thus he plays
+upon the name Esau, and takes the Hebrew word as though it were
+written, not <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image29.jpg" width=
+"34" height="21"> but <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image30.jpg"
+width="34" height="18">, a thing made.<a name="FNanchor_123_123"
+id="FNanchor_123_123"></a><a href="#Footnote_123_123">[123]</a>
+Whence he shows that Esau represents the sham (made-up) greatness,
+which is boastful and insolent and shameless. Philo is referring
+perhaps to Apion, the vainglorious anti-Semite, whom he often
+covertly attacks. Again, whenever there is repetition in the text,
+a deeper meaning is portended. Dealing with the verse, "Sarah the
+wife of Abraham took Hagar the Egyptian" (Gen. xvi. 3), Philo
+comments, that we already knew that Sarah was Abraham's wife: why,
+then, does the Bible mention it again? And following certain values
+which he has made, he draws the lesson that the study of philosophy
+must always go together with the study of general culture.<a name=
+"FNanchor_124_124" id="FNanchor_124_124"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_124_124">[124]</a> These examples are not isolated; yet
+it is rather a barren science to search for the canons of Philo's
+allegory, as Siegfried has done.</p>
+<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_102" id=
+"page_102">[pg.102]</a></span> For his allegory is a very flexible
+instrument, which can be employed at pleasure to deduce anything
+from anything. And Philo regards these "points of construction" as
+the excuse, not as the motive, of his ethical and philosophical
+teaching. He does not depend on such devices, for he wanders into
+allegory more often than not without any pretext of the kind.</p>
+<p>The modern reader may consider the allegorical method artificial
+and unconvincing, even if he does not go so far as Spinoza, and say
+that it is "useless, harmful, and absurd."<a name=
+"FNanchor_125_125" id="FNanchor_125_125"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_125_125">[125]</a> We prefer to-day to show the inner
+agreement of philosophical with Biblical teaching, rather than
+pretend that all philosophy is contained within the Bible; and we
+accept the Bible as it stands, as a book of supreme religious
+worth, without requiring more of it. But that is mainly a
+difference of taste or of method, and in Philo's day, and in fact
+down to the time of the sixteenth-century Renaissance, Jew and
+Gentile alike preferred the other way. For thought, ancient and
+medi&aelig;val, was pervaded with the craving for authority or a
+plausible show of it. The Bible was not only the great book of
+morality, but the standard of truth, that from which knowledge in
+all its branches started, and that by which it was to be judged. As
+all knowledge came from God, so all knowledge was in God's Book;
+and allegory was the method by which the intellectual conceptions
+of succeeding ages were attached to it.</p>
+<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_103" id=
+"page_103">[pg.103]</a></span></p>
+<p>The two main heads of Biblical interpretation which the Jewish
+religious genius developed, Peshat and Derash,&mdash;these
+represent two permanent attitudes of mind. In the first the
+commentator tries to get at the exact meaning of the text before
+him, to make its lesson clear and discuss the circumstances of the
+composition, the exact relations of its parts. He is satisfied to
+take the writer of the Biblical book for what he says in his own
+form of utterance. In the second the commentator is more anxious to
+inculcate ideas and lessons which do not arise obviously from the
+text, and to widen the significance of what he finds in the Bible.
+The interpretation ceases to be a mere exposition; it becomes
+creative or conciliating thought, and the interpreter becomes a
+religious reformer, a philosopher, a prophet. To this school Philo
+belongs, and the framework of his teaching or the ingenuity by
+which he develops it from his text is of small account. It is what
+he teaches and what he considers to be the vital things in religion
+and life to which we must pay attention. Judged on this ground
+Philo is a supreme master of Derash, and must take a place among
+the most creative of the interpreters of the Bible.</p>
+<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_104" id=
+"page_104">[pg.104]</a></span></p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;">
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<p>IV</p>
+<p>PHILO AND THE TORAH</p>
+<br>
+<p>Over and over again Philo declares that his function is to
+expound the law of Moses. Moses was the interpreter of God's word
+to Israel; and Philo aspired to be the interpreter of the
+revelation of Moses to the Hellenistic world, "the living voice of
+the holy law." He believed that Israel was a chosen people in the
+sense that it had received the Divine message on behalf of the
+whole human race,<a name="FNanchor_126_126" id=
+"FNanchor_126_126"></a><a href="#Footnote_126_126">[126]</a> a
+Kingdom of Priests, in that it occupied to other nations the
+position which the priest&mdash;using the word in the fullest
+sense&mdash;occupied to the common people.<a name=
+"FNanchor_127_127" id="FNanchor_127_127"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_127_127">[127]</a> The Torah is God's covenant, not only
+with one small nation, but with all His children, and its teachings
+are true for all times and for all places. "The Bible," as
+Professor Butcher says,<a name="FNanchor_128_128" id=
+"FNanchor_128_128"></a><a href="#Footnote_128_128">[128]</a> "is
+the one book which appears to have the capacity of eternal
+self-adjustment, of uninterrupted correspondence with an
+ever-shifting and ever-widening environment." Nowadays this appears
+a truism, but the truth first presented itself to the
+Jewish-Alexandrian community when they came in contact with
+external culture. The Palestinian and Babylonian Jews, free for the
+most part from outside influences, developed the Torah for the
+Jewish people, amplified the tradition, and determined <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_105" id="page_105">[pg.105]</a></span> the
+Halakah, the practical law. But the Alexandrian Jews in the first
+place found their own attitude to the Torah affected by their
+acquaintance with Greek ethics and metaphysics, and also found it
+necessary to interpret the Bible in a new fashion in order to make
+its value known to their environment. The Greek world required to
+be shown the general principle, the broad ethical idea in each
+ordinance. And thus it came about that the Alexandrian interpreters
+always emphasized the universal beneath the particular, the moral
+spirit beneath the forms.</p>
+<p>It had been one of the chief functions of the prophets to
+demonstrate the moral import of the law. In their vision the God of
+Israel became the God of the universe, and His law of conduct was
+spread over all mankind. "For the law shall go forth from Zion, and
+the word of the Lord from Jerusalem" (Micah iv. 2). Philo in effect
+expounds Judaism in their spirit, though he speaks their message in
+the voice of Plato and to a people whose minds were trained in
+Greek culture. Yet it is significant that he wrote all his
+commentaries round the Five Books of Moses, and used the prophets
+and other Biblical books only to illustrate and support the Mosaic
+teaching, which contains the whole way of life and the whole
+religious philosophy. According to the rabbis also the Prophets
+formed only a complement to the Torah, "a species of
+Agadah";<a name="FNanchor_129_129" id=
+"FNanchor_129_129"></a><a href="#Footnote_129_129">[129]</a> and
+the prophetic vision of</p>
+<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_106" id=
+"page_106">[pg.106]</a></span> Moses was much clearer than that of
+his successors. Philo, too, clearly realized that Judaism was the
+religion of the law. His view of the Torah is what the modern world
+would call uncritical: that is to say, he accepts the idea that the
+whole of the Five Books was an objective revelation to Moses at
+Sinai. But though&mdash;or because&mdash;he is innocent of the
+higher criticism, and believes in the literal inspiration of the
+Torah, his conception is none the less enlightened and spiritual.
+The law&mdash;the Divine Logos&mdash;is not the enactment of an
+outside power, arbitrarily imposed, and to be obeyed because of its
+miraculous origin; it is the expression of the human soul within,
+when raised to its highest power by the Divine inspiration. Every
+man may fit himself to receive the Divine word, which is, in modern
+language, revelation.<a name="FNanchor_130_130" id=
+"FNanchor_130_130"></a><a href="#Footnote_130_130">[130]</a> Moses,
+then, is distinguished above all other legislators, not because he
+alone received it, but because he received it in its purest form,
+and because he was the most noble interpreter of it. It is for this
+reason that the law of Moses is of universal validity for conduct.
+The Divine spirit possessed him so fully that his Logos, or
+revelation, is eternally true, and by following it all men become
+fit to be blessed with the Divine gift themselves. This is true of
+the other prophets of the Bible to a smaller degree, and in a still
+minor degree Philo hoped that it was true of himself.</p>
+<p>It should be premised that the "law of nature" <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_107" id="page_107">[pg.107]</a></span> was
+at the time of Philo an idea as widely accepted as "evolution" is
+to-day. Men believed that by a study of the processes of the
+universe the individual might discover the law of conduct that
+should bring his action into harmony with the whole. What the Greek
+philosophers declared to be the privilege of the few, Philo
+declared to have been imparted by God to His people as their law of
+life. Hence the Mosaic legislation is the code of nature and
+reason, and the righteous man directs his conduct in accordance
+with those rules of nature by which the cosmos is ordered.<a name=
+"FNanchor_131_131" id="FNanchor_131_131"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_131_131">[131]</a> Obedience to the law should not be
+obedience to an outward prescription, but rather the following out
+of our own highest nature. The ideal which the Stoic sage
+continually aspired for and never attained to&mdash;the life
+according to nature and right reason&mdash;this Philo claimed had
+been accomplished in the Mosaic revelation, handed down by God to
+Israel and through them to the world.</p>
+<p>Before we deal with Philo's treatment of the law in its narrower
+sense, it will be as well to consider briefly his interpretation of
+the historical parts of the Torah. Here likewise he finds ideas of
+natural reason and eternal truths embodied. To Philo, as we have
+seen, the Torah is a unity, and every part of it has equal validity
+and value. He had to contend against certain higher critics of his
+day, who declared that Genesis was a collection of myths
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_108" id=
+"page_108">[pg.108]</a></span> <img alt=
+"Greek: myth&ocirc;n plasmata" src="images/image31.jpg" width="154"
+height="18">).<a name="FNanchor_132_132" id=
+"FNanchor_132_132"></a><a href="#Footnote_132_132">[132]</a>
+Moreover, the long catalogues of genealogies in Genesis and the
+longer recitals of sacrifices in Leviticus and Numbers seemed to
+refute those who declared that every part of the Pentateuch was a
+Divine revelation. In the third book of the "Questions to Genesis"
+Philo directly grapples with this objection. Commenting on the
+verse (Gen. xv. 9), "Take for me a heifer of three years old and a
+goat of three years old," etc., he says that in interpreting any
+part or any verse of Scripture we must look to the purpose of the
+whole and explain it from this outlook, "without dissecting or
+disturbing its harmony or disintegrating its unity."<a name=
+"FNanchor_133_133" id="FNanchor_133_133"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_133_133">[133]</a> Why should God, asked the scoffer,
+reveal these trivial or prolix details? Philo's answer is in fact
+to spiritualize everything that is material, and universalize
+everything that is particular. While he believes in the literal
+inspiration of the Bible, he does not insist upon the literal truth
+of every word of it, and in the opening chapters of Genesis in
+particular, he treats the tales as symbolical or allegorical myths.
+His philosophical commentary on the creation, corresponding to the
+<img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image32.jpg" width="118" height=
+"16"> of the rabbis, is found in the book <i>De Mundi Opificio</i>,
+which stands in modern editions at the head of his writings. Its
+main theme is to trace in the text the Platonic idealism,
+<i>i.e.</i>, the theory that God first created transcendental,
+incorporeal archetypes of all <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_109" id="page_109">[pg.109]</a></span> physical and material
+things. Philo uses the double account of the creation of man in the
+first and second chapters of Genesis as clear evidence that the
+Bible describes&mdash;for those who have the mind to see&mdash;the
+creation of an ideal before the terrestrial man.</p>
+<p>In the "Allegories of the Laws," which is the profounder
+philosophical doctrine, the account of Adam and Eve is deliberately
+chosen by Philo as the text of a psychological treatise, in which
+he analyzes<a name="FNanchor_134_134" id=
+"FNanchor_134_134"></a><a href="#Footnote_134_134">[134]</a> the
+relations of the mind, the senses, and the pleasures, represented
+respectively by Adam, Eve, and the Serpent. The necessity of
+explaining the story symbolically is professedly based on the fact
+that otherwise we are driven to the idea that the Bible spoke
+inaccurately about God. "It is silly," he says, "to suppose that
+Adam and Eve can have hidden themselves in the Garden of Eden, for
+God filled the whole." We are driven then to suggest another
+meaning; and Philo passes into a homily about the false opinion of
+the man who follows the bidding of the senses (Eve) at the
+instigation of pleasure (the Serpent).<a name="FNanchor_135_135"
+id="FNanchor_135_135"></a><a href="#Footnote_135_135">[135]</a></p>
+<p>The story of Cain and Abel is another piece of moral philosophy
+embodied in a concrete form. Abel symbolizes pious humility, Cain
+the deadly sin of atheism and intellectual pride, which denies the
+absolute and ever-present power of the Deity. Philo asks himself
+the question that other commentators have frequently raised, some
+in reverence, some in <span class="newpage"><a name="page_110" id=
+"page_110">[pg.110]</a></span> ridicule, "Who was Cain's
+wife?"<a name="FNanchor_136_136" id="FNanchor_136_136"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_136_136">[136]</a> And he answers that the Bible
+expression about the children of Cain cannot be taken literally,
+but suggests the union of the ill-ruled mind with impious opinions,
+which have as their issue false pride and sin.</p>
+<p>Philo here treats the stories in the opening of Genesis as pure
+allegories, in which the men and women represent symbolically
+characters and qualities. It should be remembered, however, that
+these interpretations occur in the commentary where our author is
+not so much expounding the Torah as deducing secret doctrines from
+it. His proper exposition of the law proceeds from the book on the
+Creation to the lives of the patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob,
+and then to the lives of Joseph and Moses. And in this commentary
+the Bible narrative is taken as historical truth: only in addition
+to the historical fact there is a moral and universal value in
+every figure and every episode. The patriarchs' lives represent the
+unwritten law which the Greek world held in high honor, for it was
+considered to contain the broad principles of individual and social
+conduct, and to be prior logically and chronologically to the
+written codes. Moses, therefore, the perfect legislator, according
+to Philo, has presented in the three founders of the Hebrew race
+embodiments of the unwritten law of good conduct for all mankind.
+Each of them is a moral type of eternal validity and represents one
+of the ways in <span class="newpage"><a name="page_111" id=
+"page_111">[pg.111]</a></span> which blessedness may be
+attained.<a name="FNanchor_137_137" id=
+"FNanchor_137_137"></a><a href="#Footnote_137_137">[137]</a>
+Abraham represents the goodness which comes from instruction;
+Isaac, the spontaneous goodness that is innate, and the joy (or
+laughter) of the soul that is God's gift to his favored sons;
+Jacob, the goodness that comes after long effort, through the life
+of practice and severe discipline. Before this triad, the Bible
+presents another group of three, who represent the virtues
+preparatory to the acquisition of perfect goodness: Enosh, Enoch,
+and Noah.<a name="FNanchor_138_138" id=
+"FNanchor_138_138"></a><a href="#Footnote_138_138">[138]</a> They
+typify respectively, as their names indicate, hope, repentance, and
+justice. It is a pretty thought, helped by an error in the
+Septuagint translation,<a name="FNanchor_139_139" id=
+"FNanchor_139_139"></a><a href="#Footnote_139_139">[139]</a> which
+sees in the name of the first <i>i.e.</i>, man, <img alt="Hebrew; "
+src="images/image33.jpg" width="40" height="18"> the symbol of
+hope. Hope, the commentator suggests, is the distinguishing
+characteristic of man<a name="FNanchor_140_140" id=
+"FNanchor_140_140"></a><a href="#Footnote_140_140">[140]</a> as
+compared with other animals, and hope therefore is our first step
+towards the Divine nature, the seed of which faith is the fruit.
+Next in order come repentance and natural justice, and from these
+stepping-stones we can rise to the higher self. Philo's
+interpretation of these Bible figures would appear to have behind
+it an old Midrashic tradition. As far back as the book of Ben Sira,
+in the passage on "the Praises of Famous Men" (xliv), they are
+taken as typical of the different virtues, and Enoch notably
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_112" id=
+"page_112">[pg.112]</a></span> is the type of repentance. In the
+first century the world was becoming incapable of understanding
+abstract ideas, and required ethics to be concretely embodied in
+examples of life. Philo found within the Jewish Scriptures what the
+Christian apostles later transferred to other events.</p>
+<p>Joseph, whose life followed that of the patriarchs, is the type
+of the political life, the model of the man of action and ambition.
+Taken alone, this is inferior to the life of the saint and
+philosopher, but mixed with the other it produces the perfect man,
+for the truly good man must take his part in public life. The story
+of Joseph, then, illustrates the full humanity of Moses' scheme,
+and it marks also, according to Philo, the great moral lesson, that
+if there be one spark of nobility in a man's soul, God will find it
+and cause it to shine forth.<a name="FNanchor_141_141" id=
+"FNanchor_141_141"></a><a href="#Footnote_141_141">[141]</a> For
+Joseph, until he comes down to Egypt, is not a virtuous man, but
+full of conceit and unworthy aspiration for supremacy; he shows his
+true worth when he is sold into slavery; and then by the Divine
+inspiration he becomes the ideal statesman. Very suggestive is
+Philo's homily, by which he develops the Bible narrative, that the
+function of the statesman is to expound dreams;<a name=
+"FNanchor_142_142" id="FNanchor_142_142"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_142_142">[142]</a> because his task is to interpret the
+life of man, which is one long dream of changing scenes, wherein we
+forget what has gone before, as the fleeting shadow leads us from
+childhood to youth, from youth to manhood, from manhood to
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_113" id=
+"page_113">[pg.113]</a></span> old age. Lastly, from the story of
+Joseph he draws the lesson that when the Hebrew has attained to a
+high position in a foreign land, as in Egypt, where there is utter
+blindness about the true God, he can and should retain his national
+laws,<a name="FNanchor_143_143" id="FNanchor_143_143"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_143_143">[143]</a> and not assimilate the practices of
+his environment.</p>
+<p>Eusebius<a name="FNanchor_144_144" id=
+"FNanchor_144_144"></a><a href="#Footnote_144_144">[144]</a>
+mentions, among the works of Philo which he had before him, a book
+on "The Statesman," in which doubtless the principles of government
+and social life were more fully treated. The book has disappeared,
+but the life of Joseph suffices to show that Philo recognized the
+place of public service in the human ideal.</p>
+<p>Moses is not only the divinely inspired legislator, but he
+typifies also the perfection of the human soul, the highest example
+of the man at one with God, supreme as king, lawgiver, priest, and
+prophet. He is the link between God and man, the perfect
+interpreter of the Divine Word; and though Philo avoids the
+suggestion of any Divine power incarnate in man, he speaks
+imaginatively of the Logos of Moses,<a name="FNanchor_145_145" id=
+"FNanchor_145_145"></a><a href="#Footnote_145_145">[145]</a>
+<i>i.e.</i>, his reason, as identical with the Logos of God, the
+Divine law of the universe. It is significant of his attitude to
+religion that he lays no stress upon the miracles of the Bible
+narrative. Not that he rationalizes them away; he rejects all
+rationalizing whatsoever; but he <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_114" id="page_114">[pg.114]</a></span> interprets them as
+great spiritual signs, rather than as diversions from the laws of
+nature. His allegory of the burning bush, which Moses saw at Horeb
+is typical, and presents a truth to which the whole history of
+Israel bears witness. The weak thorn-bush, which was not consumed
+by the fire, is the image of the idea of Israel, which almost cries
+to the people in their misfortune: "Do not despair! Your weakness
+is your strength, and by it you shall wound race after race. You
+will be preserved by those who wish to destroy you, and you shall
+not perish. In evil days you shall not suffer, and when a tyrant
+thinks to uproot you, you shall shine forth the more in brighter
+glory."<a name="FNanchor_146_146" id=
+"FNanchor_146_146"></a><a href="#Footnote_146_146">[146]</a> The
+passage is typical also of the rhetorical artifice with which
+Philo, following the taste of the time, recommended the Bible to
+the Greeks.</p>
+<p>We turn now to Philo's treatment of the Mosaic legislation, the
+Torah in its narrower sense, which is to modern Jewry perhaps the
+most striking part of his commentary. His problem was the same as
+ours&mdash;to bring the ancient law into harmony with the ideas of
+a non-Jewish environment, and to show its essential value when
+tried by an external cultural standard. Briefly his solution is
+that he sees everything in the Torah <i>sub specie
+&aelig;ternitatis</i>, in the light of eternity; and by his
+faithfulness to the law, combined with his spiritual interpretation
+of it, he stands forth as the greatest Jewish missionary of his
+age. Unfortunately for Judaism, depth of thought and philosophical
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_115" id=
+"page_115">[pg.115]</a></span> judgment are not the qualities which
+mark the successful religious missionary. Philo's philosophical
+treatment of the Torah was understood only of the few; the
+fanatical Pauline rejection of the law appealed to the masses. The
+spirit of the age demanded, indeed, the ethical interpretation of
+the Bible, and it was carried out in many ways, some true, some
+untrue to Judaism. Philo and Josephus tell us how Judaism was
+spreading over the world.<a name="FNanchor_147_147" id=
+"FNanchor_147_147"></a><a href="#Footnote_147_147">[147]</a> "There
+is not any city of the Greeks," says the historian, "nor of the
+barbarians, nor of any nation whatsoever, to which our custom of
+resting on the seventh day has not been introduced, and where our
+fasts and our dietary laws are not observed.... As God Himself
+pervadeth all the universe, so hath our law passed through the
+world." And their testimony is supported by the frequent gibes
+against Judaizing Romans in the Roman poets,<a name=
+"FNanchor_148_148" id="FNanchor_148_148"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_148_148">[148]</a> and by the explicit statements of
+Strabo,<a name="FNanchor_149_149" id=
+"FNanchor_149_149"></a><a href="#Footnote_149_149">[149]</a> the
+famous geographer, and, more remarkable still, of Seneca, the Stoic
+philosopher-statesman. The bitter foe of the Jews, he confessed
+that this superstitious pest was infecting the whole world, and
+that the conquered people (Jud&aelig;a had lately been made a Roman
+province) were taking their conquerors captive.<a name=
+"FNanchor_150_150" id="FNanchor_150_150"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_150_150">[150]</a> Philo, with his ardent hope, looked
+for the near coming of the time when the worship of the Jewish God
+would prevail over the <span class="newpage"><a name="page_116" id=
+"page_116">[pg.116]</a></span> world, and sought to show that the
+Jewish law, which is the expression of Jewish belief, and which
+differs from all others, not only in the extent of its sway, but in
+its unchangeableness, could be universalized to fit its new
+service. To this end he interpreted the Mosaic code, which "no war,
+tyrant, persecution, or visitation, human or Divine, can destroy:
+for it is eternal."<a name="FNanchor_151_151" id=
+"FNanchor_151_151"></a><a href="#Footnote_151_151">[151]</a> In the
+arrangement of the Torah, Philo finds a proof of its universality.
+It begins with the account of the creation, to teach us that the
+same Being that is the Creator and Father of the universe is also
+its Legislator, and, again, that he who follows the law will choose
+to live in harmony with nature, and will exhibit consistency of
+action with words and of words with action. Other philosophers,
+notably the Stoics, claimed to lay down a plan of life that
+followed the law of nature; but their practice notoriously fell
+below their unrealizable professions. In Judaism alone spirit and
+practice were at one, so that each inspired the other and secured
+human excellence. "Not theory but practice is the root of the
+matter" <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image34.jpg" width="247"
+height="19">, according to the rabbis:<a name="FNanchor_152_152"
+id="FNanchor_152_152"></a><a href="#Footnote_152_152">[152]</a> and
+Philo, who, contemplative philosopher as he was, yet recognized the
+all-importance of conduct, writes in the same spirit:<a name=
+"FNanchor_153_153" id="FNanchor_153_153"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_153_153">[153]</a> "We must first study and then act,
+for we learn, not for learning's sake, but in order to action."</p>
+<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_117" id=
+"page_117">[pg.117]</a></span> Philo seeks to arrange the law under
+general moral heads, and he finds in the Decalogue the holy text
+upon which the rest of the code is but a commentary. He may be
+following a tradition common among all the Jews, for in the Midrash
+to Numbers (xiii) it is said that the six hundred and thirteen
+precepts are all contained in the Ten Commandments: <img alt=
+"Hebrew; " src="images/image35.jpg" width="193" height="21">. We do
+not know, however, in what way the early rabbis carried out this
+idea, whereas we possess Philo's arrangement; and some of its
+features are very suggestive.<a name="FNanchor_154_154" id=
+"FNanchor_154_154"></a><a href="#Footnote_154_154">[154]</a> To the
+first two commandments he attaches the ritual laws relating to
+priests and sacrifices, to the fourth the laws of all the
+festivals, to the seventh the criminal and civil law, to the tenth
+the dietary laws. The Decalogue he conceives as falling into two
+divisions, between which the fifth commandment is a link. For the
+first four commandments are ordinances that determine man's
+relation to God, and the last five those which determine his
+relation to his fellows. Honor of the parents is the link between
+the Divine and the human virtues, even as parents themselves are a
+link between immortal God and mortal man. Corresponding to the two
+divisions of the Decalogue are the two generic virtues which the
+Mosaic legislation has set as its goal, piety, and humanity, or
+what the rabbis called charity <img alt="Hebrew; " src=
+"images/image36.jpg" width="58" height="16">. "He who loves God,
+but does not show love towards his own kind, has but the half of
+virtue."<a name="FNanchor_155_155" id=
+"FNanchor_155_155"></a><a href="#Footnote_155_155">[155]</a> Thus
+in one and the same age Hillel, <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_118" id="page_118">[pg.118]</a></span> incited by a single
+scoffer, and Philo, moved by the taunts of a tribe of anti-Semites,
+looked for the most vital lesson of the Torah, and they found it
+alike in "the love of our neighbor." That was Judaism on its
+practical side.</p>
+<p>In order to show the humanitarian spirit of the Torah, Philo
+emphasizes its socialistic institutions, the law of the seventh
+year's rest to the land <img alt="Hebrew; " src=
+"images/image37.jpg" width="118" height="18">, of the emancipation
+of the slaves, and of the Jubilee. These to him are not tribal
+laws, but the ideal institutions for the whole world, which shall
+one day be set up when the theocracy has been established over all
+mankind. And in an age when slavery was as accepted a condition as
+factory-labor is to-day, he ventured to assert the principle of the
+equality of man. "If," saith the law, "one of thy brethren be sold
+to thee, let him serve thee for six years, and in the seventh year
+let him go free without payment." And Philo thereon
+comments:<a name="FNanchor_156_156" id=
+"FNanchor_156_156"></a><a href="#Footnote_156_156">[156]</a> "A
+second time Moses calls our fellow-creature brother, to impress
+upon the master that he has a tie with his servant, so that he may
+not neglect him as a stranger. Nay, but if he follows the direction
+of the law, he will feel sympathy with him, and will not be vexed
+when he is about to liberate him. For though we call our servants
+slaves, yet in verity they are only dependents who serve us in
+order to have the means of life." This corresponds with the Talmud
+dictum, "Whoever buys a <span class="newpage"><a name="page_119"
+id="page_119">[pg.119]</a></span> Jewish slave buys a master for
+himself."<a name="FNanchor_157_157" id=
+"FNanchor_157_157"></a><a href="#Footnote_157_157">[157]</a>
+Commenting again upon the verse in Exodus xxi. 6, which says with
+seeming harshness that a servant who wishes to stay with his master
+after the year of emancipation has arrived, shall be nailed by the
+ear to a door, he explains that no man should consent of his own
+will to be a slave, for we should only be servants of God; and if a
+man deliberately rejects freedom for comfort, he should wear a mark
+of degradation. The so-called Christian principle of the dignity of
+human life and the equality of man, Philo shows to be the spirit of
+the Mosaic law, not limited within the confines of one nation, but
+valid for the world. Nor is it contained therein as a mere
+sentimental aspiration, but it is realized in the institutions of
+the Jewish polity.</p>
+<p>Philo looked for the same broad principles in his treatment of
+the ceremonial law. The Sabbath day is the central observance, one
+might say, the lodestar of the Jewish life, round which the other
+ceremonies revolve. The Sabbath is the call to man's higher nature,
+for it is the day on which we are bidden to devote ourselves to the
+Divine power within us and to seek to know God. "The six days in
+which the Creator made the universe are an example to us to work,
+but the seventh day, on which He rested, is an example to us to
+meditate. As on that day God is said to have looked upon His work,
+so we, too, should <span class="newpage"><a name="page_120" id=
+"page_120">[pg.120]</a></span> contemplate the universe thereon,
+and consider our highest welfare. Let us never neglect the example
+of the best life, the combination of action and thought, but
+keeping a clear vision of it before our minds, so far as our human
+nature will permit, let us liken ourselves to immortal God by word
+and deed."<a name="FNanchor_158_158" id=
+"FNanchor_158_158"></a><a href="#Footnote_158_158">[158]</a>
+High-flown this language may be, but what Philo wishes to mark is
+the spiritual value of the Sabbath. It is not merely a day of rest
+from workaday toil, but it is a day upon which we devote all our
+thoughts to God, and enter into closer communion with Him,
+<img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image38.jpg" width="168" height=
+"18">, a repose of love and devotion. Heine said that on one day of
+the week the lowliest Jew became a prince, Philo that he became a
+philosopher. As in all of Philo's interpretations of Jewish custom,
+there is something mystic in his conception of the Sabbath. For he
+regards all Divine service and all prayer as a mystic rite which
+leads the human soul unto God. In the special ordinances of the day
+he finds a spiritual motive. We may not touch fire, because fire is
+the seed and beginning of industry.<a name="FNanchor_159_159" id=
+"FNanchor_159_159"></a><a href="#Footnote_159_159">[159]</a> The
+servant of the house may not work,<a name="FNanchor_160_160" id=
+"FNanchor_160_160"></a><a href="#Footnote_160_160">[160]</a>
+because on this day he shall have a taste of freedom and humanity,
+and he will work the more cheerfully during the remaining six days.
+Some rabbis later, when numbers of Gentiles had adopted this
+without the other institutions of Judaism, claimed the Sabbath as
+the <span class="newpage"><a name="page_121" id=
+"page_121">[pg.121]</a></span> special heritage of Israel; and in
+the book of Jubilees<a name="FNanchor_161_161" id=
+"FNanchor_161_161"></a><a href="#Footnote_161_161">[161]</a> it is
+said that Israel alone has the right to observe the Sabbath. Not so
+Philo, who, desiring to give the day a value for all, regards it as
+God's covenant with the whole of humanity.<a name=
+"FNanchor_162_162" id="FNanchor_162_162"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_162_162">[162]</a></p>
+<p>The Sabbath idea is reflected in all the festivals, which have
+as their dominating idea man's joyful gratitude to God. Influenced
+probably by a mystic fondness for certain numbers, Philo enumerates
+ten festivals, as follows:<a name="FNanchor_163_163" id=
+"FNanchor_163_163"></a><a href="#Footnote_163_163">[163]</a> (1)
+Each day in the year, if we use it aright&mdash;a truly Philonic
+conception; (2) The Sabbath; (3) The new moon&mdash;then in
+Alexandria, as in Palestine, a solemn day; (4) The Passover; (5)
+The bringing of the first barley ('Omer); (6) The Feast of
+Unleavened Bread. These last three are separate aspects of one
+celebration, which is divided up so as to produce the holy decad.
+(7) Pentecost; (8) New Year; (9) Atonement (to the mystic the Feast
+of feasts); (10) Tabernacles. Following his design of revealing in
+Judaism a religion of universal validity, Philo points out in all
+these festivals a double meaning. On the one hand, they mark God's
+providence to His chosen people, shown in some great event of their
+history&mdash;this is the special meaning for the
+Israelite&mdash;and, on the other, they indicate God's goodness as
+revealed in the march of nature, and thus help to bind man to the
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_122" id=
+"page_122">[pg.122]</a></span> universal process. So Passover is
+the festival of the spring and a memorial of the creation <img alt=
+"Hebrew; " src="images/image39.jpg" width="175" height="18"> as
+well as the memorial of the great Exodus, and of our gratitude for
+the deliverance from the inhospitable land of Egypt. And those who
+look for a deeper moral meaning may find in it a symbol of the
+passing over from the life of the senses to the life with God.
+Similarly, Philo deals with the other festivals,<a name=
+"FNanchor_164_164" id="FNanchor_164_164"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_164_164">[164]</a> and in their particular ceremonies he
+finds symbols which stamp eternal lessons of history and of
+morality upon our hearts. The unleavened bread is the mark of the
+simple life, the New Year Shofar of the Divine rule of peace, the
+Sukkot booth of the equality of all men, and, as he puts it
+elsewhere, of man's duty in prosperity to remember the troubles of
+his past, so that he may worthily recognize God's goodness. Much of
+this may appear trite to us; and the association of the festivals
+with the seasons of nature may to some appear a false development
+of historical Judaism; nevertheless Philo's treatment of this part
+of the Torah is notable. It shows remarkable feeling for the
+ethical import of the law, and it establishes the harmony between
+the Greek and Hebrew conceptions of the Deity by combining the God
+of history with the God of nature in the same festival. The ideas
+were not unknown to Palestinian rabbis; Philo, by giving them a
+Greek dress, opened them to the world.</p>
+<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_123" id=
+"page_123">[pg.123]</a></span></p>
+<p>Equally remarkable and equally suggestive is Philo's treatment
+of the dietary laws. We have seen that he placed them under the
+governing principle of the tenth commandment, "Thou shalt not
+covet," or, more broadly, "Thou shalt not have base desires." The
+dietary laws are at once a symbol and a discipline of temperance
+and self-control. We know that the Greeks, as soon as they had a
+superficial knowledge of Jewish observance, jeered at the barbarous
+and stupid superstition of refusing to eat pork. Again we are told
+in the letter of the false Aristeas that when Ptolemy's ambassadors
+went to Jerusalem, to summon learned men to translate the Torah
+into Greek, Eleazar, the high priest, instructed them in the deeper
+moral meaning of the dietary laws. Further, in the fourth book of
+the Maccabees&mdash;an Alexandrian sermon upon the Empire of Right
+Reason&mdash;we find an eloquent defence of these same laws as the
+precepts of reason which fortify our minds. Philo, then, is
+following a tradition, but he improves upon it. Accepting the
+Platonic psychology, which divided the soul into reason, temper
+(<i>i.e.</i>, will), and desire, he shows how the aim of the Mosaic
+law about food is to control desire and will, so as to make them
+subservient to reason. By practicing self-restraint in the two
+commonest actions of life&mdash;eating and drinking&mdash;the
+Israelite acquires it in all things. The hard ascetic who would
+root out bodily desires errs against human nature, but the wise
+legislator controls them and curbs them by precepts, so that they
+are bent to the higher reason.</p>
+<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_124" id=
+"page_124">[pg.124]</a></span> Modern apologists for Judaism have
+been found who, trying to force science to support their tottering
+faith, allege that the dietary law is hygienic. Philo relies on no
+such treacherous reed. We may not eat, he says,<a name=
+"FNanchor_165_165" id="FNanchor_165_165"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_165_165">[165]</a> the flesh of the pig or shell-fish,
+not because they are unhealthy, but because they are the sweetest
+and most delightful of all food, and for that very reason they are
+marks of the sensual life. This and this alone is the true
+religious justification of the dietary law.</p>
+<p>In this way, by showing how the letter represents the spirit,
+Philo fulfils the law; his religion is liberal in thought,
+conservative in practice. He sees clearly that to throw off the law
+and reject tradition involves in the end chaos and the overthrow of
+righteousness. And certain Christian&mdash;and
+other&mdash;theologians, if one may make bold to say so, fail to
+realize the spirit of Philo, when they speak of him as a man who
+approached the light, but was too tied down by the old traditions
+to receive the full illumination. Rather is it true that the Jewish
+aspiration of "freedom under the law," or spirit through the
+letter, is absolutely fundamental in Philo, and loyalty to the
+Torah is a guiding principle in his religious outlook. He asserts
+it clearly and strikingly, not only in his ethical commentary on
+the law, but in his philosophical allegories. Both passages deserve
+quotation, since they mark the fundamental contrast between Philo
+and non-Jewish allegorists of the law. In the first <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_125" id="page_125">[pg.125]</a></span>
+Philo is commenting upon the command "Thou shalt not add to or take
+away from the law" (Deut. xix. 14).<a name="FNanchor_166_166" id=
+"FNanchor_166_166"></a><a href="#Footnote_166_166">[166]</a> He
+shows first how each of the virtues is marred by excess in either
+direction; virtue in fact, according to the Aristotelian formula,
+is "a mean."</p>
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>"And in the same way, if we add anything great or small to
+piety, the queen of virtues, or take anything away, we mar it and
+change its form. Addition will engender superstition, and
+diminution impiety, and true piety will disappear, which above all
+things we should pray for to enlighten our souls: for it is the
+cause of the greatest of goods, inducing in us a knowledge of our
+conduct towards God, which is a thing more royal and kingly than
+any public office or distinction. Further, Moses lays down another
+general command, 'Do not remove the boundary stone of thy neighbor,
+which thy ancestors have set up.' This, methinks, does not refer
+merely to inheritances and the boundary of land, but it is ordained
+with a view to the preservation of ancient customs. For customs are
+unwritten laws, the decrees of men of old, not carved indeed upon
+pillars and inscribed upon parchment, but engraved upon the souls
+of the generations who through the ages maintain the chosen
+community. Children should take over the paternal customs from
+their parents as part of their inheritance, for they were reared on
+them, and lived on them from their swaddling days, and they should
+not neglect them merely because the tradition is not written. The
+man who obeys the written laws is not, indeed, worthy of praise,
+for he may be constrained thereto by fear of punishment. But he who
+holds fast to the unwritten laws gives proof of a voluntary
+goodness and is worthy of our eulogy."</p>
+</div>
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_126" id=
+"page_126">[pg.126]</a></span>
+<p>Clearly he is arguing here for the observance of the oral law,
+which later was standardized in the Halakah.</p>
+<p>In the other passage, which occurs in the philosophical book "On
+the Migration of Abraham,"<a name="FNanchor_167_167" id=
+"FNanchor_167_167"></a><a href="#Footnote_167_167">[167]</a> he
+sets forth the reason of the authority of the law with more
+argument, and controverts those who would allegorize away the
+ordinances.</p>
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>"To whom, then, God has granted both to be and to seem good, he
+is truly happy and truly renowned. And we must have a great care
+for reputation, as a matter of great importance and of much value,
+for our social and bodily life. [By reputation Philo means
+reputation of being loyal Jews. He is addressing here an esoteric
+circle who, if they were lax, would bring philosophy into
+disrepute.] And almost all can secure it, who are well content not
+to disturb established customs, but diligently preserve the
+constitution of their nation. But there are some who, looking upon
+the written laws as symbols of intellectual things, lay great
+stress on these, but neglect the former. Such men I would blame for
+their shallowness of mind <img alt="Greek: euchereia" src=
+"images/image40.jpg" width="68" height="19">. For they ought to
+give good heed to both&mdash;to the accurate investigation of the
+unseen meaning, but also to the blameless observance of the visible
+letter. But now, as if they were living by themselves in a desert,
+and were souls without bodies, and knew nothing of city or village
+or house or intercourse with men, they despise all that seems
+valuable to the many, and search for bare and naked truth as it is
+in itself. Such people the sacred Scripture teaches to give good
+heed to a good reputation, and to abolish none of those customs
+which greater and more inspired men than we instituted in the past.
+For, because the seventh day teaches us symbolically <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_127" id="page_127">[pg.127]</a></span>
+concerning the power of the uncreated God, and the inactivity of
+the creature, we must not therefore abolish its ordinances, so as
+to light a fire, or till the ground, or bear a burden, or prosecute
+a lawsuit, or demand the restoration of a deposit, or exact the
+repayment of a loan, or do any other thing, which on week-days is
+allowed. Because the festivals are symbols of spiritual joy and of
+our gratitude to God, we must not therefore give up the fixed
+assemblies at the proper seasons of the year. Nor, because
+circumcision symbolizes the excision of all lusts and passions, and
+the destruction of the impious opinion according to which the mind
+imagines that it is itself capable of production, must we therefore
+abolish the law of fleshly circumcision. We should have to neglect
+the service of the temple, and a thousand other things, if we were
+to restrict ourselves only to the allegorical or symbolic sense.
+That sense resembles the soul, the other sense the body. Just as we
+must be careful of the body, as the house of the soul, so must we
+give heed to the letter of the written laws. For only when these
+are faithfully observed, will the inner meaning, of which they are
+the symbols, become more clearly realized, and, at the same time,
+the blame and accusation of the multitude will be avoided."<a name=
+"FNanchor_168_168" id="FNanchor_168_168"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_168_168">[168]</a></p>
+</div>
+<p>Philo's position is, then, that man on the one hand owes loyalty
+to his nation, and on the other is not only a creature of spirit,
+but has a body and bodily passions. He cannot, therefore, have a
+religion which is individual or merely spiritual, but he requires
+common forms and ceremonies that can bind him with <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_128" id="page_128">[pg.128]</a></span> the
+rest of the community, and train his body by good habit to obey his
+reason. We do not reach the spirit by denying but by obeying the
+letter. To the mere formal observance of the law and the
+unreasoning custom which blindly follows the practice of our
+fathers [Greek: syn&ecirc;theia] Philo is equally opposed, and he
+protests, with the earnestness of an Isaiah, against superstitious
+sacrifice and against the lip-service of the materialist.<a name=
+"FNanchor_169_169" id="FNanchor_169_169"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_169_169">[169]</a></p>
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>"If a man practices ablutions and purifications, but defiles his
+mind while he cleanses his body; or if, through his wealth, he
+founds a temple at a large outlay and expense; or if he offers
+hecatombs and sacrifices oxen without number, or adorns the shrine
+with rich ornaments, or gives endless timber and cunningly wrought
+work, more precious than silver or gold&mdash;let him none the more
+be called religious ([Greek: euseb&ecirc;s]). For he has wandered
+far from the path of religion, mistaking ritual for holiness, and
+attempting to bribe the Incorruptible, and to flatter Him whom none
+can flatter. God welcomes genuine service, and that is the service
+of a soul that offers the bare and simple sacrifice of truth, but
+from false service, the mere display of material wealth, he turns
+away."</p>
+</div>
+<p>Lot's daughter, born of a pillar of stone, symbolizes this
+unthinking, hypertrophied religion; and custom, its mother, which
+always lags behind and has no seed of life, is the enemy of truth.
+The religious man pursueth righteousness righteously, the
+superstitious unrighteously.</p>
+<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_129" id=
+"page_129">[pg.129]</a></span></p>
+<p>Thus Philo holds the balance between a formless spirituality and
+an unspiritual formalism. The end of religious observance is the
+love of God, but the love of God requires more than feeling; it
+must impregnate life. Dubnow, in his summary of Jewish history,
+formulates an epigram, which, like most of its kind, becomes in its
+conciseness and pointed antithesis a half-truth. "At Jerusalem," he
+says, "Judaism appeared as a system of practical ceremonies; at
+Alexandria as a complex of abstract symbols." No doubt it is true
+that at Jerusalem the practical side of the law was most prominent,
+but the spiritual exaltation to which it should lead was appraised
+as the true end by the great rabbis. Witness Hillel, and indeed all
+the writers of the gnomic wisdom in the "Ethics of the Fathers." At
+Alexandria, again, while the philosophical principle underlying the
+outward practice was especially emphasized, the practice itself was
+loyally observed, and its value perceived, by those who most
+thoroughly understood Judaism. Witness the writings of Philo, the
+Wisdom of Solomon, and the fourth book of the Maccabees. The
+antithesis between letter and spirit, faith and works, is in truth
+a false one; and wherever the significance of Judaism has been
+fully comprehended, the two aspects of the law have been
+inextricably intertwined. As Philo understood the Jewish mission,
+it was not merely to diffuse the Jewish God-idea, but quite as much
+to diffuse the Jewish attitude to God, the way of life. Abstract
+ideas, however lofty, can never be the bond of a <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_130" id="page_130">[pg.130]</a></span>
+religious community, nor can they be a safeguard for moral conduct.
+Sooner or later congregations must submit themselves to some law,
+be it a law of dogma, or be it a law of conduct. Antinomianism, the
+opposition to the law, to which Paul later gave powerful, even
+fanatical, expression, was a strong movement at Alexandria in
+Philo's day. Preparatory to the spread of Christianity, numerous
+sects sprang up there which purported to follow a spiritual Judaism
+wherein the law was abrogated because, forsooth, its symbolism was
+understood! In the extreme allegorists, whom Philo attacks for
+their shallowness, one may discern the prototypes of the Cainites,
+Ophites, Melchizedecians, and the rest of the heretical parties
+that produced the religious chaos of the next centuries. From that
+welter of opinions there at last emerged dogmatic Christianity. The
+Christian reformers came to free man from the yoke of the law; but
+their successors imposed on the mind the fetters of dogma, and, in
+order to check the passions of the body, advocated renunciation and
+asceticism. So that not only Judaism as a system of belief, but
+Judaism as a system of life was lost in their handiwork.
+Spirituality lacking knowledge and allegorism in excess led to this
+result. In Philo they are controlled by affection for the Torah,
+and by a conviction of the need for national cohesion.</p>
+<p>Philo is loyal to the Jewish tradition not only because he had a
+deep feeling for what a modern teacher has called the catholic
+conscience and the historical <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_131" id="page_131">[pg.131]</a></span> continuity of Judaism,
+but because his philosophy was based on a conviction that the
+Jewish religion was the truest guide to conduct and righteousness
+and to the love of God. To him, as to Plato and Aristotle, the law
+was the outward register of the moral ideal; the "word-and-deed
+symbols" of ceremonial and prayer were emblems indeed of moral
+principles, but at the same time they had an intrinsic value, in
+that they impressed these principles upon the mind, and brought
+belief and action into harmony. "Religion is law, not philosophy,"
+said Hobbes. With Philo, religion is law <i>and</i> philosophy.
+Thus the love of the Torah is of the essence of his religious
+thought. As he puts it in the exhortation to his fellow-ambassadors
+before Gaius,<a name="FNanchor_170_170" id=
+"FNanchor_170_170"></a><a href="#Footnote_170_170">[170]</a> "to
+die in defence of it is a kind of life." In his philosophical
+Judaism he sought always for the universal and the spiritual, but
+so as always to increase the honor of the law, and not only of the
+law but of the customs of his ancestors, thinking with the Psalmist
+that "the Torah is a tree of life to those who keep fast hold of
+her, and those who support her are blessed."</p>
+<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_132" id=
+"page_132">[pg.132]</a></span></p>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<p>V</p>
+<p>PHILO'S THEOLOGY</p>
+<br>
+<p>"The most remarkable feature about Judaism," says Darmesteter,
+"is that without a philosophical system it had reached a
+philosophical conclusion about the government of the world and the
+nature of God."<a name="FNanchor_171_171" id=
+"FNanchor_171_171"></a><a href="#Footnote_171_171">[171]</a> The
+same idea underlies the statement of the Peripatetic writer
+Theophrastus (who lived in the latter part of the fourth century
+B.C.E.) that the Jews are a people of philosophers,<a name=
+"FNanchor_172_172" id="FNanchor_172_172"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_172_172">[172]</a> and the epigram of Heine, that they
+pray in metaphysics. Intuitively, the lawgiver and prophets of the
+Hebrew race had attained a conception of monotheism to which the
+greatest of the Greek philosophers had hardly struggled by reason.
+The Greeks had started with separate nature-powers, which they had
+finally resolved into a supreme nature-force; the Hebrews had
+started with the historical God of their fathers, whom they had
+universalized into the Creator of the world and Father of all the
+human race. Wellhausen has suggested that the intellectual
+development of Judaism with its tendency to become a purified
+monotheism moved in the same direction towards which Greek thought
+tended in its philosophical speculation of the universe. The
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_133" id=
+"page_133">[pg.133]</a></span> difference between the two
+conceptions of God, however, remained even in their universalized
+aspect; the one was an impersonal world-force, the other a personal
+God in direct relation with individual man. Elsewhere than in
+Jud&aelig;a, it has been well said, religious development reaches
+unity only by sacrificing personality. But the prophets, whose
+conception of God was imaginative rather than rational, preserved
+His nearness while expanding His sway. Israel, to use Philo's
+etymology, is the man who sees God,<a name="FNanchor_173_173" id=
+"FNanchor_173_173"></a><a href="#Footnote_173_173">[173]</a> and
+his religious genius gave to the world a personal incorporeal
+Deity, who is both transcendent and immanent, personal and yet
+above human conception. It is unnecessary to quote evidence of this
+view of the Godhead in the Bible, and it would be superfluous to
+adduce passages from the rabbis, did they not bear a striking
+similarity to the words of Philo. God to them is not only the
+Creator of the world, but also the Father of the world, the
+Governor of the world, the Only One of the world, the Space of the
+world, filling it as the soul fills the body.<a name=
+"FNanchor_174_174" id="FNanchor_174_174"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_174_174">[174]</a> Now, this Jewish conception of God is
+dominant in Philo. To him also God is not only the Creator but the
+Father of the universe.<a name="FNanchor_175_175" id=
+"FNanchor_175_175"></a><a href="#Footnote_175_175">[175]</a> He is
+the One and the All.<a name="FNanchor_176_176" id=
+"FNanchor_176_176"></a><a href="#Footnote_176_176">[176]</a> He is
+ever at rest, yet he outstrippeth everything, <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_134" id="page_134">[pg.134]</a></span>
+nearest to everyone, yet far removed, everywhere and nowhere, above
+and outside the universe, yet filling creation with
+Himself.<a name="FNanchor_177_177" id=
+"FNanchor_177_177"></a><a href="#Footnote_177_177">[177]</a> Philo
+loves to attach to the Deity these opposite predicates, for in this
+way alone can we form for ourselves some conception, however
+inadequate, of His Being. Strictly, God is unconditioned, and
+cannot be the subject of predication, for all determination
+involves negation, and hence in one aspect He is not conceivable
+nor describable, nor nameable.<a name="FNanchor_178_178" id=
+"FNanchor_178_178"></a><a href="#Footnote_178_178">[178]</a>
+Siegfried and Zeller press this negative attitude to the Deity, and
+find that there is an inherent contradiction in Philo's system,
+which ruins it, in that his God, upon whom all depends and who is
+the object of all knowledge, is absolutely unknowable and
+unapproachable. But this is to take Philo according to the strict
+letter to the neglect of the spirit, and to do that with one so
+eloquent and so careless of verbal accuracy is utterly to
+misunderstand him.</p>
+<p>The Greek philosophers in their attempt to formulate an exact
+notion of the First Being by abstract metaphysics had, indeed,
+conceived it in this fashion; and Philo, harmonizing Greek
+metaphysics and Hebrew intuition, is drawn at times into a
+presentation of God which appears to deny His personality and make
+of Him an abstraction. What has been said of Spinoza is true no
+less of Philo.<a name="FNanchor_179_179" id=
+"FNanchor_179_179"></a><a href="#Footnote_179_179">[179]</a> "The
+tendency to unity, to the infinite, to religion, overbalanced
+itself <span class="newpage"><a name="page_135" id=
+"page_135">[pg.135]</a></span> till, by its mere excess, it seemed
+to be changed into its opposite. But this is not his spirit, only
+the dead ultimate result of an imperfect logic that confuses an
+abstract with a concrete unity." In truth, the moment man tries to
+define his conception of God's essence in words, he either impairs
+and perverts his idea, or he must use words that do not really make
+the idea any clearer than it was unexpressed. Thus in the Hymn of
+<img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image41.jpg" width="39" height=
+"22"> the writer, versifying the creeds of Maimonides, seeks to
+define God: "He is a Unity, but there is no Unity like His; He is
+hidden and there is no end to His oneness." But nobody can claim
+that this gives any adequate conception of what he means; so, too,
+Philo, when he tries to analyze God's being metaphysically, only
+obscures the God of his soul, who was the historical God of
+Israel.</p>
+<p>The Hebraic God, like the Greek First Being, has no qualities,
+but unlike the other He has ethical attributes, and it is by these
+that we know Him and by these that He is related to the universe
+and to man. "Failing to comprehend Him in His essence we must aim
+at the next best thing, to comprehend Him as He is manifested to
+the world."<a name="FNanchor_180_180" id=
+"FNanchor_180_180"></a><a href="#Footnote_180_180">[180]</a> So in
+the "Hymn of Unity" it is written, "In images they told of Thee,
+but not according to Thy essence! They but likened Thee in
+accordance with Thy works."<a name="FNanchor_181_181" id=
+"FNanchor_181_181"></a><a href="#Footnote_181_181">[181]</a> And
+this is the manner in which Philo conceives Him: "God's grace and
+goodness it is which are the causes of <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_136" id="page_136">[pg.136]</a></span>
+creation."<a name="FNanchor_182_182" id=
+"FNanchor_182_182"></a><a href="#Footnote_182_182">[182]</a> "The
+just man, seeking the nature of all things, makes this most
+excellent discovery, that all things are due to the grace of God."
+"To those who ask the origin of creation, one could most easily
+reply that it is the goodness and grace of God which He bestowed on
+the race that is after His image."<a name="FNanchor_183_183" id=
+"FNanchor_183_183"></a><a href="#Footnote_183_183">[183]</a> "For
+all that is in the universe and the universe itself are the gift
+and bounty and grace of God."<a name="FNanchor_184_184" id=
+"FNanchor_184_184"></a><a href="#Footnote_184_184">[184]</a> Again,
+"God is omnipotent; He could make all evil, but He wills only what
+is best."<a name="FNanchor_185_185" id=
+"FNanchor_185_185"></a><a href="#Footnote_185_185">[185]</a> "All
+is due to God's grace, though nothing is worthy of it;<a name=
+"FNanchor_186_186" id="FNanchor_186_186"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_186_186">[186]</a> but God looked to His own eternal
+goodness, and considered that to do good befitted His own blessed
+and happy nature."</p>
+<p>Philo's life-aim, as we have seen,<a name="FNanchor_187_187" id=
+"FNanchor_187_187"></a><a href="#Footnote_187_187">[187]</a> was to
+see God in all things and all things in God. He is the sole
+principle of being, exercising continuous causality; and yet He is
+always at rest, for His energy is the expression of His being. "He
+never ceases to create, for creation is as proper to Him as it is
+proper to fire to burn and to snow to cause cold."<a name=
+"FNanchor_188_188" id="FNanchor_188_188"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_188_188">[188]</a> Further, to Him all human activity
+and excellence are directly due. He fertilizes virtue by sending
+down the seed from Heaven,<a name="FNanchor_189_189" id=
+"FNanchor_189_189"></a><a href="#Footnote_189_189">[189]</a> and He
+brings forth wisdom <span class="newpage"><a name="page_137" id=
+"page_137">[pg.137]</a></span> from the human mind by His own
+Divine effluence. "It is the distinctive feature of Jewish
+thought," said Spinoza, "never to make account of particular and
+secondary causes, but in a spirit of devotion, piety, and godliness
+to refer all things directly to the Deity." No Jewish thinker ever
+applied this principle more thoroughly than Philo; and it gives an
+unique color to his work in the history of ancient philosophy. All
+our lives are one unceasing miracle, due to the constant
+manifestation of God's power; and the miracles of the Bible are
+examples of the universal working of Divine care rather than
+exceptions from it.</p>
+<p>The dominant feeling behind Greek thought is that man is the
+measure of all things: Plato, attacking the standpoint of his
+nation, had declared that God is the measure, and Philo repeats his
+maxim with a new intensity. It means for him that man's mind is a
+fragment or particle of the Divine universal mind, which, however,
+is impotent till called into activity by the further Divine gift of
+inspiration. Knowledge and happiness, therefore, come not through
+God, but from God.<a name="FNanchor_190_190" id=
+"FNanchor_190_190"></a><a href="#Footnote_190_190">[190]</a> "The
+Divine Word streams down from the fount of wisdom, and waters the
+plants of virtuous souls."<a name="FNanchor_191_191" id=
+"FNanchor_191_191"></a><a href="#Footnote_191_191">[191]</a> "To
+God alone is it fitting to use the word 'my,'"<a name=
+"FNanchor_192_192" id="FNanchor_192_192"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_192_192">[192]</a> or, put in another way, man has only
+the usufruct and God the ownership of his <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_138" id="page_138">[pg.138]</a></span>
+powers. Pride of intellect is therefore a deadly sin, because it
+involves a false, incomplete idea of God, and true knowledge
+involves reverence. The ideal of the Greek sage, the independent
+reason, is a godless thing, and those in whom a knowledge of Greek
+philosophy produces intellectual pride are not disciples of Divine
+Wisdom. In a fine passage Philo charges with hypocrisy those who
+talk in high-sounding language about the all-powerful Deity, and
+yet declare that by their own intellect they can comprehend the
+world.<a name="FNanchor_193_193" id="FNanchor_193_193"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_193_193">[193]</a> This was the attitude not only of the
+proud Stoic, but of certain kindred Jewish sects, which were
+subject to Greek influences, such as the Gnostics and the Cainites.
+And upon them Philo appears to be pouring his wrath when he
+exclaims: "How have you the effrontery to go on making and
+listening to fine professions about piety and the honor of God,
+when you have within you, forsooth, the mind equal to God that
+comprehends all human things, and can combine good and evil
+portions, giving to some a mixed, to others an unmixed lot? And
+when anybody accuses you of impiety, you brazenly declare that you
+belong to the school of that noble guide and teacher Cain
+(<i>i.e.</i> insolent reason), who bade you pay honor to the
+secondary rather than the primary cause."</p>
+<p>Philo has often been reproached with intellectualism, and
+excessive regard to acquired wisdom, and it <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_139" id="page_139">[pg.139]</a></span> may
+be urged that by his allegorical method he tried to find in the
+Bible the sanction of two degrees of religious faith, the higher
+for the philosopher and the lower for the ordinary man. At the same
+time, however, before his God he retains the childlike simplicity
+of the most un-Hellenic rabbi, and the perfect humility of the
+Hasid. His conviction of the dependence of all upon God's grace is
+the perfect corrective of his intellectual exclusiveness. The idea
+of God as the unity which comprehends everything and causes
+everything is the great Jewish contribution to thought, and binds
+our literature together in all its manifestations. It characterizes
+and unites the poetical utterance of the Bible prophets, the pious
+wisdom of the rabbis, the philosophical systems of Philo and
+Maimonides.</p>
+<p>The more sublime and exalted the conception of God, the more
+imperative became the need for the thinking Jew to explain how the
+perfect infinite Being came into relation with the imperfect finite
+world of man and matter. How can the incorporeal God be the founder
+of the material universe? How can the infinite mind be present in
+the finite thought of man? How can the all-good Power be the
+creator of the evil which we see in the material world and of the
+wickedness that flourisheth among men? These questions presented
+themselves to the Israelite after he had consummated his marvellous
+religious intuition, and became the starting-point of a theology
+which is nascent in the Wisdom literature of the Bible. Theology is
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_140" id=
+"page_140">[pg.140]</a></span> the reasoning about God which
+follows always in the footsteps of religious certitude. First, man
+by his intuitive reason rises to some idea of the Godhead
+satisfying to his emotion; next, by his discursive reason, he
+endeavors to justify that idea to his experience in analyzing God's
+operations. Renan, disposing sweepingly of a great question,
+declares that the Jewish monotheism excluded any true theology.
+But, in fact, in Palestine, and still more in Alexandria from the
+third century B.C.E., Jewish thought had as one of its constant
+aims to develop a theory of the operations of the one God in the
+world of material plurality. When the Jews came in contact with the
+cosmological mythology of Babylon, their God seemed to soar beyond
+the reach of men, and they looked to powers nearer them to bridge
+the widening gulf. To some extent this aim engendered a
+modification in the religious monotheism, and led to the
+interposition of intermediate conceptions between the Inconceivable
+and man. "The whole angelology," says Deutsch,<a name=
+"FNanchor_194_194" id="FNanchor_194_194"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_194_194">[194]</a> "so strikingly simple before the
+Captivity and so wonderfully complex after it, owes its quick
+development in Babylonian soil to some awe-stricken desire which
+grows with growing culture, removing the inconceivable Being
+further and further from human touch or knowledge." Speaking
+generally, it may be said that reflection about God's relations
+produced in Palestine the doctrine of angels, in Alexandria the
+doctrine of Wisdom and the Logos. At the same time the <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_141" id="page_141">[pg.141]</a></span>
+Wisdom and the Word were not unknown to the Palestinian Midrash,
+and the hierarchies of angels to the Alexandrian, for the
+suggestion of the different subordinate powers had been evolved
+before the two traditions had become independent. The doctrine of
+angels never indeed won recognition from the rabbis, but it was for
+centuries an element of popular belief.</p>
+<p>More philosophical than the doctrine of angels was the
+conception of different attributes of God <img alt="Hebrew; " src=
+"images/image42.jpg" width="52" height="22">, which were different
+manifestations of His activity, to the human mind separable and
+distinguishable from each other, though absolutely they were
+inseparable aspects of the Godhead. Chief among these were the
+attribute of mercy and the attribute of justice, <img alt=
+"Hebrew; " src="images/image43.jpg" width="244" height="16">
+<a name="FNanchor_195_195" id="FNanchor_195_195"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_195_195">[195]</a> by which, according to a Midrash,
+Adam was driven from Eden. And these conceptions, though distrusted
+by the Synagogue, entered into later parts of the Prayer Book.
+"Attribute of Mercy, reveal thyself for us; make our supplication
+to fall at the feet of Thy Creator; and on behalf of Thy people
+beseech for mercy"; thus runs a fine prayer in the Ne'ilah service
+of the Day of Atonement, and many of the other Selihot prove the
+persistence of this development of Jewish belief. The theory of
+Divine attributes was common to Palestine and Alexandria, and
+plays, as we shall see, an important part in Philo's<a name=
+"FNanchor_196_196" id="FNanchor_196_196"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_196_196">[196]</a> thought; but the distinctive
+Hellenistic theology is the hypostasis of the Wisdom and the
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_142" id=
+"page_142">[pg.142]</a></span> Word of God. In the Bible itself,
+and notably in Proverbs, we find Wisdom personified&mdash;the first
+vague, poetical suggestion of a Jewish theology. As the Jews came
+into contact with Hellenic influence, the tendency to develop the
+personification into a power increased, and may be traced through
+the first flower of Gr&aelig;co-Jewish culture, the Wisdom
+literature. The Greek philosophers had conceived the First Cause as
+a ruling Mind, or universal Reason, and influenced by this
+conception, yet loyal to their monotheistic faith, the Jewish
+writers of the Hellenistic age spoke of the Wisdom as the minister
+of God, the power by which He ruled creation. The apocryphal books
+of Ecclesiasticus and the Wisdom of Solomon exhibit Wisdom passing
+from the poetical personification of the Bible to the separate
+hypostasis of theology. In the verse of the Bible sage, "Wisdom
+hath builded her house, she hath hewn out her seven pillars" (Prov.
+ix. 1), she is the creation of the purely poetical fancy, but in
+the Wisdom of Solomon she has become a link between Heaven and
+earth, the creation of the theologian's reflection. "She reacheth
+from one end of the world to the other with strength, and ordereth
+all things graciously. She is settled by God on His throne, and by
+her He made the world, by her the righteous were saved. She watched
+over the father of the human race, and she delivered Israel from
+Egypt." In Ecclesiasticus it is written, "All Wisdom is from the
+Lord and is with Him forever. She cometh forth from the mouth of
+the Most High, and was created <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_143" id="page_143">[pg.143]</a></span> before all things. God
+having fashioned her from the beginning placed her over all His
+works. Then she covered the earth as a mist, she pitched her tent
+in high places and her palace was in a pillar of cloud. She
+ministered in the tabernacle, and was established in Zion, in
+Jerusalem, the beloved city." In similar strain, in the apocalyptic
+book of Enoch (xxx), God says, "On the sixth day I ordered My
+Wisdom to make man"; and in the Sibylline Oracles and Aristobulus
+she appears as the assessor of God who ruleth over men.</p>
+<p>Parallel with Wisdom, the Word of God was developed into
+something between a poetical image and a separate power. Again the
+development starts from a Biblical metaphor. "By the word of the
+Lord were the heavens created, and all their host by the breath of
+His mouth" (Ps. xxxiii). "God of our Fathers and Lord of Mercy, who
+didst make all things by Thy word," says the writer of the Wisdom
+of Solomon. Inspired again by the phrase of the Psalmist, "He sent
+His word, and healed them" (Ps. cvi. 20), he hymns the Divine Logos
+as the all-powerful emissary doing God's bidding among men. "It was
+neither herb nor emollient that cured Israel in the wilderness
+(when bitten by the fiery scorpions), but Thy Logos, O Lord, which
+heals all things." Later, when he describes the destruction of the
+first-born in Egypt, he rises in a p&aelig;an to a finer poetical
+flight: "When tranquil silence folded all things, and night in her
+own swiftness was in the midst of her course, Thy <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_144" id="page_144">[pg.144]</a></span>
+all-powerful Logos leaped from heaven, from his royal throne, a
+stern warrior into the midst of the doomed land, bearing as a sharp
+sword Thy Divine commandment, and having taken his stand filled all
+things with death: and he touched heaven and walked upon earth."
+The Jewish poet, rejecting the idea that the perfect God could
+descend to earth and slay men, brushes away the anthropomorphism of
+the Bible, and summons from his mind this creation mixed of Hebrew
+imagination and Greek reason. So, too, Onkelos, wherever activity
+upon earth was ascribed to God, wrote, in his translation (Targum)
+of Scripture, "the word of the Lord," and for the material hand he
+substituted the more abstract might. The same development,<a name=
+"FNanchor_197_197" id="FNanchor_197_197"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_197_197">[197]</a> under the names of Memra and (less
+frequently) of <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image44.jpg" width=
+"37" height="16">, shows that the word-agent of God appealed to
+certain of the rabbis in their desire to explain away, on the one
+hand, expressions in the Bible which seemed to invest the Deity
+with corporeal qualities, and, on the other, so to divide His
+infinite perfection as to make His presence immanent upon
+earth.</p>
+<p>The teachers at Alexandria were above all others induced to
+develop the Word into the active power, since they seemed thereby
+to find in the Bible a remarkable anticipation of Greek philosophy.
+The Greek Logos, by which "the Word" was translated in the
+Septuagint, meant also thought and reason, and during the
+Hellenistic age was the regular term by which <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_145" id="page_145">[pg.145]</a></span> the
+philosophical schools expressed the impersonal world-force which
+governed all things. The Logos idea among the Jews was a
+modification of intuitive and na&iuml;ve monotheism; among the
+Greeks it was a step upwards, demanded by reason, from polytheism
+to a monistic view of the universe. By the first century its
+recognition as the ruling power in both the physical and moral
+universe had become a point of union in all philosophical
+schools&mdash;the common stamp of philosophical theology. Between
+the Semitic ministerial word uttered by a personal Being and the
+Greek pantheistic governing reason, there was probably an early
+connection, due to Eastern influences which operated upon the
+founders of Greek philosophy, which later schools lost sight of.
+When the Hebrew Scriptures were translated, the two coalesced more
+fruitfully in the Greek term Logos, and a point of union was
+provided between the philosophical and the Jewish theology.
+Moreover the local Egyptian influence aided the union, for the god
+Thoth was also identified with the Logos, which thus appeared as a
+religious conception common to all races, the basis of a universal
+creed. And besides the world-reason of the philosophers, another
+Greek influence no doubt tended to further the development of the
+Logos in Jewish thought. One of the most marked characteristics of
+the Hellenistic age is the renascence of wonder at the institutions
+of human life, and more especially at numbers and speech.</p>
+<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_146" id=
+"page_146">[pg.146]</a></span> Numbers were held to contain the
+essence of things, and the marvellous powers of four, seven, and
+ten received honor from all sects and schools. Words, too, were
+regarded almost as a mystic power, distinct from thought,
+incorporeal things which made thought real and gave it expression.
+The mystical susceptibility of Philo to the power of numbers has
+been noticed by every critic and exaggerated by not a few; his
+mystical valuation of words and speech, though far more important
+in his thought, has been commonly passed over. The analysis which
+Greek writers made of the relation between the mental thought, the
+sound which utters it, and the mind which thinks it, was invested
+with special importance for the Jewish thinker, who transferred it
+from the human to the Divine sphere. He applied it to interpret the
+constant Biblical phrases "and God said" or "and God spoke,"
+according to notions in which philosophy and theology are mixed;
+and propounded a mystic idealism and a mystic cosmology, in which
+God's thought or comprehensive Word becomes the archetype of the
+visible universe, His single words the substantive universe and the
+laws of nature. A century before Philo, Aristobulus&mdash;assuming
+the genuineness of his Fragments&mdash;wrote:<a name=
+"FNanchor_198_198" id="FNanchor_198_198"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_198_198">[198]</a> "We must understand the Word of God,
+not as a spoken word, but as the establishment of actual things,
+seeing that we find throughout the Torah that Moses has declared
+the whole creation to be words of God." Philo, following his
+predecessor, <span class="newpage"><a name="page_147" id=
+"page_147">[pg.147]</a></span> says, "God speaks not words but
+things,"<a name="FNanchor_199_199" id=
+"FNanchor_199_199"></a><a href="#Footnote_199_199">[199]</a> and,
+again, commenting on the first chapter of Genesis, "God, even as He
+spake, at the same moment created."<a name="FNanchor_200_200" id=
+"FNanchor_200_200"></a><a href="#Footnote_200_200">[200]</a> And of
+human speech he has this pretty conceit a little before: "Into the
+mouth there enter food and drink, the perishable food of a
+perishable body; out of it issue words, immortal laws of an
+immortal soul, by which rational life is guided."<a name=
+"FNanchor_201_201" id="FNanchor_201_201"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_201_201">[201]</a> If human speech is "immortal law,"
+much more is the speech of God. His words are ideas seen by the eye
+of the soul, not heard by the ear.<a name="FNanchor_202_202" id=
+"FNanchor_202_202"></a><a href="#Footnote_202_202">[202]</a> The
+ten commandments given at Sinai were "ideas" of this incorporeal
+nature, and the voice that Israel heard was no voice such as men
+possess, but the <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image45.jpg"
+width="51" height="19">, the Divine Presence itself, which exalted
+the multitude.<a name="FNanchor_203_203" id=
+"FNanchor_203_203"></a><a href="#Footnote_203_203">[203]</a> Philo
+is here expanding and developing Jewish tradition. In the "Ethics
+of the Fathers" (v) we read: "By ten words was the world created";
+and in the pages of the Midrash the <img alt="Hebrew; " src=
+"images/image46.jpg" width="57" height="21">, <i>i.e.</i>, the
+mystic emanation of the Deity, which revealed itself after the
+spirit of prophecy had ceased to be vouchsafed, is credited with
+wondrous and varied powers, now revealing the Decalogue, now
+performing some miracle, now appearing in a vision to the blessed,
+now prophesying the future fate of the race to a pious rabbi. The
+fertilizing stream of Greek <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_148" id="page_148">[pg.148]</a></span> philosophical idealism
+nourished the growth of the Jewish pious imagination, and in the
+Logos of Philo the fruit matured. It is idle to try to formulate a
+single definite notion of Philo's Logos. For it is the expression
+of God in all His multiple and manifold activity, the instrument of
+creation, the seat of ideas, the world of thought which God first
+established as the model of the visible universe, the guiding
+providence, the sower of virtue, the fount of wisdom, described
+sometimes in religious ecstasy, sometimes in philosophical
+metaphysics, sometimes in the spirit of the mystical poet. Of his
+last manner let us take a specimen singled out by a Christian and a
+Jewish theologian as of surprising beauty. Commenting on the verse
+of the Psalmist, "The river of God is filled with water," Philo
+declares that it is absurd to call any earthly stream the river of
+God.</p>
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>"The poet clearly refers to the Divine Logos that is full of the
+fountain of wisdom, and is in no part itself empty. Nay, it is
+diffused through the universe, and is raised up on high. In another
+verse the Psalmist says, 'The course of the river gladdens the city
+of God.' And in truth the continuous rush of the Divine Logos is
+borne along with eager but regular onset, and overflows and
+gladdens all things. In one sense he calls the world the city of
+God, for it has received the 'full cup' of the Divine draught, and
+has quaffed a perpetual, eternal joy. But in another sense he gave
+this name to the soul of the wise, wherein God is said to walk as
+in a city. And who can pour out the sacred measures of their joy to
+the blissful soul which holds out the holy cup, that is its own
+reason, save the Logos, the cupbearer of God, the</p>
+</div>
+<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_149" id=
+"page_149">[pg.149]</a></span></p>
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>master of the feast? Nor is the Logos cupbearer only, but it is
+itself the pure draught, itself the joy and exultation, itself the
+pouring forth and the delight, itself the ambrosial philtre and
+potion of bliss."<a name="FNanchor_204_204" id=
+"FNanchor_204_204"></a><a href="#Footnote_204_204">[204]</a></p>
+</div>
+<p>Through the luxury of metaphor and imagination one may discern
+the underlying thought of the mystic writer, that the Logos is the
+effluence of God, either in the whole universe or the individual
+man, filling the one as the other with the Divine Shekinah. It is
+the link which joins God and man, the ladder of Jacob's dream,
+which stretches from Heaven to earth.<a name="FNanchor_205_205" id=
+"FNanchor_205_205"></a><a href="#Footnote_205_205">[205]</a> That
+man can attain the Divine state by the help of God's effluence was
+a cardinal thought of Philo's; this, indeed, is the form in which
+he conceives the Messianic hope. God does not come down to earth
+incarnate in man's form, but God's active influence possesses the
+soul of man, and makes it live with God, and if man be peculiarly
+blessed, carries it up to the ineffable Spirit. Similarly his idea
+of the Messiah is more spiritual than that of the popular belief.
+The ascent of man to God's height, not the descent of God to man's
+level, will produce the age of universal peace.</p>
+<p>There are various degrees of the Divine influence, stretching
+from complete possession by the Deity Himself to the advent of
+single Divine thoughts. These Philo regards as <img alt=
+"Greek: logoi" src="images/image47.jpg" width="46" height="19">,
+words or thoughts&mdash;for he does not clearly distinguish between
+the two&mdash;and he resolves the realistic angels of the Bible
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_150" id=
+"page_150">[pg.150]</a></span> into this spiritual
+conception.<a name="FNanchor_206_206" id=
+"FNanchor_206_206"></a><a href="#Footnote_206_206">[206]</a> Thus
+he says, "the place" where Jacob alighted and had the vision (Gen.
+xxvii. 11) is the symbol of the perfect contemplation of God; the
+angels which he saw ascending and descending are the inferior light
+of Divine precepts. These thoughts are continually vouchsafed to
+all of us, prompting us to noble actions, comforting us in times of
+sadness, inspiring lofty ideas.</p>
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>"Up and down through the whole soul the Logoi of God move
+without end; when they ascend, drawing it up with them, and
+severing it from the mortal part, and showing only the vision of
+ideal things; but when they descend, not casting it down, but
+descending with it from humanity or compassion towards our race, so
+as to give assistance and help, in order that, inspiring what is
+noble, they may revive the soul which is borne along on the stream
+of the body."<a name="FNanchor_207_207" id=
+"FNanchor_207_207"></a><a href="#Footnote_207_207">[207]</a></p>
+</div>
+<p>Conversely, the rabbis taught that from each word that proceeded
+from the mouth of God an angel was created, as it is said: "By the
+word of the Lord the Heavens were made, and all the host of them by
+the breath of His mouth."<a name="FNanchor_208_208" id=
+"FNanchor_208_208"></a><a href="#Footnote_208_208">[208]</a></p>
+<p>Apart from these sudden and occasional emanations of the Divine
+Spirit, the individual man has within him a permanent Divine Logos
+by which he may direct his conduct aright. Viewed in this aspect,
+the Logos, <i>i.e.</i>, the activity of God, is conscience, the
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_151" id=
+"page_151">[pg.151]</a></span> Judge in the soul, which is the true
+man dwelling within,<a name="FNanchor_209_209" id=
+"FNanchor_209_209"></a><a href="#Footnote_209_209">[209]</a> ruler
+and king, judge and arbiter, witness and accuser, correcting and
+restraining. Rising to bolder personification, Philo, who loves to
+present a spiritual thought in a concrete image, calls it the
+undefiled high priest in us.<a name="FNanchor_210_210" id=
+"FNanchor_210_210"></a><a href="#Footnote_210_210">[210]</a> In
+this power he finds a sure refutation of skepticism; for in virtue
+of the Divine voice man may secure moral certitude: and he finds
+also a philosophical value for popular superstition. It was a
+common notion of the pagans as well as the Jews of the time that an
+intermediate order of beings passed between heaven and earth and
+brought supernatural aid to men; and also that a familiar spirit,
+or D&aelig;mon, dwelt within the soul of each man. The finer spirit
+of Philo resolves the attendant D&aelig;mon and the
+messenger-d&aelig;mons or angels into the spiritual effluences of
+the one Deity; save for a few places where he makes a pose of
+agreement with popular notions and speaks of winged denizens of
+Heaven<a name="FNanchor_211_211" id="FNanchor_211_211"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_211_211">[211]</a> who descend to earth, he habitually
+expounds angels as inward revelations of God.</p>
+<p>As the revelation of God to the individual is a Logos, so, too,
+is his revelation to the whole of mankind. It was pointed out in
+the last chapter that Philo identified the Torah with the law of
+nature, and he did this by regarding it as the Divine Logos. The
+more perfect emanation of God is in one view the power by
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_152" id=
+"page_152">[pg.152]</a></span> which He directs the physical
+creation, in another the perfect law which He set up as the model
+of conduct for His highest creatures. The rabbis, indeed, were
+prone to glorify the law as the primal creation of God, and the
+instrument of all the later creations, <img alt="Hebrew; " src=
+"images/image48.jpg" width="203" height="18">.<a name=
+"FNanchor_212_212" id="FNanchor_212_212"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_212_212">[212]</a> They speak of it as the light, the
+pillar, and the bond of the universe, the model whereon the
+architect looked;<a name="FNanchor_213_213" id=
+"FNanchor_213_213"></a><a href="#Footnote_213_213">[213]</a> and
+Philo amplifies this simple poetical concept and develops it afresh
+in the light of Greek idealistic and cosmical notions,<a name=
+"FNanchor_214_214" id="FNanchor_214_214"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_214_214">[214]</a> so that the Torah, as the Logos of
+God, is equated with the source of all being, wisdom, and
+knowledge, with the ideal world which is the archetype of the
+material, and with all the law and order of nature. And as the
+Torah is the Logos, so also its particular precepts are Logoi.</p>
+<p>It seems difficult to trace the unity among all these different
+aspects of the "Word," but in fact they are only different
+expressions of the Divine activity in the universe. All these are
+comprehended in the Logos, and then again divided out of it, so
+that it is, as it were, a crystal prism reflecting the light of the
+Godhead in a myriad different ways. One curious illustration of the
+universal sense in which Philo understood the Logos is his
+interpretation of the manna; it is typical also of his manner of
+exegesis <span class="newpage"><a name="page_153" id=
+"page_153">[pg.153]</a></span> and his habit of spiritualizing the
+material. It is related in Exodus (xvi. 15) that when the
+Israelites saw the heavenly food they exclaimed <img alt="Hebrew; "
+src="images/image49.jpg" width="59" height="15">, "What is it?" and
+hence the food obtained its name of manna. Now the Greek Septuagint
+word for <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image50.jpg" width="67"
+height="22"> which means not only "what" but "anything." Philo sees
+in the gift of the heavenly food a symbol of the inspiration of the
+chosen people by the Divine Logos, and says that the Logos is
+rightly called manna, <i>i.e.</i>, anything, because it is the
+"most generic of all things, and that by which man may be
+nourished."<a name="FNanchor_215_215" id=
+"FNanchor_215_215"></a><a href="#Footnote_215_215">[215]</a></p>
+<p>The central thought of Philo's system is that God is immanent in
+all His work; but it would seem to him sacrilegious to apply to the
+Godhead itself this universal, unceasing activity, and so he
+develops the Logos as the most ideal attribute of the Deity, and
+the sum of all His immanence and effluence. He preferred the Logos
+to the older Wisdom, probably because he could by this conception
+bring his idea of God into closer relation with Greek philosophical
+notions, for already the Hellenistic world had come spontaneously
+to revere the cosmical Logos. Only Philo gave to the expression of
+their physical and metaphysical speculation a religious warmth new
+to it, when he associated it with the word uttered by the personal
+God. Philosophy, theology, and religion were all joined and
+harmonized in his conception.</p>
+<p>If we have followed thus far the spirit of Philo <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_154" id="page_154">[pg.154]</a></span>
+aright, the Logos is only the immanent manifestation of the One
+God, who is both transcendental and immanent, metaphorically, not
+metaphysically, separate. In other words, it is the complete aspect
+of God as He reveals Himself to the world. Above it and including
+it is the being or essence of God, seen in Himself, and not in
+relation to His outward activity. But it is often suggested that
+the Logos appears to Philo as a second God, subordinate, indeed, to
+the Supreme Being, but yet a separate personality. It is said, with
+truth, that he speaks of it as a person, now calling it king,
+priest, primal man, the first-born son of God, even the second God,
+and identifying it at other times with some personal being,
+Melchizedek or Moses, and apostrophizing it as man's helper, guide,
+and advocate.<a name="FNanchor_216_216" id=
+"FNanchor_216_216"></a><a href="#Footnote_216_216">[216]</a> Now we
+have reason to think that Gnostic sects of Jews, both in Alexandria
+and in Palestine, were at this time tending towards the division of
+the Godhead into separate powers. The heresy of "Minut," frequently
+mentioned in the Talmud, consisted originally, in the opinion of
+modern scholars, of a Gnostic ditheism;<a name="FNanchor_217_217"
+id="FNanchor_217_217"></a><a href="#Footnote_217_217">[217]</a> and
+during the latter part of the first century and thereafter we hear
+of sects in Egypt and Syria which supported similar theories.
+Theology here produced its fantastic offspring theosophy, and the
+followers of the esoteric wisdom let their speculations carry them
+away from the cardinal principle of <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_155" id="page_155">[pg.155]</a></span> Judaism. Influenced by
+Egyptian speculation, they imagined an incarnation of the Divine
+Spirit, and in the mystical thought of the day they adumbrated
+theories of virgin birth.</p>
+<p>Now these prototypes of Christian belief had undoubtedly
+manifested themselves at Alexandria in Philo's day. His treatises
+show traces of them,<a name="FNanchor_218_218" id=
+"FNanchor_218_218"></a><a href="#Footnote_218_218">[218]</a> and
+the question is whether he countenanced them or tried to summon the
+theosophists of his generation back to the true Jewish conception
+of God. Certain Christian and philosophical critics of Philo, for
+whom the wish was perhaps father to the thought, have found in
+Philo's Logos a conception which is at times impersonal, at times
+personal, at times an aspect of the One God, and at times a second
+independent God. If we take Philo literally, this certainly is the
+case. But let it be clearly understood, this interpretation not
+only involves Philo in inconsistency, but it utterly ruins and
+destroys his religious and philosophical system. It means that the
+champion of Jewish monotheism wanders into a vague ditheism. And in
+view of this, the modern commentators of Philo, notably Professor
+Drummond,<a name="FNanchor_219_219" id=
+"FNanchor_219_219"></a><a href="#Footnote_219_219">[219]</a> have
+examined his words more carefully and studied them in relation to
+their context; and they have shown how, judged in this critical
+fashion, the personality of the Logos is only figurative. It is,
+indeed, probable that certain extreme passages, where the Logos is
+presented most explicitly as <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_156" id="page_156">[pg.156]</a></span> a separate Deity, are
+due to Christological interpolation. The Church Fathers found in
+the popular belief in the Divine Word a remarkable support of the
+Trinity, and regarding, as they did, Philo's writings as valuable
+testimony to the truth of Christianity, they had every temptation
+to bring his passages about the Logos still closer to their ideas.
+And between the first and the fifth century, when we first hear
+from Eusebius of manuscripts of Philo at the Christian monastery of
+C&aelig;sarea&mdash;from which we can trace our texts in direct
+line&mdash;there was no high standard in dealing with ancient
+authorities. It is the Christian teachers who preserved Philo, and
+they preserved him not as scholars but as missioners. The best
+editors have recognized that our text has been interfered with by
+evidenced-making scribes, as where a passage about the new
+Jerusalem appears, agreeing almost word for word with the picture
+of Revelations. Similarly, not a few passages about the Logos are
+probably spurious.<a name="FNanchor_220_220" id=
+"FNanchor_220_220"></a><a href="#Footnote_220_220">[220]</a></p>
+<p>Yet, even when we have expurgated our text of Philo, there
+remain, it will be said, numerous passages where the Logos is
+spoken of and apostrophized as a person. This is so, but the
+conclusion which is drawn, that the Logos is regarded as a second
+deity, is unjustifiable. The Jewish mind from the time of the
+prophets unto this day has thought in images and metaphors, and the
+personification of the Logos is only the most striking instance of
+Philo's regular <span class="newpage"><a name="page_157" id=
+"page_157">[pg.157]</a></span> habit of personifying all abstract
+ideas. The allegorical habit particularly conduces to this, for as
+persons are constantly resolved into ideas, so ideas come to be
+naturally represented as persons. There are thus two steps in
+Philo's theology, which seem to some extent to counteract each
+other; in the first place, he resolves the concrete physical
+expressions of the Bible into spiritual ideas, in the second he
+portrays those ideas in pictorial language and clothes them in
+personifications. The allegorizer requires an allegorist to
+interpret him aright.</p>
+<p>Nor must it be forgotten that Philo was preaching spiritual
+monotheism not only to Jews, but also to the Hellenic world, for
+whom it was a vast bound from their naturalistic polytheism.
