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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 13939 ***
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 484
+
+
+
+
+NEW YORK, APRIL 11, 1885
+
+Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XIX, No. 484.
+
+Scientific American established 1845
+
+Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.
+
+Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+
+I.   ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--Bridge over the Blaauw
+     Krantz Ravine, Cape Colony.--2 engravings.
+
+     Torpedo Ships.
+
+     The Gas Engine.--By DUGALD CLERK.--Combustion engines.--First
+     cylinder and piston engine.--Watt's experiments.--First gas
+     engine.--Principles of the gas engine.
+
+     Rapid Construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway.--By E.T.
+     ABBOTT.
+
+     The Osgood Mammoth Excavator.--3 figures.
+
+     Capstan Navigation on the Volga.--4 figures.
+
+     Steamboat Equipment of War Vessels.--With engraving of winch
+     for raising and lowering torpedo boats.
+
+     Improved Steam Trap.--1 engraving.
+
+
+II.  TECHNOLOGY.--Critical Methods of Detecting Errors in Plane
+     Surfaces.--By JOHN A. BRASHEAR.--11 figures.
+
+     Photometric Standards.--9 figures.
+
+     Bleaching or Dyeing Yarns and Goods in Vacuo.--1 figure.
+
+     On the Moulding of Porcelain.--By CHAS. LAUTH.--Moulding by
+     pressure of the air.--Moulding by vacuum.--Drying the moulded
+     pieces.--2 figures.
+
+     Photo-Tricycle Apparatus.--1 figure.
+
+     A Photo Printing Light.--1 figure.
+
+     A New Actinometer.
+
+     Astronomical Photography.
+
+     Electricity as a Preventive of Scale in Boilers.
+
+
+III. DECORATIVE ART.--Alphabet designed by Godfrey Sykes.--An
+     engraving.
+
+     Old Wrought Iron Gate.--An engraving.
+
+
+IV.  GEOLOGY.--The Organization and Plan of the United States
+     Geological Survey.--By J.W. POWELL.--A topographic map
+     of the United States.--Paleontology.--Chemistry.--Physical
+     researches.--Statistics.--Library.--Publications.--General
+     geology.--Economic geology.--Relation of the general survey
+     to the State survey.
+
+
+V.   BOTANY, ETC.--The Sunflowers.--Annuals, perennials, etc.--11
+     engravings.
+
+     Lye's Fuchsias.--1 engraving.
+
+
+VI.  HYGIENE, ETC.--Brief Sanitary Matters in Connection with
+     Isolated Country Houses.--By E.W. BOWDITCH.
+
+     Sanitary Cooking.--By V.L. OPPENHEIMER.
+
+     Time required to digest Different Foods.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE BLAAUW KRANTZ VIADUCT IN CAPE COLONY.
+
+
+This viaduct is built over a rocky ravine on the railway from Port Alfred
+to Grahamstown, at a height of about 200 ft. from the bottom. Its length
+is 480 ft. 6 in., and the width of the platform is 15 ft., the gauge of
+the railway being 3 ft. 6 in. The central span of the viaduct is an arch
+of 220 ft. span between abutments, and about 90 ft. height; the remainder
+of the space on each side is divided into two spans by an iron pier at a
+distance of 68 ft. from the retaining wall. These piers are 36 ft. 2 in.
+high, and carry girders 144 ft. long, balanced each on a pivot in the
+center. One end of these girders is secured to the retaining walls by
+means of horizontal and vertical anchorages, while the other end rests in
+a sliding bearing on the top flange of the arch.
+
+[Illustration: BRIDGE OVER THE BLAAUW KRANTZ RAVINE, CAPE COLONY.]
+
+[Illustration: BRIDGE OVER THE BLAAUW KRANTZ RAVINE, CAPE COLONY.]
+
+In designing the structure the following points had to be considered: (1)
+That, on account of the great height above the ground, and on account of
+the high price of timber at the site, the structure could be easily
+erected without the use of scaffolding supporting it as a whole. (2) That,
+on account of the high freights to Port Alfred, the quantity of iron in
+the structure should be as small as possible. (3) That the single parts of
+the principal span should be easy to lift, and that there should be as few
+of them as possible. For this latter reason most of them were made in
+lengths of 20 ft. and more. The question of economy of material presented
+itself as a comparison between a few standard types, viz., the girder
+bridge of small independent spans; the cantilever bridge, or the
+continuous girder bridge in three large spans; the single girder bridge
+with one large span and several small spans; and the arch with small
+girder spans on each side. The suspension bridge was left out of question
+as inadmissible. A girder bridge with small independent spans on rocker
+piers would probably have been the most economical, even taking into
+account the great height of the piers near the middle of the ravine, but
+there would have been some difficulty in holding those piers in position
+until they could be secured to the girders at the top; and, moreover, such
+a structure would have been strikingly out of harmony with the character
+of the site. On the other hand, a cantilever or continuous girder bridge
+in three spans--although such structures have been erected in similar
+localities--could not enter into comparison of simple economy of material,
+because such a design would entirely disregard the anomaly that the
+greater part of the structure, viz., the side spans, being necessarily
+constructed to carry across a large space, would be too near the ground to
+justify the omission of further supports. The question was, therefore,
+narrowed to a comparison between the present arch and a central
+independent girder of the same span, including the piers on which it
+rests. The small side spans could obviously be left out in each case. The
+comparison was made with a view not only to arrive at a decision in this
+particular case, but also of answering the question of the economy of the
+arch more generally. The following table contains the weights of
+geometrically similar structures of three different spans, of which the
+second is the one here described. The so-called theoretical weight is that
+which the structure would have if no part required stiffening, leaving out
+also all connections and all wind bracing. The moving load is taken at one
+ton per foot lineal, and the strain on the iron at an average of four tons
+per square inch. The proportion of the girder is taken at 1 in 8.
+
+--------------+-----------------------+------------------------+
+              |  Theoretical Weight.  |      Total Weight.     |
+Span in Feet. +-----------------------+------------------------|
+              |  Arch.  |   Girder.   |     Arch.  |   Girder. |
+--------------+---------+-------------+------------+-----------|
+     100      | 0.0724  |   0.1663    |    0.1866  |   0.2443  |
+     220      | 0.1659  |   0.4109    |    0.4476  |   0.7462  |
+     300      | 0.2414  |   0.6445    |    0.6464  |   1.2588  |
+--------------+---------+-------------+------------+-----------+
+              |<------------Tons per foot lineal.------------->|
+
+It can be seen from these results that the economical advantage of the
+arch increases with the span. In small arches this advantage would not be
+large enough to counterbalance the greater cost of manufacture; but in the
+arch of 220 ft. span the advantage is already very marked. If the table
+were continued, it would show that the girder, even if the platform were
+artificially widened, would become impossible at a point where the arch
+can still be made without difficulty. The calculations leading to the
+above results would occupy too much space to make it desirable on this
+occasion to produce them. Our two views are from photographs.--_The
+Engineer._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TORPEDO SHIPS.
+
+
+Commander Gallwey lately delivered an interesting lecture on the use of
+torpedoes in war before the royal U.S. Institution, London, discussed
+H.M.S. Polyphemus, and urged as arguments in her favor: 1. That she has
+very high speed, combined with fair maneuvering powers. 2. That she can
+discharge her torpedoes with certainty either ahead or on the beam when
+proceeding at full speed. 3. That her crew and weapons of defense are
+protected by the most perfect of all armor possible, namely, 10 ft. of
+water. 4. That she only presents a mark of 4 ft. above the water line.
+
+Then, he asked, with what weapon is the ironclad going to vanquish these
+torpedo rams? Guns cannot hit her when moving at speed; she is proof
+against machine guns, and, being smaller, handier, and faster than most
+ironclads, should have a better chance with her ram, the more especially
+as it is provided with a weapon which has been scores of times discharged
+with certainty at 300 yards. The ironclad, he answered, must use
+torpedoes, and then he maintained that the speed and handiness of the
+Polyphemus would enable her to place herself in positions where she could
+use her own torpedo to advantage, and be less likely to be hit herself. He
+then called attention to the necessity for well-protected conning towers
+in these ships, and prophesied that if a submarine ship, armed with
+torpedoes, be ever built, she will be the most formidable antagonist an
+ironclad ever had; and the nearer the special torpedo ship approaches this
+desideratum the better she will be.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A PLUMBING TEST.
+
+
+A recent trial of a smoke rocket for testing drains, described by Mr.
+Cosmo Jones in the _Journal of the Society of Arts_, is deserving of
+interest. The one fixed upon is 10 in. long, 2½ in. in diameter, and with
+the composition "charged rather hard," so as to burn for ten minutes. This
+gives the engineer time to light the fuse, insert the rocket in the drain,
+insert a plug behind it, and walk through the house to see if the smoke
+escapes into it at any point, finishing on the roof, where he finds the
+smoke issuing in volumes from the ventilating pipes. The house
+experimented upon had three ventilating pipes, and the smoke issued in
+dense masses from each of them, but did not escape anywhere into the
+house, showing that the pipes were sound. If the engineer wishes to
+increase the severity of the test, he throws a wet cloth over the top of
+the ventilating pipe, and so gets a slight pressure of smoke inside it.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE GAS ENGINE.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Lecture by Mr. Dugald Clerk, before the Literary and
+Philosophical Society, Oldham.]
+
+By DUGALD CLERK.
+
+
+In earlier days of mechanics, before the work of the great Scottish
+engineer, James Watt, the crude steam engines of the time were known as
+"fire engines," not in the sense in which we now apply the term to
+machines for the extinguishing of fires, but as indicating the source from
+which the power was derived, motive power engines deriving their vitality
+and strength from fire. The modern name--steam engine--to some extent is a
+misleading one, distracting the mind from the source of power to the
+medium which conveys the power. Similarly the name "Gas Engine" masks the
+fact of the motors so called being really fire or heat engines.
+
+The gas engine is more emphatically a "fire engine" than ever the steam
+engine has been. In it the fire is not tamed or diluted by indirect
+contact with water, but it is used direct; the fire, instead of being kept
+to the boiler room, is introduced direct into the motor cylinder of the
+engine. This at first sight looks very absurd and impracticable;
+difficulties at once become apparent of so overwhelming a nature that the
+problem seems almost an impossible one; yet this is what has been
+successfully accomplished in the gas engine. Engineers accustomed to the
+construction of steam engines would not many years ago have considered any
+one proposing such a thing as having taken leave of his senses.
+
+The late Sir William Siemens worked for many years on combustion engines,
+some of his patents on this subject dating back to 1860. In the course of
+a conversation I had with him on the subject of his earlier patents, I
+asked him why he had entitled one of those patents "steam engine
+improvements" when it was wholly concerned with a gas engine using
+hydrogen and air in the motive cylinder, the combustion of the hydrogen
+taking place in the motive cylinder. He answered me that in 1860 he did
+not care to entitle his patent gas or combustion engine simply because
+engineers at that time would have thought him mad.