+Zealous as he was for the pure faith, he realized that mankind
+could not attain it directly, but must approach it by conceptions
+of the One God gradually increasing in profundity and truth. The
+Greek thinkers had approximated closest to the Hebraic God-idea
+when they conceived one supreme, immanent reason in the universe;
+and Philo, in carrying his audiences beyond this to the
+transcendent-immanent Being, transformed the Greek cosmical concept
+into a Divine power of the One Being. For the true believer this is
+the stepping-stone to the perfect idea. "The Logos," he says, "is
+the God of us imperfect people, but the true sages worship the One
+Being."<a name="FNanchor_221_221" id=
+"FNanchor_221_221"></a><a href="#Footnote_221_221">[221]</a> And,
+again, "The imperfect have <span class="newpage"><a name="page_158"
+id="page_158">[pg.158]</a></span> as their law the holy
+Logos."<a name="FNanchor_222_222" id=
+"FNanchor_222_222"></a><a href="#Footnote_222_222">[222]</a> And in
+this sense, it is "intermediate <img alt="Greek: methorios" src=
+"images/image51.jpg" width="91" height="22"> between God and
+man."<a name="FNanchor_223_223" id="FNanchor_223_223"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_223_223">[223]</a> What such passages mean is that the
+separation of the Logos is a stage in man's progress up to the true
+idea of God. It is a second-best Deity, so to say, rather than a
+second Deity; for those who regard the Logos as God have no
+conception at all of the perfect Being of which it is only the
+principal attribute.</p>
+<p>The theology of Philo is characterized throughout by a tolerant
+and philosophical grasp of the difficulty of pure monotheism, and
+of the necessity of a long intellectual searching before the goal
+can be attained. To declare the Unity of God is simple enough; to
+have a real conception of it is a very different and a very
+difficult thing. And Philo's theology has a two-fold aim, in which
+either part complements the other. It explains, on the one hand,
+how God is revealed to the world through His powers or attributes
+or modes of activity, and, on the other, how man can ascend to an
+ecstatic union with the Real Being through comprehension of those
+powers. By the ideal ladder which brings down God to earth, man can
+climb again to Heaven. The three chief rungs of the ladder are the
+attributes of creation, and of ruling power, and the Logos. The
+perfect unity of the Godhead is not, of course, properly the
+subject of attributes, but the limited mind of man so conceives it
+for its own understanding, and speaks of God's justice, God's
+goodness, <span class="newpage"><a name="page_159" id=
+"page_159">[pg.159]</a></span> God's wisdom. These are, to use
+philosophical terminology, categories of the religious
+understanding, which are finally resolved by the perfect sage in
+"the synthetic apperception of Unity."</p>
+<p>Philo follows what may have been a Hebrew tradition in
+explaining the two names of God, "Elohim" and "Jehovah," as
+connoting His two chief attributes: (1) the creative or beneficent,
+(2) the ruling or judicial, or, as it is sometimes called, the
+law-giving power.<a name="FNanchor_224_224" id=
+"FNanchor_224_224"></a><a href="#Footnote_224_224">[224]</a> Names,
+as we know, were always regarded by Philo as profound symbols, and
+naturally the names of God are of vital import; and the twofold
+expression for the Hebrew Deity, of which the higher critics have
+made much destructive use, was noticed by the earliest
+commentators, but made the basis by them of a constructive
+theology. The ruling and the creative attributes of God are
+outlined and contained in the highest mode of all, the Logos, "the
+reason of God in every phase and form of it that is discoverable
+and realizable by man." For by the Logos, God is both ruler and
+good.<a name="FNanchor_225_225" id="FNanchor_225_225"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_225_225">[225]</a> This is the profound interpretation
+of the story in Genesis, that "God placed at the east of the garden
+of Eden the two Cherubim and a flaming sword, which turned every
+way to keep the way of the tree of life" (Gen. iv. 24). The
+Cherubim are the symbols of the powers of majesty and goodness; the
+flaming sword is the Logos; "because," says our author quaintly,
+"all thought and speech are the most <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_160" id="page_160">[pg.160]</a></span> mobile and the most
+ardent (<i>i.e.</i>, the most intensive) of things, and especially
+the thought and speech of the only Principle."<a name=
+"FNanchor_226_226" id="FNanchor_226_226"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_226_226">[226]</a></p>
+<p>To correspond with the descending attributes of God we have the
+ascending dispositions of man towards Him, fear, love, and thirdly
+their synthesis in loving knowledge. When we are in the first stage
+of religion we obey the law in hope of reward or fear of
+punishment; when we have progressed higher in thought, we worship
+God as the good Creator; when we have ascended one further stage,
+we surpass both fear and love in an emotion which combines them,
+realizing, as Browning puts it, that "God is law and God is love."
+In illustration of this scheme of Philo's we may examine two
+passages out of his philosophical commentary. In the first he is
+commenting upon the appearance of the three angels to Abraham as he
+sat outside his tent (Gen. xviii).<a name="FNanchor_227_227" id=
+"FNanchor_227_227"></a><a href="#Footnote_227_227">[227]</a> And,
+by the way, it may be remarked that the Midrash commenting on this
+passage notes that it begins, "And the Lord appeared unto Abraham,"
+and then continues, "And he lifted up his eyes and looked, and, lo,
+three men stood before him." Hence we may learn that it was really
+the one God who appeared to the Patriarch, and that the three
+angels were but a vision of his mind. This is the dominant note of
+Philo's interpretation, but he as usual elaborates the old Midrash
+philosophically. <span class="newpage"><a name="page_161" id=
+"page_161">[pg.161]</a></span></p>
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>"The words," he says, "are symbols of things apprehended by
+intelligence alone&mdash;the soul receives a triple expression of
+one being, of which one is the representative of the actual
+existent, and the other two are shadows, as it were, cast from
+this. So it happens also in the physical world, for there often
+occur two shadows of bodies at rest or in motion. Let no one
+suppose, however, that shadow is properly used in relation to God.
+It is only a popular use of words for the clearer understanding of
+our subject. The reality is not so, but, as one standing nearest to
+the truth might say, the middle one is the Father of the universe,
+who is called in Scripture the 'Self-existent'; and those on either
+side of Him are the two oldest and chief powers, the Creative and
+the Regal. The middle one, then, being attended by the others as by
+a bodyguard, presents to the contemplative mind a mental image or
+representation now of one and now of three; of one whenever the
+soul, being properly purified and perfectly initiated, rises to the
+idea which is unmingled and free from limitation, and requires
+nothing to complete it; but of three whenever it has not yet been
+initiated into the great mysteries, and still celebrates the lesser
+rites, unable to apprehend the Being in itself without
+modification, but apprehending it through its modes as either
+creating or ruling. This is, as the proverb says, a second-best
+course, but yet it partakes of godlike opinion. But the former does
+not partake of&mdash;for it <i>is</i> itself&mdash;the Godlike
+opinion, or rather it is truth, which is more precious than all
+opinion.</p>
+<p>"Further, there are three classes of human character, to each of
+which one of the three conceptions of God has been assigned. The
+best class goes with the first, the conception of the absolute
+Being; the next goes with the conception of Him as a Benefactor, in
+virtue of which He is called God; the third with the conception of
+Him as a Ruler, in virtue of which He is called Lord. The
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_162" id=
+"page_162">[pg.162]</a></span> noblest character serves Him who is
+in all the purity of His absolute Being; it is attracted by no
+other thing or aspect, but is solely and intently devoted to the
+honor of the one and only Being; the second is brought to the
+knowledge of the Father through His beneficent power; the third
+through His regal power."</p>
+</div>
+<p>In the second passage, which occurs in the treatise on flight
+from the world,<a name="FNanchor_228_228" id=
+"FNanchor_228_228"></a><a href="#Footnote_228_228">[228]</a> Philo
+is allegorizing the law about founding six cities of refuge (Exodus
+xxxii). These are but material symbols for the six stages of the
+ascent of the mind to the pure God-idea. The chief city, the
+metropolis, is the Divine Logos, next come the two powers already
+considered, and then three secondary powers, the retributive, the
+law-giving, and the prohibitive. "Very beautiful and well-fenced
+cities they are, worthy refuges of souls that merit salvation."
+Each of these cities is an aspect of the religious mind; when it
+settles in the first it obeys the law from fear of punishment and
+thinks of God as the Judge; in the second it observes the precepts
+in hope of reward and conceives God as the legislator of a fixed
+code; in the next it is repentant and throws itself on God's grace,
+marking the first step of the spiritual life. Then it ascends in
+order to the idea of God as the governor of the universe, and the
+emotion which the rabbis called <img alt="Hebrew; " src=
+"images/image52.jpg" width="93" height="16">, the fear of Heaven;
+and to the idea of God as the Creator and the universal Providence,
+which has as its emotional reflex the love of Heaven, <img alt=
+"Hebrew; " src="images/image53.jpg" width="99" height="22">
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_163" id=
+"page_163">[pg.163]</a></span> But even this, which is the highest
+stage for many men, is not an adequate conception. Above it is the
+contemplation of God, apart from all manifestations in the
+perceptible world, in His ideal nature, the Logos, which at once
+transcends and comprehends the universe. And the attitude of this
+man can be best expressed perhaps by Spinoza's phrase, "the
+intellectual love of God," <i>amor intellectualis Dei</i>. The
+worshipper of the Logos has grasped and has harmonized all the
+manifestations of the Deity; he sees and honors all things in God;
+he comprehends the universe as the perfect manifestation of one
+good Being.</p>
+<p>Is this the highest point which man can reach? Many religious
+philosophers have held that it is, but Philo, the mystic, yearning
+to track out God "beyond the utmost bound of human thought,"
+imagines one higher condition. The Logos is only the image or the
+shadow of the Godhead.<a name="FNanchor_229_229" id=
+"FNanchor_229_229"></a><a href="#Footnote_229_229">[229]</a> Above
+it is the one perfect reality, the transcendent Essence. Now, man
+cannot by any intellectual effort attain knowledge of the Infinite
+as He truly is, for this is above thought. But to a few blessed
+mortals God of His grace vouchsafes a mystic vision of His nature.
+Thus Moses, the perfect hierophant, had this perfect apprehension,
+and passed from intellectual love to holy adoration. And the true
+philosopher has as the goal of his aspirations the heaven-sent
+ecstasy, in which he sees God no longer through His effects, or in
+the modes of His <span class="newpage"><a name="page_164" id=
+"page_164">[pg.164]</a></span> activity, but through Himself in His
+own essence. The philosopher, when he receives this vision
+<img alt="Greek: epopteia" src="images/image54.jpg" width="84"
+height="22"> is possessed by the Shekinah,<a name=
+"FNanchor_230_230" id="FNanchor_230_230"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_230_230">[230]</a> and, losing consciousness of his
+individuality, becomes at one with God.</p>
+<p>So much for Philo's theory of man's upward progress. We may add
+a word about his treatment of the problem which troubled thinkers
+in that age, and which has harassed theologians ever since, viz.,
+to show how punishment and evil could be derived from a God who was
+all-powerful and all-good. The Gnostics were driven by the
+difficulty to imagine an evil world-power, which was in incessant
+conflict with the Good God: and popular belief had conjured up a
+legion of subordinate powers, who took part in the work of creation
+and the government of the world. When Philo is speaking popularly,
+he accepts this current theology and speaks also of a punitive
+power of God<a name="FNanchor_231_231" id=
+"FNanchor_231_231"></a><a href="#Footnote_231_231">[231]</a>
+<img alt="Greek: dunamis cholastich&ecirc;" src=
+"images/image55.jpg" width="162" height="21">; but not when he is
+the philosopher. For then, in perfect faith, he denies the absolute
+existence of evil. "It is neither in Paradise nor indeed anywhere
+whatsoever."<a name="FNanchor_232_232" id=
+"FNanchor_232_232"></a><a href="#Footnote_232_232">[232]</a> Man,
+however, by his free will causes evil in the human sphere; and when
+God formed in man a rational nature capable of choosing for itself,
+moral evil became the necessary contrary of good.<a name=
+"FNanchor_233_233" id="FNanchor_233_233"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_233_233">[233]</a> Moreover, the punitive activity of
+God, though it seems <span class="newpage"><a name="page_165" id=
+"page_165">[pg.165]</a></span> to cause suffering and misery, is in
+truth a good, simulating evil, and if men judged the universal
+process as a whole, they would find it all good. The existence of
+evil involves no derogation from the perfect unity of God.</p>
+<p>If we have understood correctly Philo's theology, neither Logos,
+nor subordinate powers, nor angels, nor demons have an objective
+existence; they are mere imaginings of varying incompleteness which
+the limited minds of men, "moving in worlds not realized," make for
+themselves of the one and only true God. Philo's theology is the
+philosophical treatment of Jewish tradition, just as Philo's legal
+exegesis is the philosophical treatment of the Torah. While
+maintaining and striving to deepen the conception of God's unity,
+he aims at expounding to the reason how, on the one hand, that
+unity is revealed in the world about us, and how, on the other, we
+may advance to its true comprehension. It was, however, unfortunate
+that Philo expressed his theology in the current language, which
+was vague and inexact, and adapted certain foreign theosophical
+ideas to Judaism; hence succeeding generations, paying regard to
+the pictorial representation rather than to the principles of his
+thought, sought and found in him evidence of theories of Divine
+government to which Judaism was pre-eminently opposed. The first
+chapter of the Fourth Gospel shows that gradual process of thought
+which finally made the Logos doctrine the antithesis of Judaism. In
+the first verse we have a thought which might well <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_166" id="page_166">[pg.166]</a></span> have
+been written by Philo himself: "In the beginning was the Word, and
+the Word was with God, and the Word was God." But in the fourteenth
+verse there is manifest the sharp cleavage: "And the Word was made
+flesh, and dwelt among us, and we beheld his glory, the glory as of
+the only begotten of the Father, full of grace and truth." There
+may be a fine spiritual thought beneath the letter here, but the
+notion of the Incarnation is not Jewish, nor philosophical, nor
+Philonic. Philo's work was made to serve as the guide of that
+Christian Gnosticism which, within the next hundred years,
+proclaimed that Judaism was the work of an evil God, and that the
+essential mission of Jesus&mdash;the good Logos&mdash;was to
+dethrone Jehovah! But though the Logos conception was turned to
+non-Jewish and anti-Jewish purposes, it was in Philo the offspring
+of a pure and philosophical monotheism. Whatever the later abuse of
+his teaching, Philo constructed a theology which, though affected
+by foreign influences, was essentially true to Judaism; and more
+than that, he was the first to weave the Jewish idea of God into
+the world's philosophy.</p>
+<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_167" id=
+"page_167">[pg.167]</a></span></p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;">
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<a name="VI" id="VI"></a>
+<h2>VI</h2>
+<p>PHILO AS A PHILOSOPHER</p>
+<br>
+<p>Save for a few monographs of no great importance, because of the
+absence of original thought, Philo's works form avowedly an
+exegesis of the Bible and not a series of philosophical writings.
+Nor must the reader expect to find an ordered system of philosophy
+in his separate works, much more than in the writings of the
+rabbis. As Professor Caird says,<a name="FNanchor_234_234" id=
+"FNanchor_234_234"></a><a href="#Footnote_234_234">[234]</a> "The
+Hebrew mind is intuitive, imaginative, incapable of analysis or
+systematic connection of ideas." Philo's philosophical conceptions
+lie scattered up and down his writings, "strung on the thread of
+the Bible narrative which determines the sequence of his thoughts."
+Nevertheless, though he has not given us explicit treatises on
+cosmology, metaphysics, ethics, psychology, etc., and though he was
+incapable of close logical thinking, he has treated all these
+subjects suggestively and originally in the course of his
+commentary, and his readers may gather together what he has
+dispersed, and find a co-ordinated body of religious philosophy.
+However loosely they are set forth in his treatises, his ideas are
+closely connected in his mind. Herein he <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_168" id="page_168">[pg.168]</a></span>
+differs from his Jewish predecessors, for the notion of the old
+historians of the Alexandrian movement, that there was a systematic
+Jewish philosophy before Philo, does not appear to have been
+well-founded. All that Aristeas and Aristobulus and the Apocryphal
+authors had done was to assimilate certain philosophemes to their
+religious ideas; they had not re-interpreted the whole system of
+philosophy from a Jewish point of view or traced an independent
+system, or an eclectic doctrine in the Holy Scriptures. This was
+the achievement of Philo. His thought is not original in the sense
+of presenting a new scheme of philosophy, but it is original in the
+sense of giving a fresh interpretation to the philosophical ideas
+of his age and environment. He ranges them under a new principle,
+puts them in a new light, and combines them in a new synthesis.
+This again is characteristic of the Jewish mind. Intent on God, it
+does not endeavor to make its own analysis of the universe by
+independent reasoning, but it utilizes the systems of other nations
+and endeavors to harmonize them with its religious convictions.
+Hence it is that nearly all Jewish philosophy appears to be
+eclectic; its writers have ranged through the fields of thought of
+many schools and culled flowers from each, which they bind together
+into a crown for their religion. They do not, with few exceptions,
+pursue philosophy with the purpose of widening the borders of
+secular knowledge; but rather in order to bring the light of reason
+to illuminate and clarify faith, to harmonize Judaism with the
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_169" id=
+"page_169">[pg.169]</a></span> general culture of its environment,
+and to revivify belief and ceremony with a new interpretation. All
+this applies to our worthy, but at the same time he was a
+philosopher at heart, because he believed that the knowledge of God
+came by contemplation as well as by practice, and, further, because
+he had a firm faith in the universalism of Judaism; and he believed
+that this universal religion must comprehend all that is highest
+and truest in human thought. Like most Jewish philosophers he is
+synthetic rather than analytic, believing in intuition and
+distrusting the discursive reason, careless of physical science and
+soaring into religious metaphysics. Again, like most Jewish
+philosophers, he is deductive, starting with a synthesis of all in
+the Divine Unity, and making no fresh inductions from phenomena. It
+has been said that, though Philo was a philosopher and a Jew, yet
+Saadia was the first Jewish philosopher. But Philo's philosophical
+ideas are in complete harmony with his Judaism; and if by the
+criticism it is meant that most of the content of his works is
+based upon Greek models, it is true on the other hand that the
+spirit which pervades them is essentially Jewish, and that by the
+new force which he breathed into it he reformed and gave a new
+direction to the Greek philosophy of his age.</p>
+<p>Philo's philosophy is certainly eclectic in some degree, and we
+find in it ideas taken from the schools of Plato, Aristotle,
+Pythagoras, and the Stoics. Its fixed point was his theology, and
+wherever he finds anything to support this he adapts it to his
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_170" id=
+"page_170">[pg.170]</a></span> purpose. He approached philosophy
+from a position opposed to that of the Greeks: they brought a
+questioning and free mind to the problems of the universe; he comes
+full of religious preconceptions. Yet in this lies his strength as
+well as his limitation, for he gains thus a point of certainty and
+a clear end, which other eclectic systems of the day did not
+possess. He welds together all the different elements of his
+thought in the heat of his passion for God. His cosmology and his
+ontology are a philosophical exposition of the Jewish conception of
+God's relation to the universe, his ethics and his psychology of
+the Jewish conception of man's relation to God.</p>
+<p>The religious preconceptions of Philo drew him to Plato above
+all other philosophers, so that his thought is essentially a
+religious development of Platonism. It is not too much to say that
+Philo's work has a double function, to interpret the Bible
+according to Platonic philosophy and to interpret Plato in the
+spirit of the Bible. The agreement was not the artificial
+production of the commentator, for in truth Plato was in sympathy
+with the religious conscience as a whole. The contrast between
+Hellenism and Hebraism is true, if we restrict it to the average
+mind of the two races. The one is intent on things secular, the
+other on God. But the greatest genius of the Hellenic race,
+influenced perhaps by contact with Oriental peoples, possessed, in
+a remarkable degree, the Hebraic spirit, which is zealous for God
+and makes for righteousness. Plato was not only a great
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_171" id=
+"page_171">[pg.171]</a></span> philosopher, but also a great
+theologian, a great religious reformer, and a great prophet, the
+most perfectly developed mind which the world, ancient or modern,
+has known. His "Ideas," which are the archetypes of sensible
+things, were not only logical concepts but also a kingdom of Heaven
+connected with the human individual by the Divine soul. And as he
+grew older so his religious feeling intensified, and he translated
+his philosophy into theology and positive religion. Platonism, it
+has been well said, is a temper as much as a doctrine; it is the
+spirit that turns from the earth to Heaven, from creation to God.
+In his last work, "The Laws," wherein he designs a theocratic
+state, which has striking points of resemblance with the Jewish
+polity, he says: "The conclusion of the matter is this, which is
+the fairest and truest of all sayings, that for the good man to
+sacrifice and hold converse with the Deity by means of prayers and
+service of every kind is the noblest thing of all and the most
+conducive to a happy life, and above all things fitting."<a name=
+"FNanchor_235_235" id="FNanchor_235_235"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_235_235">[235]</a></p>
+<p>This is typical of Plato's attitude towards life in his old age;
+and further, his metaphysical system of monistic idealism is the
+most remarkable approach to Hebrew monotheism which the Greek world
+made. The Patristic writers in the first centuries of the Christian
+era were so struck by this Hebraism in the Greek thinker, that they
+attributed it to direct borrowing. <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_172" id="page_172">[pg.172]</a></span> Aristobulus had
+written of a translation of the Pentateuch older than the
+Septuagint, which Plato was supposed to have studied. Clement
+called him the Hebrew philosopher, Origen and Augustine comment on
+his agreement with Genesis, and think that when he was in Egypt he
+listened to Jeremiah.<a name="FNanchor_236_236" id=
+"FNanchor_236_236"></a><a href="#Footnote_236_236">[236]</a>
+Eusebius worked out in detail his correspondences with the Bible.
+Some early neo-Platonist, perhaps Numenius, declared that Plato was
+only the Attic Moses; and in more modern times the Cambridge
+Platonists of the sixteenth century harbored similar ideas, and
+Nietzsche spoke bitterly of the day when "Plato went to school with
+the Jews in Egypt."</p>
+<p>Of Philo, then, we may say, as Montaigne said of himself, that
+he was a Platonist before he knew who Plato was. Yet he was the
+first Hellenistic Jew who perceived the fundamental harmony between
+the philosopher's idealism and Jewish monotheism, and he was the
+first important commentator of Plato who developed the religious
+teaching of his master into a powerful spiritual force.</p>
+<p>It is true that the seeds of neo-Platonism, <i>i.e.</i>, the
+religious re-interpretation of Platonism under the influence of
+Eastern thought, had been sown already; and Philo must have
+received from his environment to some extent the mystical version
+of the master's system, with its goal of ecstatic union with God,
+and its tendency to asceticism as a means thereto. But the earlier
+products of the movement had been crude, <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_173" id="page_173">[pg.173]</a></span> and
+had lacked a powerful moving spirit. This was provided by Philo
+when he introduced his overmastering conception of God. The popular
+saying, "Either Plato Philonizes or Philo Platonizes"<a name=
+"FNanchor_237_237" id="FNanchor_237_237"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_237_237">[237]</a> contains a deep truth in its first as
+well as in its second part. It not only marks the likeness in style
+of the two writers, but it suggests that Philo, on the one hand,
+made fruitful the religious germ in Plato's teaching by his
+Hebraism, and, on the other, nourished the philosophical seed in
+Judaism by his Platonism. Plato's teaching falls into two main
+classes, the dialectical and the mythical, and it is with the
+latter that Philo is in specially close connection. For in his
+myths Plato tries to achieve a synthesis by imaginative flight
+where he had failed by discursive reason. He unifies experience by
+striking intuitions, something in the spirit of a Hebrew prophet.
+Moreover his style, as well as his thought, has here affinity with
+Jewish modes of thought. As Zeller says, speaking of the myths:
+"From the first, in the act of producing his work he thinks in
+images. They mark the point where it becomes evident that he cannot
+be wholly a philosopher because he is still too much of a poet."
+And this is true of all Philo's writings, and to generalize
+somewhat widely, of most Jewish philosophy. In "The Tim&aelig;us,"
+particularly, Plato, throughout, is the poet-philosopher, writing
+imaginative myths, which present pictorially an idealistic scheme
+of the universe; and "The Tim&aelig;us" is for <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_174" id="page_174">[pg.174]</a></span>
+Philo, after the Bible, the most authoritative of books, the source
+of his chief philosophical ideas.</p>
+<p>The dominant philosophical principle of Plato is what is known
+as the Theory of Ideas. He imagined a world of real existences,
+invisible, incorporeal, eternal, grasped only by thought, prior to
+the objects of the physical universe, and the models or archetypes
+of them. In "The Tim&aelig;us," which is a system of cosmology at
+once religious and metaphysical, the "Ideas" are represented as the
+thoughts of the one Supreme Mind, the intermediate powers by which
+the Supreme Unity, known as the "Idea of the Good," or "the
+Creator," evolves the material universe. Thus the universe is seen
+as the manifestation of one Beneficent Spirit, who brings it into
+existence and rules over it through His "ideal" thoughts. Philo
+adopts completely and uncritically this theory of transcendental
+ideas in his philosophical exegesis of the cosmogony in Genesis.
+"Without an incorporeal archetype God brings no simple thing to
+fulfilment."<a name="FNanchor_238_238" id=
+"FNanchor_238_238"></a><a href="#Footnote_238_238">[238]</a> There
+is an idea of stars, of grass, of man, of virtue, of music. And the
+Platonic conception receives a religious sanction. The ideas are a
+necessary step between God and the material universe, and those who
+deny them throw all things into confusion.<a name=
+"FNanchor_239_239" id="FNanchor_239_239"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_239_239">[239]</a> "God would not touch matter Himself,
+but He did not grudge a share of His nature to it through His
+powers, of which the true name <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_175" id="page_175">[pg.175]</a></span> is ideas." We have
+already noticed<a name="FNanchor_240_240" id=
+"FNanchor_240_240"></a><a href="#Footnote_240_240">[240]</a> how
+ingeniously Philo deduces the Theory of Ideas from the Biblical
+account of the creation, and associates it with the Hebraic
+conception of the ministerial Wisdom and Word. He, however, gives a
+new direction to the Platonic theory, owing to his Hebraic
+conception of God. The ideas with him are not the thoughts of an
+impersonal mind, but the emanations of a personal, volitional
+Deity. Keeping close to Jewish tradition, he says that they are the
+words of the Deity speaking. As human speech consists of
+incorporeal ideas, which produce an effect upon the minds of
+others, so the Divine speech is a pattern of incorporeal ideas
+which impress themselves upon a formless void, and so create the
+material world.<a name="FNanchor_241_241" id=
+"FNanchor_241_241"></a><a href="#Footnote_241_241">[241]</a> In
+this way Philo associates his cosmology with his theology. The
+creative "Ideas" are equated collectively with the Supreme
+Logos,<a name="FNanchor_242_242" id="FNanchor_242_242"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_242_242">[242]</a> individually with the Logoi which
+represent God's particular activities. Thus the Logos represents
+the whole ideal or noetic world, "the kingdom of Heaven"; and it is
+in this metaphysical sense that the Logos is the first creation,
+"the first-born son of God," prior to the physical universe, which
+is His grandson. The whole universe is thus seen as the orderly
+manifestation of one principle. Philo, expanding a favorite image
+of the Haggadah, illustrates God's creation by the simile of a king
+founding a city. "He gets to him an architect, who first designs
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_176" id=
+"page_176">[pg.176]</a></span> in his mind the parts of the perfect
+city, and then, looking continually to his model, begins to
+construct the city of stones and wood. So when God resolved to
+found the world-city, He first brought its form into mind, and
+using this as a model he completed the visible world."<a name=
+"FNanchor_243_243" id="FNanchor_243_243"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_243_243">[243]</a></p>
+<p>The theory of religious idealism is the centre of Philo's
+philosophy, and provides the basis of his explanation of the
+material universe. Physics, indeed, he considered of small account,
+because he believed there could be no certainty in such
+speculations.<a name="FNanchor_244_244" id=
+"FNanchor_244_244"></a><a href="#Footnote_244_244">[244]</a> His
+mind was utterly unscientific; but as a religious philosopher he
+found it necessary to give a theory of the creation. Jewish dogma
+held that the world had been called into being out of nothing; the
+Greek philosophers repudiated such an idea, and held that creation
+must be the result of a reasonable process; Aristotle had imagined
+that matter was a separately existent principle with mind, and that
+the world was eternal; and the Stoics held that matter was the
+substance of all things, including the pantheistic power
+itself:</p>
+<p><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"All are but parts of one
+stupendous whole,</span><br>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Whose body nature is, and God the
+soul."</span><br></p>
+<p>Philo impugns both these theories,<a name="FNanchor_245_245" id=
+"FNanchor_245_245"></a><a href="#Footnote_245_245">[245]</a> the
+one because it denies the creative power of God, the other because
+it confuses the Creator with His creation. He looked <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_177" id="page_177">[pg.177]</a></span> for
+a system which should satisfy at once the Jewish notion that the
+world was brought out of nothing by the will of God, and the
+philosophical concept that God is all reality; and he found in
+Plato's idealism a view of the creation which he could harmonize
+with the religious view. Plato declared that the material world had
+been created out of the <i>Non-Ens</i> <img alt=
+"Greek: m&ecirc; on" src="images/image56.jpg" width="67" height=
+"22"> <i>i.e.</i>, that which has no real existence. He conceived
+space and matter as the mere passive receptacle of form, which is
+nothing till the form has given it quality. Though Philo's language
+is vague, this seems to be his view when he is speaking
+philosophically. It is, perhaps, a slight deviation from the
+earlier religious standpoint of the Jews, which looks to a direct
+and deliberate creation of the world-stuff, rather than to the
+informing of space by spirit, and regards the world as separate
+from God, and not as a manifestation of His being. But the more
+philosophical conception appears likewise in the Wisdom of Solomon.
+"For Thine all-powerful hand that created the world out of formless
+matter," says the author (xi. 17), establishing before Philo the
+compromise between two competing influences in his mind. More
+emphatically Philo rejects the notion of creation in time.<a name=
+"FNanchor_246_246" id="FNanchor_246_246"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_246_246">[246]</a> Time, he says, came into being after
+God had made the universe, and has no meaning for the Divine Ruler,
+whose life is in the eternal present. <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_178" id="page_178">[pg.178]</a></span></p>
+<p>Summing up, we may say that Philo regards the universe as the
+image of the Divine manifestation or evolution in thought produced
+by His beneficent will; and this view is true to the religious
+standpoint of traditional Judaism in spirit if not in letter.</p>
+<p>In his conception of the human soul, Philo again harmonizes the
+simple Jewish notion with the developed Greek psychology by means
+of the Platonic idealism. The soul in the Bible is the breath of
+God; in Plato it is an Idea incarnate, represented in "The
+Tim&aelig;us" as a particle of the Supreme Mind. Philo, following
+the psychology of his age, divides the soul into a higher and a
+lower part: (1) the Nous; (2) the vital functions, which include
+the senses. He lays all the stress upon the former, which gives man
+his kinship with God and the ideal world, while the other part is
+the necessary result of its incarnation in the body. He variously
+describes the Nous as an inseparable fragment of the Divine soul, a
+Divine breath which God inspires into each body, a reflection, an
+impression, or an image of the blessed Logos, sealed with its
+stamp.<a name="FNanchor_247_247" id="FNanchor_247_247"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_247_247">[247]</a> Following the Platonic conception,
+Philo occasionally speaks of the Divine soul as having a prenatal
+existence,<a name="FNanchor_248_248" id=
+"FNanchor_248_248"></a><a href="#Footnote_248_248">[248]</a>
+holding, as the English poet put it, that</p>
+<p><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"The soul that rises with us,
+our life's star,</span><br>
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hath had elsewhere its
+setting</span><br>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">And cometh from
+afar."</span><br></p>
+<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_179" id=
+"page_179">[pg.179]</a></span> Here, too, he follows an older
+Jewish-Hellenistic tradition, which appears in the Wisdom of
+Solomon (viii. 19 and 20), where it is written: "A good soul fell
+to my lot. Nay rather, being good, I came into a body undefiled."
+The Nous is in fact the god within, and it bears to the microcosm
+Man the relation which the infinite God bears to the
+macrocosm.<a name="FNanchor_249_249" id=
+"FNanchor_249_249"></a><a href="#Footnote_249_249">[249]</a>
+Indeed, it is the Logos descended from above, but yearning to
+return to its true abode. Thus Philo sings its Divine nature:</p>
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>"It is unseen, but sees all things: its essence is unknown, but
+it comprehends the essence of all things. And by arts and sciences
+it makes for itself many roads and ways, and traverses sea and
+land, searching out all things within them. And it soars aloft on
+wings, and when it has investigated the sky and its changes it is
+borne upwards towards the &aelig;ther and the revolutions of the
+heavens. It follows the stars in their orbits, and passing the
+sensible it yearns for the intelligible world."</p>
+</div>
+<p>The Nous is the king of the whole organism, the governing and
+unifying power, and hence is often called the man himself. The
+senses, resembling the powers of God, are only the bodyguard,
+subordinate instruments, and inferior modes of the Divine
+part.<a name="FNanchor_250_250" id="FNanchor_250_250"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_250_250">[250]</a> So Philo explains that all our
+faculties are derived from the Divine principle, and he draws the
+moral lesson that our true function is to bend them all to the
+Divine service, so as to foster our noblest part. The aim of the
+good man is to bring the god within <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_180" id="page_180">[pg.180]</a></span> him into union with
+the God without, and to this end he must avoid the life of the
+senses,<a name="FNanchor_251_251" id=
+"FNanchor_251_251"></a><a href="#Footnote_251_251">[251]</a> which
+mars the Divine Nous, and may entirely crush it. The Divine soul,
+as it had a life before birth, so also has a life after death; for
+what is Divine cannot perish. Immortality is man's most splendid
+hope. If the Divine Presence fills him with a mystic ecstasy, he
+has, indeed, attained it upon this earth, but this bliss is only
+for the very blessed sage; and he, too, looks forward to the more
+lasting union with the Godhead after this terrestrial life is
+over.<a name="FNanchor_252_252" id="FNanchor_252_252"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_252_252">[252]</a> True at once to the principles of
+Platonism and Judaism, Philo admits no anthropomorphic conception
+of Heaven or of Hell. He is convinced that there is a life
+hereafter, and finds in the story of Enoch the Biblical symbol
+thereof,<a name="FNanchor_253_253" id=
+"FNanchor_253_253"></a><a href="#Footnote_253_253">[253]</a> but he
+does not speculate about the nature of the Divine reward. The pious
+are taken up to God, he says, and live forever,<a name=
+"FNanchor_254_254" id="FNanchor_254_254"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_254_254">[254]</a> communing alone with the
+Alone.<a name="FNanchor_255_255" id="FNanchor_255_255"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_255_255">[255]</a> The unrighteous souls, Philo
+sometimes suggests, in accordance with current Pythagorean ideas,
+are reincarnated according to a system of transmigration within the
+human species (<img alt="Greek: palengenesia" src=
+"images/image57.jpg" width="117" height="22"> ).<a name=
+"FNanchor_256_256" id="FNanchor_256_256"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_256_256">[256]</a> Yet the sinner suffers his full doom
+on earth. The true Hades is the life of the wicked man who has not
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_181" id=
+"page_181">[pg.181]</a></span> repented, exposed to vengeance, with
+uncleansed guilt, obnoxious to every curse.<a name=
+"FNanchor_257_257" id="FNanchor_257_257"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_257_257">[257]</a> And the Divine punishment is to live
+always dying, to endure death deathless and unending, the death of
+the soul.<a name="FNanchor_258_258" id=
+"FNanchor_258_258"></a><a href="#Footnote_258_258">[258]</a></p>
+<p>The Divine Nous constitutes the true nature of man; Philo,
+however, insists with almost wearisome repetition, that the god
+within us has no power in itself, and depends entirely on the grace
+and inspiration of God without for knowledge, virtue, and
+happiness.<a name="FNanchor_259_259" id=
+"FNanchor_259_259"></a><a href="#Footnote_259_259">[259]</a> The
+Stoic dogma, that the wise man is perfectly independent and
+self-contained <img alt="Greek: autarch&ecirc;s" src=
+"images/image58.jpg" width="91" height="19"> appears to him as a
+wicked blasphemy. "Those who make God the indirect, and the mind
+the direct cause are guilty of impiety, for we are the instruments
+through which particular activities are developed, but He who gives
+the impulse to the powers of the body and the soul is the Creator
+by whom all things are moved."<a name="FNanchor_260_260" id=
+"FNanchor_260_260"></a><a href="#Footnote_260_260">[260]</a> All
+thought-functions, memory, reasoning, intuition, are referred
+directly to Divine inspiration, which is in Platonic terminology
+the illumination of the mind by the ideas. Thus, finally, all human
+activity is referred back to God.</p>
+<p>This guiding principle determines Philo's attitude to knowledge,
+involving, as it does, that we only know by Divine inspiration, or,
+as he says, by the immanence <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_182" id="page_182">[pg.182]</a></span> of the Logoi.<a name=
+"FNanchor_261_261" id="FNanchor_261_261"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_261_261">[261]</a> The possibility of knowledge was one
+of the burning questions of the age, and it was the failure of the
+old dogmatic schools to answer it which led to a great religious
+movement in Greek philosophy. How can man attain to true knowledge,
+it was asked, about the universe, seeing that perceptions vary with
+each individual, and of conceptions we have no certain standard?
+The old Hebrew attitude to this question is expressed by the verse
+of the Psalmist: "The heavens are the heavens of the Lord, but the
+earth hath He given to the sons of men" (Psalm cxv), which implies
+that man must not try to penetrate the secrets of the universe.
+Philo is sufficiently a philosopher to desire knowledge about
+things Divine and human, but at the same time he has a complete
+distrust in the powers of human sense and human reason. About the
+physical universe he is frankly a skeptic,<a name=
+"FNanchor_262_262" id="FNanchor_262_262"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_262_262">[262]</a> but his religious faith leads him to
+hold that God vouchsafes to man some knowledge of Himself and of
+the proper way of life, <i>i.e.</i>, ethics. "Man knows all things
+in God."<a name="FNanchor_263_263" id=
+"FNanchor_263_263"></a><a href="#Footnote_263_263">[263]</a> Plato
+similarly had despaired of knowledge of the physical world, and had
+turned to the heavenly ideas as the true object of thought.
+Moreover, in his early period, while his theory was still poetical
+and mystical, he had conceived that knowledge was made possible in
+the subject, <span class="newpage"><a name="page_183" id=
+"page_183">[pg.183]</a></span> by the entrance of "forms," or
+emanations, from the ideas. This theory Philo adapts to his Jewish
+outlook. Like Plato, he turns away from the physical to the ideal
+world,<a name="FNanchor_264_264" id="FNanchor_264_264"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_264_264">[264]</a> and he regards the ideas of wisdom,
+virtue, bravery, etc., which are theologically powers of God, as
+continually sending forth Logoi, forms or forces (the angels of
+popular belief), to inform and enlighten our minds. Throughout, God
+is the cause of all knowledge as well as of being, for these
+effluences are but an expression of God's activity. In Philo's
+theory, object and subject are really one. What can be known are
+the modes or attributes of God, which philosophically are" Ideas";
+what knows is the emanation of the Idea, which God sends into the
+human soul that is prepared to receive it by pious contemplation.
+"Through the heavenly Wisdom, wisdom is seen, for wisdom sees
+itself." "Through God, God is known, for He is His own
+light."<a name="FNanchor_265_265" id=
+"FNanchor_265_265"></a><a href="#Footnote_265_265">[265]</a></p>
+<p>Thus all knowledge is intuition, and man's function is not so
+much to reason as to lead a life of piety and contemplate the
+Divine work in the hope of being blessed with inspiration. It would
+be a mistake, however, to take Philo's words quite literally. He
+does not deny the need of human effort and striving for knowledge;
+for the Divine influence is not vouchsafed till we have prepared
+for it and consecrated all our faculties to God. But, devout mystic
+as he is, <span class="newpage"><a name="page_184" id=
+"page_184">[pg.184]</a></span> he ascribes every consummation to
+the direct help of the Deity. "The mind is the cause of nothing,
+but rather the Deity, who is prior to mind, generates
+thought."<a name="FNanchor_266_266" id=
+"FNanchor_266_266"></a><a href="#Footnote_266_266">[266]</a> The
+Greek philosopher had ascribed the final synthesis of knowledge to
+a superhuman force. Philo ascribes to God all the intermediate
+steps from sense-perception. It may be admitted that his passive
+notion of philosophy involves the abandonment of the Greek ideal,
+the eager searching of Plato after truth. He lived in an age in
+which, through loss of intellectual power, man had come to despair
+of the attainment of knowledge by human effort, and to rely
+entirely upon supernatural means, Divine revelations, visions, and
+the like. It is consistent with his whole position that the crown
+of life is represented, not as an intellectual state, but as a
+superhuman ecstasy of the Nous, wherein it is freed not only from
+the body but from the rest of the soul, and is, so to say, led out
+of itself.<a name="FNanchor_267_267" id=
+"FNanchor_267_267"></a><a href="#Footnote_267_267">[267]</a> He
+comments on the verse, "And the sun went down and a deep sleep fell
+on Abraham" (Gen. xv. 12). "When the Divine light," he says,
+"shines upon the mortal soul, the mortal light sinks, and our
+reason is driven out at the approach of the Divine spirit."<a name=
+"FNanchor_268_268" id="FNanchor_268_268"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_268_268">[268]</a> This is the Alexandrian
+interpretation of <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image59.jpg"
+width="145" height="16">, and though it is much affected by Greek
+mystical ideas, yet at the same time it is broadly true to the
+spirit of Jewish mysticism, as we see it <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_185" id="page_185">[pg.185]</a></span>
+presented in writers of all ages, and as the Psalmist expressed it,
+"to abide under the shadow of the Almighty."</p>
+<p>Philo's ethics, like the rest of his philosophy, exhibits the
+transfusion of Greek ideas with his Hebrew spirit. The Greek
+philosophers had evolved a rational plan of life, while the Jewish
+teachers were impregnated with burning ardor for the living God;
+and Philo brings the two things together, making ethics dependent
+on religion. The Stoics, who were the most powerful school of his
+day, regarded as the ideal of goodness life according to unbending
+reason and in complete independence of God or man. Philo
+understands God as a personal power making for righteousness, and
+man's excellence, accordingly, which is likeness to God, is piety
+and charity.<a name="FNanchor_269_269" id=
+"FNanchor_269_269"></a><a href="#Footnote_269_269">[269]</a> Above
+all he insists upon Faith <img alt="Greek: pistis" src=
+"images/image60.jpg" width="60" height="19"> and he defines virtue
+as a condition of soul which fixes its hopes upon the truly
+Existent God. The Stoics also professed to honor faith or
+confidence above all things, but the virtue which they meant was
+reliance upon man's own powers. Philo's virtue is almost the
+converse of this. Man must feel completely dependent upon God, and
+his proper attitude is humility and resignation. So only can he
+receive within his soul the seed of goodness, and finally the
+Divine Logos.<a name="FNanchor_270_270" id=
+"FNanchor_270_270"></a><a href="#Footnote_270_270">[270]</a> Yet at
+the same time Philo remains loyal to the Jewish <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_186" id="page_186">[pg.186]</a></span>
+ideal of conduct: faith without works is empty, and, as he puts it,
+"The true-born goods are faith and consistency of word and
+action."<a name="FNanchor_271_271" id=
+"FNanchor_271_271"></a><a href="#Footnote_271_271">[271]</a></p>
+<p>The attainment of the highest excellence demands severe
+discipline, save for those few blessed souls whom God perfects
+without any effort on their part. The rest can only secure
+self-realization by self-renunciation; they must avoid the bodily
+passions and bodily lusts.<a name="FNanchor_272_272" id=
+"FNanchor_272_272"></a><a href="#Footnote_272_272">[272]</a> At
+times the Divine enthusiasm causes Philo, like many a Jewish saint
+and like his master Plato, to scorn all bodily limitations and
+recommend "insensibility"<img alt="Greek: apatheia" src=
+"images/image61.jpg" width="81" height="19"><a name=
+"FNanchor_273_273" id="FNanchor_273_273"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_273_273">[273]</a> by which he means that man should
+crush his physical desires and repress his feelings. Not that the
+good life seems to him to imply absence of pleasure. On the
+contrary, it is filled with the purest of joy, for when man rises
+to the love of God "in calm of mind, all passion spent," then and
+then alone has he tasted true joyousness. The symbol of this bliss
+is Isaac <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image62.jpg" width="53"
+height="21">, the laughter of the soul.</p>
+<p>It was noticed in the second chapter that Philo modified his
+ethical ideas during his life. In the earlier period he insists
+more strongly on the need of ascetic self-denial, and has almost a
+horror of the world. Maturer experience, however, taught him that
+man is made for this world, and that a wise use of its goods was a
+surer path to happiness and to <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_187" id="page_187">[pg.187]</a></span> God than flight from
+all temptations. In his later writings, therefore, he exhibits a
+striking moderation. He reproaches the ascetics for their "savage
+enthusiasm,"<a name="FNanchor_274_274" id=
+"FNanchor_274_274"></a><a href="#Footnote_274_274">[274]</a>
+probably hinting at the extreme sects of the Essenes and the
+Therapeut&aelig;. "Those who follow a gentler wisdom seek after
+God, but at the same time do not despise human things."</p>
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>"Truth will properly blame those who without discrimination shun
+all concern with the life of the State, and say that they despise
+the acquisition of good repute and pleasure. They are only making
+grand pretensions, and they do not really despise these things.
+They go about in torn raiment and with solemn visage, and live the
+life of penury and hardship as a bait, to make people believe that
+they are lovers of good conduct, temperance, and
+self-control."<a name="FNanchor_275_275" id=
+"FNanchor_275_275"></a><a href="#Footnote_275_275">[275]</a></p>
+</div>
+<p>Philo's aphorism, which follows, "Be drunk in a sober manner,"
+is characteristic. The Stoic extreme of passionlessness is almost
+as false as the Epicurean hedonism, and the mean between them is
+the ideal Jewish life, in which godliness and humanity are
+blended.</p>
+<p>We have now examined the main divisions of Philo's philosophy,
+and we see that his metaphysics, cosmology, theory of knowledge,
+and ethics are all religious in tone, and all determined in their
+main lines by his Jewish outlook. His Hebraism is a seal which
+stamps all that enters his mind from Greek <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_188" id="page_188">[pg.188]</a></span>
+sources, and the Bible, spiritually interpreted, is the canon of
+all his wisdom.</p>
+<p>There remains one minor aspect of his work which must be briefly
+examined, because it has become closely associated with his name.
+This is his number-symbolism, by which he ascribes important powers
+to certain numbers, so that they are regarded as holy themselves
+and sanctifying that to which they are attached. This feature of
+his thought is commonly ascribed to Pythagorean influence, which
+was strong at Alexandria, and, indeed, throughout the world, at
+this era. The exact details of the holiness of four, seven, ten,
+fifty, etc., Philo may have borrowed from neo-Pythagorean sources,
+but the general tendency was the natural result of his environment
+and his stage of thought. It was a feature of the recurring
+childishness of ideas and the renascence of wonder at common things
+which is apparent on many hands. To have denied the powers of
+numbers would have seemed as absurd and eccentric then as to deny
+the powers of electricity to-day. And in all ages people have been
+found to regard numbers mystically as a link between God and earth,
+and a means of solving all physical and metaphysical problems. The
+Hebrew intellect, primitive as it was, tended particularly to the
+reverence of the numerical powers. Witness the Bible itself, which
+emphasizes certain numbers; and witness also the fifth chapter of
+the Pirke Abot, with its lists ranged under four, seven, and ten,
+which is only typical of the rabbinical attitude. Philo is not
+original in his views <span class="newpage"><a name="page_189" id=
+"page_189">[pg.189]</a></span> concerning numbers, not above nor
+below the loose thinking of his age. He accepts unquestioningly the
+potency of seven, because of its marvellous mathematical
+properties, ratios, etc., its geometrical efficacy, and because of
+the seven periods of life from infancy to old age, of the seven
+parts of the body, the seven motions, the seven strings of the
+lyre, the seven vowels, and the very name, which is connected with
+worship <img alt="Greek: sebasmos" src="images/image63.jpg" width=
+"90" height="22">. All this is trifling and trite, but what is of
+importance is the use which Philo makes of the sentiment. He
+converts it throughout to the support and glorification of Jewish
+institutions. Thus, if a man honors seven, he says, he will devote
+the Sabbath to meditation and philosophy.<a name="FNanchor_276_276"
+id="FNanchor_276_276"></a><a href="#Footnote_276_276">[276]</a>
+Further, as seven is the symbol of rest and tranquillity, the
+Sabbath must be a day of perfect rest. Ten is magnified so as to
+honor the Decalogue,<a name="FNanchor_277_277" id=
+"FNanchor_277_277"></a><a href="#Footnote_277_277">[277]</a> fifty
+so as to honor the Feast of Pentecost. So, too, the Pythagoreans'
+mathematical conceptions of God as "the beginning and limit of all
+things," or, again, as the principle of equality, are approved by
+Philo, "because they breed in the soul the fairest and most
+nourishing fruit&mdash;piety." In short, Philo's Pythagoreanism
+only emphasizes his commanding purpose&mdash;to deepen and
+recommend the Jewish God-idea and the Jewish method of life.</p>
+<p>Jewish influences throughout are the determining element of
+Philo's teaching; they are the dynamic <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_190" id="page_190">[pg.190]</a></span>
+forces working upon the Greek matter and producing the new
+Platonism, which constitutes Philo's contribution to Greek
+philosophy. It may, indeed, be said that his Hebraism makes Philo
+anti-philosophical, because he has no desire or hope of adding to
+positive knowledge, but aims only at the calm of the individual
+soul in union with its God. The Platonic Theory of Ideas,
+metaphysical in origin, plays a very important part in his works,
+but it is adapted mystically, and turned from an ideal of the human
+intellect to a support of monotheism and piety. Here Philo is at
+once the leader and the child of his generation; men were no longer
+satisfied with rational systems, but wanted a religious philosophy,
+based upon a transcendental principle and a Divine revelation which
+could give them some certainty and some positive hope in life.
+Doubtless, the strong mystical tendency in Philo destroyed the
+balance between the intuitive and the discursive reason which makes
+the perfect philosopher. In his overpowering passion for God, he
+distrusts overmuch the analytical efforts of the human mind.
+Nevertheless, his acquired Hellenism gives his Jewish conceptions a
+philosophical impress, and this has made him the model of the
+school of religious philosophers. The ministerial "Word" became the
+"ideal" expression of God's mind, the governing reason, the
+world-soul; the angels were spiritualized as a kingdom of Ideas.
+Piety received an intellectual as well as a religious value, and
+the Mosaic law was raised to a higher dignity as an ethical code of
+universal validity.</p>
+<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_191" id=
+"page_191">[pg.191]</a></span></p>
+<p>A complete harmony between the Hellenic and the Hebraic outlook
+upon life was impossible, but Philo at least accomplished a harmony
+between Hebraic monotheism and Greek metaphysics. He desired to
+show that faith and philosophy were in agreement, and that the
+imaginative and reflective conceptions of God and the Divine
+government were in unison. And he may be considered to have
+realized his desire in his synthesis of Jewish theology and
+Platonic idealism. He is through and through a great interpreter,
+elucidating points of unity between distinct systems of thought. In
+him the fusion of cultures, which began with the Septuagint
+translation, reached its culmination. It reached its zenith and
+straightway the severance began.</p>
+<p>In the next chapter we shall trace Philo's place in Jewish
+thought; here we may glance at his place in the development of
+Greek philosophy. The fusion between Eastern and Western thought,
+which he himself so strikingly illustrates, continued to dominate
+philosophy for the next four hundred years; and Plato, who, with
+his deep religious spirit, had a broad affinity with the Oriental
+conception of the universe, was the supreme philosophical master.
+All the chief teachers looked to him for the intellectual basis of
+their ideas and read into his works their particular religious
+beliefs; but they failed to maintain a true harmony between the
+two. The cultures of all countries and races mingled, even as their
+peoples mingled under the Roman Empire, but they were so combined
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_192" id=
+"page_192">[pg.192]</a></span> as to lose the purity and
+individuality of each element. The Eastern Platonists who followed
+Philo brought to their interpretation less noble conceptions of the
+Godhead, the Gnosticism of Syria, the dualism of Persia, the
+impersonal pantheism of India, and the theurgies of Egypt, and
+produced strange hybrids of the human mind. The one point of
+agreement between them is that they conceive the Supreme God as
+impersonal and entirely inactive, "a deified Zero," and endeavor by
+a system of emanation to trace the descent of this baffling
+principle into man and the universe. Philo was as unfortunate in
+his philosophical as in his religious following, who both
+transformed his poetical metaphors into fixed and rigid dogmas. His
+doctrine of the Logos was, on the one hand, the forerunner of the
+Trinity of the Church, on the other of the Trinity of the
+Alexandrian neo-Platonists. It is difficult, indeed, to trace with
+certainty the connection between Philo and the later school of
+Alexandrian Platonists, but there appears to be at least one clear
+link in the teaching of the Syrian Numenius, who flourished in the
+middle of the second century. To him are attributed the two
+sayings: "Either Plato Philonizes or Philo Platonizes," and "What
+is Plato but the Attic Moses?" Modern scholars have questioned the
+correctness of the reference, but be this as it may, it is certain
+that Numenius used the Bible as evidence of Platonic doctrines. "We
+should go back," he says, in a fragment, "to the actual writings of
+Plato and call in as testimony the ideas of the most <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_193" id="page_193">[pg.193]</a></span>
+cultured races; comparing their holy books and laws we should bring
+in support the harmonious ideas which are to be found among the
+Brahmans and the Jews."<a name="FNanchor_278_278" id=
+"FNanchor_278_278"></a><a href="#Footnote_278_278">[278]</a> Origen
+tells us,<a name="FNanchor_279_279" id=
+"FNanchor_279_279"></a><a href="#Footnote_279_279">[279]</a>
+moreover, that he often introduced excerpts from the books of Moses
+and the Prophets, and allegorized them with ingenuity. In one of
+the few remains of his writings which have come down to us, we find
+him praising the verse in the first chapter of Genesis, "The spirit
+of God was upon the waters"; because, as Philo had interpreted
+it&mdash;following perhaps a rabbinical tradition&mdash;water
+represents the primal world-stuff. And elsewhere he mentions the
+efforts of the Egyptian magicians to frustrate the miracles of
+Moses, following Philo's account in his life of the Jewish
+hero.</p>
+<p>The work of Philo helped to spread a knowledge of the Hebrew
+Scriptures far and wide and to give them general authority as a
+philosophical book; but it did not succeed in spreading the pure
+Hebrew monotheism. The exalted Hebrew idea of God was still too
+sublime for the pagan nations, even for their philosophers. The
+world in truth was decaying morally and intellectually, and most of
+all in powers of imagination; and its hunger for God found
+expression in crude and stunted conceptions of His nature. Unable
+any longer to soar to Heaven, it sullied the majesty of the Deity,
+and divided the Godhead in order to <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_194" id="page_194">[pg.194]</a></span> bridge the gap.
+Numenius represents in philosophy the Gnostic ideas about God which
+were widely held by the heretics, Jewish and Christian, of the
+second century. He divides the Godhead into two separate powers:
+(1) the impersonal Being behind all reality, free from all activity
+whatsoever; (2) the Demiurge or active governor of the universe,
+who again is subdivided into a transcendent and an immanent
+power.</p>
+<p>The teaching of Plotinus, the most famous of the later
+Alexandrian neo-Platonists, shows a further step in the development
+of religious Platonism. Viewed from its higher side it is an
+attempt to explain everything as the emanation of the One. But
+philosophy in the third century debased itself in order to support
+the tottering polytheistic religion of the pagan world against the
+modified Hebraic creed, Christianity, which was fast demolishing
+its power. Against the Trinity of the Church the philosophers set
+up a heavenly Trinity of so-called reason: the Ineffable One, the
+Demiurgic Mind, and the World Soul; and between this Trinity and
+man they placed intermediate hierarchies of gods, angels, and
+demons&mdash;in fact, the whole fugitive army of Greek polytheism
+thinly disguised. All the vulgar fancies and superstitions which
+Philo had intellectualized, these later Eastern Platonists sought
+to revive and justify by conceptions of physical emanation blended
+of false science and mysticism. They hoped to found a universal
+religion by finding room in one system for the deities of all
+nations! <span class="newpage"><a name="page_195" id=
+"page_195">[pg.195]</a></span></p>
+<p>From Plotinus down to Proclus, neo-Platonism became more
+unintellectual, more insane, more pagan, and, finally, with its
+vapid dreams, it brought the history of Greek philosophy to an
+inglorious close. Its finer teachings, however, deeply affected
+mediaeval philosophy, and not least the Arab-Jewish school. The
+theory of emanations and spiritual hierarchies pervades the
+writings of Ibn Ezra, Ibn Gabirol, and Ibn Daud, and thus
+indirectly provides a connection between the culture of Alexandrian
+Judaism and the culture of Spanish Judaism. The praise of God known
+as the <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image64.jpg" width="91"
+height="18"> by Ibn Gabirol is a splendid example of the Hebraizing
+of neo-Platonic doctrines, which, though probably quite independent
+of his teaching, recalls constantly the ideas of Philo.</p>
+<p>By his place at the head of the neo-Platonic school Philo enters
+the broad stream of the world's philosophical development, but his
+more lasting influence was exercised over the religious philosophy
+of Christianity. He was the direct master of what is known as the
+Patristic school, which sought to combine the intellectual
+conceptions of Plato with the religious ideas of the Gospels. Its
+most celebrated teachers were Clement and Origen, both of
+Alexandria, who flourished in the second century. They resorted
+largely to allegorical interpretation, learning from Philo to trace
+in the Bible principles of universal thought and profound
+philosophy; but they used his method and his lessons to support
+notions of God and the Logos which were alien to his spirit. He had
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_196" id=
+"page_196">[pg.196]</a></span> possessed pre-eminently the soaring
+imagination of poetry, which is the crown of the intellectual and
+of the religious mind, and unites them in their highest excellence;
+but they bounded their philosophy within the narrow limits of
+dogma, and thereby destroyed the harmony between Hebraism and
+Hellenism which he had contrived to effect. The controversy of
+Origen and Celsus began again the battle between reason and faith,
+"which was to destroy for centuries the independence of philosophy
+and to break the continuity of civilization." Had Philo really been
+ploughing the sand, and was an agreement between faith and reason,
+between religion and philosophy, impossible? Can the two finest
+creations of the mind only be combined on the terms that one is
+subordinate, or rather servile, to the other? In Judaism, if
+anywhere, the combination should be possible, for Judaism has as
+its basis an intuitional conception of God, which is in harmony
+with the philosophical conception of the universe, and it has
+little dogma besides. The neo-Platonists and the Church Fathers
+failed to carry on the ideal of Philo, but it was to be expected
+that among his own people, the nation of philosophers, as he had
+called them, he would have found true successors. Yet the use made
+of his work by the Christians compelled his people to regard him as
+a betrayer of the law and to avoid his goal as a treacherous snare.
+For centuries Greek philosophy was banned from Jewish thought, and
+Philo's works are not mentioned by any Jewish writer. Strangers
+possessed his inheritance, <span class="newpage"><a name="page_197"
+id="page_197">[pg.197]</a></span> and his name alone,
+"Philo-Jud&aelig;us," bore witness to his nationality. It is an
+interesting speculation to consider how different might have been
+the history, not only of the Jews, but of the world, if the
+Hellenistic Judaism of Philo had prevailed in the Roman-Greek world
+instead of "the impurer Hellenism of Christianity." When, in the
+tenth century, the leaders of Jewish thought broke the bonds of
+seclusion, and brought anew to the interpretation of their religion
+the culture of the outer world, Greek philosophy became again a
+powerful influence, though it was Aristotle rather than Plato whom
+they studied. The harmonizing spirit of Philo, which may be
+accounted part of the genius of the race, lives on in Saadia,
+Maimonides, Ibn Ezra, Ibn Gabirol, and Judah Halevi. But the
+difference between him and the Arabic school is marked. They do not
+inherit his whole object, for they aimed not at a philosophical
+Judaism which should be a world-religion, but at a philosophical
+Judaism for the more enlightened Jews alone. Philo's work was the
+culminating point, indeed, of a great development in Judaism,
+produced by the mingling of the finest products of human reason and
+human imagination, but it was particularly the expression of his
+own commanding genius. He lacked a true successor, for those who
+shared his aim did not inherit his Jewish outlook, and those who
+shared his Jewish outlook did not inherit his aim. What is
+characteristic of and peculiar to Philo is the combination of the
+missionary and the philosopher. Living at a time <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_198" id="page_198">[pg.198]</a></span> when
+the Jewish genius expanded most brilliantly, and when Judaism
+exercised its greatest influence, he hoped to make his religion
+universal by showing it to be philosophical, and to bring about by
+the aid of Plato the ideal of the prophets. <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_199" id="page_199">[pg.199]</a></span></p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;">
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<a name="VII" id="VII"></a>
+<h2>VII</h2>
+<p>PHILO AND JEWISH TRADITION</p>
+<br>
+<p>We have seen from time to time how Philo's interpretation of the
+Bible corresponds with Palestinian Jewish tradition; and we must
+now consider more in detail the relations of the two schools of
+Jewish learning. Until the last century it was commonly supposed
+that no close relation existed, and that the Alexandrian and
+Palestinian schools were independent and opposed; Scaliger, the
+greatest scholar of the seventeenth century, wrote<a name=
+"FNanchor_280_280" id="FNanchor_280_280"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_280_280">[280]</a> that "Philo was more ignorant of
+Hebraic and Aramaic lore than any Gaul or Scythian," and this was
+the opinion generally held. The researches of Freudenthal and
+Siegfried<a name="FNanchor_281_281" id=
+"FNanchor_281_281"></a><a href="#Footnote_281_281">[281]</a> have
+shown the falsity of these views; and, most important of all, Philo
+refutes them out of his own mouth. He refers in many different
+parts of his works<a name="FNanchor_282_282" id=
+"FNanchor_282_282"></a><a href="#Footnote_282_282">[282]</a> to the
+tradition and the wisdom of his ancestors, he tells us how on the
+Sabbath the Jews studied in their synagogues their special
+philosophy,<a name="FNanchor_283_283" id=
+"FNanchor_283_283"></a><a href="#Footnote_283_283">[283]</a> and he
+commences his "Life of Moses" by declaring that against the false
+calumnies of Greek writers he will set forth the true account which
+he has learnt from the sacred <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_200" id="page_200">[pg.200]</a></span> writings and "from
+certain elders of his race." In support of his statement we have
+the remark of Eusebius, the Christian historian, and our chief
+ancient authority for Philo's work,<a name="FNanchor_284_284" id=
+"FNanchor_284_284"></a><a href="#Footnote_284_284">[284]</a> that
+he set forth and expounded not only the laws of the Bible, but many
+institutions and opinions of his fathers. Apart from these direct
+references, the numerous points of correspondence between Philo's
+interpretations and those of the Talmud and later Midrash would
+compel us to admit a connection between Alexandria and
+Jerusalem.</p>
+<p>The break between the two schools did not show itself till after
+the time of Philo. Up to the first century of the Christian era the
+rabbis encouraged the union of Shem and Japheth&mdash;the two good
+sons of one parent&mdash;and the stream of ideas flowed quite
+freely between the teachers in Palestine and the Hellenized colony
+in Egypt.<a name="FNanchor_285_285" id=
+"FNanchor_285_285"></a><a href="#Footnote_285_285">[285]</a> Hence
+the Palestinian Jews, on the one hand, received the first fruits of
+this mingling of cultures, and the Alexandrian Jews, on the other,
+must have inherited the early tradition of the rabbinical
+interpreters embodied in ancient Halakah and Haggadah. By this
+common heritage, rather than by any direct borrowing, it seems more
+reasonable to account for the correspondence in the two Midrashim.
+It should be remembered that until the second century of the common
+era the mass of Jewish tradition was a floating and developing body
+of <span class="newpage"><a name="page_201" id=
+"page_201">[pg.201]</a></span> opinion not consigned to writing or
+formalized, but handed down by word of mouth from teacher to pupil,
+and preacher to congregation: in this way it was diffused
+throughout the mind of the race, indefinitely and, to some extent,
+unconsciously shaping its thought. The detailed points of agreement
+between Philo and the Talmud and Midrash are not of great moment in
+themselves, but they are the signs of a unity of development and
+the catholicity of Judaism in the East and West. Doubtless the
+development was more national and at the same time more legal in
+Jud&aelig;a, in Alexandria more Hellenistic and philosophical, but
+there is a common spiritual bond between the two expressions, pious
+images, fancies, similes, interpretations which they share. They
+are, as it were, children of one family, and despite the varying
+influences of environment they maintain a family resemblance. With
+the Sibylline oracles we may compare Daniel and the Psalms of
+Solomon; with Aristeas and his fellow-Apologists, Josephus; with
+the allegorical commentaries of Philo, the Midrashim. Modern
+scholars have gone far to prove that Philo was the expounder of an
+Hellenic Midrash upon the Bible, in which were gathered the
+thoughts and ideas that had been brought to Egypt by the Jewish
+settlers, modified, no doubt, by Greek influences, but still
+bearing the stamp of their origin. Philo, then, appears in the
+direct line of the tradition which from the time of the Great
+Synagogue was disseminated through two channels, the schools of
+Palestine and the writers of Alexandria. He developed the national
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_202" id=
+"page_202">[pg.202]</a></span> Jewish theology in a literary form,
+which made it available for the world, but with him the tradition
+as a Jewish tradition ends; in its further Hellenistic development
+it departed entirely from its original principles.</p>
+<p>It is natural that the larger number of parallels between Philo
+and the rabbis is to be found in the Haggadic portions of Talmudic
+teaching, for the Haggadah represents the same spirit as underlies
+Philo's work, though in a more peculiarly Jewish form; it is an
+allegory, a play of fancy, a tale that points a moral, or
+illustrates a question. It had, too, largely the same origin, for
+it gathered together the popular discourses given in the synagogue
+on the Sabbaths. Yet the relation of Philo to the other domain of
+the Talmud, the code of life, or the Halakah, is of great interest;
+for, as we have seen,<a name="FNanchor_286_286" id=
+"FNanchor_286_286"></a><a href="#Footnote_286_286">[286]</a> the
+Alexandrian community had a Sanhedrin of their own, of which
+Philo's brother was the president, and he himself probably a
+member; and in his exposition of the "Specific Laws" he has
+preserved for us the record of certain interpretations of the
+Jewish code, which are illuminating as much by their difference
+from, as by their agreement with, the practices of Palestine. The
+general aim of Philo's exegesis of the law was to show its broad
+principles of justice and humanity rather than to formulate its
+exact detail. It is true, he makes it an offence<a name=
+"FNanchor_287_287" id="FNanchor_287_287"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_287_287">[287]</a>&mdash;unknown to the rabbis&mdash;for
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_203" id=
+"page_203">[pg.203]</a></span> a Jew to be initiated into the Greek
+mysteries, but usually he is concerned to recommend the Halakah to
+the world rather than expand it for his own community. This is
+shown in his treatment of the civil as much as the moral law. The
+great system of jurisprudence in his day, with which every code
+claiming to have universal value had necessarily to challenge
+comparison, was Roman Law. That part of it which was applied
+throughout the Empire, the <i>jus gentium</i>, was regarded as
+"written reason." It is probable that contact with Roman
+jurisprudence had affected the practical interpretations which the
+Alexandrian Sanhedrin put upon the Biblical legislation, and was
+the cause of some of their differences from the Palestinian
+Halakah. In treating the ethical law, Philo's object was to show
+its agreement with the loftiest conceptions of Greek philosophers,
+and, indeed, its profounder truth; in treating the civil law of the
+Bible, his object likewise was to show its agreement with the
+highest principles of jurisprudence and its superiority to pagan
+codes. If at times he supports a greater severity than the
+Palestinian rabbis eventually allowed, that is where greater
+severity implies a closer relation to Roman Law. Thus he has not
+the horror of capital punishment which the Jerusalem Sanhedrin
+exhibited; he would condemn to death the man who commits wilful
+homicide, whether by his own hand or by poison;<a name=
+"FNanchor_288_288" id="FNanchor_288_288"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_288_288">[288]</a> <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_204" id="page_204">[pg.204]</a></span> whereas the other
+Halakah allows it only in the former case. He who commits perjury
+also is to suffer capital punishment.<a name="FNanchor_289_289" id=
+"FNanchor_289_289"></a><a href="#Footnote_289_289">[289]</a> He
+adds a law which finds no place in the Palestinian tradition,
+making the exposure of children a capital crime.<a name=
+"FNanchor_290_290" id="FNanchor_290_290"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_290_290">[290]</a> Again, following the text of the
+Biblical law literally (see Deut. xxi. 18), he gives power of life
+and death to parents over their rebellious children, whereas the
+Jewish law demands a trial before a court to make the death
+sentence legal. He approves of the <i>lex talionis</i>, "an eye for
+an eye, a tooth for a tooth," agreeing here, indeed, with the
+opinion of earlier rabbis like R. Eliezer (see Baba Kama 84,
+<img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image65.jpg" width="144" height=
+"19">, "the law of eye for eye is to be taken literally"), and
+disagreeing with the later Halakic interpretation, which says that
+the law of Moses means the award of the value of an eye for an eye,
+etc.</p>
+<p>This is one instance among many of Philo's adoption of the older
+tradition, established probably under the Sadduc&aelig;an
+predominance, which was modified in the rabbinical schools of the
+first and the second century. Paradoxically, in his exposition of
+the law, Philo follows the letter more closely as the expression of
+justice, while the later rabbis often allegorize it in order to
+support their humaner interpretation. Thus, commenting on the
+passage in Exodus xxii. 3 about the law of theft, "If the sun be
+risen upon him, blood shall be shed for blood," he, like R.
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_205" id=
+"page_205">[pg.205]</a></span> Eliezer, interprets <img alt=
+"Hebrew; " src="images/image66.jpg" width="98" height="15"><a name=
+"FNanchor_291_291" id="FNanchor_291_291"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_291_291">[291]</a> <i>i.e.</i>, literally. "If," he
+says, "the owner catches the thief before sunrise, he may kill him,
+but after the sun has risen he must bring him before the
+court."<a name="FNanchor_292_292" id=
+"FNanchor_292_292"></a><a href="#Footnote_292_292">[292]</a> This
+also was the Roman law, but the Halakah interprets more
+artificially: "If it were as clear as sunlight that the thief would
+not have killed the owner, then the owner may not kill him." Philo
+would justify the old law; the rabbis explain it away. On the other
+hand, in his treatment of the law relating to slaves, Philo extends
+the liberality both of the Bible and the Halakah. He declares that
+the slave is to be set free when by his master's violence he loses
+an eye or even a tooth.<a name="FNanchor_293_293" id=
+"FNanchor_293_293"></a><a href="#Footnote_293_293">[293]</a> The
+Bible and the Talmud direct emancipation only where the slave loses
+a limb; but Philo writes eloquently of the humanity of which man is
+deprived by the loss of sight; and he would apparently condemn the
+master who injured his slave more seriously to the full penalties
+of the ordinary law.<a name="FNanchor_294_294" id=
+"FNanchor_294_294"></a><a href="#Footnote_294_294">[294]</a>
+Maimonides, in his exposition of the law, approves the milder
+practice,<a name="FNanchor_295_295" id=
+"FNanchor_295_295"></a><a href="#Footnote_295_295">[295]</a> and
+this suggests that it had an old tradition behind it. Beautiful is
+Philo's stray maxim, "Behave to your servants as you pray that God
+may behave to you. For as we hear them, so shall we be heard, and
+as we regard them, so shall we <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_206" id="page_206">[pg.206]</a></span> be regarded."<a name=
+"FNanchor_296_296" id="FNanchor_296_296"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_296_296">[296]</a> In his whole treatment of slavery,
+Philo shows remarkable enlightenment for his age. He objects,
+indeed, to the institution altogether, and he tempers it
+continually with ideas of equality. Thus, following the Halakah, he
+directs the redemption of a slave seven years after his purchase,
+and he treats the laws of the seventh-year rest to the land and of
+the jubilee as of universal validity.</p>
+<p>Coming to the more specifically religious laws we find that
+Philo, missionary as he is, prohibits altogether marriage with
+Gentiles,<a name="FNanchor_297_297" id=
+"FNanchor_297_297"></a><a href="#Footnote_297_297">[297]</a> and
+that though, in the opinion of certain rabbinic teachers, the
+Biblical prohibition extended only to marriage with the Canaanite
+tribes, and unions with other Gentiles were permitted.<a name=
+"FNanchor_298_298" id="FNanchor_298_298"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_298_298">[298]</a> Philo recognizes how dangerous such
+unions are for the cause which he had so dearly at heart, the
+spreading of Judaism. "Even," says he, "if you yourself remain true
+to your religion through the influence of the excellent instruction
+of your parents, yet there is no small danger that your children by
+such a marriage may be beguiled away by bad customs to unlearn the
+true religion of the one only God."<a name="FNanchor_299_299" id=
+"FNanchor_299_299"></a><a href="#Footnote_299_299">[299]</a>
+Throughout, Philo is true to the mission of Israel in its highest
+sense. That mission is not assimilation, and it is to be brought
+about by no easy method of mixing with the surrounding people. It
+can be effected <span class="newpage"><a name="page_207" id=
+"page_207">[pg.207]</a></span> only by holding up the Torah in its
+purity as a light to the nations, and by offering them examples of
+life according to the law.</p>
+<p>Of the special ordinances for Sabbaths and festivals Philo
+mentions only those consecrated by the Biblical law or ancient
+tradition, which probably were the only ones settled in his day. He
+lays down the prohibition to kindle fire,<a name="FNanchor_300_300"
+id="FNanchor_300_300"></a><a href="#Footnote_300_300">[300]</a> to
+make or return deposits, or to plead in the law courts on the
+Sabbath; he speaks of the reading of the Haggadah and Hallel on the
+night of Passover, of the bringing of a barley cake during the
+'Omer and of the first fruits to the Temple on the Feast of Weeks,
+of the Shofar at New Year, and of the Sukkah, but not of the Lulab
+at Tabernacles. It should be remembered that the Halakah was not
+consolidated till the second or third century, and in Philo's time
+it was in the process of formation by different schools of rabbis.
+But the passage quoted in an earlier chapter, about adding to the
+law, proves his reverence for the oral law.<a name=
+"FNanchor_301_301" id="FNanchor_301_301"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_301_301">[301]</a></p>
+<p>Though his statement of the civil and religious law is of great
+interest to the student of Halakic development, Philo's work
+presents greater correspondence, on the whole, with the Haggadah,
+which in a primitive way draws philosophical and ethical lessons
+from the Bible narrative. It is a free interpretation of the
+Scriptures, the expression of the individual moralist; it loves to
+point a moral and adorn a tale, and in many cases it is in
+agreement with the <span class="newpage"><a name="page_208" id=
+"page_208">[pg.208]</a></span> Hellenistic school. To take a few
+typical examples: An early interpretation explains the story of the
+Brazen Serpent, as Philo does,<a name="FNanchor_302_302" id=
+"FNanchor_302_302"></a><a href="#Footnote_302_302">[302]</a> to
+mean that as long as Israel are looking upward to the Father in
+Heaven they will live, but when they cease to do so they will die.
+Another, like him again, finds the motive of the command to bore
+the ear of the slave who will not leave his master at the seventh
+year of redemption, in the principle that men are God's servants,
+and should not voluntarily throw away their precious freedom. So,
+too, the Haggadah agrees in numerous points with Philo's stories
+about the patriarchs.<a name="FNanchor_303_303" id=
+"FNanchor_303_303"></a><a href="#Footnote_303_303">[303]</a> If one
+were to go through the Midrashic interpretations of the Five Books
+of Moses, he would find in nearly every section interpretations
+reminiscent of Philo. In some cases, however, there are striking
+contrasts in the two commentaries. Thus the Midrash<a name=
+"FNanchor_304_304" id="FNanchor_304_304"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_304_304">[304]</a> tells that the four rivers of Eden
+symbolize the four great nations of the old world; to Philo, they
+represent the four cardinal virtues established by Greek
+philosophers. The Palestinian commentators were prone to see an
+historical where Philo saw a philosophical image.</p>
+<p>The question may be asked, Who is the originator and who the
+borrower of the common tradition? And it is a question to which
+chronology can give no certain answer, and for which dates or
+records have no <span class="newpage"><a name="page_209" id=
+"page_209">[pg.209]</a></span> meaning. For the Haggadah was not
+committed to writing till many generations had known its
+influences, and it was not finally compiled till many generations
+more had handed it down with continuous accretions. The Haggadah in
+fact is part of the permanent spirit of the race going back to a
+hoary past, and stretching down "the echoing grooves of time" to
+the tradition of Judaism in our own day. The Hebrew Word means, and
+the thing is, "what is said": the utterances of the inspired
+teacher, some tale, some happy play of fancy, some moral aphorism,
+some charming allegory which captivated the hearers, and was handed
+down the generations as a precious thought. It is significant in
+this regard that the Haggadah is remarkable for the number of
+foreign words which it contains, Greek, Persian, and Roman terms
+jostling with Hebrew and Aramaic. For while the Halakah was the
+production of the Palestinian and Babylonian schools alone, the
+Haggadah brought together the harvest of all lands; and scraps of
+Greek philosophy found their way to Palestine before the
+Alexandrian school developed its systematic allegory. In the
+Mishnah, the earliest body of Jewish lore which was definitely
+formulated and written down, one section is Haggadic, the passages
+we know as the "Ethics of the Fathers." Now, we cannot place the
+date of this compilation before the first century,<a name=
+"FNanchor_305_305" id="FNanchor_305_305"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_305_305">[305]</a> and thus it would seem to
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_210" id=
+"page_210">[pg.210]</a></span> be contemporary with Philo's work,
+to which it affords numerous parallels. But the great mass of the
+Haggadah, the Pesikta, the Mekilta, and the other Midrashim, were
+all later compilations, some of them as late as the fifth and the
+sixth century. Are we to say, then, that where they correspond to
+Philo they show his influence? At first this would appear the
+natural conclusion.</p>
+<p>There is a better test of priority, however, than the date of
+compilation, the test of the thought itself and its expression. And
+judged by this test we see that the Haggadah is the more ancient,
+the primal development of the Hebrew mind. The "Sayings of the
+Fathers" are typical of the finest and most concentrated wisdom of
+the Haggadah, and exhibit thought in its impulsive, unsystematic,
+gnomic expression, neither logical nor illogical, because it knows
+not logic. Beautiful ethical intuitions and profound guesses at
+theological truth abound; anything like a definite system of ethics
+and theology is not to be found, whence it is said, "Do not argue
+with the Haggadah." Even more so is this the case with the bulk of
+the Midrash. There, pious fancy will weave itself around the
+history and ideals of the people, and suddenly one comes across a
+sage reflection or a philosophical utterance. With Philo it is
+otherwise. Compared with the Greeks he is unsystematic, inaccurate,
+wanting in logic, exuberant in imagination. Compared with the
+rabbis he is a formal and accurate philosopher, an exact and
+scholarly <span class="newpage"><a name="page_211" id=
+"page_211">[pg.211]</a></span> theologian. The floating poetical
+ideas of the Haggadah are woven by him into the fabric of a Jewish
+philosophy and a Jewish theology, and knit together with the
+rational conceptions of Aristotle's "Metaphysics" and Plato's
+"Tim&aelig;us." We may say, then, almost with certainty, that Philo
+derives from the early Jewish tradition, though at the same time he
+introduced into that tradition many an idea taken from the Greek
+thinkers, which found its way to the later Palestinian schools of
+Jamnia and Tiberias, and was recast by the Hebraic imagination.</p>
+<p>Over and over again we find that he adopts some fancy of his
+ancestors and develops it rhetorically and philosophically in his
+commentary. To give many examples or references to examples of this
+feature of Philo's work is not within the scope of this book, but
+of his development of an old Palestinian tradition the following
+passage may serve as a typical instance:</p>
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>"There is an old story," he writes, "composed by the sages and
+handed down by memory from age to age.... They say that, when God
+had finished the world, he asked one of the angels if aught were
+wanting on land or in sea, in air or in heaven. The angel answered
+that all was perfect and complete. One thing only he desired,
+speech, to praise God's works, or to recount, rather than praise,
+the exceeding wonderfulness of all things made, even of the
+smallest and the least. For the due recital of God's works would be
+their most adequate praise, seeing that they needed no addition of
+ornament, but possessed in the sincerity of truth the most perfect
+eulogy. And the Father approved the angel's words, and afterwards
+appeared the race gifted with the muses and <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_212" id="page_212">[pg.212]</a></span> with
+song. This is the ancient story; and in accord with it, I say that
+it is God's peculiar work to do good, and the creature's work to
+give Him thanks."<a name="FNanchor_306_306" id=
+"FNanchor_306_306"></a><a href="#Footnote_306_306">[306]</a></p>
+</div>
+<p>Now this legend and moral appear in another form in the
+collection of Midrash, the Pirke Rabbi Eliezer, which apparently
+had ancient sources that have disappeared. There it is told: "When
+the Holy One, blessed be He, consulted the Torah as to the
+completeness of the work of creation, she answered him: 'Master of
+the future world, if there be no host, over whom will the King
+reign, and if there be no creatures to praise him, where is the
+glory of the King?' And the Lord of the world was pleased with her
+answer and forthwith He created man."<a name="FNanchor_307_307" id=
+"FNanchor_307_307"></a><a href="#Footnote_307_307">[307]</a></p>
+<p>The Haggadah is rich also in allegorical speculation, of which
+there are traces in the Biblical books themselves. In the book of
+Micah, for example, we find that the patriarchs are taken as types
+of certain virtues, Abraham of Kindness, <img alt="Hebrew; " src=
+"images/image67.jpg" width="40" height="14">, and Jacob of Truth,
+<img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image68.jpg" width="34" height=
+"15"> (vii. 20). And when the ideas of the people expanded
+philosophically in Palestine and in Alexandria, the profounder
+conceptions were attached to Scripture by the device of allegorical
+interpretation, <span class="newpage"><a name="page_213" id=
+"page_213">[pg.213]</a></span> and certain rabbis attributed a
+higher value to the inner than to the literal meaning. Thus Akiba,
+who wrote an elaborate allegorical work upon the Song of
+Songs,<a name="FNanchor_308_308" id="FNanchor_308_308"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_308_308">[308]</a> held that the book was the most
+profound in the Bible, and Rabbi Judah similarly regarded the book
+of Job.<a name="FNanchor_309_309" id=
+"FNanchor_309_309"></a><a href="#Footnote_309_309">[309]</a> The
+Palestinian allegorists took to themselves a wider field than the
+Alexandrian, and looked for the deeper meanings rather in the
+Wisdom Literature than in the Pentateuch, which was to them
+essentially the Book of the Law, and, therefore, not a fit subject
+for Mashal, <i>i.e.</i>, inner meanings.<a name="FNanchor_310_310"
+id="FNanchor_310_310"></a><a href="#Footnote_310_310">[310]</a>
+Hence, their allegorism was more natural, more real, and truer to
+the spirit of that which they interpreted. They allegorized when an
+allegory was invited, whereas Philo and his school often forced
+their philosophical meanings in face of the clear purport of the
+text, and without regard to the Hebrew. In the one case allegory
+was a genuine development, and might have been adopted by the
+original prophet: in the other, it was reconstruction; and the
+artificial un-Hebraic character of the Hellenistic commentary was
+one of the causes of its disappearance from Jewish tradition. While
+the Palestinian allegorists based their continuous philosophical
+interpretation upon the Wisdom Books, they, at the same time,
+looked for secondary meanings wherever opportunity offered, and
+found lessons in letters and teachings in names. An early school of
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_214" id=
+"page_214">[pg.214]</a></span> commentators was actually known as
+<img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image69.jpg" width="117" height=
+"12"> <a name="FNanchor_311_311" id="FNanchor_311_311"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_311_311">[311]</a> or interpreters of signs, and their
+method was by examination of the letters of a word, or by
+comparison of different verses, to explore homilies. For instance,
+the verse, "And God showed Moses a tree" (Exod. xvi. 26), by which
+he sweetened the waters at Marah, symbolized, by a play on the word
+<img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image70.jpg" width="51" height=
+"18">,<a name="FNanchor_312_312" id="FNanchor_312_312"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_312_312">[312]</a> that God taught Moses the Torah, of
+which it is said, "She is a tree of life" (Prov. iii. 18). Another
+happy example of this method occurs in the sixth section of the
+Pirke Abot, where the names in the itinerary, <img alt="Hebrew; "
+src="images/image71.jpg" width="258" height="19"> (Numb. xxi. 19),
+are invested with a spiritual meaning. Whoever believes in the
+Torah, it is written, shall be exalted, as it is said, "From the
+gift of the law man attains the heritage of God, and by that
+heritage he reaches Heaven."</p>
+<p>In this passage of Palestinian allegorism, it may be noticed
+that the Torah is regarded as a spiritual bond between man and God,
+and as a sort of intermediary power between them. This feature is
+almost as frequent in the Midrash as the Logos-idea in Philo, so
+that it may be said that rabbinic theology finds an idealism in the
+Torah which corresponds to the idealism of the Philonic Word. It is
+expressed, no doubt, na&iuml;vely and fancifully, even playfully,
+without attempt at philosophical deductions. It is informed by the
+same spirit as the Alexandrian allegory, but it is essentially
+poetical and impulsive, and set forth in <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_215" id="page_215">[pg.215]</a></span>
+mythical personification, not in deliberate metaphysics. The Torah
+to the rabbis was the embodiment of the Wisdom which the writer of
+Proverbs had glorified, and it takes its prerogatives. God gazes
+upon the Torah before He creates the world.<a name=
+"FNanchor_313_313" id="FNanchor_313_313"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_313_313">[313]</a> The Torah, though the chief, is not,
+however, the only object of rabbinic idealism. God and His name, it
+is said, alone existed before the world was created,<a name=
+"FNanchor_314_314" id="FNanchor_314_314"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_314_314">[314]</a> and in a Talmud legend relating the
+birth of man, the ideal power is identified with Truth, which, like
+the Logos, is pictured as God's own seal.</p>
+<p><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"From Heaven to Earth, from
+Earth once more to Heaven</span><br>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Shall Truth, with constant
+interchange, alight</span><br>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">And soar again, an everlasting
+link</span><br>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Between the world and
+Sky."</span><br>
+<br>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Translation of Emma
+Lazarus.)<a name="FNanchor_315_315" id=
+"FNanchor_315_315"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_315_315">[315]</a></span><br></p>
+<p>Correspondingly, Philo identifies the Logos with the name of God
+and with Truth.</p>
+<p>Of another piece of Talmudic idealism we catch a trace in
+Maimonides' "Guide of the Perplexed,"<a name="FNanchor_316_316" id=
+"FNanchor_316_316"></a><a href="#Footnote_316_316">[316]</a> where
+he says that the rabbis explained the designation of God, <img alt=
+"Hebrew; " src="images/image72.jpg" width="112" height="22">
+[rendered in the authorized version, "He who rideth on the heavens"
+(Ps. lxviii. 4)], to mean that He dwelt in the highest sphere of
+heaven amid the eternal ideas of Justice and Virtue, as it is said:
+"Justice and Righteousness are the base <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_216" id="page_216">[pg.216]</a></span> of
+Thy throne" (Ps. lxxxix. 15). These fancies and interpretations
+indicate that in Palestine as well as in Alexandria an idealistic
+theology and a religious metaphysics were developing at this
+period, though in the East it was more imaginative, more Hebraic,
+more in the spirit of the old prophets.</p>
+<p>The more serious metaphysical and theological speculation of the
+rabbis was embodied in the doctrine of the "Creation," and the
+"Chariot," <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image73.jpg" width="276"
+height="19">, which in form were commentaries on the early chapters
+of Genesis and the visions of Ezekiel. They were reserved for the
+wisest and most learned, for the rabbis had always a fear of
+introducing the student to philosophy until his knowledge of the
+law was well established. They held, with Plato, that metaphysical
+speculation must be the crown of knowledge, and if treated as its
+foundation, before the necessary discipline had been obtained, it
+would produce all sorts of wild ideas. Judaism for them was
+primarily not a philosophical doctrine but a system of life. The
+Hellenistic school was so far false to their standpoint that it
+laid stress for the ordinary believer upon the philosophical
+meaning as well as upon the law. And as events proved, this led to
+the neglect of the law and the dogmatic establishment of
+speculative theories as the basis of a new religion. Doubtless the
+consciousness that the philosophical development led away from
+Judaism increased the distrust of the later rabbis for such
+speculation, and made them regard esoteric as a milder term for
+heretical; <span class="newpage"><a name="page_217" id=
+"page_217">[pg.217]</a></span> but the warning is already given in
+Ben Sira: "It is not needful for thee to see the secret
+things."<a name="FNanchor_317_317" id=
+"FNanchor_317_317"></a><a href="#Footnote_317_317">[317]</a> The
+Talmud, indeed, records certain ideas about the powers of God and
+His relation to the universe in the names of the great masters; and
+in these ideas there are striking resemblances to Philo's
+conceptions. The Word is spoken of as an intermediate
+agency;<a name="FNanchor_318_318" id=
+"FNanchor_318_318"></a><a href="#Footnote_318_318">[318]</a> the
+finger of God is really the Word; the angels are sprung from the
+Words of God: Ben Zoma declared that the whole work of creation was
+carried out by the Word, as it is written, "And God said."<a name=
+"FNanchor_319_319" id="FNanchor_319_319"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_319_319">[319]</a> But on the other hand there are
+passages in which the rabbis oppose the Alexandrian attitude, and
+point out in its excessive philosophizing a danger to Judaism, so
+that in the end they exclude it. Rabbi Ishmael, we are told, warned
+his pupils of the danger of Greek wisdom.<a name="FNanchor_320_320"
+id="FNanchor_320_320"></a><a href="#Footnote_320_320">[320]</a>
+Akiba, living at a time when the Jews were fighting for spiritual
+as well as for physical life against the combined forces of the
+Greeks and Romans, proposed to ban all the <img alt="Hebrew; " src=
+"images/image74.jpg" width="120" height="18"><a name=
+"FNanchor_321_321" id="FNanchor_321_321"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_321_321">[321]</a> and the Gemara argues that among
+these were included the Apocryphal works which showed Greek
+influence. Again, Elisha ben Abuya, the arch-heretic, is held up to
+reproach because he read <img alt="Hebrew; " src=
+"images/image75.jpg" width="84" height="21">,<a name=
+"FNanchor_322_322" id="FNanchor_322_322"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_322_322">[322]</a> under which title Greek Gnostic books
+are probably implied. <span class="newpage"><a name="page_218" id=
+"page_218">[pg.218]</a></span></p>
+<p>At the time when this spirit shows itself, the appearance of
+heretical offshoots from Judaism was already pronounced. Heresy was
+the aftermath of the combination of Judaism and Hellenism, and if
+further disintegration was to be avoided, the seductive Greek
+influence had to be discouraged. There is always the danger in a
+mingling of two cultures, that each will lose its particular
+excellence in a compound which has certain qualities, but not the
+virtues, of either element. Compromises may be desirable in
+political affairs; in affairs of thought they are perilous. Down to
+the time of Philo, the fusion of thought at Alexandria had been
+beneficial, and had broadened the Jewish outlook without impairing
+its strength, but the dissolving forces of civilization never
+operated more powerfully than in the early centuries of the common
+era, when the intellect of the world was jaded and weary, and the
+great movement in culture was a jumbling together of the ideas of
+East and West. More especially in the cosmopolitan towns,
+Alexandria, Antioch, and Rome, national life, national culture, and
+national religion were undermined; and even the Jew, despite the
+stronghold of his law and tradition, was caught in the general
+vortex of mingling creeds and theologies. Out of this confusion
+(which was in one aspect a continuation of the work of Philo)
+emerged, first, fantastic Gnostic religious and philosophical
+sects, and, finally, the Christian Church, which proved the system
+best fitted to survive <span class="newpage"><a name="page_219" id=
+"page_219">[pg.219]</a></span> in the circumstances, but was in
+essence as well as in origin a blending of different outlooks, and
+true to the cardinal points of neither Hebraism nor Hellenism. The
+rabbis, with remarkable intuition, saw that the Hellenistic
+development of Judaism, which had vainly striven to make Judaism
+universal, had ended in violating its monotheism and abrogating its
+law; and in that era of disintegration, denationalization, and
+decomposition they determined to keep their heritage pure and
+inviolate. Judaism by their efforts was the only national culture
+which survived, and some sacrifice had to be made to secure this
+end. The literary monuments of the Alexandrian community from the
+Septuagint translation to the philosophy of the Christian
+scholarchs were cut out of Jewish tradition, and the Babylonian
+school was ignorant altogether of the <img alt="Hebrew; " src=
+"images/image76.jpg" width="91" height="16"> (Greek wisdom). When
+Ben Zoma desired to study the <img alt="Hebrew; " src=
+"images/image77.jpg" width="114" height="14">, and asked of his
+teacher at what hour of the day it was lawful to do so, he received
+the reply that it was permissible at an hour which was neither day
+nor night; for the precept was to study the Torah by day and night,
+as it is said, <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image78.jpg" width=
+"187" height="18"> (Josh. i. 8). Bar Kappara, indeed, a rabbi of
+the third century, explained Genesis ix. 27, "God shall enlarge
+Japheth and he shall dwell in the tents of Shem," to mean that the
+words of the Torah shall be recited in the speech of Japheth
+(<i>i.e.</i>, Greek) in the synagogues and schools,<a name=
+"FNanchor_323_323" id="FNanchor_323_323"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_323_323">[323]</a> but by <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_220" id="page_220">[pg.220]</a></span> most other teachers
+the union between Shem and Japheth was no longer encouraged,
+because Japheth had become degraded and was allied with the cruel
+children of Edom (Rome).</p>
+<p>Besides the Talmud and the Midrash we have, in the work of
+Josephus, another indication that there was in Philo's own day
+communication between Alexandria and Palestine. The Jewish
+historian marks the influence of Hellenic ideas in Palestine in
+fullest measure, and like Philo he seeks by embellishment to
+recommend the histories and Scriptures of his people to the non-Jew
+and to bring home their thought to the cultured Roman-Greek world.
+Thus, in the preface to his "Antiquities," he notes, as Philo noted
+in his commentary, that Moses begins his laws with a philosophical
+cosmology; he says also that Moses spoke some things under a
+fitting allegory, hiding beneath it a very remarkable philosophical
+theory. The allegorical commentary which Josephus declared that he
+intended to write has not&mdash;if it was written&mdash;come down
+to us, but we have in his writings certain allegorical valuations
+of names that agree directly with Philo. Abel he explains as
+signifying mourning, Cain, <img alt="Hebrew; " src=
+"images/image79.jpg" width="30" height="19">, as selfish
+possession. In the priestly garments of Aaron he sees with Philo a
+symbol of the universe, which the high priest supported when he
+entered the Holy of Holies. And the ritual vessels of the
+tabernacle have also their universal significance.</p>
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>"If," says the Palestinian Hellenist, "any man do but consider
+the fabric of the tabernacle and regard the <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_221" id="page_221">[pg.221]</a></span>
+vestments of the high priest, he will find that our legislator was
+a Divine man, and that we are unjustly reproached by those who
+attack us for tribal narrowness. For if he look upon these things
+without prejudice, he will find that each one was made by way of
+imitation and representation of the universe. When Moses ordered
+twelve loaves to be set on the table, he denoted the years as
+distinguished into so many months. By branching out the candlestick
+into seven parts, he intimated the seven divisions of the
+planets.... The vestments of the high priest, being made of linen,
+signified the earth, the blue color thereof denoted the sky, the
+pomegranates symbolized lightning, and the noise of the bells
+resembled thunder. And the fashion of the ephod showed that God had
+made the world of four elements."<a name="FNanchor_324_324" id=
+"FNanchor_324_324"></a><a href="#Footnote_324_324">[324]</a></p>
+</div>
+<p>Let us now listen now to Philo: "The raiment of the priest is
+altogether a representation and imitation of the universe, and its
+parts are the parts of the other. His tunic is all of blue linen,
+the symbol of the sky. [The rabbis had a similar fancy of the
+Tsitsith (fringes).] And the flowers embroidered thereon mark the
+earth, from which all things flower. And the pomegranates are a
+symbol of the water, being skilfully called thus (<img alt=
+"Greek: rhoischoi" src="images/image80.jpg" width="64" height=
+"19">, <i>i.e.</i>, flowing fruit) because of their juice, and the
+bells are the symbols of the harmony of all the elements."<a name=
+"FNanchor_325_325" id="FNanchor_325_325"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_325_325">[325]</a></p>
+<p>It is true that the symbolism of two allegorists is varied, but
+a common spirit and aim underlie their interpretations. This is
+true alike of their account of the ritualistic and civil law of
+Moses. Either, then, <span class="newpage"><a name="page_222" id=
+"page_222">[pg.222]</a></span> there was a common source of Jewish
+apologetic literature, or Josephus must have borrowed from Philo.
+It is significant that he is the only contemporary of Philo that
+mentions him. He speaks of him as a distinguished philosopher, the
+brother of the alabarch, and the leader of the embassy to
+Gaius.<a name="FNanchor_326_326" id="FNanchor_326_326"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_326_326">[326]</a> He knows also of the anti-Semitic
+diatribes of Philo's great enemy Apion, and two of his extant books
+are masterly reply to their outpourings. Hence it is not rash to
+assume that he knew at least that part of Philo's work which had a
+missionary and apologetic purpose&mdash;the "Life of Moses" and the
+"Hypothetica." He makes no acknowledgment to them, it is true, but
+expressions of obligation were not in the fashion of the time.
+Plagiarism was held to be no crime, and citation of authorities in
+notes or elsewhere was almost unknown in literature&mdash;save in
+the Talmud,<a name="FNanchor_327_327" id=
+"FNanchor_327_327"></a><a href="#Footnote_327_327">[327]</a> where
+to tell something in the name of somebody else is a virtue. But one
+can hardly doubt that the man who devoted himself to refuting the
+lying calumnies of Apion first made himself master of the classical
+work of Apion's opponent, which claimed to give to the Greek world
+the authoritative account of the Jewish lawgiver and his
+legislation.</p>
+<p>What Josephus knew must have been known to other cultured Jews
+of Palestine. Yet Philo, save in one doubtful case which will be
+noticed, is not mentioned by any Jewish writer between Josephus in
+the <span class="newpage"><a name="page_223" id=
+"page_223">[pg.223]</a></span> first and Azariah dei Rossi in the
+sixteenth century. The compilers of the Midrashim and the Yalkut,
+the philosophers of the Dark and Middle Ages, finally the
+Cabbalists, are continually reminiscent of his doctrines, but they
+do not mention his works or his existence. The Midrash
+Tadsh&eacute;,<a name="FNanchor_328_328" id=
+"FNanchor_328_328"></a><a href="#Footnote_328_328">[328]</a> a
+tenth century compilation of allegorical exegesis, contains
+definite parallels to Philonic passages, especially in its
+quotations from an Essene Tannaite, Pin[h.]as ben Ja&iuml;r; but
+again the trace of influence is indirect. On the other hand, the
+Christian writers from the time of Clement in the second century
+quote him freely, make anthologies of his beautiful sayings, and in
+their more imaginative moments acclaim him the comrade of Mark and
+the friend of Peter. The rise of the Christian Church, which
+coincided with the downfall of the nation, caused the rabbis to
+emphasize the national character of Judaism in order to preserve
+the old faith of their fathers in the critical condition in which
+exile, persecution, and assimilation placed it. The first century
+was a time of feverish dreams and wild hopes that were not
+realizable: men had looked for the coming of the days of universal
+peace and good-will, and the Alexandrian Jews in particular hoped
+for the spreading of Judaism over the world. The rabbis recognized
+that this consummation was far away, and that Judaism must remain
+particularist for centuries in the hope of a final universalism.
+Meantime it must <span class="newpage"><a name="page_224" id=
+"page_224">[pg.224]</a></span> hold fast to the law and, in default
+of a national home, strengthen the national religious life in each
+Jewish household. They regarded Greek as not only a strange but a
+hostile tongue, and the allegorical exegesis of the Bible, which
+had led to the whittling away of the law, as a godless wisdom. The
+Septuagint translation, which had offered a starting point for
+philosophical speculation, was replaced by a new Greek version of
+the Old Testament made by Aquila, a proselyte, in the first
+century. It gave a baldly literal translation of the Hebrew text,
+sacrificing form and even lucidity to a faithful transcript. With
+unconscious irony the rabbis, who rejoiced in its truth to the
+Hebrew, said of Aquila, "Thou art fairer than the children of men,
+grace is poured into thy lips"<a name="FNanchor_329_329" id=
+"FNanchor_329_329"></a><a href="#Footnote_329_329">[329]</a> (Ps.
+xlv). In truth the work was utterly innocent of literary grace. A
+translation of the Bible marked the end, as it had marked the
+beginning, of Jewish-Hellenistic literature, but if the first had
+suggested the admission, so the other suggested the rejection of
+Greek philosophy from the interpretation of Judaism and a return to
+the exclusive national standpoint. The rabbinical appreciation of
+Aquila's work shows that, while the Jews were in Palestine, many
+still required a Greek translation of the Bible; but when in the
+third century C.E. the centre of the religion was moved to Babylon,
+Greek was forgotten, and the rabbis for a period lost sight of
+Greek culture. It is another irony of history that our manuscripts
+of Philo go back to <span class="newpage"><a name="page_225" id=
+"page_225">[pg.225]</a></span> an archetype in the library of
+C&aelig;sarea in Palestine, which Eusebius studied in the fourth
+century. Philo came to the land of his fathers in the possession of
+his people's enemies, and at a time when he could no longer be
+understood by his people.</p>
+<p>Philo's works were not translated into Hebrew, and as Greek
+ceased to be the language of the cultured, they could not, in their
+original form, have influenced later Jewish philosophers. But the
+Christians, in their proselytizing activity, had translated them
+into Latin and Armenian before the fifth century, and through one
+of these means they may possibly have exercised an influence upon
+the new school of Jewish philosophy, which, opening with Saadia in
+the tenth century, blossomed forth in the Arabic-Spanish epoch. The
+light of historical research is beginning to illumine the obscurity
+of the Dark Ages, and has revealed traces of an Alexandrian
+allegorist in the writings of the Persian Jew Benjamin
+al-Nehawendi, himself a distinguished allegorizer of the Bible, who
+wrote in the ninth century and taught that God created the world by
+means of one ministerial angel.<a name="FNanchor_330_330" id=
+"FNanchor_330_330"></a><a href="#Footnote_330_330">[330]</a>
+Benjamin relates that the doctrine was held by a Jewish sect known
+as the Maghariya, which probably sprang up in the fourth or the
+fifth century, when sects grew like mushrooms. The Karaite
+al-Kirkisani, who wrote fifty years later, says that <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_226" id="page_226">[pg.226]</a></span> the
+Maghariya sect used in support of their doctrine the "prolegomena
+of an Alexandrian sage" who gave certain remarkable interpretations
+of the Bible; and in one of Dr. Schechter's Genizah fragments,
+which is probably to be ascribed to Kirkisani, there are contained
+examples of the Alexandrian's explanations of the Decalogue, which
+occur, and occur only, in Philo's treatise on the "Ten
+Commandments."</p>
+<p>This connection between Philo and an obscure Jewish sect, or an
+obscurer Persian-Jewish writer, may appear far-fetched and not
+worth the making. In itself doubtless it is unimportant, but it
+serves to keep Philo, however barely, within Jewish tradition. For
+it shows that Alexandrian literature, though probably through the
+medium of a Mohammedan source, was known to some Jews in the
+centuries of transition. It may be that further examination of the
+great Genizah collection, which has opened to Jewish scholarship a
+new world, will reveal further and stronger ties to unite Philo
+with his philosophical successors, of whom the first is Saadia Gaon
+(892-942 C.E.). Indeed the main interest of this newly-discovered
+connection, if it can be seriously so regarded, is that it suggests
+the possibility of Saadia's acquaintance with Philo by means of a
+translation. That Saadia read the works upon which Christian
+theologians relied, is certain; and a fragment in which he refers
+to the teaching of Judah the Alexandrian<a name="FNanchor_331_331"
+id="FNanchor_331_331"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_331_331">[331]</a>&mdash;also unearthed from the
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_227" id=
+"page_227">[pg.227]</a></span> Cairo Genizah&mdash;goes some way to
+support the suggestion. The passage refers to the connection of the
+number "fifty" with the different seasons of the year, and though
+it does not tally exactly with any piece of the extant Philo, it is
+in the Philonic manner. And Philo, who was surnamed Jud&aelig;us by
+the Church, would have been re-named by his own people, translating
+from the Church writers, <img alt="Hebrew; " src=
+"images/image81.jpg" width="46" height="13">. One would the more
+willingly catch on to this floating straw, because Saadia was at
+once a compatriot of Philo, born in the Fayyum of Egypt, and the
+first Jew who strove to carry on his work. He aimed at showing the
+philosophy of the Torah, and its harmony with Greek wisdom in
+particular. Aristotle, who had been translated into Arabic, had
+meantime supplanted Plato as the master of philosophy for
+theologians, and Saadia's <i>magnum opus</i>, <img alt="Hebrew; "
+src="images/image82.jpg" width="106" height="13">, is colored
+throughout by Aristotelian ideas. But the difference of masters
+does not obscure the likeness of aim, and, albeit unconsciously,
+Saadia renews the task of the Hellenic-Jewish school.</p>
+<p>Saadia's work was carried on and expanded in a great outburst of
+the Jewish genius, which showed itself most brilliantly in the
+Moorish-Spanish kingdom. The general cultural conditions of
+Alexandria in the first century B.C.E. were reproduced in Spain in
+the tenth century. Once again the Jews found themselves politically
+emancipated amid a sympathetic environment, and again they
+illumined their religious tradition with all the culture which
+their <span class="newpage"><a name="page_228" id=
+"page_228">[pg.228]</a></span> environment could afford. The
+mingling of thought gave birth to a great literature, both creative
+and critical; to a striking body of lyric poetry; to a systematic
+theology, and a religious philosophy.</p>
+<p>While the study of the old Talmudic lore was maintained, the
+greatest teachers developed tradition afresh by a philosophical
+restatement designed to make it appeal to the mental attitude of
+the enlightened. The sermon flourished again, collections of
+Haggadah (Yalkut) were made as storehouses of homilies, and
+metaphysical treatises modelled upon the works of the schoolmen set
+forth a philosophical Judaism for the learned world. It is notable
+also that these last were not written in Hebrew or in the Talmudic
+dialect, but in Arabic, the language of their cultured environment;
+for though the missionary spirit was dead, the controversial
+activity of the period impelled the Jewish philosophers to present
+their ideas in the form used by the philosophers of the general
+community.</p>
+<p>It is not only the general conditions of the Arab-Jewish period,
+but also the special development of Jewish ideas, which recalls the
+work of the Alexandrian school. This was, indeed, to be expected,
+seeing that in both cases there was a mingling of Hebraism and
+Hellenism. In Spain, however, the Jews acquired Hellenism at second
+hand, and through the somewhat distorted medium of Arabic
+translations or scholastic misunderstanding, and hence the harmony
+is neither complete nor pure. They endeavored to <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_229" id="page_229">[pg.229]</a></span> show
+that the teachings of Aristotle are implicit in the written and the
+oral law, but the interpretation is hardly convincing even in "The
+Guide of the Perplexed," of Maimonides, the monumental work which
+marks the culmination of medi&aelig;val Jewish philosophy.</p>
+<p>If there is one figure in Jewish tradition with whom Philo
+challenges at once comparison and contrast, it is Maimonides, the
+brightest star of the Arabic, as he was of the Hellenic,
+development of the Jewish religion. Though there is nothing on
+which to found any direct influence of the one on the other, the
+aim, the method, the scope of their philosophical work are the
+same, the relation which they hold to exist between faith and
+philosophy wellnigh identical. The metaphysics of the Bible,
+according to both, is hidden beneath an allegory, and is meant only
+for the more learned of the people. To Maimonides the Bible is not
+only the standard of all wisdom, but it is "the Divine anticipation
+of human discovery." In the words of Hosea, God has therein
+"multiplied visions and spoken in similitudes" (xii. 11). The duty
+of the Jewish philosopher is to expound these metaphors and
+similes; and Maimonides, endeavoring to knit Greek metaphysics
+closely with Jewish tradition, propounds a science of allegorical
+values, which by exact philological study traces the inner as well
+as the outer meaning of the Hebrew words. But differentiated as it
+is by greater mastery of the tradition and closer adherence to the
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_230" id=
+"page_230">[pg.230]</a></span> Hebrew text, his method is nearly as
+artificial and his thought as extraneous to the text as the method
+and thought of Philo. The content of their philosophies is, indeed,
+strikingly alike, save that the one is a Platonist, the other an
+Aristotelian. This involves not so much a difference of
+philosophical views as a difference of temper and of objective. The
+followers of Plato are mystics, yearning for the love of God; the
+followers of Aristotle are rationalists, seeking for the abstract
+knowledge of God. Hence in Maimonides there is less soaring and
+more argument than in Philo. Everything is deduced, so far as may
+be, with exactitude and logical sequence&mdash;according to the
+logic of the schoolmen&mdash;and everything is formalized according
+to scholastic principles. But the subjects treated are the
+same&mdash;the nature of God and His attributes, His relation to
+the universe and man, the manner of the creation, and the way of
+righteousness.</p>
+<p>Maimonides, who is in form more loyal to Jewish tradition, is to
+a larger degree than Philo dependent on authority for the
+philosophical ideas which he applies to religion. To a great extent
+this is due to the spirit of his age, for in the Middle Ages not
+only was the matter of thought, but also its form, accepted on
+authority, and Aristotle ruled the one as imperiously as the Bible
+ruled the other. The differences of form and substance do not,
+however, obscure the essential likeness with Philo's interpretation
+of Judaism. With him Maimonides holds that the essential nature
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_231" id=
+"page_231">[pg.231]</a></span> of God is incognizable.<a name=
+"FNanchor_332_332" id="FNanchor_332_332"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_332_332">[332]</a> No positive predication can properly
+be applied to Him, but we know Him by His activities in relation to
+man and the world, <i>i.e.</i>, by His attributes or by what Philo
+called His powers. Maimonides does not preserve the absolute
+monarchy of the Divine government, but places between God and man
+intermediate beings with subordinate creative powers&mdash;the
+separate intelligences of the stars, which are identified with the
+angels of the Bible.<a name="FNanchor_333_333" id=
+"FNanchor_333_333"></a><a href="#Footnote_333_333">[333]</a> But he
+maintains inviolate the sole causality of God and His immanence in
+the human soul. Maimonides, like Philo, gives in addition to a
+metaphysical theology a philosophical exposition of the law of
+Moses, which has the same guiding principle as the books on the
+"Specific Laws." Moses was the perfect legislator,<a name=
+"FNanchor_334_334" id="FNanchor_334_334"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_334_334">[334]</a> whose ordinances are <img alt=
+"Hebrew; " src="images/image83.jpg" width="55" height="16">,
+<i>i.e.</i>, perfectly equitable, attaining "the mean"&mdash;the
+Aristotelian conception of excellence&mdash;and identical with the
+eternal laws of nature.<a name="FNanchor_335_335" id=
+"FNanchor_335_335"></a><a href="#Footnote_335_335">[335]</a>
+Numerous details of Maimonides' interpretations agree with those
+given in the books on the "Specific Laws." Whether correspondence
+of thought is merely an indication of the similar workings of
+Jewish genius in similar conditions, or whether it is the effect of
+an early tradition common to both, or whether, finally, there was
+connection, however indirect, between the two minds, it is now
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_232" id=
+"page_232">[pg.232]</a></span> impossible to say. But at least the
+philosophy of Maimonides confirms the inner Jewishness of the
+philosophy of Philo, and its essential loyalty to Jewish
+tradition.</p>
+<p>Not less striking than his correspondence with later Jewish
+religious philosophy, though not less indefinite, is the relation
+of Philo to the later Jewish mystical and theosophical literature,
+purporting also to be a development of hoary tradition, and indeed
+calling itself simply the tradition, <img alt="Hebrew; " src=
+"images/image84.jpg" width="46" height="21">. Between Philo and the
+Cabbalah it is as difficult to establish any direct connection as
+between Philo and rabbinic Midrash, but the likeness in spirit and
+the signs of a common source are equally remarkable. To trace God
+in all things through various attributes and emanations, to bring
+God and man into direct union, to prove that there is an immanent
+God within the soul of the individual, and to show how this may be
+inspired with the transcendental Deity&mdash;this is common to
+both. In the earliest times the mystic doctrine appears to have
+been a form of Jewish Gnosticism, speculation about the nature of
+God and His connection with the world. It probably embraced the
+<img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image85.jpg" width="302" height=
+"18">, though we know not what these exactly contained.<a name=
+"FNanchor_336_336" id="FNanchor_336_336"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_336_336">[336]</a> But it was not till the Middle Ages
+that Jewish mysticism received definite and separate literary
+expression, and by that time it was mixed up with a number of
+neo-Platonic and magical <span class="newpage"><a name="page_233"
+id="page_233">[pg.233]</a></span> fancies and foreign theosophies.
+The later compilations of this character form what is more
+regularly known as the Cabbalah; but, apart from the professions of
+the later writers, a continuous train of tradition affirms the
+existence of secret teachings in Judaism from the time of the
+Babylonian captivity. Jewish mysticism is as much a continuous
+expression of the spirit of the race as the Jewish law. We may then
+without rashness conclude that the later Cabbalah is a coarser
+development, for a less enlightened and less philosophical age, of
+the Gnostic material which Philo refashioned in the light of
+Platonism for the Hellenized community at Alexandria. Modern
+scholars have favored the idea that the Essenes were the first
+systematizers of and the first practitioners in the Cabbalah, and
+have interpreted their name<a name="FNanchor_337_337" id=
+"FNanchor_337_337"></a><a href="#Footnote_337_337">[337]</a> to
+mean those engaged in secret things, but the mystic tradition
+itself is earlier than the foundation of a special mystic sect. It
+is part of the heritage from the Jewish prophets and psalmists and
+the Babylonian interaction with Hebraism.</p>
+<p>Philo had large sympathies with the Essenic development of
+Judaism, and he speaks at times as though he had joined one of
+their communities, and therein had been initiated into the great
+mysteries and secret philosophies of the sages. We have noted that
+he offers his most precious wisdom to the worthy few alone, "who in
+all humility practice genuine piety, <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_234" id="page_234">[pg.234]</a></span> free from all false
+pretence." They, in turn, are to discourse on these doctrines only
+to other members of the brotherhood. "I bid ye, initiated brethren,
+who listen with chastened ears, receive these truly sacred
+mysteries in your inmost souls, and reveal them not to one of the
+uninitiated, but laying them up in your hearts, guard them as a
+most excellent treasure in which the noblest of possessions is
+stored, the knowledge, namely, of the First Cause and of virtue,
+and moreover of what they generate."<a name="FNanchor_338_338" id=
+"FNanchor_338_338"></a><a href="#Footnote_338_338">[338]</a> These
+mysteries, it is not unlikely, represent according to some scholars
+the <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image86.jpg" width="25" height=
+"15"> of the Talmudical rabbis, which was elaborately developed in
+the Zohar and kindred writings. Be this as it may, Philo's
+religious intensity expresses the spirit of the Cabbalists, his
+mystic soaring is the prototype of their theosophical ecstasies;
+his persistent declaration that God encloses the universe, but is
+Himself not enclosed by anything, contains the root of their
+conception of the En Sof <img alt="Hebrew; " src=
+"images/image87.jpg" width="76" height="22">,<a name=
+"FNanchor_339_339" id="FNanchor_339_339"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_339_339">[339]</a> his Logos-idealism, with its Divine
+effluences, which are the true causes of all changes, physical and
+mental, is companion to their system of <img alt="Hebrew; " src=
+"images/image88.jpg" width="169" height="21"> emanations and
+spheres. His fancies about sex and the struggle between a male and
+female principle in all things<a name="FNanchor_340_340" id=
+"FNanchor_340_340"></a><a href="#Footnote_340_340">[340]</a> are a
+constant theme of their teachers, and form a special section of
+their wisdom, <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image89.jpg" width=
+"76" height="13">, the mystery of generation. His conception of the
+Logos as the heavenly <span class="newpage"><a name="page_235" id=
+"page_235">[pg.235]</a></span> archetype of the human race, the
+"Man-himself," is the Platonic counterpart of their <img alt=
+"Hebrew; " src="images/image90.jpg" width="85" height="21">, or
+"primal man," who is known in the ancient allegorizing of the Song
+of Songs. His number-mysticism and his speech-idealism reappear
+more crudely, but not obscurely, in their ideas of creative
+letters, of which the cosmogony by the twenty-two letters of the
+Hebrew alphabet in the Sefer Yezirah is typical. Finally, his
+teachings of ecstasy and Divine possession are repeated in divers
+ways in their descriptions of the pious life <img alt="Hebrew; "
+src="images/image91.jpg" width="73" height="18">.</p>
+<p>Philo, indeed, viewed from the Jewish standpoint, is the
+Hellenizer not only of the law but also of the Cabbalah, the
+philosophical adapter of the secret traditional wisdom of his
+ancestors. He brings it into close relation with Platonism and
+purifies it; he clears away its anthropomorphisms and superstitious
+fantasies, or rather he raises them into idealistic conceptions and
+sublime exaltations of the soul. By his deep knowledge of the
+intellectual ideas of Greece he refined the strange compound of
+lofty imagination and popular fancy, and raised it to a higher
+value. Plato and the Cabbalah represent the same mystic spirit in
+different degrees of intellectual sublimity and religious
+aspiration; Philo endeavored to unite the two manifestations. He
+lived in a markedly non-rational age given over to mystical
+speculation; and Alexandria especially, by her cosmopolitan
+character, "furnished the soil and seed which formed the mystic
+philosophy that knew how to blend the wisdom and <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_236" id="page_236">[pg.236]</a></span>
+folly of the ages."<a name="FNanchor_341_341" id=
+"FNanchor_341_341"></a><a href="#Footnote_341_341">[341]</a>
+Through the mass of apocalyptic literature that was poured forth in
+the first centuries of the common era, through the later books of
+the Apocrypha, through the Sefer Yezirah of the ninth and the Zohar
+of the thirteenth century, and through the vast literature inspired
+by these books, run the ideas that composed Philo's mystic
+theology. Philo himself was unknown, but his religious
+interpretation of Platonism had entered into the world's thought,
+and inspired the mystics of his own race as well as of the
+Christian world.</p>
+<p>After a thousand years of Latin domination the Renaissance
+revived the study of Greek in Western Europe, and to the most
+cultured of his race Philo was no longer a sealed book. The first
+Jewish writer to show an intimate acquaintance with him and a clear
+idea of his relation to Jewish tradition was Azariah dei Rossi, who
+lived in the sixteenth century. His "Meor Einayim" dealt largely
+with the Hellenistic epoch of Judaism, and its attitude towards it
+is summed up in the remark that "all that is good in Philo agrees
+with our law."<a name="FNanchor_342_342" id=
+"FNanchor_342_342"></a><a href="#Footnote_342_342">[342]</a> He
+pointed out many instances of agreement, and some of disagreement,
+but he objected in general to the allegorizing of the historical
+parts of the Torah and to the absence of the traditional
+interpretations in Philo's commentaries. He shared largely the
+rabbinical attitude and could not give an independent historical
+appreciation of <span class="newpage"><a name="page_237" id=
+"page_237">[pg.237]</a></span> Philo's work. That was not to come
+for two hundred years more. To Dei Rossi we owe the Jewish
+translation of Philo's name, <img alt="Hebrew; " src=
+"images/image92.jpg" width="131" height="13">.<a name=
+"FNanchor_343_343" id="FNanchor_343_343"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_343_343">[343]</a> To the outer world Philo was "the
+Jew"; to his own people, "the Alexandrian."</p>
+<p>As soon as Greek was reintroduced into the scholarly world,
+Philo began to reassert an important influence on theology. One
+remarkable school of English mystics and religious philosophers,
+the Cambridge Platonists, who wrote during the seventeenth century,
+founded upon him their method and also their general attitude to
+philosophy.<a name="FNanchor_344_344" id=
+"FNanchor_344_344"></a><a href="#Footnote_344_344">[344]</a> They
+were Christian neo-Platonists, who looked for spiritual allegories
+in the Old and New Testaments, and combined the teachings of Jesus
+with the emotional idealism of the Alexandrian interpreters of
+Plato. They affirmed enthusiastically God's revelation to the
+universe and to individual man through the Logos. Their imitation
+of Philo's allegorism serves to mark the important place that he
+occupied in the learned world during the seventeenth century; and
+supports, however slightly, the suggestion that he influenced,
+directly or indirectly, the supreme Jewish philosopher of the age,
+Baruch de Spinoza. That he was well known in Holland at the time is
+shown in divers ways. He is quoted by the famous jurist Grotius in
+his book which founded the science of international law; he is
+quoted and criticised, as we have seen, by Scaliger; <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_238" id="page_238">[pg.238]</a></span> and
+curiously enough, his name, "Philo-Jud&aelig;us," is applied by
+Rembrandt to the portrait of his own father, now in the
+Ferdinandeum at Innsbruck. It is tempting to conjecture that there
+was a direct connection between the Jewish philosophers of the
+ancient and the modern world. Whether it existed or not, there is
+certainly kinship in their ideas. Spinoza does actually refer in
+one place, in his "Theologico-Political Tractate" (ch. x), to the
+opinion of Philo-Jud&aelig;us upon the date of Psalm lxxxviii, and
+there are other places in the same book, where he almost echoes the
+words of the Jewish Platonist; as where he speaks of God's eternal
+Word being divinely inscribed in the human mind: "And this is the
+true original of God's covenant, stamped with His own seal, namely,
+the idea of Himself, as it were, with the image of His Godhead"
+(iv); or, again, "The supreme reward for keeping God's Word is that
+Word itself." Spinoza knew no Greek, but, master as he was of
+Christian theology, he may have studied Philo in a Latin
+translation, and caught some of his phrases. With or without
+influence, he developed, as Philo had done, a system of philosophy,
+starting from the Hebrew conception of God and blending Jewish
+tradition with scientific metaphysics. The Unity of God and His
+sole reality were the fundamental principles of his thought, as
+they had been of Philo's. He rejected, indeed, with scorn the
+notion that all philosophy must be deduced from the Bible, which
+was to him a book of moral and religious worth, but free from
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_239" id=
+"page_239">[pg.239]</a></span> all philosophical doctrine.
+Theology, the subject of the Bible, according to him, demands
+perfect obedience, philosophy perfect knowledge.<a name=
+"FNanchor_345_345" id="FNanchor_345_345"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_345_345">[345]</a> Both alike are saving, but the
+spheres of the two are distinct: and Moses and the prophets excel
+in law and imagination, not in reason and reflection. Hence Spinoza
+approached the Bible from the critical standpoint; and, on the
+other hand, he approached philosophy with a free mind searching for
+truth, independent of religious dogmatism, and he was, therefore,
+the founder of modern philosophy. None the less his view of the
+universe is an intellectual expression of the Hebraic monotheism,
+which unites a religious with a scientific monism. He regards God
+as the only reality, sees and knows all things in Him, and deduces
+all things from His attributes, which are the incomplete
+representations that man makes of His true nature; he explains all
+thought, all movement, and all that seems material as the working
+of His modes; and, finally, he places as the end of man's
+intellectual progress and the culmination of his moral life the
+love of God. In truth, Jewish philosophy has its unity and its
+special stamp, no less than Jewish religion and tradition, from
+which it receives its nurture. Thrice it has towered up in a great
+system: through Philo in the classical, through Maimonides in the
+medi&aelig;val, through Spinoza in the modern world. In the
+Renaissance of Jewish learning during the nineteenth century,
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_240" id=
+"page_240">[pg.240]</a></span> Philo was at last studied and
+interpreted by scholars of his own people. The first modern writer
+to reveal the philosophy of Jewish history was Nachman Krochmal
+(1785-1840), and his posthumous Hebrew book, "The Guide of the
+Perplexed of the Time," edited by Zunz, contained the first
+critical appreciation of the Hellenistic Jewish culture by a
+rabbinic scholar. He knew no Greek, but he studied the works of
+German writers, and in his account of Philo gives a summary of the
+remarks of the theologian Neander, himself a baptized Jew. In his
+own criticism he discerns the weakness and strength of Philo from
+the Jewish aspect. "There are," he says, "many strange things in
+Philo's exegesis, not only because he draws far-fetched allegories
+from the text, but also because he interprets single words without
+a sure foundation in Hebrew philology. He uses Scripture as a sort
+of clay which he moulds to convey his philosophical ideas. Yet we
+must be grateful to him because many of his interpretations are
+beautiful ornaments to the text; and we may apply to them what Ibn
+Ezra said of the teachings of the Haggadah, 'Some of them are fine
+silks, others as heavy as sack-cloth.'"</p>
+<p>Krochmal translated into Hebrew examples of Philo's allegories
+and gave parallels and contrasts from the Talmud. The relation
+between the Palestinian and the Alexandrian exegesis was more
+elaborately considered by a greater master of Hellenistic
+literature, <span class="newpage"><a name="page_241" id=
+"page_241">[pg.241]</a></span> Zacharias Frankel (1801-1875), who
+has been followed by a band of Jewish scholars. Yearly our
+understanding of the Alexandrian culture becomes fuller. Philo,
+too, has in part been translated into Hebrew. Indirect in the past,
+his influence on Jewish thought in the future bids fair to be
+direct and increasing.</p>
+<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_242" id=
+"page_242">[pg.242]</a></span></p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;">
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<a name="VIII" id="VIII"></a>
+<h2>VIII</h2>
+<p>THE INFLUENCE OF PHILO</p>
+<br>
+<p>The hope which Philo had cherished and worked for was the
+spreading of the knowledge of God and the diffusion of the true
+religion over the whole world.<a name="FNanchor_346_346" id=
+"FNanchor_346_346"></a><a href="#Footnote_346_346">[346]</a> The
+end of Jewish national life was approaching, but rabbis in
+Palestine and philosophers at Alexandria, unconscious of the
+imminent doom, thought that the promise of the prophet was soon to
+be fulfilled, and all peoples would go up to worship the one God at
+the temple upon Mount Zion, which should be the religious centre of
+the world. In Philo's day a universal Judaism seemed possible, a
+Judaism true to the Torah as well as to the Unity of God, <a name=
+"FNanchor_347_347" id="FNanchor_347_347"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_347_347">[347]</a> spread over the Megalopolis of all
+peoples; and in the light of this hope Philo welcomed proselytism.
+The Jews had a clear mission; they were to be the light of the
+world, because they alone of all peoples had perceived God. Israel
+(<img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image09.jpg" width="73" height=
+"22">), to repeat Philo's etymology, is the man who beholds God,
+and through him the other nations were to be led to the light. The
+mission of Israel was not a passive service, but an active
+preaching of God's word, and an active propagation of God's law to
+the Gentile. He must welcome the stranger <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_243" id="page_243">[pg.243]</a></span> that
+came within the gates.<a name="FNanchor_348_348" id=
+"FNanchor_348_348"></a><a href="#Footnote_348_348">[348]</a> Philo
+struggled against the separative and exclusive tendency which
+characterized a section of his race. He laid stress upon the
+valuelessness of birth, and the saving power of God's grace to the
+pagan who has come to recognize Him, in language which Christian
+commentators call incredible in a Jew, but which was in fact
+typical of the common feeling at Alexandria. Appealing to the
+Gentiles, Philo declared that "God has special regard for the
+proselyte, who is in the class of the weak and humble together with
+the widow and orphan<a name="FNanchor_349_349" id=
+"FNanchor_349_349"></a><a href="#Footnote_349_349">[349]</a>; for
+he may be alienated from his kindred when he is converted to the
+honor of the one true God, and abandons idolatrous, polytheistic
+worship, but God is all the more his advocate and helper." And
+speaking to the Jews he says:<a name="FNanchor_350_350" id=
+"FNanchor_350_350"></a><a href="#Footnote_350_350">[350]</a>
+"Kinship is not measured by blood alone when truth is the judge,
+but by likeness of conduct and by the pursuit of the same objects."
+Similarly, in the Midrash, it is said that proselytes are as dear
+to God as those who were born Jews;<a name="FNanchor_351_351" id=
+"FNanchor_351_351"></a><a href="#Footnote_351_351">[351]</a> and,
+again, that the Torah was given to Israel for the benefit of all
+peoples;<a name="FNanchor_352_352" id=
+"FNanchor_352_352"></a><a href="#Footnote_352_352">[352]</a>
+or<a name="FNanchor_353_353" id="FNanchor_353_353"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_353_353">[353]</a> that the purpose of Israel's
+dispersion was that they might make proselytes. Philo's short
+treatise on "Nobility" is an eloquent <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_244" id="page_244">[pg.244]</a></span> plea
+for the equal treatment of the stranger who joins the true faith;
+and the author finds in the Bible narratives support for his
+thesis, that not good birth but the virtue of the individual is the
+true test of merit. Of the valuelessness of the one, Cain, Ham, and
+Esau are types; of the supreme worth of the other, Abraham, who is
+set up as the model of the excellent man brought up among
+idolaters, but led by the Divine oracle, revealed to his mind, to
+embrace the true idea of God. If the founder of the Hebrew nation
+was himself a convert, then surely there was a place within the
+religion for other converts. Remarkable is the closing note of the
+book:</p>
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>"We should, therefore, blame those who spuriously appropriate as
+their own merit what they derive from others, good birth; and they
+should justly be regarded as enemies not only of the Jewish race,
+but of all mankind; of the Jewish race, because they engender
+indifference in their brethren, so that they despise the righteous
+life in their reliance upon their ancestors' virtue; and of the
+Gentiles, because they would not allow them their meed of reward
+even though they attain to the highest excellence of conduct,
+simply because they have not commendable ancestors. I know not if
+there could be a more pernicious doctrine than this: that there is
+no punishment for the wicked offspring of good parents, and no
+reward for the good offspring of evil parents. The law judges each
+man upon his own merit, and does not assign praise or blame
+according to the virtues of the forefathers."</p>
+</div>
+<p>And, again, he writes: "God judges by the fruit of the tree, not
+by the root; and in the Divine judgment <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_245" id="page_245">[pg.245]</a></span> the
+proselyte will be raised on high, and he will have a double
+distinction, because on earth he 'deserted' to God, and later he
+receives as his reward a place in Heaven."<a name=
+"FNanchor_354_354" id="FNanchor_354_354"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_354_354">[354]</a></p>
+<p>Unfortunately, the development of missionizing activity, which
+followed Philo's epoch, threatening, as it did, the fundamental
+principles of Judaism, necessitated the reassertion of its national
+character and antagonism to an attitude which sought expansion by
+compromise. It is the tragedy of Philo's work that his mission to
+the nations was of necessity distrusted by his own race, and that
+his appeal for tolerance within the community was turned to a
+mockery by the hostility which the converts of the next century
+showed to the national ideas. Christian apologists early learned to
+imitate Philo's allegorical method, and appropriated it to explain
+away the laws of Moses. Within a hundred years of Philo's death,
+his ideal, at least in the form in which he had conceived it, had
+been shattered for ages. While he was preaching a philosophical
+Judaism for the world at Alexandria, Peter and Paul were preaching
+through the Diaspora an heretical Judaism for the half-converted
+Gentiles. The disciples of Jesus spread his teaching far and wide;
+but they continually widened the breach which their Master had
+himself initiated, and so their work became, not so much a
+development of Judaism, as an attack upon it. In some of its
+principles, <span class="newpage"><a name="page_246" id=
+"page_246">[pg.246]</a></span> indeed, the message of Jesus was the
+message of Philo, emphasizing, as it did, the broad principles of
+morality and the need of an inner godliness. But it was
+fundamentally differentiated by a doctrine of God and the Messiah
+which was neither Jewish nor philosophical, and by the breaking
+away from the law of Moses, which cut at the roots of national
+life. Whatever the moral worth of the preaching of Jesus, it
+involved and involves the overthrow of the Jewish attitude to life
+and religion, which may be expressed as the sanctification of
+ordinary conduct, and as morality under the national law. To this
+ideal Philo throughout was true, and the Christian teachers were
+essentially opposed, and however much they approximated to his
+method and utilized his thought, they were always strangers to his
+spirit. Philo's philosophy was in great part a philosophy of the
+law; the Patristic school borrowed his allegorizing method and
+produced a philosophy of religious dogma! Those who spread the
+Christian doctrine among the Hellenized peoples and the
+sophisticated communities that dwelt round the Mediterranean found
+it necessary to explain and justify it by the metaphysical and
+ethical catchwords of the day, and in so doing they took Philo as
+their model. They followed both in general and in detail his
+allegorical interpretations in their recommendation of the Old
+Testament to the more cultured pagans, as the apology of Justin,
+the commentaries of Origen, and the philosophical miscellany
+(<img alt="Greek: Str&ocirc;mateis" src="images/image93.jpg" width=
+"97" height="18">) of Clement abundantly show.</p>
+<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_247" id=
+"page_247">[pg.247]</a></span> Certain parts of the New Testament
+itself exhibit the combination of Hebraism and Hellenism which
+characterizes the work of Philo. In the sayings of Jesus we have
+the Hebraic strain, but in Luke and John and the Epistles the
+mingling of cultures. Thus the Apostles seem to some the successors
+of Philo, and the Epistles the lineal descendants of the
+"Allegories of the Laws." In the Fourth Gospel and the Epistle to
+the Hebrews especially the correspondence is striking. But there
+is, in fact, despite much that is common, a great gulf between
+them. The later missionaries oppose the national religion and the
+Torah: Philo was pre-eminently their champion.</p>
+<p>The most commanding of the Apostles, Paul of Tarsus, when he
+took the new statement of Judaism out of the region of spirit and
+tried to shape it into a definite religion for the world, "forgot
+the rock from which he was hewn." As a modern Jewish theologian
+says, <a name="FNanchor_355_355" id="FNanchor_355_355"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_355_355">[355]</a> "His break with the past is violent;
+Jesus seemed to expand and spiritualize Judaism; Paul in some
+senses turns it upside down." His work may have been necessary to
+bring home the Word to the heathen, but it utterly breaks the
+continuity of development. Paul himself was little of a
+philosopher, and those to whom he preached were not usually
+philosophical communities such as Philo addressed at Alexandria,
+but congregations of half converted, superstitious pagans. The
+philosophical exposition of <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_248" id="page_248">[pg.248]</a></span> the law was too
+difficult for them, while the observance of the law in its
+strictness demanded too great a sacrifice. The spiritual teaching
+of Jesus was dissociated by his Apostle from its source, and the
+break with Judaism was deliberate and complete. The fanatical zest
+of the missionary dominated him, and he proclaimed distinctly where
+the new Hebraism which was offered to the Gentile should depart
+from the historic religion of the Jews: "For Christ is the end of
+the law for righteousness to everyone that believeth,"<a name=
+"FNanchor_356_356" id="FNanchor_356_356"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_356_356">[356]</a> he says to the Romans; and to the
+Galatians: "As many as are of the works of the law are under the
+curse."<a name="FNanchor_357_357" id=
+"FNanchor_357_357"></a><a href="#Footnote_357_357">[357]</a>
+"Christ hath redeemed us from the curse of the law.... But before
+faith came, we were kept under the law, shut up with the faith
+which should afterwards be revealed. Wherefore the law was our
+schoolmaster to bring us unto Christ that we might be justified by
+faith. But after that faith is come, we are no longer under a
+schoolmaster." Paul's position then&mdash;and he is the forerunner
+of dogmatic Christianity&mdash;involved a rejection of the Torah;
+and it is this which above all else constituted his cleavage from
+both Judaism and the Philonic presentation of it.</p>
+<p>Philo is commonly regarded as the forerunner of Christian
+teaching, and it is doubtless true that he suggested to the Church
+Fathers parts of their theology, and represented also the
+missionary spirit <span class="newpage"><a name="page_249" id=
+"page_249">[pg.249]</a></span> which inspired the teaching of some
+Apostles. But it must be clearly understood that he shared still
+more the spirit of Hillel, whose maxim was "to love thy
+fellow-creatures and draw them near to the Torah," and that he
+would have been fundamentally opposed to the new missionary
+attitude of Paul. The doctrines of the Epistle to the Romans, or
+the Epistle to the Ephesians, are absolutely antipathetic to the
+ideal of the "Allegories of the Laws." Paul is allied in
+spirit&mdash;though his expression is that of the fanatic rather
+than of the philosopher&mdash;to the extreme allegorist section of
+philosophical Jews at Alexandria, attacked by Philo for their
+shallowness in the famous passage, quoted from <i>De Migratione
+Abrahami</i> (ch. 16<a name="FNanchor_358_358" id=
+"FNanchor_358_358"></a><a href="#Footnote_358_358">[358]</a>), who,
+because they recognized the spiritual meaning of the law, rejected
+its literal commands; because they saw that circumcision symbolized
+the abandonment of the sensual life, no longer observed the
+ceremony. The same antinomian spirit is shown in the Epistle to the
+Galatians by the allegory of the children whom Abraham had by Hagar
+the bondwoman and Sarah the free wife: "For there are the two
+covenants, the one from the mount of Sinai which gendereth to
+bondage, which is Hagar.... But we, brethren, as Isaac was, are the
+children of promise." To Philo the law and the observance of the
+letter were the high-road to freedom and the Divine spirit, and,
+remaining loyal to the Jewish conception of religion, for all his
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_250" id=
+"page_250">[pg.250]</a></span> philosophical outlook, he said: "The
+rejection of the <img alt="Greek: Nomos" src="images/image94.jpg"
+width="52" height="15"> will produce chaos in our lives." To Paul
+the law was an obstacle to the spread of religious truth and a
+fetter to the spiritual life of the individual.</p>
+<p>It is possible that an extremist section of the Jews pressed the
+letter of the law to excess, so as to lose its spirit, but the
+opposite excess, into which Paul plunged the new faith, was as
+narrow. It involved a glorification of belief, which did not imply
+any relation to conduct. Philo had pleaded no less earnestly than
+the Apostle for the reliance upon grace and the saving virtue of
+faith, but he did not therefore absolve men from the law which made
+for righteousness.<a name="FNanchor_359_359" id=
+"FNanchor_359_359"></a><a href="#Footnote_359_359">[359]</a> And
+lest it be thought that the stress laid upon faith was peculiar to
+Hellenizing Judaism, we have only to note such passages as Dr.
+Schechter has adduced from the early Midrash on the rabbinic
+conception.<a name="FNanchor_360_360" id=
+"FNanchor_360_360"></a><a href="#Footnote_360_360">[360]</a> "Great
+was the merit of faith which Israel put in God; for it was by the
+merit of this faith that the Holy Spirit came over them, and they
+said the <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image95.jpg" width="45"
+height="18">, (<i>i.e.</i>, the Song of Moses) to God, as it is
+said, 'And they believed in the Lord and His servant Moses. Then
+sang Moses and the children of Israel this song unto the Lord.'" Or
+again<a name="FNanchor_361_361" id="FNanchor_361_361"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_361_361">[361]</a>&mdash;and the passage reminds us
+still more strongly of both Philo and Christian Gospel&mdash;"Our
+Father Abraham came <span class="newpage"><a name="page_251" id=
+"page_251">[pg.251]</a></span> into the possession of this world
+and the world hereafter only by the merit of his faith."</p>
+<p>What is new in the Christian position is not the magnifying of
+faith; it is the severance of faith from the law and the particular
+faith which is magnified. Philo, and the rabbis, too, believed that
+faith was the goal of virtue, and the culmination of the moral
+life; but faith to them implied the sanctification of the whole of
+life, the love of God "shown in obedience to a law of conduct."
+Paul, however, hating the law, set up a new faith in the saving
+power of Jesus and in certain beliefs about him, which afterwards
+were crystallized, or petrified, into merciless dogmas, contrary
+alike to the Jewish ideas of God and of life. The new religion,
+when it was denationalized, inevitably became ecclesiastical: for
+as the national regulation of life was rejected, in order to ensure
+some kind of uniformity, it had to bind its members together by
+definite articles of belief imposed by a central authority. The
+true alternative was not between a legal and a spiritual
+religion&mdash;for every religion must have some external
+rule&mdash;but between a law of conduct and a law of belief. Philo
+and the rabbis chose the former way; Paul and the Church, the
+latter. Christian theology, no less than the Christian conception
+of religion, exhibits also a complete breach with the Jewish spirit
+of Philo. In the Epistles there are, indeed, in many places
+doctrines of the Logos in the same images and the same Hebraic
+metaphors as Philo had worked into his system; but their purport
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_252" id=
+"page_252">[pg.252]</a></span> is entirely changed by association
+with new un-Jewish dogmas. Philo, allegorizing, <a name=
+"FNanchor_362_362" id="FNanchor_362_362"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_362_362">[362]</a> had seen the holy Word typified in
+the high priest, and in Melchizedek, the priest of the Most High;
+he had called it the son of God and His first-born. Paul,
+dogmatizing, exalts Jesus Christ, the incarnate Word, above
+Melchizedek and the high priest, and calls on the Hebrews to gain
+salvation by faith in the son of God, who died on behalf of the
+sinful human race. Philo, in his poetic fancy, speaks of God
+associating with the virgin soul and generating therein the Divine
+offspring of holy wisdom;<a name="FNanchor_363_363" id=
+"FNanchor_363_363"></a><a href="#Footnote_363_363">[363]</a> the
+Christian creed-makers enunciated the irrational dogma of the
+immaculate conception of Jesus. So, too, the earliest philosophical
+exponents of Christianity, Clement of Alexandria, and Origen, may
+have derived many of their detailed ideas from Philo, but they
+converted&mdash;one might rather say perverted&mdash;his
+monotheistic theology into a dogmatic trinitarianism. They exalted
+the Logos, to Philo the "God of the imperfect," and a second-best
+Deity, to an equal place with the perfect God. For man, indeed, he
+was nearer and the true object of human adoration. And this not
+only meant a departure from Judaism; it meant a departure from
+philosophy. The supreme unity of the pure reason was sacrificed no
+less than the unity of the soaring religious imagination. The one
+transcendental God <span class="newpage"><a name="page_253" id=
+"page_253">[pg.253]</a></span> became again, as He had been to the
+Greek theologians, an inscrutable impersonal power, who was unknown
+to man and ruled over the universe by His begotten son, the Logos.
+The sublimity of the Hebrew conception, which combines personality
+with unity, was lost, and the harmony of the intellectual and
+emotional aspirations achieved by Philo was broken straightway by
+those who professed to follow him. The skeleton of his thought was
+clothed with a body wherein his spirit could never have dwelt. It
+was the penalty which Philo paid for vagueness of expression and
+luxuriance of words that his works became the support of doctrines
+which he had combated, the guide of those who were opposed to his
+life's ideal.</p>
+<p>The experience of the Church showed how right was Philo's
+judgment when he declared that the rejection of the Torah would
+produce chaos. The fourth and fifth centuries exhibit an era of
+unparalleled disorder and confusion in the religious world,
+<a name="FNanchor_364_364" id="FNanchor_364_364"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_364_364">[364]</a> sect struggling with sect, creed with
+creed, churches rising and falling, dogmas set up by councils and
+forced upon men's souls at the point of the Roman sword! And out of
+this struggling mass of beliefs and fancies, theologies and
+superstitions, sects and political forces, there arose a
+tyrannical, dogmatic Church which laid far heavier burthens on
+men's minds than ever the most ruthless Pharisee of the
+theologian's <span class="newpage"><a name="page_254" id=
+"page_254">[pg.254]</a></span> imagination had laid upon their body
+and spirit. The yoke of the law of Moses, sanctifying the life, had
+been broken; the fiat of popes and the decrees of synods were the
+saving beliefs which ensured the Kingdom of Heaven! Was it to this
+that the allegorizing of the law, the search for the spirit beneath
+the letter, the reinterpretation of the holy law of Moses in the
+light of philosophical reason, had brought Judaism? And was the
+association of Jewish religion with Greek philosophy one long
+error? That would be a hard conclusion, if we had to admit that
+Judaism cannot stand the test of contact with foreign culture. But
+in truth the Hellenistic interpretation of the Bible, so long as it
+was genuinely philosophical, remained loyal to Judaism. Only when
+it became hardened into dogma, fixed not only as good doctrine, but
+as the only saving doctrine, as the tree of life opposed to the
+Torah, the tree of death&mdash;only then did it become anti-Jewish,
+and appear as a bastard offspring of the Hebraic God-idea and Greek
+culture. Nor should it be forgotten that the Christian theology and
+the Christian conception of religion are a falling away also from
+the highest Hellenic ideas; for to Plato as well God was a purely
+spiritual unity, and religion "a system of morality based upon a
+law of conduct and touched with emotion." In Philo, as we have
+seen, the Hebraic and Hellenic conceptions of God touch at their
+summits in their noblest expressions; the conceptions of Plato are
+interfused with the imagination of the prophets. The Christian
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_255" id=
+"page_255">[pg.255]</a></span> theology was a descent to a commoner
+Hellenism&mdash;or one should rather call it a commoner
+syncretism&mdash;as well as to an easier, impurer Hebraism.</p>
+<p>It must not be put down to the fault of the Septuagint or the
+allegorists or Philo that the Alexandrian development of Judaism
+led on to Roman Christianity. It is to be ascribed rather to the
+infirmity of human nature, which requires the ideas of its inspired
+teachers and peoples to be brought down to the common
+understanding, and causes the progress towards universal religion
+to be a slow growth. The masses of the Alexandrian Jews in his own
+day cannot have grasped his teaching; for Philo, to some degree,
+lived in a narrow world of philosophical idealism, and he did not
+calculate the forces which opposed and made impossible the spread
+of his faith in its integrity. He was aiming at what was and must
+for long remain unattainable&mdash;the establishment among the
+peoples of philosophical monotheism.</p>
+<p>No man is a prophet in his own land&mdash;or in his own
+time&mdash;and because Philo has in him much of the prophet, he
+seems to have failed. But it is the burden of our mission to sow in
+tears that we may reap in joy. And the work of the
+Alexandrian-Jewish school may be sad from one aspect of Jewish
+history, but it is nevertheless one of the dominating incidents of
+our religious annals. It did not succeed in bringing over the world
+to the pure idea of God, but it did help in undermining cruder
+paganism. It brought the nations nearer to God, and it introduced
+Hebraism into the <span class="newpage"><a name="page_256" id=
+"page_256">[pg.256]</a></span> thought of the Western peoples. It
+marked, therefore, a great step in the religious work of Israel;
+yet by the schools of rabbis who felt the hard hand of its
+offspring upon their people it was regarded as a long misfortune,
+to be blotted from memory. What seemed so ominous to them was that
+the annihilation of the nation came at the same time as the
+cleavage in the religion. Judaism seemed attacked no less by
+internal foes than by external calamity; and was likely to perish
+altogether or to drift into a lower conception of God, unless it
+could find some stalwart defence. Hence they insisted on the
+extension of the fence of the law, and abandoned for centuries the
+mission of the Jews to the outer world. This was the true Galut, or
+exile; not so much the political exclusion from the land of their
+fathers, but the enforced exclusion from the mission of the
+prophets. Philo is one of the brightest figures of a golden age of
+Jewish expansion, which passed away of a sudden, and has never
+since returned. In the silver and bronze ages which followed, his
+place in Judaism was obscured. But this age of ours, which boasts
+of its historical sense, looking back over the centuries and freed
+from the bitter dismay of the rabbis, can appraise his true worth
+and see in him one who realized for himself all that Judaism and
+Jewish culture could and still can be.</p>
+<p>Some Jewish teachers have thought that Philo's work was a
+failure, others that it provides a warning rather than an example
+for later generations of Jews, <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_257" id="page_257">[pg.257]</a></span> proving the mischief
+of expanding Judaism for the world. As well one might say that
+Isaiah's prophecy was a calamity, because the Christian synoptics
+used his words as evidences of Christianity. What is universal in
+Jewish literature is in the fullest sense Jewish, and we should
+beware of renouncing our inheritance because others have abused and
+perverted it. Other critics, again, say that Philo is wearisome and
+prolix, artificial and sophisticated. There is certainly some truth
+in this judgment; but Philo has many beautiful passages which
+compensate. Part of his message was for his own generation and the
+Alexandrian community, and with the passing away of the Hellenistic
+culture, it has lost its attraction. But part of it is of universal
+import, and is very pertinent and significant for every generation
+of Jews which, enjoying social and intellectual emancipation, lives
+amid a foreign culture. Doubtless the position of Philo and the
+Alexandrian community was to some extent different from that of the
+Jews at any time since the greater Diaspora that followed the
+destruction of the temple. They had behind them a national culture
+and a centre of Jewish life, religious and social, which was a
+powerful influence in civilization and united the Jews in every
+land. And this gave a catholicity to their development and a
+standard for their teaching which the scattered communities of Jews
+to-day do not possess. None the less Philo's ideal of Judaism as
+religion and life is an ideal for our time and for all time. Its
+keynote is that Israel <span class="newpage"><a name="page_258" id=
+"page_258">[pg.258]</a></span> is a holy people, a kingdom of
+priests, which has a special function for humanity. And the
+performance of this function demands the religious-philosophical
+ordering of life. From the negative side Philo stands for the
+struggle against Epicureanism, which in other words is the devotion
+to material pleasures and sensual enjoyments. In adversity, as he
+notes, the race is truest to its ideals, but as soon as the breeze
+of prosperity has caught its sails, then it throws overboard all
+that ennobles life. The hedonist whom he attacks, like the Epicuros
+<img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image96.jpg" width="85" height=
+"19"> of the rabbis, is not the banal thinker of one particular
+age, but a permanent type in the history of our people. We seem to
+spend nearly all our moral strength in the resistance of
+persecution, and with tranquillity from without comes degradation
+within. Emancipation, which should be but a means to the
+realization of the higher life, is taken as an end, and becomes the
+grave of idealism. With a reiteration that becomes almost
+wearisome, but which is the measure of the need for the warning,
+Philo protests against this desecration of life, of liberty, and of
+Judaism. His position is, that a free and cultured Jewry must
+pursue the mission of Israel alike by the example of the righteous
+life devoted to the service of God, and by the preaching of God's
+revealed word. This is his "burden of the word of the Lord" to the
+worldly-wise and the materialists of civilized Alexandria&mdash;and
+to Jews of other lands.</p>
+<p>From the positive side Philo stands for the spiritual
+significance of the religion. Judaism, which <span class=
+"newpage"><a name="page_259" id="page_259">[pg.259]</a></span> lays
+stress upon the law, the ceremonial, and the customs of our
+forefathers, is threatened at times with the neglect of the inward
+religion and the hardness of legalism. Not that the law, when it is
+understood, kills the spirit or fetters the feelings, but a formal
+observance and an unenlightened insistence upon the letter may
+crush the soul which good habits should nurture. Religion at its
+highest must be the expression of the individual soul within, not
+the acceptance of a law from without. Although Philo's estimate of
+the Torah is from the historical and philological standpoint
+uncritical, in the religious sense it is finely critical inasmuch
+as it searches out true values. Philo looks in every ordinance of
+the Bible for the spiritual light and conceives the law as an
+inspiration of spiritual truth and the guide to God, or, as he puts
+it sometimes, "the mystagogue to divine ecstasy." For the crown of
+life to him is the saint's union with God. In mysticism religion
+and philosophy blend, for mysticism is the philosophical form of
+faith. Just as the Torah to Philo has an outward and an inward
+meaning, so, too, has the religion of the Torah; and the outward
+Judaism is the symbol, the necessary bodily expression of the
+inward, even as the words of Moses are the symbol, the suggestive
+expression of the deeper truth behind them. Yet mystic and
+spiritual as he is, Philo never allows religion to sink into mere
+spirituality, because he has a true appreciation and a real love
+for the law. The Torah is the foundation of Judaism, and one of the
+three pillars of the universe, <span class="newpage"><a name=
+"page_260" id="page_260">[pg.260]</a></span> as the rabbis said;
+and neither the philosopher nor the mystic in Philo ever causes him
+to forget that Judaism is a religion of conduct as well as of
+belief, and that the law of righteousness is a law which must be
+practiced and show itself in active life. He holds fast, moreover,
+to the catholicity of Judaism, which restrains the individual from
+abrogating observance till the united conscience of the race calls
+for it; unless progress comes in this ordered way, the reformer
+will produce chaos.</p>
+<p>Philo is conservative then in practice, but he is pre-eminently
+liberal in thought. The perfect example himself of the assimilation
+of outside culture, he demands that Judaism shall always seek out
+the fullest knowledge, and in the light of the broadest culture of
+the age constantly reinterpret its religious ideas and its holy
+books. Above all it must be philosophical, for philosophy is "the
+breath and finer spirit of all knowledge," and it vivifies the
+knowledge of God as well as the knowledge of human things. Without
+it religion becomes bigoted, faith obscurantist, and ceremony
+superstitious. But the Jew does not merely borrow ideas or accept
+his philosophy ready-made from his environment; he interprets it
+afresh according to his peculiar God-idea and his conception of
+God's relation to man, and thereby makes it a genuine Jewish
+philosophy, forming in each age a special Jewish culture. And as
+religion without philosophy is narrow, so, to Philo, philosophy
+without religion is barren; remote from the true life, and failing
+in <span class="newpage"><a name="page_261" id=
+"page_261">[pg.261]</a></span> the true purpose of the search for
+wisdom, which is to raise man to his highest function. Philosophy,
+then, is not the enemy of the Torah: it is its true complement,
+endowing it with a deeper meaning and a profounder influence. Thus
+the saying runs in the "Ethics of the Fathers,"</p>
+<p><img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image97.jpg" width="394" height=
+"15"></p>
+<p>"If there is no Torah, there is no wisdom; if there is no
+wisdom, there is no Torah." The thought that study of the law is
+essential to Judaism Philo shares with the rabbis, and the Torah is
+in his eyes Israel's great heritage, not only her literature but
+her life. As Saadia said later, <a name="FNanchor_365_365" id=
+"FNanchor_365_365"></a><a href="#Footnote_365_365">[365]</a> "This
+nation is only a nation by reason of its Torah." It is because
+Philo starts from this conviction that his mission is so striking,
+and its results so tragical. The Judaism which he preached to the
+pagan world was no food for the soul with the strength taken out to
+render it more easily assimilated. He emphasizes its spiritual
+import, he shows its harmony, as the age demanded, with the
+philosophical and ethical conceptions of the time, but he
+steadfastly holds aloft, as the standard of humanity, the law of
+Moses. The reign of "one God and one law" seemed to him not a
+far-off Divine event, but something near, which every good Jew
+could bring nearer. He was oppressed by no craven fear of Jewish
+distinctiveness; and the Biblical saying that Israel was a chosen
+people <span class="newpage"><a name="page_262" id=
+"page_262">[pg.262]</a></span> was real to him and moved him to
+action. It meant that Israel was essentially a religious nation,
+nearer God, and possessed of the Divine law of life, and that it
+had received the Divine bidding to spread the truth about God to
+all the world. It was a creed, and more, it was an inspiration
+which constantly impelled to effort. It would be difficult to sum
+up Philo's message to his people better than by the verses in
+Deuteronomy which he, the interpreter of God's Word and the
+successor of Moses, as he loved to consider himself, proclaims
+afresh to his own age, and beyond it to the congregation of Jacob
+in all ages, "Keep therefore my commandments and do them; for this
+is your wisdom and your understanding in the sight of the nations,
+which shall hear all these statutes, and say, Surely this great
+nation is a wise and understanding people.</p>
+<p>"For what nation is there so great, who hath God so nigh unto
+them, as the Lord our God is in all things that we call upon Him
+for?</p>
+<p>"And what nation is there so great that hath statutes and
+judgments so righteous as all this law, which I set before you this
+day?" (Deut. iv. 5-7).</p>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_263" id=
+"page_263">[pg.263]</a></span>
+<h3>BIBLIOGRAPHY</h3>
+<p>The following are the chief works which have been consulted and
+are recommended to the student of Philo:</p>
+<p>The standard edition of Philo is still that of Thomas Mangey,
+<i>Philonis Jud&aelig;i opera qu&aelig; reperiri potuerunt
+omnia.</i> 1742. Londini.</p>
+<p>A far more accurate and critical edition, which is provided with
+introductory essays and notes upon the sources of Philo, is in
+course of publication for the Berlin Academy, by Dr. Leopold Cohn
+and Dr. Paul Wendland. The first five volumes have already
+appeared, and the remainder may be expected before long. The only
+complete edition which contains the Latin text of the
+<i>Quaestiones</i> as well as the Greek works is that published by
+Tauchnitz in eight volumes; but the text is not reliable.</p>
+<p>There is an English translation of Philo's works in the Bohn
+Library (G. Bell &amp; Sons) by C.D. Yonge (4 vols.), but it is
+neither accurate nor neat. The same may he said of the German
+translation of Jost, but an admirable German version edited by Dr.
+L. Cohn is now appearing, which contains notes of the parallel
+passages in rabbinic and patristic literature.</p>
+<pre>
+Works bearing on Philo and his period generally:
+
+  Sch&uuml;rer, "History of the Jewish People at the Time
+    of Jesus Christ" (English translation).
+
+  Siegfried, <i>Philo von Alexandrien als Ausleger der
+    heiligen Schrift</i>.
+
+  Zeller, <i>Geschiehte der Philosophie der Griechen</i>,
+    vol. III, sec. 2.
+
+  Drummond, "Philo-Jud&aelig;us and the Jewish Alexandrian
+    School." 2 vols. (London.)
+
+  Herriot, <i>Philon le Juif</i>.
+
+  Vacherot, <i>&eacute;cole d'Alexandrie</i>, vol. I.
+
+  Eusebius, <i>Pr&aelig;paratio Evangelica</i>, ed. Gifford.
+
+  Freudenthal, J., <i>Hellenistische Studien</i>.
+
+  Harnack, "History of Dogma," vol. I.
+
+  Josephus, "Wars of the Jews"; "Antiquities of the Jews."
+
+  Mommsen, Th., "The Roman Provinces."
+
+Works bearing on the special subjects of the different
+chapters:
+
+  I. THE JEWISH COMMUNITY AT ALEXANDRIA
+    Graetz, "History of the Jews" (Eng. trans.), vol. II.
+    Swete, "introduction to the Septuagint."
+    Hirsch, S.A., "The Temple of Onias," in the
+    Jews' College Jubilee Volume.
+    Friedl&auml;nder, M. (Vienna), <i>Geschichte der j&uuml;dischen
+    Apologetitc</i> and <i>Religi&ouml;se Bewegungen
+    der Juden irn Zeitalter von Jesus.</i>
+
+  II. THE LIFE AND TIMES OF PHILO
+    Conybeare, edition of <i>De Vita Contemplativa</i>. (Oxford.)
+    Hils, <i>Les juifs en Rome. Revue des Etudes
+    Juives</i>, vols. 8 and 11.
+    Reinach, Th&eacute;odor, <i>Textes d'auteurs grecs et romains
+    r&eacute;latifs au Judaisme</i>.
+    Br&eacute;hier et Massebieau, <i>Essai sur la chronologie
+    de Philon. Revue de l'Histoire des Religions,  </i> 1906.
+
+  III. PHILO'S WORKS AND METHOD
+    Hart, J.H.A., "Philo of Alexandria," Jewish
+    Quarterly Review, vols. XVII and XVIII.
+    Massebieau, <i>Du classement des oeuvres de Philon</i>.
+    Cohn, Leopold, <i>Einteilung und Chronologie der
+    Schriften Philon</i>.
+
+  IV. PHILO AND THE TORAH
+    Treitel, L., <i>Der Nomos in Philon. Monatsschrift
+    f&uuml;r Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judenthums</i>, 1905.
+
+  V. PHILO'S THEOLOGY
+    Montefiore, C., <i>Florilegium Philonis</i>, Jewish
+    Quarterly Review, vol. VIII.
+    Caird, Ed., "Evolution of Theology in the
+    Greek Philosophers."
+    Heinze, <i>Die Lefire vom Logos</i>,
+    Bucher, <i>Philonische Studien</i>.
+    Von Arnim, <i>Philonische Studien.</i>
+
+  VI. PHILO AS A PHILOSOPHER
+    Freudenthal, Max, <i>Die Erkenntnisstheorie von Philo.</i>
+    Bigg, "The Christian neo-Platonists of Alexandria."
+    Bussell, "The School of Plato."
+    Stewart, J.A., "The Myths of Plato."
+    Cuyot, H., <i>Les reminiscences de Philon chez Plotin</i>. 1906.
+    Neumark, <i>Geschichte der jildischen Philosophie
+    des Mittelalters</i>.
+
+
+  VII. PHILO AND JEWISH TRADITION
+    Schechter, "Aspects of Rabbinic Theology."
+    Taylor, "Ethics of the Fathers."
+    Ritter, Bernhard, <i>Philo und die Halacha</i>. Breslau, 1879.
+    Dei Rossi, "Meor Einayim," ed. Cassel.
+    Krochmal, "Moreh Nebuchei Hazeman," ed. Zunz.
+    Frankel, Z., <i>Ueber den Einfluss der pal&auml;stinensischen
+    Exegese auf die alexandrinische Hermeneutik</i>.
+    Epstein, <i>Le livre des Jubilis, Philon et le Midrasch
+    Tadsch&eacute;</i>, Revue des Etudes Juives, XXI.
+    Ginzberg, L., "Allegorical Interpretation," in
+    Jewish Encyclopedia.
+    Joel, M., <i>Blicke in die Religionsgeschichte</i>.
+    Treitel, L., <i>Agadah bei Philo. Monatsschrift
+    f&uuml;r Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judenthums</i>, 1909.
+
+
+</pre>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_266" id=
+"page_266">[pg.266]</a></span>
+<h3>ABBREVIATIONS USED FOR THE REFERENCES</h3>
+<p>The references to Philo's works are made according to the
+chapters in Conn and Wendland's edition, so far as it has appeared.
+In referring to the works which they have not edited, I have used
+the pages of Mangey'a edition; but I have frequently mentioned the
+name of the treatise in which the passage occurs, as well as the
+page-number.</p>
+<p>I have employed the following abbreviations in the
+references:</p>
+<br>
+<pre>
+L.A. I-III Legum Allegoriae.
+
+De Mundi Op. De Mundi Opificio.
+
+De Sacrif. De Sacrifices Abelis.
+
+Quod Det. Quod Deterius Potiori Insidiatur.
+
+De Post. C. De Posteritate Caini.
+
+De Gigant. De Gigantibus.
+
+Quod Deus Quod Deus Sit Immutabilis.
+
+De Agric. De Agricultura.
+
+De Plant. De Plantatione.
+
+De Ebr. De Ebrietate.
+
+De Confus. De Confusione Linguarum.
+
+De Migr. De Migratione Abrahami.
+
+Quis Rer. Div. Quis Rerum Divinarum Heres.
+
+De Cong. De Congressu Eruditorum Causa.
+
+De Fuga De Fuga et Inventione.
+
+De Mut. Nom. De Mutatione Nominum.
+
+De Somn. De Somniis.
+
+De Abr. De Vita Abrahami.
+
+De Jos. De Vita Josephi.
+
+De V. Mos. De Vita Mosis.
+
+De Mon. De Monarchia.
+
+De Spec. Leg. De Specialibus Legibus.
+
+De Sac. De Sacerdotum Honoribus et de Victimis.
+
+De Leg. De Legatione ad Gaium.
+
+In Flacc. In Flaccum.
+
+De Decal. De Decalogo.
+
+De Septen. De Septenario.
+
+De Concupisc. De Concupiscentia.
+
+De Just. De Justitia.
+
+De Exsecr. De Exsecrationibus.
+
+Ant. Josephus: Antiquities of the Jews, tr. by Whiston.
+
+Bell. Jud. Wars of the Jews.
+
+C. Apion. Contra Apionem.
+
+Hist. Ecclesiast. Eusebius: Historia Ecclesiastica.
+
+Praep. Evang. Eusebius: Praeparatio Evangelica.
+
+Photius, Cod. Photius: Codex.