+
+Notwithstanding this widespread incredulity among engineers, and the
+apparent novelty of the gas engine idea, fire or combustion engines have
+been proposed long, long ago. The first Newcomen steam engine ever set to
+work was used by a Mr. Back, of Wolverhampton, in the year 1711.
+Thirty-one years before this time, in Paris--year 1680--Huyghens presented
+a memoir to the Academy of Sciences describing a method of utilizing the
+expansive force of gunpowder. This engineer is notable as being the very
+first to propose the use of a cylinder and piston, as well as the first
+combustion engine of a practical kind.
+
+The engine consists of a vertical open topped cylinder, in which works a
+piston; the piston is connected by a chain passing over a pulley above it
+to a heavy weight; the upstroke is accomplished by the descent of the
+weight, which pulls the piston to the top of the cylinder; gunpowder
+placed in a tray at the bottom of the cylinder is now ignited, and expels
+the air with which the cylinder is filled through a shifting valve, and,
+after the products of combustion have cooled, a partial vacuum takes place
+and the atmospheric pressure forces down the piston to the bottom of its
+stroke, during which work may be obtained.
+
+On the board I have made a sketch of this engine. Some years previous to
+Huyghens' proposal, the Abbe Hautefeuille (1678) proposed a gunpowder
+engine without piston for pumping water. It is similar to Savery's steam
+engine, but using the pressure of the explosion instead of the pressure of
+steam. This engine, however, had no piston, and was only applicable as a
+pump. The Savery principle still survives in the action of the well-known
+pulsometer steam pump.
+
+Denys Papin, the pupil and assistant of Huyghens, continued experimenting
+upon the production of motive power, and in 1690 published a description
+of his attempts at Leipzig, entitled "A New Method of Securing Cheaply
+Motive Power of Considerable Magnitude."
+
+He mentions the gunpowder engine, and states that "until now all
+experiments have been unsuccessful; and after the combustion of the
+exploded powder there always remains in the cylinder one-fifth of its
+volume of air."
+
+For the explosion of the gunpowder he substituted the generation and
+condensation of steam, heating the bottom of his cylinder by a fire; a
+small quantity of water contained in it was vaporized, and then on
+removing the fire the steam condensed and the piston was forced down. This
+was substantially the Newcomen steam engine, but without the separate
+boiler.
+
+Papin died about the year 1710, a disappointed man, about the same time as
+Newcomen. Thomas Newcomen, ironmonger and blacksmith, of Dartmouth,
+England, had first succeeded in getting his engine to work. The hard fight
+to wrest from nature a manageable motive power and to harness fire for
+industrial use was continued by this clever blacksmith, and he succeeded
+when the more profound but less constructively skillful philosophers had
+failed.
+
+The success of the steam method and the fight necessary to perfect it to
+the utmost absorbed the energy of most able engineers--Beighton, John
+Smeaton--accomplishing much in applying and perfecting it before the
+appearance of James Watt upon the scene.
+
+It is interesting to note that in England alone over 2,000 horse power of
+Newcomen engines were at work before Watt commenced his series of
+magnificent inventions; he commenced experimenting on a Newcomen engine
+model in 1759 at Glasgow University, and in 1774 came to Birmingham,
+entered into partnership with Boulton, and 1781 we find his beautiful
+double acting beam condensing engine in successful work.
+
+From that time until now the steam engine has steadily advanced,
+increasing in economy of fuel from 10 lb. of coal per horse power per hour
+to about 1¾ lb. per horse power per hour, which is the best result of
+to-day's steam engine practice. This result, according to the highest
+authorities, is so near to the theoretical result possible from a steam
+engine that further improvement cannot now be looked for. Simultaneously
+with the development of the steam engine, inventors continued to struggle
+with the direct acting combustion or gas engine, often without any
+definite understanding of why they should attempt such apparent
+impossibilities, but always by their experiments and repeated failures
+increasing knowledge, and forming a firm road upon which those following
+them traveled to success.
+
+In 1791 John Barber obtained a patent for an engine producing inflammable
+gas, mixing it with air, igniting it, and allowing the current so produced
+to impinge upon a reaction wheel, producing motion similar to the well
+known Aelopile, which I have at work upon the table. About this time,
+Murdoch (Jas. Watt's assistant at Birmingham) was busy introducing coal
+gas into use for lighting; in 1792 Boulton and Watt's works were lighted
+up with coal gas. From this time many gas engines were proposed, and the
+more impracticable combustion of gunpowder received less attention.
+
+In 1794 Thomas Mead obtained a patent for an engine using the internal
+combustion of gas; the description is not a clear one, his ideas seem
+confused.
+
+In the same year Robert Street obtained a patent for an engine which is
+not unlike some now in use. The bottom of a cylinder, containing a piston,
+is heated by a fire, a few drops of spirits of turpentine are introduced
+and evaporated by the heat, the piston is drawn up, and air entering mixes
+with the inflammable vapor. A light is applied at a touch hole, and the
+explosion drives up the piston, which, working on a lever, forces down the
+piston of a pump for pumping water. Robt. Street adds to his description a
+note: "The quantity of spirits of tar or turpentine to be made use of is
+always proportional to the confined space, in general about 10 drops to a
+cubic foot." This engine is quite a workable one, although the
+arrangements described are very crude.
+
+The first gas engine that was actually at work for some years; and was
+applied to a variety of purposes, was Samuel Buren's. His patent was
+granted in 1823, and in 1826 he built a locomotive carriage with which he
+made several experimental runs in London; he also propelled a vessel with
+it upon the Thames, and fitted up a large engine for pumping purposes. A
+company was formed to introduce his engine, but it proved too wasteful of
+fuel, and the company went into voluntary liquidation. Like almost all
+engines of this time, the combustion of gas and air was used to produce a
+vacuum, the piston being driven by atmospheric pressure.
+
+Buren's locomotive carriage was thus in action three years before the
+great trial in 1829, from which George Stephenson emerged victorious with
+his wonderful engine "The Rocket." To those curious in the matter, I may
+mention that S. Buren's patents are dated 1823, No. 4,874, and 1826, No.
+5,350.
+
+From this time on, a continuous series of gas engine patents appear, 20
+engines being patented between 1826 and 1860, which is the next date
+worthy of particular mention.
+
+In this year, 1860, the famous "Lenoir" engine appeared. The use of high
+pressure steam engines had long been common, and Lenoir's engine was
+analogous to the high pressure engine, as Buren's was to the condensing
+engine. It created a very general interest, and many engines were
+constructed and used in France, England, and America; it resembled very
+much in external appearance an ordinary high pressure horizontal steam
+engine, and it was double acting.
+
+During the following six years, other 20 British patents were granted, and
+the gas engine passed from the state of a troublesome toy to a practicable
+and widely useful machine.
+
+From 1791 to the end of 1866, in all 46 British patents were granted for
+gas engines, and in these patents are to be found the principles upon
+which the gas engines of to-day are constructed, many years elapsing
+before experience enough was gained to turn the proposals of the older
+inventors to practical account.
+
+The most important of these patents are:
+
+                      No.  Year.
+Robert Street         1,983 1794  Direct-acting engine.
+Samuel Buren          4,874 1823  Vacuum engine.
+Samuel Buren          5,350 1826  Vacuum engine.
+W.L. Wright           6,525 1833  Direct-acting engine.
+Wm. Barnett           7,615 1838  Compression first proposed.
+Barsante & Matteucci  1,072 1854  Rack & clutch engine.
+Drake                   562 1855  Direct-acting engine.
+Lenoir                  335 1860  D.I. engine, electric ignition.
+C.W. Siemens          2,074 1860  Compression, _constant
+                                    pressure_.
+Hugon                 2,902 1860  Platinum ignition.
+Millein               1,840 1861  Compression, both constant vol. and
+                                    _pressure_.
+F.H. Wenham           1,873 1864  Free piston.
+Hugon                   986 1865  Flame ignition.
+Otto and Langen         434 1866  Rack and clutch, flame ignition.
+
+Leaving for the present the history of the gas engine, which brings us to
+a stage comparable to the state of the steam engine during the Newcomen's
+time, it will be advisable to give some consideration to the principles
+concerned in the economical and efficient working of gas engines, in order
+to understand the more recent developments.
+
+It has been seen that gunpowder was the explosive used to produce a vacuum
+in Huyghens' engine, and that it was abandoned in favor of gas by Buren in
+1823. The reason of departure is very obvious: a gunpowder explosion and a
+gaseous explosion differ in very important practical points.
+
+Gunpowder being a solid substance is capable of being packed into a very
+small space; the gas evolved by its decomposition is so great in volume
+that, even in the absence of any evolution of heat, a very high pressure
+would result. One cubic inch of gunpowder confined in a space of one cubic
+inch would cause a pressure by the gas it contains alone of 15,000 lb. per
+square inch; if the heating effect be allowed for, pressures of four times
+that amount, or 60,000 lb. per square inch, are easily accounted for.
+These pressures are far too high for use in any engine, and the bare
+possibility of getting such pressure by accident put gunpowder quite
+outside the purpose of the engineer, quite apart from any question of
+comparative cost. In a proper mixture of inflammable gas and air is found
+an exceedingly safe explosive, perfectly manageable and quite incapable of
+producing pressures in any sense dangerous to a properly constructed
+engine.
+
+The pressure produced by the explosion of any mixture of gas and air is
+strictly determined and limited, whereas the pressure produced by the
+explosion of gunpowder depends greatly upon the relation between the
+volume of the gunpowder and the space in which it is confined.
+
+Engines of the "Lenoir" type are the simplest in idea and construction; in
+them a mixture of gas and air is made in the cylinder during the first
+half of the piston stroke, air being taken from the atmosphere and drawn
+into the cylinder by the forward movement of the piston. At the same time
+gas entering by a number of holes, and streaming into the air to form an
+explosive mixture, the movement of a valve cuts off the supply, and brings
+the igniting arrangement into action. The pressure produced by the
+explosion acting upon the piston makes it complete its stroke, when the
+exhaust valve opens exactly as in the steam engine. The Lenoir and Hugon
+engines, the earlier forms of this type, were double acting, receiving two
+impulses for every revolution of the crank, the impulse differing from
+that in a high pressure steam engine in commencing at half stroke.
+
+The Lenoir igniting arrangement was complicated and troublesome. I have it
+upon the table; the mixture was ignited at the proper time by the electric
+spark produced from a primary battery and Ruhmkorff coil.
+
+The Hugon engine was an advance in this respect, using a flame ignited,
+and securing greater certainty of action in a comparatively simple manner.
+
+It is really a modification of Barnett's lighting cock described in his
+patent of 1838.
+
+Other difficulties were found in using these engines; the pistons became
+exceedingly hot. In the case of the Lenoir larger engines, it sometimes
+became red hot, and caused complete ruin of the cylinder by scoring and
+cutting up. Hugon to prevent this injected some water.
+
+In the all important question of economy, these engines were found
+grievously wanting, Lenoir consuming 95 cubic feet per I.H.P. per hour;
+Hugon consuming 85 cubic feet per I.H.P. per hour.
+
+The surviving engines of this type are only used for very small powers,
+from one to four man power, or 1/8 to 1/2 horse, the most widely known of
+this kind being the "Bischoff," which is very largely used; its
+consumption of gas is even greater than the Lenoir, being 110 cubic feet
+per horse power per hour, as tested with a half-horse engine at a late
+exhibition of gas apparatus at Stockport.
+
+So large a consumption of gas prevented these engines coming into extended
+use for engines of moderate power, and led inventors to work to obtain
+better results. The force generated by the explosion of a mixture of gas
+and air is very short lived, and if it is to be fully utilized must be
+used quickly; a high pressure is produced, but it very quickly disappears.
+
+The quicker the piston moves after the maximum pressure is reached, the
+less will be the loss of heat to the sides of the cylinder. The flame
+which fills the cylinder and causes the increase of pressure rapidly loses
+heat, and the pressure falls.
+
+The idea of using a free piston was proposed as a remedy; it was thought
+that a piston connected to a crank in the ordinary manner could not move
+fast enough to utilize the pressure before it was lost. Many inventors
+proposed to perform work upon a piston free from any direct connection
+with the crank or shaft of the engine; the explosion after attaining its
+maximum pressure expends its force in giving velocity to a piston; the
+velocity so acquired carries it on against atmospheric pressure until the
+energy is all absorbed, and a vacuum or deficit of pressure exists in the
+cylinder instead of an excess of pressure. The return stroke is
+accomplished by the atmospheric pressure, and the work is now done upon
+the engine shaft on the return only. The method of connecting on the
+return stroke while leaving the piston free on the out stroke varies, but
+in many engines the principle was the same.
+
+Barsante and Matteucci, year 1857, British patent No. 1,625, describe the
+first engine of this kind, but Messrs. Otto and Langen were the first to
+successfully overcome all difficulties and make a marketable engine of it.
+Their patent was dated 1866, No. 434. To distinguish it from Otto's later
+patents, it may be called the rack and clutch engine.
+
+The economy obtained by this engine was a great advance upon the Lenoir.
+According to a test by Prof. Tresca, at the Paris Exhibition of 1867, the
+gas consumed was 44 cubic feet per indicated horse power per hour.
+According to tests I have made myself in Manchester with a two horse power
+engine, Otto and Langen's free piston engine consumes 40 cubic feet per
+I.H.P. per hour. This is less than one-half of the gas used by the Hugon
+engine for one horse power.
+
+The igniting arrangement is a very good modification of Barnett's lighting
+cock, which I have explained already, but a slide valve is used instead of
+a cock.
+
+Other engines carried out the same principle in a different manner,
+including Gilles' engine, but they were not commercially so successful as
+the Otto and Langen. Mr. F.H. Wenham's engine was of this type, and was
+working in England, Mr. Wenham informed me, in 1866, his patent being
+taken out in 1864.
+
+The great objection to this kind of engine is the irregularity and great
+noise in working; this was so great as to prevent engines from being made
+larger than three horse power. The engine, however, did good work, and was
+largely used from 1866 until the end of 1876, when Mr. Otto produced his
+famous engine, now known as "The Otto Silent Gas Engine." In this engine
+great economy is attained without the objectionable free piston by a
+method proposed first by Burnett, 1838, and also by a Frenchman, Millein,
+in 1861; this method is compression before ignition. Other inventors also
+described very clearly the advantages to be expected from compression, but
+none were able to make it commercially successful till Mr. Otto. To him
+belongs the great credit of inventing a cycle of operations capable of
+realizing compression in a simple manner.
+
+Starting from the same point as inventors did to produce the free piston
+engine--namely, that the more quickly the explosive force is utilized, the
+less will be the loss, and the greater the power produced from a quantity
+of burning gas--it is evident that if any method can be discovered to
+increase the pressure upon the piston without increasing the temperature
+of the flame causing this pressure, then a great gain will result, and
+the engine will convert more of the heat given to it into work. This is
+exactly what is done by compression before ignition. Suppose we take a
+mixture of gas and air of such proportions as to cause when exploded, or
+rather ignited (because explosion is too strong a term), a pressure of 45
+lb. above atmosphere, or 60 lb. per square inch absolute pressure. Then
+this mixture, if compressed to half volume before igniting and kept at
+constant temperature, would give, when ignited, a pressure of 120 lb.
+total, or 105 lb. above atmosphere, and this without any increase of the
+temperature of the flame.
+
+The effect of compression is to make a small piston do the work of a large
+one, and convert more heat into work by lessening the loss of heat through
+the walls of the cylinder. In addition to this advantage, greater
+expansions are made possible, and therefore greatly increase economy.
+
+The Otto engine must be so familiar in appearance to all of you, that I
+need hardly trouble you with details of its external appearance. I shall
+briefly describe its action. Its strong points and its weak points are
+alike caused by its cycle. One cylinder and piston suffices to carry out
+its whole action. Its cycle is: First outstroke, gas and air sucked into
+the cylinder; first instroke, gas and air compressed into space; second
+outstroke, impulse due to ignition; second instroke, discharge of
+exhausted gases. When working at full power, it gets one impulse for every
+two revolutions; this seems to be a retrograde movement, but,
+notwithstanding, the advantages obtained are very great. The igniting
+arrangement is in the main similar to that used on the rack and clutch
+engine. The engine has been exceedingly successful, and is very
+economical. The Otto compression engine consumes 21 cubic feet of gas per
+I.H.P. per hour, and runs with great smoothness.
+
+In 1876 I commenced my work upon gas engines, and very soon concluded that
+the compression system was the true line to proceed upon. It took me two
+years to produce a workable engine. My efforts have always been directed
+toward producing an engine giving at least one impulse every revolution
+and, if possible, to start without hand labor, just as a steam engine
+does. My first gas engine was running in 1878, and patented and exhibited
+in 1879. It was first exhibited at the Kilburn Royal Agricultural
+Society's show.
+
+This engine was self-starting, gave an ignition at every revolution, and
+ignited without external flame. It consisted of two cylinders, a motor,
+and a compressing pump, with a small intermediate reservoir. Suitable
+valves introduced the mixture of gas and air into the pump, and passed it
+when compressed from the reservoir to the motor cylinder. The igniting
+arrangement consisted of a platinum cage firmly fixed in a valve port;
+this cage was heated in the first instance by a flame of gas and air
+mixed; it became white hot in a few seconds, and then the engine was
+started by opening a valve.
+
+The platinum was kept hot by the heat derived from the successive
+ignitions, and, the engine once started, no further external flame was
+required. I have here one of these platinum cages which has been in use.
+Finding this method not well suited for small engines, I produced the
+engine which is at present in the market under my name.
+
+The cycle is different, and is designed for greater simplicity and the
+avoidance of back ignitions. It also consists of two cylinders, motor
+cylinder and the displace or charging cylinder. There is no intermediate
+reservoir. The displace crank leads the motor by a right angle, and takes
+into it the mixed charge of gas and air, in some cases taking air alone
+during the latter part of its stroke.
+
+The motor on the outstroke crosses V-shaped parts about from one-sixth to
+one-seventh from the out end, the displacer charge now passing into the
+motor cylinder, displacing the exhaust gases by these ports and filling
+the cylinder and the space at the end of it with the explosive mixture.
+The introduction of some air in advance of the charge serves the double
+purpose of cooling down the exhaust gases and preventing direct contact of
+the inflammable mixture with flame which may linger in the cylinder from
+the previous stroke. The instroke of the motor compresses the charge into
+the conical space at the end of the cylinder, and, when fully compressed,
+ignition is effected by means of the slide I have upon the table.
+
+This system of ignition has been found very reliable, and capable of
+acting as often as 400 times per minute, which the Otto ignite is quite
+incapable of doing. By this cycle the advantages of compression are gained
+and one step nearer to the steam engine is attained, that is, an impulse
+is given for every revolution of the engine.
+
+As a consequence, I am able with my engine to give a greater amount of
+power for a comparatively small weight. In addition to this, I have
+introduced a method of self-starting; in this I believe I was the
+first--about 100 of my engines are now using self-starting.
+
+The largest single engine I have yet made indicates 30 H.P. The
+consumption of gas in Glasgow is: Clerk engine consumes in Glasgow 18
+cubic feet per I.H.P. per hour; Clerk engine consumes in Manchester 22
+cubic feet per I.H.P. per hour. So far as I know, the Otto engine and my
+own are the only compression engines which have as yet made any success in
+the market. Other engines are being continually prepared, gas engine
+patents being taken out just now at the rate of 60 per annum, but none of
+them have been able as yet to get beyond the experimental stage. The
+reason is simply the great experience necessary to produce these machines,
+which seem so very simple; but to the inexperienced inventor the subject
+fairly bristles with pitfalls.
+
+I have here sections of some of the earlier engines, including Dr.
+Siemens' and Messrs. Simon and Beechy. Although interesting and containing
+many good points, these have not been practically successful.
+
+The Simon engine is an adaptation of the well-known American petroleum
+motor, the Brayton, the only difference consisting in the use of steam as
+well as flame.
+
+Dr. Siemens worked for some twenty years on gas engines, but he aimed
+rather high at first to attain even moderate success. Had he lived, I
+doubt not but that he would have succeeded in introducing them for large
+powers. In 1882 he informed me that he had in hand a set of gas engines of
+some hundreds of horse power for use on board ship, to be supplied with
+gas from one of his gas producers modified to suit the altered
+conditions.
+
+Summarizing the ground over which we have passed, we find the origin of
+the gas engine in the minds of the same men as were first to propose the
+steam engine, Huyghens and Papin, 1680 and 1690. Greater mechanical
+difficulties and ignorance of the nature of explosives caused the
+abandonment of the internal combustion idea, and the mechanical
+difficulties with steam being less, the steam engine became successful,
+and triumphed over its rival. The knowledge and skill gained in the
+construction of steam engines made it possible once again to attack the
+more difficult problem, and simultaneously with the introduction and
+perfecting of the steam engine, the gas engine idea became more and more
+possible, the practicable stage commencing with Lenoir and continuing with
+Hugon, Millein, Otto and Langen, F.H. Wenham, then Otto and Clerk. In
+1860, 95 cubic feet of gas produced one horse power for an hour; in 1867,
+40 cubic feet accomplished the same thing; and now (1885) we can get one
+horse power for an hour for from 15 to 20 cubic feet of gas, depending on
+the size of the engine used.