+</pre>
+<span class="newpage"><a name="page_269" id=
+"page_269">[pg.269]</a></span>
+<h3>INDEX</h3>
+<ul>
+<li>Abraham (<i>see</i> Lives of Abraham and Joseph), <a href=
+"#page_83">83</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">model of the excellent man, <a href=
+"#page_244">244</a>.</li>
+<li>Agrippa (King), Philo's life covers reign of, <a href=
+"#page_45">45</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Philo in Jerusalem during reign of, <a href=
+"#page_50">50</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">arrives at Alexandria, <a href=
+"#page_65">65</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">advanced to Kingdom of Judea, <a href=
+"#page_69">69</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">intercedes at Rome for his people, <a href=
+"#page_69">69</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">death of, <a href="#page_70">70</a>.</li>
+<li>Alexander (the Great), a notable figure in Talmud, <a href=
+"#page_13">13</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">settles Jews in Greek colonies, <a href=
+"#page_14">14</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">result of his work <a href=
+"#page_23">23</a>.</li>
+<li>Alexander Lysimachus, Alabarch of Delta region, <a href=
+"#page_46">46</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">guardian of Antony's daughter, <a href=
+"#page_46">46</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">restored to honor after imprisonment, <a href=
+"#page_70">70</a>.</li>
+<li>Alexandria, Jewish community at (<i>see</i> Jewish), <a href=
+"#page_13">13</a> ff., <a href="#page_41">41</a>, <a href=
+"#page_42">42</a> f.;</li>
+<li class="indent">Jewish population of, under Ptolemy I, <a href=
+"#page_15">15</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">meeting-place of civilizations, <a href=
+"#page_14">14</a>, <a href="#page_48">48</a>, <a href=
+"#page_95">95</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">centre of Jewish life, <a href=
+"#page_15">15</a>, <a href="#page_129">129</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">two sections occupied by Jews, <a href=
+"#page_16">16</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">prosperity of Jews in, <a href=
+"#page_21">21</a>, <a href="#page_22">22</a>, <a href=
+"#page_32">32</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">anti-Semitic literature and influences in,
+<a href="#page_22">22</a>, <a href="#page_62">62</a>, <a href=
+"#page_67">67</a>, <a href="#page_74">74</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Jewish tradition at, <a href=
+"#page_27">27</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">synagogues at, <a href="#page_37">37</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">deputation to Jerusalem from, <a href=
+"#page_41">41</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">rabbis flee to, <a href="#page_42">42</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Agrippa finds a refuge at, <a href=
+"#page_51">51</a>, <a href="#page_65">65</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">mystical and ascetic ideas of people at,
+<a href="#page_55"></a>, <a href="#page_59">59</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">philosophical schools at, <a href=
+"#page_63">63</a>, <a href="#page_90">90</a>, <a href=
+"#page_92">92</a>, <a href="#page_94">94</a>, <a href=
+"#page_140">140</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">development of Judaism in, <a href=
+"#page_77">77</a>, <a href="#page_255">255</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Egyptian caste-system adopted at, <a href=
+"#page_16">16</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Jews of, popularize teachings of Bible, <a href=
+"#page_34">34</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Jews of, referred to, in Talmud, <a href=
+"#page_42">42</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Philo forced into Sanhedrin of, <a href=
+"#page_61">61</a>, <a href="#page_202">202</a>, <a href=
+"#page_203">203</a> f.;</li>
+<li class="indent">Philo member of, <a href="#page_61">61</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">disintegration of community at, <a href=
+"#page_71">71</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Zealots flee to, on fall of Jerusalem, <a href=
+"#page_71">71</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">replaced by Babylon as centre of Jewish
+intellect, <a href="#page_73">73</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Samaritans in, <a href="#page_106">106</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">antinomian movement in, <a href=
+"#page_130">130</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">prototypes of Christian belief at, <a href=
+"#page_155">155</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Pythagorean influence at, <a href=
+"#page_188">188</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">national life and culture undermined at
+(<i>see</i> National), <a href="#page_218">218</a>.</li>
+<li>Alexandrian, exegesis, characteristic of, <a href=
+"#page_36">36</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">church, departs from Jewish standpoint, <a href=
+"#page_72">72</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Platonists, connection between Philo and later
+school of, <a href="#page_192">192</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">schools, relation of, to Palestinian, <a href=
+"#page_199">199</a> f., <a href="#page_213">213</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">literature in the Dark and Middle Ages, <a href=
+"#page_225">225</a> f.</li>
+<li><i>Allegories of the Laws</i>, an allegorical commentary,
+<a href="#page_74">74</a>, <a href="#page_87">87</a> f.;</li>
+<li class="indent">attacks Stoic doctrines, <a href=
+"#page_94">94</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">the <i>Epistles</i>, lineal descendants of,
+<a href="#page_247">247</a>.</li>
+<li>Angels, doctrine of, in Palestine, <a href=
+"#page_140">140</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Philo's treatment of, <a href=
+"#page_150">150-1</a>.</li>
+<li>Antiochus Epiphanes, Palestine passes to, <a href=
+"#page_17">17</a>.</li>
+<li>Anti-Semitic, party, Flaccus won over by, <a href=
+"#page_65">65</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">literature and influences in Alexandria,
+<a href="#page_22">22</a>, <a href="#page_62">62</a>, <a href=
+"#page_67">67</a>, <a href="#page_74">74</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">party, punishment of, at Rome, <a href=
+"#page_70">70</a>.</li>
+<li>Apion, a Stoic leader, <a href="#page_63">63</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">accuses Jews, <a href="#page_63">63</a>,
+<a href="#page_67">67</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Philo's references to, <a href=
+"#page_63">63</a>, <a href="#page_101">101</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Josephus' reply to, <a href=
+"#page_65">65</a>.</li>
+<li>Aquila, new Greek version of Old Testament made by, <a href=
+"#page_224">224</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">rabbis' views of, <a href=
+"#page_224">224</a>.</li>
+<li>Aristeas, spirit of, glorified in Philo, <a href=
+"#page_77">77</a>.</li>
+<li>Aristobulus, first allegorist of Alexandria, <a href=
+"#page_38">38</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">his spirit inherited by Philo, <a href=
+"#page_77">77</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">on wisdom, <a href="#page_143">143</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">on the Word of God, <a href=
+"#page_146">146</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">difference between Philo and, <a href=
+"#page_168">168</a>.</li>
+<li>Artapanus, Jewish apologist, <a href="#page_77">77</a>.</li>
+<li>Assouan, Aramaic papyri at, <a href="#page_15">15</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Babylon, replaces Alexandria as centre of Jewish intellect,
+<a href="#page_73">73</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Greek culture forgotten in, <a href=
+"#page_224">224</a>.</li>
+<li>Bible, the, Philo's interpretation</li>
+<li class="indent">and views on, <a href="#page_49">49</a>,
+<a href="#page_102">102</a>, <a href="#page_108">108</a> ff.;</li>
+<li class="indent">Philo reveals spiritual message of, <a href=
+"#page_83">83</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">authority of, challenged at Alexandria, <a href=
+"#page_92">92</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">wisdom personified in, <a href=
+"#page_141">141</a>, <a href="#page_142">142</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Cabbalah, the, Essenes practitioners in, <a href=
+"#page_233">233</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Philo as the Hellenizer of, <a href=
+"#page_235">235</a>.</li>
+<li>Caligula. <i>See</i> Gaius.</li>
+<li>Chaldean, thought, Philo's acquaintance with, <a href=
+"#page_48">48</a>.</li>
+<li>Christian, monastic communities, <a href=
+"#page_73">73</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">heresy, a severance from main community,
+<a href="#page_72">72</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">theologians, fail to realize spirit of Philo,
+<a href="#page_124">124</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">reformers, and the yoke of the law, <a href=
+"#page_130">130</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">teachers preserve Philo's works, <a href=
+"#page_156">156</a>, <a href="#page_248"></a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">writers quote Philo, <a href=
+"#page_223">223</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">apologists imitate allegorical method, <a href=
+"#page_245">245</a>.</li>
+<li>Christianity, the movement towards, <a href=
+"#page_28">28</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">rise of, <a href="#page_42">42</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">conflict with Judaism at Alexandria, <a href=
+"#page_72">72</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Philo's writings regarded as testimony to,
+<a href="#page_156">156</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Philo's influence over religious philosophy of,
+<a href="#page_195">195</a>.</li>
+<li>Conversion to Judaism, in Egypt and Rome, <a href=
+"#page_32">32</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Courage</i>, tractate appended to <i>Life of Moses</i>,
+<a href="#page_75">75</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Creation of the World</i>, description of, <a href=
+"#page_83">83</a>.</li>
+<li>Croiset, criticism of Philo by, <a href="#page_90">90</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li><i>Decalogue, The</i>, contents of, <a href=
+"#page_83">83</a>.</li>
+<li>Derash, Philo a master of, <a href="#page_103">103</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Dreams of the Bible</i>, classed with Allegories of the
+Laws, <a href="#page_74">74</a>.</li>
+<li>Dubnow, on Alexandrian Judaism, <a href=
+"#page_129">129</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Egypt, Alexander's march to, <a href="#page_14">14</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">settlement of Jews in, <a href=
+"#page_14">14</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">connection between Israel and, <a href=
+"#page_14">14</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">visited by Plato, <a href="#page_15">15</a>,
+<a href="#page_172">172</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Diaspora in, after Jeremiah, <a href=
+"#page_15">15</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">a favored home of the Jews, <a href=
+"#page_21">21</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">conversion widespread in (<i>see</i> Rome),
+<a href="#page_32">32</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Flaccus, governor of, <a href=
+"#page_65">65</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Jews of, under same rule as Palestine Jews,
+<a href="#page_15">15</a>.</li>
+<li>Egyptian, populace, Philo on, <a href="#page_62">62</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">thought, Philo's acquaintance with, <a href=
+"#page_48">48</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Epistles</i>, the Pauline, lineal descendants of Allegories
+of the Laws, <a href="#page_247">247</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">doctrines of the Logos in, <a href=
+"#page_250">250</a>.</li>
+<li>Essenes, rise of, <a href="#page_34">34</a>, <a href=
+"#page_54">54</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">account of, in Philo's works, <a href=
+"#page_78">78</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">type of the philosophical life, <a href=
+"#page_79">79</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">practitioners in the Cabbalah, <a href=
+"#page_233">233</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Flaccus, won over by Anti-Semites, <a href=
+"#page_65">65</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">indifference of, to attacks of Jews, <a href=
+"#page_66">66</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">recall of, <a href="#page_66">66</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Philo on the persecutions of, <a href=
+"#page_78">78</a>.</li>
+<li>Frankel Z., writes on Alexandrian-Jewish culture, <a href=
+"#page_241">241</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Gaius (Roman Emperor), comes to the imperial chair, <a href=
+"#page_65">65</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Jews appeal directly to, <a href=
+"#page_66">66</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">receives Jewish deputation, <a href=
+"#page_67">67</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">death of, <a href="#page_69">69</a>.</li>
+<li>Greek philosophers, Philo's relation to, <a href=
+"#page_48"></a>, <a href="#page_52">52</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">philosophy, Philo's influence on, <a href=
+"#page_49">49</a>, <a href="#page_191">191</a> f.;</li>
+<li class="indent">colonies, Alexander settles Jews in, <a href=
+"#page_14">14</a>.</li>
+<li>Greek culture, various branches of, <a href=
+"#page_47">47</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">the chief schools of, <a href="#page_48">48</a>,
+<a href="#page_54">54</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">fertilizing influence of ideas of, <a href=
+"#page_58">58</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">and Jewish Scripture, <a href=
+"#page_76">76</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">neglected in Babylon, <a href=
+"#page_224">224</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Haggadah, the, in Philo's works, <a href="#page_202">202</a>,
+<a href="#page_207">207 f.</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">antiquity of, <a href="#page_209">209</a>
+f.;</li>
+<li class="indent">allegorical speculation in, <a href=
+"#page_212">212</a>.</li>
+<li>Halakah, outcome of devotion to Torah, <a href=
+"#page_99">99</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Palestinian Jews determine, <a href=
+"#page_105">105</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">observance of oral law standardized in, <a href=
+"#page_126">126</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">relation of Philo to, <a href=
+"#page_202">202</a> f.;</li>
+<li class="indent">differences between Alexandrian Sanhedrin and
+Palestinian, <a href="#page_203">203 f.</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">codification of, <a href=
+"#page_207">207</a>.</li>
+<li>Hebrew, language, evidence of Philo's knowledge of, <a href=
+"#page_49">49</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">included in barbarian languages, <a href=
+"#page_97">97</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Philo's derivations from, <a href=
+"#page_50">50</a>, <a href="#page_101">101</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">race, the three founders of, <a href=
+"#page_110">110</a> f.;</li>
+<li class="indent">tradition, Philo follows, <a href=
+"#page_159">159</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">mind, Professor Caird on, <a href=
+"#page_167">167</a>.</li>
+<li>Hellenism, of Palestine, <a href="#page_24">24</a>, <a href=
+"#page_25">25</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">of Alexandria (<i>see</i> Greek culture),
+<a href="#page_25">25</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">influence of, in Palestine, <a href=
+"#page_51"></a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">and the interpretation of the Bible, <a href=
+"#page_254">254</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">New Testament, a combination of Hebraism and,
+<a href="#page_247">247</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Christian theology a descent to a commoner,
+<a href="#page_254">254</a>.</li>
+<li>Hillel, Philo contemporary with, <a href=
+"#page_45">45</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">shows expansion of Hebrew mind, <a href=
+"#page_45">45</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">on chief lesson of Torah, <a href=
+"#page_117">117</a>, <a href="#page_118">118</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">spirit of, shared by Philo, <a href=
+"#page_249">249</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Humanity</i>, tractate appended to a <i>Life of Moses</i>,
+<a href="#page_75">75</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Incarnation, notion of, not Jewish, <a href=
+"#page_166">166</a>.</li>
+<li>Indian, thought, Philo's acquaintance with, <a href=
+"#page_48">48</a>.</li>
+<li>Isaac, <i>See Lives of Isaac and Jacob</i>, <a href=
+"#page_83">83</a>.</li>
+<li>Israel, Philo's derivation of the name, <a href=
+"#page_50">50</a>, <a href="#page_138">138</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">God's special providence for, <a href=
+"#page_77">77</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">the mission of, <a href="#page_206">206</a>,
+<a href="#page_242">242</a>.</li>
+<li>Italy, Philo visits, <a href="#page_66">66</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Jacob, <i>See Lives of Isaac and Jacob</i>, <a href=
+"#page_83">83</a>.</li>
+<li>Jeremiah, prophesies in Egypt, <a href="#page_14">14</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">heard by Plato, <a href="#page_15">15</a>.</li>
+<li>Jerusalem, Alexander's visit to, <a href=
+"#page_14">14</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Philo, on national centre at, <a href=
+"#page_20">20</a>, <a href="#page_41">41</a>, <a href=
+"#page_86">86</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">spiritual headship of, <a href=
+"#page_41">41</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">special synagogues for Alexandrians in, <a href=
+"#page_41">41</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">derivation of name of, <a href=
+"#page_50">50</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Philo's sojourn at, <a href=
+"#page_50">50</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">downfall of, <a href="#page_71">71</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Judaism at, <a href="#page_129">129</a>.</li>
+<li>Jesus, spread of his teaching, <a href=
+"#page_245">245</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">his message compared with that of Philo,
+<a href="#page_245">245</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">preaching of, effect on Jewish attitude to life,
+<a href="#page_246">246</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Paul sets up a new faith in, <a href=
+"#page_251">251</a>.</li>
+<li>Jewish, community at Alexandria (<i>see</i> Alexandria),
+<a href="#page_13">13</a> ff., <a href="#page_72">72</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">temple at Elephantine, <a href=
+"#page_15">15</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">kingdom reaches its height, <a href=
+"#page_45">45</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">mind, religous conception of, <a href=
+"#page_49">49</a>, <a href="#page_137">137</a>, <a href=
+"#page_166">166</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">law and ceremony, elucidation of, <a href=
+"#page_49">49</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">race, symbol of the unity of, <a href=
+"#page_51">51</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">aspiration toward "freedom under the law,"
+<a href="#page_124">124</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">influences, dominant in Philo, <a href=
+"#page_133">133</a>, <a href="#page_189">189</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">philosophy, eclectic, <a href=
+"#page_168">168</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">philosophy, new school of in Middle Ages,
+<a href="#page_225">225</a> f.</li>
+<li>Joseph (<i>see Lives of Abraham and Joseph</i>), <a href=
+"#page_83">83</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">as Egyptian statesman, <a href=
+"#page_23">23</a>.</li>
+<li>Josephus, on Onias and Dositheus, <a href=
+"#page_18">18</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">inconsistent accounts of Onias temple, <a href=
+"#page_19">19</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">on Egyptian Jews, <a href=
+"#page_20">20</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">account of Herod's temple by, <a href=
+"#page_41">41</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">writes a reply to Apion, <a href=
+"#page_65">65</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">description of Gaius' conduct to Jewish
+deputation, <a href="#page_68">68</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">on the spreading of Judaism, <a href=
+"#page_115">115</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">indicates communication between schools of
+Alexandria and Palestine, <a href="#page_220">220</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">relation to Philo and his works, <a href=
+"#page_222">222</a>.</li>
+<li>Jowett, on sermons, <a href="#page_90">90</a>.</li>
+<li>Judaism, genius of, <a href="#page_46">46</a>, <a href=
+"#page_196">196</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Philo's exposition of, <a href=
+"#page_52">52</a>, <a href="#page_74">74</a>, <a href=
+"#page_78">78</a>, <a href="#page_81">81</a>, <a href=
+"#page_84">84</a>, <a href="#page_105">105</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Philo protests against desecration of, <a href=
+"#page_258">258</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">mysticism in, <a href="#page_58">58</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">philosophical, <a href="#page_72">72</a>,
+<a href="#page_230">230</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Alexandrian development of, <a href=
+"#page_77">77</a>, <a href="#page_92">92</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">moral teachings of, <a href=
+"#page_85">85</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">religion of the law, <a href=
+"#page_106">106</a>, <a href="#page_116">116</a>, <a href=
+"#page_260">260</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Josephus on the spreading of, <a href=
+"#page_115">115</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">a religion of universal validity, <a href=
+"#page_121">121</a>, <a href="#page_169">169</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">at Jerusalem and Alexandria, <a href=
+"#page_129">129</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">catholic conscience of, <a href=
+"#page_130">130</a>, <a href="#page_131">131</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Darmesteter on, <a href=
+"#page_132">132</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Logos doctrine and, <a href=
+"#page_165">165</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">danger of union with Gentiles to, <a href=
+"#page_206">206</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">a national culture, <a href=
+"#page_219">219</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">influences of Jesus and Paul on, <a href=
+"#page_247">247</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Hellenistic interpretation of the Bible and,
+<a href="#page_254">254</a>.</li>
+<li>Judas Maccab&aelig;us, struggles against Hellenizing party,
+<a href="#page_18">18</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Krochmal, Nachman, criticism of Philo, <a href=
+"#page_240">240</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li><i>Life of Moses</i>, contents of, <a href="#page_75">75</a>,
+<a href="#page_79">79</a> f.;</li>
+<li class="indent">an attempt to set monotheism before the world,
+<a href="#page_80">80</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">tractates appended to, <a href=
+"#page_75">75</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Lives of Abraham and Joseph</i>, description of, <a href=
+"#page_83">83</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Lives of Isaac and Jacob</i>, contents of, <a href=
+"#page_83">83</a>.</li>
+<li>Logos, <a href="#page_143">143</a> ff.;</li>
+<li class="indent">its relation to God's Providence, <a href=
+"#page_143">143</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">meaning of, <a href="#page_164">164</a>,
+<a href="#page_148">148</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Aristobulus on, <a href=
+"#page_146">146</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">regarded as the effluence of God, <a href=
+"#page_149">149</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">spoken of as a person, <a href=
+"#page_156">156</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">the soul, an image of, <a href=
+"#page_178">178</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">development of Philo's doctrine of, <a href=
+"#page_192">192</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Maimonides, object of his Moreh, <a href=
+"#page_91">91</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">principles of, <a href="#page_99">99</a>,
+<a href="#page_229">229</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">comparison of Philo with, <a href=
+"#page_229">229</a> f.</li>
+<li>Mark Antony, Alexander Lysimachus in the confidence of,
+<a href="#page_46">46</a>.</li>
+<li>Monastic communities, supposed record of Christian, in Philo,
+<a href="#page_73">73</a>.</li>
+<li>Moses, Philo a follower of, <a href="#page_60">60</a>, <a href=
+"#page_113">113</a> f.;</li>
+<li class="indent">Philo's ideal type, <a href="#page_79">79</a>
+f.;</li>
+<li class="indent">Philo, as interpreter of his revelation,
+<a href="#page_104">104</a>, <a href="#page_106">106</a> f.</li>
+<li class="indent"><i>See Life of Moses</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>National, centre at Jerusalem, Philo on, <a href=
+"#page_20">20</a>, <a href="#page_41">41</a>, <a href=
+"#page_86">86</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">life undermined at Rome and Alexandria, <a href=
+"#page_218">218</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Old Testament, Septuagint translation of, <a href=
+"#page_25">25-30</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Aquila's new Greek version of, <a href=
+"#page_224">224</a>.</li>
+<li>Onias, leader of army of Egyptian monarch, <a href=
+"#page_18">18</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">successor to high priesthood, <a href=
+"#page_18">18</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">builds temple, <a href="#page_18">18</a>,
+<a href="#page_19">19</a> f.;</li>
+<li class="indent">temple of, dismantled, <a href=
+"#page_71">71</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Jewish writers silent about work of, <a href=
+"#page_19">19</a>.</li>
+<li>Oral law, observance of, standardized in the Halakah, <a href=
+"#page_126">126</a>.</li>
+<li>Origen, distinguishes three methods of interpretation, <a href=
+"#page_76">76</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">teacher of Patristic school, <a href=
+"#page_195">195</a>; imitates Philo, <a href=
+"#page_186">186</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Palestine, struggle for, between Ptolemies and Seleucids,
+<a href="#page_17">17</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Hellenism of, compared with that of Athens,
+<a href="#page_24">24</a>, <a href="#page_25">25</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">rabbis of, <a href="#page_28">28</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Philo visits, <a href="#page_50">50</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">effect of Hellenic influence in, <a href=
+"#page_54">54</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">New Moon a solemn day in, <a href=
+"#page_121">121</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">aims of Jewish thought in, <a href=
+"#page_140">140</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">doctrine of angels in, <a href=
+"#page_140"></a>.</li>
+<li>Palestinian Jews, under same rule as Egyptian Jews, <a href=
+"#page_15">15</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">rabbis, oral tradition, <a href=
+"#page_34">34</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">development of Jewish culture, <a href=
+"#page_42">42</a> f., <a href="#page_200">200</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Midrash, Philo's acquaintance with, <a href=
+"#page_52">52</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">schools, relation existing between Alexandrian
+and, <a href="#page_199">199</a> f., <a href="#page_203">203</a>
+f., <a href="#page_213">213</a>.</li>
+<li>Paul, the most commanding of the apostles, <a href=
+"#page_247">247</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">influence of, compared with that of Jesus,
+<a href="#page_247">247</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">rejection of the Torah by, <a href=
+"#page_248">248</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">sets up a new faith in Jesus, <a href=
+"#page_251">251</a>.</li>
+<li>Pentateuch, Samaritan doctrines with reference to, <a href=
+"#page_106">105</a>.</li>
+<li>Peshat, as a form of interpretation, <a href=
+"#page_103">103</a>.</li>
+<li>Philo, contemporary with Herod, <a href="#page_45">45</a>,
+<a href="#page_50">50</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">family of, <a href="#page_46">46</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">works of <a href="#page_74">74</a> ff.;</li>
+<li class="indent">philosophical training of, <a href=
+"#page_49">49</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">flees from Alexandria, <a href=
+"#page_60">60</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">meeting of Peter and Mark with, <a href=
+"#page_73">73</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">forced into Sanhedrin of Alexandria, <a href=
+"#page_61">61</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">writings of, regarded as testimony to
+Christianity, <a href="#page_73">73</a>, <a href=
+"#page_156">156</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">influence of, over Christian religious
+philosophy, <a href="#page_195">195</a>, <a href=
+"#page_242">242</a> ff.;</li>
+<li class="indent">relation of, to Greek philosophers, <a href=
+"#page_48">48</a>, <a href="#page_52">52</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">acquaintance of, with Chaldean and Indian
+thought, <a href="#page_48">48</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">his interpretation and views of the Bible,
+<a href="#page_49">49</a>, <a href="#page_102">102</a>, <a href=
+"#page_108">108</a> ff.;</li>
+<li class="indent">evidence of his knowledge of Hebrew language,
+<a href="#page_49">49</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">follows Hebrew tradition, <a href=
+"#page_159">159</a>, <a href="#page_199">199</a> ff.;</li>
+<li class="indent">compared with Spinoza, <a href=
+"#page_73">73</a>, <a href="#page_134">134</a>, <a href=
+"#page_163">163</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">on persecutions of Sejanus and Flaccus, <a href=
+"#page_62">62</a>, <a href="#page_78">78</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">replies to attacks of stoics, <a href=
+"#page_64">64</a>, <a href="#page_95">95</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">stoics' view of God compared with that of,
+<a href="#page_185">185</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">goes to Italy, <a href="#page_66">66</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">refers to Apion, <a href="#page_63">63</a>,
+<a href="#page_101">101</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Josephus' knowledge of the works of, <a href=
+"#page_222">222</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Christian teachers preserve works of, <a href=
+"#page_156">156</a>, <a href="#page_247">247</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">relation of, to the Halakah, <a href=
+"#page_202">202</a> f.;</li>
+<li class="indent">comparison of Maimonides with, <a href=
+"#page_229">229</a> f.;</li>
+<li class="indent">doctrine of the Logos (<i>see</i> Logos),
+<a href="#page_144">144</a> ff.;</li>
+<li class="indent">connection between Saadia and, <a href=
+"#page_226">226</a> f.;</li>
+<li class="indent">the Hellenizer of the Cabbalah, <a href=
+"#page_235">235</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">opposed to missionary attitude of Paul, <a href=
+"#page_249">249</a>.</li>
+<li>Plato, hears Jeremiah, <a href="#page_15">15</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Philo's style reminiscent of, <a href=
+"#page_48">48</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">conception of the Law in, <a href=
+"#page_131">131</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Philo's philosophy compared with that of,
+<a href="#page_170">170</a> ff.;</li>
+<li class="indent">dominant philosophical principle of, <a href=
+"#page_174">174</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">a mystic, <a href="#page_230">230</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">conception of God in, <a href=
+"#page_254">254</a>.</li>
+<li>Ptolemies, the: Ptolemy I, increases number of Jewish
+inhabitants in Alexandria, <a href="#page_15">15</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">IV, gives Heliopolis to Onias, <a href=
+"#page_16">16</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">admirers of Scriptures, <a href=
+"#page_23">23</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li><i>Questions and Answers to Genesis and Exodus</i>, now
+incomplete, <a href="#page_75">75</a>, <a href="#page_81">81</a>
+f.;</li>
+<li class="indent">a preliminary study to more elaborate works,
+<a href="#page_81">81</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Hebraic in form, <a href="#page_82">82</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li><i>Repentance</i>, tractate appended to <i>Life of Moses</i>,
+<a href="#page_75">75</a>.</li>
+<li>Rome, Alexandria second to, <a href="#page_14">14</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">conversion widespread in (<i>see</i> Egypt),
+<a href="#page_32">32</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Agrippa an exile from, <a href=
+"#page_51">51</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">power of Jews at, <a href=
+"#page_62">62</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Jewish struggle with, <a href=
+"#page_220">220</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Philo's apocryphal meeting with Peter at,
+<a href="#page_73">73</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">national life and culture undermined at
+(<i>see</i> National), <a href="#page_218">218</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Saadia, founds new school of Jewish philosophy, <a href=
+"#page_225">225</a> f.;</li>
+<li class="indent">connection between Philo and, <a href=
+"#page_226">226</a>f.</li>
+<li>Samaritan, doctrines with reference to Pentateuch, <a href=
+"#page_106">106</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Jew, story of, <a href="#page_98">98</a>.</li>
+<li>Sanhedrin, Hillel, president of, <a href=
+"#page_45">45</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Philo forced into Alexandrian, <a href=
+"#page_61">61</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">duties of members of, <a href=
+"#page_61">61</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">of Alexandrian community, <a href=
+"#page_202"></a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">of Jerusalem and capital punishment, <a href=
+"#page_203">203</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">differences between Palestinian Halakah and
+Alexandrian, <a href="#page_203">203</a> f.</li>
+<li>Sejanus, Tiberius falls under influence of, <a href=
+"#page_62">62</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Antonia opponent of, <a href=
+"#page_62">62</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Philo's book on persecution of, <a href=
+"#page_62">62</a>, <a href="#page_78">78</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">disgrace and death of, <a href=
+"#page_65">65</a>.</li>
+<li>Septuagint, Hellenistic development marked by, <a href=
+"#page_25">25</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Philo's version of origin of, <a href=
+"#page_26">26</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">celebrations in honor of, <a href=
+"#page_27">27</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">infusion of Greek philosophic ideas into,
+<a href="#page_28">28</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Christianizing influence of, <a href=
+"#page_29">29</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">value of, to the cultured Gentile, <a href=
+"#page_33">33</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">replaced by new Greek version of Old Testament,
+<a href="#page_224">224</a>.</li>
+<li>Solomon, Wisdom of, written at Alexandria, <a href=
+"#page_31">31</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Specific Laws, The</i>, description of, <a href=
+"#page_83">83</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">socialism of Bible emphasized in, <a href=
+"#page_86">86</a>.</li>
+<li>Spinoza, his ideal of life, <a href="#page_53">53</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">compared with Philo's, <a href=
+"#page_73">73</a>, <a href="#page_134">134</a>, <a href=
+"#page_163">163</a>, <a href="#page_239">239</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">on Jewish thought, <a href=
+"#page_137">137</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">influenced by Philo, <a href="#page_237">237</a>
+ff.;</li>
+<li class="indent">approaches Bible from critical standpoint,
+<a href="#page_239">239</a>.</li>
+<li>Stoics, the chief Anti-Semites, <a href="#page_63">63</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Philo replies to attacks of, <a href=
+"#page_64">64</a>, <a href="#page_95">95</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">in conflict with Jews at Alexandria, <a href=
+"#page_94">94</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">beliefs of, <a href="#page_64">64</a>, <a href=
+"#page_94">94</a>, <a href="#page_116">116</a>, <a href=
+"#page_176">176</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">view of God compared with that of Philo,
+<a href="#page_185">185</a>.</li>
+<li>Synagogues,</li>
+<li class="indent">at Alexandria, <a href="#page_16">16</a>,
+<a href="#page_37">37</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Tiberius Alexander,</li>
+<li class="indent">nephew of Philo, <a href="#page_71">71</a>.</li>
+<li>Tradition, Jewish,</li>
+<li class="indent">at Alexandria, <a href="#page_27">27</a>;</li>
+<li class="indent">Philo and Jewish, <a href="#page_199">199</a>
+ff.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Zealots, flight of,</li>
+<li class="indent">to Alexandria, <a href="#page_71">71</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<hr style="width: 65%;">
+<a name="FOOTNOTES" id="FOOTNOTES"></a>
+<h2>FOOTNOTES:</h2>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Comp. Leviticus
+Rabba 13.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Comp. Josephus,
+Ant. IX. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Sukkah
+51<sup>b</sup>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Quoted by
+Josephus, Ant. XIV. 7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Ant. XII. 5, 9,
+XX. 10.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Josephus,
+<i>Bell. Jud.</i> VII. 10.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Comp. the
+passages in the "Antiquities" above and the <i>Bell. Jud.</i> V.
+5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Menahot 109,
+Abodah Zarah 52<sup>b</sup>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> <i>De Leg.</i>
+II. 578.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Comp. <i>De
+Mon.</i> I. 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Dr. Hirseh,
+in The Jews' College Jubilee Volume, p.39.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Menahot
+119.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Comp. Ant.
+XIV. 14-16.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Ant. XVI.
+7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Philo, <i>In
+Flacc.</i> 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> <i>C.
+Apion.</i> II. 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> I have used
+the word anti-Semite because, though the hatred at Alexandria was
+not racial, but national, it has now become synonymous with
+Jew-hater generally.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> Quoted in
+<i>C. Apion</i>. I. 22.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> <i>De V.
+Mos</i>. II. 6, 7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> See p. 22,
+above.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Preface to
+Ecclesiasticus.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> Tract.
+Soferim I. 7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> Tanhuma
+<img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image98.jpg" width="69" height=
+"12"></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> See p. 23,
+above.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> <i>Orac.
+Sib</i>., ed. Alexandre, III. 8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>,
+III. 195.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> Comp. Strabo,
+Frag. 6, Didot.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> <i>De
+Post.C.</i> 24.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> <i>De V.
+Mos</i>. II. 28.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> Comp. <i>De
+Decal</i>. 20.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> Comp. Yer.
+Berakot 24c.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> <i>Praep.
+Evang</i>. VIII. 10, XIII. 12.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> Comp. <i>De
+Abr</i>. 15 and 37, <i>De Jos</i>. II. 63, <i>De Spec. Leg.</i>
+III. 32, <i>De Migr</i>. 89.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> <i>Quod
+Deus</i> 11, <i>De Abr.</i> 36.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> Comp. Acts of
+the Apostles VI. 9, and Tosef. Meg. III. 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> Yoma
+83<sup>a</sup>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> <i>Bell.
+Jud.</i> V. 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> Comp. Niddah
+69<sup>b</sup>, Sotah 47<sup>a</sup>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> "Heroes and
+Hero-Worship," ch. 3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> Ant. XIX.
+5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> Photius,
+<i>Cod.</i> 108.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> Comp. <i>De
+Confus.</i> 15.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> Comp. <i>De
+Mon.</i> I. 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> Comp.
+Maimonides, Moreh II, ch. 36.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> <i>L.A.</i>
+I. 135.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> Comp. <i>De
+Cong.</i> 6 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> Comp.
+Croiset, <i>Histoire de la litt&eacute;rature grecque</i>, V, pp.
+425 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> Comp. Mills,
+"Zoroaster, Philo, and Israel."</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> Comp. <i>Quis
+Rer. Div.</i> 43, <i>De Judice</i> II, <i>De V. Mos.</i> II. 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> Ritter,
+<i>Philon und die Halacha</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> Comp. <i>De
+V. Mos.</i> I. 1, <i>In Flacc.</i> 23 and 33, <i>De Mut. Nom.</i>
+39.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a>
+<i>Pr&aelig;p. Evang.</i> VIII. v.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> <i>De
+Mon.</i> II. 1-3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>Bell. Jud.</i> VI. 9. 3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> Comp. <i>De
+V. Mos.</i> II. 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> <i>De Spec.
+Leg.</i> III. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> Comp. <i>De
+Migr.</i> 4, <i>L.A.</i> III. 45.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> Comp. Graetz,
+"History of the Jews" III. 91 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> Comp. <i>Quod
+Omnis Probus Liber</i> 11 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> The
+authenticity of this book is elaborately discussed by Conybeare in
+his edition of it.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> "Ethics of
+the Fathers" VI. 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> <i>De Mundi
+Op.</i> I. 42.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> Comp. <i>De
+Migr.</i> 6 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> <i>L.A.</i>
+II. 21.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> <i>De
+Fuga</i> 7 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> Comp. <i>De
+Spec. Leg.</i> II. 260.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> Comp. <i>De
+Cherubim</i> 9.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> <i>De
+Migr.</i> 7-9.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> II, ch. 36
+ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> Comp. <i>De
+Spec. Leg.</i> III. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> Massebieau,
+<i>Du classement des oeuvres de Philon</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> <i>In
+Flacc.</i> 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> Comp. Th.
+Reinach, <i>Textes d'auteurs romains et grecs relatifs au
+Judaisme</i>, pp. 120 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> Comp. <i>De
+Confus.</i>, <i>passim</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> Josephus,
+<i>C. Apion.</i>, Introduction.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> <i>In
+Flacc.</i> 10.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> <i>De
+Leg</i>. 27 and 28.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> Ant. XVIII.
+8. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> <i>De Leg.,
+ad fin</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> Ant. XIX.
+5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_81_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> Frag,
+preserved by John of Damascus, p. 404.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_82_82" id="Footnote_82_82"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_82_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> Comp. Ant.
+XX. 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_83_83" id="Footnote_83_83"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_83_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> Comp.
+Massebieau, <i>op. cit.</i></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_84_84" id="Footnote_84_84"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_84_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> Comp.
+Bernays, <i>Ueber die unter Philos Werken stehenden Schriften</i>
+<img alt="Greek: peri t&ecirc;s aphtharsias Kosmou" src=
+"images/image99.jpg" width="183" height="12"> and Siegfried, art.
+"Philo" in the Jewish Encyclopedia.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_85_85" id="Footnote_85_85"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_85_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> <i>Quod
+Deus</i> 86.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_86_86" id="Footnote_86_86"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_86_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> <i>Quod Omnis
+Probus Liber</i> 12 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_87_87" id="Footnote_87_87"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_87_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> <i>De V.
+Mos.</i> I. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_88_88" id="Footnote_88_88"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_88_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> <i>De V.
+Mos</i>. II. 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_89_89" id="Footnote_89_89"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_89_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> "On
+Repentance," II.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_90_90" id="Footnote_90_90"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_90_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> Comp.
+Treitel, <i>Agadah bei Philo. Monatsschrift</i>, 1909.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_91_91" id="Footnote_91_91"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_91_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> <i>De
+Abr.</i> 12.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_92_92" id="Footnote_92_92"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_92_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> Comp.
+Bereshit Rabba 47.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_93_93" id="Footnote_93_93"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_93_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> <i>De Sac. et
+Victimis</i> 5 and 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_94_94" id="Footnote_94_94"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_94_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> <i>De
+Mon.</i> II. 3 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_95_95" id="Footnote_95_95"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_95_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> Comp. Plato,
+<i>Rep</i>. V, <i>ad fin</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_96_96" id="Footnote_96_96"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_96_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> <i>De
+Exsecr</i>. II. 587.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_97_97" id="Footnote_97_97"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_97_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> <i>De
+Abr.</i> 3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_98_98" id="Footnote_98_98"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_98_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>L.A.</i> II. 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_99_99" id="Footnote_99_99"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_99_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> <i>L.A.</i>
+I. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_100_100" id="Footnote_100_100"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_100_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> Comp.
+Freudenthal, <i>Hellenistische Studien</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_101_101" id="Footnote_101_101"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_101_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a> Croiset,
+<i>op. cit.</i> V, p. 427.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_102_102" id="Footnote_102_102"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_102_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>De Cherubim</i>, <i>passim</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_103_103" id="Footnote_103_103"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_103_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a> Comp.
+Zohar III.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_104_104" id="Footnote_104_104"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_104_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a> <i>De
+Cherubim</i>, 9 and 14, <i>De Somn.</i> 8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_105_105" id="Footnote_105_105"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_105_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a> <i>De
+Migr.</i> 12.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_106_106" id="Footnote_106_106"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_106_106"><span class="label">[106]</span></a> <i>De
+Post. C.</i> 22.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_107_107" id="Footnote_107_107"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_107_107"><span class="label">[107]</span></a> Midrash
+Esther I.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_108_108" id="Footnote_108_108"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_108_108"><span class="label">[108]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>De Sac.</i> II. 245.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_109_109" id="Footnote_109_109"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_109_109"><span class="label">[109]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>De Migr.</i> 32.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_110_110" id="Footnote_110_110"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_110_110"><span class="label">[110]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>De Post C</i>, 11.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_111_111" id="Footnote_111_111"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_111_111"><span class="label">[111]</span></a>
+<i>Quaestiones in Gen.</i> III. 33.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_112_112" id="Footnote_112_112"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_112_112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a> <i>De
+Cong.</i> 10.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_113_113" id="Footnote_113_113"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_113_113"><span class="label">[113]</span></a> Comp.
+Berakot 51<sup>b</sup>, <i>De Agric.</i> 12, <i>De Somn.</i> II.
+25.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_114_114" id="Footnote_114_114"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_114_114"><span class="label">[114]</span></a> <i>De
+Confus.</i> 38.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_115_115" id="Footnote_115_115"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_115_115"><span class="label">[115]</span></a> <i>De Mut.
+Nom.</i> 8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_116_116" id="Footnote_116_116"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_116_116"><span class="label">[116]</span></a> Comp.
+Bereshit Rabba 64.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_117_117" id="Footnote_117_117"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_117_117"><span class="label">[117]</span></a> <i>De
+Somn.</i> I. 16 and 17.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_118_118" id="Footnote_118_118"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_118_118"><span class="label">[118]</span></a> Comp.
+"Ethics of the Fathers" V. 25.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_119_119" id="Footnote_119_119"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_119_119"><span class="label">[119]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>De Somn.</i> I. 13.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_120_120" id="Footnote_120_120"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_120_120"><span class="label">[120]</span></a> <i>De Mut.
+Nom.</i> 9.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_121_121" id="Footnote_121_121"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_121_121"><span class="label">[121]</span></a> <i>De
+Somn.</i> I. 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_122_122" id="Footnote_122_122"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_122_122"><span class="label">[122]</span></a> Berakot
+10<sup>a</sup>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_123_123" id="Footnote_123_123"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_123_123"><span class="label">[123]</span></a> <i>De
+Cong.</i> 12.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_124_124" id="Footnote_124_124"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_124_124"><span class="label">[124]</span></a> <i>De
+Cong.</i> 14.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_125_125" id="Footnote_125_125"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_125_125"><span class="label">[125]</span></a>
+"Theologico-Political Tractate" VII.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_126_126" id="Footnote_126_126"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_126_126"><span class="label">[126]</span></a> <i>De
+Abr.</i> 19.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_127_127" id="Footnote_127_127"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_127_127"><span class="label">[127]</span></a> <i>De
+Mon.</i> II. 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_128_128" id="Footnote_128_128"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_128_128"><span class="label">[128]</span></a> Harvard
+Studies, "Hellenism and Hebraism."</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_129_129" id="Footnote_129_129"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_129_129"><span class="label">[129]</span></a> Comp.
+Schechter, "Aspects of Rabbinic Theology," p. 119.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_130_130" id="Footnote_130_130"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_130_130"><span class="label">[130]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>De V. Mos.</i> II. 9 and 10, III. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_131_131" id="Footnote_131_131"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_131_131"><span class="label">[131]</span></a>
+<i>L.A.</i> I. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_132_132" id="Footnote_132_132"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_132_132"><span class="label">[132]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>De Mundi Op.</i> 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_133_133" id="Footnote_133_133"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_133_133"><span class="label">[133]</span></a> Comp. p.
+85, above.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_134_134" id="Footnote_134_134"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_134_134"><span class="label">[134]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>L.A.</i> I, <i>passim</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_135_135" id="Footnote_135_135"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_135_135"><span class="label">[135]</span></a>
+<i>L.A.</i> III. 12.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_136_136" id="Footnote_136_136"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_136_136"><span class="label">[136]</span></a> <i>De
+Post. C.</i> 11.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_137_137" id="Footnote_137_137"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_137_137"><span class="label">[137]</span></a> <i>De
+Abr.</i> 3 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_138_138" id="Footnote_138_138"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_138_138"><span class="label">[138]</span></a>
+<i>Ibid.</i> 6-10.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_139_139" id="Footnote_139_139"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_139_139"><span class="label">[139]</span></a> The LXX
+renders the verse Gen. iv. 26, which is translated in the
+Authorized Version: "Then began men to call upon the name of the
+Lord," <img alt=
+"Greek: outos &ecirc;lpisen epi ton t&ocirc;n ol&ocirc;n patera, &lt;i&gt;i.e.&lt;/i&gt;"
+src="images/image100.jpg" width="283" height="15"> , "He hoped in
+the Father of all."</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_140_140" id="Footnote_140_140"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_140_140"><span class="label">[140]</span></a> <i>Quod
+Det.</i> 38.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_141_141" id="Footnote_141_141"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_141_141"><span class="label">[141]</span></a> <i>De
+Jos.</i> 21.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_142_142" id="Footnote_142_142"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_142_142"><span class="label">[142]</span></a> <i>De
+Jos.</i> 22.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_143_143" id="Footnote_143_143"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_143_143"><span class="label">[143]</span></a> <i>De
+Jos.</i> 42.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_144_144" id="Footnote_144_144"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_144_144"><span class="label">[144]</span></a> <i>Hist.
+Ecclesiast.</i> II. 18, 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_145_145" id="Footnote_145_145"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_145_145"><span class="label">[145]</span></a> <i>De V.
+Mos.</i> III. 4 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_146_146" id="Footnote_146_146"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_146_146"><span class="label">[146]</span></a> <i>De V.
+Mos.</i> II. 3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_147_147" id="Footnote_147_147"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_147_147"><span class="label">[147]</span></a> <i>De V.
+Mos.</i> II. 5, Josephus, <i>C. Apion.</i> II. 37.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_148_148" id="Footnote_148_148"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_148_148"><span class="label">[148]</span></a> Comp.
+Horace, Satires I. 4, 138; I. 9, 60.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_149_149" id="Footnote_149_149"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_149_149"><span class="label">[149]</span></a> Frag.
+preserved in Josephus, Ant. XIV. 7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_150_150" id="Footnote_150_150"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_150_150"><span class="label">[150]</span></a> Comp.
+Reinach, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 262.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_151_151" id="Footnote_151_151"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_151_151"><span class="label">[151]</span></a> <i>De V.
+Mos.</i> II. 3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_152_152" id="Footnote_152_152"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_152_152"><span class="label">[152]</span></a> "Ethics of
+the Fathers" I. 17.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_153_153" id="Footnote_153_153"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_153_153"><span class="label">[153]</span></a> <i>De
+Fuga</i> 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_154_154" id="Footnote_154_154"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_154_154"><span class="label">[154]</span></a> <i>De
+Decal.</i> 12.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_155_155" id="Footnote_155_155"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_155_155"><span class="label">[155]</span></a> <i>De
+Decal.</i> 23.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_156_156" id="Footnote_156_156"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_156_156"><span class="label">[156]</span></a> <i>De
+Septen.</i> 9.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_157_157" id="Footnote_157_157"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_157_157"><span class="label">[157]</span></a> Kiddushin
+20<sup>a</sup>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_158_158" id="Footnote_158_158"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_158_158"><span class="label">[158]</span></a> <i>De
+Decal.</i> 20.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_159_159" id="Footnote_159_159"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_159_159"><span class="label">[159]</span></a> <i>De
+Septen.</i> 7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_160_160" id="Footnote_160_160"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_160_160"><span class="label">[160]</span></a> <i>De
+Septen.</i> 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_161_161" id="Footnote_161_161"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_161_161"><span class="label">[161]</span></a> Ch. 2.
+31.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_162_162" id="Footnote_162_162"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_162_162"><span class="label">[162]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>De Migr.</i> 23.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_163_163" id="Footnote_163_163"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_163_163"><span class="label">[163]</span></a> <i>De
+Septen.</i> 1. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_164_164" id="Footnote_164_164"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_164_164"><span class="label">[164]</span></a> <i>De
+Septen.</i> 18 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_165_165" id="Footnote_165_165"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_165_165"><span class="label">[165]</span></a> <i>De
+Concupisc.</i> 1-3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_166_166" id="Footnote_166_166"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_166_166"><span class="label">[166]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>De Just.</i> II. 360.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_167_167" id="Footnote_167_167"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_167_167"><span class="label">[167]</span></a> Ch.
+16.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_168_168" id="Footnote_168_168"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_168_168"><span class="label">[168]</span></a> I have
+taken this translation and that on the next page from Mr. Claude
+Montefiore's <i>Florilegium Philonis</i>. Jewish Quarterly Review,
+vol. VII.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_169_169" id="Footnote_169_169"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_169_169"><span class="label">[169]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>De Ebr.</i> 40, and <i>De Spec. Leg.</i> II. 414.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_170_170" id="Footnote_170_170"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_170_170"><span class="label">[170]</span></a> <i>De
+Leg.</i> II. 574.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_171_171" id="Footnote_171_171"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_171_171"><span class="label">[171]</span></a> <i>Essais,
+Les Proph&egrave;tes d'Isra&euml;l</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_172_172" id="Footnote_172_172"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_172_172"><span class="label">[172]</span></a> Frag.
+cited by Porphyry, <i>De Abstinentia</i> II. 25.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_173_173" id="Footnote_173_173"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_173_173"><span class="label">[173]</span></a> <i>De
+Cong.</i> 10.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_174_174" id="Footnote_174_174"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_174_174"><span class="label">[174]</span></a> Comp.
+Schechter, "Aspects of Rabbinic Theology," pp. 21 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_175_175" id="Footnote_175_175"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_175_175"><span class="label">[175]</span></a>
+<i>L.A.</i> I. 7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_176_176" id="Footnote_176_176"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_176_176"><span class="label">[176]</span></a>
+<i>L.A.</i> I. 14.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_177_177" id="Footnote_177_177"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_177_177"><span class="label">[177]</span></a> <i>De
+Confus.</i> 2, <i>De Post. C.</i> 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_178_178" id="Footnote_178_178"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_178_178"><span class="label">[178]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>De Somn.</i> I. 11, <i>De Mut. Nom.</i> 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_179_179" id="Footnote_179_179"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_179_179"><span class="label">[179]</span></a> Caird,
+"Life of Spinoza" II.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_180_180" id="Footnote_180_180"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_180_180"><span class="label">[180]</span></a> <i>De
+Mon.</i> I. 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_181_181" id="Footnote_181_181"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_181_181"><span class="label">[181]</span></a> Comp. "The
+Authorised Prayer Book." p. 78.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_182_182" id="Footnote_182_182"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_182_182"><span class="label">[182]</span></a> <i>Quod
+Deus</i> 23.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_183_183" id="Footnote_183_183"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_183_183"><span class="label">[183]</span></a> <i>De
+Mundi Op.</i> 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_184_184" id="Footnote_184_184"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_184_184"><span class="label">[184]</span></a>
+<i>L.A.</i> III. 24.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_185_185" id="Footnote_185_185"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_185_185"><span class="label">[185]</span></a> <i>De
+Somn.</i> II. 38.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_186_186" id="Footnote_186_186"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_186_186"><span class="label">[186]</span></a>
+<i>L.A.</i> III. 24.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_187_187" id="Footnote_187_187"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_187_187"><span class="label">[187]</span></a> See p. 77,
+above.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_188_188" id="Footnote_188_188"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_188_188"><span class="label">[188]</span></a>
+<i>L.A.</i> I. 3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_189_189" id="Footnote_189_189"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_189_189"><span class="label">[189]</span></a> <i>De
+Plant.</i> 7, <i>Quod Det.</i> 31.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_190_190" id="Footnote_190_190"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_190_190"><span class="label">[190]</span></a> <i>De
+Cherubim</i> 35.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_191_191" id="Footnote_191_191"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_191_191"><span class="label">[191]</span></a>
+<i>L.A.</i> II. 70.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_192_192" id="Footnote_192_192"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_192_192"><span class="label">[192]</span></a> <i>De
+Cherubim</i> 32, <i>De Somn.</i> II, 56.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_193_193" id="Footnote_193_193"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_193_193"><span class="label">[193]</span></a> <i>De
+Post. C.</i> 11.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_194_194" id="Footnote_194_194"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_194_194"><span class="label">[194]</span></a> Essay on
+the Talmud.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_195_195" id="Footnote_195_195"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_195_195"><span class="label">[195]</span></a> Bereshit
+Rabba 21, and Yalkut 26.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_196_196" id="Footnote_196_196"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_196_196"><span class="label">[196]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>De Plant.</i> 30.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_197_197" id="Footnote_197_197"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_197_197"><span class="label">[197]</span></a> Comp.
+[H.]agigah 14.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_198_198" id="Footnote_198_198"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_198_198"><span class="label">[198]</span></a> Quoted by
+Euseb., <i>op. cit.</i> XIII. 8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_199_199" id="Footnote_199_199"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_199_199"><span class="label">[199]</span></a> <i>De
+Decal.</i> 11.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_200_200" id="Footnote_200_200"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_200_200"><span class="label">[200]</span></a> <i>De
+Mundi Op.</i> 24.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_201_201" id="Footnote_201_201"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_201_201"><span class="label">[201]</span></a>
+<i>Ibid.</i> 20.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_202_202" id="Footnote_202_202"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_202_202"><span class="label">[202]</span></a> <i>De
+Migr.</i> 9.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_203_203" id="Footnote_203_203"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_203_203"><span class="label">[203]</span></a> <i>De
+Decal.</i> 11.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_204_204" id="Footnote_204_204"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_204_204"><span class="label">[204]</span></a> <i>De
+Somn.</i> II. 37.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_205_205" id="Footnote_205_205"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_205_205"><span class="label">[205]</span></a> <i>De
+Somn.</i> I. 23.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_206_206" id="Footnote_206_206"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_206_206"><span class="label">[206]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>De Somn.</i> II. 11.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_207_207" id="Footnote_207_207"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_207_207"><span class="label">[207]</span></a> <i>De
+Somn.</i> I. 22.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_208_208" id="Footnote_208_208"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_208_208"><span class="label">[208]</span></a> Comp.
+[H.]agigah 14<sup>a</sup>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_209_209" id="Footnote_209_209"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_209_209"><span class="label">[209]</span></a> <i>Quod
+Deus</i> 26 and 32.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_210_210" id="Footnote_210_210"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_210_210"><span class="label">[210]</span></a> <i>De
+Confus.</i> 14.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_211_211" id="Footnote_211_211"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_211_211"><span class="label">[211]</span></a> <i>De
+Gigant.</i> 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_212_212" id="Footnote_212_212"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_212_212"><span class="label">[212]</span></a> "Ethics of
+the Fathers" III.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_213_213" id="Footnote_213_213"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_213_213"><span class="label">[213]</span></a> Comp.
+Schechter, <i>op. cit.</i>, "The Law as Personified in
+Literature."</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_214_214" id="Footnote_214_214"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_214_214"><span class="label">[214]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>L.A.</i> III. 73, <i>De Somn.</i> II. 33.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_215_215" id="Footnote_215_215"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_215_215"><span class="label">[215]</span></a> <i>De
+Cong.</i> 31.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_216_216" id="Footnote_216_216"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_216_216"><span class="label">[216]</span></a> <i>De
+Confus.</i> 14, Fragments I, <i>L.A.</i> III. 23, <i>Quis Rer.
+Div.</i> 42, <i>De Gigant.</i> 12.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_217_217" id="Footnote_217_217"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_217_217"><span class="label">[217]</span></a> Comp.
+Graetz, "Gnosticism and Judaism," pp. 15 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_218_218" id="Footnote_218_218"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_218_218"><span class="label">[218]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>De Cherubim</i> 14 and 17, <i>De Gigant.</i> 12.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_219_219" id="Footnote_219_219"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_219_219"><span class="label">[219]</span></a> Drummond,
+"Philo-Jud&aelig;us and the Jewish Hellenistic School," vol.
+II.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_220_220" id="Footnote_220_220"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_220_220"><span class="label">[220]</span></a> <i>De
+Somn.</i> I. 32, <i>De Confus.</i> 14, <i>L.A.</i> III. 25, <i>De
+V. Mos.</i> III. 14.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_221_221" id="Footnote_221_221"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_221_221"><span class="label">[221]</span></a>
+<i>L.A.</i> III. 73.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_222_222" id="Footnote_222_222"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_222_222"><span class="label">[222]</span></a> <i>De
+Sacrif.</i> 38.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_223_223" id="Footnote_223_223"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_223_223"><span class="label">[223]</span></a> <i>Quis
+Rer. Div.</i> 42.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_224_224" id="Footnote_224_224"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_224_224"><span class="label">[224]</span></a> <i>De
+Plant.</i> 21.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_225_225" id="Footnote_225_225"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_225_225"><span class="label">[225]</span></a>
+<i>L.A.</i> III.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_226_226" id="Footnote_226_226"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_226_226"><span class="label">[226]</span></a> <i>De
+Cherubim</i> 9.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_227_227" id="Footnote_227_227"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_227_227"><span class="label">[227]</span></a> <i>De
+Abr.</i> 24 and 25.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_228_228" id="Footnote_228_228"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_228_228"><span class="label">[228]</span></a> <i>De
+Fuga</i> 18.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_229_229" id="Footnote_229_229"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_229_229"><span class="label">[229]</span></a>
+<i>L.A.</i> II.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_230_230" id="Footnote_230_230"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_230_230"><span class="label">[230]</span></a>
+<i>L.A.</i> I. 13, II. 15, <i>Quis Rer. Div.</i> 53.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_231_231" id="Footnote_231_231"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_231_231"><span class="label">[231]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>De Decal.</i>, <i>ad fin</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_232_232" id="Footnote_232_232"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_232_232"><span class="label">[232]</span></a>
+<i>L.A.</i> I. 2232, <i>De Fuga</i> 12.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_233_233" id="Footnote_233_233"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_233_233"><span class="label">[233]</span></a> <i>De
+Mundi Op.</i> 54, <i>De Fuga</i> 11.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_234_234" id="Footnote_234_234"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_234_234"><span class="label">[234]</span></a> "The
+Evolution of Theology in the Greek Philosophers" VIII.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_235_235" id="Footnote_235_235"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_235_235"><span class="label">[235]</span></a> Plato,
+"Laws" 718.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_236_236" id="Footnote_236_236"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_236_236"><span class="label">[236]</span></a> Comp. Bk.
+12 of the <i>Pr&aelig;p. Evang.</i></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_237_237" id="Footnote_237_237"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_237_237"><span class="label">[237]</span></a> Quoted by
+Suidas, <i>s.v.</i> Philo.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_238_238" id="Footnote_238_238"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_238_238"><span class="label">[238]</span></a> <i>De
+Mundi Op.</i> 43.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_239_239" id="Footnote_239_239"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_239_239"><span class="label">[239]</span></a> <i>De
+Victimis</i> II. 260-262.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_240_240" id="Footnote_240_240"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_240_240"><span class="label">[240]</span></a> Comp. p.
+81, above.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_241_241" id="Footnote_241_241"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_241_241"><span class="label">[241]</span></a> <i>De
+Sacrif.</i> 24, <i>Quod Det.</i> 24.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_242_242" id="Footnote_242_242"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_242_242"><span class="label">[242]</span></a> <i>De
+Mundi Op.</i> 24.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_243_243" id="Footnote_243_243"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_243_243"><span class="label">[243]</span></a> <i>De
+Mundi Op.</i> 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_244_244" id="Footnote_244_244"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_244_244"><span class="label">[244]</span></a> <i>De
+Somn.</i> I. 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_245_245" id="Footnote_245_245"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_245_245"><span class="label">[245]</span></a> <i>De
+Victimis</i> II. 260.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_246_246" id="Footnote_246_246"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_246_246"><span class="label">[246]</span></a> <i>Quod
+Deus</i> 6, <i>De Post. C.</i> 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_247_247" id="Footnote_247_247"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_247_247"><span class="label">[247]</span></a> <i>Quod
+Det.</i> 24, <i>De Mundi Op.</i> 45 and 51.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_248_248" id="Footnote_248_248"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_248_248"><span class="label">[248]</span></a>
+<i>L.A.</i> I. 32, <i>De Confus.</i> 27.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_249_249" id="Footnote_249_249"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_249_249"><span class="label">[249]</span></a> <i>De
+Mon</i>. II. 214, <i>De Mundi Op</i>. I. 16.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_250_250" id="Footnote_250_250"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_250_250"><span class="label">[250]</span></a> <i>De
+Mundi Op</i>. 22 and 48, <i>L.A.</i> I. 13 and II. 12 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_251_251" id="Footnote_251_251"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_251_251"><span class="label">[251]</span></a> <i>De
+Sacrif.</i> 32.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_252_252" id="Footnote_252_252"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_252_252"><span class="label">[252]</span></a> <i>De
+Plant.</i> 9.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_253_253" id="Footnote_253_253"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_253_253"><span class="label">[253]</span></a>
+<i>Quaestiones in Gen.</i> II. 59.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_254_254" id="Footnote_254_254"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_254_254"><span class="label">[254]</span></a> <i>De
+Fuga</i> 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_255_255" id="Footnote_255_255"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_255_255"><span class="label">[255]</span></a>
+<i>Quaestiones in Gen.</i> IV. 140.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_256_256" id="Footnote_256_256"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_256_256"><span class="label">[256]</span></a> <i>De
+Cherubim</i> 32.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_257_257" id="Footnote_257_257"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_257_257"><span class="label">[257]</span></a>
+<i>L.A.</i> I. 15.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_258_258" id="Footnote_258_258"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_258_258"><span class="label">[258]</span></a>
+<i>L.A.</i> II. 25.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_259_259" id="Footnote_259_259"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_259_259"><span class="label">[259]</span></a>
+<i>L.A.</i> I. 11 ff., II. 12-14.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_260_260" id="Footnote_260_260"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_260_260"><span class="label">[260]</span></a> <i>De
+Cherubim</i> 35.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_261_261" id="Footnote_261_261"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_261_261"><span class="label">[261]</span></a> <i>De
+Somn.</i> I. 12.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_262_262" id="Footnote_262_262"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_262_262"><span class="label">[262]</span></a> <i>De
+Somn.</i> I. 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_263_263" id="Footnote_263_263"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_263_263"><span class="label">[263]</span></a> <i>De
+Plant.</i> 7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_264_264" id="Footnote_264_264"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_264_264"><span class="label">[264]</span></a> <i>Quod
+Det.</i> 31.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_265_265" id="Footnote_265_265"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_265_265"><span class="label">[265]</span></a> <i>De
+Migr.</i> 8, <i>De Spec. Leg.</i> I. 9.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_266_266" id="Footnote_266_266"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_266_266"><span class="label">[266]</span></a>
+<i>L.A.</i> I. 13.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_267_267" id="Footnote_267_267"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_267_267"><span class="label">[267]</span></a>
+<i>L.A.</i> III. 13, 14.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_268_268" id="Footnote_268_268"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_268_268"><span class="label">[268]</span></a> <i>Quis
+Rer. Div.</i> 53.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_269_269" id="Footnote_269_269"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_269_269"><span class="label">[269]</span></a> <i>De
+Mundi Op.</i> 54.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_270_270" id="Footnote_270_270"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_270_270"><span class="label">[270]</span></a> <i>De
+Abr.</i> 31.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_271_271" id="Footnote_271_271"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_271_271"><span class="label">[271]</span></a> <i>De
+Fuga</i> 27.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_272_272" id="Footnote_272_272"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_272_272"><span class="label">[272]</span></a>
+<i>L.A.</i> I. 32, II. 25.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_273_273" id="Footnote_273_273"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_273_273"><span class="label">[273]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>L.A.</i> III. 45.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_274_274" id="Footnote_274_274"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_274_274"><span class="label">[274]</span></a> <i>Quod
+Det.</i> 7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_275_275" id="Footnote_275_275"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_275_275"><span class="label">[275]</span></a> <i>De
+Fuga</i> 5 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_276_276" id="Footnote_276_276"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_276_276"><span class="label">[276]</span></a> <i>De
+Mundi Op.</i> 15, <i>L.A.</i> I. 46.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_277_277" id="Footnote_277_277"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_277_277"><span class="label">[277]</span></a> <i>De
+Decal.</i> 6-8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_278_278" id="Footnote_278_278"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_278_278"><span class="label">[278]</span></a> Comp.
+Euseb., <i>Praep. Evang.</i> IX 411A.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_279_279" id="Footnote_279_279"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_279_279"><span class="label">[279]</span></a> <i>C.
+Celsum</i> IV. 51.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_280_280" id="Footnote_280_280"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_280_280"><span class="label">[280]</span></a> <i>De
+Sectis Judaicis</i> XVIII.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_281_281" id="Footnote_281_281"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_281_281"><span class="label">[281]</span></a> Comp.
+Freudenthal, <i>Hellenistische Studien</i>, and Siegfried, <i>Philo
+als Ausleger der hieligen Schrift</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_282_282" id="Footnote_282_282"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_282_282"><span class="label">[282]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>Quis Rer. Div.</i> XLIII, and Chapter II above.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_283_283" id="Footnote_283_283"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_283_283"><span class="label">[283]</span></a> <i>De
+Mon</i>. II. 212.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_284_284" id="Footnote_284_284"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_284_284"><span class="label">[284]</span></a> <i>Hist.
+Ecclesiast.</i> II. iv. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_285_285" id="Footnote_285_285"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_285_285"><span class="label">[285]</span></a> Comp.
+Graetz, "History" II. xviii.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_286_286" id="Footnote_286_286"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_286_286"><span class="label">[286]</span></a> Comp.
+Chapter I, p. 17, above.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_287_287" id="Footnote_287_287"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_287_287"><span class="label">[287]</span></a> <i>De
+Spec. Leg</i>. II. 260.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_288_288" id="Footnote_288_288"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_288_288"><span class="label">[288]</span></a> <i>De
+Spec. Leg.</i> III. 17.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_289_289" id="Footnote_289_289"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_289_289"><span class="label">[289]</span></a>
+<i>Ibid.</i> II. 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_290_290" id="Footnote_290_290"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_290_290"><span class="label">[290]</span></a> <i>De
+Parentibus Colendis</i> 56.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_291_291" id="Footnote_291_291"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_291_291"><span class="label">[291]</span></a> Comp.
+Sifre Debarim 237.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_292_292" id="Footnote_292_292"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_292_292"><span class="label">[292]</span></a> <i>De
+Spec. Leg.</i> IV.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_293_293" id="Footnote_293_293"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_293_293"><span class="label">[293]</span></a> <i>De
+Spec. Leg.</i> III. 36.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_294_294" id="Footnote_294_294"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_294_294"><span class="label">[294]</span></a> <i>De
+Spec. Leg.</i> III. 33 and 34.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_295_295" id="Footnote_295_295"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_295_295"><span class="label">[295]</span></a> Moreh
+Nebukim III, ch. 39.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_296_296" id="Footnote_296_296"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_296_296"><span class="label">[296]</span></a>
+<i>Fragmenta ex Antonio</i> II. 672.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_297_297" id="Footnote_297_297"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_297_297"><span class="label">[297]</span></a> <i>De
+Spec. Leg.</i> III. 5, II. 304, 305.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_298_298" id="Footnote_298_298"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_298_298"><span class="label">[298]</span></a> Deut. vii.
+3, and Abodah Zarah 36<sup>b</sup>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_299_299" id="Footnote_299_299"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_299_299"><span class="label">[299]</span></a> <i>De
+Spec. Leg.</i> III. 5, II. 304.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_300_300" id="Footnote_300_300"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_300_300"><span class="label">[300]</span></a> <i>De
+Septen.</i> 5 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_301_301" id="Footnote_301_301"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_301_301"><span class="label">[301]</span></a>See Chapter
+IV, p. 125, above.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_302_302" id="Footnote_302_302"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_302_302"><span class="label">[302]</span></a> Mishnah
+Rosh Hashanah III. 8, and Philo, <i>De Somn.</i> II. 11.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_303_303" id="Footnote_303_303"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_303_303"><span class="label">[303]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>Agadah bei Philo</i>, by Treitel, <i>Monatsschrift</i>,
+1909.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_304_304" id="Footnote_304_304"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_304_304"><span class="label">[304]</span></a> Comp.
+Bereshit Rabba 16, 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_305_305" id="Footnote_305_305"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_305_305"><span class="label">[305]</span></a> Comp.
+Taylor's edition.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_306_306" id="Footnote_306_306"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_306_306"><span class="label">[306]</span></a> <i>De
+Plant.</i> 30.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_307_307" id="Footnote_307_307"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_307_307"><span class="label">[307]</span></a> It is
+impossible for me to make an adequate acknowledgment of my debt to
+Dr. Schechter, President of the Jewish Theological Seminary of
+America. But I should say that I have borrowed freely from his
+articles on rabbinic theology in the Jewish Quarterly Review, vols.
+VI and VII, now included in his "Aspects of Rabbinic Theology."</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_308_308" id="Footnote_308_308"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_308_308"><span class="label">[308]</span></a> Mishnah
+Yodayim III. 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_309_309" id="Footnote_309_309"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_309_309"><span class="label">[309]</span></a> Bereshit
+Rabba 26. 7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_310_310" id="Footnote_310_310"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_310_310"><span class="label">[310]</span></a> Comp.
+Schechter, <i>op. cit.</i>, Introduction.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_311_311" id="Footnote_311_311"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_311_311"><span class="label">[311]</span></a> Berakot
+24<sup>b</sup>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_312_312" id="Footnote_312_312"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_312_312"><span class="label">[312]</span></a> Mekilta
+<img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image101.jpg" width="45" height=
+"16"> I. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_313_313" id="Footnote_313_313"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_313_313"><span class="label">[313]</span></a> Bereshit
+Rabba I. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_314_314" id="Footnote_314_314"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_314_314"><span class="label">[314]</span></a> Pirke R.
+Eliezer III.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_315_315" id="Footnote_315_315"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_315_315"><span class="label">[315]</span></a> Comp.
+Poems, II, p. 25.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_316_316" id="Footnote_316_316"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_316_316"><span class="label">[316]</span></a> Moreh II,
+ch. 70.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_317_317" id="Footnote_317_317"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_317_317"><span class="label">[317]</span></a>Eccles.
+III. 15.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_318_318" id="Footnote_318_318"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_318_318"><span class="label">[318]</span></a> [H.]agigah
+14 ff., Sanhedrin 37<sup>a</sup>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_319_319" id="Footnote_319_319"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_319_319"><span class="label">[319]</span></a> Bereshit
+Rabba 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_320_320" id="Footnote_320_320"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_320_320"><span class="label">[320]</span></a> Mena[h.]ot
+99.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_321_321" id="Footnote_321_321"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_321_321"><span class="label">[321]</span></a> Mishnah
+Sanhedrin II. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_322_322" id="Footnote_322_322"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_322_322"><span class="label">[322]</span></a> 322:
+[H.]agigah 15<sup>b</sup>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_323_323" id="Footnote_323_323"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_323_323"><span class="label">[323]</span></a> Bereshit
+Rabba 36. 8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_324_324" id="Footnote_324_324"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_324_324"><span class="label">[324]</span></a> Ant. III.
+2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_325_325" id="Footnote_325_325"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_325_325"><span class="label">[325]</span></a> <i>De V.
+Mos.</i> II. 12.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_326_326" id="Footnote_326_326"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_326_326"><span class="label">[326]</span></a> Comp. Ant.
+XVIII. 8. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_327_327" id="Footnote_327_327"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_327_327"><span class="label">[327]</span></a> Comp.
+"Ethics of the Fathers" VI. 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_328_328" id="Footnote_328_328"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_328_328"><span class="label">[328]</span></a> See
+Epstein, <i>Philon et le Midrasch Tadsch&eacute;</i>, Revue des
+Etudes Juives, XXI, p. 80.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_329_329" id="Footnote_329_329"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_329_329"><span class="label">[329]</span></a> Yer. Meg.
+I. 71<sup>c</sup>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_330_330" id="Footnote_330_330"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_330_330"><span class="label">[330]</span></a> Comp. an
+article by Dr. Pozn&agrave;nski in the <i>Revue des &eacute;tudes
+Juives</i>, 1905, <i>Philo dans l'ancienne litt&eacute;rature
+jud&eacute;o-arabe</i>, pp. 10 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_331_331" id="Footnote_331_331"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_331_331"><span class="label">[331]</span></a> Comp.
+Pozn&agrave;nski, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 27.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_332_332" id="Footnote_332_332"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_332_332"><span class="label">[332]</span></a> Moreh II.
+ch. 1 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_333_333" id="Footnote_333_333"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_333_333"><span class="label">[333]</span></a>
+<i>Ibid.</i> 31.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_334_334" id="Footnote_334_334"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_334_334"><span class="label">[334]</span></a>
+<i>Ibid.</i> 31.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_335_335" id="Footnote_335_335"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_335_335"><span class="label">[335]</span></a> Moreh III.
+43 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_336_336" id="Footnote_336_336"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_336_336"><span class="label">[336]</span></a> Comp.
+Ginzberg, art. "Cabbalah," Jewish Encyclopedia.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_337_337" id="Footnote_337_337"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_337_337"><span class="label">[337]</span></a> Comp.
+Taylor's "Ethics of the Fathers," ch. 5, notes.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_338_338" id="Footnote_338_338"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_338_338"><span class="label">[338]</span></a> <i>De
+Cherubim</i> 12 and 14. Comp. <i>De Somn.</i> I. 8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_339_339" id="Footnote_339_339"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_339_339"><span class="label">[339]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>De Somn.</i> I. 12.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_340_340" id="Footnote_340_340"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_340_340"><span class="label">[340]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>De Fuga</i> 9.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_341_341" id="Footnote_341_341"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_341_341"><span class="label">[341]</span></a> Comp.
+Hort, Introduction to Clement's <img alt="Greek: Etr&ocirc;mateis"
+src="images/image102.jpg" width="81" height="15"></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_342_342" id="Footnote_342_342"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_342_342"><span class="label">[342]</span></a> Ed.
+Cassel, pp. 4 and 15<sup>b</sup>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_343_343" id="Footnote_343_343"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_343_343"><span class="label">[343]</span></a> Comp. Imre
+Binah. Meor Einayim, ch. 30.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_344_344" id="Footnote_344_344"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_344_344"><span class="label">[344]</span></a> Comp. J.A.
+Stewart, "Myths of Plato," <i>ad fin.</i></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_345_345" id="Footnote_345_345"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_345_345"><span class="label">[345]</span></a> Comp.
+"Theologico-Political Tractate" XV.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_346_346" id="Footnote_346_346"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_346_346"><span class="label">[346]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>De Humanitate</i> II. 395.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_347_347" id="Footnote_347_347"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_347_347"><span class="label">[347]</span></a> <i>De V.
+Mos.</i> II. 1-5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_348_348" id="Footnote_348_348"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_348_348"><span class="label">[348]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>De Mon.</i> II. 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_349_349" id="Footnote_349_349"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_349_349"><span class="label">[349]</span></a> <i>De
+Just.</i> 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_350_350" id="Footnote_350_350"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_350_350"><span class="label">[350]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>De Nobilitate</i> 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_351_351" id="Footnote_351_351"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_351_351"><span class="label">[351]</span></a> Bamidbar
+Rabba 8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_352_352" id="Footnote_352_352"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_352_352"><span class="label">[352]</span></a> Tan[h.]uma
+to Debarim.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_353_353" id="Footnote_353_353"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_353_353"><span class="label">[353]</span></a> Comp.
+Pesa[h.]im 87<sup>b</sup>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_354_354" id="Footnote_354_354"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_354_354"><span class="label">[354]</span></a> <i>De
+Exsecr.</i> 6. II. 433.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_355_355" id="Footnote_355_355"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_355_355"><span class="label">[355]</span></a> Comp.
+Montefiore, Jewish Quarterly Review, VI, p. 428.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_356_356" id="Footnote_356_356"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_356_356"><span class="label">[356]</span></a> Epistle to
+the Romans V.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_357_357" id="Footnote_357_357"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_357_357"><span class="label">[357]</span></a> Epistle to
+the Galatians III. 10.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_358_358" id="Footnote_358_358"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_358_358"><span class="label">[358]</span></a> Comp.
+Chapter IV, above, p. 126.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_359_359" id="Footnote_359_359"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_359_359"><span class="label">[359]</span></a> <i>De
+Abr.</i> 46.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_360_360" id="Footnote_360_360"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_360_360"><span class="label">[360]</span></a> Comp.
+Schechter, <i>op. cit.</i>, Introduction.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_361_361" id="Footnote_361_361"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_361_361"><span class="label">[361]</span></a> Comp.
+Mekilta 33<sup>a</sup>, ed. Friedmann.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_362_362" id="Footnote_362_362"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_362_362"><span class="label">[362]</span></a> Comp.
+<i>L.A.</i> III. 26, and Chapter V, above, p. 154.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_363_363" id="Footnote_363_363"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_363_363"><span class="label">[363]</span></a> <i>De
+Cherubim</i> 12.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_364_364" id="Footnote_364_364"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_364_364"><span class="label">[364]</span></a> Comp.
+Gibbon, "Decline of the Roman Empire," ch. 15.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_365_365" id="Footnote_365_365"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_365_365"><span class="label">[365]</span></a> <img alt=
+"Hebrew; " src="images/image103.jpg" width="103" height="18">
+III.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Philo-Judaeus of Alexandria, by Norman Bentwich
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PHILO-JUDAEUS OF ALEXANDRIA ***
+
+***** This file should be named 14657-h.htm or 14657-h.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        https://www.gutenberg.org/1/4/6/5/14657/
+
+Produced by Ted Garvin, jayam, David King, and the PG Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+https://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+https://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at https://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit https://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
+donations.  To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     https://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
+
+
+</pre>
+
+</body>
+</html>
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image01.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image01.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..28cd726
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image01.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image02.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image02.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..764fa31
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image02.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image03.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image03.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fd4e56a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image03.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image04.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image04.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2e5fca2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image04.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image05.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image05.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1cd3014
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image05.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image06.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image06.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8a84361
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image06.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image07.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image07.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..eef8781
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image07.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image08.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image08.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0910594
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image08.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image09.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image09.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..03aabd6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image09.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image10.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image10.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6c427ce
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image10.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image100.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image100.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f3a3d46
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image100.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image101.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image101.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..011d2de
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image101.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image102.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image102.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..78909f8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image102.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image103.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image103.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f573ff3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image103.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image11.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image11.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e764729
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image11.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image12.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image12.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6685385
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image12.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image13.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image13.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..37b574a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image13.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image14.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image14.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..474c51c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image14.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image15.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image15.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c44841c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image15.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image16.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image16.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4e9a67e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image16.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image17.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image17.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..314553e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image17.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image18.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image18.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..db12db7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image18.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image19.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image19.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..42a44eb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image19.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image20.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image20.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4d39ef9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image20.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image21.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image21.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..02dc9ed
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image21.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image22.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image22.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0e7da39
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image22.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image23.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image23.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..64f6e65
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image23.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image24.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image24.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..86dbcb9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image24.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image25.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image25.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..81fc366
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image25.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image26.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image26.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..deb9689
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image26.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image27.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image27.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0969755
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image27.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image28.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image28.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7adc4ed
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image28.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image29.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image29.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..41a7ba8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image29.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image30.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image30.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..caf2792
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image30.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image31.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image31.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..16b8781
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image31.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image32.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image32.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cd97f13
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image32.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image33.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image33.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..64fb69a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image33.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image34.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image34.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..72c9b3f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image34.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image35.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image35.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b472a22
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image35.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image36.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image36.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e464028
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image36.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image37.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image37.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f3bbb5d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image37.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image38.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image38.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b7d0151
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image38.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image39.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image39.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6ec3435
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image39.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image40.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image40.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1dee087
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image40.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image41.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image41.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..02ad2b3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image41.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image42.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image42.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7740cd1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image42.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image43.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image43.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4cb18b5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image43.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image44.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image44.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..277abfa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image44.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image45.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image45.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fbbf9db
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image45.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image46.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image46.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..864e4ec
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image46.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image47.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image47.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c85fede
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image47.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image48.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image48.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..032f49a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image48.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image49.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image49.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5bcd89d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image49.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image50.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image50.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..51c6339
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image50.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image51.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image51.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..211e499
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image51.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image52.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image52.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ad0be7a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image52.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image53.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image53.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ef0e59a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image53.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image54.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image54.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..63d8269
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image54.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image55.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image55.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e93825c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image55.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image56.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image56.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9aaae05
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image56.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image57.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image57.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5f1be20
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image57.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image58.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image58.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6dba196
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image58.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image59.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image59.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4c54cb4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image59.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image60.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image60.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f3c9277
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image60.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image61.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image61.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6005e5e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image61.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image62.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image62.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2768d6b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image62.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image63.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image63.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..61b451c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image63.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image64.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image64.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..28368fb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image64.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image65.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image65.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b155a32
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image65.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image66.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image66.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3768f05
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image66.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image67.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image67.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b39f4d0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image67.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image68.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image68.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7c7f28e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image68.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image69.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image69.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a679027
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image69.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image70.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image70.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..22963aa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image70.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image71.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image71.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..67836ad
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image71.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image72.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image72.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..93b1c26
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image72.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image73.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image73.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..067fc71
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image73.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image74.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image74.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2e6b232
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image74.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image75.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image75.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..994e125
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image75.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image76.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image76.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4506c5b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image76.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image77.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image77.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..61d35d9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image77.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image78.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image78.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..78a1abc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image78.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image79.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image79.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..463fc32
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image79.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image80.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image80.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..731c21e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image80.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image81.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image81.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..14f8526
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image81.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image82.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image82.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dbc9c36
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image82.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image83.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image83.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..221a3ac
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image83.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image84.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image84.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..53146bc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image84.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image85.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image85.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6478fcf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image85.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image86.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image86.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..005badc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image86.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image87.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image87.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9404448
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image87.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image88.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image88.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bc3128a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image88.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image89.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image89.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a9a8ec4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image89.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image90.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image90.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..55d1feb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image90.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image91.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image91.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a0d494b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image91.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image92.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image92.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..931f59d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image92.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image93.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image93.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..63178d5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image93.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image94.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image94.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..67504ad
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image94.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image95.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image95.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..194a211
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image95.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image96.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image96.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ea049be
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image96.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image97.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image97.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..028aa68
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image97.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image98.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image98.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..81c89b9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image98.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image99.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image99.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e1a583d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657-h/images/image99.jpg
diff --git a/old/14657.txt b/old/14657.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4fde8f8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,7760 @@
+Project Gutenberg's Philo-Judaeus of Alexandria, by Norman Bentwich
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Philo-Judaeus of Alexandria
+
+Author: Norman Bentwich
+
+Release Date: January 10, 2005 [EBook #14657]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PHILO-JUDAEUS OF ALEXANDRIA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Ted Garvin, jayam, David King, and the PG Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+PHILO-JUDAEUS
+
+OF ALEXANDRIA,
+
+
+
+BY
+
+
+
+NORMAN BENTWICH
+Sometime Scholar of Trinity College,
+Cambridge.
+
+
+
+
+PHILADELPHIA
+THE JEWISH PUBLICATION SOCIETY OF AMERICA
+1910
+
+
+
+COPYRIGHT, 1910,
+BY THE JEWISH PUBLICATION SOCIETY OF AMERICA
+
+
+
+
+
+TO MY MOTHER [Greek: threpteria]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+It is a melancholy reflection upon the history of the Jews that they
+have failed to pay due honor to their two greatest philosophers.
+Spinoza was rejected by his contemporaries from the congregation of
+Israel; Philo-Judaeus was neglected by the generations that followed
+him. Maimonides, our third philosopher, was in danger of meeting the
+same fate, and his philosophical work was for long viewed with
+suspicion by a large part of the community. Philosophers, by the very
+excellence of their thought, have in all races towered above the
+comprehension of the people, and aroused the suspicion of the
+religious teachers. Elsewhere, however, though rejected by the Church,
+they have left their influence upon the nation, and taken a commanding
+place in its history, because they have founded secular schools of
+thought, which perpetuated their work. In Judaism, where religion and
+nationality are inextricably combined, that could not be. The history
+of Judaism since the extinction of political independence is the
+history of a national religious culture; what was national in its
+thought alone found favor; and unless a philosopher's work bore this
+national religious stamp it dropped out of Jewish history.
+
+Philo certainly had an intensely strong Jewish feeling, but his work
+had also another aspect, which was seized upon and made use of by
+those who wished to denationalize Judaism and convert it into a
+philosophical monotheism. The favor which the Church Fathers showed to
+his writings induced and was balanced by the neglect of the rabbis.
+
+It was left till recently to non-Jews to study the works of Philo, to
+present his philosophy, and estimate its value. So far from taking a
+Jewish standpoint in their work, they emphasized the parts of his
+teaching that are least Jewish; for they were writing as Christian
+theologians or as historians of Greek philosophy. They searched him
+primarily for traces of Christian, neo-Platonic, or Stoic doctrines,
+and commiserated with him, or criticised him as a weak-kneed eclectic,
+a half-blind groper for the true light.
+
+Even during the last hundred years, which have marked a revival of the
+historical consciousness of the Jews, as of all peoples, it has still
+been left in the main to non-Jewish scholars to write of Philo in
+relation to his time and his environment. The purpose of this little
+book is frankly to give a presentation of Philo from the Jewish
+standpoint. I hold that Philo is essentially and splendidly a Jew, and
+that his thought is through and through Jewish. The surname given him
+in the second century, "Judaeus," not only distinguishes him from an
+obscure Christian bishop, but it expresses the predominant
+characteristic of his teaching. It may be objected that I have pointed
+the moral and adorned the tale in accordance with preconceived
+opinions, which--as Mr. Claude Montefiore says in his essay on
+Philo--it is easy to do with so strange and curious a writer. I
+confess that my worthy appeals to me most strongly as an exponent of
+Judaism, and it may be that in this regard I have not always looked on
+him as the calm, dispassionate student should; for I experience
+towards him that warmth of feeling which his name, [Greek: philon],
+"the beloved one," suggests. But I have tried so to write this
+biography as neither to show partiality on the one side nor
+impartiality on the other. If nevertheless I have exaggerated the
+Jewishness of my worthy's thought, my excuse must be that my
+predecessors have so often exaggerated other aspects of his teaching
+that it was necessary to call a new picture into being, in order to
+redress the balance of the old.
+
+Although I have to some extent taken a line of my own in this Life, my
+obligations to previous writers upon Philo are very great. I have used
+freely the works of Drummond, Schuerer, Massebieau, Zeller, Conybeare,
+Cohn, and Wendland; and among those who have treated of Philo in
+relation to Jewish tradition I have read and borrowed from Siegfried
+(_Philon als Ausleger der heiligen Schrift_), Freudenthal
+(_Hellenistische Studien_), Ritter (_Philo und die Halacha_), and Mr.
+Claude Montefiore's _Florilegium Philonis_, which is printed in the
+seventh volume of the Jewish Quarterly Review. Once for all Mr.
+Montefiore has selected many of the most beautiful and most vital
+passages of Philo, and much as I should have liked to unearth new
+gems, as beautiful and as illuminating, I have often found myself
+irresistibly attracted to Mr. Montefiore's passages. Dr. Neumark's
+book, _Geschichte der juedischen Philosophie des Mittelalters_,
+appeared after my manuscript was set up, or I should have dealt with
+his treatment of Philo. With what he says of the relation of Plato to
+Judaism I am in great part in agreement, and I had independently come
+to the conclusion that Plato was the main Greek influence on Philo's
+thought.
+
+To these various books I owe much, but not so much as to the teaching,
+influence, and help of one whose name I have not the boldness to
+associate with this little volume, but whose notes on my manuscript
+have given it whatever value it may possess. The index I owe to the
+kindly help of a sister, who would also be nameless. Lastly I have to
+thank Dr. Lionel Barnett, professor of Sanscrit at University College,
+London, and my father, who read my manuscript before it was sent to
+the printers. The one gave me the benefit of his wide and accurate
+scholarship, the other gave me much valuable advice and removed many a
+blazing indiscretion.
+
+NORMAN BENTWICH.
+
+_February 28, 1907._
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+  PAGE
+
+      I. THE JEWISH COMMUNITY AT ALEXANDRIA
+
+     II. THE LIFE AND TIMES OF PHILO
+
+    III. PHILO'S WORKS AND METHOD
+
+     IV. PHILO AND THE TORAH
+
+      V. PHILO'S THEOLOGY
+
+     VI. PHILO AS A PHILOSOPHER
+
+    VII. PHILO AND JEWISH TRADITION
+
+   VIII. THE INFLUENCE OF PHILO
+
+         BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+         ABBREVIATIONS USED FOR THE REFERENCES
+
+         INDEX
+
+
+
+
+
+
+PHILO-JUDAEUS OF ALEXANDRIA
+
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+THE JEWISH COMMUNITY AT ALEXANDRIA
+
+
+The three great world-conquerors known to history, Alexander, Julius
+Caesar, and Napoleon, recognized the pre-eminent value of the Jew as a
+bond of empire, an intermediary between the heterogeneous nations
+which they brought beneath their sway. Each in turn showed favor to
+his religion, and accorded him political privileges. The petty tyrants
+of all ages have persecuted Jews on the plea of securing uniformity
+among their subjects; but the great conqueror-statesmen who have made
+history, realizing that progress is brought about by unity in
+difference, have recognized in Jewish individuality a force making for
+progress. Whereas the pure Hellenes had put all the other peoples of
+the world in the single category of barbarians, their Macedonian
+conqueror forced upon them a broader view, and, regarding his empire
+as a world-state, made Greeks and Orientals live together, and
+prepared the way for a mingling of races and culture. Alexander the
+Great became a notable figure in the Talmud and Midrashim, and many a
+marvellous legend was told about his passing visit to Jerusalem during
+his march to Egypt.[1] The high priest--whether it was Jaddua, Simon,
+or Onias the records do not make clear--is said to have gone out to
+meet him, and to have compelled the reverence and homage of the
+monarch by the majesty of his presence and the lustre of his robes. Be
+this as it may, it is certain that Alexander settled a considerable
+number of Jews in the Greek colonies which he founded as centres of
+cosmopolitan culture in his empire, and especially in the town by the
+mouth of the Nile that received his own name, and was destined to
+become within two centuries the second town in the world; second only
+to Rome in population and power, equal to it in culture. By its
+geographical position, the nature of its foundation, and the sources
+of its population, and by the wonderful organization of its Museum, in
+which the records of all nations were stored and studied, Alexandria
+was fitted to become the meeting-place of civilizations.
+
+There was already a considerable settlement of Jews in Egypt before
+Alexander's transplantation in 332 B.C.E. Throughout Bible times the
+connection between Israel and Egypt had been close. Isaiah speaks of
+the day when five cities in the land of Egypt should speak the
+language of Canaan and swear to the Lord of hosts (xix. 18); and when
+Nebuchadnezzar led away the first captivity, many of the people had
+fled from Palestine to the old "cradle of the nation." Jeremiah (xliv)
+went down with them to prophesy against their idolatrous practices and
+their backslidings; and Jewish and Christian writers in later times,
+daring boldly against chronology, told how Plato, visiting Egypt, had
+heard Jeremiah and learnt from him his lofty monotheism. Doubt was
+thrown in the last century upon the continuance of the Diaspora in
+Egypt between the time of Jeremiah and Alexander, but the recent
+discovery of a Jewish temple at Elephantine and of Aramaic papyri at
+Assouan dated in the fifth and fourth centuries B.C.E. has proved that
+these doubts were not well founded, and that there was a
+well-established community during the interval.
+
+From the time of the post-exilic prophets Judaism developed in three
+main streams, one flowing from Jerusalem, another from Babylon, the
+third from Egypt. Alexandria soon took precedence of existing
+settlements of Jews, and became a great centre of Jewish life. The
+first Ptolemy, to whom at the dismemberment of Alexander's empire
+Egypt had fallen,[2] continued to the Jewish settlers the privileges
+of full citizenship which Alexander had granted them. He increased
+also the number of Jewish inhabitants, for following his conquest of
+Palestine (or Coele-Syria, as it was then called), he brought back to
+his capital a large number of Jewish families and settled thirty
+thousand Jewish soldiers in garrisons. For the next hundred years the
+Palestinian and Egyptian Jews were under the same rule, and for the
+most part the Ptolemies treated them well. They were easy-going and
+tolerant, and while they encouraged the higher forms of Greek culture,
+art, letters, and philosophy, both at their own court and through
+their dominions, they made no attempt to impose on their subjects the
+Greek religion and ceremonial. Under their tolerant sway the Jewish
+community thrived, and became distinguished in the handicrafts as well
+as in commerce. Two of the five sections into which Alexandria was
+divided were almost exclusively occupied by them; these lay in the
+north-east along the shore and near the royal palace--a favorable
+situation for the large commercial enterprises in which they were
+engaged. The Jews had full permission to carry on their religious
+observances, and besides many smaller places of worship, each marked
+by its surrounding plantation of trees, they built a great synagogue,
+of which it is said in the Talmud, "He who has not seen it has not
+seen the glory of Israel."[3] It was in the form of a basilica, with a
+double row of columns, and so vast that an official standing upon a
+platform had to wave his head-cloth or veil to inform the people at
+the back of the edifice when to say "Amen" in response to the Reader.
+The congregation was seated according to trade-guilds, as was also
+customary during the Middle Ages; the goldsmiths, silversmiths,
+coppersmiths, and weavers had their own places, for the Alexandrian
+Jews seem to have partially adopted the Egyptian caste-system. The
+Jews enjoyed a large amount of self-government, having their own
+governor, the ethnarch, and in Roman times their own council
+(Sanhedrin), which administered their own code of laws. Of the
+ethnarch Strabo says that he was like an independent ruler, and it was
+his function to secure the proper fulfilment of duties by the
+community and compliance with their peculiar laws.[4] Thus the people
+formed a sort of state within a state, preserving their national life
+in the foreign environment. They possessed as much political
+independence as the Palestinian community when under Roman rule; and
+enjoyed all the advantages without any of the narrowing influences,
+physical or intellectual, of a ghetto. They were able to remain an
+independent body, and foster a Jewish spirit, a Jewish view of life, a
+Jewish culture, while at the same time they assimilated the different
+culture of the Greeks around them, and took their part in the general
+social and political life.
+
+At the end of the third and the beginning of the second century
+Palestine was a shuttlecock tossed between the Ptolemies and the
+Seleucids; but in the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes (_c._ 150 B.C.E.)
+it finally passed out of the power of the Ptolemaic house, and from
+this time the Palestinian Jews had a different political history from
+the Egyptian. The compulsory Hellenization by Antiochus aroused the
+best elements of the Jewish nation, which had seemed likely to lose by
+a gradual assimilation its adherence to pure monotheism and the Mosaic
+law. The struggle of foe as against the Hellenizing party of his own
+people, which, led by the high priests Jason, Menelaus, and Alcimus,
+tried to crush both the national and the religious spirit. The
+Maccabaean rule brought not only a renaissance of national life and
+national culture, but also a revival of the national religion. Before,
+however, the deliverance of the Jews had been accomplished by the
+noble band of brothers, many of the faithful Palestinian families had
+fled for protection from the tyranny of Antiochus to the refuge of his
+enemy Ptolemy Philometor. Among the fugitives were Onias and
+Dositheus, who, according to Josephus,[5] became the trusted leaders
+of the armies of the Egyptian monarch. Onias, moreover, was the
+rightful successor to the high-priesthood, and despairing of obtaining
+his dignity in Jerusalem, where the office had been given to the
+worthless Hellenist Alcimus, he conceived the idea of setting up a
+local centre of the Jewish religion in the country of his exile. He
+persuaded Ptolemy to grant him a piece of territory upon which he
+might build a temple for Jewish worship, assuring him that his action
+would have the effect of securing forever the loyalty of his Jewish
+subjects. Ptolemy "gave him a place one hundred and eighty furlongs
+distant from Memphis, in the nomos of Heliopolis, where he built a
+fortress and a temple, not like that at Jerusalem, but such as
+resembled a tower."[6] Professor Flinders Petrie has recently
+discovered remains at Tell-el-Yehoudiyeh, the "mound of the Jews,"
+near the ancient Leontopolis, which tally with the description of
+Josephus, and may be presumed to be the ruins of the temple.
+
+It is difficult to arrive at an accurate idea of the nature and
+importance of the Onias temple, because our chief authority,
+Josephus,[7] gives two inconsistent accounts of it, and the Talmud
+references[8] are equally involved. But certain negative facts are
+clear. First, the temple did not become, even if it were designed to
+be, a rival to the temple of Jerusalem: it did not diminish in any way
+the tribute which the Egyptian Jews paid to the sacred centre of the
+religion. They did not cease to send their tithes for the benefit of
+the poor in Judaea, or their representatives to the great festivals,
+and they dispatched messengers each year with contributions of gold
+and silver, who, says Philo,[9] "travelled over almost impassable
+roads, which they looked upon as easy, in that they led them to
+piety." The Alexandrian-Jewish writers, without exception, are silent
+about the work of Onias; Philo does not give a single hint of it, and
+on the other hand speaks[10] several times of the great national
+centre at Jerusalem as "the most beautiful and renowned temple which
+is honored by the whole East and West." The Egyptian Jews, according
+to Josephus, claimed that the prophecy of Isaiah had been
+accomplished, "that there shall be an altar to the Lord in the midst
+of the land of Egypt" (Is. xix. 19). But the altar, it has recently
+been suggested,[11] was rather a "Bamah" (a high place) than a temple.
+It served as a temporary sanctuary while the Jerusalem temple was
+defiled, and afterwards it was a place where the priestly ritual was
+carried out day by day, and offerings were brought by those who could
+not make the pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Though the synagogue was the
+main seat of religious life in the Diaspora, there was still a desire
+for the sacrificial worship, and for a long time the rabbis looked
+with favor upon the establishment of Onias. But when the tendency to
+found a new ritual there showed itself, they denied its holiness.[12]
+The religious importance of the temple, however, was never great, and
+its chief interest is that it shows the survival of the affection for
+the priestly service among the Hellenized community, and helps
+therefore to disprove the myth that the Alexandrians allegorized away
+the Levitical laws.
+
+During the checkered history of Egypt in the first century B.C.E.,
+when it was in turn the plaything of the corrupt Roman Senate, who
+supported the claims of a series of feeble puppet-Ptolemies, the prize
+of the warriors, who successively aspired to be masters of the world,
+Julius Caesar, Mark Antony, and Octavian, and finally a province of the
+Roman Empire, the political and material prosperity of the Alexandrian
+Jews remained for the most part undisturbed. Julius Caesar and
+Augustus, who everywhere showed special favor to their Jewish
+subjects, confirmed the privileges of full citizenship and limited
+self-government which the early Ptolemies had bestowed.[13] Josephus
+records a letter of Augustus to the Jewish community at Cyrene, in
+which he ordains: "Since the nation of the Jews hath been found
+grateful to the Roman people, it seemed good to me and my counsellors
+that the Jews have liberty to make use of their own customs, and that
+their sacred money be not touched, but sent to Jerusalem, and that
+they be not obliged to go before the judge on the Sabbath day nor on
+the day of preparation for it after the ninth hour," _i.e._, after the
+early evening.[14] This decree is typical of the emperor's attitude to
+his Jewish subjects; and Egypt became more and more a favored home of
+the race, so that the Jewish population in the land, from the Libyan
+desert to the border of Ethiopia, was estimated in Philo's time at not
+less than one million.[15]
+
+The prosperity and privileges of the Jews, combined with their
+peculiar customs and their religious separateness, did not fail at
+Alexandria, as they have not failed in any country of the Diaspora, to
+arouse the mixed envy and dislike of the rude populace, and give a
+handle to the agitations of self-seeking demagogues. The third book of
+the Maccabees tells of a Ptolemaic persecution during which Jewish
+victims were turned into the arena at Alexandria, to be trodden down
+by elephants made fierce with the blood of grapes, and of their
+deliverance by Divine Providence. Some fiction is certainly mixed with
+this recital, but it may well be that during the rule of the stupid
+and cruel usurper Ptolemy Physcon (_c._ 120 B.C.E.) the protection of
+the royal house was for political reasons removed for a time from the
+Jews. Josephus[16] relates that the anniversary of the deliverance was
+celebrated as a festival in Egypt. The popular feeling against the
+peculiar people was of an abiding character, for it had abiding
+causes, envy and dislike of a separate manner of life; and the
+professional anti-Semite,[17] who had his forerunners before the reign
+of the first Ptolemy, was able from time to time to fan popular
+feelings into flame. In those days, when history and fiction were not
+clearly distinguished, he was apt to hide his attacks under the guise
+of history, and stir up odium by scurrilous and offensive accounts of
+the ancient Hebrews. Hence anti-Jewish literature originated at
+Alexandria.