+
+Considered as a heat engine, the gas engine is now twice as efficient as
+the very best modern steam engine. It is true the fuel used at present
+is more expensive than coal, and for large powers the steam engine is
+the best because of this. But the way is clearing to change this. Gas
+engines as at present, if supplied with producer gas, produced direct
+from coal without leaving any coke, as is done in the Siemens, the
+Wilson, and the Dawson producers, will give power at one-half the cost
+of steam power. They will use 7/8 of a pound of coal per horse power per
+hour, instead of 1-3/4 lb., as is done in the best steam engines. The
+only producer that makes gas for gas engines at present is the Dawson,
+and in it anthracite is used, because of the difficulty of getting rid
+of the tar coming from the Siemens and Wilson producers, using any
+ordinary slack.
+
+When this difficulty has been overcome, and that it will be overcome there
+can be no manner of doubt, gas engines will rapidly displace the steam
+engine, because a gas engine with a gas producer, producing gas from any
+ordinary coal with the same ease as steam is produced from a boiler, will
+be much safer, and will use one-half the fuel of the very best steam
+engines for equal power. The first cost also will not be greater than that
+of steam. The engine itself will be more expensive than a steam engine of
+equal power, but the gas producer will be less expensive than the boiler
+at present. Perfect as the gas engine now is, considered as a machine for
+converting heat into work, the possibility of great development is not yet
+exhausted. Its economy may be increased two or even three fold; in this
+lies the brilliant future before it. The steam engine is nearly as perfect
+as it can be made; it approaches very nearly the possibility of its
+theory. Its defect does not lie in its mechanism, but in the very
+properties of water and steam itself. The loss of heat which takes place
+in converting liquid water into gaseous steam is so great that by far the
+greater portion of the heat given out by the fuel passes away either in
+the condenser or the exhaust of a steam engine; but a small proportion of
+the heat is converted into work.
+
+The very best steam engines convert about 11 per cent. of the heat given
+them into useful work, the remaining 89 per cent. being wasted,
+principally in the exhaust of the engine.
+
+Gas engines now convert 20 per cent. of the heat given to them into work,
+and very probably will, in a few years more, convert 60 per cent. into
+useful work. The conclusion, then, is irresistible that, when engineers
+have gained greater experience with gas engines and gas producers, they
+will displace steam engines entirely for every use--mills, locomotives,
+and ships.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+RAPID CONSTRUCTION OF THE CANADIAN PACIFIC RAILWAY.
+
+By E.T. ABBOTT, Member of the Engineers' Club of Minnesota. Read December
+12, 1884.
+
+
+During the winter of 1881 and 1882, the contract was let to Messrs.
+Langdon, Sheppard & Co., of Minneapolis, to construct during the working
+season of the latter year, or prior to January 1, 1883, 500 miles of
+railroad on the western extension of the above company; the contract being
+for the grading, bridging, track-laying, and surfacing, also including the
+laying of the necessary depot sidings and their grading. The idea that any
+such amount of road could be built in that country in that time was looked
+upon by the writer hereof, as well as by railroad men generally, as a huge
+joke, perpetrated to gull the Canadians. At the time the contract was let,
+the Canadian Pacific Railway was in operation to Brandon, the crossing of
+the Assiniboine River, 132 miles west of Winnipeg. The track was laid,
+however, to a point about 50 miles west of this, and the grading done
+generally in an unfinished state for thirty miles further. This was the
+condition of things when the contract was entered into to build 500
+miles--the east end of the 500-mile contract being at Station 4,660
+(Station being at Brandon) and extending west to a few miles beyond the
+Saskatchewan River.
+
+The spring of 1882 opened in the most unpromising manner for railroad
+operations, being the wettest ever known in that country. Traffic over the
+St. Paul, Minneapolis & Manitoba Railroad, between St. Paul and Winnipeg,
+was entirely suspended from April 15 to the 28th, owing to the floods on
+the Red River at St. Vincent and Emerson, a serious blow to an early
+start, as on this single track depended the transportation of all
+supplies, men, timber, and contractors' plant, together with all track
+materials (except ties), all of these things having to come from or
+through St. Paul and Minneapolis. The writer hereof was appointed a
+division engineer, and reported at Winnipeg the 15th of April, getting
+through on the last train before the St. Vincent flood. No sooner was the
+line open from St. Paul to Winnipeg than the cotillon opened between
+Winnipeg and Brandon, with a succession of washouts that defied and
+defeated all efforts to get trains over, so it was not until the fifth day
+of May that I left Winnipeg to take charge of the second division of 30
+miles.
+
+By extremely "dizzy" speed I was landed at the end of the track, 180 miles
+from Winnipeg, on the evening of the 9th (4 days). My outfit consisted of
+three assistant engineers and the necessary paraphernalia for three
+complete camps, 30 days' provisions (which turned out to be about 20), 11
+carts and ponies, the latter being extremely poor after a winter's diet
+on buffalo grass and no grain. On the 18th day of May I had my division
+organized and camps in running order. The country was literally under
+water, dry ground being the exception, and I look upon the feat of getting
+across the country at all as the engineering triumph of my life.
+
+On May 20 a genuine blizzard set in, lasting 24 hours, snowed five inches,
+and froze the sloughs over with half an inch of ice, a decidedly
+interesting event to the writer, as he was 18 miles from the nearest wood,
+therefore lay in his blankets and ate hard tack. I stabled my ponies in
+the cook tent, and after they had literally eaten of the sod inside the
+tent, I divided my floor with them.
+
+On 28th day of May I saw the first contractor, who broke ground at station
+7,150. On the 1st of June I was relieved from this division, and ordered
+to take the next, 50 miles west. On the 13th day of June ground was broken
+on this division, at station 8,070, or only about 62 miles west of the
+east end of the 500-mile contract. It looked at this time as though they
+might build 150 miles, but not more. But from this time on very rapid
+progress was made. On July 17 the track reached station 7,000, making
+however up to this time but about 50 miles of track-laying, including that
+laid on the old grade; but large forces were put on to surfacing, and the
+track already laid was put in excellent condition for getting material to
+the front. The weather from this until the freezing-up was all that could
+be desired. Work ceased about the 1st of January, 1883, for the season,
+and the final estimate for the work was as follows: 6,103,986 cubic yards
+earth excavation, 2,395,750 feet B.M. timber in bridges and the culverts,
+85,708 lineal feet piling, 435 miles of track-laying. This work was all
+done in 182 working days, including stormy ones, when little, if anything,
+could be done, making a daily average of 33,548 yards excavation, 13,150
+feet B.M. timber, 471 feet piling, 2-38/100 miles track-laying. We never
+had an accurate force report made of the whole line, but roughly there
+were employed 5,000 men and 1,700 teams.
+
+The admirable organization of the contractors was something wonderful. The
+grading work was practically all done by sub-contractors, Messrs. Langdon,
+Sheppard & Co. confining themselves to putting in the supplies and doing
+the bridge work, surfacing, and track-laying. The grading forces were
+scattered along about 150 miles ahead of the track and supply stores,
+established about 50 miles apart, and in no case were sub-contractors
+expected to haul supplies over 100 miles. If I remember rightly, there
+were four trains of about forty wagons each, hauling supplies from the end
+of track to the stores.
+
+As can be readily seen, the vital point of the whole work, and the problem
+to solve, was food for men and horses. 1,700 bushels of oats every day and
+15,000 pounds of provisions, Sundays and all, for an entire season, which
+at the beginning of the work had to come about 170 miles by rail, and then
+be taken from 50 to 150 miles by teams across a wilderness, is on the face
+of it considerable of an undertaking, to say nothing about hauling the
+pile-drivers, piles, and bridge-timber there. To keep from delaying the
+track, sidings 1,500 feet long were graded, about 7 miles apart. A
+side-track crew, together with an engine, four flats, and caboose, were
+always in readiness; and as soon as a siding was reached, in five hours
+the switches would be in, and the next day it would be surfaced and all in
+working order, when the operating department would fill it with track
+material and supplies. From the head of the siding to the end of the track
+the ground was in hands of track-laying engine, never going back of the
+last siding for supplies or material, and my recollection is that there
+were but six hours' delay to the track from lack of material the whole
+season, at any rate up to some time in November. The track-laying crew was
+equal to 4 miles per day, and in the month of August 92 miles of track
+were laid. The ties were cut on the line of the road about 100 miles east
+of Winnipeg, so the shortest distance any ties were hauled was 270 miles;
+the actual daily burden of the single track from Winnipeg west was 24 cars
+steel, 24 cars ties, aside from the transportation of grain and
+provisions, bridge material, and lumber for station houses. The station
+buildings were kept right up by the company itself, and a depot built with
+rooms for the agent every 15 miles, or at every second siding. The
+importance of keeping the buildings up with the track was impressed on the
+mind of the superintendent of this branch, and, as a satire, he
+telegraphed asking permission to haul his stuff ahead of the track by
+teams, he being on the track-layers' heels with his stations and tanks the
+whole season. The telegraph line was also built, and kept right up to the
+end of the track, three or four miles being the furthest they were at any
+time behind.
+
+It might be supposed that work done so rapidly would not be well done, but
+it is the best built prairie road I know of on this continent. It is built
+almost entirely free from cuts, and the work is at least 20 per cent.
+heavier than would ordinarily be made across the same country in the
+States, on account of snow. 2,640 ties were laid to the mile, and the
+track ballasting kept well up with the laying; so well, in fact, and so
+well done, that as 100 mile sections were completed schedule trains were
+put on 20 miles an hour, and the operating department had nothing to do
+but make a time table; the road was _built_ by the construction department
+before the operating department was asked to take it. The engineering was
+organized in divisions of 30 miles each, and as each was finished the
+parties moved ahead again to the front, the engineers usually finding men
+sitting on their shovels waiting for the work to be laid out for them. It
+was as much as the locating parties could do to keep out of the way of the
+construction. The roadbed was built 14 ft. wide in embankment and 20 in
+the very few cuts there were, there being no cuts of any moment except
+through the Coteaus and the Saskatchewan crossing, and these have since
+been widened out on account of snow, so that the road can be operated the
+year round and the bucking-snow account cut no figure in the operating
+expenses.
+
+The country is a virgin desert. From Winnipeg to the Pacific Ocean there
+are a few places that might attain to the dignity of an _oasis_--at
+Brandon, Portage la Prairie, etc.--but it is generally what I should call
+worthless; 100 miles to wood and 100 feet to water was the general
+experience west of the Moose jaw, and the months of June, July, and August
+are the only three in the year that it is safe to bet you will not have
+sleighing. I burned wood and used stakes that were hauled by carts 85
+miles, and none any nearer. It is a matter of some pride that both the
+engineering and the construction were done by what our Canadian neighbors
+kindly termed "Yankee importations." However, there was one thing that in
+the building of this road was in marked contrast to any other Pacific road
+ever constructed, that is, there was no lawlessness, no whisky, and not
+even a knock-down fight that I ever heard of the whole season, and even in
+the midst of 12,000 Indians, all armed with Winchester rifles and plenty
+of ammunition, not one of the locating or construction parties ever had a
+military escort, nor were any depredations ever committed, except the
+running off of a few horses, which were usually recovered; and I think
+there were but two fatal accidents during the season, one man killed on
+the Grand Coule Bridge, and another from being kicked by a horse.
+
+The track was all laid from one end, and in no case were rails hauled
+ahead by teams. Two iron cars were used, the empty returning one being
+turned up beside the track to let the loaded one by.
+
+The feat in rapid construction accomplished by this company will never be
+duplicated, done as it was by a reckless expenditure of money, the orders
+to the engineers being to _get there_ regardless of expense and
+horse-flesh; if you killed a horse by hard driving, his harness would fit
+another, and there was no scrutiny bestowed on vouchers when the work was
+done; and I must pay the tribute to the company to say that everything
+that money would buy was sent to make the engineers comfortable. It was
+bad enough at best, and the Chief Engineer (J.C. James) rightly considered
+that any expense bestowed on the engineering part of the work was a good
+investment.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE OSGOOD MAMMOTH EXCAVATOR.
+
+
+In the accompanying illustration, we present to our readers a mammoth
+excavator, built by the Osgood Dredge Company of Albany, N.Y., for the
+Pacific Guano Company of California, for uncovering their phosphate
+deposits on Chisholm Island, South Colombia.
+
+[Illustration: THE OSGOOD MAMMOTH EXCAVATOR.]
+
+In order to bring out more clearly the principal problem involved in the
+construction of this machine, we shall state first the proposed method of
+its operation. This is as follows, viz.: The excavator is to dig a trench
+thirty feet wide, down to the phosphate rock, and the entire length of the
+bed--about one quarter of a mile--dumping the earth of the first cut to
+one side. The phosphate is taken out behind the excavator. On reaching the
+end of the bed, the excavator is reversed and starts back, making a second
+cut thirty feet wide, and dumping now into the cut from which the
+phosphate has just been removed. In this way the entire bed is traversed,
+the excavator turning over the earth in great furrows thirty feet wide,
+and giving an opportunity to simultaneously get out all the phosphate.
+
+As will be seen, the main problem presented was to turn the car around at
+each end of the cut in a very limited space. To accomplish this, the car
+is mounted on a fixed axle at each end and on a truck under its center of
+gravity; this is somewhat forward of the geometrical center of the car.
+The frame of the truck is circular, thirteen feet in diameter, made of I
+beams curved to shape. The circle carries a track, on which a ring of
+coned rollers revolves, which in turn supports the car. By pulling out the
+track from under both ends of the car, the whole weight is balanced on
+this central turntable truck, thus admitting of the car being turned, end
+for end, within its own length. This method of turning the car, and the
+size of the machine, are the principal features.
+
+The car is 40' × 13', with arched truss sides. The track is seven feet
+gauge, the spread between tracks 20 feet, the height of the A frame 38
+feet, length of boom 40 feet, swinging in a circle of 30 feet radius, and
+through two-thirds of the entire circle. It has a steel dipper of 46 cubic
+feet capacity, 1 inch steel chains, 10" × 12" double cylinder hoisting
+engine, and 6¼" × 8" double cylinder reversible crowding engine. The
+drums are fitted with friction clutches. Owing to the great distance at
+which the dipper is handled, its size is reduced, and because it swings on
+the arc of so large a circle the capacity of this machine is only one-half
+of that of the No. 1 excavator built by the Osgood Dredge Company.
+Nevertheless it will do the work of from 75 to 100 men, since its capacity
+is from 800 to 1,000 cubic yards per day, the amount of rock _uncovered_
+depending, of course, upon the depth of earth overlying it. The excavator
+will dump 30 feet from the center line of the car, and 26 feet above the
+track, which is laid on the rock. Total weight about fifty tons. The crew
+required for its operation consists of 1 engineer, 1 fireman, 1 craneman,
+and 4 to 5 pit men to tend jacks, move track, etc.
+
+In the illustration the boiler connections are omitted, also the housing
+for the protection of the crew. The design is characterized by the evident
+care which has been bestowed upon securing simplicity and
+durability.--_American Engineer._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE OSGOOD EXCAVATOR.
+
+
+At a recent meeting of the Engineers' Club of Philadelphia, Mr. John C.
+Trautwine, Jr., exhibited and described drawings of a large land dredge
+built by the Osgood Dredge Co., of Albany, New York, for the Pacific Guano
+Co., to be used in removing 8 to 15 feet of material from the phosphate
+rock at Bull River, S.C.
+
+The more prominent features of the machine are the car-body, the water
+tank, boiler and engine, the A frame (so-called from its slight
+resemblance to the letter A), the boom, the dipper-handle; and the dipper,
+drawings of which were shown and described in detail.
+
+Before the excavation is begun, the forward end of the car (the end
+nearest the dipper) is lifted clear of the track by means of 3
+screw-jacks. When the machine has excavated as far in advance of itself as
+the length of the boom and that of the dipper-handle will permit, say
+about 8 feet, the car is again lowered to the track, the screw-jacks
+removed, and the car is moved forward about 8 feet by winding the rope
+upon the drum, the other end of the rope being attached to any suitable
+fixed object near the line of the track. The forward end of the car is
+then again lifted by means of the 3 screw-jacks, and the digging is
+resumed. The machine cuts a channel from 25 to 35 feet wide, and deposits
+all the dirt upon one side. If necessary, it can dump earth about 25 feet
+above the track. The miners follow in the wake of the machine, getting out
+the phosphate as fast as it is uncovered. When the machine reaches the end
+of the field it is lowered to the track and the screw-jacks are removed.
+Shoes or skids are then placed upon the track, and the wheels of the
+turntable are run up on them. This lifts the end wheels clear of the
+track, so that the car and machine rest entirely upon the turntable. By
+now blocking the turntable wheels and winding up only _one_ of the ropes,
+the car body and the machine are swung around end for end. The digging is
+then resumed in the opposite direction, the temporary track, upon which
+the machine travels, being shifted to one side, so that the second channel
+is made alongside of the first. The earth removed in cutting this second
+channel is dumped into the first channel, the phosphate (as stated above)
+having been first removed.
+
+The dipper is of plate steel, and holds 1¾ cubic yards of earth when even
+full.
+
+The machine is manned by an engineer, a fireman, and a dipper-tender,
+besides which from five to ten laborers are required. These look after the
+track, etc.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CAPSTAN NAVIGATION ON THE VOLGA.
+
+
+On several of the large rivers on the Continent, with rapid currents,
+cable towage has been introduced in addition to the older methods of
+transporting merchandise by sailing and steam boats or by towage with
+screw or paddle tugs. A chain or wire rope is laid on the bottom of the
+river bed, fixed to anchors at the ends and passed over a chain pulley
+driven by the steam engine and guided by pulleys on the steam tug, the tug
+lifting it out of the water at the bow and dropping it over the stern and
+winding itself with the barges attached to it along the chain, the latter
+being utilized as a rule only for the up journey, while down the river the
+tugs are propelled by paddles or screws, and can tow a sufficient number
+of barges with the assistance of the current. The system has been found
+advantageous, as, although the power required for drawing the barges and
+tugs against the current is of course the same in all cases, the slip and
+waste of power by screws and paddles is avoided. The size of the screws or
+paddles is also limited by the nature of the river and its traffic, and
+with cable towage a larger number of barges can be hauled, while the
+progress made is definite and there is no drifting back, as occurs with
+paddle or screw tugs when they have temporarily to slow or stop their
+engines on account of passing vessels. Several streams, as the Elbe,
+Rhine, and Rhone, have now such cables laid for long distances in those
+parts of the rivers where the traffic is sufficient to warrant the
+adoption of the system. While this has been introduced only during the
+last 16 or 18 years, a similar method of transporting merchandise has been
+in use in Russia on the river Volga for upward of 40 years. Navigation on
+this river is interrupted for about half the year by the ice, and the
+traffic is of larger amount only during part of the summer, while the
+length of the river itself is very great, so that laying down permanent
+cables would not pay; while, on the other hand, the current is so strong
+that towage of some sort must be resorted to for the transport of large
+quantities. The problem has been solved by the introduction of the capstan
+navigation or towage.
+
+[Illustration: CAPSTAN NAVIGATION ON THE VOLGA.]
+
+There are two kinds of capstans in use, one actuated by horse-power and
+the other by steam engines. A horse capstan boat carries according to size
+150 to 200 horses, which are stabled in the hold. On deck a number of
+horse gears are arranged at which the horses work. The power of the
+separate gears is transmitted to a main shaft, which is connected to the
+drums that wind on the rope. The horses work under an awning to protect
+them from the burning sunshine, and are changed every three hours. Eight
+and sometimes ten horses work at each horse gear. The horses are changed
+without interruption of the work, the gears being disengaged from the main
+shaft in rotation and the horses taken out and put in while the gear is
+standing. The horses are bought at the place of departure in the south of
+Russia and resold at the destination, usually Nishny-Novgorod, at a fair
+profit, the capstan boat carrying fodder and provender for the attendants.
+The capstan is accompanied by a steam launch which carries the anchor and
+hawser forward in advance of the capstan. The latter has a diameter of as
+much as 5 in., and is two to three miles in length. The anchor is dropped
+by the tug and the hawser carried back to the capstan, where it is
+attached to one of the rope drums, and the boat with the barges attached
+to it towed along by the horse gears described above winding on the
+hawser. The advance continues without interruption day and night, the
+launch taking a second anchor and hawser forward and dropping the anchor
+in advance of the first by a hawser's length, so that when the capstan has
+wound up the first hawser it finds a second one ready for attachment to
+the rope drum. The launch receives the first hawser, picks up the anchor,
+and passes the capstan to drop it again in advance of the anchor
+previously placed, and carries the hawser back to the capstan, and so on.