+
+Manetho, an historian of the second century B.C.E., in his chronicles
+of Egypt, introduced an anti-Jewish pamphlet with an original account
+of the Exodus, which became the model for a school of scribes more
+virulent and less distinguished than himself. The Battle of Histories
+was taken up with spirit by the Jews, and it was round the history of
+the Israelites in Egypt that the conflict chiefly raged. In reply to
+the offensive picture of a Manetho and the diatribes of some
+"starveling Greekling," there appeared the eulogistic picture of an
+Aristeas, the improved Exodus of an Artapanus. Joseph and Moses
+figured as the most brilliant of Egyptian statesmen, and the Ptolemies
+as admirers of the Scriptures. The morality of this apologetic
+literature, and more particularly of the literary forgeries which
+formed part of it, has been impugned by certain German theologians.
+But apart from the necessities of the case, it is not fair to apply to
+an age in which Cicero declared that artistic lying was legitimate in
+history, the standard of modern German accuracy. The fabrications of
+Jewish apologists were in the spirit of the time.
+
+The outward history of the Alexandrian community is far less
+interesting and of far less importance than its intellectual progress.
+When Alexander planted the colony of Jews in his greatest foundation,
+he probably intended to facilitate the fusion of Eastern and Western
+thought through their mediation. Such, at any rate, was the result of
+his work. His marvellous exploits had put an end for a time to the
+political strife between Asia and Europe, and had started the movement
+between the two realms of culture, which was fated to produce the
+greatest combination of ideas that the world has known. Now, at last,
+the Hebrew, with his lofty conception of God, came into close contact
+with the Greek, who had developed an equally noble conception of man.
+Disraeli, in his usual sweeping manner, makes one of his characters in
+"Lothair" tell how the Aryan and Semitic races, after centuries of
+wandering upon opposite courses, met again and, represented by their
+two choicest families, the Hellenes and the Hebrews, brought together
+the treasures of their accumulated wisdom and secured the civilization
+of man. Apart from the question of the original common source, of
+which we are no longer sure, his rhetoric is broadly true; but for two
+centuries the influence was nearly all upon one side. The Jew,
+attracted by the brilliant art, literature, science, and philosophy of
+the Hellene, speedily Hellenized, and as early as the third century
+B.C.E. Clearchus, the pupil of Aristotle, tells of a Jew whom his
+master met, who was "Greek not only in language but also in mind."[18]
+The Greek, on the other hand, who had not yet comprehended the majesty
+of his neighbor's monotheism, for lack of adequate presentation, did
+not Hebraize. In Palestine the adoption of Greek ways and the
+introduction of Greek ideas proceeded rapidly to the point of
+demoralization, until the Maccabees stayed it. Unfortunately, the
+Hellenism that was brought to Palestine was not the lofty culture, the
+eager search for truth and knowledge, that marked Athens in the
+classical age; it was a bastard product of Greek elegance and Oriental
+luxury and sensuousness, a seeking after base pleasures, an assertion
+of naturalistic polytheism. And hence came the strong reaction against
+Greek ideas among the bulk of the people, which prevented any
+permanent fusion of cultures in the land of Israel.
+
+The Hellenism of Alexandria was a more genuine product. The liberal
+policy of the early Ptolemies made their capital a centre of art,
+literature, science, and philosophy. To their court were gathered the
+chief poets, savants, and thinkers of their age. The Museum was the
+most celebrated literary academy, and the Library the most noted
+collection of books in the world. Dwelling in this atmosphere of
+culture and research, the Hebrew mind rapidly expanded and began to
+take its part as an active force in civilization. It acquired the love
+of knowledge in a wider sense than it had recognized before, and
+assimilated the teachings of Hellas in all their variety. Within a
+hundred years of their settlement Hebrew or Aramaic had become to the
+Jews a strange language, and they spoke and thought in Greek. Hence it
+was necessary to have an authoritative Greek translation of the Holy
+Scriptures, and the first great step in the Jewish-Hellenistic
+development is marked by the Septuagint version of the Bible.
+
+Fancy and legend attached themselves early to an event fraught with
+such importance for the history of the race and mankind as the
+translation of the Scriptures into the language of the cultured world.
+From this overgrowth it is difficult to construct a true narrative;
+still, the research of latter-day scholars has gone far to prove a
+basis of truth in the statements made in the famous letter of the
+pseudo-Aristeas, which professes to describe the origin of the work.
+We may extract from his story that the Septuagint was written in the
+reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, about 250 B.C.E., with the approval, if
+not at the express request, of the king, and with the help of rabbis
+brought from Palestine to give authority to the work. But we need not
+believe with later legend that each of the seventy translators was
+locked up in a separate cell for seventy days till he had finished the
+whole work, and that when they were let out they were all found to
+have written exactly the same words. Philo gives us a version of the
+event, romantic, indeed, but more rational, in his "Life of
+Moses."[19] He tells how Ptolemy, having conceived a great admiration
+for the laws of Moses, sent ambassadors to the high priest of Juddea,
+requesting him to choose out a number of learned men that might
+translate them into Greek. "These were duly chosen, and came to the
+king's court, and were allotted the Isle of Pharos as the most
+tranquil spot in the city for carrying out their work; by God's grace
+they all found the exact Greek words to correspond to the Hebrew
+words, so that they were not mere translators, but prophets to whom
+it had been granted to follow in the divinity of their minds the
+sublime spirit of Moses." "On which account," he adds, "even to this
+day there is in every year celebrated a festival in the Island of
+Pharos, to which not only Jews but many persons of other nations sail
+across, reverencing the place in which the light of interpretation
+first shone forth, and thanking God for His ancient gift to man, which
+has eternal youth and freshness." It is significant that Philo makes
+no mention in his books of the festival of Hanukah, while the Talmud
+has no mention of this feast of Pharos; the Alexandrian Jews
+celebrated the day when the Bible was brought within reach of the
+Greek world, the Palestinians the day when the Greeks were driven out
+of the temple. At the same time the celebrations in honor of the
+Septuagint and of the deliverance from the Ptolemaic persecution[20]
+are remarkable illustrations of a living Jewish tradition at
+Alexandria, which attached a religious consecration to the special
+history of the community.
+
+It is not correct to say with Philo that the translator rendered each
+word of the Hebrew with literal faithfulness, so as to give its proper
+force. Rather may we accept the words of the Greek translator of Ben
+Sira: "Things originally spoken in Hebrew have not the same force in
+them when they are translated into another tongue, and not only these,
+but the law itself (the Torah) and the prophecies and the rest of the
+books have no small difference when they are spoken in their original
+language."[21]
+
+From the making of the translation one can trace the movement that
+ended in Christianity. By reading their Scriptures in Greek, Jews
+began to think them in Greek and according to Greek conceptions.
+Certain commentators have seen in the Septuagint itself the infusion
+of Greek philosophical ideas. Be this as it may, it is certain that
+the version facilitated the introduction of Greek philosophy into the
+interpretation of Scripture, and gave a new meaning to certain Hebraic
+conceptions, by suggesting comparison with strange notions. This
+aspect of the work led the rabbis of Palestine and Babylon in later
+days, when the spread of Hellenized Judaism was fraught with misery to
+the race, to regard it as an awful calamity, and to recount a tale of
+a plague of darkness which fell upon Palestine for three days when it
+was made;[22] and they observed a fast day in place of the old
+Alexandrian feast on the anniversary of its completion. They felt as
+the old Italian proverb has it, _Traduttori, traditori!_ ("Translators
+are traitors!"). And the Midrash in the same spirit declares[23] that
+the oral law was not written down, because God knew that otherwise it
+would be translated into Greek, and He wished it to be the special
+mystery of His people, as the Bible no longer was.
+
+The Septuagint translation of the Bible was one answer to the lying
+accounts of Israel's early history concocted by anti-Semitic writers.
+As we have seen,[24] the Alexandrian Jews began early to write
+histories and re-edit the Bible stories to the same purpose. And for
+some time their writings were mainly apologetic, designed, whatever
+their form, to serve a defensive purpose. But later they took the
+offensive against the paganism and immorality of the peoples about
+them, and the missionary spirit became predominant. Alexander
+Polyhistor, who lived in the first century, included in his "History
+of the Jews" fragments of these early Jewish historians and
+apologists, which the Christian bishop Eusebius has handed down to us.
+From them we can gather some notion of the strange medley of fact and
+imagination which was composed to influence the Gentile world. Abraham
+is said to have instructed the Egyptians in astrology; Joseph devised
+a great system of agriculture; Moses was identified variously with the
+legendary Greek seer Musaeus and the god Hermes. A favorite device for
+rebutting the calumnies of detractors and attracting the outer world
+to Jewish ideas, was the attachment to some ancient source of
+panegyrics upon Judaism and monotheism. To the Greek philosopher
+Heraclitus and the Greek historian Hecataeeus, who wrote a history of
+the world, passages which glorify the Hebrew people and the Hebrew God
+were ascribed. Still more daring was the conversion into archaic
+hexameter verse of the stories of Genesis and Exodus, and of Messianic
+prophecies in the guise of Sibylline oracles. The Sibyl, whom the
+superstitions of the time revered as an inspired seeress of
+prehistoric ages, was made to recite the building of the tower of
+Babel, or the virtues of Abraham, and again to prophesy the day when
+the heathen nations should be wiped out, and the God of Israel be the
+God of all the world. Although the fabrication of oracles is not
+entirely defensible, it is unnecessary to see, with Schuerer, in these
+writings a low moral standard among the Egyptian Jews. They were not
+meant to suggest, to the cultured at any rate, that the Sibyl in one
+case or Heraclitus in another had really written the words ascribed to
+them. The so-called forgery was a literary device of a like nature
+with the dialogues of Plato or the political fantasies of More and
+Swift. By the striking nature of their utterances the writers hoped to
+catch the ear of the Gentile world for the saving doctrine which they
+taught. The form is Greek, but the spirit is Hebraic; in the third
+Sibylline oracle, particularly, the call to monotheism and the
+denunciation of idolatry, with the pictures of the Divine reward for
+the righteous, and of the Divine judgment for the ungodly, remind us
+of the prophecies of Isaiah and Jeremiah; as when the poet says,[25]
+"Witless mortals, who cling to an image that ye have fashioned to be
+your god, why do ye vainly go astray, and march along a path which is
+not straight? Why remember ye not the eternal founder of All? One only
+God there is who ruleth alone." And again: "The children of Israel
+shall mark out the path of life to all mortals, for they are the
+interpreters of God, exalted by Him, and bearing a great joy to all
+mankind."[26] The consciousness of the Jewish mission is the dominant
+note. Masters now of Greek culture, the Jews believed that they had a
+philosophy of their own, which it was their privilege to teach to the
+Greeks; their conception of God and the government of the world was
+truer than any other; their conception of man's duty more righteous;
+even their conception of the state more ideal.
+
+The apocryphal book, the Wisdom of Solomon, which was probably written
+at Alexandria during the first century B.C.E., is marked by the same
+spirit. There again we meet with the glorification of the one true God
+of Israel, and the denunciation of pagan idolatry; and while the
+author writes in Greek and shows the influence of Greek ideas, he
+makes the Psalms and the Proverbs his models of literary form. "Love
+righteousness," he begins, "ye that be judges of the earth; think ye
+of the Lord with a good mind and in singleness of heart seek ye Him."
+His appeal for godliness is addressed to the Gentile world in a
+language which they understood, but in a spirit to which most of them
+were strangers. The early history of the Israelites in Egypt comes
+home to him with especial force, for he sees it "in the light of
+eternity," a striking moral lesson for the godless Egyptian world
+around him in which the house of Jacob dwelt again. With poetical
+imagination he tells anew the story of the ten plagues as though he
+had lived through them, and seen with his own eyes the punishment of
+the idolatrous land. He ends with a paean to the God who had saved His
+people. "For in all things Thou didst magnify them, and Thou didst
+glorify them, and not lightly regard them, standing by their side in
+every time and place."
+
+At this epoch, and at Alexandria especially, Judaism was no
+self-centred, exclusive faith afraid of expansion. The mission of
+Israel was a very real thing, and conversion was widespread in Rome,
+in Egypt, and all along the Mediterranean countries. The Jews, says
+the letter of Aristeas, "eagerly seek intercourse with other nations,
+and they pay special care to this, and emulate each other therein."
+And one of the most reliable pagan writers says of them, "They have
+penetrated into every state, and it is hard to find a place where they
+have not become powerful."[27] Nor was it merely material power which
+they acquired. The days had come which the prophet Amos (viii. 11) had
+predicted, when "God will send a famine in the land, not a famine of
+bread, nor a thirst for water, but a famine of hearing the words of
+the Lord." The Greek world had lost faith in the poetical gods of its
+mythology and in the metaphysical powers of its philosophical schools,
+and was searching for a more real object to revere and lean on. The
+people were thirsting for the living God. And in place of the gods of
+nature, whom they had found unsatisfying, or the impersonal
+world-force, with which they sought in vain to come into harmony, the
+Jews offered them the God of history, who had preserved their race
+through the ages, and revealed to them the law of Moses.
+
+The missionary purpose was largely responsible for the rise of a
+philosophical school of Bible commentators. The Hellenistic world was
+thoroughly sophisticated, and Alexandria was distinguished above all
+towns as the home of philosophical lectures and book-making. One of
+Philo's contemporaries is said to have written over one thousand
+treatises, and in one of his rare touches of satire Philo relates[28]
+how bands of sophists talked to eager crowds of men and women day and
+night about virtue being the only good, and the blessedness of life
+according to nature, all without producing the slightest effect, save
+noise. The Jews also studied philosophy, and began to talk in the
+catchwords of philosophy, and then to re-interpret their Scriptures
+according to the ideas of philosophy. The Septuagint translation of
+the Pentateuch was to the cultured Gentile an account in rather bald
+and impure Greek of the history of a family which grew into a petty
+nation, and of their tribal and national laws. The prophets, it is
+true, set forth teachings which were more obviously of general moral
+import; but the books of the prophets were not God's special
+revelation to the Jews, but rather individual utterances and
+exhortations: and their teaching was treated as subordinate to the
+Divine revelation in the Five Books of Moses. Those, then, who aimed
+at the spread of Jewish monotheism were impelled to draw out a
+philosophical meaning, a universal value from the Books of Moses.
+Nowadays the Bible is the holy book of so much of the civilized world
+that it is somewhat difficult for us to form a proper conception of
+what it was to the civilized world before the Christian era. We have
+to imagine a state of culture in which it was only the Book of books
+to one small nation, while to others it was at best a curious record
+of ancient times, just as the Code of Hammurabi or the Egyptian Book
+of Life is to us. The Alexandrian Jews were the first to popularize
+its teachings, to bring Jewish religion into line with the thought of
+the Greek world. It was to this end that they founded a particular
+form of Midrash--the allegorical interpretation, which is largely a
+distinctive product of the Alexandrian age. The Palestinian rabbis of
+the time were on the one hand developing by dialectic discussion the
+oral tradition into a vast system of religious ritual and legal
+jurisprudence; on the other, weaving around the law, by way of
+adornment to it, a variegated fabric of philosophy, fable, allegory,
+and legend. Simultaneously the Alexandrian preachers--they were never
+quite the same as the rabbis--were emphasizing for the outer world as
+well as their own people the spiritual side of the religion,
+elaborating a theology that should satisfy the reason, and seeking to
+establish the harmony of Greek philosophy with Jewish monotheism and
+the Mosaic legislation. Allegorical interpretation is "based upon the
+supposition or fiction that the author who is interpreted intended
+something 'other' [Greek: allo] than what is expressed"; it is the
+method used to read thought into a text which its words do not
+literally bear, by attaching to each phrase some deeper, usually some
+philosophical meaning. It enables the interpreter to bring writings of
+antiquity into touch with the culture of his or any age; "the gates of
+allegory are never closed, and they open upon a path which stretches
+without a break through the centuries." In the region of jurisprudence
+there is an institution with a similar purpose, which is known as
+"legal fiction," whereby old laws by subtle interpretation are made to
+serve new conditions and new needs. Allegorical interpretation must be
+carefully distinguished from the writing of allegory, of which
+Bunyan's "Pilgrim's Progress" is the best-known type. One is the
+converse of the other; for in allegories moral ideas are represented
+as persons and moral lessons enforced by what purports to be a story
+of life. In allegorical interpretation persons are transformed into
+ideas and their history into a system of philosophy. The Greek
+philosophers had applied this method to Homer since the fourth century
+B.C.E., in order to read into the epic poet, whose work they regarded
+almost as a Divine revelation, their reflective theories of the
+universe. And doubtless the Jewish philosophers were influenced by
+their example.
+
+Their allegorical treatment of the Bible was intended, not merely to
+adapt it to the Greek world, but to strengthen its hold on the
+Alexandrian Jews themselves. These, as they acquired Hellenic culture,
+found that the Bible in its literal sense did not altogether satisfy
+their conceptions. They detected in it a certain primitiveness, and
+having eaten further of the tree of knowledge, they were aware of its
+philosophical nakedness. It was full of anthropomorphism, and it
+seemed wanting in that which the Greek world admired above all
+things--a systematic theology and systematic ethics. The idea that the
+words of the Bible contained some hidden meanings goes back to the
+earliest Jewish tradition and is one of the bases of the oral law; but
+the special characteristic of the Alexandrian exegesis is that it
+searched out theories of God and life like those which the Greek
+philosophers had developed. The device was necessary to secure the
+allegiance of the people to the Torah. And from the need of expounding
+the Bible in this way to the Jewish public at Alexandria, there arose
+a new form of religious literature, the sermon, and a new form of
+commentary, the homiletical. The words "homiletical" and "homily"
+suggest what they originally connoted; they are derived from the Greek
+word [Greek: homilia], "an assembly," and a homily was a discourse
+delivered to an assembly. The Meturgeman of Palestine and Babylon, who
+expounded the Hebrew text in Aramaic, became the preacher of
+Alexandria, who gave, in Greek, of course, homiletical expositions of
+the law. In the great synagogue each Sabbath some leader in the
+community would give a harangue to the assembly, starting from a
+Biblical text and deducing from it or weaving into it the ideas of
+Hellenic wisdom, touched by Jewish influence; for the synagogues at
+Alexandria as elsewhere were the schools (_Schule_) as much as the
+houses of prayer; schools, as Philo says, of "temperance, bravery,
+prudence, justice, piety, holiness, and in short of all virtues by
+which things human and Divine are well ordered."[29] He speaks
+repeatedly of the Sabbath gatherings, when the Jews would become, as
+he puts it, a community of philosophers,[30] as they listened to the
+exegesis of the preacher, who by allegorical and homiletical fancies
+would make a verse or chapter of the Torah live again with a new
+meaning to his audience. The Alexandrian Jews, though the form of
+their writing was influenced by the Greeks, probably brought with them
+from Palestine primitive traces of allegorism. Allegory and its
+counterpart, allegorical interpretation, are deeply imbedded in the
+Oriental mind, and we hear of ancient schools of symbolists in the
+oldest portions of the Talmud.[31] At what period the Alexandrians
+began to use allegorical interpretation for the purpose of harmonizing
+Greek ideas with the Bible we do not know, but the first writer in
+this style of whom we have record (though scholars consider that his
+fragments are of doubtful authenticity) is Aristobulus. He is said to
+have been the tutor of Ptolemy Philometor, and he must have written at
+the beginning of the first century B.C.E. He dedicated to the king his
+"Exegesis of the Mosaic Law," which was an attempt to reveal the
+teachings of the Peripatetic system, _i.e._, the philosophy of
+Aristotle, within the text of the Pentateuch. All anthropomorphic
+expressions are explained away allegorically, and God's activity in
+the material universe is ascribed to his [Greek: Dunamis] or power,
+which pervades all creation. Whether the power is independent and
+treated as a separate person is not clear from the fragments that
+Eusebius[32] has preserved for us. Aristobulus was only one link in a
+continuous chain, though his is the only name among Philo's
+predecessors that has come down to us. Philo speaks, fifteen times in
+all, of explanations of allegorists who read into the Bible this or
+that system of thought[33] regarding the words of the law as "manifest
+symbols of things invisible and hints of things inexpressible." And if
+their work were before us, it is likely that Philo would appear as the
+central figure of an Alexandrian Midrash gathered from many sources,
+instead of the sole authority for a vast development of the Torah. We
+must not regard him as a single philosophical genius who suddenly
+springs up, but as the culmination of a long development, the supreme
+master of an old tradition.
+
+If the allegorical method appears now as artificial and frigid, it
+must be remembered that it was one which recommended itself strongly
+to the age. The great creative era of the Greek mind had passed away
+with the absorption of the city-state in Alexander's empire. Then
+followed the age of criticism, during which the works of the great
+masters were interpreted, annotated, and compared. Next, as creative
+thought became rarer, and confidence in human reason began to be
+shaken, men fell back more and more for their ideas and opinions upon
+some authority of the distant past, whom they regarded as an inspired
+teacher. The sayings of Homer and Pythagoras were considered as
+divinely revealed truths; and when treated allegorically, they were
+shown to contain the philosophical tenets of the Platonic, the
+Aristotelian, or the Stoic school. Thus, in the first century B.C.E.,
+the Greek mind, which had earlier been devoted to the free search for
+knowledge and truth, was approaching the Hebraic standpoint, which
+considered that the highest truth had once for all been revealed to
+mankind in inspired writings, and that the duty of later generations
+was to interpret this revealed doctrine rather than search
+independently for knowledge. On the other hand, the Jewish
+interpreters were trying to reach the Greek standpoint when they set
+themselves to show that the writers of the Bible had anticipated the
+philosophers of Hellas with systems of theology, psychology, ethics,
+and cosmology. Allegorism, it may be said, is the instrument by which
+Greek and Hebrew thought were brought together. Its development was in
+its essence a sign of intellectual vigor and religious activity; but
+in the time of Philo it threatened to have one evil consequence, which
+did in the end undermine the religion of the Alexandrian community.
+Some who allegorized the Torah were not content with discovering a
+deeper meaning beneath the law, but went on to disregard the literal
+sense, _i.e._, they allegorized away the law, and held in contempt the
+symbolic observance to which they had attached a spiritual meaning. On
+the other hand, there was a party which adhered strictly to the
+literal sense ([Greek: to hreton]) and rejected allegorism.[34] Philo
+protested against these extremes and was the leader of those who were
+liberal in thought and conservative in practice, and who venerated the
+law both for its literal and for its allegorical sense. To effect the
+true harmony between the literal and the allegorical sense of the
+Torah, between the spiritual and the legal sides of Judaism, between
+Greek philosophy and revealed religion--that was the great work of
+Philo-Judaeus.
+
+Though the religious and intellectual development of the Alexandrian
+community proceeded on different lines from that of the main body of
+the nation in Palestine, yet the connection between the two was
+maintained closely for centuries. The colony, as we have noticed,
+recognized whole-heartedly the spiritual headship of Jerusalem, and at
+the great festivals of the year a deputation went from Alexandria to
+the holy sanctuary, bearing offerings from the whole community. In
+Jerusalem, on the other hand, special synagogues, where Greek was the
+language,[35] were built for Alexandrian visitors. Alexandrian
+artisans and craftsmen took part in the building of Herod's temple,
+but were found inferior to native workmen.[36] The notices within the
+building were written in Greek as well as in Aramaic, and the golden
+gates to the inner court were, we are told by Josephus,[37] the gift
+of Philo's brother, the head of the Alexandrian community. Some
+fragments have come down to us of a poem about Jerusalem in Greek
+verse by a certain Philo, who lived in the first century B.C.E., and
+was perhaps an ancestor of our worthy. He glorifies the Holy City,
+extols its fertility, and speaks of its ever-flowing waters beneath
+the earth. His greater namesake says that wherever the Jews live they
+consider Jerusalem as their metropolis. The Talmud again tells how
+Judah Ben Tabbai and Joshua Ben Perahya, during the persecution of the
+Pharisees by Hyreanus, fled to Alexandria, and how later Joshua Ben
+Hanania[38] sojourned there and gave answers to twelve questions which
+the Jews propounded to him, three of them dealing with "the Wisdom."
+The Talmud has frequent reference to Alexandrian Jews, and that it
+makes little direct mention of the Alexandrian exegesis is explained
+by the distrust of the whole Hellenistic movement, which the rise of
+Christianity and the growth of Gnosticism induced in the rabbis of the
+second and third centuries. They lived at a time when it had been
+proved that that movement led away from Judaism, and its main tenets
+had been adopted or perverted by an antagonistic creed. It was a
+tragic necessity which compelled the severance between the Eastern and
+Western developments of the religion. In Philo's day the breach was
+already threatened, through the anti-legal tendencies of the extreme
+allegorists. His own aim was to maintain the catholic tradition of
+Judaism, while at the same time expounding the Torah according to the
+conceptions of ancient philosophy. Unfortunately, the balance was not
+preserved by those who followed him, and the branch of Judaism that
+had blossomed forth so fruitfully fell off from the parent tree. But
+till the middle of the first century of the common era the Alexandrian
+and the Palestinian developments of Jewish culture were complementary:
+on the one side there was legal, on the other, philosophical
+expansion. Moreover, the Judaeo-Alexandrian school, though, through its
+abandonment of the Hebrew tongue, it lies outside the main stream of
+Judaism, was an immense force in the religious history of the world,
+and Philo, its greatest figure, stands out in our annals as the
+embodiment of the Jewish religious mission, which is to preach to the
+nations the knowledge of the one God, and the law of righteousness.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+THE LIFE AND TIMES OF PHILO
+
+
+"The hero," says Carlyle, "can be poet, prophet, king, priest, or what
+you will, according to the kind of world he finds himself born
+into."[39] The Jews have not been a great political people, but their
+excellence has been a peculiar spiritual development: and therefore
+most of their heroes have been men of thought rather than action,
+writers rather than statesmen, men whose influence has been greater on
+posterity than upon their own generation. Of Philo's life we know one
+incident in very full detail, the rest we can only reconstruct from
+stray hints in his writings, and a few short notices of the
+commentators. From that incident also, which we know to have taken
+place in the year 40 C.E., we can fix the general chronology of his
+life and works. He speaks of himself as an old man in relating it, so
+that his birth may be safely placed at about 20 B.C.E. The first part
+of his life therefore was passed during the tranquil era in which
+Augustus and Tiberius were reorganizing the Roman Empire after a
+half-century of war; but he was fated to see more troublesome times
+for his people, when the emperor Gaius, for a miserable eight years,
+harassed the world with his mad escapades. In the riots which ensued
+upon the attempt to deprive the Jews of their religious freedom his
+brother the alabarch was imprisoned;[40] and he himself was called
+upon to champion the Alexandrian community in its hour of need.
+Although the ascent of the stupid but honest Claudius dispelled
+immediate danger from the Jews and brought them a temporary increase
+of favor in Alexandria as well as in Palestine, Philo did not return
+entirely to the contemplative life which he loved; and throughout the
+latter portion of his life he was the public defender as well as the
+teacher of his people. He probably died before the reign of Nero,
+between 50 and 60 C.E. In Jewish history his life covered the reigns
+of King Herod, his sons, and King Agrippa, when the Jewish kingdom
+reached its height of outward magnificence; and it extended probably
+up to the ill-omened conversion of Judaea into a Roman province under
+the rule of a procurator. It is noteworthy also that Philo was partly
+contemporary with Hillel, who came from Babylon to Jerusalem in 30
+B.C.E., and according to the accepted tradition was president of the
+Sanhedrin till his death in 10 C.E. In this epoch Judaism, by contact
+with external forces, was thoroughly self-conscious, and the world was
+most receptive of its teaching; hence it spread itself far and wide,
+and at the same time reached its greatest spiritual intensity. Hillel
+and Philo show the splendid expansion of the Hebrew mind. In the
+history of most races national greatness and national genius appear
+together. The two grandest expressions of Jewish genius immediately
+preceded the national downfall. For the genius of Judaism is
+religious, and temporal power is not one of the conditions of its
+development.
+
+Philo belonged to the most distinguished Jewish family of
+Alexandria,[41] and according to Jerome and Photius, the ancient
+authorities for his life, was of the priestly rank; his brother
+Alexander Lysimachus was not only the governor of the Jewish
+community, but also the alabarch, _i.e._, ruler of the whole Delta
+region, and enjoyed the confidence of Mark Antony, who appointed him
+guardian of his second daughter Antonia, the mother of Germanicus and
+the Roman emperor Claudius. Born in an atmosphere of power and
+affluence, Philo, who might have consorted with princes, devoted
+himself from the first with all his soul to a life of contemplation;
+like a Palestinian rabbi he regarded as man's highest duty the study
+of the law and the knowledge of God.[42] This is the way in which he
+understood the philosopher's life[43]: man's true function is to know
+God, and to make God known: he can know God only through His
+revelation, and he can comprehend that revelation only by continued
+study. [Hebrew: v-nbi' lbb hkma], God's interpreter must have a wise
+heart,[44] as the rabbis explained. Philo then considered that the true
+understanding of the law required a complete knowledge of general culture,
+and that secular philosophy was a necessary preparation for the deeper
+mysteries of the Holy Word. "He who is practicing to abide in the city
+of perfect virtue, before he can be inscribed as a citizen thereof,
+must sojourn with the 'encyclic' sciences, so that through them he may
+advance securely to perfect goodness."[45] The "encyclic," or
+encyclopaedic sciences, to which he refers, are the various branches of
+Greek culture, and Philo finds a symbol of their place in life in the
+story of Abraham. Abraham is the eternal type of the seeker after God,
+and as he first consorted with the foreign woman Hagar and had
+offspring by her, and afterwards in his mature age had offspring by
+Sarah, so in Philo's interpretation the true philosopher must first
+apply himself to outside culture and enlarge his mind with that
+training; and when his ideas have thus expanded, he passes on to the
+more sublime philosophy of the Divine law, and his mind is fruitful in
+lofty thoughts.[46]
+
+As a prelude to the study of Greek philosophy he built up a harmony of
+the mind by a study of Greek poetry, rhetoric, music, mathematics, and
+the natural sciences. His works bear witness to the thoroughness with
+which he imbibed all that was best in Greek literature. His Jewish
+predecessors had written in the impure dialect of the Hellenistic
+colonies (the [Greek: koine dialektos]), and had shown little
+literary charm; but Philo's style is more graceful than that of any
+Greek prose writer since the golden age of the fourth century. Like
+his thought, indeed, it is eclectic and not always clear, but full of
+reminiscences of the epic and tragic poets on the one hand, and of
+Plato on the other,[47] it gives a happy blending of prose and poetry,
+which admirably fits the devotional philosophy that forms its subject.
+And what was said of Plato by a Greek critic applies equally well to
+Philo: "He rises at times above the spirit of prose in such a way that
+he appears to be instinct, not with human understanding, but with a
+Divine oracle." From the study of literature and kindred subjects
+Philo passed on to philosophy, and he made himself master of the
+teachings of all the chief schools. There was a mingling of all the
+world's wisdom at Alexandria in his day; and Philo, like the other
+philosophers of the time, shows acquaintance with the ideas of
+Egyptian, Chaldean, Persian,[48] and even Indian thought. The chief
+Greek schools in his age were the Stoic, the Platonic, the Skeptic and
+the Pythagorean, which had each its professors in the Museum and its
+popular preachers in the public lecture-halls. Later we will notice
+more closely Philo's relations to the Greek philosophers: suffice it
+here to say that he was the most distinguished Platonist of his age.
+
+Philo's education therefore was largely Greek, and his method of
+thought, and the forms in which his ideas were associated and
+impressed, were Greek. It must not be thought, however, that this
+involved any weakening of his Judaism, or detracted from the purity of
+his belief. Far from it. The Torah remained for him the supreme
+standard to which all outside knowledge had to be subordinated, and
+for which it was a preparation.[49] But Philo brought to bear upon the
+elucidation of the Torah and Jewish law and ceremony not only the
+religious conceptions of the Jewish mind, but also the intellectual
+ideas of Greek philosophy, and he interpreted the Bible in the light
+of the broadest culture of his day. Beautiful as are the thoughts and
+fancies of the Talmudic rabbis, their Midrash was a purely national
+monument, closed by its form as by its language to the general world;
+Philo applied to the exposition of Judaism the most highly-trained
+philosophic mind of Alexandria, and brought out clearly for the
+Hellenistic people the latent philosophy of the Torah.
+
+Greek was his native language, but at the same time he was not, as has
+been suggested, entirely ignorant of Hebrew. The Septuagint
+translation was the version of the Bible which he habitually used, but
+there are passages in his works which show that he knew and
+occasionally employed the Hebrew Bible.[50] Moreover, his etymologies
+are evidence of his knowledge of the Hebrew language; though he
+sometimes gives a symbolic value to Biblical names according to their
+Greek equivalent, he more frequently bases his allegory upon a Hebrew
+derivation. That all names had a profound meaning, and signified the
+true nature of that which they designated, is among the most firmly
+established of Philo's ideas. Of his more striking derivations one may
+cite Israel, [Hebrew: v-shr-'l], the man who beholdeth God; Jerusalem,
+[Hebrew: yrv-shlom], the sight of peace; Hebrew, [Hebrew: 'bri], one who
+has passed over from the life of the passions to virtue; Isaac, [Hebrew:
+ytshk], the joy or laughter of the soul. These etymologies are more
+ingenious than convincing, and are not entirely true to Hebrew philology,
+but neither were those of the early rabbis; and they at least show that
+Philo had acquired a superficial knowledge of the language of Scripture.
+Nor can it be doubted that he was acquainted with the Palestinian Midrash,
+both Halakic and Haggadic. At the beginning of the "Life of Moses" he
+declares that he has based it upon "many traditions which I have
+received from the elders of my nation,"[51] and in several places he
+speaks of the "ancestral philosophy," which must mean the Midrash
+which embodied tradition. Eusebius also, the early Christian
+authority, bears witness to his knowledge of the traditional
+interpretations of the law.[52]
+
+It is fairly certain, moreover, that Philo sojourned some time in
+Jerusalem. He was there probably during the reign of Agrippa (_c._ 30
+C.E.), who was an intimate friend of his family, and had found a
+refuge at Alexandria when an exile from Palestine and Rome. In the
+first book on the Mosaic laws[53] Philo speaks with enthusiasm of the
+great temple, to which "vast assemblies of men from a countless
+variety of cities, some by land, some by sea, from East, West, North,
+and South, come at every festival as if to some common refuge and
+harbor from the troubles of this harassed and anxious life, seeking to
+find there tranquillity and gain a new hope in life by its joyous
+festivities." These gatherings, at which, according to Josephus,[54]
+over two million people assembled, must, indeed, have been a striking
+symbol of the unity of the Jewish race, which was at once national and
+international; magnificent embassies from Babylon and Persia, from
+Egypt and Cyrene, from Rome and Greece, even from distant Spain and
+Gaul, went in procession together through the gate of Xistus up the
+temple-mount, which was crowned by the golden sanctuary, shining in
+the full Eastern sun like a sea of light above the town. Philo
+describes in detail the form of the edifice that moved the admiration
+of all who beheld it, and for the Jew, moreover, was invested with the
+most cherished associations. Its outer courts consisted of double
+porticoes of marble columns burnished with gold, then came the inner
+courts of simple columns, and "within these stood the temple itself,
+beautiful beyond all possible description, as one may tell even from
+what is seen in the outer court; for the innermost sanctuary is
+invisible to every being except the high priest." The majesty of the
+ceremonial within equalled the splendor without. The high priest, in
+the words of Ben Sira (xlv), "beautified with comely ornament and
+girded about with a robe of glory," seemed a high priest fit for the
+whole world. Upon his head the mitre with a crown of gold engraved
+with holiness, upon his breast the mystic Urim and Thummim and the
+ephod with its twelve brilliant jewels, upon his tunic golden
+pomegranates and silver bells, which for the mystic ear pealed the
+harmony of the world as he moved. Little wonder that, inspired by the
+striking gathering and the solemn ritual, Philo regarded the temple as
+the shrine of the universe,[55] and thought the day was near when all
+nations should go up there together, to do worship to the One God.
+
+Sparse as are the direct proofs of Philo's connection with Palestinian
+Judaism, his account of the temple and its service, apart from the
+general standpoint of his writings, proves to us that he was a loyal
+son of his nation, and loved Judaism for its national institutions as
+well as its great moral sublimity. His aspiration was to bring home
+the truths of the religion to the cultured world, and therefore he
+devised a new expression for the wisdom of his people, and transformed
+it into a literary system. Judaism forms the kernel, but Greek
+philosophy and literature the shell, of his work; for the audience to
+which he appealed, whether Jewish or Gentile, thought in Greek, and
+would be moved only by ideas presented in Greek form, and by Greek
+models he himself was inspired.
+
+Philo's first ideal of life was to attain to the profoundest knowledge
+of God so as to be fitted for the mission of interpreting His Word:
+and he relates in one of his treatises how he spent his youth and his
+first manhood in philosophy and the contemplation of the universe.[56]
+"I feasted with the truly blessed mind, which is the object of all
+desire (_i.e._, God), communing continually in joy with the Divine
+words and doctrines. I entertained no low or mean thought, nor did I
+ever crawl about glory or wealth or worldly comfort, but I seemed to
+be carried aloft in a kind of spiritual inspiration and to be borne
+along in harmony with the whole universe." The intense religious
+spirit which seeks to perceive all things in a supreme unity Philo
+shares with Spinoza, whose life-ideal was the intuitional knowledge of
+the universe and "the intellectual love of God." Both men show the
+pursuit of righteousness raised to philosophical grandeur.
+
+In his early days the way to virtue and happiness appeared to Philo to
+lie in the solitary and ascetic life. He was possessed by a noble
+pessimism, that the world was an evil place,[57] and the worldly life
+an evil thing for a man's soul, that man must die to live, and
+renounce the pleasures not only of the body but also of society in
+order to know God. The idea was a common one of the age, and was the
+outcome of the mingling of Greek ethics and psychology and the Jewish
+love of righteousness. For the Greek thinkers taught a psychological
+dualism, by which the body and the senses were treated as antagonistic
+to the higher intellectual soul, which was immortal, and linked man
+with the principle of creation. The most remarkable and enduring
+effect of Hellenic influence in Palestine was the rise of the sect of
+Essenes,[58] Jewish mystics, who eschewed private property and the
+general social life, and forming themselves into communistic
+congregations which were a sort of social Utopia, devoted their lives
+to the cult of piety and saintliness. It cannot be doubted that their
+manner of life was to some degree an imitation of the Pythagorean
+brotherhoods, which ever since the sixth century had spread a sort of
+monasticism through the Greek world. Nor is it unlikely that Hindu
+teachings exercised an influence over them, for Buddhism was at this
+age, like Judaism, a missionizing religion, and had teachers in the
+West. Philo speaks in several places of its doctrines.[59] Whatever
+its moulding influences, Essenism represented the spirit of the age,
+and it spread far and wide. At Alexandria, above all places, where the
+life of luxury and dissoluteness repelled the serious, ascetic ideas
+took firm hold of the people, and the Therapeutic life, _i.e._, the
+life of prayer and labor devoted to God, which corresponded to the
+system of the Essenes, had numerous votaries. The first century
+witnessed the extremes of the religious and irreligious sentiments.
+The world was weary and jaded; it had lost confidence in human reason
+and faith in social ideals, and while the materialists abandoned
+themselves to hideous orgies and sensual debaucheries, the
+higher-minded went to the opposite excess and sought by flight from
+the world and mortification of the flesh to attain to supernatural
+states of ecstasy. A book has come down to us under the name of
+Philo[60] which describes "the contemplative life" of a Jewish
+brotherhood that lived apart on the shores of Lake Mareotis by the
+mouth of the Nile. Men and women lived in the settlement, though all
+intercourse between the sexes was rigidly avoided. During six days of
+the week they met in prayer, morning and evening, and in the interval
+devoted themselves in solitude to the practice of virtue and the study
+of the holy allegories, and the composition of hymns and psalms. On
+the Sabbath they sat in common assembly, but with the women separated
+from the men, and listened to the allegorical homily of an elder; they
+paid special honor to the Feast of Pentecost, reverencing the mystical
+attributes of the number fifty, and they celebrated a religious
+banquet thereon. During the rest of the year they only partook of the
+sustenance necessary for life, and thus in their daily conduct
+realized the way which the rabbis set out as becoming for the study of
+the Torah: "A morsel of bread with salt thou must eat, and water by
+measure thou must drink; thou must sleep upon the ground and live a
+life of hardship, the while thou toilest in the Torah."[61]
+
+We do not know whether Philo attached himself to one of these
+brotherhoods of organized solitude, or whether he lived even more
+strictly the solitary life out in the wilderness by himself. Certainly
+he was at one period in sympathy with ascetic ideas. It seemed to him
+that as God was alone, so man must be alone in order to be like
+God.[62] In his earlier writings he is constantly praising the ascetic
+life, as a means, indeed, to virtue rather than as a good in itself,
+and as a helpful discipline to the man of incomplete moral strength,
+though inferior to the spontaneous goodness which God vouchsafes to
+the righteous. Isaac is the type of this highest bliss, while the life
+of Jacob is the type of the progress to virtue through asceticism.[63]
+The flight from Laban represents the abandonment of family and social
+life for the practical service of God, and as Jacob, the ascetic,
+became Israel, "the man who beholdeth God," so Philo determined "to
+scorn delights and live laborious days" in order to be drawn nearer to
+the true Being. But he seems to have been disappointed in his hopes,
+and to have discovered that the attempt to cut out the natural desires
+of man was not the true road to righteousness. "I often," he says,[64]
+"left my kindred and friends and fatherland, and went into a solitary
+place, in order that I might have knowledge of things worthy of
+contemplation, but I profited nothing: for my mind was sore tempted by
+desire and turned to opposite things. But now, sometimes even when I
+am in a multitude of men, my mind is tranquil, and God scatters aside
+all unworthy desires, teaching me that it is not differences of place
+which affect the welfare of the soul, but God alone, who knows and
+directs its activity howsoever he pleases."
+
+The noble pessimism of Philo's early days was replaced by a noble
+optimism in his maturity, in which he trusted implicitly in God's
+grace, and believed that God vouchsafed to the good man the knowledge
+of Himself without its being necessary for him to inflict
+chastisements upon his body or uproot his inclinations. In this mood
+moderation is represented as the way of salvation; the abandonment of
+family and social life is selfish, and betrays a lack of the humanity
+which the truly good man must possess.[65] Of Philo's own domestic
+life we catch only a fleeting glimpse in his writings. He realized the
+place of woman in the home; "her absence is its destruction," he said;
+and of his wife it is told in another of the "Fragments" that when
+asked one day in an assembly of women why she alone did not wear any
+golden ornament, she replied, "The virtue of a husband is a sufficient
+ornament for his wife."
+
+Though in his maturity Philo renounced the ascetic life, his ideal
+throughout was a mystical union with the Divine Being. To a certain
+school of Judaism, which loves to make everything rational and
+moderate, mysticism is alien; it was alien indeed to the Sadducee
+realist and the Karaite literalist; it was alien to the systematic
+Aristotelianism of Maimonides, and it is alien alike to Western
+orthodox and Reform Judaism. But though often obscured and crushed by
+formal systems, mysticism is deeply seated in the religious feelings,
+and the race which has developed the Cabbalah and Hasidism cannot be
+accused of lack of it. Every great religion fosters man's aspiration
+to have direct communion with God in some super-rational way.
+Particularly should this be the case with a religion which recognizes
+no intermediary. The Talmudic conceptions of [Hebrew: nb'a], prophecy,
+[Hebrew: shkyna], the Divine Presence, and [Hebrew: rua hkdsh], the
+holy spirit, which was vouchsafed to the saint, certainly are mystic, and
+at Alexandria similar ideas inspired a striking development. Once again we
+can trace the fertilizing influence of Greek ideas. Even when the old
+naturalistic cults had flourished in Greece, and political life had
+provided a worthy goal for man, mystical beliefs and ceremonies had a
+powerful attraction for the Hellene; and, when the belief in the old
+gods had been shattered, and with the national greatness the liberal
+life of the State had passed away, he turned more and more to those
+rites which professed to provide healing and rest for the sickening
+soul. Many of the Alexandrian Jews must have been initiated into these
+Greek mysteries, for Philo introduces into his exegesis of the law of
+Moses an ordinance forbidding the practice.[66] He himself advocates a
+more spiritual mysticism, and it is a cardinal principle of his
+philosophy to treat the human soul as a god within and its absorption
+in the universal Godhead as supreme bliss, the end of all endeavor. He
+claimed to have attained, himself, to this union, and to have received
+direct inspiration. Giving a Greek coloring to the Hebrew notion of
+prophecy, "My soul," he says, "is wont to be affected with a Divine
+trance and to prophesy about things of which it has no knowledge"[67]....
+"Many a time have I come with the intention of writing, and knowing
+exactly what I ought to set down, but I have found my mind barren and
+fruitless, and I have gone away with nothing done, but at times I have
+come empty, and suddenly been full, for ideas were invisibly rained
+down upon me from above, so that I was seized by a Divine frenzy, and
+was lost to everything, place, people, self, speech, and thought. I
+had gotten a stream of interpretation, a gift of light, a clear survey
+of things, the clearest that eye can give."[68]
+
+In his "Guide of the Perplexed,"[69] Maimonides describes the various
+degrees of the [Hebrew: rua hkdsh], or what we call religious "genius,"
+with which man may be blessed. He distinguishes between the man who
+possesses it only for his own exaltation, and the man who feels
+himself compelled to impart it to others for their happiness. To this
+higher order of genius Philo advanced in his maturity. He consciously
+regarded himself as a follower of Moses, who was the perfect
+interpreter of God's thought. So he, though in a lesser degree, was an
+inspired interpreter, a hierophant (as he expressed it in the language
+of the Greek mystics) who expounded the Divine Word to his own
+generation by the gift of the Divine wisdom. When he had fled from
+Alexandria, to secure virtue by contemplation, he had as his final
+goal the attainment of the true knowledge of God, and as he advanced
+in age, he advanced in decision and authority. He was conscious of his
+philosophic grasp of the Torah, and the diffidence with which he
+allegorized in his early works gave place to a serene confidence that
+he had a lesson for his own and for future generations. Hoping for the
+time when Judaism should be a world-religion, he spoke his message for
+Jew and Gentile. We can imagine him preaching on Sabbaths to the great
+congregation which filled the synagogue at Alexandria, and on other
+days of the week expounding his philosophical ideas to a smaller
+circle which he collected around him.
+
+Essentially, then, he was a philosopher and a teacher, but he was
+called upon to play a part in the world of action. Following the
+passage already quoted, wherein Philo speaks of the blessings of the
+life of contemplation that he had led in the past,[70] he goes on to
+relate how that "envy, the most grievous of all evils, attacked me,
+and threw me into the vast sea of public affairs, in which I am still
+tossed about without being able to make my way out." A French
+scholar[71] conjectures that this is only a metaphorical way of saying
+that he was forced into some public office, probably, a seat in the
+Alexandrian Sanhedrin; and he ascribes the language to the bitter
+disappointment of one who was devoted to philosophical pursuits and
+found himself diverted from them. Philo's language points rather to
+duties which he was compelled to undertake less congenial than those
+of a member of the Sanhedrin would have been; and probably must refer
+to the polemical activity which he was called upon to exert in
+defending his people against misrepresentation and persecution. During
+the reign of Augustus and the early years of Tiberius (30 B.C.E.-20
+C.E.) the Roman provinces were firmly ruled, and the governors were as
+firmly controlled by the emperor. To Rectus, who was the prefect of
+Egypt till 14 C.E., and who was removed for attempted extortion,
+Tiberius addressed the rebuke, "I want my sheep to be shorn, not
+strangled." But when Tiberius fell under the influence of Sejanus, and
+left to his hated minister the active control of the empire, harder
+times began for the provincials, and especially for the Jews. Sejanus
+was an upstart, and like most upstarts a tyrant; and for some
+reason--it may be jealousy of the power of the Jews at Rome--he hated
+the Jewish race and persecuted it. The great opponent of Sejanus was
+Antonia, the ward of Philo's brother, and a loyal friend to his
+people; and this, too, may have incited Sejanus' ill-feeling. Whatever
+the reason, the Alexandrian Jews felt the heavy hand, and when Philo
+came to write the story of his people in his own times, he devoted one
+book to the persecution by Sejanus. Unfortunately it has not survived,
+but veiled hints of the period of stress through which the people
+passed are not wanting in the commentary on the law.
+
+There were always anti-Semites spoiling for a fight at Alexandria, and
+there was always inflammable material which they could stir up. The
+Egyptian populace were by nature, says Philo, "jealous and envious,
+and were filled moreover with an ancient and inveterate enmity towards
+the Jews,"[72] and of the degenerate Greek population, many were
+anxious from motives of private gain as well as from religious enmity
+to incite an outbreak; since the Jews were wealthy and the booty would
+be great. Among the cultured, too, there was one philosophical school
+powerful at Alexandria, which maintained a persistent attitude of
+hostility towards the Jews. The chief literary anti-Semites of whom we
+have record at this period were Stoics, and it is probably their
+"envy" to which Philo refers when he complains of being drawn into the
+sea of politics. In writings and in speeches the Stoic leaders Apion
+and Chaeremon carried on a campaign of misrepresentation, and sought to
+give their attacks a fine humanitarian justification by drawing fancy
+pictures of the Jewish religion and Jewish laws. The Jews worshipped
+the head of an ass,[73] they hated the Gentiles, and would have no
+communication with them, they killed Gentile children at the Passover,
+and their law allowed them to commit any offences against all but
+their own people, and inculcated a low morality. When it was not
+morally bad, it was degraded and superstitious. Whereas the modern
+anti-Semite usually complains about Jewish success and dangerous
+cleverness, Apion accused them of having produced no original ideas
+and no great men, and no citizen as worthy of Alexandria as himself!
+Against these charges Philo, the most philosophical Jew of the time
+and the most distinguished member of the Alexandrian community, was
+called upon to defend his people, and that part of his works which
+Eusebius calls [Greek: Hypotheticha]; _i.e._ apologetics, was probably
+written in reply to the Stoic attacks. The hatred of the Stoics was a
+religious hatred, which is the bitterest of all; the Stoics were the
+propagators of a rival religious system, which had originally been
+founded by Hellenized Semites and borrowed much from Semitic sources.
+They had their missionaries everywhere and aspired to found a
+universal philosophical religion. In their proselytizing activity they
+tried to assimilate to their pantheism the mythological religion of
+the masses, and thus they became the philosophical supporters of
+idolatry. Their greatest religious opponents were the Jews, who not
+only refused to accept their teachings, but preached to the nations a
+transcendental monotheism against their impersonal and accommodating
+pantheism, and a divinely-revealed law of conduct against their vague
+natural reason. In the Stoic pantheism the first stand of the pagan
+national deities was made against the God of Israel, and at Alexandria
+during the first century the fight waxed fierce. It was a fight of
+ideas in which persons only were victims, but at the back of the
+intermittent persecutions of which we have record we may always
+surmise the influence of the Stoic anti-Semites. The war of words
+translated itself from time to time into the breaking of heads.
+
+Philo, indeed, never mentions Apion by name, but he refers covertly in
+many places to his insolence and unscrupulousness.[74] Josephus wrote
+a famous reply to his attacks, refuting "his vulgar abuse, gross
+ignorance and demagogic claptrap,"[75] and the fact that a Palestinian
+Jew thought this apology necessary, proves the wide dissemination of
+the poison. The disgrace and death of Sejanus seem to have brought a
+relief from actual persecution to the Alexandrian Jews; but the
+ill-will between the two races in the city smouldered on, and it only
+required a weakening of the controlling hand at Rome to set the
+passions aflame again. Right through Philo's treatise "On the
+Confusion of Tongues," we can trace the tension. As soon as Gaius,
+surnamed Caligula, came to the imperial chair, the opportunity of the
+anti-Semites returned. Gaius, after reigning well a few months, fell
+ill, was seized with madness, and proved how much evil can be done in
+a short space by an imbecile autocrat. Flaccus, the governor of Egypt,
+who had hitherto ruled fairly, hoping to ingratiate himself by
+misrule, allowed himself to be led by worthless minions, who, from
+motives of private greed, desired a riot at Alexandria; he was won
+over by the anti-Semites and gave the mob a free hand in their attacks
+upon the "alien Jews."[76] The arrival of Agrippa, the grandson of
+Herod, who was on his way to his kingdom of Palestine, which the
+capricious emperor had just conferred upon him, excited the ill-will
+of the Alexandrian mob. Flaccus looked on while the people attacked
+the Jewish quarters, sacked the houses, and assailed everyone that
+came within their reach. The most distinguished Jews were not spared,
+and thirty members of the Council of Elders were dragged to the
+marketplace and scourged. Philo's account gives a picture strikingly
+similar to that of a modern pogrom. The brutal indifference of Flaccus
+did not indeed avail to ingratiate him with the emperor, and he was
+recalled to Italy, exiled, and afterwards executed.
+
+The recall of Flaccus did not, however, put an end to the troubles;
+the mob had got out of hand, the anti-Semitic demagogues were elated,
+and a fresh opportunity for outrage soon presented itself. The mad
+emperor, having exhausted ordinary human follies, went on to imagine
+himself first a god and then the Supreme God, and finally ordered his
+image to be set up in every temple throughout his dominion. The Jews
+could not obey the order, and the mob rushed into fresh excesses upon
+them, defiled the synagogues with images of the lunatic, and in the
+great synagogue itself set up a bronze statue of him, inscribed with
+the name of Jupiter. With bitterness Philo points out that it was easy
+enough for the vile Egyptians, who worshipped reptiles and beasts, to
+erect a statue of the emperor in their temples; for the Jews, with
+their lofty idea of God, it was impossible. Against the attack upon
+their liberty of conscience they appealed directly to Gaius. An
+embassy was sent to lay their case before him, and Philo went to Italy
+at the head of the embassy. "He who is learned, gentle, and modest,
+and who is beloved of men, he shall be leader in the city." So said
+one of the rabbis of old, and the maxim is especially appropriate to
+Philo, who in name and deed was "beloved of men." Philo has left us a
+very full account of his mission, so that this incident of his life is
+a patch of bright light, which stands out almost glaringly from the
+general shadow. The account is not merely, nor, indeed, entirely
+history. Looking always for a sermon or a subject for a philosophical
+lesson, Philo has tricked out the record of the facts with much
+moralizing observation on the general lot of mankind, and elaborated
+the part of Providence more in the spirit of religious romance than of
+scientific history. Yet the main facts are clear. Philo prepared a
+long philosophical "apologia" for the Jews and set out with five
+colleagues for Italy. Nor were the enemies of the Jews remiss; and
+Apion, the Alexandrian anti-Semite, was sent at the head of a hostile
+deputation. The emperor, Gaius, was in one of his most flippant moods
+and little inclined to listen to philosophical or literary
+disquisitions. At first he received the Jewish deputation in a
+friendly way, and led them to think that he was favorable; but when
+they came to plead their cause, they had a rude awakening. Philo, who
+was not likely to appreciate the bitter humor of the situation,
+tells[77] with gravity that he expected that the emperor would hear
+the two contending parties in all proper judicial form, but that in
+fact he behaved like an insolent, overbearing tyrant. The audience--if
+it can be so called--took place in the gardens of the palace, and the
+emperor dragged the unfortunate deputation after him about the place,
+while he gave orders to his gardeners, builders, and workmen. Whenever
+they tried to put forward their arguments, he would rush ahead,
+enjoying the fright and dismay of his helpless victims. At times he
+would stop to make some ribald and jeering remark, as, "Why don't you
+eat pork, you fools?" at which the Egyptians following loudly
+applauded. Philo and his comrades, half-dead with agony, could only
+pray; and in response to the prayer, says our moralizing chronicler,
+the emperor's heart was turned to pity, so that he dismissed them
+without giving any hostile answer. According to Josephus, he drove
+them away in a passion, and Philo had to cheer his companions by
+assuring them of the Divine aid.[78]
+
+The affair was a pathetic farce, and the Jewish actors in it had a
+sorry time. The people about the palace, taking their lead from the
+emperor, treated them as clowns, and hissed and mocked them, and even
+beat them. The scene is somewhat revolting when one conjures up the
+picture of the aged Jewish philosopher being roughly handled by the
+set of ruffians and impudent slaves who surrounded a Roman emperor.
+Happily Gaius jeered once too often in his mad life. One Chaerea, a
+Roman of position, nursed an insult of the emperor, and stabbed him
+shortly after these events; and the world had the respite of a
+tolerably sane emperor before the crowning horror of Nero was let
+loose upon it.
+
+The murder of the capricious tyrant released not only the Jews of
+Alexandria, but also the Jews of Palestine, from the burden of fear
+for their religion. The order had been given to set up a bronze statue
+of the emperor in the temple; the Roman governor Petronius was averse
+to obeying the edict, but the emperor insisted. King Agrippa, who had
+been but lately advanced by him to the kingdom of Judaea, interceded
+zealously on behalf of his people. Philo gives us an account of this
+appeal by the Jewish king,[79] which recalls at every turn the scenes
+of the book of Esther. We have again the fasting, the banquet, the
+emperor's request, the appeal of the royal favorite for his people.
+One higher critic, indeed, has been found to suggest that the Biblical
+book really relates Agrippa's intercession at Rome disguised in the
+setting of a Persian story. Agrippa secured for a short time the
+rescission of the fateful decree, but the capricious madman soon
+returned to his old frame of mind, and ordered his image to be set up
+immediately. Had not his death intervened, there would certainly have
+been rebellion in Palestine. As it was, the great revolt was postponed
+for thirty years. For a little the Jews prevailed over their
+adversaries; the anti-Semitic influences were put down in Judaea and
+in Alexandria, and in both places "there was light and joy and
+gladness for the Jews." Their political privileges were reaffirmed by
+imperial decree, and Philo's brother Alexander, who had been
+imprisoned, was restored to honor.[80] "It is fitting," ran the
+rescript of Claudius, "to permit the Jews everywhere under our sway to
+observe their ancient customs without hindrance. And I charge them to
+use my indulgence with moderation, and not to show contempt for the
+religious rites of other peoples."
+
+The note of triumph rings through the political references to be found
+in the last parts of Philo's allegorical commentary, and no doubt it
+was accentuated in the lost book which he added as an epilogue, or
+palinode, to his history of the embassy. God had again preserved his
+people, and discomfited their foes; recently-discovered papyri have
+revealed that the arch anti-Semites, Isidorus and Lampon, were tried
+at Rome and executed. Claudius was well-disposed to the Jewish race,
+and before the final storm there was a calm. Howbeit, after the death
+of Agrippa, in 44 C.E., Judaea became a Roman province, and under the
+rapacious governorship of Felix Florus and Cestius Gallus, the
+hostility of the people to the Romans grew more and more bitter. But
+in Alexandria there was tranquillity, or at least we know of no
+disquieting events during the next decade.
+
+"Old age," said Philo, "is an unruffled harbor,"[81] and the saying
+refers possibly to his own experience. For he must have died full of
+years and full of honors. Through his life he was the spiritual and
+philosophical guide, and finally he had become the champion of his
+people against their persecutors, giving dignity to their cause and
+inspiring respect even in their enemies. He was happy in the time of
+his death, for he did not live to see the destruction of the national
+home of his people and of that temple which he had loved to
+contemplate as the future centre of a universal religion. The
+disintegration of his own community at Alexandria followed full soon
+on the greater disaster; the temple of Onias was dismantled and
+interdicted against Jewish worship by Vespasian in the year 73 C.E.,
+and though, as has been noted, this was not in itself of great
+importance, it is symbolic of the uprooting of national life in the
+Diaspora as well as in Palestine itself. On the downfall of Jerusalem
+in 70 C.E. many of the extreme anti-Roman party, known as the Zealots,
+fled to Alexandria and stirred up rebellion and dissension. Nothing
+but disaster could have attended the outbreak, but it is a sad
+reflection that the governor who put it down and ruthlessly
+exterminated the rebels was none other than Tiberius Alexander, the
+nephew of Philo, who was in turn procurator of Judaea and Egypt. By
+another irony of history he had in the previous year been largely
+instrumental in securing for Vespasian, who was besieging Jerusalem,
+the imperial throne of Rome.[82] With him ends our knowledge of
+Philo's family, and it ends significantly with one who has ceased to
+be a Jew. The ruin of the Jewish-Alexandrian community was completed
+by a desperate revolt in the reign of Trajan, 114-117 C.E., after
+which they were deprived of their chief political privileges; and
+finally, after incessant conflicts with the Christians, they were
+expelled from the city by the all-powerful Bishop Cyril (415 C.E.).
+
+Philo himself passed out of Jewish tradition within a short time, to
+become a Christian worthy. The destruction of the nation and the
+gradual severance of the Christian heresy from the main community
+compelled the abandonment of missionary activity and distrust of the
+work of its exponents. The dangerous aspect of the Alexandrian
+development was revealed. Its philosophical allegorizing might attract
+the Gentile to the Jewish Scriptures, but it also led the Jew away
+from his special conduct of life. The Alexandrian Church, which
+claimed to continue the tradition of Philo, departed further and
+further from the Jewish standpoint, and formulated a dogmatic creed
+that was utterly opposed to Jewish monotheism. A philosophical Judaism
+for the whole world was a splendid ideal, but unfortunately in Philo's
+time it was incapable of accomplishment. The result of the attempt to
+found it was the establishment of a religion in which, together with
+the adoption of Hebraic teachings about God, certain ideas of
+Alexandrian mysticism became stereotyped as dogmas, and Jewish law was
+abrogated. When Babylon replaced Palestine as the centre of Jewish
+intellect, the works of Philo, like the rest of the Hellenistic-Jewish
+literature, written as they were in a strange tongue, fell into
+disuse, and before long were entirely forgotten. The Christians, on
+the other hand, found in Philo a notable evidence for many of their
+beliefs and a philosophical testimony for the dogmas of their creed.
+They claimed him as their own, and the Church Fathers, to bind him
+more closely to their tradition, invented fables of his meeting with
+Peter at Rome and Mark at Alexandria, They traced, in the treatise "On
+the Contemplative Life," a record of early Christian monastic
+communities, and on account of this book especially regarded Philo
+almost with the reverence of an apostle. To the Christian theologians
+of Alexandria we owe it that the interpretation of Judaism to the
+Hellenic world in the light of Hellenic philosophy has been preserved.
+Of the two Jewish philosophers who have made a great contribution to
+the world's intellectual development, Spinoza was excommunicated in
+his lifetime, and Philo suffered moral excommunication after his
+death. The writings of both exercised their chief influence outside
+the community; but the emancipated Jewry of our own day can in either
+case recognize the worth of the thinker, and point with pride to the
+saintliness of the man.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+PHILO'S WORKS AND METHOD
+
+
+The first thing that strikes a reader of Philo is the great volume of
+his work: he is the first Jewish writer to produce a large and
+systematic body of writings, the first to develop anything in the
+nature of a complete Jewish philosophy. He had essentially the
+literary gift, the capacity of giving lasting expression to his own
+thought and the thought of his generation. Treating him merely as a
+man of letters, he is one of the chief figures in Greek literature of
+the first century. We have extant over forty books of his composition,
+and nearly as many again have disappeared. His works are one and all
+expositions of Judaism, but they fall into six distinct classes of
+exegesis:
+
+I. The allegorical commentary, or "Allegories of the Laws," which is a
+series of philosophical treatises based upon continuous texts in
+Genesis, from the first to the eighteenth chapter. Together with this,
+the best authorities place the two remaining books on the "Dreams of
+the Bible," which are a portion of a larger work, and deal
+allegorically with the dreams of Jacob and Joseph.
+
+II. The Midrashic commentary on the Five Books of Moses, for which we
+have no single name, but which was clearly intended to be an ethical
+and philosophical treatise upon the whole law.
+
+III. A commentary in the form of "Questions and Answers to Genesis and
+Exodus," which is incomplete now, and save for detached fragments
+exists only in a Latin translation. In its original form it provided a
+short running exegesis, verse by verse, to the whole of the first
+three books of the Pentateuch, and was contained in twelve parts.
+
+IV. A popular and missionizing presentation of the Jewish system in
+the form of a "Life of Moses," and three appended tractates on the
+virtues "Courage," "Humanity," and "Repentance." Scholars[83] are of
+opinion that there are gaps in the extant "Life of Moses," but the
+general plan of the work is clear. It is at once an abstract and an
+interpretation of Jewish law for the Greek world, and also an ideal
+biography of the Jewish lawgiver.
+
+V. Philosophical monographs, not so intimately connected with the
+Bible as the preceding works; but in the nature of rhetorical
+exercises upon the stock subjects of the schools, which receive a
+Jewish coloring by reason of Biblical illustrations.
+
+VI. Historical and apologetic works that set out the case of the
+contemporary Jews against their persecutors and traducers. Of these
+writings the larger part has disappeared, and of a portion of those
+which remain the genuineness has been doubted.
+
+Lastly, there is a miscellaneous number of works ascribed to Philo,
+which all good scholars[84] now admit to be spurious: "On the
+Incorruptibility of the World," "On the Universe," "On Samson," and
+"On Jonah," etc.
+
+It will be seen from this classification of Philo's works, that he has
+dealt in several ways with the Biblical material. The reason of this
+is partly that his mind developed, and the interpretation of his
+maturer years differed widely from that of his earliest writings.
+Partly, however, it arises from the fact that the different treatments
+were meant for different audiences, and Philo always took the measure
+of those whom he was addressing. His most representative works are "a
+triple cord" with which he binds the Jewish Scripture to Greek
+culture. For the Greek-speaking populace he set out a broad statement
+of the Mosaic law; for the cultured community of Alexandria, Jew and
+Gentile, a more elaborate exegesis, in which each character and each
+ordinance of the Pentateuch received a particular ethical value; and,
+finally, for the esoteric circle of Hellenic-Jewish philosophers, a
+theological and psychological study of the allegories of the law.
+Origen, the first great Christian exegete of the Bible and a close
+student of the Philonic writings, distinguished three forms of
+interpreting: the historical, the moral, and the philosophical; he
+probably took the distinction from Philo, who exemplifies it in his
+commentaries upon the Books of Moses.
+
+Varied as is its scope, the religious idea dominates all his work, and
+endows it with one spirit. Whether he is writing philosophical,
+ethical, or mystical commentary, whether history, apology, or essay,
+his purpose is to assert the true notion of the one God, and the
+Divine excellence of God's revelation to His chosen people. Thus he
+regards history as a theodicy, vindicating the ways of God to man, and
+His special providence for Israel; philosophy as the inner meaning of
+the Scriptures, revealed by God in mystic communion with His holy
+prophets,[85] and, if comprehended aright, able to lead us on to a
+true conception of His Divine being. The greater part of the
+Hellenistic-Jewish literature has disappeared, but Philo sums up for
+us the whole of the Alexandrian development of Judaism. He represents
+it worthily in both its main aspects: the infusion of Greek culture
+into the Jewish pursuit of righteousness, and the recommendation of
+Jewish monotheism and the Torah to the Greek world. Aristaeus,
+Aristobulus, and Artapanus are hardly more than names, but their
+spirit is inherited and glorified in Philo-Judaeus. His work,
+therefore, is more than the expression of one great mind; it is the
+record and expression of a great culture.
+
+The chronology of Philo's writings is as uncertain as the chronology
+of his life. Yet it is possible to trace a deepening of outlook and an
+increasing originality, if we work our way up from the sixth to the
+first division of the classification. It does not follow that the
+works were written in this order--and it may well be that Philo was
+producing at one and the same time books of several classes--but we
+may use this order as an ideal scale by which to mark off the stages
+of his philosophical progress. In the first place come the [Greek:
+Hypotheticha], or apologetic works, which have a practical purpose.
+With these we may associate the moralizing history that dealt in five
+books respectively with the persecutions of Sejanus, Flaccus, and
+Caligula, the ill-starred embassy, and the final triumph of the Jews
+over their enemies. The [Greek: Hypotheticha] proper, as we gather
+from Eusebius, contained a general apology for Judaism, and an account
+of the Essenes--which have disappeared--and the suspected book on the
+Therapeutic sect known by the title "On the Contemplative Life."
+Whether they received this generic name because they are suggestions
+for the Jewish cause, or because they are written to answer the
+insinuations ([Greek: kath' hypothesin]) of adversaries, is a moot
+point. But their general purport is clear: they were an apologetic
+presentation of Jewish life, written to show the falsity of
+anti-Semitic calumnies. The Jews are good citizens and their manner of
+life is humanitarian. The Essene sect is a living proof of Jewish
+practical socialism and practical philosophy, the Therapeutae show the
+Jewish zeal for the contemplative life.
+
+Next we come to Philo's philosophical monographs, which are not, as
+one might expect, the work of his mature thought, but rather the
+exercises of youth. Dissertations or declamations upon hackneyed
+subjects were part of the regular course of the university student at
+Alexandria, and Philo prepared himself for his Jewish philosophy by
+composing in the approved style essays upon "Providence," "The Liberty
+of the Good," and "The Slavery of the Wicked," etc. What chiefly
+distinguishes them above other collections of commonplaces is the
+appeal to the Bible for types of goodness, and here again the Essenes
+figure as the type of the philosophical life.[86] The writer, while
+still engaged in the studies of the Greek university, is feeling his
+way towards his system of universal Mosaism.
+
+This he expounds confidently and enthusiastically in his "Life of
+Moses." Philo in this book is not any longer the apt pupil of Greek
+philosophers, nor the eloquent defender of the Jewish-Alexandrian
+community against lying detractors. He preaches a mission to the whole
+world, and he lays before it his gospel of monotheism and humanity.
+Each Greek school has its ideal type, its Socrates, Diogenes, or
+Pythagoras; but Philo places above them all "the most perfect man that
+ever lived, Moses, the legislator of the Jews,[87] as some hold, but
+according to others the interpreter of the sacred laws, and the
+greatest of men in every way." And above all the ethical systems of
+the day he sets the law of life that God revealed to His greatest
+prophet: "The laws of the Greek legislators are continually subject to
+change; the laws of Moses alone remain steady, unmoved, unshaken,
+stamped as it were with the seal of nature herself, from the day when
+they were written to the present day, and will so remain for all time
+so long as the world endures. Not only the Jews but all other peoples
+who care for righteousness adopt them.... Let all men follow this code
+and the age of universal peace will come about, the kingdom of God on
+earth will be established."[88] Nor is the Greek to fear the lot of a
+proselyte. "God loves the man who turns from idolatry to the true
+faith not less than the man who has been a believer all his life;"[89]
+and in the little essays upon Repentance and Nobility, which are
+attached to the larger treatise, Philo appeals to his own people to
+welcome the stranger within the community. "The Life of Moses" is the
+greatest attempt to set monotheism before the world made before the
+Christian gospels. And it is truer to the Jewish spirit, because it
+breathes on every page love for the Torah. Philo in very truth wished
+to fulfil the law.
+
+If Judaism was to be the universal religion, it must be shown to
+contain the ultimate truth both about real being, _i.e._ God, and
+about ethics; for the philosophical world in that age--and the
+philosophical world included all educated people--demanded of religion
+that it should be philosophical, and of philosophy that it should be
+religious. The desire to expound Judaism in this way is the motive of
+Philo's three Biblical commentaries. The "Questions and Answers to
+Genesis and Exodus" constitute a preliminary study to the more
+elaborate works which followed. In them Philo is collecting his
+material, formulating his ideas, and determining the main lines of his
+allegory. They are a type of Midrash in its elementary stage, the
+explanation of the teacher to the pupil who has difficulties about the
+words of the law: at once like and unlike the old Tannaitic Midrash;
+like in that they deal with difficulties in the literal text of the
+Bible; unlike in that the reply of Philo is Agadic more usually than
+Halakic, speculative rather than practical. In these books,[90] as has
+been pointed out, there are numerous interpretations which Philo
+shares with the Palestinian schools. A few specimens taken from the
+first book will illustrate Philo's plan, but it should be mentioned
+that in every case he sets out the simple meaning of the text, the
+_Peshat_, as well as the inner meaning, or _Derash_.
+
+"Why does it say: 'And God made every green herb of the field before
+it was upon the earth'? (Gen. ii. 4.)
+
+"By these words he suggests symbolically the incorporeal Idea. The
+phrase, 'before it was upon the earth,' marks the original perfection
+of every plant and herb. The eternal types were first created in the
+noetic world, and the physical objects on earth, perceptible by the
+senses, were made in their likeness."
+
+In this way Philo reads into the first chapter of the Bible the
+Platonic idealism which we shall see was a fundamental part of his
+philosophy.
+
+"Why, when Enoch died, does it say, 'And he pleased God'? (Gen. v.
+24.)
+
+"He says this to teach that the soul is immortal, inasmuch as after it
+is released from the body it continues to please."
+
+"What is the meaning of the expression, 'And Noah opened the roof of
+the ark'? (Gen. viii. 13.)
+
+"The text appears to need no interpretation; but in its symbolical
+meaning the ark is our body, and that which covers the body and for a
+long time preserves its strength is spoken of as its roof. And this is
+appetite. Hence when the mind is attracted by a desire for heavenly
+things, it springs upwards and makes away with all material desires.
+It removes that which threw a shade over it so as to reach the eternal
+Ideas."
+
+The "Questions and Answers" are essentially Hebraic in form, designed
+for Jews who knew and studied their Bible; and we can feel in them the
+influences of a training in traditional Mishnah and Midrash; but Philo
+passed from them to a more artistic expression and a more thoroughly
+Hellenized presentation of the philosophy of the Bible. This work is
+the largest extant expression of his thought and mission; it embraces
+the treatises which we know as "On the Creation of the World," "The
+Lives of Abraham and Joseph," "On the Decalogue," and finally those
+"On the Specific Laws," which are partly thus entitled and partly have
+separate ethical names, as "On Honoring Parents," "On Rewards and
+Punishments," "On Justice," etc. Large portions of it have
+disappeared, notably the "Lives of Isaac and Jacob"; and also the
+"Life of Moses," which was introductory to his laws. For the book
+which we have under that name does not belong to the series, but is
+separate. The purpose of the work broadly is to deepen the value of
+the Bible for the Jews by revealing its constant spiritual message,
+and to assert its value for the whole of humanity by showing in it a
+philosophical conception of the universe and its creation, the most
+lofty ethical and moral types, the most admirable laws, and, above
+all, the purest ideas of God and His relation to man. All that seems
+tribal and particularist is explained away, and the spiritual aspect
+of every chapter--of every word almost--of the Torah is emphasized.
+Philo expounds the sacred book, not of one particular nation, but of
+mankind. The Roman and Greek peoples were waiting for a religious
+message which should at once harmonize with rational ideas and satisfy
+their longing for God. All the philosophical schools were converting
+the scientific systems of the classical age into [Greek: Tropoi Biou],
+"plans of life," and Philo challenges them all with a new faith which
+has as its basis a God who not only was the sole Creator and Ruler of
+the world, but who had revealed to man the way of happiness, and the
+good life, social as well as individual. To-day, when the world about
+us has accepted--or has professed to accept--the ethical law of the
+Bible, we are apt to regard the essentials of Judaism as the belief in
+One God and the observance of ceremonies. But to Philo Judaism was
+something more comprehensive. It was the spiritual life, and the
+Mosaic law is the complete code of the Divine Republic, of which all
+are or can be citizens. In the introduction to the "Life of Abraham,"
+Philo explains the scheme of his work:[91]
+
+     "'The Sacred Laws' [as he regularly calls the Bible] were
+     written in five books, of which the first is entitled
+     Genesis. It derives its title from the account of the
+     creation which it contains, though it deals also with
+     endless other subjects, peace and war, hunger and plenty,
+     great cataclysms, and the histories of good and evil men. We
+     have examined with great care the accounts of the creation
+     in our former treatise ['On the Making of the Universe'],
+     and we now go on naturally to inquire into the laws; and
+     postponing the particular laws, which are as it were copies,
+     we will first of all examine the more universal, which are
+     their models. Now men who have lived irreproachable lives
+     are these laws, and their virtues are recorded in the Holy
+     Scriptures not only by way of eulogy, but in order to lead
+     on those who read about them to emulate their life. They are
+     become living standards of right reason, whom the lawgiver
+     has glorified for two reasons: (1) To show that the laws
+     laid down are consistent with nature [the conception of a
+     natural law binding upon all peoples was one of the fixed
+     ideas of the age]. (2) To show that it is not a matter of
+     terrible labor to live according to our positive laws if a
+     man has the will to do so; seeing that the patriarchs
+     spontaneously followed the unwritten principles before any
+     of the particular laws were written. So that a man may
+     properly say that the code of law is only a memorial of the
+     lives of the patriarchs. For the patriarchs, of their own
+     accord and impulse, chose to follow nature, and, regarding
+     her course with truth as the most ancient ordinance, they
+     lived a life according to the law."
+
+Philo dwells affectionately on the patriarchs, because, as he held,
+they proved the Jewish life to be truest to man's nature and to the
+highest ideal of humanity, and served therefore as examples to the
+Gentile world of the universal truth of the religion. The rabbis also
+took the patriarchs as the perfect type of our life, saying,
+"Everything that happens to them is a sign to future generations,"[92]
+and again: "The patriarchs are the true [Hebrew: mrbba], manifestation of
+God." But while he emphasized the broad moral teachings of Judaism
+exemplified by the patriarchs, Philo nevertheless upheld in its
+integrity the Mosaic law, and found in every one of the six hundred
+and thirteen precepts a spiritual meaning. Even the details of the
+tabernacle offerings have their universal lesson when he expounds them
+as symbols. Voltaire speaks cynically of Judaism as a religion of
+sacrifices: Philo shows that the ritual of sacrifice suggests moral
+lessons. The command of the red heifer, a part of the law which was
+particularly subject to attack, emphasizes the law of moral as well as
+of physical cleanliness. The prohibition to add honey or leaven to the
+sacrifice[93] (Lev. ii. 13) points the lesson that all superfluous
+pleasure is unrighteous; and so on with each prescription.
+
+The Mosaic code in his exposition is commensurate with life in all its
+aspects. It deals not only with the duties of the individual but also
+with the good government of the state. The life of Joseph is made the
+text of a political treatise, and throughout the books "On the
+Specific Laws," the socialism of the Bible is emphasized,[94] and held
+up as the ideal order of the future. The Jewish State is enlarged in
+Philo's vision from a national theocracy into a world-city inspired by
+the two ideas of love of God and love of humanity. In this conception,
+no doubt, the influence of Greek philosophy is to be seen; the Jewish
+interpreter keeps before him the "Republic" of Plato, and the "Polity"
+of Aristotle. With him, however, the ideal state is not a vision
+"laid up in heaven";[95] its foundation is already laid upon earth,
+its capital is Jerusalem, and it is the mission of his people to
+extend its borders till it embraces all nations[96]--an idea which
+permeates the Jewish litany.
+
+This commentary of the law is allegorical in the sense that beneath
+the particular law the interpreter constantly reveals a spiritual
+idea, but it is not allegorical in the sense that he makes an exchange
+of values. He is not for the most part reading into the text
+conceptions which are not suggested by it, but really and truly
+expounding; and where he gives a philosophical piece of exegesis, as
+when he explains the visit of the three angels to Abraham as a theory
+of the human soul about God's being,[97] he does so with diffidence or
+with reference to authorities that have founded a tradition. It is
+quite otherwise with the last class of Philo's work, the fruit of his
+maturest thought, with which it remains to deal.
+
+Throughout the "Allegories of the Laws" he takes the verse of the
+Bible not so much as a text to be amplified and interpreted, but as a
+pretext for a philosophical disquisition. The allegories indeed are
+only in form a commentary on the Bible; in one aspect they are a
+history of the human soul, which, if they had been completed, would
+have traced the upward progress from Adam to Moses. It is not to be
+expected, however, that Philo should adhere closely to any plan in the
+allegories. Theology, metaphysics, and ethics have as large a part in
+the medley of philosophical ideas as the story of the soul. His
+Hebraic mind, even when fortified by the mastery of philosophy, was
+unable to present its ideas systematically; it passed from subject to
+subject, weaving the whole together only by the thread of a continuous
+commentary upon Genesis. Parts of the work are missing, it is true,
+which adds to the seeming want of plan; and--greatest loss of all--the
+first part, which gave the philosophical account of the first chapter
+of Genesis, the first six days of creation, referred to as "The
+Hexameron" [Greek: to Hexemeron], has disappeared.[98] Here must
+have been the general introduction to the allegories, wherein Philo
+declared his purpose and his method of exposition. The first treatise
+that we possess starts abruptly with a comment on the first verse of
+the second chapter, "'And the heaven and earth and all their world
+were completed.' Moses has previously related the creation of the mind
+and sense, and now he proceeds to describe their perfection. Their
+perfection is not the individual mind or sense, but their archetypal
+'ideas.' And symbolically he calls the mind heaven, because in heaven
+are the ideas of the mind, and the sense he calls earth, because it is
+corporeal and material."[99]
+
+So in a rambling, unsystematic way Philo embarks upon a discourse on
+idealism and psychology, making a fresh start continually from a verse
+or a phrase of the Bible. The Biblical narrative in the earliest
+chapters offered a congenial soil for his explorations, but no ground
+is too stubborn for his seed. The genealogy of Noah's sons is as
+fertile in suggestion as the story of Adam and Eve, for each name
+represents some hidden power or possesses some ethical import.
+
+The allegorical commentary is clearly the work of Philo's maturity,
+wherein he exhibits full mastery of an original method of exegesis.
+His allegories are no longer tentative, and he writes with the
+confidence of the sage, who has received not only the admiration of
+his people, but the inspiration of God. Another sign of their maturity
+is that asceticism seems no longer the true path to virtue, as it was
+to the author of "The Lives of the Patriarchs" and "The Specific
+Laws," but, on the contrary, a moderate use of the world's goods and a
+share in political life are marks of the perfect man. These
+characteristics bespeak the firmer hand and the profounder experience.
+Yet the series of works which form together Philo's esoteric doctrine
+were certainly put together over a long period of years, as the varied
+political references indicate. It has indeed been suggested by a
+modern German scholar[100] that large parts were originally given in
+the form of detached lectures and sermons, and that Philo later
+composed them together into a continuous commentary, working them up
+with much literary elaboration. In support of this theory, it may be
+urged that several of the treatises contain political addresses to
+public audiences, notably the _De Agricultura_ and _De Confusione
+Linguarum_, while in others there are invocations to prayer, or a
+summons to read a passage in the Bible, addressed apparently by the
+preacher to the Hazan, who had before him the scroll of the law. From
+Philo's own statements we know that the wisest men used to deliver
+philosophical homilies upon the Bible on the Sabbath day; and it is
+natural that the man who was appointed to head the Jewish embassy to
+Gaius had made himself known in the past to his brethren for oratory
+and wisdom of speech. "Sermons," said Jowett, "though they deal with
+eternal subjects, are the most evanescent form of literature." The
+dictum is true for the most part, but occasionally the sermon, by its
+depth of thought, the universality of its message, and the beauty of
+its expression, has become part of the world's heritage from the ages.
+Moreover, at Alexandria philosophy was associated with preaching. And
+the sermons of the Jewish-Hellenistic writer, in their style as well
+as in their thought, represent an epoch. Philo spoke in the language
+of the intellectual world of his day, and strove to associate the
+intellectual precepts of Hellenism with the Hebraic passion for
+righteousness. In his great moments, however, the Hebraic spirit
+towers supreme. "He was," said Croiset, the historian of Greek
+literature, "the first Greek prose writer who could speak to God and
+of God to man with the ardent piety and reverence of the Jewish
+prophets."[101]
+
+It is a serious misconception to imagine that Philo's philosophical
+allegories were meant for the general body of Alexandrian Jews. He
+frequently[102] declares that he is speaking to a specially initiated
+sect, and warns his hearers not to divulge his teaching. The
+notion of an esoteric doctrine for the aristocracy of intellect had
+become a fixed idea in the Greek schools for three centuries, ever
+since the days of Aristotle; and whether through Greek influence or
+otherwise it had been generally adopted by the Jewish teachers. The
+rabbis of the Talmud derived from the first chapters of Genesis the
+inner mystery of the law, which was cognizable only by the sage; and
+the same idea is found in later Jewish tradition, which, expounding
+Paradise ([Hebrew: prds]) as four stages of interpretation, each
+marked by a letter of the word, Peshat, Remez, Derash, and Sod
+([Hebrew: sod]),[103] regarded the last as the final reward of the
+devoted seeker after God, as it is said in the Psalms, "The secret of
+the Lord is for those who fear Him." Jewish religious philosophers
+have in all ages designed their work for a select few. The Halakah, or
+way of life, is the fit study of the many. So Maimonides wrote his
+Moreh only for those who already were masters of the law. And Philo
+likewise at Alexandria taught an esoteric doctrine to an esoteric
+circle, which alone was fitted to receive the profoundest
+theology.[104] The allegories of the law do not take the place of the
+law itself, nor of its ethical ordinances. They are additional to the
+other exegesis and distinct, destined only for the man of learning.
+And as we shall see, he asserts emphatically in the midst of his
+allegories[105] that the perception of the philosophical value does
+not release man from the practice itself. The wise man even as the
+fool must obey the law.
+
+Why, it may be asked, does Philo artificially attach his philosophy to
+the Scriptures? He does so for two reasons: first, because he holds
+and wishes to prove that between faith and philosophy there is no
+conflict, and his generation worked out the agreement by this method;
+he does so also because he wishes to establish the Torah and Judaism
+upon a sure foundation for the man of outside culture. The pursuit of
+philosophy must have menaced the attachment to Judaism and challenged
+the authority of the Bible at Alexandria. A superficial knowledge of
+the materialistic or rationalistic theories, which were propagated
+respectively by the Epicurean and Stoic schools, was made the excuse
+for indifference to the law. Then as now the advanced Jew would mask
+his self-indulgence under the guise of a banal philosophy, and jeer
+easily at archaic myths and tribal laws. The dominating motive of
+Philo's work is to show that the Bible contains for those who will
+seek it the richest treasures of wisdom, that its ethical teaching is
+more ideal and yet more real than that which hundreds of sophists
+poured forth daily in the lecture-theatres[106] to the gaping
+dilettanti of learning, and lastly that the cultured Jew may search
+out knowledge and truth to their depths, and find them expressed in
+his holy books and in his religious beliefs and practices. Philo
+frequently introduces into his philosophical interpretation a polemic
+against the disintegrating and demoralizing forces which were at work
+in the Alexandria of his day. His commentary therefore is a strange
+medley, compounded of idealistic speculation, theology, homiletics,
+moral denunciation, and polemical rhetoric. The idea, which is not
+uncommon, that Philo represents the extreme Hellenic development of
+Judaism, and that he gathered into his writings the opinions of all
+Greek schools to the ruin of his Jewish individuality, is utterly
+erroneous. In fact, he chooses out only the valuable parts of Greek
+thought, which could enter into a true harmony with the Hebraic
+spirit; and he not only rejects, but he attacks unsparingly those
+elements which were antagonistic to holiness and righteousness. With
+the enthusiasm of a Maccabee, if with other weapons, he fought against
+the bastard culture, which meant self-indulgence and the excessive
+attention to the body, the idol-worship, the degraded ideas of the
+Divine power, and the disregard of truth and justice, that were
+current in the pagan society about him. The seeking after sensual
+pleasure and luxury was the most glaring evil of his city--as the
+Talmud says,[107] of ten parts of lust nine were given to
+Alexandria--and with every variety of denunciation he returns again
+and again to the charge. Epicureanism is detestable not only for its
+low idea of human life, but for its godless conception of the
+universe. Its theory that the world was a fortuitous concourse of
+atoms, which was governed by blind chance, and that the gods lived
+apart in complete indifference to men--this was to Philo utter
+atheism, and as such the greatest of sins. He attacked paganism not
+only in its crude form of idolatry,[108] but in its more seductive
+disguise of a pretentious philosophy. Always and entirely he was the
+champion of monotheism.