+A capstan tows twelve or more barges, placed in twos or threes beside and
+close behind each other, with a load of a million pounds, or about 16,000
+to 17,000 tons. From Astrachan and the mouth of the Kama the capstans make
+during the season from the beginning of May to the end of July in the most
+favorable case two journeys to the fair of Nishny-Novgorod; after this
+time no more journeys are made, as the freights are wanting. At the end of
+the up-stream journey the horses are sold, as mentioned before, and the
+capstan towed down stream by the steam launch to Astrachan or the Kama
+mouth, where meanwhile a fresh lot of barges has been loaded and got
+ready, a new supply of horses is bought, and the operation repeated.
+
+Besides these horse capstans there are steam capstans which are less
+complicated and have condensing steam engines of about 100 horse power,
+the power being transmitted by gearing to the rope drum. The rope drum
+shaft projects on both sides beyond the boards of the boat, and for the
+return journey paddle wheels, are put on to assist the launch in towing
+the clumsy and big capstan boat down the river. The steam capstans tow
+considerably larger masses of goods than the horse capstans and also
+travel somewhat quicker, so that the launch has scarcely sufficient time
+to drop and raise the anchors and also to make double the journey. We do
+not doubt that this system of towage might with suitable modifications be
+advantageously employed on the large rivers in America and elsewhere for
+the slow transport of large quantities of raw materials and other bulky
+merchandise, a low speed being, as is well known, much more economical
+than a high speed, as many of the resistances increase as the square and
+even higher powers of the velocity.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+STEAMBOAT EQUIPMENT OF WAR VESSELS.
+
+
+The larger ships in the navy, and some of the more recent small ones, such
+as the new cruisers of the Phaeton class, are fitted with powerful steam
+winches of a type made by Messrs. Belliss and Co. These are used for
+lifting the pinnaces and torpedo boats.
+
+We give an illustration of one of these winches. The cylinders are 6 in.
+in diameter and 10 in. stroke. The barrel is grooved for wire rope, and is
+safe to raise the second class steel torpedo boats, weighing nearly 12
+tons as lifted. The worm gearing is very carefully cut, so that the work
+can be done quietly and safely. With machinery of this kind a boat is soon
+put into the water, and as an arrangement is fitted for filling the boat's
+boilers with hot water from the ship's boilers, the small craft can be
+under way in a very short time from the order being given.
+
+Mr. White is fitting compound engines with outside condensers to boats as
+small as 21 ft. long, and we give a view of a pair of compound engines of
+a new design, which Messrs. Belliss are making for the boats of this
+class. The cylinders are 4 in. and 7 in. in diameter by 5 in. stroke. The
+general arrangement is well shown in the engraving. On a trial recently
+made, a 25 ft. cutter with this type of engines reached a speed of 7.4
+knots.
+
+About three years ago the late Controller of the Navy, Admiral Sir W.
+Houston Stewart, wished to ascertain the relative consumption of fuel in
+various classes of small vessels. An order was accordingly sent to
+Portsmouth, and a series of trials were made. From the official reports of
+these we extract the information contained in tables F and G, and we think
+the details cannot fail to be of interest to our readers. The run around
+the island was made in company with other boats, without stopping, and
+observations were taken every half hour. The power given out by the
+engines was fairly constant throughout. The distance covered was 56 knots,
+and the total amount of fuel consumed, including that required for raising
+steam, was 1,218 lb. of coal and 84 lb. of wood. The time taken in raising
+steam to 60 lb. pressure was forty-three minutes. The rate of consumption
+of fuel is of course not the lowest that could be obtained, as a speed of
+over 10 knots is higher than that at which the machinery could be worked
+most economically.
+
+[Illustration: STEAM WINCH FOR HOISTING AND LOWERING PINNACLES AND
+TORPEDO BOATS.]
+
+The trials afterward made to find the best results that could be obtained
+in fuel consumption were rather spoiled by the roughness of the weather on
+the day they were made. The same boat was run for 10 miles around the
+measured mile buoys in Stokes Bay. The following are some of the results
+recorded:
+
+_Table F.--Report of Trials of Engines of H.M. 48 ft.
+Twin Screw Steam Pinnace, No. 110._
+
+Date                                           August 4, 1881.
+
+Where tried                                    Round the Isle of
+                                                   Wight
+
+Draught of water / Forward                       3 ft. ½ in.
+                 \ Aft                           3 ft. 6½ in.
+Average boiler pressure                          104.81 lb.
+Average pressure in receivers   / Starboard       16.27  "
+                                \ Port            16.54  "
+Mean air pressure in stokehold                   1.4 in. water.
+Vacuum in condenser, average                      26.72 in.
+Weather barometer                                 30.37  "
+Revolutions per minute    / Starboard            240.75
+                          \ Port                 251.95
+                                                    lb.
+Mean pressure in cylinders / Starboard / High     45.33
+                           |           \ Low      16.16
+                           \ Port      / High     43.16
+                                       \ Low      15.3
+Indicated horse-power      / Starboard / High     18.20
+                           |           \ Low      16.32
+                           | Port      / High     18.13
+                           |           \ Low      16.17
+                           \ Collective Total     68.82
+Speed by log                                      10.18 knots.
+Force of wind                                         One.
+Sea                                                  Smooth.
+Quantity of coal on board                             1 ton.
+Description                                    Nixon's navigation.
+Consumption per indicated horse-power per hour     4.17 lb.
+Time under way                                    5 hrs. 30 min.
+
+
+_Table G.--Report of Trial of Engines of H.M. 48 ft. Steam Pinnace No.
+110._
+
+When tried                                        August 3, 1881.
+Where tried                                         Stokes Bay.
+Draught   / Forward                                 3 ft. 1 in.
+          \ Aft                                     3 ft. 3¼ in.
+Average boiler pressure                               55.52 lb.
+Vacuum                                                25.12 in.
+Weather barometer                                     30.35 "
+Revolutions per minute  / starboard                  165.54
+                        \ port                       161.55
+Indicated horse-power[2]   / Starboard / High          5.05
+                           |           \ Low           5.53
+                           | Port      / High          3.75
+                           |           \ Low           4.02
+                           \ Collective Total         18.35
+Speed of vessel by log (approximate)                   7.404
+Wind      / Force                                     4 to 5
+          \ Direction                             Bow and Quarter.
+State of sea                                           Rough.
+
+[Footnote 2: In consequence of the seas breaking over the boat, a large
+number of diagrams were destroyed, and, on account of the roughness of the
+weather, cards were only taken with the greatest difficulty. The records
+of power developed are therefore not put forward as authoritative.]
+
+In connection with this subject it may perhaps be of interest to give
+particulars of a French and American steam launch; these we extract from
+the United States official report before mentioned.
+
+_Steam Launch of the French Steamer Mouche_.
+
+Length on low water level                   27 ft. 10-1/2 in.
+Breadth                                      5 ft. 11 in.
+Depth to rabbet of keel                      3 ft. 3-1/3 in.
+Draught of water aft                         2 ft. 1-1/2 in.
+Weight of hull and fittings                   2,646 lb.
+Weight of machinery with water in boiler      3,473 lb.
+
+The boat is built of wood, and coppered. The engine consists of one
+non-condensing cylinder, 7-1/2 in. in diameter and 5.9 in. stroke. The
+boiler has 4.3 square feet of grate surface. The screw is 21-2/3 in. in
+diameter by 43.3 in, pitch. The speed is 7 knots per hour obtained with
+245 revolutions per minute, the slip being 19.7 per cent. of the speed.
+
+The United States navy steam cutters built at the Philadelphia navy yard
+are of the following dimensions:
+
+Length                                          27 ft. 7½ in.
+Breadth                                          7 ft. 10 in.
+Depth to rabbet of keel                          3 ft. 11¾ in.
+Displacement (to two feet above rabbet of keel)    5.96 tons.
+Weight of hull and fittings                         4,675 lb.
+   "      engine                                    1,240  "
+   "      boiler                                    3,112  "
+   "      water in boiler and tanks                 2,696  "
+
+The engine has a single cylinder 8 in. in diameter and 8 in. stroke of
+piston. The screw is four bladed, 4 in. long and 31 in. in diameter by 45
+in. pitch. The following is the performance at draught of water 2 feet
+above rabbet of keel:
+
+Boiler pressure           90 lb.
+Revolutions                353
+Speed                    7.8 knots.
+Indicated horse power.      53
+
+These boats are of 1870 type, but may be taken as typical of a large
+number of steam cutters in the United States navy. The naval authorities
+have, however, been lately engaged in extensive experiments with compound
+condensing engines in small boats, and the results have proved so
+conclusively the advantages of the latter system that it will doubtless be
+largely adopted in future.--_Engineer._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+IMPROVED STEAM TRAP.
+
+
+The illustrations we give represent an expansion trap by Mr. Hyde, and
+made by Mr. S. Farron, Ashton-under-Lyne. The general appearance of this
+arrangement is as in Fig. 1 or Fig. 3, the center view, Fig. 2, showing
+what is the cardinal feature of the trap, viz., that it contains a
+collector for silt, sand, or sediment which is not, as in most other
+traps, carried out through the valve with the efflux of water. The escape
+valve also is made very large, so that while the trap may be made short,
+or, in other words, the expansion pipe may not be long, a tolerably large
+area of outlet is obtained with the short lift due to the small movement
+of the expansion pipe.
+
+[Illustration: IMPROVED STEAM TRAP.]
+
+The object of a steam trap is for the removal of water of condensation
+without allowing the escape of steam from drying apparatus and steam pipes
+used for heating, power, or other purposes. One of the plans employed is
+by an expansion pipe having a valve fixed to its end, so that when the
+pipe shortens from being cooler, due to the presence of the water, the
+valve opens and allows the escape of the water until the steam comes to
+the trap, which, being hotter, lengthens the pipe and closes the valve.
+Now with this kind of trap, and, in fact, with any variety of trap, we
+understand that it has been frequently the experience of the user to find
+his contrivance inoperative because the silt or sand that may be present
+in the pipes has been carried to the valve and lodged there by the water,
+causing it to stick, and with expansion traps not to close properly or to
+work abnormally some way or other. The putting of these contrivances to
+rights involves a certain amount of trouble, which is completely obviated
+by the arrangement shown in the annexed engravings, which is certainly a
+simple, strong, and substantial article. The foot of the trap is made of
+cast iron, the seat of the valve being of gun metal, let into the
+diaphragm, cast inside the hollow cylinder. The valve, D, is also of gun
+metal, and passing to outside through a stuffing box is connected to the
+central expansion pipe by a nut at E. The valve is set by two brass nuts
+at the top, so as to be just tight when steam hot; if, then, from the
+presence of water the trap is cooled, the pipe contracts and the water
+escapes. A mud door is provided, by which the mud can be removed as
+required. The silt or dirt that may be in the pipes is carried to the trap
+by the water, and is deposited in the cavity, as shown, the water rises,
+and when the valve, D, opens escapes at the pipe, F, and may be allowed to
+run to waste. A pipe is not shown attached to F, but needless to say one
+may be connected and led anywhere, provided the steam pressure is
+sufficient. For this purpose the stuffing-box is provided; it is really
+not required if the water runs to waste, as is represented in the
+engraving. To give our readers some idea of the dimensions of the valve,
+we may say that the smallest size of trap has 1 in. expansion pipe and a
+valve 3 in. diameter, the next size 1¼ in. expansion pipe and a valve 4½
+in. diameter, and the largest size has a pipe 1½ in. and a valve 6 in.
+diameter. Altogether, the contrivance has some important practical
+advantages to recommend it.--_Mech. World._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CRITICAL METHODS OF DETECTING ERRORS IN PLANE SURFACES.[3]
+
+[Footnote 3: A paper read before the Engineers' Society of Western
+Pennsylvania, Dec. 10, 1884.]
+
+By JOHN A. BRASHEAR.
+
+
+In our study of the exact methods of measurement in use to-day, in the
+various branches of scientific investigation, we should not forget that it
+has been a plant of very slow growth, and it is interesting indeed to
+glance along the pathway of the past to see how step by step our micron of
+to-day has been evolved from the cubit, the hand's breadth, the span, and,
+if you please, the barleycorn of our schoolboy days. It would also be a
+pleasant task to investigate the properties of the gnomon of the Chinese,
+Egyptians, and Peruvians, the scarphie of Eratosthenes, the astrolabe of
+Hipparchus, the parallactic rules of Ptolemy, Regimontanus Purbach, and
+Walther, the sextants and quadrants of Tycho Brahe, and the modifications
+of these various instruments, the invention and use of which, from century
+to century, bringing us at last to the telescopic age, or the days of
+Lippershay, Jannsen, and Galileo.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+It would also be a most pleasant task to follow the evolution of our
+subject in the new era of investigation ushered in by the invention of
+that marvelous instrument, the telescope, followed closely by the work of
+Kepler, Scheiner, Cassini, Huyghens, Newton, Digges, Nonius, Vernier,
+Hall, Dollond, Herschel, Short, Bird, Ramsden, Troughton, Smeaton,
+Fraunhofer, and a host of others, each of whom has contributed a noble
+share in the elimination of sources of error, until to-day we are
+satisfied only with units of measurement of the most exact and refined
+nature. Although it would be pleasant to review the work of these past
+masters, it is beyond the scope of the present paper, and even now I can
+only hope to call your attention to one phase of this important subject.
+For a number of years I have been practically interested in the subject of
+the production of plane and curved surfaces particularly for optical
+purposes, _i.e._, in the production of such surfaces free if possible from
+all traces of error, and it will be pleasant to me if I shall be able to
+add to the interest of this association by giving you some of my own
+practical experience; and may I trust that it will be an incentive to all
+engaged in kindred work _to do that work well?_
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+In the production of a perfectly plane surface, there are many
+difficulties to contend with, and it will not be possible in the limits of
+this paper to discuss the methods of eliminating errors when found; but I
+must content myself with giving a description of various methods of
+detecting existing errors in the surfaces that are being worked, whether,
+for instance, it be an error of concavity, convexity, periodic or local
+error.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3]
+
+A very excellent method was devised by the celebrated Rosse, which is
+frequently used at the present time; and those eminent workers, the Clarks
+of Cambridge, use a modification of the Rosse method which in their hands
+is productive of the very highest results. The device is very simple,
+consisting of a telescope (_a_, Fig. 1) in which aberrations have been
+well corrected, so that the focal plane of the objective is as sharp as
+possible. This telescope is first directed to a distant object, preferably
+a celestial one, and focused for parallel rays. The surface, _b_, to be
+tested is now placed so that the reflected image of the same object,
+whatever it may be, can be observed by the same telescope. It is evident
+that if the surface be a true plane, its action upon the beam of light
+that comes from the object will be simply to change its direction, but not
+disturb or change it any other way, hence the reflected image of the
+object should be seen by the telescope, _a_, without in any way changing
+the original focus. If, however, the supposed plane surface proves to be
+_convex_, the image will not be sharply defined in the telescope until the
+eyepiece is moved _away_ from the object glass; while if the converse is
+the case, and the supposed plane is concave, the eyepiece must now be
+moved _toward_ the objective in order to obtain a sharp image, and the
+amount of convexity or concavity may be known by the change in the focal
+plane. If the surface has periodic or irregular errors, no sharp image can
+be obtained, no matter how much the eyepiece may be moved in or out.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4]
+
+This test may be made still more delicate by using the observing
+telescope, _a_, at as low an angle as possible, thereby bringing out with
+still greater effect any error that may exist in the surface under
+examination, and is the plan generally used by Alvan Clark & Sons. Another
+and very excellent method is that illustrated in Fig. 2, in which a second
+telescope, _b_, is introduced. In place of the eyepiece of this second
+telescope, a diaphragm is introduced in which a number of small holes are
+drilled, as in Fig. 2, _x_, or a slit is cut similar to the slit used in a
+spectroscope as shown at _y_, same figure. The telescope, _a_, is now
+focused very accurately on a celestial or other very distant object, and
+the focus marked. The object glass of the telescope, _b_, is now placed
+against and "square" with the object glass of telescope _a_, and on
+looking through telescope a an image of the diaphragm with its holes or
+the slit is seen. This diaphragm must now be moved until a sharp image is
+seen in telescope _a_. The two telescopes are now mounted as in Fig. 2,
+and the plate to be tested placed in front of the two telescopes as at
+_c_. It is evident, as in the former case, that if the surface is a true
+plane, the reflected image of the holes or slit thrown upon it by the
+telescope, _b_, will be seen sharply defined in the telescope, _a_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.]
+
+If any error of convexity exists in the plate, the focal plane is
+disturbed, and the eyepiece must be moved _out_. If the plate is concave,
+it must be moved _in_ to obtain a sharp image. Irregular errors in the
+plate or surface will produce a blurred or indistinct image, and, as in
+the first instance, no amount of focusing will help matters. These methods
+are both good, but are not satisfactory in the highest degree, and two or
+three important factors bar the way to the very best results. One is that
+the aberrations of the telescopes must be perfectly corrected, a very
+difficult matter of itself, and requiring the highest skill of the
+optician. Another, the fact that the human eye will accommodate itself to
+small distances when setting the focus of the observing telescope. I have
+frequently made experiments to find out how much this accommodation was in
+my own case, and found it to amount to as much as 1/40 of an inch. This is
+no doubt partly the fault of the telescopes themselves, but unless the eye
+is rigorously educated in this work, it is apt to accommodate itself to a
+small amount, and will invariably do so if there is a preconceived notion
+or bias _in the direction of the accommodation_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.]
+
+Talking with Prof. C.A. Young a few months since on this subject, he
+remarked that he noticed that the eye grew more exact in its demands as it
+grew older, in regard to the focal point. A third and very serious
+objection to the second method is caused by diffraction from the edges of
+the holes or the slit. Let me explain this briefly. When light falls upon
+a slit, such as we have here, it is turned out of its course; as the slit
+has two edges, and the light that falls on either side is deflected both
+right and left, the rays that cross from the right side of the slit toward
+the left, and from the left side of the slit toward the right, produce
+interference of the wave lengths, and when perfect interference occurs,
+dark lines are seen. You can have a very pretty illustration of this by
+cutting a fine slit in a card and holding it several inches from the eye,
+when the dark lines caused by a total extinction of the light by
+interference may be seen.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.]
+
+If now you look toward the edge of a gas or lamp flame; you will see a
+series of colored bands, that bring out the phenomenon of partial
+interference. This experiment shows the difficulty in obtaining a perfect
+focus of the holes or the slit in the diaphragm, as the interference
+fringes are always more or less annoying. Notwithstanding these defects of
+the two systems I have mentioned, in the hands of the practical workman
+they are productive of very good results, and very many excellent surfaces
+have been made by their use, and we are not justified in ignoring them,
+because they are the stepping stones to lead us on to better ones. In my
+early work Dr. Draper suggested a very excellent plan for testing a flat
+surface, which I briefly describe. It is a well known truth that, if an
+artificial star is placed in the exact center of curvature of a truly
+spherical mirror, and an eyepiece be used to examine the image close
+beside the source of light, the star will be sharply defined, and will
+bear very high magnification. If the eyepiece is now drawn toward the
+observer, the star disk begins to expand; and if the mirror be a truly
+spherical one, the expanded disk will be equally illuminated, except the
+outer edge, which usually shows two or more light and dark rings, due to
+diffraction, as already explained.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+Now if we push the eyepiece toward the mirror the same distance on the
+opposite side of the true focal plane, precisely the same appearance will
+be noted in the expanded star disk. If we now place our plane surface any
+where in the path of the rays from the great mirror, we should have
+identically the same phenomena repeated. Of course it is presumed, and is
+necessary, that the plane mirror shall be much less in area than the
+spherical mirror, else the beam of light from the artificial star will be
+shut off, yet I may here say that any one part of a truly spherical mirror
+will act just as well as the whole surface, there being of course a loss
+of light according to the area of the mirror shut off.
+
+This principle is illustrated in Fig. 3, where _a_ is the spherical
+mirror, _b_ the source of light, _c_ the eyepiece as used when the plane
+is not interposed, _d_ the plane introduced into the path at an angle of
+45° to the central beam, and _e_ the position of eyepiece when used the
+with the plane. When the plane is not in the way, the converging beam goes
+back to the eyepiece, _c_. When the plane, _d_, is introduced, the beam is
+turned at a right angle, and if it is a perfect surface, not only does the
+focal plane remain exactly of the same length, but the expanded star
+disks, are similar on either side of the focal plane.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+I might go on to elaborate this method, to show how it may be made still
+more exact, but as it will come under the discussion of spherical
+surfaces, I will leave it for the present. Unfortunately for this process,
+it demands a large truly spherical surface, which is just as difficult of
+attainment as any form of regular surface. We come now to an instrument
+that does not depend upon optical means for detecting errors of surface,
+namely, the spherometer, which as the name would indicate means sphere
+measure, but it is about as well adapted for plane as it is for spherical
+work, and Prof. Harkness has been, using one for some time past in
+determining the errors of the plane mirrors used in the transit of Venus
+photographic instruments. At the meeting of the American Association of
+Science in Philadelphia, there was quite a discussion as to the relative
+merits of the spherometer test and another form which I shall
+presently mention, Prof. Harkness claiming that he could, by the
+use of the spherometer, detect errors bordering closely on one
+five-hundred-thousandth of an inch. Some physicists express doubt on this,
+but Prof. Harkness has no doubt worked with very sensitive instruments,
+and over very small areas at one time.