+
+Nearly as godless, and therefore as vile in his eyes as the follower
+of Epicurus, is the follower of the Stoic doctrines. It has been shown
+that the Jews and the Stoics were continually in conflict at
+Alexandria; and the "Allegories of the Laws" are filled with attacks,
+overt and hidden, upon the Stoic doctrines. The Stoics, indeed,
+believed in one supreme Divine Power, not however in a transcendental
+and personal God, but a cosmic, impersonal, fatalistic world-force.[109]
+To Philo this conception, with its denial of the Divine will and the
+Divine care for the individual, was as atheistic as the Epicurean
+"chance." Equally repulsive to his religious standpoint was the Stoic
+dogma, that man is, or should be, independent of all help, and that
+the human reason is all-powerful and can comprehend the universe by
+its own unaided power.[110] Repulsive also were their pride, their
+rejection of the emotions, their hard rationalism. The battle of Philo
+against the Stoics is the battle of personal monotheism against
+impersonal pantheism, of religious faith and revelation against
+arrogant rationalism, and of idealism against materialism. Hostile as
+he is to the Stoic intellectual dogmatism, Philo is none the less
+opposed to its converse, intellectual skepticism and agnosticism. Man,
+he is convinced, has a Divine revelation[111] which he may not deny
+without ruin. He holds with Pope that we have
+
+  "Too much of knowledge for the Skeptic side,
+  Too much of weakness for the Stoic's pride,"
+
+and he attacks the Skeptics of the day who devoted their minds to
+destructive dialectical quibbling and sophistry[112] instead of
+seeking for God and the human good. They are the Ishmaels of
+philosophy.
+
+Philo's polemic is directed less against the Greek schools in
+themselves than against the Jewish followers of the Greek schools. He
+saw the danger to Judaism in the teachings of these anti-religious
+philosophers, and deeply as he loved Greek culture, he loved more
+deeply his religion. He wanted to reveal a philosophy in the Bible
+which should win back to Judaism the men who had been captivated by
+foreign thought. In one aspect, therefore, his master-work is a plea
+for unity. The community at Alexandria was a very heterogeneous body;
+not only were the sects which had appeared in Palestine, the Sadducees,
+Samaritans, Pharisees, and Essenes, represented there too, but in
+addition there were parties who attached themselves to one or other of
+the Greek schools, the Pythagoreans, Skeptics, and the like, and
+lastly Gnostic groups, who cultivated an esoteric doctrine of the
+Godhead, and were lax in their observance of the law, which they held
+to be purely symbolical and of no account in its literal meaning. The
+mental activity which this growth of sects exemplified was in some
+respects a healthy sign, but it contained seeds of religious chaos,
+which bore their fruit in the next century. Men started by thinking
+out a philosophical Judaism for themselves; they ended by ceasing to
+be Jews and philosophers. Philo foresaw this danger, and he tried to
+combat it by presenting his people with a commentary of the Bible
+which should satisfy their intellectual and speculative bent, but at
+the same time preserve their loyalty to the Bible and the law. To the
+Greek world he offered a philosophical religion, to his own people a
+religious philosophy. Thus the allegorical commentary is the crowning
+point of his work, the offering of his deepest thought to the most
+cultured of the community; and though much of its detail had only
+relevancy for its own time, and its method may repel our modern taste,
+yet the spirit which animates it is of value to all ages, and should
+be an inspiration to every generation of emancipated Jews. That spirit
+is one of fearless acceptance of the finest culture of the age
+combined with unswerving love of the law and loyalty to catholic
+Judaism.
+
+We have already treated of the general characteristics of Philo's
+method of allegorical interpretation, but we must now consider rather
+more closely the way in which he employs it. The general principle
+upon which he depends is, that besides and in addition to the literal
+meaning which the Bible bears for the common man, it has a hidden and
+deeper meaning for the philosopher. It is, as it were, a sort of
+palimpsest; the writing on the top all may read, the writing below the
+student alone can decipher. With the rabbis Philo holds that the Torah
+was written "in the language of the sons of man,"[113] but he believes
+with them again that it contains all wisdom. And if the ideas of
+reason do not appear in its literal meaning, then they must be
+searched out in some inner interpretation. Commenting on the verse in
+Genesis (xi. 7), "Let us confound their language, that they may not
+understand one another's speech," he says: "Those who follow the
+literal and obvious interpretation think that the origin of the Greek
+and barbarian languages is here described; [the contrast between
+Greek, on the one hand, and barbarian--in which Hebrew, it seems, is
+included--on the other, is remarkable]. I would not find fault with
+them, because they also, perhaps, employ right reason, but I would
+call on them not to remain content with this, but to follow me to the
+metaphorical renderings, considering that the actual words of the holy
+oracle are, as it were, shadows of the real bodies, and the powers
+which they reflect are the true underlying ideas."[114]
+
+Elsewhere he tells a story of the condign punishment which befell a
+godless and impious man, perchance a Samaritan Jew, who made mock of
+the race of allegorical interpreters, jeering at the idea that the
+change of names from Abram to Abraham and from Sarai to Sarah
+contained some deep meaning. He soon paid a fitting penalty for his
+wicked wit, for on some very trivial pretext he went and hanged
+himself. Which was just, says Philo; for such a rascal deserved a
+rascal's death.[115] It is noteworthy that the Talmud also lays stress
+upon the deep meaning of the patriarch's change of name.[116] "He who
+calls Abraham Abram," said Bar Kappara, "transgresses a positive
+command" [Hebrew: mtsva 'sha]. "Nay," said Rabbi Levi, "he transgresses
+both a positive and a negative command (and commits a double sin)." Clearly
+this was a test-question and an article of faith, possibly because the
+letter [Hebrew: h], which was added to the name, was a letter of
+mystical import in the opinion of the age. Both the rejection of the
+literal and the rejection of the allegorical value of the Bible, Philo
+regarded as impious, and he had to struggle against opposite factions
+that were one-sided. The true son of the law believes in both [Greek:
+to hreton] and [Greek: to en hyponoiais].[117] Seeing that the
+Bible was the inspired revelation of God, who is the fountain of all
+wisdom and knowledge--this is Philo's cardinal dogma--it is not to be
+supposed, on the one hand, that it was silent about the profoundest
+ideas of the human mind, or, on the other, that it contained ideas
+opposed to right reason and truth. Yet at first sight it seemed to
+lack any definite philosophy and to offer anthropomorphic views of
+God. Hence the true interpreter must use the actual words of the sage
+as metaphors, following the maxim, "Turn it about and about, because
+all is in it, and contemplate it and wax grey over it, for thou canst
+have no better rule than this."[118] The principle upon which Philo,
+Saadia, Maimonides, and in fact the whole line of Jewish philosophical
+exegetes have worked, is that the "words of the law are fruitful and
+multiply"; or, as the Bible phrase runs, "The Torah which Moses
+commanded unto us is the inheritance of the congregation of Jacob." It
+is the separate inheritance of each generation, which each must
+cultivate so as to gather therefrom its own fruit.
+
+The Halakah is the outcome of this devotion in one aspect, the
+philosophical exegesis in another. In the one case Jewish
+jurisprudence and the body of legal tradition, in the other,
+philosophical ideas inspired by outer civilization, are attached to
+the text of the Bible by ingenious devices of association. The device
+is partly a pious fiction, partly a genuine belief; in other words,
+the teachers honestly thought that there was respectively a hidden
+philosophical meaning in the Bible and an oral tradition,
+supplementary to the written law and arising out of it; but on the
+other hand they would not have urged that their particular
+interpretation alone was portended by the Scriptures. This is shown in
+the Talmud by the fact that different rabbis deduced the same lessons
+from different verses, and contrary laws from the same verse; in Philo
+by the fact that he often gives various interpretations of one text in
+different parts of his work. All that was claimed was that knowledge
+and truth must be primarily referred to the Divine revelation, and all
+law and practice to the authority of the Mosaic code. Philo, then, in
+the same way as the rabbis, deduces all his teaching from the Bible,
+not because he holds that it was explicitly contained there, but
+because he desires to give to his philosophical notions Divine
+authority. Like the rabbis, again, he suggests definite rules of
+interpretation which may always be applied [Greek: kanones tes
+allegorias].[119] He declares that every name in the Torah has a deep
+symbolical meaning, and symbolizes some power.[120] Thus the names of
+the sons of Jacob typify each some moral quality, and these qualities
+together make the perfect man and the perfect nation. Reuben is "the
+son of insight" [Hebrew: ru'bn], Simeon is learning [Hebrew: shm'-on],
+Judah [Hebrew: yhuda] stands for the praise of God.[121] It may be noted,
+by the way, that all these values show traces of Hebrew etymology. Again,
+the synonyms in the Bible are to be carefully studied, while even
+particles and parts of words have their special value and importance.
+And the skilful exegete may for homiletical purposes make slight
+changes in a word, following the rabbinical rule,[122] "Read not so,
+but so." Thus he plays upon the name Esau, and takes the Hebrew word
+as though it were written, not [Hebrew: 'eshaw] but [Hebrew: 'ashav], a
+thing made.[123] Whence he shows that Esau represents the sham
+(made-up) greatness, which is boastful and insolent and shameless.
+Philo is referring perhaps to Apion, the vainglorious anti-Semite,
+whom he often covertly attacks. Again, whenever there is repetition in
+the text, a deeper meaning is portended. Dealing with the verse,
+"Sarah the wife of Abraham took Hagar the Egyptian" (Gen. xvi. 3),
+Philo comments, that we already knew that Sarah was Abraham's wife:
+why, then, does the Bible mention it again? And following certain
+values which he has made, he draws the lesson that the study of
+philosophy must always go together with the study of general
+culture.[124] These examples are not isolated; yet it is rather a
+barren science to search for the canons of Philo's allegory, as
+Siegfried has done.
+
+For his allegory is a very flexible instrument, which can be employed
+at pleasure to deduce anything from anything. And Philo regards these
+"points of construction" as the excuse, not as the motive, of his
+ethical and philosophical teaching. He does not depend on such
+devices, for he wanders into allegory more often than not without any
+pretext of the kind.
+
+The modern reader may consider the allegorical method artificial and
+unconvincing, even if he does not go so far as Spinoza, and say that
+it is "useless, harmful, and absurd."[125] We prefer to-day to show
+the inner agreement of philosophical with Biblical teaching, rather
+than pretend that all philosophy is contained within the Bible; and we
+accept the Bible as it stands, as a book of supreme religious worth,
+without requiring more of it. But that is mainly a difference of taste
+or of method, and in Philo's day, and in fact down to the time of the
+sixteenth-century Renaissance, Jew and Gentile alike preferred the
+other way. For thought, ancient and mediaeval, was pervaded with the
+craving for authority or a plausible show of it. The Bible was not
+only the great book of morality, but the standard of truth, that from
+which knowledge in all its branches started, and that by which it was
+to be judged. As all knowledge came from God, so all knowledge was in
+God's Book; and allegory was the method by which the intellectual
+conceptions of succeeding ages were attached to it.
+
+The two main heads of Biblical interpretation which the Jewish
+religious genius developed, Peshat and Derash,--these represent two
+permanent attitudes of mind. In the first the commentator tries to get
+at the exact meaning of the text before him, to make its lesson clear
+and discuss the circumstances of the composition, the exact relations
+of its parts. He is satisfied to take the writer of the Biblical book
+for what he says in his own form of utterance. In the second the
+commentator is more anxious to inculcate ideas and lessons which do
+not arise obviously from the text, and to widen the significance of
+what he finds in the Bible. The interpretation ceases to be a mere
+exposition; it becomes creative or conciliating thought, and the
+interpreter becomes a religious reformer, a philosopher, a prophet. To
+this school Philo belongs, and the framework of his teaching or the
+ingenuity by which he develops it from his text is of small account.
+It is what he teaches and what he considers to be the vital things in
+religion and life to which we must pay attention. Judged on this
+ground Philo is a supreme master of Derash, and must take a place
+among the most creative of the interpreters of the Bible.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+PHILO AND THE TORAH
+
+
+Over and over again Philo declares that his function is to expound the
+law of Moses. Moses was the interpreter of God's word to Israel; and
+Philo aspired to be the interpreter of the revelation of Moses to the
+Hellenistic world, "the living voice of the holy law." He believed
+that Israel was a chosen people in the sense that it had received the
+Divine message on behalf of the whole human race,[126] a Kingdom of
+Priests, in that it occupied to other nations the position which the
+priest--using the word in the fullest sense--occupied to the common
+people.[127] The Torah is God's covenant, not only with one small
+nation, but with all His children, and its teachings are true for all
+times and for all places. "The Bible," as Professor Butcher says,[128]
+"is the one book which appears to have the capacity of eternal
+self-adjustment, of uninterrupted correspondence with an ever-shifting
+and ever-widening environment." Nowadays this appears a truism, but
+the truth first presented itself to the Jewish-Alexandrian community
+when they came in contact with external culture. The Palestinian and
+Babylonian Jews, free for the most part from outside influences,
+developed the Torah for the Jewish people, amplified the tradition,
+and determined the Halakah, the practical law. But the Alexandrian
+Jews in the first place found their own attitude to the Torah affected
+by their acquaintance with Greek ethics and metaphysics, and also
+found it necessary to interpret the Bible in a new fashion in order to
+make its value known to their environment. The Greek world required to
+be shown the general principle, the broad ethical idea in each
+ordinance. And thus it came about that the Alexandrian interpreters
+always emphasized the universal beneath the particular, the moral
+spirit beneath the forms.
+
+It had been one of the chief functions of the prophets to demonstrate
+the moral import of the law. In their vision the God of Israel became
+the God of the universe, and His law of conduct was spread over all
+mankind. "For the law shall go forth from Zion, and the word of the
+Lord from Jerusalem" (Micah iv. 2). Philo in effect expounds Judaism
+in their spirit, though he speaks their message in the voice of Plato
+and to a people whose minds were trained in Greek culture. Yet it is
+significant that he wrote all his commentaries round the Five Books of
+Moses, and used the prophets and other Biblical books only to
+illustrate and support the Mosaic teaching, which contains the whole
+way of life and the whole religious philosophy. According to the
+rabbis also the Prophets formed only a complement to the Torah, "a
+species of Agadah";[129] and the prophetic vision of Moses was much
+clearer than that of his successors. Philo, too, clearly realized that
+Judaism was the religion of the law. His view of the Torah is what the
+modern world would call uncritical: that is to say, he accepts the
+idea that the whole of the Five Books was an objective revelation to
+Moses at Sinai. But though--or because--he is innocent of the higher
+criticism, and believes in the literal inspiration of the Torah, his
+conception is none the less enlightened and spiritual. The law--the
+Divine Logos--is not the enactment of an outside power, arbitrarily
+imposed, and to be obeyed because of its miraculous origin; it is the
+expression of the human soul within, when raised to its highest power
+by the Divine inspiration. Every man may fit himself to receive the
+Divine word, which is, in modern language, revelation.[130] Moses,
+then, is distinguished above all other legislators, not because he
+alone received it, but because he received it in its purest form, and
+because he was the most noble interpreter of it. It is for this reason
+that the law of Moses is of universal validity for conduct. The Divine
+spirit possessed him so fully that his Logos, or revelation, is
+eternally true, and by following it all men become fit to be blessed
+with the Divine gift themselves. This is true of the other prophets of
+the Bible to a smaller degree, and in a still minor degree Philo hoped
+that it was true of himself.
+
+It should be premised that the "law of nature" was at the time of
+Philo an idea as widely accepted as "evolution" is to-day. Men
+believed that by a study of the processes of the universe the
+individual might discover the law of conduct that should bring his
+action into harmony with the whole. What the Greek philosophers
+declared to be the privilege of the few, Philo declared to have been
+imparted by God to His people as their law of life. Hence the Mosaic
+legislation is the code of nature and reason, and the righteous man
+directs his conduct in accordance with those rules of nature by which
+the cosmos is ordered.[131] Obedience to the law should not be
+obedience to an outward prescription, but rather the following out of
+our own highest nature. The ideal which the Stoic sage continually
+aspired for and never attained to--the life according to nature and
+right reason--this Philo claimed had been accomplished in the Mosaic
+revelation, handed down by God to Israel and through them to the
+world.
+
+Before we deal with Philo's treatment of the law in its narrower
+sense, it will be as well to consider briefly his interpretation of
+the historical parts of the Torah. Here likewise he finds ideas of
+natural reason and eternal truths embodied. To Philo, as we have seen,
+the Torah is a unity, and every part of it has equal validity and
+value. He had to contend against certain higher critics of his day,
+who declared that Genesis was a collection of myths ([Greek:
+mython plasmata]).[132] Moreover, the long catalogues of
+genealogies in Genesis and the longer recitals of sacrifices in
+Leviticus and Numbers seemed to refute those who declared that every
+part of the Pentateuch was a Divine revelation. In the third book of
+the "Questions to Genesis" Philo directly grapples with this
+objection. Commenting on the verse (Gen. xv. 9), "Take for me a heifer
+of three years old and a goat of three years old," etc., he says that
+in interpreting any part or any verse of Scripture we must look to the
+purpose of the whole and explain it from this outlook, "without
+dissecting or disturbing its harmony or disintegrating its
+unity."[133] Why should God, asked the scoffer, reveal these trivial
+or prolix details? Philo's answer is in fact to spiritualize
+everything that is material, and universalize everything that is
+particular. While he believes in the literal inspiration of the Bible,
+he does not insist upon the literal truth of every word of it, and in
+the opening chapters of Genesis in particular, he treats the tales as
+symbolical or allegorical myths. His philosophical commentary on the
+creation, corresponding to the [Hebrew: m'sha br'shit] of the
+rabbis, is found in the book _De Mundi Opificio_, which stands in
+modern editions at the head of his writings. Its main theme is to
+trace in the text the Platonic idealism, _i.e._, the theory that God
+first created transcendental, incorporeal archetypes of all
+physical and material things. Philo uses the double account of the
+creation of man in the first and second chapters of Genesis as clear
+evidence that the Bible describes--for those who have the mind to
+see--the creation of an ideal before the terrestrial man.
+
+In the "Allegories of the Laws," which is the profounder philosophical
+doctrine, the account of Adam and Eve is deliberately chosen by Philo
+as the text of a psychological treatise, in which he analyzes[134] the
+relations of the mind, the senses, and the pleasures, represented
+respectively by Adam, Eve, and the Serpent. The necessity of
+explaining the story symbolically is professedly based on the fact
+that otherwise we are driven to the idea that the Bible spoke
+inaccurately about God. "It is silly," he says, "to suppose that Adam
+and Eve can have hidden themselves in the Garden of Eden, for God
+filled the whole." We are driven then to suggest another meaning; and
+Philo passes into a homily about the false opinion of the man who
+follows the bidding of the senses (Eve) at the instigation of pleasure
+(the Serpent).[135]
+
+The story of Cain and Abel is another piece of moral philosophy
+embodied in a concrete form. Abel symbolizes pious humility, Cain the
+deadly sin of atheism and intellectual pride, which denies the
+absolute and ever-present power of the Deity. Philo asks himself the
+question that other commentators have frequently raised, some in
+reverence, some in ridicule, "Who was Cain's wife?"[136] And he
+answers that the Bible expression about the children of Cain cannot be
+taken literally, but suggests the union of the ill-ruled mind with
+impious opinions, which have as their issue false pride and sin.
+
+Philo here treats the stories in the opening of Genesis as pure
+allegories, in which the men and women represent symbolically
+characters and qualities. It should be remembered, however, that these
+interpretations occur in the commentary where our author is not so
+much expounding the Torah as deducing secret doctrines from it. His
+proper exposition of the law proceeds from the book on the Creation to
+the lives of the patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, and then to the
+lives of Joseph and Moses. And in this commentary the Bible narrative
+is taken as historical truth: only in addition to the historical fact
+there is a moral and universal value in every figure and every
+episode. The patriarchs' lives represent the unwritten law which the
+Greek world held in high honor, for it was considered to contain the
+broad principles of individual and social conduct, and to be prior
+logically and chronologically to the written codes. Moses, therefore,
+the perfect legislator, according to Philo, has presented in the three
+founders of the Hebrew race embodiments of the unwritten law of good
+conduct for all mankind. Each of them is a moral type of eternal
+validity and represents one of the ways in which blessedness may be
+attained.[137] Abraham represents the goodness which comes from
+instruction; Isaac, the spontaneous goodness that is innate, and the
+joy (or laughter) of the soul that is God's gift to his favored sons;
+Jacob, the goodness that comes after long effort, through the life of
+practice and severe discipline. Before this triad, the Bible presents
+another group of three, who represent the virtues preparatory to the
+acquisition of perfect goodness: Enosh, Enoch, and Noah.[138] They
+typify respectively, as their names indicate, hope, repentance, and
+justice. It is a pretty thought, helped by an error in the Septuagint
+translation,[139] which sees in the name of the first (_i.e._, man,
+[Hebrew: 'nosh]) the symbol of hope. Hope, the commentator suggests, is the
+distinguishing characteristic of man[140] as compared with other
+animals, and hope therefore is our first step towards the Divine
+nature, the seed of which faith is the fruit. Next in order come
+repentance and natural justice, and from these stepping-stones we can
+rise to the higher self. Philo's interpretation of these Bible figures
+would appear to have behind it an old Midrashic tradition. As far back
+as the book of Ben Sira, in the passage on "the Praises of Famous Men"
+(xliv), they are taken as typical of the different virtues, and Enoch
+notably is the type of repentance. In the first century the world was
+becoming incapable of understanding abstract ideas, and required
+ethics to be concretely embodied in examples of life. Philo found
+within the Jewish Scriptures what the Christian apostles later
+transferred to other events.
+
+Joseph, whose life followed that of the patriarchs, is the type of the
+political life, the model of the man of action and ambition. Taken
+alone, this is inferior to the life of the saint and philosopher, but
+mixed with the other it produces the perfect man, for the truly good
+man must take his part in public life. The story of Joseph, then,
+illustrates the full humanity of Moses' scheme, and it marks also,
+according to Philo, the great moral lesson, that if there be one spark
+of nobility in a man's soul, God will find it and cause it to shine
+forth.[141] For Joseph, until he comes down to Egypt, is not a
+virtuous man, but full of conceit and unworthy aspiration for
+supremacy; he shows his true worth when he is sold into slavery; and
+then by the Divine inspiration he becomes the ideal statesman. Very
+suggestive is Philo's homily, by which he develops the Bible
+narrative, that the function of the statesman is to expound
+dreams;[142] because his task is to interpret the life of man, which
+is one long dream of changing scenes, wherein we forget what has gone
+before, as the fleeting shadow leads us from childhood to youth, from
+youth to manhood, from manhood to old age. Lastly, from the story of
+Joseph he draws the lesson that when the Hebrew has attained to a high
+position in a foreign land, as in Egypt, where there is utter
+blindness about the true God, he can and should retain his national
+laws,[143] and not assimilate the practices of his environment.
+
+Eusebius[144] mentions, among the works of Philo which he had before
+him, a book on "The Statesman," in which doubtless the principles of
+government and social life were more fully treated. The book has
+disappeared, but the life of Joseph suffices to show that Philo
+recognized the place of public service in the human ideal.
+
+Moses is not only the divinely inspired legislator, but he typifies
+also the perfection of the human soul, the highest example of the man
+at one with God, supreme as king, lawgiver, priest, and prophet. He is
+the link between God and man, the perfect interpreter of the Divine
+Word; and though Philo avoids the suggestion of any Divine power
+incarnate in man, he speaks imaginatively of the Logos of Moses,[145]
+_i.e._, his reason, as identical with the Logos of God, the Divine law
+of the universe. It is significant of his attitude to religion that he
+lays no stress upon the miracles of the Bible narrative. Not that he
+rationalizes them away; he rejects all rationalizing whatsoever; but
+he interprets them as great spiritual signs, rather than as diversions
+from the laws of nature. His allegory of the burning bush, which Moses
+saw at Horeb is typical, and presents a truth to which the whole
+history of Israel bears witness. The weak thorn-bush, which was not
+consumed by the fire, is the image of the idea of Israel, which almost
+cries to the people in their misfortune: "Do not despair! Your
+weakness is your strength, and by it you shall wound race after race.
+You will be preserved by those who wish to destroy you, and you shall
+not perish. In evil days you shall not suffer, and when a tyrant
+thinks to uproot you, you shall shine forth the more in brighter
+glory."[146] The passage is typical also of the rhetorical artifice
+with which Philo, following the taste of the time, recommended the
+Bible to the Greeks.
+
+We turn now to Philo's treatment of the Mosaic legislation, the Torah
+in its narrower sense, which is to modern Jewry perhaps the most
+striking part of his commentary. His problem was the same as ours--to
+bring the ancient law into harmony with the ideas of a non-Jewish
+environment, and to show its essential value when tried by an external
+cultural standard. Briefly his solution is that he sees everything in
+the Torah _sub specie aeternitatis_, in the light of eternity; and by
+his faithfulness to the law, combined with his spiritual
+interpretation of it, he stands forth as the greatest Jewish
+missionary of his age. Unfortunately for Judaism, depth of thought and
+philosophical judgment are not the qualities which mark the successful
+religious missionary. Philo's philosophical treatment of the Torah was
+understood only of the few; the fanatical Pauline rejection of the law
+appealed to the masses. The spirit of the age demanded, indeed, the
+ethical interpretation of the Bible, and it was carried out in many
+ways, some true, some untrue to Judaism. Philo and Josephus tell us
+how Judaism was spreading over the world.[147] "There is not any city
+of the Greeks," says the historian, "nor of the barbarians, nor of any
+nation whatsoever, to which our custom of resting on the seventh day
+has not been introduced, and where our fasts and our dietary laws are
+not observed.... As God Himself pervadeth all the universe, so hath
+our law passed through the world." And their testimony is supported by
+the frequent gibes against Judaizing Romans in the Roman poets,[148]
+and by the explicit statements of Strabo,[149] the famous geographer,
+and, more remarkable still, of Seneca, the Stoic
+philosopher-statesman. The bitter foe of the Jews, he confessed that
+this superstitious pest was infecting the whole world, and that the
+conquered people (Judaea had lately been made a Roman province) were
+taking their conquerors captive.[150] Philo, with his ardent hope,
+looked for the near coming of the time when the worship of the Jewish
+God would prevail over the world, and sought to show that the Jewish
+law, which is the expression of Jewish belief, and which differs from
+all others, not only in the extent of its sway, but in its
+unchangeableness, could be universalized to fit its new service. To
+this end he interpreted the Mosaic code, which "no war, tyrant,
+persecution, or visitation, human or Divine, can destroy: for it is
+eternal."[151] In the arrangement of the Torah, Philo finds a proof of
+its universality. It begins with the account of the creation, to teach
+us that the same Being that is the Creator and Father of the universe
+is also its Legislator, and, again, that he who follows the law will
+choose to live in harmony with nature, and will exhibit consistency of
+action with words and of words with action. Other philosophers,
+notably the Stoics, claimed to lay down a plan of life that followed
+the law of nature; but their practice notoriously fell below their
+unrealizable professions. In Judaism alone spirit and practice were at
+one, so that each inspired the other and secured human excellence.
+"Not theory but practice is the root of the matter" ([Hebrew: l' hmdrsh
+'kr 'l' hm'sha]), according to the rabbis:[152] and Philo, who,
+contemplative philosopher as he was, yet recognized the all-importance of
+conduct, writes in the same spirit:[153] "We must first study and then act,
+for we learn, not for learning's sake, but in order to action."
+
+Philo seeks to arrange the law under general moral heads, and he finds
+in the Decalogue the holy text upon which the rest of the code is but
+a commentary. He may be following a tradition common among all the
+Jews, for in the Midrash to Numbers (xiii) it is said that the six
+hundred and thirteen precepts are all contained in the Ten
+Commandments: [Hebrew: shtrig mtsvt klilit bhn]. We do not know, however,
+in what way the early rabbis carried out this idea, whereas we possess
+Philo's arrangement; and some of its features are very suggestive.[154]
+To the first two commandments he attaches the ritual laws relating to
+priests and sacrifices, to the fourth the laws of all the festivals, to
+the seventh the criminal and civil law, to the tenth the dietary laws.
+The Decalogue he conceives as falling into two divisions, between which
+the fifth commandment is a link. For the first four commandments are
+ordinances that determine man's relation to God, and the last five
+those which determine his relation to his fellows. Honor of the
+parents is the link between the Divine and the human virtues, even as
+parents themselves are a link between immortal God and mortal man.
+Corresponding to the two divisions of the Decalogue are the two
+generic virtues which the Mosaic legislation has set as its goal,
+piety, and humanity, or what the rabbis called charity ([Hebrew: tsdka]).
+"He who loves God, but does not show love towards his own kind,
+has but the half of virtue."[155] Thus in one and the same age Hillel,
+incited by a single scoffer, and Philo, moved by the taunts of a tribe
+of anti-Semites, looked for the most vital lesson of the Torah, and
+they found it alike in "the love of our neighbor." That was Judaism on
+its practical side.
+
+In order to show the humanitarian spirit of the Torah, Philo
+emphasizes its socialistic institutions, the law of the seventh year's
+rest to the land ([Hebrew: shnt hshmita]), of the emancipation of the
+slaves, and of the Jubilee. These to him are not tribal laws, but the
+ideal institutions for the whole world, which shall one day be set up
+when the theocracy has been established over all mankind. And in an age
+when slavery was as accepted a condition as factory-labor is to-day,
+he ventured to assert the principle of the equality of man. "If,"
+saith the law, "one of thy brethren be sold to thee, let him serve
+thee for six years, and in the seventh year let him go free without
+payment." And Philo thereon comments:[156] "A second time Moses calls
+our fellow-creature brother, to impress upon the master that he has a
+tie with his servant, so that he may not neglect him as a stranger.
+Nay, but if he follows the direction of the law, he will feel sympathy
+with him, and will not be vexed when he is about to liberate him. For
+though we call our servants slaves, yet in verity they are only
+dependents who serve us in order to have the means of life." This
+corresponds with the Talmud dictum, "Whoever buys a Jewish slave buys
+a master for himself."[157] Commenting again upon the verse in Exodus
+xxi. 6, which says with seeming harshness that a servant who wishes to
+stay with his master after the year of emancipation has arrived, shall
+be nailed by the ear to a door, he explains that no man should consent
+of his own will to be a slave, for we should only be servants of God;
+and if a man deliberately rejects freedom for comfort, he should wear
+a mark of degradation. The so-called Christian principle of the
+dignity of human life and the equality of man, Philo shows to be the
+spirit of the Mosaic law, not limited within the confines of one
+nation, but valid for the world. Nor is it contained therein as a mere
+sentimental aspiration, but it is realized in the institutions of the
+Jewish polity.
+
+Philo looked for the same broad principles in his treatment of the
+ceremonial law. The Sabbath day is the central observance, one might
+say, the lodestar of the Jewish life, round which the other ceremonies
+revolve. The Sabbath is the call to man's higher nature, for it is the
+day on which we are bidden to devote ourselves to the Divine power
+within us and to seek to know God. "The six days in which the Creator
+made the universe are an example to us to work, but the seventh day,
+on which He rested, is an example to us to meditate. As on that day
+God is said to have looked upon His work, so we, too, should
+contemplate the universe thereon, and consider our highest welfare.
+Let us never neglect the example of the best life, the combination of
+action and thought, but keeping a clear vision of it before our minds,
+so far as our human nature will permit, let us liken ourselves to
+immortal God by word and deed."[158] High-flown this language may be,
+but what Philo wishes to mark is the spiritual value of the Sabbath.
+It is not merely a day of rest from workaday toil, but it is a day
+upon which we devote all our thoughts to God, and enter into closer
+communion with Him, [Hebrew: mnoht 'hba vndba], a repose of love and
+devotion. Heine said that on one day of the week the lowliest Jew became
+a prince, Philo that he became a philosopher. As in all of Philo's
+interpretations of Jewish custom, there is something mystic in his
+conception of the Sabbath. For he regards all Divine service and all
+prayer as a mystic rite which leads the human soul unto God. In the
+special ordinances of the day he finds a spiritual motive. We may not
+touch fire, because fire is the seed and beginning of industry.[159]
+The servant of the house may not work,[160] because on this day he
+shall have a taste of freedom and humanity, and he will work the more
+cheerfully during the remaining six days. Some rabbis later, when
+numbers of Gentiles had adopted this without the other institutions of
+Judaism, claimed the Sabbath as the special heritage of Israel; and in
+the book of Jubilees[161] it is said that Israel alone has the right
+to observe the Sabbath. Not so Philo, who, desiring to give the day a
+value for all, regards it as God's covenant with the whole of
+humanity.[162]
+
+The Sabbath idea is reflected in all the festivals, which have as
+their dominating idea man's joyful gratitude to God. Influenced
+probably by a mystic fondness for certain numbers, Philo enumerates
+ten festivals, as follows:[163] (1) Each day in the year, if we use it
+aright--a truly Philonic conception; (2) The Sabbath; (3) The new
+moon--then in Alexandria, as in Palestine, a solemn day; (4) The
+Passover; (5) The bringing of the first barley ('Omer); (6) The Feast
+of Unleavened Bread. These last three are separate aspects of one
+celebration, which is divided up so as to produce the holy decad. (7)
+Pentecost; (8) New Year; (9) Atonement (to the mystic the Feast of
+feasts); (10) Tabernacles. Following his design of revealing in
+Judaism a religion of universal validity, Philo points out in all
+these festivals a double meaning. On the one hand, they mark God's
+providence to His chosen people, shown in some great event of their
+history--this is the special meaning for the Israelite--and, on the
+other, they indicate God's goodness as revealed in the march of
+nature, and thus help to bind man to the universal process. So
+Passover is the festival of the spring and a memorial of the creation
+([Hebrew: zbr lm'sha br'shit]) as well as the memorial of the great Exodus,
+and of our gratitude for the deliverance from the inhospitable land of
+Egypt. And those who look for a deeper moral meaning may find in it a
+symbol of the passing over from the life of the senses to the life with
+God. Similarly, Philo deals with the other festivals,[164] and in their
+particular ceremonies he finds symbols which stamp eternal lessons of
+history and of morality upon our hearts. The unleavened bread is the
+mark of the simple life, the New Year Shofar of the Divine rule of
+peace, the Sukkot booth of the equality of all men, and, as he puts it
+elsewhere, of man's duty in prosperity to remember the troubles of his
+past, so that he may worthily recognize God's goodness. Much of this
+may appear trite to us; and the association of the festivals with the
+seasons of nature may to some appear a false development of historical
+Judaism; nevertheless Philo's treatment of this part of the Torah is
+notable. It shows remarkable feeling for the ethical import of the
+law, and it establishes the harmony between the Greek and Hebrew
+conceptions of the Deity by combining the God of history with the God
+of nature in the same festival. The ideas were not unknown to
+Palestinian rabbis; Philo, by giving them a Greek dress, opened them
+to the world.
+
+Equally remarkable and equally suggestive is Philo's treatment of the
+dietary laws. We have seen that he placed them under the governing
+principle of the tenth commandment, "Thou shalt not covet," or, more
+broadly, "Thou shalt not have base desires." The dietary laws are at
+once a symbol and a discipline of temperance and self-control. We know
+that the Greeks, as soon as they had a superficial knowledge of Jewish
+observance, jeered at the barbarous and stupid superstition of
+refusing to eat pork. Again we are told in the letter of the false
+Aristeas that when Ptolemy's ambassadors went to Jerusalem, to summon
+learned men to translate the Torah into Greek, Eleazar, the high
+priest, instructed them in the deeper moral meaning of the dietary
+laws. Further, in the fourth book of the Maccabees--an Alexandrian
+sermon upon the Empire of Right Reason--we find an eloquent defence of
+these same laws as the precepts of reason which fortify our minds.
+Philo, then, is following a tradition, but he improves upon it.
+Accepting the Platonic psychology, which divided the soul into reason,
+temper (_i.e._, will), and desire, he shows how the aim of the Mosaic
+law about food is to control desire and will, so as to make them
+subservient to reason. By practicing self-restraint in the two
+commonest actions of life--eating and drinking--the Israelite acquires
+it in all things. The hard ascetic who would root out bodily desires
+errs against human nature, but the wise legislator controls them and
+curbs them by precepts, so that they are bent to the higher reason.
+
+Modern apologists for Judaism have been found who, trying to force
+science to support their tottering faith, allege that the dietary law
+is hygienic. Philo relies on no such treacherous reed. We may not eat,
+he says,[165] the flesh of the pig or shell-fish, not because they are
+unhealthy, but because they are the sweetest and most delightful of
+all food, and for that very reason they are marks of the sensual life.
+This and this alone is the true religious justification of the dietary
+law.
+
+In this way, by showing how the letter represents the spirit, Philo
+fulfils the law; his religion is liberal in thought, conservative in
+practice. He sees clearly that to throw off the law and reject
+tradition involves in the end chaos and the overthrow of
+righteousness. And certain Christian--and other--theologians, if one
+may make bold to say so, fail to realize the spirit of Philo, when
+they speak of him as a man who approached the light, but was too tied
+down by the old traditions to receive the full illumination. Rather is
+it true that the Jewish aspiration of "freedom under the law," or
+spirit through the letter, is absolutely fundamental in Philo, and
+loyalty to the Torah is a guiding principle in his religious outlook.
+He asserts it clearly and strikingly, not only in his ethical
+commentary on the law, but in his philosophical allegories. Both
+passages deserve quotation, since they mark the fundamental contrast
+between Philo and non-Jewish allegorists of the law. In the first
+Philo is commenting upon the command "Thou shalt not add to or take
+away from the law" (Deut. xix. 14).[166] He shows first how each of
+the virtues is marred by excess in either direction; virtue in fact,
+according to the Aristotelian formula, is "a mean."
+
+     "And in the same way, if we add anything great or small to
+     piety, the queen of virtues, or take anything away, we mar
+     it and change its form. Addition will engender superstition,
+     and diminution impiety, and true piety will disappear, which
+     above all things we should pray for to enlighten our souls:
+     for it is the cause of the greatest of goods, inducing in us
+     a knowledge of our conduct towards God, which is a thing
+     more royal and kingly than any public office or distinction.
+     Further, Moses lays down another general command, 'Do not
+     remove the boundary stone of thy neighbor, which thy
+     ancestors have set up.' This, methinks, does not refer
+     merely to inheritances and the boundary of land, but it is
+     ordained with a view to the preservation of ancient customs.
+     For customs are unwritten laws, the decrees of men of old,
+     not carved indeed upon pillars and inscribed upon parchment,
+     but engraved upon the souls of the generations who through
+     the ages maintain the chosen community. Children should take
+     over the paternal customs from their parents as part of
+     their inheritance, for they were reared on them, and lived
+     on them from their swaddling days, and they should not
+     neglect them merely because the tradition is not written.
+     The man who obeys the written laws is not, indeed, worthy of
+     praise, for he may be constrained thereto by fear of
+     punishment. But he who holds fast to the unwritten laws
+     gives proof of a voluntary goodness and is worthy of our
+     eulogy."
+
+Clearly he is arguing here for the observance of the oral law, which
+later was standardized in the Halakah.
+
+In the other passage, which occurs in the philosophical book "On the
+Migration of Abraham,"[167] he sets forth the reason of the authority
+of the law with more argument, and controverts those who would
+allegorize away the ordinances.
+
+     "To whom, then, God has granted both to be and to seem good,
+     he is truly happy and truly renowned. And we must have a
+     great care for reputation, as a matter of great importance
+     and of much value, for our social and bodily life. [By
+     reputation Philo means reputation of being loyal Jews. He is
+     addressing here an esoteric circle who, if they were lax,
+     would bring philosophy into disrepute.] And almost all can
+     secure it, who are well content not to disturb established
+     customs, but diligently preserve the constitution of their
+     nation. But there are some who, looking upon the written
+     laws as symbols of intellectual things, lay great stress on
+     these, but neglect the former. Such men I would blame for
+     their shallowness of mind [Greek: euchereia]. For they
+     ought to give good heed to both--to the accurate
+     investigation of the unseen meaning, but also to the
+     blameless observance of the visible letter. But now, as if
+     they were living by themselves in a desert, and were souls
+     without bodies, and knew nothing of city or village or house
+     or intercourse with men, they despise all that seems
+     valuable to the many, and search for bare and naked truth as
+     it is in itself. Such people the sacred Scripture teaches to
+     give good heed to a good reputation, and to abolish none of
+     those customs which greater and more inspired men than we
+     instituted in the past. For, because the seventh day teaches
+     us symbolically concerning the power of the uncreated God,
+     and the inactivity of the creature, we must not therefore
+     abolish its ordinances, so as to light a fire, or till the
+     ground, or bear a burden, or prosecute a lawsuit, or demand
+     the restoration of a deposit, or exact the repayment of a
+     loan, or do any other thing, which on week-days is allowed.
+     Because the festivals are symbols of spiritual joy and of
+     our gratitude to God, we must not therefore give up the
+     fixed assemblies at the proper seasons of the year. Nor,
+     because circumcision symbolizes the excision of all lusts
+     and passions, and the destruction of the impious opinion
+     according to which the mind imagines that it is itself
+     capable of production, must we therefore abolish the law of
+     fleshly circumcision. We should have to neglect the service
+     of the temple, and a thousand other things, if we were to
+     restrict ourselves only to the allegorical or symbolic
+     sense. That sense resembles the soul, the other sense the
+     body. Just as we must be careful of the body, as the house
+     of the soul, so must we give heed to the letter of the
+     written laws. For only when these are faithfully observed,
+     will the inner meaning, of which they are the symbols,
+     become more clearly realized, and, at the same time, the
+     blame and accusation of the multitude will be avoided."[168]
+
+Philo's position is, then, that man on the one hand owes loyalty to
+his nation, and on the other is not only a creature of spirit, but has
+a body and bodily passions. He cannot, therefore, have a religion
+which is individual or merely spiritual, but he requires common forms
+and ceremonies that can bind him with the rest of the community, and
+train his body by good habit to obey his reason. We do not reach the
+spirit by denying but by obeying the letter. To the mere formal
+observance of the law and the unreasoning custom which blindly follows
+the practice of our fathers [Greek: synetheia] Philo is equally
+opposed, and he protests, with the earnestness of an Isaiah, against
+superstitious sacrifice and against the lip-service of the
+materialist.[169]
+
+     "If a man practices ablutions and purifications, but defiles
+     his mind while he cleanses his body; or if, through his
+     wealth, he founds a temple at a large outlay and expense; or
+     if he offers hecatombs and sacrifices oxen without number,
+     or adorns the shrine with rich ornaments, or gives endless
+     timber and cunningly wrought work, more precious than silver
+     or gold--let him none the more be called religious ([Greek:
+     eusebes]). For he has wandered far from the path of
+     religion, mistaking ritual for holiness, and attempting to
+     bribe the Incorruptible, and to flatter Him whom none can
+     flatter. God welcomes genuine service, and that is the
+     service of a soul that offers the bare and simple sacrifice
+     of truth, but from false service, the mere display of
+     material wealth, he turns away."
+
+Lot's daughter, born of a pillar of stone, symbolizes this unthinking,
+hypertrophied religion; and custom, its mother, which always lags
+behind and has no seed of life, is the enemy of truth. The religious
+man pursueth righteousness righteously, the superstitious
+unrighteously.
+
+Thus Philo holds the balance between a formless spirituality and an
+unspiritual formalism. The end of religious observance is the love of
+God, but the love of God requires more than feeling; it must
+impregnate life. Dubnow, in his summary of Jewish history, formulates
+an epigram, which, like most of its kind, becomes in its conciseness
+and pointed antithesis a half-truth. "At Jerusalem," he says, "Judaism
+appeared as a system of practical ceremonies; at Alexandria as a
+complex of abstract symbols." No doubt it is true that at Jerusalem
+the practical side of the law was most prominent, but the spiritual
+exaltation to which it should lead was appraised as the true end by
+the great rabbis. Witness Hillel, and indeed all the writers of the
+gnomic wisdom in the "Ethics of the Fathers." At Alexandria, again,
+while the philosophical principle underlying the outward practice was
+especially emphasized, the practice itself was loyally observed, and
+its value perceived, by those who most thoroughly understood Judaism.
+Witness the writings of Philo, the Wisdom of Solomon, and the fourth
+book of the Maccabees. The antithesis between letter and spirit, faith
+and works, is in truth a false one; and wherever the significance of
+Judaism has been fully comprehended, the two aspects of the law have
+been inextricably intertwined. As Philo understood the Jewish mission,
+it was not merely to diffuse the Jewish God-idea, but quite as much to
+diffuse the Jewish attitude to God, the way of life. Abstract ideas,
+however lofty, can never be the bond of a religious community, nor can
+they be a safeguard for moral conduct. Sooner or later congregations
+must submit themselves to some law, be it a law of dogma, or be it a
+law of conduct. Antinomianism, the opposition to the law, to which
+Paul later gave powerful, even fanatical, expression, was a strong
+movement at Alexandria in Philo's day. Preparatory to the spread of
+Christianity, numerous sects sprang up there which purported to follow
+a spiritual Judaism wherein the law was abrogated because, forsooth,
+its symbolism was understood! In the extreme allegorists, whom Philo
+attacks for their shallowness, one may discern the prototypes of the
+Cainites, Ophites, Melchizedecians, and the rest of the heretical
+parties that produced the religious chaos of the next centuries. From
+that welter of opinions there at last emerged dogmatic Christianity.
+The Christian reformers came to free man from the yoke of the law; but
+their successors imposed on the mind the fetters of dogma, and, in
+order to check the passions of the body, advocated renunciation and
+asceticism. So that not only Judaism as a system of belief, but
+Judaism as a system of life was lost in their handiwork. Spirituality
+lacking knowledge and allegorism in excess led to this result. In
+Philo they are controlled by affection for the Torah, and by a
+conviction of the need for national cohesion.
+
+Philo is loyal to the Jewish tradition not only because he had a deep
+feeling for what a modern teacher has called the catholic conscience
+and the historical continuity of Judaism, but because his philosophy
+was based on a conviction that the Jewish religion was the truest
+guide to conduct and righteousness and to the love of God. To him, as
+to Plato and Aristotle, the law was the outward register of the moral
+ideal; the "word-and-deed symbols" of ceremonial and prayer were
+emblems indeed of moral principles, but at the same time they had an
+intrinsic value, in that they impressed these principles upon the
+mind, and brought belief and action into harmony. "Religion is law,
+not philosophy," said Hobbes. With Philo, religion is law _and_
+philosophy. Thus the love of the Torah is of the essence of his
+religious thought. As he puts it in the exhortation to his
+fellow-ambassadors before Gaius,[170] "to die in defence of it is a
+kind of life." In his philosophical Judaism he sought always for the
+universal and the spiritual, but so as always to increase the honor of
+the law, and not only of the law but of the customs of his ancestors,
+thinking with the Psalmist that "the Torah is a tree of life to those
+who keep fast hold of her, and those who support her are blessed."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+PHILO'S THEOLOGY
+
+
+"The most remarkable feature about Judaism," says Darmesteter, "is
+that without a philosophical system it had reached a philosophical
+conclusion about the government of the world and the nature of
+God."[171] The same idea underlies the statement of the Peripatetic
+writer Theophrastus (who lived in the latter part of the fourth
+century B.C.E.) that the Jews are a people of philosophers,[172] and
+the epigram of Heine, that they pray in metaphysics. Intuitively, the
+lawgiver and prophets of the Hebrew race had attained a conception of
+monotheism to which the greatest of the Greek philosophers had hardly
+struggled by reason. The Greeks had started with separate
+nature-powers, which they had finally resolved into a supreme
+nature-force; the Hebrews had started with the historical God of their
+fathers, whom they had universalized into the Creator of the world and
+Father of all the human race. Wellhausen has suggested that the
+intellectual development of Judaism with its tendency to become a
+purified monotheism moved in the same direction towards which Greek
+thought tended in its philosophical speculation of the universe. The
+difference between the two conceptions of God, however, remained even
+in their universalized aspect; the one was an impersonal world-force,
+the other a personal God in direct relation with individual man.
+Elsewhere than in Judaea, it has been well said, religious development
+reaches unity only by sacrificing personality. But the prophets, whose
+conception of God was imaginative rather than rational, preserved His
+nearness while expanding His sway. Israel, to use Philo's etymology,
+is the man who sees God,[173] and his religious genius gave to the
+world a personal incorporeal Deity, who is both transcendent and
+immanent, personal and yet above human conception. It is unnecessary
+to quote evidence of this view of the Godhead in the Bible, and it
+would be superfluous to adduce passages from the rabbis, did they not
+bear a striking similarity to the words of Philo. God to them is not
+only the Creator of the world, but also the Father of the world, the
+Governor of the world, the Only One of the world, the Space of the
+world, filling it as the soul fills the body.[174] Now, this Jewish
+conception of God is dominant in Philo. To him also God is not only
+the Creator but the Father of the universe.[175] He is the One and the
+All.[176] He is ever at rest, yet he outstrippeth everything, nearest
+to everyone, yet far removed, everywhere and nowhere, above and
+outside the universe, yet filling creation with Himself.[177] Philo
+loves to attach to the Deity these opposite predicates, for in this
+way alone can we form for ourselves some conception, however
+inadequate, of His Being. Strictly, God is unconditioned, and cannot
+be the subject of predication, for all determination involves
+negation, and hence in one aspect He is not conceivable nor
+describable, nor nameable.[178] Siegfried and Zeller press this
+negative attitude to the Deity, and find that there is an inherent
+contradiction in Philo's system, which ruins it, in that his God, upon
+whom all depends and who is the object of all knowledge, is absolutely
+unknowable and unapproachable. But this is to take Philo according to
+the strict letter to the neglect of the spirit, and to do that with
+one so eloquent and so careless of verbal accuracy is utterly to
+misunderstand him.
+
+The Greek philosophers in their attempt to formulate an exact notion
+of the First Being by abstract metaphysics had, indeed, conceived it
+in this fashion; and Philo, harmonizing Greek metaphysics and Hebrew
+intuition, is drawn at times into a presentation of God which appears
+to deny His personality and make of Him an abstraction. What has been
+said of Spinoza is true no less of Philo.[179] "The tendency to unity,
+to the infinite, to religion, overbalanced itself till, by its mere
+excess, it seemed to be changed into its opposite. But this is not his
+spirit, only the dead ultimate result of an imperfect logic that
+confuses an abstract with a concrete unity." In truth, the moment man
+tries to define his conception of God's essence in words, he either
+impairs and perverts his idea, or he must use words that do not really
+make the idea any clearer than it was unexpressed. Thus in the Hymn of
+[Hebrew: ygdl] the writer, versifying the creeds of Maimonides, seeks to
+define God: "He is a Unity, but there is no Unity like His; He is
+hidden and there is no end to His oneness." But nobody can claim that
+this gives any adequate conception of what he means; so, too, Philo,
+when he tries to analyze God's being metaphysically, only obscures the
+God of his soul, who was the historical God of Israel.
+
+The Hebraic God, like the Greek First Being, has no qualities, but
+unlike the other He has ethical attributes, and it is by these that we
+know Him and by these that He is related to the universe and to man.
+"Failing to comprehend Him in His essence we must aim at the next best
+thing, to comprehend Him as He is manifested to the world."[180] So in
+the "Hymn of Unity" it is written, "In images they told of Thee, but
+not according to Thy essence! They but likened Thee in accordance with
+Thy works."[181] And this is the manner in which Philo conceives Him:
+"God's grace and goodness it is which are the causes of creation."[182]
+"The just man, seeking the nature of all things, makes this most
+excellent discovery, that all things are due to the grace of God." "To
+those who ask the origin of creation, one could most easily reply that
+it is the goodness and grace of God which He bestowed on the race that
+is after His image."[183] "For all that is in the universe and the
+universe itself are the gift and bounty and grace of God."[184] Again,
+"God is omnipotent; He could make all evil, but He wills only what is
+best."[185] "All is due to God's grace, though nothing is worthy of
+it;[186] but God looked to His own eternal goodness, and considered
+that to do good befitted His own blessed and happy nature."
+
+Philo's life-aim, as we have seen,[187] was to see God in all things
+and all things in God. He is the sole principle of being, exercising
+continuous causality; and yet He is always at rest, for His energy is
+the expression of His being. "He never ceases to create, for creation
+is as proper to Him as it is proper to fire to burn and to snow to
+cause cold."[188] Further, to Him all human activity and excellence
+are directly due. He fertilizes virtue by sending down the seed from
+Heaven,[189] and He brings forth wisdom from the human mind by His own
+Divine effluence. "It is the distinctive feature of Jewish thought,"
+said Spinoza, "never to make account of particular and secondary
+causes, but in a spirit of devotion, piety, and godliness to refer all
+things directly to the Deity." No Jewish thinker ever applied this
+principle more thoroughly than Philo; and it gives an unique color to
+his work in the history of ancient philosophy. All our lives are one
+unceasing miracle, due to the constant manifestation of God's power;
+and the miracles of the Bible are examples of the universal working of
+Divine care rather than exceptions from it.
+
+The dominant feeling behind Greek thought is that man is the measure
+of all things: Plato, attacking the standpoint of his nation, had
+declared that God is the measure, and Philo repeats his maxim with a
+new intensity. It means for him that man's mind is a fragment or
+particle of the Divine universal mind, which, however, is impotent
+till called into activity by the further Divine gift of inspiration.
+Knowledge and happiness, therefore, come not through God, but from
+God.[190] "The Divine Word streams down from the fount of wisdom, and
+waters the plants of virtuous souls."[191] "To God alone is it fitting
+to use the word 'my,'"[192] or, put in another way, man has only the
+usufruct and God the ownership of his powers. Pride of intellect is
+therefore a deadly sin, because it involves a false, incomplete idea
+of God, and true knowledge involves reverence. The ideal of the Greek
+sage, the independent reason, is a godless thing, and those in whom a
+knowledge of Greek philosophy produces intellectual pride are not
+disciples of Divine Wisdom. In a fine passage Philo charges with
+hypocrisy those who talk in high-sounding language about the
+all-powerful Deity, and yet declare that by their own intellect they
+can comprehend the world.[193] This was the attitude not only of the
+proud Stoic, but of certain kindred Jewish sects, which were subject
+to Greek influences, such as the Gnostics and the Cainites. And upon
+them Philo appears to be pouring his wrath when he exclaims: "How have
+you the effrontery to go on making and listening to fine professions
+about piety and the honor of God, when you have within you, forsooth,
+the mind equal to God that comprehends all human things, and can
+combine good and evil portions, giving to some a mixed, to others an
+unmixed lot? And when anybody accuses you of impiety, you brazenly
+declare that you belong to the school of that noble guide and teacher
+Cain (_i.e._ insolent reason), who bade you pay honor to the secondary
+rather than the primary cause."
+
+Philo has often been reproached with intellectualism, and excessive
+regard to acquired wisdom, and it may be urged that by his allegorical
+method he tried to find in the Bible the sanction of two degrees of
+religious faith, the higher for the philosopher and the lower for the
+ordinary man. At the same time, however, before his God he retains the
+childlike simplicity of the most un-Hellenic rabbi, and the perfect
+humility of the Hasid. His conviction of the dependence of all upon
+God's grace is the perfect corrective of his intellectual
+exclusiveness. The idea of God as the unity which comprehends
+everything and causes everything is the great Jewish contribution to
+thought, and binds our literature together in all its manifestations.
+It characterizes and unites the poetical utterance of the Bible
+prophets, the pious wisdom of the rabbis, the philosophical systems of
+Philo and Maimonides.
+
+The more sublime and exalted the conception of God, the more
+imperative became the need for the thinking Jew to explain how the
+perfect infinite Being came into relation with the imperfect finite
+world of man and matter. How can the incorporeal God be the founder of
+the material universe? How can the infinite mind be present in the
+finite thought of man? How can the all-good Power be the creator of
+the evil which we see in the material world and of the wickedness that
+flourisheth among men? These questions presented themselves to the
+Israelite after he had consummated his marvellous religious intuition,
+and became the starting-point of a theology which is nascent in the
+Wisdom literature of the Bible. Theology is the reasoning about God
+which follows always in the footsteps of religious certitude. First,
+man by his intuitive reason rises to some idea of the Godhead
+satisfying to his emotion; next, by his discursive reason, he
+endeavors to justify that idea to his experience in analyzing God's
+operations. Renan, disposing sweepingly of a great question, declares
+that the Jewish monotheism excluded any true theology. But, in fact,
+in Palestine, and still more in Alexandria from the third century
+B.C.E., Jewish thought had as one of its constant aims to develop a
+theory of the operations of the one God in the world of material
+plurality. When the Jews came in contact with the cosmological
+mythology of Babylon, their God seemed to soar beyond the reach of
+men, and they looked to powers nearer them to bridge the widening
+gulf. To some extent this aim engendered a modification in the
+religious monotheism, and led to the interposition of intermediate
+conceptions between the Inconceivable and man. "The whole angelology,"
+says Deutsch,[194] "so strikingly simple before the Captivity and so
+wonderfully complex after it, owes its quick development in Babylonian
+soil to some awe-stricken desire which grows with growing culture,
+removing the inconceivable Being further and further from human touch
+or knowledge." Speaking generally, it may be said that reflection
+about God's relations produced in Palestine the doctrine of angels, in
+Alexandria the doctrine of Wisdom and the Logos. At the same time the
+Wisdom and the Word were not unknown to the Palestinian Midrash, and
+the hierarchies of angels to the Alexandrian, for the suggestion of
+the different subordinate powers had been evolved before the two
+traditions had become independent. The doctrine of angels never indeed
+won recognition from the rabbis, but it was for centuries an element
+of popular belief.
+
+More philosophical than the doctrine of angels was the conception of
+different attributes of God [Hebrew: mdot], which were different
+manifestations of His activity, to the human mind separable and
+distinguishable from each other, though absolutely they were
+inseparable aspects of the Godhead. Chief among these were the
+attribute of mercy and the attribute of justice, [Hebrew: mdt hrhmim]
+and [Hebrew: mdt hdin],[195] by which, according to a Midrash, Adam
+was driven from Eden. And these conceptions, though distrusted by the
+Synagogue, entered into later parts of the Prayer Book. "Attribute of
+Mercy, reveal thyself for us; make our supplication to fall at the feet of
+Thy Creator; and on behalf of Thy people beseech for mercy"; thus runs
+a fine prayer in the Ne'ilah service of the Day of Atonement, and many
+of the other Selihot prove the persistence of this development of
+Jewish belief. The theory of Divine attributes was common to Palestine
+and Alexandria, and plays, as we shall see, an important part in
+Philo's[196] thought; but the distinctive Hellenistic theology is the
+hypostasis of the Wisdom and the Word of God. In the Bible itself, and
+notably in Proverbs, we find Wisdom personified--the first vague,
+poetical suggestion of a Jewish theology. As the Jews came into
+contact with Hellenic influence, the tendency to develop the
+personification into a power increased, and may be traced through the
+first flower of Graeco-Jewish culture, the Wisdom literature. The Greek
+philosophers had conceived the First Cause as a ruling Mind, or
+universal Reason, and influenced by this conception, yet loyal to
+their monotheistic faith, the Jewish writers of the Hellenistic age
+spoke of the Wisdom as the minister of God, the power by which He
+ruled creation. The apocryphal books of Ecclesiasticus and the Wisdom
+of Solomon exhibit Wisdom passing from the poetical personification of
+the Bible to the separate hypostasis of theology. In the verse of the
+Bible sage, "Wisdom hath builded her house, she hath hewn out her
+seven pillars" (Prov. ix. 1), she is the creation of the purely
+poetical fancy, but in the Wisdom of Solomon she has become a link
+between Heaven and earth, the creation of the theologian's reflection.
+"She reacheth from one end of the world to the other with strength,
+and ordereth all things graciously. She is settled by God on His
+throne, and by her He made the world, by her the righteous were saved.
+She watched over the father of the human race, and she delivered
+Israel from Egypt." In Ecclesiasticus it is written, "All Wisdom is
+from the Lord and is with Him forever. She cometh forth from the mouth
+of the Most High, and was created before all things. God having
+fashioned her from the beginning placed her over all His works. Then
+she covered the earth as a mist, she pitched her tent in high places
+and her palace was in a pillar of cloud. She ministered in the
+tabernacle, and was established in Zion, in Jerusalem, the beloved
+city." In similar strain, in the apocalyptic book of Enoch (xxx), God
+says, "On the sixth day I ordered My Wisdom to make man"; and in the
+Sibylline Oracles and Aristobulus she appears as the assessor of God
+who ruleth over men.
+
+Parallel with Wisdom, the Word of God was developed into something
+between a poetical image and a separate power. Again the development
+starts from a Biblical metaphor. "By the word of the Lord were the
+heavens created, and all their host by the breath of His mouth" (Ps.
+xxxiii). "God of our Fathers and Lord of Mercy, who didst make all
+things by Thy word," says the writer of the Wisdom of Solomon.
+Inspired again by the phrase of the Psalmist, "He sent His word, and
+healed them" (Ps. cvi. 20), he hymns the Divine Logos as the
+all-powerful emissary doing God's bidding among men. "It was neither
+herb nor emollient that cured Israel in the wilderness (when bitten by
+the fiery scorpions), but Thy Logos, O Lord, which heals all things."
+Later, when he describes the destruction of the first-born in Egypt,
+he rises in a paean to a finer poetical flight: "When tranquil silence
+folded all things, and night in her own swiftness was in the midst of
+her course, Thy all-powerful Logos leaped from heaven, from his royal
+throne, a stern warrior into the midst of the doomed land, bearing as
+a sharp sword Thy Divine commandment, and having taken his stand
+filled all things with death: and he touched heaven and walked upon
+earth." The Jewish poet, rejecting the idea that the perfect God could
+descend to earth and slay men, brushes away the anthropomorphism of
+the Bible, and summons from his mind this creation mixed of Hebrew
+imagination and Greek reason. So, too, Onkelos, wherever activity upon
+earth was ascribed to God, wrote, in his translation (Targum) of
+Scripture, "the word of the Lord," and for the material hand he
+substituted the more abstract might. The same development,[197] under
+the names of Memra and (less frequently) of [Hebrew: dbor], shows that
+the word-agent of God appealed to certain of the rabbis in their
+desire to explain away, on the one hand, expressions in the Bible
+which seemed to invest the Deity with corporeal qualities, and, on the
+other, so to divide His infinite perfection as to make His presence
+immanent upon earth.
+
+The teachers at Alexandria were above all others induced to develop
+the Word into the active power, since they seemed thereby to find in
+the Bible a remarkable anticipation of Greek philosophy. The Greek
+Logos, by which "the Word" was translated in the Septuagint, meant
+also thought and reason, and during the Hellenistic age was the
+regular term by which the philosophical schools expressed the
+impersonal world-force which governed all things. The Logos idea among
+the Jews was a modification of intuitive and naive monotheism; among
+the Greeks it was a step upwards, demanded by reason, from polytheism
+to a monistic view of the universe. By the first century its
+recognition as the ruling power in both the physical and moral
+universe had become a point of union in all philosophical schools--the
+common stamp of philosophical theology. Between the Semitic
+ministerial word uttered by a personal Being and the Greek pantheistic
+governing reason, there was probably an early connection, due to
+Eastern influences which operated upon the founders of Greek
+philosophy, which later schools lost sight of. When the Hebrew
+Scriptures were translated, the two coalesced more fruitfully in the
+Greek term Logos, and a point of union was provided between the
+philosophical and the Jewish theology. Moreover the local Egyptian
+influence aided the union, for the god Thoth was also identified with
+the Logos, which thus appeared as a religious conception common to all
+races, the basis of a universal creed. And besides the world-reason of
+the philosophers, another Greek influence no doubt tended to further
+the development of the Logos in Jewish thought. One of the most marked
+characteristics of the Hellenistic age is the renascence of wonder at
+the institutions of human life, and more especially at numbers and
+speech.
+
+Numbers were held to contain the essence of things, and the marvellous
+powers of four, seven, and ten received honor from all sects and
+schools. Words, too, were regarded almost as a mystic power, distinct
+from thought, incorporeal things which made thought real and gave it
+expression. The mystical susceptibility of Philo to the power of
+numbers has been noticed by every critic and exaggerated by not a few;
+his mystical valuation of words and speech, though far more important
+in his thought, has been commonly passed over. The analysis which
+Greek writers made of the relation between the mental thought, the
+sound which utters it, and the mind which thinks it, was invested with
+special importance for the Jewish thinker, who transferred it from the
+human to the Divine sphere. He applied it to interpret the constant
+Biblical phrases "and God said" or "and God spoke," according to
+notions in which philosophy and theology are mixed; and propounded a
+mystic idealism and a mystic cosmology, in which God's thought or
+comprehensive Word becomes the archetype of the visible universe, His
+single words the substantive universe and the laws of nature. A
+century before Philo, Aristobulus--assuming the genuineness of his
+Fragments--wrote:[198] "We must understand the Word of God, not as a
+spoken word, but as the establishment of actual things, seeing that we
+find throughout the Torah that Moses has declared the whole creation
+to be words of God." Philo, following his predecessor, says, "God
+speaks not words but things,"[199] and, again, commenting on the first
+chapter of Genesis, "God, even as He spake, at the same moment
+created."[200] And of human speech he has this pretty conceit a little
+before: "Into the mouth there enter food and drink, the perishable
+food of a perishable body; out of it issue words, immortal laws of an
+immortal soul, by which rational life is guided."[201] If human speech
+is "immortal law," much more is the speech of God. His words are ideas
+seen by the eye of the soul, not heard by the ear.[202] The ten
+commandments given at Sinai were "ideas" of this incorporeal nature,
+and the voice that Israel heard was no voice such as men possess, but
+the [Hebrew: shkina], the Divine Presence itself, which exalted the
+multitude.[203] Philo is here expanding and developing Jewish
+tradition. In the "Ethics of the Fathers" (v) we read: "By ten words
+was the world created"; and in the pages of the Midrash the [Hebrew:
+bt-kol], i.e._, the mystic emanation of the Deity, which revealed itself
+after the spirit of prophecy had ceased to be vouchsafed, is credited
+with wondrous and varied powers, now revealing the Decalogue, now
+performing some miracle, now appearing in a vision to the blessed, now
+prophesying the future fate of the race to a pious rabbi. The
+fertilizing stream of Greek philosophical idealism nourished the
+growth of the Jewish pious imagination, and in the Logos of Philo the
+fruit matured. It is idle to try to formulate a single definite notion
+of Philo's Logos. For it is the expression of God in all His multiple
+and manifold activity, the instrument of creation, the seat of ideas,
+the world of thought which God first established as the model of the
+visible universe, the guiding providence, the sower of virtue, the
+fount of wisdom, described sometimes in religious ecstasy, sometimes
+in philosophical metaphysics, sometimes in the spirit of the mystical
+poet. Of his last manner let us take a specimen singled out by a
+Christian and a Jewish theologian as of surprising beauty. Commenting
+on the verse of the Psalmist, "The river of God is filled with water,"
+Philo declares that it is absurd to call any earthly stream the river
+of God.
+
+     "The poet clearly refers to the Divine Logos that is full of
+     the fountain of wisdom, and is in no part itself empty. Nay,
+     it is diffused through the universe, and is raised up on
+     high. In another verse the Psalmist says, 'The course of the
+     river gladdens the city of God.' And in truth the continuous
+     rush of the Divine Logos is borne along with eager but
+     regular onset, and overflows and gladdens all things. In one
+     sense he calls the world the city of God, for it has
+     received the 'full cup' of the Divine draught, and has
+     quaffed a perpetual, eternal joy. But in another sense he
+     gave this name to the soul of the wise, wherein God is said
+     to walk as in a city. And who can pour out the sacred
+     measures of their joy to the blissful soul which holds out
+     the holy cup, that is its own reason, save the Logos, the
+     cupbearer of God, the master of the feast? Nor is the Logos
+     cupbearer only, but it is itself the pure draught, itself
+     the joy and exultation, itself the pouring forth and the
+     delight, itself the ambrosial philtre and potion of
+     bliss."[204]
+
+Through the luxury of metaphor and imagination one may discern the
+underlying thought of the mystic writer, that the Logos is the
+effluence of God, either in the whole universe or the individual man,
+filling the one as the other with the Divine Shekinah. It is the link
+which joins God and man, the ladder of Jacob's dream, which stretches
+from Heaven to earth.[205] That man can attain the Divine state by the
+help of God's effluence was a cardinal thought of Philo's; this,
+indeed, is the form in which he conceives the Messianic hope. God does
+not come down to earth incarnate in man's form, but God's active
+influence possesses the soul of man, and makes it live with God, and
+if man be peculiarly blessed, carries it up to the ineffable Spirit.
+Similarly his idea of the Messiah is more spiritual than that of the
+popular belief. The ascent of man to God's height, not the descent of
+God to man's level, will produce the age of universal peace.
+
+There are various degrees of the Divine influence, stretching from
+complete possession by the Deity Himself to the advent of single
+Divine thoughts. These Philo regards as [Greek: logoi], words or
+thoughts--for he does not clearly distinguish between the two--and he
+resolves the realistic angels of the Bible into this spiritual
+conception.[206] Thus he says, "the place" where Jacob alighted and
+had the vision (Gen. xxvii. 11) is the symbol of the perfect
+contemplation of God; the angels which he saw ascending and descending
+are the inferior light of Divine precepts. These thoughts are
+continually vouchsafed to all of us, prompting us to noble actions,
+comforting us in times of sadness, inspiring lofty ideas.
+
+     "Up and down through the whole soul the Logoi of God move
+     without end; when they ascend, drawing it up with them, and
+     severing it from the mortal part, and showing only the
+     vision of ideal things; but when they descend, not casting
+     it down, but descending with it from humanity or compassion
+     towards our race, so as to give assistance and help, in
+     order that, inspiring what is noble, they may revive the
+     soul which is borne along on the stream of the body."[207]
+
+Conversely, the rabbis taught that from each word that proceeded from
+the mouth of God an angel was created, as it is said: "By the word of
+the Lord the Heavens were made, and all the host of them by the breath
+of His mouth."[208]
+
+Apart from these sudden and occasional emanations of the Divine
+Spirit, the individual man has within him a permanent Divine Logos by
+which he may direct his conduct aright. Viewed in this aspect, the
+Logos, _i.e._, the activity of God, is conscience, the Judge in the
+soul, which is the true man dwelling within,[209] ruler and king,
+judge and arbiter, witness and accuser, correcting and restraining.
+Rising to bolder personification, Philo, who loves to present a
+spiritual thought in a concrete image, calls it the undefiled high
+priest in us.[210] In this power he finds a sure refutation of
+skepticism; for in virtue of the Divine voice man may secure moral
+certitude: and he finds also a philosophical value for popular
+superstition. It was a common notion of the pagans as well as
+the Jews of the time that an intermediate order of beings passed
+between heaven and earth and brought supernatural aid to men; and also
+that a familiar spirit, or Daemon, dwelt within the soul of each man.
+The finer spirit of Philo resolves the attendant Daemon and the
+messenger-daemons or angels into the spiritual effluences of the one
+Deity; save for a few places where he makes a pose of agreement with
+popular notions and speaks of winged denizens of Heaven[211] who
+descend to earth, he habitually expounds angels as inward revelations
+of God.
+
+As the revelation of God to the individual is a Logos, so, too, is his
+revelation to the whole of mankind. It was pointed out in the last
+chapter that Philo identified the Torah with the law of nature, and he
+did this by regarding it as the Divine Logos. The more perfect
+emanation of God is in one view the power by which He directs the
+physical creation, in another the perfect law which He set up as the
+model of conduct for His highest creatures. The rabbis, indeed, were
+prone to glorify the law as the primal creation of God, and the
+instrument of all the later creations, [Hebrew: kli hmra shbu gbrao
+shmim].[212] They speak of it as the light, the pillar, and the bond
+of the universe, the model whereon the architect looked;[213] and Philo
+amplifies this simple poetical concept and develops it afresh in the
+light of Greek idealistic and cosmical notions,[214] so that the Torah,
+as the Logos of God, is equated with the source of all being, wisdom, and
+knowledge, with the ideal world which is the archetype of the
+material, and with all the law and order of nature. And as the Torah
+is the Logos, so also its particular precepts are Logoi.
+
+It seems difficult to trace the unity among all these different
+aspects of the "Word," but in fact they are only different expressions
+of the Divine activity in the universe. All these are comprehended in
+the Logos, and then again divided out of it, so that it is, as it
+were, a crystal prism reflecting the light of the Godhead in a myriad
+different ways. One curious illustration of the universal sense in
+which Philo understood the Logos is his interpretation of the manna;
+it is typical also of his manner of exegesis and his habit of
+spiritualizing the material. It is related in Exodus (xvi. 15) that
+when the Israelites saw the heavenly food they exclaimed [Hebrew: mn
+hu'], "What is it?" and hence the food obtained its name of manna. Now the
+Greek Septuagint word for [Hebrew: mn] is [Greek: ti], which means not
+only "what" but "anything." Philo sees in the gift of the heavenly
+food a symbol of the inspiration of the chosen people by the Divine
+Logos, and says that the Logos is rightly called manna, _i.e._,
+anything, because it is the "most generic of all things, and that by
+which man may be nourished."[215]
+
+The central thought of Philo's system is that God is immanent in all
+His work; but it would seem to him sacrilegious to apply to the
+Godhead itself this universal, unceasing activity, and so he develops
+the Logos as the most ideal attribute of the Deity, and the sum of all
+His immanence and effluence. He preferred the Logos to the older
+Wisdom, probably because he could by this conception bring his idea of
+God into closer relation with Greek philosophical notions, for already
+the Hellenistic world had come spontaneously to revere the cosmical
+Logos. Only Philo gave to the expression of their physical and
+metaphysical speculation a religious warmth new to it, when he
+associated it with the word uttered by the personal God. Philosophy,
+theology, and religion were all joined and harmonized in his
+conception.
+
+If we have followed thus far the spirit of Philo aright, the Logos is
+only the immanent manifestation of the One God, who is both
+transcendental and immanent, metaphorically, not metaphysically,
+separate. In other words, it is the complete aspect of God as He
+reveals Himself to the world. Above it and including it is the being
+or essence of God, seen in Himself, and not in relation to His outward
+activity. But it is often suggested that the Logos appears to Philo as
+a second God, subordinate, indeed, to the Supreme Being, but yet a
+separate personality. It is said, with truth, that he speaks of it as
+a person, now calling it king, priest, primal man, the first-born son
+of God, even the second God, and identifying it at other times with
+some personal being, Melchizedek or Moses, and apostrophizing it as
+man's helper, guide, and advocate.[216] Now we have reason to think
+that Gnostic sects of Jews, both in Alexandria and in Palestine, were
+at this time tending towards the division of the Godhead into separate
+powers. The heresy of "Minut," frequently mentioned in the Talmud,
+consisted originally, in the opinion of modern scholars, of a Gnostic
+ditheism;[217] and during the latter part of the first century and
+thereafter we hear of sects in Egypt and Syria which supported similar
+theories. Theology here produced its fantastic offspring theosophy,
+and the followers of the esoteric wisdom let their speculations carry
+them away from the cardinal principle of Judaism. Influenced by
+Egyptian speculation, they imagined an incarnation of the Divine
+Spirit, and in the mystical thought of the day they adumbrated
+theories of virgin birth.
+
+Now these prototypes of Christian belief had undoubtedly manifested
+themselves at Alexandria in Philo's day. His treatises show traces of
+them,[218] and the question is whether he countenanced them or tried
+to summon the theosophists of his generation back to the true Jewish
+conception of God. Certain Christian and philosophical critics of
+Philo, for whom the wish was perhaps father to the thought, have found
+in Philo's Logos a conception which is at times impersonal, at times
+personal, at times an aspect of the One God, and at times a second
+independent God. If we take Philo literally, this certainly is the
+case. But let it be clearly understood, this interpretation not only
+involves Philo in inconsistency, but it utterly ruins and destroys his
+religious and philosophical system. It means that the champion of
+Jewish monotheism wanders into a vague ditheism. And in view of this,
+the modern commentators of Philo, notably Professor Drummond,[219]
+have examined his words more carefully and studied them in relation to
+their context; and they have shown how, judged in this critical
+fashion, the personality of the Logos is only figurative. It is,
+indeed, probable that certain extreme passages, where the Logos is
+presented most explicitly as a separate Deity, are due to
+Christological interpolation. The Church Fathers found in the popular
+belief in the Divine Word a remarkable support of the Trinity, and
+regarding, as they did, Philo's writings as valuable testimony to the
+truth of Christianity, they had every temptation to bring his passages
+about the Logos still closer to their ideas. And between the first and
+the fifth century, when we first hear from Eusebius of manuscripts of
+Philo at the Christian monastery of Caesarea--from which we can trace
+our texts in direct line--there was no high standard in dealing with
+ancient authorities. It is the Christian teachers who preserved Philo,
+and they preserved him not as scholars but as missioners. The best
+editors have recognized that our text has been interfered with by
+evidenced-making scribes, as where a passage about the new Jerusalem
+appears, agreeing almost word for word with the picture of
+Revelations. Similarly, not a few passages about the Logos are
+probably spurious.[220]
+
+Yet, even when we have expurgated our text of Philo, there remain, it
+will be said, numerous passages where the Logos is spoken of and
+apostrophized as a person. This is so, but the conclusion which is
+drawn, that the Logos is regarded as a second deity, is unjustifiable.
+The Jewish mind from the time of the prophets unto this day has
+thought in images and metaphors, and the personification of the Logos
+is only the most striking instance of Philo's regular habit of
+personifying all abstract ideas. The allegorical habit particularly
+conduces to this, for as persons are constantly resolved into ideas,
+so ideas come to be naturally represented as persons. There are thus
+two steps in Philo's theology, which seem to some extent to counteract
+each other; in the first place, he resolves the concrete physical
+expressions of the Bible into spiritual ideas, in the second he
+portrays those ideas in pictorial language and clothes them in
+personifications. The allegorizer requires an allegorist to interpret
+him aright.
+
+Nor must it be forgotten that Philo was preaching spiritual monotheism
+not only to Jews, but also to the Hellenic world, for whom it was a
+vast bound from their naturalistic polytheism. Zealous as he was for
+the pure faith, he realized that mankind could not attain it directly,
+but must approach it by conceptions of the One God gradually
+increasing in profundity and truth. The Greek thinkers had
+approximated closest to the Hebraic God-idea when they conceived one
+supreme, immanent reason in the universe; and Philo, in carrying his
+audiences beyond this to the transcendent-immanent Being, transformed
+the Greek cosmical concept into a Divine power of the One Being. For
+the true believer this is the stepping-stone to the perfect idea. "The
+Logos," he says, "is the God of us imperfect people, but the true
+sages worship the One Being."[221] And, again, "The imperfect have as
+their law the holy Logos."[222] And in this sense, it is "intermediate
+([Greek: methorios]) between God and man."[223] What such passages
+mean is that the separation of the Logos is a stage in man's progress
+up to the true idea of God. It is a second-best Deity, so to say,
+rather than a second Deity; for those who regard the Logos as God have
+no conception at all of the perfect Being of which it is only the
+principal attribute.
+
+The theology of Philo is characterized throughout by a tolerant and
+philosophical grasp of the difficulty of pure monotheism, and of the
+necessity of a long intellectual searching before the goal can be
+attained. To declare the Unity of God is simple enough; to have a real
+conception of it is a very different and a very difficult thing. And
+Philo's theology has a two-fold aim, in which either part complements
+the other. It explains, on the one hand, how God is revealed to the
+world through His powers or attributes or modes of activity, and, on
+the other, how man can ascend to an ecstatic union with the Real Being
+through comprehension of those powers. By the ideal ladder which
+brings down God to earth, man can climb again to Heaven. The three
+chief rungs of the ladder are the attributes of creation, and of
+ruling power, and the Logos. The perfect unity of the Godhead is not,
+of course, properly the subject of attributes, but the limited mind of
+man so conceives it for its own understanding, and speaks of God's
+justice, God's goodness, God's wisdom. These are, to use philosophical
+terminology, categories of the religious understanding, which are
+finally resolved by the perfect sage in "the synthetic apperception of
+Unity."
+
+Philo follows what may have been a Hebrew tradition in explaining the
+two names of God, "Elohim" and "Jehovah," as connoting His two chief
+attributes: (1) the creative or beneficent, (2) the ruling or
+judicial, or, as it is sometimes called, the law-giving power.[224]
+Names, as we know, were always regarded by Philo as profound symbols,
+and naturally the names of God are of vital import; and the twofold
+expression for the Hebrew Deity, of which the higher critics have made
+much destructive use, was noticed by the earliest commentators, but
+made the basis by them of a constructive theology. The ruling and the
+creative attributes of God are outlined and contained in the highest
+mode of all, the Logos, "the reason of God in every phase and form of
+it that is discoverable and realizable by man." For by the Logos, God
+is both ruler and good.[225] This is the profound interpretation of
+the story in Genesis, that "God placed at the east of the garden of
+Eden the two Cherubim and a flaming sword, which turned every way to
+keep the way of the tree of life" (Gen. iv. 24). The Cherubim are the
+symbols of the powers of majesty and goodness; the flaming sword is
+the Logos; "because," says our author quaintly, "all thought and
+speech are the most mobile and the most ardent (_i.e._, the most
+intensive) of things, and especially the thought and speech of the
+only Principle."[226]
+
+To correspond with the descending attributes of God we have the
+ascending dispositions of man towards Him, fear, love, and thirdly
+their synthesis in loving knowledge. When we are in the first stage of
+religion we obey the law in hope of reward or fear of punishment; when
+we have progressed higher in thought, we worship God as the good
+Creator; when we have ascended one further stage, we surpass both fear
+and love in an emotion which combines them, realizing, as Browning
+puts it, that "God is law and God is love." In illustration of this
+scheme of Philo's we may examine two passages out of his philosophical
+commentary. In the first he is commenting upon the appearance of the
+three angels to Abraham as he sat outside his tent (Gen. xviii).[227]
+And, by the way, it may be remarked that the Midrash commenting on
+this passage notes that it begins, "And the Lord appeared unto
+Abraham," and then continues, "And he lifted up his eyes and looked,
+and, lo, three men stood before him." Hence we may learn that it was
+really the one God who appeared to the Patriarch, and that the three
+angels were but a vision of his mind. This is the dominant note of
+Philo's interpretation, but he as usual elaborates the old Midrash
+philosophically.
+
+     "The words," he says, "are symbols of things apprehended by
+     intelligence alone--the soul receives a triple expression of
+     one being, of which one is the representative of the actual
+     existent, and the other two are shadows, as it were, cast
+     from this. So it happens also in the physical world, for
+     there often occur two shadows of bodies at rest or in
+     motion. Let no one suppose, however, that shadow is properly
+     used in relation to God. It is only a popular use of words
+     for the clearer understanding of our subject. The reality is
+     not so, but, as one standing nearest to the truth might say,
+     the middle one is the Father of the universe, who is called
+     in Scripture the 'Self-existent'; and those on either side
+     of Him are the two oldest and chief powers, the Creative and
+     the Regal. The middle one, then, being attended by the
+     others as by a bodyguard, presents to the contemplative mind
+     a mental image or representation now of one and now of
+     three; of one whenever the soul, being properly purified and
+     perfectly initiated, rises to the idea which is unmingled
+     and free from limitation, and requires nothing to complete
+     it; but of three whenever it has not yet been initiated into
+     the great mysteries, and still celebrates the lesser rites,
+     unable to apprehend the Being in itself without
+     modification, but apprehending it through its modes as
+     either creating or ruling. This is, as the proverb says, a
+     second-best course, but yet it partakes of godlike opinion.
+     But the former does not partake of--for it _is_ itself--the
+     Godlike opinion, or rather it is truth, which is more
+     precious than all opinion.
+
+     "Further, there are three classes of human character, to
+     each of which one of the three conceptions of God has been
+     assigned. The best class goes with the first, the conception
+     of the absolute Being; the next goes with the conception of
+     Him as a Benefactor, in virtue of which He is called God;
+     the third with the conception of Him as a Ruler, in virtue
+     of which He is called Lord. The noblest character serves Him
+     who is in all the purity of His absolute Being; it is
+     attracted by no other thing or aspect, but is solely and
+     intently devoted to the honor of the one and only Being; the
+     second is brought to the knowledge of the Father through His
+     beneficent power; the third through His regal power."
+
+In the second passage, which occurs in the treatise on flight from the
+world,[228] Philo is allegorizing the law about founding six cities of
+refuge (Exodus xxxii). These are but material symbols for the six
+stages of the ascent of the mind to the pure God-idea. The chief city,
+the metropolis, is the Divine Logos, next come the two powers already
+considered, and then three secondary powers, the retributive, the
+law-giving, and the prohibitive. "Very beautiful and well-fenced
+cities they are, worthy refuges of souls that merit salvation." Each
+of these cities is an aspect of the religious mind; when it settles in
+the first it obeys the law from fear of punishment and thinks of God
+as the Judge; in the second it observes the precepts in hope of reward
+and conceives God as the legislator of a fixed code; in the next it is
+repentant and throws itself on God's grace, marking the first step of
+the spiritual life. Then it ascends in order to the idea of God as the
+governor of the universe, and the emotion which the rabbis called
+[Hebrew: yrat shmim], the fear of Heaven; and to the idea of God as the
+Creator and the universal Providence, which has as its emotional
+reflex the love of Heaven, [Hebrew: 'hbt shmim].
+
+But even this, which is the highest stage for many men, is not an
+adequate conception. Above it is the contemplation of God, apart from
+all manifestations in the perceptible world, in His ideal nature, the
+Logos, which at once transcends and comprehends the universe. And the
+attitude of this man can be best expressed perhaps by Spinoza's
+phrase, "the intellectual love of God," _amor intellectualis Dei_. The
+worshipper of the Logos has grasped and has harmonized all the
+manifestations of the Deity; he sees and honors all things in God; he
+comprehends the universe as the perfect manifestation of one good
+Being.
+
+Is this the highest point which man can reach? Many religious
+philosophers have held that it is, but Philo, the mystic, yearning to
+track out God "beyond the utmost bound of human thought," imagines one
+higher condition. The Logos is only the image or the shadow of the
+Godhead.[229] Above it is the one perfect reality, the transcendent
+Essence. Now, man cannot by any intellectual effort attain knowledge
+of the Infinite as He truly is, for this is above thought. But to a
+few blessed mortals God of His grace vouchsafes a mystic vision of His
+nature. Thus Moses, the perfect hierophant, had this perfect
+apprehension, and passed from intellectual love to holy adoration. And
+the true philosopher has as the goal of his aspirations the
+heaven-sent ecstasy, in which he sees God no longer through His
+effects, or in the modes of His activity, but through Himself in His
+own essence. The philosopher, when he receives this vision ([Greek:
+epopteia]) is possessed by the Shekinah,[230] and, losing
+consciousness of his individuality, becomes at one with God.
+
+So much for Philo's theory of man's upward progress. We may add a word
+about his treatment of the problem which troubled thinkers in that
+age, and which has harassed theologians ever since, viz., to show how
+punishment and evil could be derived from a God who was all-powerful
+and all-good. The Gnostics were driven by the difficulty to imagine an
+evil world-power, which was in incessant conflict with the Good God:
+and popular belief had conjured up a legion of subordinate powers, who
+took part in the work of creation and the government of the world.
+When Philo is speaking popularly, he accepts this current theology and
+speaks also of a punitive power of God[231] ([Greek: dunamis
+kolastike]); but not when he is the philosopher. For then, in
+perfect faith, he denies the absolute existence of evil. "It is
+neither in Paradise nor indeed anywhere whatsoever."[232] Man,
+however, by his free will causes evil in the human sphere; and when
+God formed in man a rational nature capable of choosing for itself,
+moral evil became the necessary contrary of good.[233] Moreover, the
+punitive activity of God, though it seems to cause suffering and
+misery, is in truth a good, simulating evil, and if men judged the
+universal process as a whole, they would find it all good. The
+existence of evil involves no derogation from the perfect unity of
+God.
+
+If we have understood correctly Philo's theology, neither Logos, nor
+subordinate powers, nor angels, nor demons have an objective
+existence; they are mere imaginings of varying incompleteness which
+the limited minds of men, "moving in worlds not realized," make for
+themselves of the one and only true God. Philo's theology is the
+philosophical treatment of Jewish tradition, just as Philo's legal
+exegesis is the philosophical treatment of the Torah. While
+maintaining and striving to deepen the conception of God's unity, he
+aims at expounding to the reason how, on the one hand, that unity is
+revealed in the world about us, and how, on the other, we may advance
+to its true comprehension. It was, however, unfortunate that Philo
+expressed his theology in the current language, which was vague and
+inexact, and adapted certain foreign theosophical ideas to Judaism;
+hence succeeding generations, paying regard to the pictorial
+representation rather than to the principles of his thought, sought
+and found in him evidence of theories of Divine government to which
+Judaism was pre-eminently opposed. The first chapter of the Fourth
+Gospel shows that gradual process of thought which finally made the
+Logos doctrine the antithesis of Judaism. In the first verse we have a
+thought which might well have been written by Philo himself: "In the
+beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was
+God." But in the fourteenth verse there is manifest the sharp
+cleavage: "And the Word was made flesh, and dwelt among us, and we
+beheld his glory, the glory as of the only begotten of the Father,
+full of grace and truth." There may be a fine spiritual thought
+beneath the letter here, but the notion of the Incarnation is not
+Jewish, nor philosophical, nor Philonic. Philo's work was made to
+serve as the guide of that Christian Gnosticism which, within the next
+hundred years, proclaimed that Judaism was the work of an evil God,
+and that the essential mission of Jesus--the good Logos--was to
+dethrone Jehovah! But though the Logos conception was turned to
+non-Jewish and anti-Jewish purposes, it was in Philo the offspring of
+a pure and philosophical monotheism. Whatever the later abuse of his
+teaching, Philo constructed a theology which, though affected by
+foreign influences, was essentially true to Judaism; and more than
+that, he was the first to weave the Jewish idea of God into the
+world's philosophy.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+PHILO AS A PHILOSOPHER
+
+
+Save for a few monographs of no great importance, because of the
+absence of original thought, Philo's works form avowedly an exegesis
+of the Bible and not a series of philosophical writings. Nor must the
+reader expect to find an ordered system of philosophy in his separate
+works, much more than in the writings of the rabbis. As Professor
+Caird says,[234] "The Hebrew mind is intuitive, imaginative, incapable
+of analysis or systematic connection of ideas." Philo's philosophical
+conceptions lie scattered up and down his writings, "strung on the
+thread of the Bible narrative which determines the sequence of his
+thoughts." Nevertheless, though he has not given us explicit treatises
+on cosmology, metaphysics, ethics, psychology, etc., and though he was
+incapable of close logical thinking, he has treated all these subjects
+suggestively and originally in the course of his commentary, and his
+readers may gather together what he has dispersed, and find a
+co-ordinated body of religious philosophy. However loosely they are
+set forth in his treatises, his ideas are closely connected in his
+mind. Herein he differs from his Jewish predecessors, for the notion
+of the old historians of the Alexandrian movement, that there was a
+systematic Jewish philosophy before Philo, does not appear to have
+been well-founded. All that Aristeas and Aristobulus and the
+Apocryphal authors had done was to assimilate certain philosophemes to
+their religious ideas; they had not re-interpreted the whole system of
+philosophy from a Jewish point of view or traced an independent
+system, or an eclectic doctrine in the Holy Scriptures. This was the
+achievement of Philo. His thought is not original in the sense of
+presenting a new scheme of philosophy, but it is original in the sense
+of giving a fresh interpretation to the philosophical ideas of his age
+and environment. He ranges them under a new principle, puts them in a
+new light, and combines them in a new synthesis. This again is
+characteristic of the Jewish mind. Intent on God, it does not endeavor
+to make its own analysis of the universe by independent reasoning, but
+it utilizes the systems of other nations and endeavors to harmonize
+them with its religious convictions. Hence it is that nearly all
+Jewish philosophy appears to be eclectic; its writers have ranged
+through the fields of thought of many schools and culled flowers from
+each, which they bind together into a crown for their religion. They
+do not, with few exceptions, pursue philosophy with the purpose of
+widening the borders of secular knowledge; but rather in order to
+bring the light of reason to illuminate and clarify faith, to
+harmonize Judaism with the general culture of its environment, and to
+revivify belief and ceremony with a new interpretation. All this
+applies to our worthy, but at the same time he was a philosopher at
+heart, because he believed that the knowledge of God came by
+contemplation as well as by practice, and, further, because he had a
+firm faith in the universalism of Judaism; and he believed that this
+universal religion must comprehend all that is highest and truest in
+human thought. Like most Jewish philosophers he is synthetic rather
+than analytic, believing in intuition and distrusting the discursive
+reason, careless of physical science and soaring into religious
+metaphysics. Again, like most Jewish philosophers, he is deductive,
+starting with a synthesis of all in the Divine Unity, and making no
+fresh inductions from phenomena. It has been said that, though Philo
+was a philosopher and a Jew, yet Saadia was the first Jewish
+philosopher. But Philo's philosophical ideas are in complete harmony
+with his Judaism; and if by the criticism it is meant that most of the
+content of his works is based upon Greek models, it is true on the
+other hand that the spirit which pervades them is essentially Jewish,
+and that by the new force which he breathed into it he reformed and
+gave a new direction to the Greek philosophy of his age.
+
+Philo's philosophy is certainly eclectic in some degree, and we find
+in it ideas taken from the schools of Plato, Aristotle, Pythagoras,
+and the Stoics. Its fixed point was his theology, and wherever he
+finds anything to support this he adapts it to his purpose. He
+approached philosophy from a position opposed to that of the Greeks:
+they brought a questioning and free mind to the problems of the
+universe; he comes full of religious preconceptions. Yet in this lies
+his strength as well as his limitation, for he gains thus a point of
+certainty and a clear end, which other eclectic systems of the day did
+not possess. He welds together all the different elements of his
+thought in the heat of his passion for God. His cosmology and his
+ontology are a philosophical exposition of the Jewish conception of
+God's relation to the universe, his ethics and his psychology of the
+Jewish conception of man's relation to God.
+
+The religious preconceptions of Philo drew him to Plato above all
+other philosophers, so that his thought is essentially a religious
+development of Platonism. It is not too much to say that Philo's work
+has a double function, to interpret the Bible according to Platonic
+philosophy and to interpret Plato in the spirit of the Bible. The
+agreement was not the artificial production of the commentator, for in
+truth Plato was in sympathy with the religious conscience as a whole.
+The contrast between Hellenism and Hebraism is true, if we restrict it
+to the average mind of the two races. The one is intent on things
+secular, the other on God. But the greatest genius of the Hellenic
+race, influenced perhaps by contact with Oriental peoples, possessed,
+in a remarkable degree, the Hebraic spirit, which is zealous for God
+and makes for righteousness. Plato was not only a great philosopher,
+but also a great theologian, a great religious reformer, and a great
+prophet, the most perfectly developed mind which the world, ancient or
+modern, has known. His "Ideas," which are the archetypes of sensible
+things, were not only logical concepts but also a kingdom of Heaven
+connected with the human individual by the Divine soul. And as he grew
+older so his religious feeling intensified, and he translated his
+philosophy into theology and positive religion. Platonism, it has been
+well said, is a temper as much as a doctrine; it is the spirit that
+turns from the earth to Heaven, from creation to God. In his last
+work, "The Laws," wherein he designs a theocratic state, which has
+striking points of resemblance with the Jewish polity, he says: "The
+conclusion of the matter is this, which is the fairest and truest of
+all sayings, that for the good man to sacrifice and hold converse with
+the Deity by means of prayers and service of every kind is the noblest
+thing of all and the most conducive to a happy life, and above all
+things fitting."[235]
+
+This is typical of Plato's attitude towards life in his old age; and
+further, his metaphysical system of monistic idealism is the most
+remarkable approach to Hebrew monotheism which the Greek world made.
+The Patristic writers in the first centuries of the Christian era were
+so struck by this Hebraism in the Greek thinker, that they attributed
+it to direct borrowing. Aristobulus had written of a translation of
+the Pentateuch older than the Septuagint, which Plato was supposed to
+have studied. Clement called him the Hebrew philosopher, Origen and
+Augustine comment on his agreement with Genesis, and think that when
+he was in Egypt he listened to Jeremiah.[236] Eusebius worked out in
+detail his correspondences with the Bible. Some early neo-Platonist,
+perhaps Numenius, declared that Plato was only the Attic Moses; and in
+more modern times the Cambridge Platonists of the sixteenth century
+harbored similar ideas, and Nietzsche spoke bitterly of the day when
+"Plato went to school with the Jews in Egypt."
+
+Of Philo, then, we may say, as Montaigne said of himself, that he was
+a Platonist before he knew who Plato was. Yet he was the first
+Hellenistic Jew who perceived the fundamental harmony between the
+philosopher's idealism and Jewish monotheism, and he was the first
+important commentator of Plato who developed the religious teaching of
+his master into a powerful spiritual force.
+
+It is true that the seeds of neo-Platonism, _i.e._, the religious
+re-interpretation of Platonism under the influence of Eastern thought,
+had been sown already; and Philo must have received from his
+environment to some extent the mystical version of the master's
+system, with its goal of ecstatic union with God, and its tendency to
+asceticism as a means thereto. But the earlier products of the
+movement had been crude, and had lacked a powerful moving spirit. This
+was provided by Philo when he introduced his overmastering conception
+of God. The popular saying, "Either Plato Philonizes or Philo
+Platonizes"[237] contains a deep truth in its first as well as in its
+second part. It not only marks the likeness in style of the two
+writers, but it suggests that Philo, on the one hand, made fruitful
+the religious germ in Plato's teaching by his Hebraism, and, on the
+other, nourished the philosophical seed in Judaism by his Platonism.
+Plato's teaching falls into two main classes, the dialectical and the
+mythical, and it is with the latter that Philo is in specially close
+connection. For in his myths Plato tries to achieve a synthesis by
+imaginative flight where he had failed by discursive reason. He
+unifies experience by striking intuitions, something in the spirit of
+a Hebrew prophet. Moreover his style, as well as his thought, has here
+affinity with Jewish modes of thought. As Zeller says, speaking of the
+myths: "From the first, in the act of producing his work he thinks in
+images. They mark the point where it becomes evident that he cannot be
+wholly a philosopher because he is still too much of a poet." And this
+is true of all Philo's writings, and to generalize somewhat widely, of
+most Jewish philosophy. In "The Timaeus," particularly, Plato,
+throughout, is the poet-philosopher, writing imaginative myths, which
+present pictorially an idealistic scheme of the universe; and "The
+Timaeus" is for Philo, after the Bible, the most authoritative of
+books, the source of his chief philosophical ideas.
+
+The dominant philosophical principle of Plato is what is known as the
+Theory of Ideas. He imagined a world of real existences, invisible,
+incorporeal, eternal, grasped only by thought, prior to the objects of
+the physical universe, and the models or archetypes of them. In "The
+Timaeus," which is a system of cosmology at once religious and
+metaphysical, the "Ideas" are represented as the thoughts of the one
+Supreme Mind, the intermediate powers by which the Supreme Unity,
+known as the "Idea of the Good," or "the Creator," evolves the
+material universe. Thus the universe is seen as the manifestation of
+one Beneficent Spirit, who brings it into existence and rules over it
+through His "ideal" thoughts. Philo adopts completely and uncritically
+this theory of transcendental ideas in his philosophical exegesis of
+the cosmogony in Genesis. "Without an incorporeal archetype God brings
+no simple thing to fulfilment."[238] There is an idea of stars, of
+grass, of man, of virtue, of music. And the Platonic conception
+receives a religious sanction. The ideas are a necessary step between
+God and the material universe, and those who deny them throw all
+things into confusion.[239] "God would not touch matter Himself, but
+He did not grudge a share of His nature to it through His powers, of
+which the true name is ideas." We have already noticed[240] how
+ingeniously Philo deduces the Theory of Ideas from the Biblical
+account of the creation, and associates it with the Hebraic conception
+of the ministerial Wisdom and Word. He, however, gives a new direction
+to the Platonic theory, owing to his Hebraic conception of God. The
+ideas with him are not the thoughts of an impersonal mind, but the
+emanations of a personal, volitional Deity. Keeping close to Jewish
+tradition, he says that they are the words of the Deity speaking. As
+human speech consists of incorporeal ideas, which produce an effect
+upon the minds of others, so the Divine speech is a pattern of
+incorporeal ideas which impress themselves upon a formless void, and
+so create the material world.[241] In this way Philo associates his
+cosmology with his theology. The creative "Ideas" are equated
+collectively with the Supreme Logos,[242] individually with the Logoi
+which represent God's particular activities. Thus the Logos represents
+the whole ideal or noetic world, "the kingdom of Heaven"; and it is in
+this metaphysical sense that the Logos is the first creation, "the
+first-born son of God," prior to the physical universe, which is His
+grandson. The whole universe is thus seen as the orderly manifestation
+of one principle. Philo, expanding a favorite image of the Haggadah,
+illustrates God's creation by the simile of a king founding a city.
+"He gets to him an architect, who first designs in his mind the parts
+of the perfect city, and then, looking continually to his model,
+begins to construct the city of stones and wood. So when God resolved
+to found the world-city, He first brought its form into mind, and
+using this as a model he completed the visible world."[243]
+
+The theory of religious idealism is the centre of Philo's philosophy,
+and provides the basis of his explanation of the material universe.
+Physics, indeed, he considered of small account, because he believed
+there could be no certainty in such speculations.[244] His mind was
+utterly unscientific; but as a religious philosopher he found it
+necessary to give a theory of the creation. Jewish dogma held that the
+world had been called into being out of nothing; the Greek
+philosophers repudiated such an idea, and held that creation must be
+the result of a reasonable process; Aristotle had imagined that matter
+was a separately existent principle with mind, and that the world was
+eternal; and the Stoics held that matter was the substance of all
+things, including the pantheistic power itself:
+
+  "All are but parts of one stupendous whole,
+  Whose body nature is, and God the soul."
+
+Philo impugns both these theories,[245] the one because it denies the
+creative power of God, the other because it confuses the Creator with
+His creation. He looked for a system which should satisfy at once the
+Jewish notion that the world was brought out of nothing by the will of
+God, and the philosophical concept that God is all reality; and he
+found in Plato's idealism a view of the creation which he could
+harmonize with the religious view. Plato declared that the material
+world had been created out of the _Non-Ens_ ([Greek: me on]) _i.e._,
+that which has no real existence. He conceived space and matter as the
+mere passive receptacle of form, which is nothing till the form has
+given it quality. Though Philo's language is vague, this seems to be
+his view when he is speaking philosophically. It is, perhaps, a slight
+deviation from the earlier religious standpoint of the Jews, which
+looks to a direct and deliberate creation of the world-stuff, rather
+than to the informing of space by spirit, and regards the world as
+separate from God, and not as a manifestation of His being. But the
+more philosophical conception appears likewise in the Wisdom of
+Solomon. "For Thine all-powerful hand that created the world out of
+formless matter," says the author (xi. 17), establishing before Philo
+the compromise between two competing influences in his mind. More
+emphatically Philo rejects the notion of creation in time.[246] Time,
+he says, came into being after God had made the universe, and has no
+meaning for the Divine Ruler, whose life is in the eternal present.
+
+Summing up, we may say that Philo regards the universe as the image of
+the Divine manifestation or evolution in thought produced by His
+beneficent will; and this view is true to the religious standpoint of
+traditional Judaism in spirit if not in letter.
+
+In his conception of the human soul, Philo again harmonizes the simple
+Jewish notion with the developed Greek psychology by means of the
+Platonic idealism. The soul in the Bible is the breath of God; in
+Plato it is an Idea incarnate, represented in "The Timaeus" as a
+particle of the Supreme Mind. Philo, following the psychology of his
+age, divides the soul into a higher and a lower part: (1) the Nous;
+(2) the vital functions, which include the senses. He lays all the
+stress upon the former, which gives man his kinship with God and the
+ideal world, while the other part is the necessary result of its
+incarnation in the body. He variously describes the Nous as an
+inseparable fragment of the Divine soul, a Divine breath which God
+inspires into each body, a reflection, an impression, or an image of
+the blessed Logos, sealed with its stamp.[247] Following the Platonic
+conception, Philo occasionally speaks of the Divine soul as having a
+prenatal existence,[248] holding, as the English poet put it, that
+
+  "The soul that rises with us, our life's star,
+    Hath had elsewhere its setting
+  And cometh from afar."
+
+Here, too, he follows an older Jewish-Hellenistic tradition, which
+appears in the Wisdom of Solomon (viii. 19 and 20), where it is
+written: "A good soul fell to my lot. Nay rather, being good, I came
+into a body undefiled." The Nous is in fact the god within, and it
+bears to the microcosm Man the relation which the infinite God bears
+to the macrocosm.[249] Indeed, it is the Logos descended from above,
+but yearning to return to its true abode. Thus Philo sings its Divine
+nature:
+
+     "It is unseen, but sees all things: its essence is unknown,
+     but it comprehends the essence of all things. And by arts
+     and sciences it makes for itself many roads and ways, and
+     traverses sea and land, searching out all things within
+     them. And it soars aloft on wings, and when it has
+     investigated the sky and its changes it is borne upwards
+     towards the aether and the revolutions of the heavens. It
+     follows the stars in their orbits, and passing the sensible
+     it yearns for the intelligible world."
+
+The Nous is the king of the whole organism, the governing and unifying
+power, and hence is often called the man himself. The senses,
+resembling the powers of God, are only the bodyguard, subordinate
+instruments, and inferior modes of the Divine part.[250] So Philo
+explains that all our faculties are derived from the Divine principle,
+and he draws the moral lesson that our true function is to bend them
+all to the Divine service, so as to foster our noblest part. The aim
+of the good man is to bring the god within him into union with the God
+without, and to this end he must avoid the life of the senses,[251]
+which mars the Divine Nous, and may entirely crush it. The Divine
+soul, as it had a life before birth, so also has a life after death;
+for what is Divine cannot perish. Immortality is man's most splendid
+hope. If the Divine Presence fills him with a mystic ecstasy, he has,
+indeed, attained it upon this earth, but this bliss is only for the
+very blessed sage; and he, too, looks forward to the more lasting union
+with the Godhead after this terrestrial life is over.[252] True at
+once to the principles of Platonism and Judaism, Philo admits no
+anthropomorphic conception of Heaven or of Hell. He is convinced that
+there is a life hereafter, and finds in the story of Enoch the
+Biblical symbol thereof,[253] but he does not speculate about the
+nature of the Divine reward. The pious are taken up to God, he says, and
+live forever,[254] communing alone with the Alone.[255] The unrighteous
+souls, Philo sometimes suggests, in accordance with current Pythagorean
+ideas, are reincarnated according to a system of transmigration within
+the human species ([Greek: palengenesia]).[256] Yet the sinner
+suffers his full doom on earth. The true Hades is the life of the
+wicked man who has not repented, exposed to vengeance, with uncleansed
+guilt, obnoxious to every curse.[257] And the Divine punishment is to
+live always dying, to endure death deathless and unending, the death
+of the soul.[258]
+
+The Divine Nous constitutes the true nature of man; Philo, however,
+insists with almost wearisome repetition, that the god within us has
+no power in itself, and depends entirely on the grace and inspiration
+of God without for knowledge, virtue, and happiness.[259] The Stoic
+dogma, that the wise man is perfectly independent and self-contained
+([Greek: autarches]) appears to him as a wicked blasphemy. "Those
+who make God the indirect, and the mind the direct cause are guilty of
+impiety, for we are the instruments through which particular
+activities are developed, but He who gives the impulse to the powers
+of the body and the soul is the Creator by whom all things are
+moved."[260] All thought-functions, memory, reasoning, intuition, are
+referred directly to Divine inspiration, which is in Platonic
+terminology the illumination of the mind by the ideas. Thus, finally,
+all human activity is referred back to God.
+
+This guiding principle determines Philo's attitude to knowledge,
+involving, as it does, that we only know by Divine inspiration, or, as
+he says, by the immanence of the Logoi.[261] The possibility of
+knowledge was one of the burning questions of the age, and it was the
+failure of the old dogmatic schools to answer it which led to a great
+religious movement in Greek philosophy. How can man attain to true
+knowledge, it was asked, about the universe, seeing that perceptions
+vary with each individual, and of conceptions we have no certain
+standard? The old Hebrew attitude to this question is expressed by the
+verse of the Psalmist: "The heavens are the heavens of the Lord, but
+the earth hath He given to the sons of men" (Psalm cxv), which implies
+that man must not try to penetrate the secrets of the universe. Philo
+is sufficiently a philosopher to desire knowledge about things Divine
+and human, but at the same time he has a complete distrust in the
+powers of human sense and human reason. About the physical universe he
+is frankly a skeptic,[262] but his religious faith leads him to hold
+that God vouchsafes to man some knowledge of Himself and of the proper
+way of life, _i.e._, ethics. "Man knows all things in God."[363] Plato
+similarly had despaired of knowledge of the physical world, and had
+turned to the heavenly ideas as the true object of thought. Moreover,
+in his early period, while his theory was still poetical and mystical,
+he had conceived that knowledge was made possible in the subject, by
+the entrance of "forms," or emanations, from the ideas. This theory
+Philo adapts to his Jewish outlook. Like Plato, he turns away from the
+physical to the ideal world,[264] and he regards the ideas of wisdom,
+virtue, bravery, etc., which are theologically powers of God, as
+continually sending forth Logoi, forms or forces (the angels of
+popular belief), to inform and enlighten our minds. Throughout, God is
+the cause of all knowledge as well as of being, for these effluences
+are but an expression of God's activity. In Philo's theory, object and
+subject are really one. What can be known are the modes or attributes
+of God, which philosophically are "Ideas"; what knows is the emanation
+of the Idea, which God sends into the human soul that is prepared to
+receive it by pious contemplation. "Through the heavenly Wisdom,
+wisdom is seen, for wisdom sees itself." "Through God, God is known,
+for He is His own light."[265]
+
+Thus all knowledge is intuition, and man's function is not so much to
+reason as to lead a life of piety and contemplate the Divine work in
+the hope of being blessed with inspiration. It would be a mistake,
+however, to take Philo's words quite literally. He does not deny the
+need of human effort and striving for knowledge; for the Divine
+influence is not vouchsafed till we have prepared for it and
+consecrated all our faculties to God. But, devout mystic as he is,
+he ascribes every consummation to the direct help of the Deity. "The
+mind is the cause of nothing, but rather the Deity, who is prior to
+mind, generates thought."[266] The Greek philosopher had ascribed the
+final synthesis of knowledge to a superhuman force. Philo ascribes to
+God all the intermediate steps from sense-perception. It may be
+admitted that his passive notion of philosophy involves the
+abandonment of the Greek ideal, the eager searching of Plato after
+truth. He lived in an age in which, through loss of intellectual
+power, man had come to despair of the attainment of knowledge by human
+effort, and to rely entirely upon supernatural means, Divine
+revelations, visions, and the like. It is consistent with his whole
+position that the crown of life is represented, not as an intellectual
+state, but as a superhuman ecstasy of the Nous, wherein it is freed
+not only from the body but from the rest of the soul, and is, so to
+say, led out of itself.[267] He comments on the verse, "And the sun
+went down and a deep sleep fell on Abraham" (Gen. xv. 12). "When the
+Divine light," he says, "shines upon the mortal soul, the mortal light
+sinks, and our reason is driven out at the approach of the Divine
+spirit."[268] This is the Alexandrian interpretation of [Hebrew: shkina]
+and [Hebrew: nboah], and though it is much affected by Greek mystical
+ideas, yet at the same time it is broadly true to the spirit of Jewish
+mysticism, as we see it presented in writers of all ages, and as the
+Psalmist expressed it, "to abide under the shadow of the Almighty."
+
+Philo's ethics, like the rest of his philosophy, exhibits the
+transfusion of Greek ideas with his Hebrew spirit. The Greek
+philosophers had evolved a rational plan of life, while the Jewish
+teachers were impregnated with burning ardor for the living God; and
+Philo brings the two things together, making ethics dependent on
+religion. The Stoics, who were the most powerful school of his day,
+regarded as the ideal of goodness life according to unbending reason
+and in complete independence of God or man. Philo understands God as a
+personal power making for righteousness, and man's excellence,
+accordingly, which is likeness to God, is piety and charity.[269]
+Above all he insists upon Faith ([Greek: pistis]) and he defines
+virtue as a condition of soul which fixes its hopes upon the truly
+Existent God. The Stoics also professed to honor faith or confidence
+above all things, but the virtue which they meant was reliance upon
+man's own powers. Philo's virtue is almost the converse of this. Man
+must feel completely dependent upon God, and his proper attitude is
+humility and resignation. So only can he receive within his soul the
+seed of goodness, and finally the Divine Logos.[270] Yet at the same
+time Philo remains loyal to the Jewish ideal of conduct: faith without
+works is empty, and, as he puts it, "The true-born goods are faith and
+consistency of word and action."[271]
+
+The attainment of the highest excellence demands severe discipline,
+save for those few blessed souls whom God perfects without any effort
+on their part. The rest can only secure self-realization by
+self-renunciation; they must avoid the bodily passions and bodily
+lusts.[272] At times the Divine enthusiasm causes Philo, like many a
+Jewish saint and like his master Plato, to scorn all bodily
+limitations and recommend "insensibility" ([Greek: apatheia])[273]
+by which he means that man should crush his physical desires and
+repress his feelings. Not that the good life seems to him to imply
+absence of pleasure. On the contrary, it is filled with the purest of
+joy, for when man rises to the love of God "in calm of mind, all
+passion spent," then and then alone has he tasted true joyousness. The
+symbol of this bliss is Isaac ([Hebrew: ytshk]), the laughter of the
+soul.
+
+It was noticed in the second chapter that Philo modified his ethical
+ideas during his life. In the earlier period he insists more strongly
+on the need of ascetic self-denial, and has almost a horror of the
+world. Maturer experience, however, taught him that man is made for
+this world, and that a wise use of its goods was a surer path to
+happiness and to God than flight from all temptations. In his later
+writings, therefore, he exhibits a striking moderation. He reproaches
+the ascetics for their "savage enthusiasm,"[274] probably hinting at
+the extreme sects of the Essenes and the Therapeutae. "Those who follow
+a gentler wisdom seek after God, but at the same time do not despise
+human things."
+
+     "Truth will properly blame those who without discrimination
+     shun all concern with the life of the State, and say that
+     they despise the acquisition of good repute and pleasure.
+     They are only making grand pretensions, and they do not
+     really despise these things. They go about in torn raiment
+     and with solemn visage, and live the life of penury and
+     hardship as a bait, to make people believe that they are
+     lovers of good conduct, temperance, and self-control."[275]
+
+Philo's aphorism, which follows, "Be drunk in a sober manner," is
+characteristic. The Stoic extreme of passionlessness is almost as
+false as the Epicurean hedonism, and the mean between them is the
+ideal Jewish life, in which godliness and humanity are blended.
+
+We have now examined the main divisions of Philo's philosophy, and we
+see that his metaphysics, cosmology, theory of knowledge, and ethics
+are all religious in tone, and all determined in their main lines by
+his Jewish outlook. His Hebraism is a seal which stamps all that
+enters his mind from Greek sources, and the Bible, spiritually
+interpreted, is the canon of all his wisdom.
+
+There remains one minor aspect of his work which must be briefly
+examined, because it has become closely associated with his name. This
+is his number-symbolism, by which he ascribes important powers to
+certain numbers, so that they are regarded as holy themselves and
+sanctifying that to which they are attached. This feature of his
+thought is commonly ascribed to Pythagorean influence, which was
+strong at Alexandria, and, indeed, throughout the world, at this era.
+The exact details of the holiness of four, seven, ten, fifty, etc.,
+Philo may have borrowed from neo-Pythagorean sources, but the general
+tendency was the natural result of his environment and his stage of
+thought. It was a feature of the recurring childishness of ideas and
+the renascence of wonder at common things which is apparent on many
+hands. To have denied the powers of numbers would have seemed as
+absurd and eccentric then as to deny the powers of electricity to-day.
+And in all ages people have been found to regard numbers mystically as
+a link between God and earth, and a means of solving all physical and
+metaphysical problems. The Hebrew intellect, primitive as it was,
+tended particularly to the reverence of the numerical powers. Witness
+the Bible itself, which emphasizes certain numbers; and witness also
+the fifth chapter of the Pirke Abot, with its lists ranged under four,
+seven, and ten, which is only typical of the rabbinical attitude.
+Philo is not original in his views concerning numbers, not above nor
+below the loose thinking of his age. He accepts unquestioningly the
+potency of seven, because of its marvellous mathematical properties,
+ratios, etc., its geometrical efficacy, and because of the seven
+periods of life from infancy to old age, of the seven parts of the
+body, the seven motions, the seven strings of the lyre, the seven
+vowels, and the very name, which is connected with worship ([Greek:
+sebasmos]). All this is trifling and trite, but what is of
+importance is the use which Philo makes of the sentiment. He converts
+it throughout to the support and glorification of Jewish institutions.
+Thus, if a man honors seven, he says, he will devote the Sabbath to
+meditation and philosophy.[276] Further, as seven is the symbol of
+rest and tranquillity, the Sabbath must be a day of perfect rest. Ten
+is magnified so as to honor the Decalogue,[277] fifty so as to honor
+the Feast of Pentecost. So, too, the Pythagoreans' mathematical
+conceptions of God as "the beginning and limit of all things," or,
+again, as the principle of equality, are approved by Philo, "because
+they breed in the soul the fairest and most nourishing fruit--piety."
+In short, Philo's Pythagoreanism only emphasizes his commanding
+purpose--to deepen and recommend the Jewish God-idea and the Jewish
+method of life.
+
+Jewish influences throughout are the determining element of Philo's
+teaching; they are the dynamic forces working upon the Greek matter
+and producing the new Platonism, which constitutes Philo's
+contribution to Greek philosophy. It may, indeed, be said that his
+Hebraism makes Philo anti-philosophical, because he has no desire or
+hope of adding to positive knowledge, but aims only at the calm of the
+individual soul in union with its God. The Platonic Theory of Ideas,
+metaphysical in origin, plays a very important part in his works, but
+it is adapted mystically, and turned from an ideal of the human
+intellect to a support of monotheism and piety. Here Philo is at once
+the leader and the child of his generation; men were no longer
+satisfied with rational systems, but wanted a religious philosophy,
+based upon a transcendental principle and a Divine revelation which
+could give them some certainty and some positive hope in life.
+Doubtless, the strong mystical tendency in Philo destroyed the balance
+between the intuitive and the discursive reason which makes the
+perfect philosopher. In his overpowering passion for God, he distrusts
+overmuch the analytical efforts of the human mind. Nevertheless, his
+acquired Hellenism gives his Jewish conceptions a philosophical
+impress, and this has made him the model of the school of religious
+philosophers. The ministerial "Word" became the "ideal" expression of
+God's mind, the governing reason, the world-soul; the angels were
+spiritualized as a kingdom of Ideas. Piety received an intellectual as
+well as a religious value, and the Mosaic law was raised to a higher
+dignity as an ethical code of universal validity.
+
+A complete harmony between the Hellenic and the Hebraic outlook upon
+life was impossible, but Philo at least accomplished a harmony between
+Hebraic monotheism and Greek metaphysics. He desired to show that
+faith and philosophy were in agreement, and that the imaginative and
+reflective conceptions of God and the Divine government were in
+unison. And he may be considered to have realized his desire in his
+synthesis of Jewish theology and Platonic idealism. He is through and
+through a great interpreter, elucidating points of unity between
+distinct systems of thought. In him the fusion of cultures, which
+began with the Septuagint translation, reached its culmination. It
+reached its zenith and straightway the severance began.
+
+In the next chapter we shall trace Philo's place in Jewish thought;
+here we may glance at his place in the development of Greek
+philosophy. The fusion between Eastern and Western thought, which he
+himself so strikingly illustrates, continued to dominate philosophy
+for the next four hundred years; and Plato, who, with his deep
+religious spirit, had a broad affinity with the Oriental conception of
+the universe, was the supreme philosophical master. All the chief
+teachers looked to him for the intellectual basis of their ideas and
+read into his works their particular religious beliefs; but they
+failed to maintain a true harmony between the two. The cultures of all
+countries and races mingled, even as their peoples mingled under the
+Roman Empire, but they were so combined as to lose the purity and
+individuality of each element. The Eastern Platonists who followed
+Philo brought to their interpretation less noble conceptions of the
+Godhead, the Gnosticism of Syria, the dualism of Persia, the
+impersonal pantheism of India, and the theurgies of Egypt, and
+produced strange hybrids of the human mind. The one point of agreement
+between them is that they conceive the Supreme God as impersonal and
+entirely inactive, "a deified Zero," and endeavor by a system of
+emanation to trace the descent of this baffling principle into man and
+the universe. Philo was as unfortunate in his philosophical as in his
+religious following, who both transformed his poetical metaphors into
+fixed and rigid dogmas. His doctrine of the Logos was, on the one
+hand, the forerunner of the Trinity of the Church, on the other of the
+Trinity of the Alexandrian neo-Platonists. It is difficult, indeed, to
+trace with certainty the connection between Philo and the later school
+of Alexandrian Platonists, but there appears to be at least one clear
+link in the teaching of the Syrian Numenius, who flourished in the
+middle of the second century. To him are attributed the two sayings:
+"Either Plato Philonizes or Philo Platonizes," and "What is Plato but
+the Attic Moses?" Modern scholars have questioned the correctness of
+the reference, but be this as it may, it is certain that Numenius used
+the Bible as evidence of Platonic doctrines. "We should go back," he
+says, in a fragment, "to the actual writings of Plato and call in as
+testimony the ideas of the most cultured races; comparing their holy
+books and laws we should bring in support the harmonious ideas which
+are to be found among the Brahmans and the Jews."[278] Origen tells
+us,[279] moreover, that he often introduced excerpts from the books of
+Moses and the Prophets, and allegorized them with ingenuity. In one of
+the few remains of his writings which have come down to us, we find
+him praising the verse in the first chapter of Genesis, "The spirit of
+God was upon the waters"; because, as Philo had interpreted
+it--following perhaps a rabbinical tradition--water represents the
+primal world-stuff. And elsewhere he mentions the efforts of the
+Egyptian magicians to frustrate the miracles of Moses, following
+Philo's account in his life of the Jewish hero.
+
+The work of Philo helped to spread a knowledge of the Hebrew
+Scriptures far and wide and to give them general authority as a
+philosophical book; but it did not succeed in spreading the pure
+Hebrew monotheism. The exalted Hebrew idea of God was still too
+sublime for the pagan nations, even for their philosophers. The world
+in truth was decaying morally and intellectually, and most of all in
+powers of imagination; and its hunger for God found expression in
+crude and stunted conceptions of His nature. Unable any longer to soar
+to Heaven, it sullied the majesty of the Deity, and divided the
+Godhead in order to bridge the gap. Numenius represents in philosophy
+the Gnostic ideas about God which were widely held by the heretics,
+Jewish and Christian, of the second century. He divides the Godhead
+into two separate powers: (1) the impersonal Being behind all reality,
+free from all activity whatsoever; (2) the Demiurge or active governor
+of the universe, who again is subdivided into a transcendent and an
+immanent power.
+
+The teaching of Plotinus, the most famous of the later Alexandrian
+neo-Platonists, shows a further step in the development of religious
+Platonism. Viewed from its higher side it is an attempt to explain
+everything as the emanation of the One. But philosophy in the third
+century debased itself in order to support the tottering polytheistic
+religion of the pagan world against the modified Hebraic creed,
+Christianity, which was fast demolishing its power. Against the
+Trinity of the Church the philosophers set up a heavenly Trinity of
+so-called reason: the Ineffable One, the Demiurgic Mind, and the World
+Soul; and between this Trinity and man they placed intermediate
+hierarchies of gods, angels, and demons--in fact, the whole fugitive
+army of Greek polytheism thinly disguised. All the vulgar fancies and
+superstitions which Philo had intellectualized, these later Eastern
+Platonists sought to revive and justify by conceptions of physical
+emanation blended of false science and mysticism. They hoped to found
+a universal religion by finding room in one system for the deities of
+all nations!
+
+From Plotinus down to Proclus, neo-Platonism became more
+unintellectual, more insane, more pagan, and, finally, with its vapid
+dreams, it brought the history of Greek philosophy to an inglorious
+close. Its finer teachings, however, deeply affected mediaeval
+philosophy, and not least the Arab-Jewish school. The theory of
+emanations and spiritual hierarchies pervades the writings of Ibn
+Ezra, Ibn Gabirol, and Ibn Daud, and thus indirectly provides a
+connection between the culture of Alexandrian Judaism and the culture
+of Spanish Judaism. The praise of God known as the [Hebrew: ktr mlkot] by
+Ibn Gabirol is a splendid example of the Hebraizing of neo-Platonic
+doctrines, which, though probably quite independent of his teaching,
+recalls constantly the ideas of Philo.
+
+By his place at the head of the neo-Platonic school Philo enters the
+broad stream of the world's philosophical development, but his more
+lasting influence was exercised over the religious philosophy of
+Christianity. He was the direct master of what is known as the
+Patristic school, which sought to combine the intellectual conceptions
+of Plato with the religious ideas of the Gospels. Its most celebrated
+teachers were Clement and Origen, both of Alexandria, who flourished
+in the second century. They resorted largely to allegorical
+interpretation, learning from Philo to trace in the Bible principles
+of universal thought and profound philosophy; but they used his method
+and his lessons to support notions of God and the Logos which were
+alien to his spirit. He had possessed pre-eminently the soaring
+imagination of poetry, which is the crown of the intellectual and of
+the religious mind, and unites them in their highest excellence; but
+they bounded their philosophy within the narrow limits of dogma, and
+thereby destroyed the harmony between Hebraism and Hellenism which he
+had contrived to effect. The controversy of Origen and Celsus began
+again the battle between reason and faith, "which was to destroy for
+centuries the independence of philosophy and to break the continuity
+of civilization." Had Philo really been ploughing the sand, and was an
+agreement between faith and reason, between religion and philosophy,
+impossible? Can the two finest creations of the mind only be combined
+on the terms that one is subordinate, or rather servile, to the other?
+In Judaism, if anywhere, the combination should be possible, for
+Judaism has as its basis an intuitional conception of God, which is in
+harmony with the philosophical conception of the universe, and it has
+little dogma besides. The neo-Platonists and the Church Fathers failed
+to carry on the ideal of Philo, but it was to be expected that among
+his own people, the nation of philosophers, as he had called them, he
+would have found true successors. Yet the use made of his work by the
+Christians compelled his people to regard him as a betrayer of the law
+and to avoid his goal as a treacherous snare. For centuries Greek
+philosophy was banned from Jewish thought, and Philo's works are not
+mentioned by any Jewish writer. Strangers possessed his inheritance,
+and his name alone, "Philo-Judaeus," bore witness to his nationality.
+It is an interesting speculation to consider how different might have
+been the history, not only of the Jews, but of the world, if the
+Hellenistic Judaism of Philo had prevailed in the Roman-Greek world
+instead of "the impurer Hellenism of Christianity." When, in the tenth
+century, the leaders of Jewish thought broke the bonds of seclusion,
+and brought anew to the interpretation of their religion the culture
+of the outer world, Greek philosophy became again a powerful
+influence, though it was Aristotle rather than Plato whom they
+studied. The harmonizing spirit of Philo, which may be accounted part
+of the genius of the race, lives on in Saadia, Maimonides, Ibn Ezra,
+Ibn Gabirol, and Judah Halevi. But the difference between him and the
+Arabic school is marked. They do not inherit his whole object, for
+they aimed not at a philosophical Judaism which should be a
+world-religion, but at a philosophical Judaism for the more
+enlightened Jews alone. Philo's work was the culminating point,
+indeed, of a great development in Judaism, produced by the mingling of
+the finest products of human reason and human imagination, but it was
+particularly the expression of his own commanding genius. He lacked a
+true successor, for those who shared his aim did not inherit his
+Jewish outlook, and those who shared his Jewish outlook did not
+inherit his aim. What is characteristic of and peculiar to Philo is
+the combination of the missionary and the philosopher. Living at a
+time when the Jewish genius expanded most brilliantly, and when
+Judaism exercised its greatest influence, he hoped to make his
+religion universal by showing it to be philosophical, and to bring
+about by the aid of Plato the ideal of the prophets.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+PHILO AND JEWISH TRADITION
+
+
+We have seen from time to time how Philo's interpretation of the Bible
+corresponds with Palestinian Jewish tradition; and we must now
+consider more in detail the relations of the two schools of Jewish
+learning. Until the last century it was commonly supposed that no
+close relation existed, and that the Alexandrian and Palestinian
+schools were independent and opposed; Scaliger, the greatest scholar
+of the seventeenth century, wrote[280] that "Philo was more ignorant
+of Hebraic and Aramaic lore than any Gaul or Scythian," and this was
+the opinion generally held. The researches of Freudenthal and
+Siegfried[281] have shown the falsity of these views; and, most
+important of all, Philo refutes them out of his own mouth. He refers
+in many different parts of his works[282] to the tradition and the
+wisdom of his ancestors, he tells us how on the Sabbath the Jews
+studied in their synagogues their special philosophy,[283] and he
+commences his "Life of Moses" by declaring that against the false
+calumnies of Greek writers he will set forth the true account which he
+has learnt from the sacred writings and "from certain elders of his
+race." In support of his statement we have the remark of Eusebius, the
+Christian historian, and our chief ancient authority for Philo's
+work,[284] that he set forth and expounded not only the laws of the
+Bible, but many institutions and opinions of his fathers. Apart from
+these direct references, the numerous points of correspondence between
+Philo's interpretations and those of the Talmud and later Midrash
+would compel us to admit a connection between Alexandria and
+Jerusalem.
+
+The break between the two schools did not show itself till after the
+time of Philo. Up to the first century of the Christian era the rabbis
+encouraged the union of Shem and Japheth--the two good sons of one
+parent--and the stream of ideas flowed quite freely between the
+teachers in Palestine and the Hellenized colony in Egypt.[285] Hence
+the Palestinian Jews, on the one hand, received the first fruits of
+this mingling of cultures, and the Alexandrian Jews, on the other,
+must have inherited the early tradition of the rabbinical interpreters
+embodied in ancient Halakah and Haggadah. By this common heritage,
+rather than by any direct borrowing, it seems more reasonable to
+account for the correspondence in the two Midrashim. It should be
+remembered that until the second century of the common era the mass of
+Jewish tradition was a floating and developing body of opinion not
+consigned to writing or formalized, but handed down by word of mouth
+from teacher to pupil, and preacher to congregation: in this way it
+was diffused throughout the mind of the race, indefinitely and, to
+some extent, unconsciously shaping its thought. The detailed points of
+agreement between Philo and the Talmud and Midrash are not of great
+moment in themselves, but they are the signs of a unity of development
+and the catholicity of Judaism in the East and West. Doubtless the
+development was more national and at the same time more legal in
+Judaea, in Alexandria more Hellenistic and philosophical, but there is
+a common spiritual bond between the two expressions, pious images,
+fancies, similes, interpretations which they share. They are, as it
+were, children of one family, and despite the varying influences of
+environment they maintain a family resemblance. With the Sibylline
+oracles we may compare Daniel and the Psalms of Solomon; with Aristeas
+and his fellow-Apologists, Josephus; with the allegorical commentaries
+of Philo, the Midrashim. Modern scholars have gone far to prove that
+Philo was the expounder of an Hellenic Midrash upon the Bible, in
+which were gathered the thoughts and ideas that had been brought to
+Egypt by the Jewish settlers, modified, no doubt, by Greek influences,
+but still bearing the stamp of their origin. Philo, then, appears in
+the direct line of the tradition which from the time of the Great
+Synagogue was disseminated through two channels, the schools of
+Palestine and the writers of Alexandria. He developed the national
+Jewish theology in a literary form, which made it available for the
+world, but with him the tradition as a Jewish tradition ends; in its
+further Hellenistic development it departed entirely from its original
+principles.
+
+It is natural that the larger number of parallels between Philo and
+the rabbis is to be found in the Haggadic portions of Talmudic
+teaching, for the Haggadah represents the same spirit as underlies
+Philo's work, though in a more peculiarly Jewish form; it is an
+allegory, a play of fancy, a tale that points a moral, or illustrates
+a question. It had, too, largely the same origin, for it gathered
+together the popular discourses given in the synagogue on the
+Sabbaths. Yet the relation of Philo to the other domain of the Talmud,
+the code of life, or the Halakah, is of great interest; for, as we
+have seen,[286] the Alexandrian community had a Sanhedrin of their
+own, of which Philo's brother was the president, and he himself
+probably a member; and in his exposition of the "Specific Laws" he has
+preserved for us the record of certain interpretations of the Jewish
+code, which are illuminating as much by their difference from, as by
+their agreement with, the practices of Palestine. The general aim of
+Philo's exegesis of the law was to show its broad principles of
+justice and humanity rather than to formulate its exact detail. It is
+true, he makes it an offence[287]--unknown to the rabbis--for
+a Jew to be initiated into the Greek mysteries, but usually he is
+concerned to recommend the Halakah to the world rather than expand it
+for his own community. This is shown in his treatment of the civil as
+much as the moral law. The great system of jurisprudence in his day,
+with which every code claiming to have universal value had necessarily
+to challenge comparison, was Roman Law. That part of it which was
+applied throughout the Empire, the _jus gentium_, was regarded as
+"written reason." It is probable that contact with Roman jurisprudence
+had affected the practical interpretations which the Alexandrian
+Sanhedrin put upon the Biblical legislation, and was the cause of some
+of their differences from the Palestinian Halakah. In treating the
+ethical law, Philo's object was to show its agreement with the
+loftiest conceptions of Greek philosophers, and, indeed, its
+profounder truth; in treating the civil law of the Bible, his object
+likewise was to show its agreement with the highest principles of
+jurisprudence and its superiority to pagan codes. If at times he
+supports a greater severity than the Palestinian rabbis eventually
+allowed, that is where greater severity implies a closer relation to
+Roman Law. Thus he has not the horror of capital punishment which the
+Jerusalem Sanhedrin exhibited; he would condemn to death the man who
+commits wilful homicide, whether by his own hand or by poison;[288]
+whereas the other Halakah allows it only in the former case. He who
+commits perjury also is to suffer capital punishment.[289] He adds a
+law which finds no place in the Palestinian tradition, making the
+exposure of children a capital crime.[290] Again, following the text
+of the Biblical law literally (see Deut. xxi. 18), he gives power of
+life and death to parents over their rebellious children, whereas the
+Jewish law demands a trial before a court to make the death sentence
+legal. He approves of the _lex talionis_, "an eye for an eye, a tooth
+for a tooth," agreeing here, indeed, with the opinion of earlier
+rabbis like R. Eliezer (see Baba Kama 84, [Hebrew: 'yn tht 'yn mmsh],
+"the law of eye for eye is to be taken literally"), and disagreeing with
+the later Halakic interpretation, which says that the law of Moses means
+the award of the value of an eye for an eye, etc.
+
+This is one instance among many of Philo's adoption of the older
+tradition, established probably under the Sadducaean predominance,
+which was modified in the rabbinical schools of the first and the
+second century. Paradoxically, in his exposition of the law, Philo
+follows the letter more closely as the expression of justice, while
+the later rabbis often allegorize it in order to support their humaner
+interpretation. Thus, commenting on the passage in Exodus xxii. 3
+about the law of theft, "If the sun be risen upon him, blood shall be
+shed for blood," he, like R. Eliezer, interprets [Hebrew: dbrim kktbm][291]
+_i.e._, literally. "If," he says, "the owner catches the thief before
+sunrise, he may kill him, but after the sun has risen he must bring him
+before the court."[292] This also was the Roman law, but the Halakah
+interprets more artificially: "If it were as clear as sunlight that
+the thief would not have killed the owner, then the owner may not kill
+him." Philo would justify the old law; the rabbis explain it away. On
+the other hand, in his treatment of the law relating to slaves, Philo
+extends the liberality both of the Bible and the Halakah. He declares
+that the slave is to be set free when by his master's violence he loses
+an eye or even a tooth.[293] The Bible and the Talmud direct emancipation
+only where the slave loses a limb; but Philo writes eloquently of the
+humanity of which man is deprived by the loss of sight; and he would
+apparently condemn the master who injured his slave more seriously to the
+full penalties of the ordinary law.[294] Maimonides, in his exposition of
+the law, approves the milder practice,[295] and this suggests that it
+had an old tradition behind it. Beautiful is Philo's stray maxim,
+"Behave to your servants as you pray that God may behave to you. For
+as we hear them, so shall we be heard, and as we regard them, so shall
+we be regarded."[296] In his whole treatment of slavery, Philo shows
+remarkable enlightenment for his age. He objects, indeed, to the
+institution altogether, and he tempers it continually with ideas of
+equality. Thus, following the Halakah, he directs the redemption of a
+slave seven years after his purchase, and he treats the laws of the
+seventh-year rest to the land and of the jubilee as of universal
+validity.
+
+Coming to the more specifically religious laws we find that Philo,
+missionary as he is, prohibits altogether marriage with Gentiles,[297]
+and that though, in the opinion of certain rabbinic teachers, the
+Biblical prohibition extended only to marriage with the Canaanite
+tribes, and unions with other Gentiles were permitted.[298] Philo
+recognizes how dangerous such unions are for the cause which he had so
+dearly at heart, the spreading of Judaism. "Even," says he, "if you
+yourself remain true to your religion through the influence of the
+excellent instruction of your parents, yet there is no small danger
+that your children by such a marriage may be beguiled away by bad
+customs to unlearn the true religion of the one only God."[299]
+Throughout, Philo is true to the mission of Israel in its highest
+sense. That mission is not assimilation, and it is to be brought about
+by no easy method of mixing with the surrounding people. It can be
+effected only by holding up the Torah in its purity as a light to the
+nations, and by offering them examples of life according to the law.
+
+Of the special ordinances for Sabbaths and festivals Philo mentions
+only those consecrated by the Biblical law or ancient tradition, which
+probably were the only ones settled in his day. He lays down the
+prohibition to kindle fire,[300] to make or return deposits, or to
+plead in the law courts on the Sabbath; he speaks of the reading of
+the Haggadah and Hallel on the night of Passover, of the bringing of a
+barley cake during the 'Omer and of the first fruits to the Temple on
+the Feast of Weeks, of the Shofar at New Year, and of the Sukkah, but
+not of the Lulab at Tabernacles. It should be remembered that the
+Halakah was not consolidated till the second or third century, and in
+Philo's time it was in the process of formation by different schools
+of rabbis. But the passage quoted in an earlier chapter, about adding
+to the law, proves his reverence for the oral law.[301]
+
+Though his statement of the civil and religious law is of great
+interest to the student of Halakic development, Philo's work presents
+greater correspondence, on the whole, with the Haggadah, which in a
+primitive way draws philosophical and ethical lessons from the Bible
+narrative. It is a free interpretation of the Scriptures, the
+expression of the individual moralist; it loves to point a moral and
+adorn a tale, and in many cases it is in agreement with the
+Hellenistic school. To take a few typical examples: An early
+interpretation explains the story of the Brazen Serpent, as Philo
+does,[302] to mean that as long as Israel are looking upward to the
+Father in Heaven they will live, but when they cease to do so they
+will die. Another, like him again, finds the motive of the command to
+bore the ear of the slave who will not leave his master at the seventh
+year of redemption, in the principle that men are God's servants, and
+should not voluntarily throw away their precious freedom. So, too, the
+Haggadah agrees in numerous points with Philo's stories about the
+patriarchs.[303] If one were to go through the Midrashic
+interpretations of the Five Books of Moses, he would find in nearly
+every section interpretations reminiscent of Philo. In some cases,
+however, there are striking contrasts in the two commentaries. Thus
+the Midrash[304] tells that the four rivers of Eden symbolize the four
+great nations of the old world; to Philo, they represent the four
+cardinal virtues established by Greek philosophers. The Palestinian
+commentators were prone to see an historical where Philo saw a
+philosophical image.
+
+The question may be asked, Who is the originator and who the borrower
+of the common tradition? And it is a question to which chronology can
+give no certain answer, and for which dates or records have no
+meaning. For the Haggadah was not committed to writing till many
+generations had known its influences, and it was not finally compiled
+till many generations more had handed it down with continuous
+accretions. The Haggadah in fact is part of the permanent spirit of
+the race going back to a hoary past, and stretching down "the echoing
+grooves of time" to the tradition of Judaism in our own day. The
+Hebrew Word means, and the thing is, "what is said": the utterances of
+the inspired teacher, some tale, some happy play of fancy, some moral
+aphorism, some charming allegory which captivated the hearers, and was
+handed down the generations as a precious thought. It is significant
+in this regard that the Haggadah is remarkable for the number of
+foreign words which it contains, Greek, Persian, and Roman terms
+jostling with Hebrew and Aramaic. For while the Halakah was the
+production of the Palestinian and Babylonian schools alone, the
+Haggadah brought together the harvest of all lands; and scraps of
+Greek philosophy found their way to Palestine before the Alexandrian
+school developed its systematic allegory. In the Mishnah, the earliest
+body of Jewish lore which was definitely formulated and written down,
+one section is Haggadic, the passages we know as the "Ethics of the
+Fathers." Now, we cannot place the date of this compilation before the
+first century,[305] and thus it would seem to be contemporary with
+Philo's work, to which it affords numerous parallels. But the great
+mass of the Haggadah, the Pesikta, the Mekilta, and the other
+Midrashim, were all later compilations, some of them as late as the
+fifth and the sixth century. Are we to say, then, that where they
+correspond to Philo they show his influence? At first this would
+appear the natural conclusion.
+
+There is a better test of priority, however, than the date of
+compilation, the test of the thought itself and its expression. And
+judged by this test we see that the Haggadah is the more ancient, the
+primal development of the Hebrew mind. The "Sayings of the Fathers"
+are typical of the finest and most concentrated wisdom of the
+Haggadah, and exhibit thought in its impulsive, unsystematic, gnomic
+expression, neither logical nor illogical, because it knows not logic.
+Beautiful ethical intuitions and profound guesses at theological truth
+abound; anything like a definite system of ethics and theology is not
+to be found, whence it is said, "Do not argue with the Haggadah." Even
+more so is this the case with the bulk of the Midrash. There, pious
+fancy will weave itself around the history and ideals of the people,
+and suddenly one comes across a sage reflection or a philosophical
+utterance. With Philo it is otherwise. Compared with the Greeks he is
+unsystematic, inaccurate, wanting in logic, exuberant in imagination.
+Compared with the rabbis he is a formal and accurate philosopher, an
+exact and scholarly theologian. The floating poetical ideas of the
+Haggadah are woven by him into the fabric of a Jewish philosophy and a
+Jewish theology, and knit together with the rational conceptions of
+Aristotle's "Metaphysics" and Plato's "Timaeus." We may say, then,
+almost with certainty, that Philo derives from the early Jewish
+tradition, though at the same time he introduced into that tradition
+many an idea taken from the Greek thinkers, which found its way to the
+later Palestinian schools of Jamnia and Tiberias, and was recast by
+the Hebraic imagination.
+
+Over and over again we find that he adopts some fancy of his ancestors
+and develops it rhetorically and philosophically in his commentary. To
+give many examples or references to examples of this feature of
+Philo's work is not within the scope of this book, but of his
+development of an old Palestinian tradition the following passage may
+serve as a typical instance:
+
+     "There is an old story," he writes, "composed by the sages
+     and handed down by memory from age to age.... They say that,
+     when God had finished the world, he asked one of the angels
+     if aught were wanting on land or in sea, in air or in
+     heaven. The angel answered that all was perfect and
+     complete. One thing only he desired, speech, to praise God's
+     works, or to recount, rather than praise, the exceeding
+     wonderfulness of all things made, even of the smallest and
+     the least. For the due recital of God's works would be their
+     most adequate praise, seeing that they needed no addition of
+     ornament, but possessed in the sincerity of truth the most
+     perfect eulogy. And the Father approved the angel's words,
+     and afterwards appeared the race gifted with the muses and
+     with song. This is the ancient story; and in accord with it,
+     I say that it is God's peculiar work to do good, and the
+     creature's work to give Him thanks."[306]
+
+Now this legend and moral appear in another form in the collection of
+Midrash, the Pirke Rabbi Eliezer, which apparently had ancient sources
+that have disappeared. There it is told: "When the Holy One, blessed
+be He, consulted the Torah as to the completeness of the work of
+creation, she answered him: 'Master of the future world, if there be
+no host, over whom will the King reign, and if there be no creatures
+to praise him, where is the glory of the King?' And the Lord of the
+world was pleased with her answer and forthwith He created man."[307]
+
+The Haggadah is rich also in allegorical speculation, of which there are
+traces in the Biblical books themselves. In the book of Micah, for
+example, we find that the patriarchs are taken as types of certain
+virtues, Abraham of Kindness, [Hebrew: hsd], and Jacob of Truth,
+[Hebrew: 'mt] (vii. 20). And when the ideas of the people expanded
+philosophically in Palestine and in Alexandria, the profounder
+conceptions were attached to Scripture by the device of allegorical
+interpretation, and certain rabbis attributed a higher value to the
+inner than to the literal meaning. Thus Akiba, who wrote an elaborate
+allegorical work upon the Song of Songs,[308] held that the book was the
+most profound in the Bible, and Rabbi Judah similarly regarded the book
+of Job.[309] The Palestinian allegorists took to themselves a wider
+field than the Alexandrian, and looked for the deeper meanings rather in
+the Wisdom Literature than in the Pentateuch, which was to them
+essentially the Book of the Law, and, therefore, not a fit subject for
+Mashal, _i.e._, inner meanings.[310] Hence, their allegorism was more
+natural, more real, and truer to the spirit of that which they
+interpreted. They allegorized when an allegory was invited, whereas
+Philo and his school often forced their philosophical meanings in face
+of the clear purport of the text, and without regard to the Hebrew. In
+the one case allegory was a genuine development, and might have been
+adopted by the original prophet: in the other, it was reconstruction;
+and the artificial un-Hebraic character of the Hellenistic commentary
+was one of the causes of its disappearance from Jewish tradition. While
+the Palestinian allegorists based their continuous philosophical
+interpretation upon the Wisdom Books, they, at the same time, looked for
+secondary meanings wherever opportunity offered, and found lessons in
+letters and teachings in names. An early school of commentators was
+actually known as [Hebrew: dorsh rshomot][311] or interpreters of signs,
+and their method was by examination of the letters of a word, or by
+comparison of different verses, to explore homilies. For instance, the
+verse, "And God showed Moses a tree" (Exod. xvi. 26), by which he
+sweetened the waters at Marah, symbolized, by a play on the word
+[Hebrew: vyvrhu],[312] that God taught Moses the Torah, of which it is
+said, "She is a tree of life" (Prov. iii. 18). Another happy example of
+this method occurs in the sixth section of the Pirke Abot, where the
+names in the itinerary, [Hebrew: mmtna nhlial, vmnhlial bmot] (Numb.
+xxi. 19), are invested with a spiritual meaning. Whoever believes in the
+Torah, it is written, shall be exalted, as it is said, "From the gift of
+the law man attains the heritage of God, and by that heritage he reaches
+Heaven."
+
+In this passage of Palestinian allegorism, it may be noticed that the
+Torah is regarded as a spiritual bond between man and God, and as a
+sort of intermediary power between them. This feature is almost as
+frequent in the Midrash as the Logos-idea in Philo, so that it may be
+said that rabbinic theology finds an idealism in the Torah which
+corresponds to the idealism of the Philonic Word. It is expressed, no
+doubt, naively and fancifully, even playfully, without attempt at
+philosophical deductions. It is informed by the same spirit as the
+Alexandrian allegory, but it is essentially poetical and impulsive,
+and set forth in mythical personification, not in deliberate
+metaphysics. The Torah to the rabbis was the embodiment of the Wisdom
+which the writer of Proverbs had glorified, and it takes its
+prerogatives. God gazes upon the Torah before He creates the
+world.[313] The Torah, though the chief, is not, however, the only
+object of rabbinic idealism. God and His name, it is said, alone
+existed before the world was created,[314] and in a Talmud legend
+relating the birth of man, the ideal power is identified with Truth,
+which, like the Logos, is pictured as God's own seal.
+
+  "From Heaven to Earth, from Earth once more to Heaven
+  Shall Truth, with constant interchange, alight
+  And soar again, an everlasting link
+  Between the world and Sky."
+
+  (Translation of Emma Lazarus.)[315]
+
+Correspondingly, Philo identifies the Logos with the name of God and
+with Truth.
+
+Of another piece of Talmudic idealism we catch a trace in Maimonides'
+"Guide of the Perplexed,"[316] where he says that the rabbis explained
+the designation of God, [Hebrew: lrubb b'rbot] [rendered in the authorized
+version, "He who rideth on the heavens" (Ps. lxviii. 4)], to mean that
+He dwelt in the highest sphere of heaven amid the eternal ideas of
+Justice and Virtue, as it is said: "Justice and Righteousness are the
+base of Thy throne" (Ps. lxxxix. 15). These fancies and
+interpretations indicate that in Palestine as well as in Alexandria an
+idealistic theology and a religious metaphysics were developing at
+this period, though in the East it was more imaginative, more Hebraic,
+more in the spirit of the old prophets.
+
+The more serious metaphysical and theological speculation of the
+rabbis was embodied in the doctrine of the "Creation," and the
+"Chariot," [Hebrew: m'sha br'shit] and [Hebrew: m'sha mrkba], which in
+form were commentaries on the early chapters of Genesis and the visions
+of Ezekiel. They were reserved for the wisest and most learned, for the
+rabbis had always a fear of introducing the student to philosophy until
+his knowledge of the law was well established. They held, with Plato, that
+metaphysical speculation must be the crown of knowledge, and if treated as
+its foundation, before the necessary discipline had been obtained, it
+would produce all sorts of wild ideas. Judaism for them was primarily
+not a philosophical doctrine but a system of life. The Hellenistic
+school was so far false to their standpoint that it laid stress for
+the ordinary believer upon the philosophical meaning as well as upon
+the law. And as events proved, this led to the neglect of the law and
+the dogmatic establishment of speculative theories as the basis of a
+new religion. Doubtless the consciousness that the philosophical
+development led away from Judaism increased the distrust of the later
+rabbis for such speculation, and made them regard esoteric as a milder
+term for heretical; but the warning is already given in Ben Sira: "It
+is not needful for thee to see the secret things."[317] The Talmud,
+indeed, records certain ideas about the powers of God and His relation
+to the universe in the names of the great masters; and in these ideas
+there are striking resemblances to Philo's conceptions. The Word is
+spoken of as an intermediate agency;[318] the finger of God is really
+the Word; the angels are sprung from the Words of God: Ben Zoma
+declared that the whole work of creation was carried out by the Word,
+as it is written, "And God said."[319] But on the other hand there are
+passages in which the rabbis oppose the Alexandrian attitude, and
+point out in its excessive philosophizing a danger to Judaism, so that
+in the end they exclude it. Rabbi Ishmael, we are told, warned his
+pupils of the danger of Greek wisdom.[320] Akiba, living at a time
+when the Jews were fighting for spiritual as well as for physical life
+against the combined forces of the Greeks and Romans, proposed to ban
+all the [Hebrew: sfrim hitsonim],[321] and the Gemara argues that among
+these were included the Apocryphal works which showed Greek influence.
+Again, Elisha ben Abuya, the arch-heretic, is held up to reproach because
+he read [Hebrew: sfri minim],[322] under which title Greek Gnostic books
+are probably implied.
+
+At the time when this spirit shows itself, the appearance of heretical
+offshoots from Judaism was already pronounced. Heresy was the
+aftermath of the combination of Judaism and Hellenism, and if further
+disintegration was to be avoided, the seductive Greek influence had to
+be discouraged. There is always the danger in a mingling of two
+cultures, that each will lose its particular excellence in a compound
+which has certain qualities, but not the virtues, of either element.
+Compromises may be desirable in political affairs; in affairs of
+thought they are perilous. Down to the time of Philo, the fusion of
+thought at Alexandria had been beneficial, and had broadened the
+Jewish outlook without impairing its strength, but the dissolving
+forces of civilization never operated more powerfully than in the
+early centuries of the common era, when the intellect of the world was
+jaded and weary, and the great movement in culture was a jumbling
+together of the ideas of East and West. More especially in the
+cosmopolitan towns, Alexandria, Antioch, and Rome, national life,
+national culture, and national religion were undermined; and even the
+Jew, despite the stronghold of his law and tradition, was caught in
+the general vortex of mingling creeds and theologies. Out of this
+confusion (which was in one aspect a continuation of the work of
+Philo) emerged, first, fantastic Gnostic religious and philosophical
+sects, and, finally, the Christian Church, which proved the system
+best fitted to survive in the circumstances, but was in essence as
+well as in origin a blending of different outlooks, and true to the
+cardinal points of neither Hebraism nor Hellenism. The rabbis, with
+remarkable intuition, saw that the Hellenistic development of Judaism,
+which had vainly striven to make Judaism universal, had ended in
+violating its monotheism and abrogating its law; and in that era of
+disintegration, denationalization, and decomposition they determined
+to keep their heritage pure and inviolate. Judaism by their efforts
+was the only national culture which survived, and some sacrifice had
+to be made to secure this end. The literary monuments of the
+Alexandrian community from the Septuagint translation to the
+philosophy of the Christian scholarchs were cut out of Jewish
+tradition, and the Babylonian school was ignorant altogether of the
+[Hebrew: hkma yonit] (Greek wisdom). When Ben Zoma desired to study the
+[Hebrew: sfrim hitsonim], and asked of his teacher at what hour of the
+day it was lawful to do so, he received the reply that it was permissible
+at an hour which was neither day nor night; for the precept was to study
+the Torah by day and night, as it is said, [Hebrew: ] (Josh. i. 8). Bar
+Kappara, indeed, a rabbi of the third century, explained Genesis ix. 27,
+"God shall enlarge Japheth and he shall dwell in the tents of Shem," to
+mean that the words of the Torah shall be recited in the speech of
+Japheth (_i.e._, Greek) in the synagogues and schools,[323] but by
+most other teachers the union between Shem and Japheth was no longer
+encouraged, because Japheth had become degraded and was allied with
+the cruel children of Edom (Rome).
+
+Besides the Talmud and the Midrash we have, in the work of Josephus,
+another indication that there was in Philo's own day communication
+between Alexandria and Palestine. The Jewish historian marks the
+influence of Hellenic ideas in Palestine in fullest measure, and like
+Philo he seeks by embellishment to recommend the histories and
+Scriptures of his people to the non-Jew and to bring home their
+thought to the cultured Roman-Greek world. Thus, in the preface to his
+"Antiquities," he notes, as Philo noted in his commentary, that Moses
+begins his laws with a philosophical cosmology; he says also that
+Moses spoke some things under a fitting allegory, hiding beneath it a
+very remarkable philosophical theory. The allegorical commentary which
+Josephus declared that he intended to write has not--if it was
+written--come down to us, but we have in his writings certain
+allegorical valuations of names that agree directly with Philo. Abel
+he explains as signifying mourning, Cain, [Hebrew: kin], as selfish
+possession. In the priestly garments of Aaron he sees with Philo a
+symbol of the universe, which the high priest supported when he
+entered the Holy of Holies. And the ritual vessels of the tabernacle
+have also their universal significance.
+
+     "If," says the Palestinian Hellenist, "any man do but
+     consider the fabric of the tabernacle and regard the
+     vestments of the high priest, he will find that our
+     legislator was a Divine man, and that we are unjustly
+     reproached by those who attack us for tribal narrowness. For
+     if he look upon these things without prejudice, he will find
+     that each one was made by way of imitation and
+     representation of the universe. When Moses ordered twelve
+     loaves to be set on the table, he denoted the years as
+     distinguished into so many months. By branching out the
+     candlestick into seven parts, he intimated the seven
+     divisions of the planets.... The vestments of the high
+     priest, being made of linen, signified the earth, the blue
+     color thereof denoted the sky, the pomegranates symbolized
+     lightning, and the noise of the bells resembled thunder. And
+     the fashion of the ephod showed that God had made the world
+     of four elements."[324]
+
+Let us now listen now to Philo: "The raiment of the priest is
+altogether a representation and imitation of the universe, and its
+parts are the parts of the other. His tunic is all of blue linen, the
+symbol of the sky. [The rabbis had a similar fancy of the Tsitsith
+(fringes).] And the flowers embroidered thereon mark the earth, from
+which all things flower. And the pomegranates are a symbol of the
+water, being skilfully called thus ([Greek: rhoischoi], _i.e._,
+flowing fruit) because of their juice, and the bells are the symbols
+of the harmony of all the elements."[325]
+
+It is true that the symbolism of two allegorists is varied, but a
+common spirit and aim underlie their interpretations. This is true
+alike of their account of the ritualistic and civil law of Moses.
+Either, then, there was a common source of Jewish apologetic
+literature, or Josephus must have borrowed from Philo. It is
+significant that he is the only contemporary of Philo that mentions
+him. He speaks of him as a distinguished philosopher, the brother of
+the alabarch, and the leader of the embassy to Gaius.[326] He knows
+also of the anti-Semitic diatribes of Philo's great enemy Apion, and
+two of his extant books are masterly reply to their outpourings. Hence
+it is not rash to assume that he knew at least that part of Philo's
+work which had a missionary and apologetic purpose--the "Life of
+Moses" and the "Hypothetica." He makes no acknowledgment to them, it
+is true, but expressions of obligation were not in the fashion of the
+time. Plagiarism was held to be no crime, and citation of authorities
+in notes or elsewhere was almost unknown in literature--save in the
+Talmud,[327] where to tell something in the name of somebody else is a
+virtue. But one can hardly doubt that the man who devoted himself to
+refuting the lying calumnies of Apion first made himself master of the
+classical work of Apion's opponent, which claimed to give to the Greek
+world the authoritative account of the Jewish lawgiver and his
+legislation.
+
+What Josephus knew must have been known to other cultured Jews of
+Palestine. Yet Philo, save in one doubtful case which will be noticed,
+is not mentioned by any Jewish writer between Josephus in the first
+and Azariah dei Rossi in the sixteenth century. The compilers of the
+Midrashim and the Yalkut, the philosophers of the Dark and Middle
+Ages, finally the Cabbalists, are continually reminiscent of his
+doctrines, but they do not mention his works or his existence. The
+Midrash Tadshe,[328] a tenth century compilation of allegorical
+exegesis, contains definite parallels to Philonic passages, especially
+in its quotations from an Essene Tannaite, Pin[h.]as ben Jair; but
+again the trace of influence is indirect. On the other hand, the
+Christian writers from the time of Clement in the second century quote
+him freely, make anthologies of his beautiful sayings, and in their
+more imaginative moments acclaim him the comrade of Mark and the
+friend of Peter. The rise of the Christian Church, which coincided
+with the downfall of the nation, caused the rabbis to emphasize the
+national character of Judaism in order to preserve the old faith of
+their fathers in the critical condition in which exile, persecution,
+and assimilation placed it. The first century was a time of feverish
+dreams and wild hopes that were not realizable: men had looked for the
+coming of the days of universal peace and good-will, and the
+Alexandrian Jews in particular hoped for the spreading of Judaism over
+the world. The rabbis recognized that this consummation was far away,
+and that Judaism must remain particularist for centuries in the hope
+of a final universalism. Meantime it must hold fast to the law and, in
+default of a national home, strengthen the national religious life in
+each Jewish household. They regarded Greek as not only a strange but a
+hostile tongue, and the allegorical exegesis of the Bible, which had
+led to the whittling away of the law, as a godless wisdom. The
+Septuagint translation, which had offered a starting point for
+philosophical speculation, was replaced by a new Greek version of the
+Old Testament made by Aquila, a proselyte, in the first century. It
+gave a baldly literal translation of the Hebrew text, sacrificing form
+and even lucidity to a faithful transcript. With unconscious irony the
+rabbis, who rejoiced in its truth to the Hebrew, said of Aquila, "Thou
+art fairer than the children of men, grace is poured into thy
+lips"[329] (Ps. xlv). In truth the work was utterly innocent of
+literary grace. A translation of the Bible marked the end, as it had
+marked the beginning, of Jewish-Hellenistic literature, but if the
+first had suggested the admission, so the other suggested the
+rejection of Greek philosophy from the interpretation of Judaism and a
+return to the exclusive national standpoint. The rabbinical
+appreciation of Aquila's work shows that, while the Jews were in
+Palestine, many still required a Greek translation of the Bible; but
+when in the third century C.E. the centre of the religion was moved to
+Babylon, Greek was forgotten, and the rabbis for a period lost sight
+of Greek culture. It is another irony of history that our manuscripts
+of Philo go back to an archetype in the library of Caesarea in
+Palestine, which Eusebius studied in the fourth century. Philo came to
+the land of his fathers in the possession of his people's enemies, and
+at a time when he could no longer be understood by his people.
+
+Philo's works were not translated into Hebrew, and as Greek ceased to
+be the language of the cultured, they could not, in their original
+form, have influenced later Jewish philosophers. But the Christians,
+in their proselytizing activity, had translated them into Latin and
+Armenian before the fifth century, and through one of these means they
+may possibly have exercised an influence upon the new school of Jewish
+philosophy, which, opening with Saadia in the tenth century, blossomed
+forth in the Arabic-Spanish epoch. The light of historical research is
+beginning to illumine the obscurity of the Dark Ages, and has revealed
+traces of an Alexandrian allegorist in the writings of the Persian Jew
+Benjamin al-Nehawendi, himself a distinguished allegorizer of the
+Bible, who wrote in the ninth century and taught that God created the
+world by means of one ministerial angel.[330] Benjamin relates that
+the doctrine was held by a Jewish sect known as the Maghariya, which
+probably sprang up in the fourth or the fifth century, when sects grew
+like mushrooms. The Karaite al-Kirkisani, who wrote fifty years later,
+says that the Maghariya sect used in support of their doctrine the
+"prolegomena of an Alexandrian sage" who gave certain remarkable
+interpretations of the Bible; and in one of Dr. Schechter's Genizah
+fragments, which is probably to be ascribed to Kirkisani, there are
+contained examples of the Alexandrian's explanations of the Decalogue,
+which occur, and occur only, in Philo's treatise on the "Ten
+Commandments."
+
+This connection between Philo and an obscure Jewish sect, or an
+obscurer Persian-Jewish writer, may appear far-fetched and not worth
+the making. In itself doubtless it is unimportant, but it serves to
+keep Philo, however barely, within Jewish tradition. For it shows that
+Alexandrian literature, though probably through the medium of a
+Mohammedan source, was known to some Jews in the centuries of
+transition. It may be that further examination of the great Genizah
+collection, which has opened to Jewish scholarship a new world, will
+reveal further and stronger ties to unite Philo with his philosophical
+successors, of whom the first is Saadia Gaon (892-942 C.E.). Indeed
+the main interest of this newly-discovered connection, if it can be
+seriously so regarded, is that it suggests the possibility of Saadia's
+acquaintance with Philo by means of a translation. That Saadia read
+the works upon which Christian theologians relied, is certain; and a
+fragment in which he refers to the teaching of Judah the
+Alexandrian[331]--also unearthed from the Cairo Genizah--goes some way
+to support the suggestion. The passage refers to the connection of the
+number "fifty" with the different seasons of the year, and though it
+does not tally exactly with any piece of the extant Philo, it is in
+the Philonic manner. And Philo, who was surnamed Judaeus by the Church,
+would have been re-named by his own people, translating from the
+Church writers, [Hebrew: yhuda]. One would the more willingly catch on to
+this floating straw, because Saadia was at once a compatriot of Philo,
+born in the Fayyum of Egypt, and the first Jew who strove to carry on
+his work. He aimed at showing the philosophy of the Torah, and its
+harmony with Greek wisdom in particular. Aristotle, who had been
+translated into Arabic, had meantime supplanted Plato as the master of
+philosophy for theologians, and Saadia's _magnum opus_, [Hebrew: amonot
+tsd'ot], is colored throughout by Aristotelian ideas. But the difference
+of masters does not obscure the likeness of aim, and, albeit
+unconsciously, Saadia renews the task of the Hellenic-Jewish school.
+
+Saadia's work was carried on and expanded in a great outburst of the
+Jewish genius, which showed itself most brilliantly in the
+Moorish-Spanish kingdom. The general cultural conditions of Alexandria
+in the first century B.C.E. were reproduced in Spain in the tenth
+century. Once again the Jews found themselves politically emancipated
+amid a sympathetic environment, and again they illumined their
+religious tradition with all the culture which their environment could
+afford. The mingling of thought gave birth to a great literature, both
+creative and critical; to a striking body of lyric poetry; to a
+systematic theology, and a religious philosophy.
+
+While the study of the old Talmudic lore was maintained, the greatest
+teachers developed tradition afresh by a philosophical restatement
+designed to make it appeal to the mental attitude of the enlightened.
+The sermon flourished again, collections of Haggadah (Yalkut) were
+made as storehouses of homilies, and metaphysical treatises modelled
+upon the works of the schoolmen set forth a philosophical Judaism for
+the learned world. It is notable also that these last were not written
+in Hebrew or in the Talmudic dialect, but in Arabic, the language of
+their cultured environment; for though the missionary spirit was dead,
+the controversial activity of the period impelled the Jewish
+philosophers to present their ideas in the form used by the
+philosophers of the general community.
+
+It is not only the general conditions of the Arab-Jewish period, but
+also the special development of Jewish ideas, which recalls the work
+of the Alexandrian school. This was, indeed, to be expected, seeing
+that in both cases there was a mingling of Hebraism and Hellenism. In
+Spain, however, the Jews acquired Hellenism at second hand, and
+through the somewhat distorted medium of Arabic translations or
+scholastic misunderstanding, and hence the harmony is neither complete
+nor pure. They endeavored to show that the teachings of Aristotle are
+implicit in the written and the oral law, but the interpretation is
+hardly convincing even in "The Guide of the Perplexed," of Maimonides,
+the monumental work which marks the culmination of mediaeval Jewish
+philosophy.
+
+If there is one figure in Jewish tradition with whom Philo challenges
+at once comparison and contrast, it is Maimonides, the brightest star
+of the Arabic, as he was of the Hellenic, development of the Jewish
+religion. Though there is nothing on which to found any direct
+influence of the one on the other, the aim, the method, the scope of
+their philosophical work are the same, the relation which they hold to
+exist between faith and philosophy wellnigh identical. The metaphysics
+of the Bible, according to both, is hidden beneath an allegory, and
+is meant only for the more learned of the people. To Maimonides the
+Bible is not only the standard of all wisdom, but it is "the Divine
+anticipation of human discovery." In the words of Hosea, God has
+therein "multiplied visions and spoken in similitudes" (xii. 11). The
+duty of the Jewish philosopher is to expound these metaphors and
+similes; and Maimonides, endeavoring to knit Greek metaphysics closely
+with Jewish tradition, propounds a science of allegorical values,
+which by exact philological study traces the inner as well as the
+outer meaning of the Hebrew words. But differentiated as it is by
+greater mastery of the tradition and closer adherence to the Hebrew
+text, his method is nearly as artificial and his thought as extraneous
+to the text as the method and thought of Philo. The content of their
+philosophies is, indeed, strikingly alike, save that the one is a
+Platonist, the other an Aristotelian. This involves not so much a
+difference of philosophical views as a difference of temper and of
+objective. The followers of Plato are mystics, yearning for the love
+of God; the followers of Aristotle are rationalists, seeking for the
+abstract knowledge of God. Hence in Maimonides there is less soaring
+and more argument than in Philo. Everything is deduced, so far as may
+be, with exactitude and logical sequence--according to the logic of
+the schoolmen--and everything is formalized according to scholastic
+principles. But the subjects treated are the same--the nature of God
+and His attributes, His relation to the universe and man, the manner
+of the creation, and the way of righteousness.
+
+Maimonides, who is in form more loyal to Jewish tradition, is to a
+larger degree than Philo dependent on authority for the philosophical
+ideas which he applies to religion. To a great extent this is due to
+the spirit of his age, for in the Middle Ages not only was the matter
+of thought, but also its form, accepted on authority, and Aristotle
+ruled the one as imperiously as the Bible ruled the other. The
+differences of form and substance do not, however, obscure the
+essential likeness with Philo's interpretation of Judaism. With him
+Maimonides holds that the essential nature of God is incognizable.[332]
+No positive predication can properly be applied to Him, but we know
+Him by His activities in relation to man and the world, _i.e._, by His
+attributes or by what Philo called His powers. Maimonides does not
+preserve the absolute monarchy of the Divine government, but places
+between God and man intermediate beings with subordinate creative
+powers--the separate intelligences of the stars, which are identified
+with the angels of the Bible.[333] But he maintains inviolate the sole
+causality of God and His immanence in the human soul. Maimonides, like
+Philo, gives in addition to a metaphysical theology a philosophical
+exposition of the law of Moses, which has the same guiding principle
+as the books on the "Specific Laws." Moses was the perfect
+legislator,[334] whose ordinances are [Hebrew: tsdikim], _i.e._, perfectly
+equitable, attaining "the mean"--the Aristotelian conception of
+excellence--and identical with the eternal laws of nature.[335]
+Numerous details of Maimonides' interpretations agree with those given
+in the books on the "Specific Laws." Whether correspondence of thought
+is merely an indication of the similar workings of Jewish genius in
+similar conditions, or whether it is the effect of an early tradition
+common to both, or whether, finally, there was connection, however
+indirect, between the two minds, it is now impossible to say. But at
+least the philosophy of Maimonides confirms the inner Jewishness of
+the philosophy of Philo, and its essential loyalty to Jewish
+tradition.
+
+Not less striking than his correspondence with later Jewish religious
+philosophy, though not less indefinite, is the relation of Philo to
+the later Jewish mystical and theosophical literature, purporting also
+to be a development of hoary tradition, and indeed calling itself
+simply the tradition, [Hebrew: kbla]. Between Philo and the Cabbalah it is
+as difficult to establish any direct connection as between Philo and
+rabbinic Midrash, but the likeness in spirit and the signs of a common
+source are equally remarkable. To trace God in all things through
+various attributes and emanations, to bring God and man into direct
+union, to prove that there is an immanent God within the soul of the
+individual, and to show how this may be inspired with the
+transcendental Deity--this is common to both. In the earliest times
+the mystic doctrine appears to have been a form of Jewish Gnosticism,
+speculation about the nature of God and His connection with the world.
+It probably embraced the [Hebrew: m'sha br'shit] and the [Hebrew: m'sha
+mrkba], though we know not what these exactly contained.[336] But it was
+not till the Middle Ages that Jewish mysticism received definite and
+separate literary expression, and by that time it was mixed up with a
+number of neo-Platonic and magical fancies and foreign theosophies. The
+later compilations of this character form what is more regularly known
+as the Cabbalah; but, apart from the professions of the later writers,
+a continuous train of tradition affirms the existence of secret
+teachings in Judaism from the time of the Babylonian captivity. Jewish
+mysticism is as much a continuous expression of the spirit of the race
+as the Jewish law. We may then without rashness conclude that the
+later Cabbalah is a coarser development, for a less enlightened and
+less philosophical age, of the Gnostic material which Philo
+refashioned in the light of Platonism for the Hellenized community at
+Alexandria. Modern scholars have favored the idea that the Essenes
+were the first systematizers of and the first practitioners in the
+Cabbalah, and have interpreted their name[337] to mean those engaged
+in secret things, but the mystic tradition itself is earlier than the
+foundation of a special mystic sect. It is part of the heritage from
+the Jewish prophets and psalmists and the Babylonian interaction with
+Hebraism.
+
+Philo had large sympathies with the Essenic development of Judaism, and
+he speaks at times as though he had joined one of their communities, and
+therein had been initiated into the great mysteries and secret
+philosophies of the sages. We have noted that he offers his most
+precious wisdom to the worthy few alone, "who in all humility practice
+genuine piety, free from all false pretence." They, in turn, are to
+discourse on these doctrines only to other members of the brotherhood.
+"I bid ye, initiated brethren, who listen with chastened ears, receive
+these truly sacred mysteries in your inmost souls, and reveal them not
+to one of the uninitiated, but laying them up in your hearts, guard them
+as a most excellent treasure in which the noblest of possessions is
+stored, the knowledge, namely, of the First Cause and of virtue, and
+moreover of what they generate."[338] These mysteries, it is not
+unlikely, represent according to some scholars the [Hebrew: sod] of the
+Talmudical rabbis, which was elaborately developed in the Zohar and
+kindred writings. Be this as it may, Philo's religious intensity
+expresses the spirit of the Cabbalists, his mystic soaring is the
+prototype of their theosophical ecstasies; his persistent declaration
+that God encloses the universe, but is Himself not enclosed by anything,
+contains the root of their conception of the En Sof ([Hebrew: 'yn
+sof]),[339] his Logos-idealism, with its Divine effluences, which are
+the true causes of all changes, physical and mental, is companion to
+their system of [Hebrew: 'olmim] and [Hebrew: sfirot], emanations and
+spheres. His fancies about sex and the struggle between a male and
+female principle in all things[340] are a constant theme of their
+teachers, and form a special section of their wisdom, [Hebrew: sof
+htsrog], the mystery of generation. His conception of the Logos as the
+heavenly archetype of the human race, the "Man-himself," is the Platonic
+counterpart of their [Hebrew: adm kdmon], or "primal man," who is known
+in the ancient allegorizing of the Song of Songs. His number-mysticism
+and his speech-idealism reappear more crudely, but not obscurely, in
+their ideas of creative letters, of which the cosmogony by the
+twenty-two letters of the Hebrew alphabet in the Sefer Yezirah is
+typical. Finally, his teachings of ecstasy and Divine possession are
+repeated in divers ways in their descriptions of the pious life
+([Hebrew: hnanot]).
+
+Philo, indeed, viewed from the Jewish standpoint, is the Hellenizer
+not only of the law but also of the Cabbalah, the philosophical
+adapter of the secret traditional wisdom of his ancestors. He brings
+it into close relation with Platonism and purifies it; he clears away
+its anthropomorphisms and superstitious fantasies, or rather he raises
+them into idealistic conceptions and sublime exaltations of the soul.
+By his deep knowledge of the intellectual ideas of Greece he refined
+the strange compound of lofty imagination and popular fancy, and
+raised it to a higher value. Plato and the Cabbalah represent the same
+mystic spirit in different degrees of intellectual sublimity and
+religious aspiration; Philo endeavored to unite the two
+manifestations. He lived in a markedly non-rational age given over to
+mystical speculation; and Alexandria especially, by her cosmopolitan
+character, "furnished the soil and seed which formed the mystic
+philosophy that knew how to blend the wisdom and folly of the
+ages."[341] Through the mass of apocalyptic literature that was poured
+forth in the first centuries of the common era, through the later
+books of the Apocrypha, through the Sefer Yezirah of the ninth and the
+Zohar of the thirteenth century, and through the vast literature
+inspired by these books, run the ideas that composed Philo's mystic
+theology. Philo himself was unknown, but his religious interpretation
+of Platonism had entered into the world's thought, and inspired the
+mystics of his own race as well as of the Christian world.
+
+After a thousand years of Latin domination the Renaissance revived the
+study of Greek in Western Europe, and to the most cultured of his race
+Philo was no longer a sealed book. The first Jewish writer to show an
+intimate acquaintance with him and a clear idea of his relation to
+Jewish tradition was Azariah dei Rossi, who lived in the sixteenth
+century. His "Meor Einayim" dealt largely with the Hellenistic epoch
+of Judaism, and its attitude towards it is summed up in the remark
+that "all that is good in Philo agrees with our law."[342] He pointed
+out many instances of agreement, and some of disagreement, but he
+objected in general to the allegorizing of the historical parts of the
+Torah and to the absence of the traditional interpretations in Philo's
+commentaries. He shared largely the rabbinical attitude and could not
+give an independent historical appreciation of Philo's work. That was
+not to come for two hundred years more. To Dei Rossi we owe the Jewish
+translation of Philo's name, [Hebrew: ydydim 'lksndri].[343] To the outer
+world Philo was "the Jew"; to his own people, "the Alexandrian."
+
+As soon as Greek was reintroduced into the scholarly world, Philo
+began to reassert an important influence on theology. One remarkable
+school of English mystics and religious philosophers, the Cambridge
+Platonists, who wrote during the seventeenth century, founded upon him
+their method and also their general attitude to philosophy.[344] They
+were Christian neo-Platonists, who looked for spiritual allegories in
+the Old and New Testaments, and combined the teachings of Jesus with
+the emotional idealism of the Alexandrian interpreters of Plato. They
+affirmed enthusiastically God's revelation to the universe and to
+individual man through the Logos. Their imitation of Philo's
+allegorism serves to mark the important place that he occupied in the
+learned world during the seventeenth century; and supports, however
+slightly, the suggestion that he influenced, directly or indirectly,
+the supreme Jewish philosopher of the age, Baruch de Spinoza. That he
+was well known in Holland at the time is shown in divers ways. He is
+quoted by the famous jurist Grotius in his book which founded the
+science of international law; he is quoted and criticised, as we have
+seen, by Scaliger; and curiously enough, his name, "Philo-Judaeus," is
+applied by Rembrandt to the portrait of his own father, now in the
+Ferdinandeum at Innsbruck. It is tempting to conjecture that there was
+a direct connection between the Jewish philosophers of the ancient and
+the modern world. Whether it existed or not, there is certainly
+kinship in their ideas. Spinoza does actually refer in one place, in
+his "Theologico-Political Tractate" (ch. x), to the opinion of
+Philo-Judaeus upon the date of Psalm lxxxviii, and there are other
+places in the same book, where he almost echoes the words of the
+Jewish Platonist; as where he speaks of God's eternal Word being
+divinely inscribed in the human mind: "And this is the true original
+of God's covenant, stamped with His own seal, namely, the idea of
+Himself, as it were, with the image of His Godhead" (iv); or, again,
+"The supreme reward for keeping God's Word is that Word itself."
+Spinoza knew no Greek, but, master as he was of Christian theology, he
+may have studied Philo in a Latin translation, and caught some of his
+phrases. With or without influence, he developed, as Philo had done, a
+system of philosophy, starting from the Hebrew conception of God and
+blending Jewish tradition with scientific metaphysics. The Unity of
+God and His sole reality were the fundamental principles of his
+thought, as they had been of Philo's. He rejected, indeed, with scorn
+the notion that all philosophy must be deduced from the Bible, which
+was to him a book of moral and religious worth, but free from all
+philosophical doctrine. Theology, the subject of the Bible, according
+to him, demands perfect obedience, philosophy perfect knowledge.[345]
+Both alike are saving, but the spheres of the two are distinct: and
+Moses and the prophets excel in law and imagination, not in reason and
+reflection. Hence Spinoza approached the Bible from the critical
+standpoint; and, on the other hand, he approached philosophy with a
+free mind searching for truth, independent of religious dogmatism, and
+he was, therefore, the founder of modern philosophy. None the less his
+view of the universe is an intellectual expression of the Hebraic
+monotheism, which unites a religious with a scientific monism. He
+regards God as the only reality, sees and knows all things in Him, and
+deduces all things from His attributes, which are the incomplete
+representations that man makes of His true nature; he explains all
+thought, all movement, and all that seems material as the working of
+His modes; and, finally, he places as the end of man's intellectual
+progress and the culmination of his moral life the love of God. In
+truth, Jewish philosophy has its unity and its special stamp, no less
+than Jewish religion and tradition, from which it receives its
+nurture. Thrice it has towered up in a great system: through Philo in
+the classical, through Maimonides in the mediaeval, through Spinoza in
+the modern world. In the Renaissance of Jewish learning during the
+nineteenth century, Philo was at last studied and interpreted by scholars
+of his own people. The first modern writer to reveal the philosophy of
+Jewish history was Nachman Krochmal (1785-1840), and his posthumous Hebrew
+book, "The Guide of the Perplexed of the Time," edited by Zunz,
+contained the first critical appreciation of the Hellenistic Jewish
+culture by a rabbinic scholar. He knew no Greek, but he studied the
+works of German writers, and in his account of Philo gives a summary
+of the remarks of the theologian Neander, himself a baptized Jew. In
+his own criticism he discerns the weakness and strength of Philo from
+the Jewish aspect. "There are," he says, "many strange things in
+Philo's exegesis, not only because he draws far-fetched allegories
+from the text, but also because he interprets single words without a
+sure foundation in Hebrew philology. He uses Scripture as a sort of
+clay which he moulds to convey his philosophical ideas. Yet we must be
+grateful to him because many of his interpretations are beautiful
+ornaments to the text; and we may apply to them what Ibn Ezra said of
+the teachings of the Haggadah, 'Some of them are fine silks, others as
+heavy as sack-cloth.'"
+
+Krochmal translated into Hebrew examples of Philo's allegories and
+gave parallels and contrasts from the Talmud. The relation between the
+Palestinian and the Alexandrian exegesis was more elaborately
+considered by a greater master of Hellenistic literature, Zacharias
+Frankel (1801-1875), who has been followed by a band of Jewish scholars.
+Yearly our understanding of the Alexandrian culture becomes fuller.
+Philo, too, has in part been translated into Hebrew. Indirect in the
+past, his influence on Jewish thought in the future bids fair to be
+direct and increasing.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+VIII
+
+THE INFLUENCE OF PHILO
+
+
+The hope which Philo had cherished and worked for was the spreading of
+the knowledge of God and the diffusion of the true religion over the
+whole world.[346] The end of Jewish national life was approaching, but
+rabbis in Palestine and philosophers at Alexandria, unconscious of the
+imminent doom, thought that the promise of the prophet was soon to be
+fulfilled, and all peoples would go up to worship the one God at the
+temple upon Mount Zion, which should be the religious centre of the
+world. In Philo's day a universal Judaism seemed possible, a Judaism
+true to the Torah as well as to the Unity of God,[347] spread over the
+Megalopolis of all peoples; and in the light of this hope Philo
+welcomed proselytism. The Jews had a clear mission; they were to be
+the light of the world, because they alone of all peoples had
+perceived God. Israel ([Hebrew: 'shr'l]), to repeat Philo's etymology, is
+the man who beholds God, and through him the other nations were to be
+led to the light. The mission of Israel was not a passive service, but
+an active preaching of God's word, and an active propagation of God's
+law to the Gentile. He must welcome the stranger that came within the
+gates.[348] Philo struggled against the separative and exclusive
+tendency which characterized a section of his race. He laid stress
+upon the valuelessness of birth, and the saving power of God's grace
+to the pagan who has come to recognize Him, in language which
+Christian commentators call incredible in a Jew, but which was in fact
+typical of the common feeling at Alexandria. Appealing to the
+Gentiles, Philo declared that "God has special regard for the
+proselyte, who is in the class of the weak and humble together with
+the widow and orphan[349]; for he may be alienated from his kindred
+when he is converted to the honor of the one true God, and abandons
+idolatrous, polytheistic worship, but God is all the more his advocate
+and helper." And speaking to the Jews he says:[350] "Kinship is not
+measured by blood alone when truth is the judge, but by likeness of
+conduct and by the pursuit of the same objects." Similarly, in the
+Midrash, it is said that proselytes are as dear to God as those who
+were born Jews;[351] and, again, that the Torah was given to Israel
+for the benefit of all peoples;[352] or[353] that the purpose of
+Israel's dispersion was that they might make proselytes. Philo's short
+treatise on "Nobility" is an eloquent plea for the equal treatment of
+the stranger who joins the true faith; and the author finds in the
+Bible narratives support for his thesis, that not good birth but the
+virtue of the individual is the true test of merit. Of the
+valuelessness of the one, Cain, Ham, and Esau are types; of the
+supreme worth of the other, Abraham, who is set up as the model of the
+excellent man brought up among idolaters, but led by the Divine
+oracle, revealed to his mind, to embrace the true idea of God. If the
+founder of the Hebrew nation was himself a convert, then surely there
+was a place within the religion for other converts. Remarkable is the
+closing note of the book:
+
+     "We should, therefore, blame those who spuriously
+     appropriate as their own merit what they derive from others,
+     good birth; and they should justly be regarded as enemies
+     not only of the Jewish race, but of all mankind; of the
+     Jewish race, because they engender indifference in their
+     brethren, so that they despise the righteous life in their
+     reliance upon their ancestors' virtue; and of the Gentiles,
+     because they would not allow them their meed of reward even
+     though they attain to the highest excellence of conduct,
+     simply because they have not commendable ancestors. I know
+     not if there could be a more pernicious doctrine than this:
+     that there is no punishment for the wicked offspring of good
+     parents, and no reward for the good offspring of evil
+     parents. The law judges each man upon his own merit, and
+     does not assign praise or blame according to the virtues of
+     the forefathers."
+
+And, again, he writes: "God judges by the fruit of the tree, not by
+the root; and in the Divine judgment the proselyte will be raised on
+high, and he will have a double distinction, because on earth he
+'deserted' to God, and later he receives as his reward a place in
+Heaven."[354]
+
+Unfortunately, the development of missionizing activity, which
+followed Philo's epoch, threatening, as it did, the fundamental
+principles of Judaism, necessitated the reassertion of its national
+character and antagonism to an attitude which sought expansion by
+compromise. It is the tragedy of Philo's work that his mission to the
+nations was of necessity distrusted by his own race, and that his
+appeal for tolerance within the community was turned to a mockery by
+the hostility which the converts of the next century showed to the
+national ideas. Christian apologists early learned to imitate Philo's
+allegorical method, and appropriated it to explain away the laws of
+Moses. Within a hundred years of Philo's death, his ideal, at least in
+the form in which he had conceived it, had been shattered for ages.
+While he was preaching a philosophical Judaism for the world at
+Alexandria, Peter and Paul were preaching through the Diaspora an
+heretical Judaism for the half-converted Gentiles. The disciples of
+Jesus spread his teaching far and wide; but they continually widened
+the breach which their Master had himself initiated, and so their work
+became, not so much a development of Judaism, as an attack upon it. In
+some of its principles, indeed, the message of Jesus was the message
+of Philo, emphasizing, as it did, the broad principles of morality and
+the need of an inner godliness. But it was fundamentally
+differentiated by a doctrine of God and the Messiah which was neither
+Jewish nor philosophical, and by the breaking away from the law of
+Moses, which cut at the roots of national life. Whatever the moral
+worth of the preaching of Jesus, it involved and involves the
+overthrow of the Jewish attitude to life and religion, which may be
+expressed as the sanctification of ordinary conduct, and as morality
+under the national law. To this ideal Philo throughout was true, and
+the Christian teachers were essentially opposed, and however much they
+approximated to his method and utilized his thought, they were always
+strangers to his spirit. Philo's philosophy was in great part a
+philosophy of the law; the Patristic school borrowed his allegorizing
+method and produced a philosophy of religious dogma! Those who spread
+the Christian doctrine among the Hellenized peoples and the
+sophisticated communities that dwelt round the Mediterranean found it
+necessary to explain and justify it by the metaphysical and ethical
+catchwords of the day, and in so doing they took Philo as their model.
+They followed both in general and in detail his allegorical
+interpretations in their recommendation of the Old Testament to the
+more cultured pagans, as the apology of Justin, the commentaries of
+Origen, and the philosophical miscellany ([Greek: Stromateis]) of
+Clement abundantly show.
+
+Certain parts of the New Testament itself exhibit the combination of
+Hebraism and Hellenism which characterizes the work of Philo. In the
+sayings of Jesus we have the Hebraic strain, but in Luke and John and
+the Epistles the mingling of cultures. Thus the Apostles seem to some
+the successors of Philo, and the Epistles the lineal descendants of
+the "Allegories of the Laws." In the Fourth Gospel and the Epistle to
+the Hebrews especially the correspondence is striking. But there is,
+in fact, despite much that is common, a great gulf between them. The
+later missionaries oppose the national religion and the Torah: Philo
+was pre-eminently their champion.
+
+The most commanding of the Apostles, Paul of Tarsus, when he took the
+new statement of Judaism out of the region of spirit and tried to
+shape it into a definite religion for the world, "forgot the rock from
+which he was hewn." As a modern Jewish theologian says,[355] "His
+break with the past is violent; Jesus seemed to expand and
+spiritualize Judaism; Paul in some senses turns it upside down." His
+work may have been necessary to bring home the Word to the heathen,
+but it utterly breaks the continuity of development. Paul himself was
+little of a philosopher, and those to whom he preached were not
+usually philosophical communities such as Philo addressed at
+Alexandria, but congregations of half converted, superstitious pagans.
+The philosophical exposition of the law was too difficult for them,
+while the observance of the law in its strictness demanded too great a
+sacrifice. The spiritual teaching of Jesus was dissociated by his
+Apostle from its source, and the break with Judaism was deliberate and
+complete. The fanatical zest of the missionary dominated him, and he
+proclaimed distinctly where the new Hebraism which was offered to the
+Gentile should depart from the historic religion of the Jews: "For Christ
+is the end of the law for righteousness to everyone that believeth,"[356]
+he says to the Romans; and to the Galatians: "As many as are of the works
+of the law are under the curse."[357] "Christ hath redeemed us from the
+curse of the law.... But before faith came, we were kept under the law,
+shut up with the faith which should afterwards be revealed. Wherefore
+the law was our schoolmaster to bring us unto Christ that we might be
+justified by faith. But after that faith is come, we are no longer
+under a schoolmaster." Paul's position then--and he is the forerunner
+of dogmatic Christianity--involved a rejection of the Torah; and it is
+this which above all else constituted his cleavage from both Judaism
+and the Philonic presentation of it.
+
+Philo is commonly regarded as the forerunner of Christian teaching,
+and it is doubtless true that he suggested to the Church Fathers parts
+of their theology, and represented also the missionary spirit which
+inspired the teaching of some Apostles. But it must be clearly
+understood that he shared still more the spirit of Hillel, whose maxim
+was "to love thy fellow-creatures and draw them near to the Torah,"
+and that he would have been fundamentally opposed to the new
+missionary attitude of Paul. The doctrines of the Epistle to the
+Romans, or the Epistle to the Ephesians, are absolutely antipathetic
+to the ideal of the "Allegories of the Laws." Paul is allied in
+spirit--though his expression is that of the fanatic rather than of
+the philosopher--to the extreme allegorist section of philosophical
+Jews at Alexandria, attacked by Philo for their shallowness in the
+famous passage, quoted from _De Migratione Abrahami_ (ch. 16[358]),
+who, because they recognized the spiritual meaning of the law,
+rejected its literal commands; because they saw that circumcision
+symbolized the abandonment of the sensual life, no longer observed the
+ceremony. The same antinomian spirit is shown in the Epistle to the
+Galatians by the allegory of the children whom Abraham had by Hagar
+the bondwoman and Sarah the free wife: "For there are the two
+covenants, the one from the mount of Sinai which gendereth to bondage,
+which is Hagar.... But we, brethren, as Isaac was, are the children of
+promise." To Philo the law and the observance of the letter were the
+high-road to freedom and the Divine spirit, and, remaining loyal to
+the Jewish conception of religion, for all his philosophical outlook,
+he said: "The rejection of the [Greek: Nomos] will produce chaos in
+our lives." To Paul the law was an obstacle to the spread of religious
+truth and a fetter to the spiritual life of the individual.
+
+It is possible that an extremist section of the Jews pressed the
+letter of the law to excess, so as to lose its spirit, but the
+opposite excess, into which Paul plunged the new faith, was as narrow.
+It involved a glorification of belief, which did not imply any
+relation to conduct. Philo had pleaded no less earnestly than the
+Apostle for the reliance upon grace and the saving virtue of faith,
+but he did not therefore absolve men from the law which made for
+righteousness.[359] And lest it be thought that the stress laid upon
+faith was peculiar to Hellenizing Judaism, we have only to note such
+passages as Dr. Schechter has adduced from the early Midrash on the
+rabbinic conception.[360] "Great was the merit of faith which Israel
+put in God; for it was by the merit of this faith that the Holy Spirit
+came over them, and they said the [Hebrew: shira], (_i.e._, the Song of
+Moses) to God, as it is said, 'And they believed in the Lord and His
+servant Moses. Then sang Moses and the children of Israel this song
+unto the Lord.'" Or again[361]--and the passage reminds us still more
+strongly of both Philo and Christian Gospel--"Our Father Abraham came
+into the possession of this world and the world hereafter only by the
+merit of his faith."
+
+What is new in the Christian position is not the magnifying of faith;
+it is the severance of faith from the law and the particular faith
+which is magnified. Philo, and the rabbis, too, believed that faith
+was the goal of virtue, and the culmination of the moral life; but
+faith to them implied the sanctification of the whole of life, the
+love of God "shown in obedience to a law of conduct." Paul, however,
+hating the law, set up a new faith in the saving power of Jesus and in
+certain beliefs about him, which afterwards were crystallized, or
+petrified, into merciless dogmas, contrary alike to the Jewish ideas
+of God and of life. The new religion, when it was denationalized,
+inevitably became ecclesiastical: for as the national regulation of
+life was rejected, in order to ensure some kind of uniformity, it had
+to bind its members together by definite articles of belief imposed by
+a central authority. The true alternative was not between a legal and
+a spiritual religion--for every religion must have some external
+rule--but between a law of conduct and a law of belief. Philo and the
+rabbis chose the former way; Paul and the Church, the latter.
+Christian theology, no less than the Christian conception of religion,
+exhibits also a complete breach with the Jewish spirit of Philo. In
+the Epistles there are, indeed, in many places doctrines of the Logos
+in the same images and the same Hebraic metaphors as Philo had worked
+into his system; but their purport is entirely changed by association
+with new un-Jewish dogmas. Philo, allegorizing,[362] had seen the holy
+Word typified in the high priest, and in Melchizedek, the priest of
+the Most High; he had called it the son of God and His first-born.
+Paul, dogmatizing, exalts Jesus Christ, the incarnate Word, above
+Melchizedek and the high priest, and calls on the Hebrews to gain
+salvation by faith in the son of God, who died on behalf of the sinful
+human race. Philo, in his poetic fancy, speaks of God associating with
+the virgin soul and generating therein the Divine offspring of holy
+wisdom;[363] the Christian creed-makers enunciated the irrational
+dogma of the immaculate conception of Jesus. So, too, the earliest
+philosophical exponents of Christianity, Clement of Alexandria, and
+Origen, may have derived many of their detailed ideas from Philo, but
+they converted--one might rather say perverted--his monotheistic
+theology into a dogmatic trinitarianism. They exalted the Logos, to
+Philo the "God of the imperfect," and a second-best Deity, to an equal
+place with the perfect God. For man, indeed, he was nearer and the
+true object of human adoration. And this not only meant a departure
+from Judaism; it meant a departure from philosophy. The supreme unity
+of the pure reason was sacrificed no less than the unity of the
+soaring religious imagination. The one transcendental God became
+again, as He had been to the Greek theologians, an inscrutable
+impersonal power, who was unknown to man and ruled over the universe
+by His begotten son, the Logos. The sublimity of the Hebrew
+conception, which combines personality with unity, was lost, and the
+harmony of the intellectual and emotional aspirations achieved by
+Philo was broken straightway by those who professed to follow him. The
+skeleton of his thought was clothed with a body wherein his spirit
+could never have dwelt. It was the penalty which Philo paid for
+vagueness of expression and luxuriance of words that his works became
+the support of doctrines which he had combated, the guide of those who
+were opposed to his life's ideal.
+
+The experience of the Church showed how right was Philo's judgment
+when he declared that the rejection of the Torah would produce chaos.
+The fourth and fifth centuries exhibit an era of unparalleled disorder
+and confusion in the religious world,[364] sect struggling with sect,
+creed with creed, churches rising and falling, dogmas set up by
+councils and forced upon men's souls at the point of the Roman sword!
+And out of this struggling mass of beliefs and fancies, theologies and
+superstitions, sects and political forces, there arose a tyrannical,
+dogmatic Church which laid far heavier burthens on men's minds than
+ever the most ruthless Pharisee of the theologian's imagination had
+laid upon their body and spirit. The yoke of the law of Moses,
+sanctifying the life, had been broken; the fiat of popes and the
+decrees of synods were the saving beliefs which ensured the Kingdom of
+Heaven! Was it to this that the allegorizing of the law, the search
+for the spirit beneath the letter, the reinterpretation of the holy
+law of Moses in the light of philosophical reason, had brought
+Judaism? And was the association of Jewish religion with Greek
+philosophy one long error? That would be a hard conclusion, if we had
+to admit that Judaism cannot stand the test of contact with foreign
+culture. But in truth the Hellenistic interpretation of the Bible, so
+long as it was genuinely philosophical, remained loyal to Judaism.
+Only when it became hardened into dogma, fixed not only as good
+doctrine, but as the only saving doctrine, as the tree of life opposed
+to the Torah, the tree of death--only then did it become anti-Jewish,
+and appear as a bastard offspring of the Hebraic God-idea and Greek
+culture. Nor should it be forgotten that the Christian theology and
+the Christian conception of religion are a falling away also from the
+highest Hellenic ideas; for to Plato as well God was a purely
+spiritual unity, and religion "a system of morality based upon a law
+of conduct and touched with emotion." In Philo, as we have seen, the
+Hebraic and Hellenic conceptions of God touch at their summits in
+their noblest expressions; the conceptions of Plato are interfused
+with the imagination of the prophets. The Christian theology was a
+descent to a commoner Hellenism--or one should rather call it a
+commoner syncretism--as well as to an easier, impurer Hebraism.
+
+It must not be put down to the fault of the Septuagint or the
+allegorists or Philo that the Alexandrian development of Judaism led
+on to Roman Christianity. It is to be ascribed rather to the infirmity
+of human nature, which requires the ideas of its inspired teachers and
+peoples to be brought down to the common understanding, and causes the
+progress towards universal religion to be a slow growth. The masses of
+the Alexandrian Jews in his own day cannot have grasped his teaching;
+for Philo, to some degree, lived in a narrow world of philosophical
+idealism, and he did not calculate the forces which opposed and made
+impossible the spread of his faith in its integrity. He was aiming at
+what was and must for long remain unattainable--the establishment
+among the peoples of philosophical monotheism.
+
+No man is a prophet in his own land--or in his own time--and because
+Philo has in him much of the prophet, he seems to have failed. But it
+is the burden of our mission to sow in tears that we may reap in joy.
+And the work of the Alexandrian-Jewish school may be sad from one
+aspect of Jewish history, but it is nevertheless one of the dominating
+incidents of our religious annals. It did not succeed in bringing over
+the world to the pure idea of God, but it did help in undermining
+cruder paganism. It brought the nations nearer to God, and it
+introduced Hebraism into the thought of the Western peoples. It
+marked, therefore, a great step in the religious work of Israel; yet
+by the schools of rabbis who felt the hard hand of its offspring upon
+their people it was regarded as a long misfortune, to be blotted from
+memory. What seemed so ominous to them was that the annihilation of
+the nation came at the same time as the cleavage in the religion.
+Judaism seemed attacked no less by internal foes than by external
+calamity; and was likely to perish altogether or to drift into a lower
+conception of God, unless it could find some stalwart defence. Hence
+they insisted on the extension of the fence of the law, and abandoned
+for centuries the mission of the Jews to the outer world. This was the
+true Galut, or exile; not so much the political exclusion from the
+land of their fathers, but the enforced exclusion from the mission of
+the prophets. Philo is one of the brightest figures of a golden age of
+Jewish expansion, which passed away of a sudden, and has never since
+returned. In the silver and bronze ages which followed, his place in
+Judaism was obscured. But this age of ours, which boasts of its
+historical sense, looking back over the centuries and freed from the
+bitter dismay of the rabbis, can appraise his true worth and see in
+him one who realized for himself all that Judaism and Jewish culture
+could and still can be.
+
+Some Jewish teachers have thought that Philo's work was a failure,
+others that it provides a warning rather than an example for later
+generations of Jews, proving the mischief of expanding Judaism for the
+world. As well one might say that Isaiah's prophecy was a calamity,
+because the Christian synoptics used his words as evidences of
+Christianity. What is universal in Jewish literature is in the fullest
+sense Jewish, and we should beware of renouncing our inheritance because
+others have abused and perverted it. Other critics, again, say that
+Philo is wearisome and prolix, artificial and sophisticated. There is
+certainly some truth in this judgment; but Philo has many beautiful
+passages which compensate. Part of his message was for his own
+generation and the Alexandrian community, and with the passing away of
+the Hellenistic culture, it has lost its attraction. But part of it is
+of universal import, and is very pertinent and significant for every
+generation of Jews which, enjoying social and intellectual emancipation,
+lives amid a foreign culture. Doubtless the position of Philo and the
+Alexandrian community was to some extent different from that of the Jews
+at any time since the greater Diaspora that followed the destruction of
+the temple. They had behind them a national culture and a centre of
+Jewish life, religious and social, which was a powerful influence in
+civilization and united the Jews in every land. And this gave a
+catholicity to their development and a standard for their teaching which
+the scattered communities of Jews to-day do not possess. None the less
+Philo's ideal of Judaism as religion and life is an ideal for our time
+and for all time. Its keynote is that Israel is a holy people, a kingdom
+of priests, which has a special function for humanity. And the
+performance of this function demands the religious-philosophical
+ordering of life. From the negative side Philo stands for the struggle
+against Epicureanism, which in other words is the devotion to material
+pleasures and sensual enjoyments. In adversity, as he notes, the race is
+truest to its ideals, but as soon as the breeze of prosperity has caught
+its sails, then it throws overboard all that ennobles life. The hedonist
+whom he attacks, like the Epicuros ([Hebrew: 'fikuros]) of the rabbis,
+is not the banal thinker of one particular age, but a permanent type in
+the history of our people. We seem to spend nearly all our moral
+strength in the resistance of persecution, and with tranquillity from
+without comes degradation within. Emancipation, which should be but a
+means to the realization of the higher life, is taken as an end, and
+becomes the grave of idealism. With a reiteration that becomes almost
+wearisome, but which is the measure of the need for the warning, Philo
+protests against this desecration of life, of liberty, and of Judaism.
+His position is, that a free and cultured Jewry must pursue the mission
+of Israel alike by the example of the righteous life devoted to the
+service of God, and by the preaching of God's revealed word. This is his
+"burden of the word of the Lord" to the worldly-wise and the
+materialists of civilized Alexandria--and to Jews of other lands.
+
+From the positive side Philo stands for the spiritual significance of
+the religion. Judaism, which lays stress upon the law, the ceremonial,
+and the customs of our forefathers, is threatened at times with the
+neglect of the inward religion and the hardness of legalism. Not that
+the law, when it is understood, kills the spirit or fetters the
+feelings, but a formal observance and an unenlightened insistence upon
+the letter may crush the soul which good habits should nurture.
+Religion at its highest must be the expression of the individual soul
+within, not the acceptance of a law from without. Although Philo's
+estimate of the Torah is from the historical and philological
+standpoint uncritical, in the religious sense it is finely critical
+inasmuch as it searches out true values. Philo looks in every
+ordinance of the Bible for the spiritual light and conceives the law
+as an inspiration of spiritual truth and the guide to God, or, as he
+puts it sometimes, "the mystagogue to divine ecstasy." For the crown
+of life to him is the saint's union with God. In mysticism religion
+and philosophy blend, for mysticism is the philosophical form of
+faith. Just as the Torah to Philo has an outward and an inward
+meaning, so, too, has the religion of the Torah; and the outward
+Judaism is the symbol, the necessary bodily expression of the inward,
+even as the words of Moses are the symbol, the suggestive expression
+of the deeper truth behind them. Yet mystic and spiritual as he is,
+Philo never allows religion to sink into mere spirituality, because he
+has a true appreciation and a real love for the law. The Torah is the
+foundation of Judaism, and one of the three pillars of the universe,
+as the rabbis said; and neither the philosopher nor the mystic in
+Philo ever causes him to forget that Judaism is a religion of conduct
+as well as of belief, and that the law of righteousness is a law which
+must be practiced and show itself in active life. He holds fast,
+moreover, to the catholicity of Judaism, which restrains the
+individual from abrogating observance till the united conscience of
+the race calls for it; unless progress comes in this ordered way, the
+reformer will produce chaos.
+
+Philo is conservative then in practice, but he is pre-eminently
+liberal in thought. The perfect example himself of the assimilation of
+outside culture, he demands that Judaism shall always seek out the
+fullest knowledge, and in the light of the broadest culture of the age
+constantly reinterpret its religious ideas and its holy books. Above
+all it must be philosophical, for philosophy is "the breath and finer
+spirit of all knowledge," and it vivifies the knowledge of God as well
+as the knowledge of human things. Without it religion becomes bigoted,
+faith obscurantist, and ceremony superstitious. But the Jew does not
+merely borrow ideas or accept his philosophy ready-made from his
+environment; he interprets it afresh according to his peculiar
+God-idea and his conception of God's relation to man, and thereby
+makes it a genuine Jewish philosophy, forming in each age a special
+Jewish culture. And as religion without philosophy is narrow, so, to
+Philo, philosophy without religion is barren; remote from the true
+life, and failing in the true purpose of the search for wisdom, which
+is to raise man to his highest function. Philosophy, then, is not the
+enemy of the Torah: it is its true complement, endowing it with a
+deeper meaning and a profounder influence. Thus the saying runs in the
+"Ethics of the Fathers,"
+
+[Hebrew: 'm 'yn tora 'yn hkma; 'm 'yn hkma 'yn tora]
+
+"If there is no Torah, there is no wisdom; if there is no wisdom,
+there is no Torah." The thought that study of the law is essential to
+Judaism Philo shares with the rabbis, and the Torah is in his eyes
+Israel's great heritage, not only her literature but her life. As
+Saadia said later,[365] "This nation is only a nation by reason of its
+Torah." It is because Philo starts from this conviction that his
+mission is so striking, and its results so tragical. The Judaism which
+he preached to the pagan world was no food for the soul with the
+strength taken out to render it more easily assimilated. He emphasizes
+its spiritual import, he shows its harmony, as the age demanded, with
+the philosophical and ethical conceptions of the time, but he
+steadfastly holds aloft, as the standard of humanity, the law of
+Moses. The reign of "one God and one law" seemed to him not a far-off
+Divine event, but something near, which every good Jew could bring
+nearer. He was oppressed by no craven fear of Jewish distinctiveness;
+and the Biblical saying that Israel was a chosen people was real to
+him and moved him to action. It meant that Israel was essentially a
+religious nation, nearer God, and possessed of the Divine law of life,
+and that it had received the Divine bidding to spread the truth about
+God to all the world. It was a creed, and more, it was an inspiration
+which constantly impelled to effort. It would be difficult to sum up
+Philo's message to his people better than by the verses in Deuteronomy
+which he, the interpreter of God's Word and the successor of Moses, as
+he loved to consider himself, proclaims afresh to his own age, and
+beyond it to the congregation of Jacob in all ages, "Keep therefore my
+commandments and do them; for this is your wisdom and your
+understanding in the sight of the nations, which shall hear all these
+statutes, and say, Surely this great nation is a wise and
+understanding people.
+
+"For what nation is there so great, who hath God so nigh unto them, as
+the Lord our God is in all things that we call upon Him for?
+
+"And what nation is there so great that hath statutes and judgments so
+righteous as all this law, which I set before you this day?" (Deut.
+iv. 5-7).
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+
+  The following are the chief works which have been
+  consulted and are recommended to the student of Philo:
+
+  The standard edition of Philo is still that of Thomas
+  Mangey, _Philonis Judaei opera quae reperiri potuerunt
+  omnia._ 1742. Londini.
+
+  A far more accurate and critical edition, which is
+  provided with introductory essays and notes upon the
+  sources of Philo, is in course of publication for the
+  Berlin Academy, by Dr. Leopold Cohn and Dr. Paul Wendland.
+  The first five volumes have already appeared, and
+  the remainder may be expected before long. The only
+  complete edition which contains the Latin text of the
+  _Quaestiones_ as well as the Greek works is that published
+  by Tauchnitz in eight volumes; but the text is not reliable.
+
+  There is an English translation of Philo's works in
+  the Bohn Library (G. Bell & Sons) by C.D. Yonge (4 vols.),
+  but it is neither accurate nor neat. The same may
+  he said of the German translation of Jost, but an
+  admirable German version edited by Dr. L. Cohn is now
+  appearing, which contains notes of the parallel passages
+  in rabbinic and patristic literature.
+
+  Works bearing on Philo and his period generally:
+
+  Schuerer, "History of the Jewish People at the Time
+  of Jesus Christ" (English translation).
+
+  Siegfried, _Philo von Alexandrien als Ausleger der
+  heiligen Schrift_.
+
+  Zeller, _Geschiehte der Philosophie der Griechen_,
+  vol. III, sec. 2.
+
+  Drummond, "Philo-Judaeus and the Jewish Alexandrian
+  School." 2 vols. (London.)
+
+  Herriot, _Philon le Juif_.
+
+  Vacherot, _Ecole d'Alexandrie_, vol. I.
+
+  Eusebius, _Praeparatio Evangelica_, ed. Gifford.
+
+  Freudenthal, J., _Hellenistische Studien_.
+
+  Harnack, "History of Dogma," vol. I.
+
+  Josephus, "Wars of the Jews"; "Antiquities of the Jews."
+
+  Mommsen, Th., "The Roman Provinces."
+
+  Works bearing on the special subjects of the different
+  chapters:
+
+  I. THE JEWISH COMMUNITY AT ALEXANDRIA
+    Graetz, "History of the Jews" (Eng. trans.), vol. II.
+    Swete, "introduction to the Septuagint."
+    Hirsch, S.A., "The Temple of Onias," in the
+  Jews' College Jubilee Volume.
+    Friedlaender, M. (Vienna), _Geschichte der juedischen
+  Apologetitc_ and _Religioese Bewegungen
+  der Juden irn Zeitalter von Jesus._
+
+  II. THE LIFE AND TIMES OF PHILO
+    Conybeare, edition of _De Vita Contemplativa_. (Oxford.)
+    Hils, _Les juifs en Rome. Revue des Etudes
+  Juives_, vols. 8 and 11.
+    Reinach, Theodor, _Textes d'auteurs grecs et romains
+  relatifs au Judaisme_.
+    Brehier et Massebieau, _Essai sur la chronologie
+  de Philon. Revue de l'Histoire des Religions,_ 1906.
+
+  III. PHILO'S WORKS AND METHOD
+    Hart, J.H.A., "Philo of Alexandria," Jewish
+  Quarterly Review, vols. XVII and XVIII.
+    Massebieau, _Du classement des oeuvres de Philon_.
+    Cohn, Leopold, _Einteilung und Chronologie der
+  Schriften Philon_.
+
+  IV. PHILO AND THE TORAH
+    Treitel, L., _Der Nomos in Philon. Monatsschrift
+  fuer Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judenthums_, 1905.
+
+  V. PHILO'S THEOLOGY
+    Montefiore, C., _Florilegium Philonis_, Jewish
+  Quarterly Review, vol. VIII.
+    Caird, Ed., "Evolution of Theology in the
+  Greek Philosophers."
+    Heinze, _Die Lefire vom Logos_,
+    Bucher, _Philonische Studien_.
+    Von Arnim, _Philonische Studien._
+
+  VI. PHILO AS A PHILOSOPHER
+    Freudenthal, Max, _Die Erkenntnisstheorie von Philo._
+    Bigg, "The Christian neo-Platonists of Alexandria."
+    Bussell, "The School of Plato."
+    Stewart, J.A., "The Myths of Plato."
+    Cuyot, H., _Les reminiscences de Philon chez Plotin_. 1906.
+    Neumark, _Geschichte der jildischen Philosophie
+  des Mittelalters_.
+
+  VII. PHILO AND JEWISH TRADITION
+    Schechter, "Aspects of Rabbinic Theology."
+    Taylor, "Ethics of the Fathers."
+    Ritter, Bernhard, _Philo und die Halacha_. Breslau, 1879.
+    Dei Rossi, "Meor Einayim," ed. Cassel.
+    Krochmal, "Moreh Nebuchei Hazeman," ed. Zunz.
+    Frankel, Z., _Ueber den Einfluss der palaestinensischen
+  Exegese auf die alexandrinische Hermeneutik_.
+    Epstein, _Le livre des Jubilis, Philon et le Midrasch
+  Tadsche_, Revue des Etudes Juives, XXI.
+    Ginzberg, L., "Allegorical Interpretation," in
+  Jewish Encyclopedia.
+    Joel, M., _Blicke in die Religionsgeschichte_.
+    Treitel, L., _Agadah bei Philo. Monatsschrift
+    fuer Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judenthums_, 1909.
+
+
+
+
+ABBREVIATIONS USED FOR THE REFERENCES
+
+
+The references to Philo's works are made according to the chapters in
+Conn and Wendland's edition, so far as it has appeared. In referring
+to the works which they have not edited, I have used the pages of
+Mangey'a edition; but I have frequently mentioned the name of the
+treatise in which the passage occurs, as well as the page-number.
+
+I have employed the following abbreviations in the references:
+
+  L.A. I-III Legum Allegoriae.
+  De Mundi Op. De Mundi Opificio.
+  De Sacrif. De Sacrifices Abelis.
+  Quod Det. Quod Deterius Potiori Insidiatur.
+  De Post. C. De Posteritate Caini.
+  De Gigant. De Gigantibus.
+  Quod Deus. Quod Deus Sit Immutabilis.
+  De Agric. De Agricultura.
+  De Plant. De Plantatione.
+  De Ebr. De Ebrietate.
+  De Confus. De Confusione Linguarum.
+  De Migr. De Migratione Abrahami.
+  Quis Rer. Div. Quis Rerum Divinarum Heres.
+  De Cong. De Congressu Eruditorum Causa.
+  De Fuga. De Fuga et Inventione.
+  De Mut. Nom. De Mutatione Nominum.
+  De Somn. De Somniis.
+  De Abr. De Vita Abrahami.
+  De Jos. De Vita Josephi.
+  De V. Mos. De Vita Mosis.
+  De Mon. De Monarchia.
+  De Spec. Leg. De Specialibus Legibus.
+  De Sac. De Sacerdotum Honoribus et de Victimis.
+  De Leg. De Legatione ad Gaium.
+  In Flacc. In Flaccum.
+  De Decal. De Decalogo.
+  De Septen. De Septenario.
+  De Concupisc. De Concupiscentia.
+  De Just. De Justitia.
+  De Exsecr. De Exsecrationibus.
+  Ant. Josephus: Antiquities of the Jews,
+                            tr. by Whiston.
+  Bell. Jud. Wars of the Jews.
+  C. Apion. Contra Apionem.
+  Hist. Ecclesiast. Eusebius: Historia Ecclesiastica.
+  Praep. Evang. Eusebius: Praeparatio Evangelica.
+  Photius, Cod. Photius: Codex.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+  Abraham (_see_ Lives of Abraham and Joseph), 83;
+    model of the excellent man, 244.
+
+  Agrippa (King), Philo's life covers reign of, 45;
+    Philo in Jerusalem during reign of, 50;
+    arrives at Alexandria, 65;
+    advanced to Kingdom of Judea, 69;
+    intercedes at Rome for his people, 69;
+    death of, 70.
+
+  Alexander (the Great), a notable figure in Talmud, 13;
+    settles Jews in Greek colonies, 14;
+    result of his work, 23.
+
+  Alexander Lysimachus, Alabarch of Delta region, 46;
+    guardian of Antony's daughter, 46;
+    restored to honor after imprisonment, 70.
+
+  Alexandria, Jewish community at (_see_ Jewish), 13 ff., 41, 42 f.;
+    Jewish population of, under Ptolemy I, 15;
+    meeting-place of civilizations, 14, 48, 95;
+    centre of Jewish life, 15, 129;
+    two sections occupied by Jews, 16;
+    prosperity of Jews in, 21, 22, 32;
+    anti-Semitic literature and influences in, 22, 62, 67, 74;
+    Jewish tradition at, 27;
+    synagogues at, 37;
+    deputation to Jerusalem from, 41;
+    rabbis flee to, 42;
+    Agrippa finds a refuge at, 51, 65;
+    mystical and ascetic ideas of people at, 55, 59;
+    philosophical schools at, 63, 90, 92, 94, 140;
+    development of Judaism in, 77, 255;
+    Egyptian caste-system adopted at, 16;
+    Jews of, popularize teachings of Bible, 34;
+    Jews of, referred to, in Talmud, 42;
+    Philo forced into Sanhedrin of, 61, 202, 203 f.;
+    Philo member of, 61;
+    disintegration of community at, 71;
+    Zealots flee to, on fall of Jerusalem, 71;
+    replaced by Babylon as centre of Jewish intellect, 73;
+    Samaritans in, 106;
+    antinomian movement in, 130;
+    prototypes of Christian belief at, 155;
+    Pythagorean influence at, 188;
+    national life and culture undermined at (_see_ National), 218.
+
+  Alexandrian, exegesis, characteristic of, 36;
+    church, departs from Jewish standpoint, 72;
+    Platonists, connection between Philo and later school of, 192;
+    schools, relation of, to Palestinian, 199 f., 213;
+    literature in the Dark and Middle Ages, 225 f.
+
+  _Allegories of the Laws_, an allegorical commentary, 74, 87 f.;
+    attacks Stoic doctrines, 94;
+    the _Epistles_, lineal descendants of, 247.
+
+  Angels, doctrine of, in Palestine, 140;
+    Philo's treatment of, 150-1.
+
+  Antiochus Epiphanes, Palestine passes to, 17.
+
+  Anti-Semitic, party, Flaccus won over by, 65;
+    literature and influences in Alexandria, 22, 62, 67, 74;
+    party, punishment of, at Rome, 70.
+
+  Apion, a Stoic leader, 63;
+    accuses Jews, 63, 67;
+    Philo's references to, 63, 101;
+    Josephus' reply to, 65.
+
+  Aquila, new Greek version of Old Testament made by, 224;
+    rabbis' views of, 224.
+
+  Aristeas, spirit of, glorified in Philo, 77.
+
+  Aristobulus, first allegorist of Alexandria, 38;
+    his spirit inherited by Philo, 77;
+    on wisdom, 143;
+    on the Word of God, 146;
+    difference between Philo and, 168.
+
+  Artapanus, Jewish apologist, 77.
+
+  Assouan, Aramaic papyri at, 15.
+
+
+  Babylon, replaces Alexandria as centre of Jewish intellect, 73;
+    Greek culture forgotten in, 224.
+
+  Bible, the, Philo's interpretation
+    and views on, 49, 102, 108 ff.;
+    Philo reveals spiritual message of, 83;
+    authority of, challenged at Alexandria, 92;
+    wisdom personified in, 141, 142.
+
+
+  Cabbalah, the, Essenes practitioners in, 233;
+    Philo as the Hellenizer of, 235.
+
+  Caligula. _See_ Gaius.
+
+  Chaldean, thought, Philo's acquaintance with, 48.
+
+  Christian, monastic communities, 73;
+    heresy, a severance from main community, 72;
+    theologians, fail to realize spirit of Philo, 124;
+    reformers, and the yoke of the law, 130;
+    teachers preserve Philo's works, 156, 248;
+    writers quote Philo, 223;
+    apologists imitate allegorical method, 245.
+
+  Christianity, the movement towards, 28;
+    rise of, 42;
+    conflict with Judaism at Alexandria, 72;
+    Philo's writings regarded as testimony to, 156;
+    Philo's influence over religious philosophy of, 195.
+
+  Conversion to Judaism, in Egypt and Rome, 32.
+
+  _Courage_, tractate appended to _Life of Moses_, 75.
+
+  _Creation of the World_, description of, 83.
+
+  Croiset, criticism of Philo by, 90.
+
+
+  _Decalogue, The_, contents of, 83.
+
+  Derash, Philo a master of, 103.
+
+  _Dreams of the Bible_, classed with Allegories of the Laws, 74.
+
+  Dubnow, on Alexandrian Judaism, 129.
+
+
+  Egypt, Alexander's march to, 14;
+    settlement of Jews in, 14;
+    connection between Israel and, 14;
+    visited by Plato, 15, 172;
+    Diaspora in, after Jeremiah, 15;
+    a favored home of the Jews, 21;
+    conversion widespread in (_see_ Rome), 32;
+    Flaccus, governor of, 65;
+    Jews of, under same rule as Palestine Jews, 15.
+
+  Egyptian, populace, Philo on, 62;
+    thought, Philo's acquaintance with, 48.
+
+  _Epistles_, the Pauline, lineal descendants of Allegories of the
+    Laws, 247;
+    doctrines of the Logos in, 250.
+
+  Essenes, rise of, 34, 54;
+    account of, in Philo's works, 78;
+    type of the philosophical life, 79;
+    practitioners in the Cabbalah, 233.
+
+
+  Flaccus, won over by Anti-Semites, 65;
+    indifference of, to attacks of Jews, 66;
+    recall of, 66;
+    Philo on the persecutions of, 78.
+
+  Frankel Z., writes on Alexandrian-Jewish culture, 241.
+
+
+  Gaius (Roman Emperor), comes to the imperial chair, 65;
+    Jews appeal directly to, 66;
+    receives Jewish deputation, 67;
+    death of, 69.
+
+  Greek philosophers, Philo's relation to, 48, 52;
+    philosophy, Philo's influence on, 49, 191 f.;
+    colonies, Alexander settles Jews in, 14.
+
+  Greek culture, various branches of, 47;
+    the chief schools of, 48, 54;
+    fertilizing influence of ideas of, 58;
+    and Jewish Scripture, 76;
+    neglected in Babylon, 224.
+
+
+  Haggadah, the, in Philo's works, 202, 207 f.;
+    antiquity of, 209 f.;
+    allegorical speculation in, 212.
+
+  Halakah, outcome of devotion to Torah, 99;
+    Palestinian Jews determine, 105;
+    observance of oral law standardized in, 126;
+    relation of Philo to, 202 f.;
+    differences between Alexandrian Sanhedrin and Palestinian, 203 f.;
+    codification of, 207.
+
+  Hebrew, language, evidence of Philo's knowledge of, 49;
+    included in barbarian languages, 97;
+    Philo's derivations from, 50, 101;
+    race, the three founders of, 110 f.;
+    tradition, Philo follows, 159;
+    mind, Professor Caird on, 167.
+
+  Hellenism, of Palestine, 24, 25;
+    of Alexandria (_see_ Greek culture), 25;
+    influence of, in Palestine, 51;
+    and the interpretation of the Bible, 254;
+    New Testament, a combination of Hebraism and, 247;
+    Christian theology a descent to a commoner, 254.
+
+  Hillel, Philo contemporary with, 45;
+    shows expansion of Hebrew mind, 45;
+    on chief lesson of Torah, 117, 118;
+    spirit of, shared by Philo, 249.
+
+  _Humanity_, tractate appended to a _Life of Moses_, 75.
+
+
+  Incarnation, notion of, not Jewish, 166.
+
+  Indian, thought, Philo's acquaintance with, 48.
+
+  Isaac, _See Lives of Isaac and Jacob_, 83.
+
+  Israel, Philo's derivation of the name, 50, 138;
+    God's special providence for, 77;
+    the mission of, 206, 242.
+
+  Italy, Philo visits, 66.
+
+
+  Jacob, _See Lives of Isaac and Jacob_, 83.
+
+  Jeremiah, prophesies in Egypt, 14;
+    heard by Plato, 15.
+
+  Jerusalem, Alexander's visit to, 14;
+    Philo, on national centre at, 20, 41, 86;
+    spiritual headship of, 41;
+    special synagogues for Alexandrians in, 41;
+    derivation of name of, 50;
+    Philo's sojourn at, 50;
+    downfall of, 71;
+    Judaism at, 129.
+
+  Jesus, spread of his teaching, 245;
+    his message compared with that of Philo, 245;
+    preaching of, effect on Jewish attitude to life, 246;
+    Paul sets up a new faith in, 251.
+
+  Jewish, community at Alexandria (_see_ Alexandria), 13 ff., 72;
+    temple at Elephantine, 15;
+    kingdom reaches its height, 45;
+    mind, religous conception of, 49, 137, 166;
+    law and ceremony, elucidation of, 49;
+    race, symbol of the unity of, 51;
+    aspiration toward "freedom under the law," 124;
+    influences, dominant in Philo, 133, 189;
+    philosophy, eclectic, 168;
+    philosophy, new school of in Middle Ages, 225 f.
+
+  Joseph (_see Lives of Abraham and Joseph_), 83;
+    as Egyptian statesman, 23.
+
+  Josephus, on Onias and Dositheus, 18;
+    inconsistent accounts of Onias temple, 19;
+    on Egyptian Jews, 20;
+    account of Herod's temple by, 41;
+    writes a reply to Apion, 65;
+    description of Gaius' conduct to Jewish deputation, 68;
+    on the spreading of Judaism, 115;
+    indicates communication between schools of Alexandria and Palestine,
+    220;
+    relation to Philo and his works, 222.
+
+  Jowett, on sermons, 90.
+
+  Judaism, genius of, 46, 196;
+    Philo's exposition of, 52, 74, 78, 81, 84, 105;
+    Philo protests against desecration of, 258;
+    mysticism in, 58;
+    philosophical, 72, 230;
+    Alexandrian development of, 77, 92;
+    moral teachings of, 85;
+    religion of the law, 106, 116, 260;
+    Josephus on the spreading of, 115;
+    a religion of universal validity, 121, 169;
+    at Jerusalem and Alexandria, 129;
+    catholic conscience of, 130, 131;
+    Darmesteter on, 132;
+    Logos doctrine and, 165;
+    danger of union with Gentiles to, 206;
+    a national culture, 219;
+    influences of Jesus and Paul on, 247;
+    Hellenistic interpretation of the Bible and, 254.
+
+  Judas Maccabaeus, struggles against Hellenizing party, 18.
+
+  Krochmal, Nachman, criticism of Philo, 240.
+
+
+  _Life of Moses_, contents of, 75, 79 f.;
+    an attempt to set monotheism before the world, 80;
+    tractates appended to, 75.
+
+  _Lives of Abraham and Joseph_, description of, 83.
+
+  _Lives of Isaac and Jacob_, contents of, 83.
+
+  Logos, 143 ff.;
+    its relation to God's Providence, 143;
+    meaning of, 144-164, 148;
+    Aristobulus on, 146;
+    regarded as the effluence of God, 149;
+    spoken of as a person, 156;
+    the soul, an image of, 178;
+    development of Philo's doctrine of, 192.
+
+
+  Maimonides, object of his Moreh, 91;
+    principles of, 99, 229;
+    comparison of Philo with, 229 f.
+
+  Mark Antony, Alexander Lysimachus in the confidence of, 46.
+
+  Monastic communities, supposed record of Christian, in Philo, 73.
+
+  Moses, Philo a follower of, 60, 113 f.;
+    Philo's ideal type, 79 f.;
+    Philo, as interpreter of his revelation, 104, 106 f.
+    _See Life of Moses_.
+
+
+  National, centre at Jerusalem, Philo on, 20, 41, 86;
+    life undermined at Rome and Alexandria, 218.
+
+
+  Old Testament, Septuagint translation of, 25-30;
+    Aquila's new Greek version of, 224.
+
+  Onias, leader of army of Egyptian monarch, 18;
+    successor to high priesthood, 18;
+    builds temple, 18, 19 f.;
+    temple of, dismantled, 71;
+    Jewish writers silent about work of, 19.
+
+  Oral law, observance of, standardized in the Halakah, 126.
+
+  Origen, distinguishes three methods of interpretation, 76;
+    teacher of Patristic school, 195; imitates Philo, 186.
+
+
+  Palestine, struggle for, between Ptolemies and Seleucids, 17;
+    Hellenism of, compared with that of Athens, 24, 25;
+    rabbis of, 28;
+    Philo visits, 50;
+    effect of Hellenic influence in, 54;
+    New Moon a solemn day in, 121;
+    aims of Jewish thought in, 140;
+    doctrine of angels in, 140.
+
+  Palestinian Jews, under same rule as Egyptian Jews, 15;
+    rabbis, oral tradition, 34;
+    development of Jewish culture, 42 f., 200;
+    Midrash, Philo's acquaintance with, 52;
+    schools, relation existing between Alexandrian and, 199 f., 203 f.,
+    213.
+
+  Paul, the most commanding of the apostles, 247;
+    influence of, compared with that of Jesus, 247;
+    rejection of the Torah by, 248;
+    sets up a new faith in Jesus, 251.
+
+ Pentateuch, Samaritan doctrines with reference to, 106.
+
+  Peshat, as a form of interpretation, 103.
+
+  Philo, contemporary with Herod, 45, 50;
+    family of, 46;
+    works of 74 ff.;
+    philosophical training of, 49;
+    flees from Alexandria, 60;
+    meeting of Peter and Mark with, 73;
+    forced into Sanhedrin of Alexandria, 61;
+    writings of, regarded as testimony to Christianity, 73, 156;
+    influence of, over Christian religious philosophy, 195, 242 ff.;
+    relation of, to Greek philosophers, 48, 52;
+    acquaintance of, with Chaldean and Indian thought, 48;
+    his interpretation and views of the Bible, 49, 102, 108 ff.;
+    evidence of his knowledge of Hebrew language, 49;
+    follows Hebrew tradition, 159, 199 ff.;
+    compared with Spinoza, 73, 134, 163;
+    on persecutions of Sejanus and Flaccus, 62, 78;
+    replies to attacks of stoics, 64, 95;
+    stoics' view of God compared with that of, 185;
+    goes to Italy, 66;
+    refers to Apion, 63, 101;
+    Josephus' knowledge of the works of, 222;
+    Christian teachers preserve works of, 156, 247;
+    relation of, to the Halakah, 202 f.;
+    comparison of Maimonides with, 229 f.;
+    doctrine of the Logos (_see_ Logos), 144 ff.;
+    connection between Saadia and, 226 f.;
+    the Hellenizer of the Cabbalah, 235;
+    opposed to missionary attitude of Paul, 249.
+
+  Plato, hears Jeremiah, 15;
+    Philo's style reminiscent of, 48;
+    conception of the Law in, 131;
+    Philo's philosophy compared with that of, 170 ff.;
+    dominant philosophical principle of, 174;
+    a mystic, 230;
+    conception of God in, 254.
+
+  Ptolemies, the: Ptolemy I, increases number of Jewish inhabitants in
+    Alexandria, 15;
+    IV, gives Heliopolis to Onias, 16;
+    admirers of Scriptures, 23.
+
+
+  _Questions and Answers to Genesis and Exodus_, now incomplete, 75, 81 f.;
+    a preliminary study to more elaborate works, 81;
+    Hebraic in form, 82.
+
+
+  _Repentance_, tractate appended to _Life of Moses_, 75.
+
+  Rome, Alexandria second to, 14;
+    conversion widespread in (_see_ Egypt), 32;
+    Agrippa an exile from, 51;
+    power of Jews at, 62;
+    Jewish struggle with, 220;
+    Philo's apocryphal meeting with Peter at, 73;
+    national life and culture undermined at (_see_ National), 218.
+
+
+  Saadia, founds new school of Jewish philosophy, 225 f.;
+    connection between Philo and, 226 f.
+
+  Samaritan, doctrines with reference to Pentateuch, 106;
+    Jew, story of, 98.
+
+  Sanhedrin, Hillel, president of, 45;
+    Philo forced into Alexandrian, 61;
+    duties of members of, 61;
+    of Alexandrian community, 202;
+    of Jerusalem and capital punishment, 203;
+    differences between Palestinian Halakah and Alexandrian, 203 f.
+
+  Sejanus, Tiberius falls under influence of, 62;
+    Antonia opponent of, 62;
+    Philo's book on persecution of, 62, 78;
+    disgrace and death of, 65.
+
+  Septuagint, Hellenistic development marked by, 25;
+    Philo's version of origin of, 26;
+    celebrations in honor of, 27;
+    infusion of Greek philosophic ideas into, 28;
+    Christianizing influence of, 29;
+    value of, to the cultured Gentile, 33;
+    replaced by new Greek version of Old Testament, 224.
+
+  Solomon, Wisdom of, written at Alexandria, 31.
+
+  _Specific Laws, The_, description of, 83;
+    socialism of Bible emphasized in, 86.
+
+  Spinoza, his ideal of life, 53;
+    compared with Philo's, 73, 134, 163, 239;
+    on Jewish thought, 137;
+    influenced by Philo, 237 ff.;
+    approaches Bible from critical standpoint, 239.
+
+  Stoics, the chief Anti-Semites, 63;
+    Philo replies to attacks of, 64, 95;
+    in conflict with Jews at Alexandria, 94;
+    beliefs of, 64, 94, 116, 176;
+    view of God compared with that of Philo, 185.
+
+  Synagogues,
+    at Alexandria, 16, 37.
+
+
+  Tiberius Alexander,
+    nephew of Philo, 71.
+
+  Tradition, Jewish,
+    at Alexandria, 27;
+    Philo and Jewish, 199 ff.
+
+
+  Zealots, flight of,
+    to Alexandria, 71.
+
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 1: Comp. Leviticus Rabba 13.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Comp. Josephus, Ant. IX. 1.]
+
+[Footnote 3: Sukkah 51^{b}.]
+
+[Footnote 4: Quoted by Josephus, Ant. XIV. 7.]
+
+[Footnote 5: Ant. XII. 5, 9, XX. 10.]
+
+[Footnote 6: Josephus, _Bell. Jud._ VII. 10.]
+
+[Footnote 7: Comp. the passages in the "Antiquities" above and the
+_Bell. Jud._ V. 5.]
+
+[Footnote 8: Menahot 109, Abodah Zarah 52^{b}.]
+
+[Footnote 9: _De Leg._ II. 578.]
+
+[Footnote 10: Comp. _De Mon._ I. 5.]
+
+[Footnote 11: Dr. Hirseh, in The Jews' College Jubilee Volume, p.39.]
+
+[Footnote 12: Menahot 119.]
+
+[Footnote 13: Comp. Ant. XIV. 14-16.]
+
+[Footnote 14: Ant. XVI. 7.]
+
+[Footnote 15: Philo, _In Flacc._ 6.]
+
+[Footnote 16: _C. Apion._ II. 5.]
+
+[Footnote 17: I have used the word anti-Semite because, though the
+hatred at Alexandria was not racial, but national, it has now become
+synonymous with Jew-hater generally.]
+
+[Footnote 18: Quoted in _C. Apion_. I. 22.]
+
+[Footnote 19: _De V. Mos_. II. 6, 7.]
+
+[Footnote 20: See p. 22, above.]
+
+[Footnote 21: Preface to Ecclesiasticus.]
+
+[Footnote 22: Tract. Soferim I. 7.]
+
+[Footnote 23: Tanhuma [Hebrew: ki tsha]]
+
+[Footnote 24: See p. 23, above.]
+
+[Footnote 25: _Orac. Sib_., ed. Alexandre, III. 8.]
+
+[Footnote 26: _Ibid._, III. 195.]
+
+[Footnote 27: Comp. Strabo, Frag. 6, Didot.]
+
+[Footnote 28: _De Post.C._ 24.]
+
+[Footnote 29: _De V. Mos_. II. 28.]
+
+[Footnote 30: Comp. _De Decal_. 20.]
+
+[Footnote 31: Comp. Yer. Berakot 24c.]
+
+[Footnote 32: _Praep. Evang_. VIII. 10, XIII. 12.]
+
+[Footnote 33: Comp. _De Abr_. 15 and 37, _De Jos_. II. 63, _De Spec.
+Leg._ III. 32, _De Migr_. 89.]
+
+[Footnote 34: _Quod Deus_ 11, _De Abr._ 36.]
+
+[Footnote 35: Comp. Acts of the Apostles VI. 9, and Tosef. Meg. III.
+6.]
+
+[Footnote 36: Yoma 83^{a}.]
+
+[Footnote 37: _Bell. Jud._ V. 5.]
+
+[Footnote 38: Comp. Niddah 69^{b}, Sotah 47^{a}.]
+
+[Footnote 39: "Heroes and Hero-Worship," ch. 3.]
+
+[Footnote 40: Ant. XIX. 5.]
+
+[Footnote 41: Photius, _Cod._ 108.]
+
+[Footnote 42: Comp. _De Confus._ 15.]
+
+[Footnote 43: Comp. _De Mon._ I. 6.]
+
+[Footnote 44: Comp. Maimonides, Moreh II, ch. 36.]
+
+[Footnote 45: _L.A._ I. 135.]
+
+[Footnote 46: Comp. _De Cong._ 6 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 47: Comp. Croiset, _Histoire de la litterature grecque_, V,
+pp. 425 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 48: Comp. Mills, "Zoroaster, Philo, and Israel."]
+
+[Footnote 49: Comp. _Quis Rer. Div._ 43, _De Judice_ II, _De V. Mos._
+II. 4.]
+
+[Footnote 50: Ritter, _Philon und die Halacha_.]
+
+[Footnote 51: Comp. _De V. Mos._ I. 1, _In Flacc._ 23 and 33, _De Mut.
+Nom._ 39.]
+
+[Footnote 52: _Praep. Evang._ VIII. v.]
+
+[Footnote 53: _De Mon._ II. 1-3.]
+
+[Footnote 54: Comp. _Bell. Jud._ VI. 9. 3.]
+
+[Footnote 55: Comp. _De V. Mos._ II. 4.]
+
+[Footnote 56: _De Spec. Leg._ III. 1.]
+
+[Footnote 57: Comp. _De Migr._ 4, _L.A._ III. 45.]
+
+[Footnote 58: Comp. Graetz, "History of the Jews" III. 91 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 59: Comp. _Quod Omnis Probus Liber_ 11 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 60: The authenticity of this book is elaborately discussed
+by Conybeare in his edition of it.]
+
+[Footnote 61: "Ethics of the Fathers" VI. 4.]
+
+[Footnote 62: _De Mundi Op._ I. 42.]
+
+[Footnote 63: Comp. _De Migr._ 6 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 64: _L.A._ II. 21.]
+
+[Footnote 65: _De Fuga_ 7 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 66: Comp. _De Spec. Leg._ II. 260.]
+
+[Footnote 67: Comp. _De Cherubim_ 9.]
+
+[Footnote 68: _De Migr._ 7-9.]
+
+[Footnote 69: II, ch. 36 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 70: Comp. _De Spec. Leg._ III. 1.]
+
+[Footnote 71: Massebieau, _Du classement des oeuvres de Philon_.]
+
+[Footnote 72: _In Flacc._ 5.]
+
+[Footnote 73: Comp. Th. Reinach, _Textes d'auteurs romains et grecs
+relatifs au Judaisme_, pp. 120 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 74: Comp. _De Confus._, _passim_.]
+
+[Footnote 75: Josephus, _C. Apion._, Introduction.]
+
+[Footnote 76: _In Flacc._ 10.]
+
+[Footnote 77: _De Leg_. 27 and 28.]
+
+[Footnote 78: Ant. XVIII. 8. 1.]
+
+[Footnote 79: _De Leg., ad fin_.]
+
+[Footnote 80: Ant. XIX. 5.]
+
+[Footnote 81: Frag, preserved by John of Damascus, p. 404.]
+
+[Footnote 82: Comp. Ant. XX. 5.]
+
+[Footnote 83: Comp. Massebieau, _op. cit._]
+
+[Footnote 84: Comp. Bernays, _Ueber die unter Philos Werken stehenden
+Schriften [Greek: peri tes aphtharsias Kosmou]_, and Siegfried, art.
+"Philo" in the Jewish Encyclopedia.]
+
+[Footnote 85: _Quod Deus_ 86.]
+
+[Footnote 86: _Quod Omnis Probus Liber_ 12 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 87: _De V. Mos._ I. 1.]
+
+[Footnote 88: _De V. Mos_. II. 5.]
+
+[Footnote 89: "On Repentance," II.]
+
+[Footnote 90: Comp. Treitel, _Agadah bei Philo. Monatsschrift_, 1909.]
+
+[Footnote 91: _De Abr._ 12.]
+
+[Footnote 92: Comp. Bereshit Rabba 47.]
+
+[Footnote 93: _De Sac. et Victimis_ 5 and 6.]
+
+[Footnote 94: _De Mon._ II. 3 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 95: Comp. Plato, _Rep_. V, _ad fin_.]
+
+[Footnote 96: _De Exsecr_. II. 587.]
+
+[Footnote 97: _De Abr._ 3.]
+
+[Footnote 98: Comp. _L.A._ II. 4.]
+
+[Footnote 99: _L.A._ I. 1.]
+
+[Footnote 100: Comp. Freudenthal, _Hellenistische Studien_.]
+
+[Footnote 101: Croiset, _op. cit._ V, p. 427.]
+
+[Footnote 102: Comp. _De Cherubim_, _passim_.]
+
+[Footnote 103: Comp. Zohar III.]
+
+[Footnote 104: _De Cherubim_, 9 and 14, _De Somn._ 8.]
+
+[Footnote 105: _De Migr._ 12.]
+
+[Footnote 106: _De Post. C._ 22.]
+
+[Footnote 107: Midrash Esther I.]
+
+[Footnote 108: Comp. _De Sac._ II. 245.]
+
+[Footnote 109: Comp. _De Migr._ 32.]
+
+[Footnote 110: Comp. _De Post C_, 11.]
+
+[Footnote 111: _Quaestiones in Gen._ III. 33.]
+
+[Footnote 112: _De Cong._ 10.]
+
+[Footnote 113: Comp. Berakot 51^{b}, _De Agric._ 12, _De Somn._ II. 25.]
+
+[Footnote 114: _De Confus._ 38.]
+
+[Footnote 115: _De Mut. Nom._ 8.]
+
+[Footnote 116: Comp. Bereshit Rabba 64.]
+
+[Footnote 117: _De Somn._ I. 16 and 17.]
+
+[Footnote 118: Comp. "Ethics of the Fathers" V. 25.]
+
+[Footnote 119: Comp. _De Somn._ I. 13.]
+
+[Footnote 120: _De Mut. Nom._ 9.]
+
+[Footnote 121: _De Somn._ I. 5.]
+
+[Footnote 122: Berakot 10^{a}.]
+
+[Footnote 123: _De Cong._ 12.]
+
+[Footnote 124: _De Cong._ 14.]
+
+[Footnote 125: "Theologico-Political Tractate" VII.]
+
+[Footnote 126: _De Abr._ 19.]
+
+[Footnote 127: _De Mon._ II. 6.]
+
+[Footnote 128: Harvard Studies, "Hellenism and Hebraism."]
+
+[Footnote 129: Comp. Schechter, "Aspects of Rabbinic Theology," p.
+119.]
+
+[Footnote 130: Comp. _De V. Mos._ II. 9 and 10, III. 1.]
+
+[Footnote 131: _L.A._ I. 2.]
+
+[Footnote 132: Comp. _De Mundi Op._ 2.]
+
+[Footnote 133: Comp. p. 85, above.]
+
+[Footnote 134: Comp. _L.A._ I, _passim_.]
+
+[Footnote 135: _L.A._ III. 12.]
+
+[Footnote 136: _De Post. C._ 11.]
+
+[Footnote 137: _De Abr._ 3 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 138: _Ibid._ 6-10.]
+
+[Footnote 139: The LXX renders the verse Gen. iv. 26, which is
+translated in the Authorized Version: "Then began men to call upon the
+name of the Lord," [Greek: outos elpisen epi ton ton olon patera]
+_i.e._, "He hoped in the Father of all."]
+
+[Footnote 140: _Quod Det._ 38.]
+
+[Footnote 141: _De Jos._ 21.]
+
+[Footnote 142: _De Jos._ 22.]
+
+[Footnote 143: _De Jos._ 42.]
+
+[Footnote 144: _Hist. Ecclesiast._ II. 18, 1.]
+
+[Footnote 145: _De V. Mos._ III. 4 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 146: _De V. Mos._ II. 3.]
+
+[Footnote 147: _De V. Mos._ II. 5, Josephus, _C. Apion._ II. 37.]
+
+[Footnote 148: Comp. Horace, Satires I. 4, 138; I. 9, 60.]
+
+[Footnote 149: Frag. preserved in Josephus, Ant. XIV. 7.]
+
+[Footnote 150: Comp. Reinach, _op. cit._, p. 262.]
+
+[Footnote 151: _De V. Mos._ II. 3.]
+
+[Footnote 152: "Ethics of the Fathers" I. 17.]
+
+[Footnote 153: _De Fuga_ 6.]
+
+[Footnote 154: _De Decal._ 12.]
+
+[Footnote 155: _De Decal._ 23.]
+
+[Footnote 156: _De Septen._ 9.]
+
+[Footnote 157: Kiddushin 20^{a}.]
+
+[Footnote 158: _De Decal._ 20.]
+
+[Footnote 159: _De Septen._ 7.]
+
+[Footnote 160: _De Septen._ 6.]
+
+[Footnote 161: Ch. 2. 31.]
+
+[Footnote 162: Comp. _De Migr._ 23.]
+
+[Footnote 163: _De Septen._ 1. 2.]
+
+[Footnote 164: _De Septen._ 18 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 165: _De Concupisc._ 1-3.]
+
+[Footnote 166: Comp. _De Just._ II. 360.]
+
+[Footnote 167: Ch. 16.]
+
+[Footnote 168: I have taken this translation and that on the next page
+from Mr. Claude Montefiore's _Florilegium Philonis_. Jewish Quarterly
+Review, vol. VII.]
+
+[Footnote 169: Comp. _De Ebr._ 40, and _De Spec. Leg._ II. 414.]
+
+[Footnote 170: _De Leg._ II. 574.]
+
+[Footnote 171: _Essais, Les Prophetes d'Israel_.]
+
+[Footnote 172: Frag. cited by Porphyry, _De Abstinentia_ II. 25.]
+
+[Footnote 173: _De Cong._ 10.]
+
+[Footnote 174: Comp. Schechter, "Aspects of Rabbinic Theology," pp. 21
+ff.]
+
+[Footnote 175: _L.A._ I. 7.]
+
+[Footnote 176: _L.A._ I. 14.]
+
+[Footnote 177: _De Confus._ 2, _De Post. C._ 5.]
+
+[Footnote 178: Comp. _De Somn._ I. 11, _De Mut. Nom._ 4.]
+
+[Footnote 179: Caird, "Life of Spinoza" II.]
+
+[Footnote 180: _De Mon._ I. 5.]
+
+[Footnote 181: Comp. "The Authorised Prayer Book." p. 78.]
+
+[Footnote 182: _Quod Deus_ 23.]
+
+[Footnote 183: _De Mundi Op._ 5.]
+
+[Footnote 184: _L.A._ III. 24.]
+
+[Footnote 185: _De Somn._ II. 38.]
+
+[Footnote 186: _L.A._ III. 24.]
+
+[Footnote 187: See p. 77, above.]
+
+[Footnote 188: _L.A._ I. 3.]
+
+[Footnote 189: _De Plant._ 7, _Quod Det._ 31.]
+
+[Footnote 190: _De Cherubim_ 35.]
+
+[Footnote 191: _L.A._ II. 70.]
+
+[Footnote 192: _De Cherubim_ 32, _De Somn._ II, 56.]
+
+[Footnote 193: _De Post. C._ 11.]
+
+[Footnote 194: Essay on the Talmud.]
+
+[Footnote 195: Bereshit Rabba 21, and Yalkut 26.]
+
+[Footnote 196: Comp. _De Plant._ 30.]
+
+[Footnote 197: Comp. [H.]agigah 14.]
+
+[Footnote 198: Quoted by Euseb., _op. cit._ XIII. 8.]
+
+[Footnote 199: _De Decal._ 11.]
+
+[Footnote 200: _De Mundi Op._ 24.]
+
+[Footnote 201: _Ibid._ 20.]
+
+[Footnote 202: _De Migr._ 9.]
+
+[Footnote 203: _De Decal._ 11.]
+
+[Footnote 204: _De Somn._ II. 37.]
+
+[Footnote 205: _De Somn._ I. 23.]
+
+[Footnote 206: Comp. _De Somn._ II. 11.]
+
+[Footnote 207: _De Somn._ I. 22.]
+
+[Footnote 208: Comp. [H.]agigah 14^{a}.]
+
+[Footnote 209: _Quod Deus_ 26 and 32.]
+
+[Footnote 210: _De Confus._ 14.]
+
+[Footnote 211: _De Gigant._ 2.]
+
+[Footnote 212: "Ethics of the Fathers" III.]
+
+[Footnote 213: Comp. Schechter, _op. cit._, "The Law as Personified in
+Literature."]
+
+[Footnote 214: Comp. _L.A._ III. 73, _De Somn._ II. 33.]
+
+[Footnote 215: _De Cong._ 31.]
+
+[Footnote 216: _De Confus._ 14, Fragments I, _L.A._ III. 23, _Quis
+Rer. Div._ 42, _De Gigant._ 12.]
+
+[Footnote 217: Comp. Graetz, "Gnosticism and Judaism," pp. 15 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 218: Comp. _De Cherubim_ 14 and 17, _De Gigant._ 12.]
+
+[Footnote 219: Drummond, "Philo-Judaeus and the Jewish Hellenistic
+School," vol. II.]
+
+[Footnote 220: _De Somn._ I. 32, _De Confus._ 14, _L.A._ III. 25, _De
+V. Mos._ III. 14.]
+
+[Footnote 221: _L.A._ III. 73.]
+
+[Footnote 222: _De Sacrif._ 38.]
+
+[Footnote 223: _Quis Rer. Div._ 42.]
+
+[Footnote 224: _De Plant._ 21.]
+
+[Footnote 225: _L.A._ III.]
+
+[Footnote 226: _De Cherubim_ 9.]
+
+[Footnote 227: _De Abr._ 24 and 25.]
+
+[Footnote 228: _De Fuga_ 18.]
+
+[Footnote 229: _L.A._ II.]
+
+[Footnote 230: _L.A._ I. 13, II. 15, _Quis Rer. Div._ 53.]
+
+[Footnote 231: Comp. _De Decal._, _ad fin_.]
+
+[Footnote 232: _L.A._ I. 20, _De Fuga_ 12.]
+
+[Footnote 233: _De Mundi Op._ 54, _De Fuga_ 11.]
+
+[Footnote 234: "The Evolution of Theology in the Greek Philosophers"
+VIII.]
+
+[Footnote 235: Plato, "Laws" 718.]
+
+[Footnote 236: Comp. Bk. 12 of the _Praep. Evang._]
+
+[Footnote 237: Quoted by Suidas, _s.v._ Philo.]
+
+[Footnote 238: _De Mundi Op._ 43.]
+
+[Footnote 239: _De Victimis_ II. 260-262.]
+
+[Footnote 240: Comp. p. 81, above.]
+
+[Footnote 241: _De Sacrif._ 24, _Quod Det._ 24.]
+
+[Footnote 242: _De Mundi Op._ 24.]
+
+[Footnote 243: _De Mundi Op._ 4.]
+
+[Footnote 244: _De Somn._ I. 4.]
+
+[Footnote 245: _De Victimis_ II. 260.]
+
+[Footnote 246: _Quod Deus_ 6, _De Post. C._ 5.]
+
+[Footnote 247: _Quod Det._ 24, _De Mundi Op._ 45 and 51.]
+
+[Footnote 248: _L.A._ I. 32, _De Confus._ 27.]
+
+[Footnote 249: _De Mon_. II. 214, _De Mundi Op_. I. 16.]
+
+[Footnote 250: _De Mundi Op_. 22 and 48, _L.A._ I. 13 and II. 12 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 251: _De Sacrif._ 32.]
+
+[Footnote 252: _De Plant._ 9.]
+
+[Footnote 253: _Quaestiones in Gen._ II. 59.]
+
+[Footnote 254: _De Fuga_ 6.]
+
+[Footnote 255: _Quaestiones in Gen._ IV. 140.]
+
+[Footnote 256: _De Cherubim_ 32.]
+
+[Footnote 257: _L.A._ I. 15.]
+
+[Footnote 258: _L.A._ II. 25.]
+
+[Footnote 259: _L.A._ I. 11 ff., II. 12-14.]
+
+[Footnote 260: _De Cherubim_ 35.]
+
+[Footnote 261: _De Somn._ I. 12.]
+
+[Footnote 262: _De Somn._ I. 4.]
+
+[Footnote 263: _De Plant._ 7.]
+
+[Footnote 264: _Quod Det._ 31.]
+
+[Footnote 265: _De Migr._ 8, _De Spec. Leg._ I. 9.]
+
+[Footnote 266: _L.A._ I. 13.]
+
+[Footnote 267: _L.A._ III. 13, 14.]
+
+[Footnote 268: _Quis Rer. Div._ 53.]
+
+[Footnote 269: _De Mundi Op._ 54.]
+
+[Footnote 270: _De Abr._ 31.]
+
+[Footnote 271: _De Fuga_ 27.]
+
+[Footnote 272: _L.A._ I. 32, II. 25.]
+
+[Footnote 273: Comp. _L.A._ III. 45.]
+
+[Footnote 274: _Quod Det._ 7.]
+
+[Footnote 275: _De Fuga_ 5 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 276: _De Mundi Op._ 15, _L.A._ I. 46.]
+
+[Footnote 277: _De Decal._ 6-8.]
+
+[Footnote 278: Comp. Euseb., _Praep. Evang._ IX 411A.]
+
+[Footnote 279: _C. Celsum_ IV. 51.]
+
+[Footnote 280: _De Sectis Judaicis_ XVIII.]
+
+[Footnote 281: Comp. Freudenthal, _Hellenistische Studien_, and
+Siegfried, _Philo als Ausleger der hieligen Schrift_.]
+
+[Footnote 282: Comp. _Quis Rer. Div._ XLIII, and Chapter II above.]
+
+[Footnote 283: _De Mon_. II. 212.]
+
+[Footnote 284: _Hist. Ecclesiast._ II. iv. 2.]
+
+[Footnote 285: Comp. Graetz, "History" II. xviii.]
+
+[Footnote 286: Comp. Chapter I, p. 17, above.]
+
+[Footnote 287: _De Spec. Leg_. II. 260.]
+
+[Footnote 288: _De Spec. Leg._ III. 17.]
+
+[Footnote 289: _Ibid._ II. 6.]
+
+[Footnote 290: _De Parentibus Colendis_ 56.]
+
+[Footnote 291: Comp. Sifre Debarim 237.]
+
+[Footnote 292: _De Spec. Leg._ IV.]
+
+[Footnote 293: _De Spec. Leg._ III. 36.]
+
+[Footnote 294: _De Spec. Leg._ III. 33 and 34.]
+
+[Footnote 295: Moreh Nebukim III, ch. 39.]
+
+[Footnote 296: _Fragmenta ex Antonio_ II. 672.]
+
+[Footnote 297: _De Spec. Leg._ III. 5, II. 304, 305.]
+
+[Footnote 298: Deut. vii. 3, and Abodah Zarah 36^{b}.]
+
+[Footnote 299: _De Spec. Leg._ III. 5, II. 304.]
+
+[Footnote 300: _De Septen._ 5 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 301: See Chapter IV, p. 125, above.]
+
+[Footnote 302: Mishnah Rosh Hashanah III. 8, and Philo, _De Somn._ II.
+11.]
+
+[Footnote 303: Comp. _Agadah bei Philo_, by Treitel, _Monatsschrift_,
+1909.]
+
+[Footnote 304: Comp. Bereshit Rabba 16, 4.]
+
+[Footnote 305: Comp. Taylor's edition.]
+
+[Footnote 306: _De Plant._ 30.]
+
+[Footnote 307: It is impossible for me to make an adequate
+acknowledgment of my debt to Dr. Schechter, President of the Jewish
+Theological Seminary of America. But I should say that I have borrowed
+freely from his articles on rabbinic theology in the Jewish Quarterly
+Review, vols. VI and VII, now included in his "Aspects of Rabbinic
+Theology."]
+
+[Footnote 308: Mishnah Yodayim III. 5.]
+
+[Footnote 309: Bereshit Rabba 26. 7.]
+
+[Footnote 310: Comp. Schechter, _op. cit._, Introduction.]
+
+[Footnote 311: Berakot 24^{b}.]
+
+[Footnote 312: Mekilta [Hebrew: kshla] I. 1.]
+
+[Footnote 313: Bereshit Rabba I. 2.]
+
+[Footnote 314: Pirke R. Eliezer III.]
+
+[Footnote 315: Comp. Poems, II, p. 25.]
+
+[Footnote 316: Moreh II, ch. 70.]
+
+[Footnote 317: Eccles. III. 15.]
+
+[Footnote 318: [H.]agigah 14 ff., Sanhedrin 37^{a}.]
+
+[Footnote 319: Bereshit Rabba 4.]
+
+[Footnote 320: Mena[h.]ot 99.]
+
+[Footnote 321: Mishnah Sanhedrin II. 1.]
+
+[Footnote 322: [H.]agigah 15^{b}.]
+
+[Footnote 323: Bereshit Rabba 36. 8.]
+
+[Footnote 324: Ant. III. 2.]
+
+[Footnote 325: _De V. Mos._ II. 12.]
+
+[Footnote 326: Comp. Ant. XVIII. 8. 1.]
+
+[Footnote 327: Comp. "Ethics of the Fathers" VI. 6.]
+
+[Footnote 328: See Epstein, _Philon et le Midrasch Tadsche_, Revue des
+Etudes Juives, XXI, p. 80.]
+
+[Footnote 329: Yer. Meg. I. 71^{c}.]
+
+[Footnote 330: Comp. an article by Dr. Poznanski in the _Revue des
+Etudes Juives_, 1905, _Philo dans l'ancienne litterature judeo-arabe_,
+pp. 10 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 331: Comp. Poznanski, _op. cit._, p. 27.]
+
+[Footnote 332: Moreh II. ch. 1 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 333: _Ibid._ 31.]
+
+[Footnote 334: _Ibid._ 31.]
+
+[Footnote 335: Moreh III. 43 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 336: Comp. Ginzberg, art. "Cabbalah," Jewish Encyclopedia.]
+
+[Footnote 337: Comp. Taylor's "Ethics of the Fathers," ch. 5, notes.]
+
+[Footnote 338: _De Cherubim_ 12 and 14. Comp. _De Somn._ I. 8.]
+
+[Footnote 339: Comp. _De Somn._ I. 12.]
+
+[Footnote 340: Comp. _De Fuga_ 9.]
+
+[Footnote 341: Comp. Hort, Introduction to Clement's [Greek:
+Etromateis].]
+
+[Footnote 342: Ed. Cassel, pp. 4 and 15^{b}.]
+
+[Footnote 343: Comp. Imre Binah. Meor Einayim, ch. 30.]
+
+[Footnote 344: Comp. J.A. Stewart, "Myths of Plato," _ad fin._]
+
+[Footnote 345: Comp. "Theologico-Political Tractate" XV.]
+
+[Footnote 346: Comp. _De Humanitate_ II. 395.]
+
+[Footnote 347: _De V. Mos._ II. 1-5.]
+
+[Footnote 348: Comp. _De Mon._ II. 6.]
+
+[Footnote 349: _De Just._ 6.]
+
+[Footnote 350: Comp. _De Nobilitate_ 6.]
+
+[Footnote 351: Bamidbar Rabba 8.]
+
+[Footnote 352: Tan[h.]uma to Debarim.]
+
+[Footnote 353: Comp. Pesa[h.]im 87^{b}.]
+
+[Footnote 354: _De Exsecr._ 6. II. 433.]
+
+[Footnote 355: Comp. Montefiore, Jewish Quarterly Review, VI, p. 428.]
+
+[Footnote 356: Epistle to the Romans V.]
+
+[Footnote 357: Epistle to the Galatians III. 10.]
+
+[Footnote 358: Comp. Chapter IV, above, p. 126.]
+
+[Footnote 359: _De Abr._ 46.]
+
+[Footnote 360: Comp. Schechter, _op. cit._, Introduction.]
+
+[Footnote 361: Comp. Mekilta 33^{a}, ed. Friedmann.]
+
+[Footnote 362: Comp. _L.A._ III. 26, and Chapter V, above, p. 154.]
+
+[Footnote 363: _De Cherubim_ 12.]
+
+[Footnote 364: Comp. Gibbon, "Decline of the Roman Empire," ch. 15.]
+
+[Footnote 365: [Hebrew: 'monot vd'ot] III.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Philo-Judaeus of Alexandria, by Norman Bentwich
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PHILO-JUDAEUS OF ALEXANDRIA ***
+
+***** This file should be named 14657.txt or 14657.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        https://www.gutenberg.org/1/4/6/5/14657/
+
+Produced by Ted Garvin, jayam, David King, and the PG Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+https://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+https://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at https://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit https://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
+donations.  To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     https://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/old/14657.zip b/old/14657.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3aa195d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14657.zip