+
+I have not had occasion to use this instrument in my own work, as a more
+simple, delicate, and efficient method was at my command, but for one
+measurement of convex surfaces I know of nothing that can take its place.
+I will briefly describe the method of using it.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.]
+
+The usual form of the instrument is shown in Fig. 4; _a_ is a steel screw
+working in the nut of the stout tripod frame, _b_; _c c c_ are three legs
+with carefully prepared points; _d_ is a divided standard to read the
+whole number of revolutions of the screw, _a_, the edge of which also
+serves the purpose of a pointer to read off the division on the top of the
+milled head, _e_. Still further refinement may be had by placing a vernier
+here. To measure a plane or curved surface with this instrument, a perfect
+plane or perfect spherical surface of known radius must be used to
+determine the zero point of the division. Taking for granted that we have
+this standard plate, the spherometer is placed upon it, and the readings
+of the divided head and indicator, _d_, noted when the point of the screw,
+_a_, just touches the surface, _f_. Herein, however, lies the great
+difficulty in using this instrument, _i.e._, to know the exact instant of
+contact of the point of screw, _a_, on the surface, _f_. Many devices have
+been added to the spherometer to make it as sensitive as possible, such as
+the contact level, the electric contact, and the compound lever contact.
+The latter is probably the best, and is made essentially as in Fig. 5.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.]
+
+I am indebted for this plan to Dr. Alfred Mayer. As in the previous
+figure, _a_ is the screw; this screw is bored out, and a central steel pin
+turned to fit resting on a shoulder at _c_. The end of _d_ projects below
+the screw, _a_, and the end, _e_, projects above the milled head, and the
+knife edge or pivot point rests against the lever, _f_, which in turn
+rests against the long lever, _g_, the point, _h_, of which moves along
+the division at _j_. It is evident that if the point of the pin just
+touches the plate, no movement of the index lever, _g_, will be seen; but
+if any pressure be applied, the lever will move through a multiplied arc,
+owing to the short fulcri of the two levers. Notwithstanding all these
+precautions, we must also take into account the flexure of the material,
+the elasticity of the points of contact, and other idiosyncrasies, and you
+can readily see that practice alone in an instrument so delicate will
+bring about the very best results. Dr. Alfred Mayer's method of getting
+over the great difficulty of knowing when all four points are in contact
+is quite simple. The standard plate is set on the box, _g_, Fig. 4, which
+acts as a resonater. The screw, _a_, is brought down until it touches the
+plate. When the pressure of the screw is enough to lift off either or all
+of the legs, and the plate is gently tapped with the finger, a _rattle_ is
+heard, which is the tell-tale of imperfect contact of all the points. The
+screw is now reversed gently and slowly until the _moment_ the rattle
+ceases, and then the reading is taken. Here the sense of hearing is
+brought into play. This is also the case when the electric contact is
+used. This is so arranged that the instant of touching of the point of
+screw, _a_, completes the electric circuit, in which an electromagnet of
+short thick wire is placed. At the moment of contact, or perhaps a little
+before contact, the bell rings, and the turning of the screw must be
+instantly stopped. Here are several elements that must be remembered.
+First, it takes time to set the bell ringing, time for the sound to pass
+to the ear, time for the sensation to be carried to the brain, time for
+the brain to send word to the hand to cease turning the screw, and, if you
+please, it takes time for the hand to stop. You may say, of what use are
+such refinements? I may reply, what use is there in trying to do anything
+the very best it can be done? If our investigation of nature's profound
+mysteries can be partially solved with good instrumental means, what is
+the result if we have better ones placed in our hands, and what, we ask,
+if the _best_ are given to the physicist? We have only to compare the
+telescope of Galileo, the prism of Newton, the pile of Volta, and what was
+done with them, to the marvelous work of the telescope, spectroscope, and
+dynamo of to-day. But I must proceed. It will be recognized that in
+working with the spherometer, only the points in actual contact can be
+measured at one time, for you may see by Fig. 6 that the four points, _a a
+a a_, may all be normal to a true plane, and yet errors of depression, as
+at _e_, or elevation, as at _b_, exist between them, so that the
+instrument must be used over every available part of the surface if it is
+to be tested rigorously. As to how exact this method is I cannot say from
+actual experience, as in my work I have had recourse to other methods that
+I shall describe. I have already quoted you the words of Prof. Harkness.
+Dr. Hastings, whose practical as well as theoretical knowledge is of the
+most critical character, tells me that he considers it quite easy to
+measure to 1/80000 of an inch with the ordinary form of instrument. Here
+is a very fine spherometer that Dr. Hastings works with from time to time,
+and which he calls his standard spherometer. It is delicately made, its
+screw being 50 to the inch, or more exactly 0.01998 inch, or within
+2/100000 of being 1/50 of an inch pitch. The principal screw has a point
+which is itself an independent screw, that was put in to investigate the
+errors of the main screw, but it was found that the error of this screw
+was not as much as the 0.00001 of an inch. The head is divided into two
+hundred parts, and by estimation can be read to 1/100000 of an inch. Its
+constants are known, and it may be understood that it would not do to
+handle it very roughly. I could dwell here longer on this fascinating
+subject, but must haste. I may add that if this spherometer is placed on a
+plate of glass and exact contact obtained, and then removed, and the hand
+held over the plate without touching it, the difference in the temperature
+of the glass and that of the hand would be sufficient to distort the
+surface enough to be readily recognized by the spherometer when replaced.
+Any one desiring to investigate this subject further will find it fully
+discussed in that splendid series of papers by Dr. Alfred Mayer on the
+minute measurements of modern science published in SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN
+SUPPLEMENTS, to which I was indebted years ago for most valuable
+information, as well as to most encouraging words from Prof. Thurston,
+whom you all so well and favorably know. I now invite your attention to
+the method for testing the flat surfaces on which Prof. Rowland rules the
+beautiful diffraction gratings now so well known over the scientific
+world, as also other plane surfaces for heliostats, etc., etc. I am now
+approaching the border land of what may be called the abstruse in science,
+in which I humbly acknowledge it would take a vast volume to contain all I
+don't know; yet I hope to make plain to you this most beautiful and
+accurate method, and for fear I may forget to give due credit, I will say
+that I am indebted to Dr. Hastings for it, with whom it was an original
+discovery, though he told me he afterward found it had been in use by
+Steinheil, the celebrated optician of Munich. The principle was discovered
+by the immortal Newton, and it shows how much can be made of the ordinary
+phenomena seen in our every-day life when placed in the hands of the
+investigator. We have all seen the beautiful play of colors on the soap
+bubble, or when the drop of oil spreads over the surface of the water.
+Place a lens of long curvature on a piece of plane polished glass, and,
+looking at it obliquely, a black central spot is seen with rings of
+various width and color surrounding it. If the lens is a true curve, and
+the glass beneath it a true plane, these rings of color will be perfectly
+concentric and arranged in regular decreasing intervals. This apparatus is
+known as Newton's color glass, because he not only measured the phenomena,
+but established the laws of the appearances presented. I will now endeavor
+to explain the general principle by which this phenomenon is utilized in
+the testing of plane surfaces. Suppose that we place on the lower plate,
+lenses of constantly increasing curvature until that curvature becomes
+nil, or in other words a true plane. The rings of color will constantly
+increase in width as the curvature of the lens increases, until at last
+one color alone is seen over the whole surface, provided, however, the
+same angle of observation be maintained, and provided further that the
+film of air between the glasses is of absolutely the same relative
+thickness throughout. I say the film of air, for I presume that it would
+be utterly impossible to exclude particles of dust so that absolute
+contact could take place. Early physicists maintained that absolute
+molecular contact was impossible, and that the central separation of the
+glasses in Newton's experiment was 1/250,000 of an inch, but Sir Wm.
+Thomson has shown that the separation is caused by shreds or particles of
+dust. However, if this separation is equal throughout, we have the
+phenomena as described; but if the dust particles are thicker under one
+side than the other, our phenomena will change to broad parallel bands as
+in Fig. 8, the broader the bands the nearer the absolute parallelism of
+the plates. In Fig. 7 let _a_ and _b_ represent the two plates we are
+testing. Rays of white light, _c_, falling upon the upper surface of plate
+_a_, are partially reflected off in the direction of rays _d_, but as
+these rays do not concern us now, I have not sketched them. Part of the
+light passes on through the upper plate, where it is bent out of its
+course somewhat, and, falling upon the _lower_ surface of the upper plate,
+some of this light is again reflected toward the eye at _d_. As some of
+the light passes through the upper plate, and, passing through the film of
+air between the plates, falling on the upper surface of the _lower_ one,
+this in turn is reflected; but as the light that falls on this surface has
+had to traverse the film of air _twice_, it is retarded by a certain
+number of half or whole wave-lengths, and the beautiful phenomena of
+interference take place, some of the colors of white light being
+obliterated, while others come to the eye. When the position of the eye
+changes, the color is seen to change. I have not time to dwell further on
+this part of my subject, which is discussed in most advanced works on
+physics, and especially well described in Dr. Eugene Lommel's work on "The
+Nature of Light." I remarked that if the two surfaces were perfectly
+_plane_, there would be one color seen, or else colors of the first or
+second order would arrange themselves in broad parallel bands, but this
+would also take place in plates of slight curvature, for the requirement
+is, as I said, a film of air of equal thickness throughout. You can see at
+once that this condition could be obtained in a perfect convex surface
+fitting a perfect concave of the same radius. Fortunately we have a check
+to guard against this error. To produce a perfect plane, _three surfaces
+must_ be worked together, unless we have a true plane to commence with;
+but to make this true plane by this method we _must_ work three together,
+and if each one comes up to the demands of this most rigorous test, we may
+rest assured that we have attained a degree of accuracy almost beyond
+human conception. Let me illustrate. Suppose we have plates 1, 2, and 3,
+Fig. 11. Suppose 1 and 2 to be accurately convex and 3 accurately concave,
+of the same radius. Now it is evident that 3 will exactly fit 1 and 2, and
+that 1 and 2 will separately fit No. 3, _but_ when 1 and 2 are placed
+together, they will only touch in the center, and there is no possible
+way to make three plates coincide when they are alternately tested upon
+one another than to make _perfect planes_ out of them. As it is difficult
+to see the colors well on metal surfaces, a one-colored light is used,
+such as the sodium flame, which gives to the eye in our test, dark and
+bright bands instead of colored ones. When these plates are worked and
+tested upon one another until they all present the same appearance, one
+may be reserved for a test plate for future use. Here is a small test
+plate made by the celebrated Steinheil, and here two made by myself, and I
+may be pardoned in saying that I was much gratified to find the
+coincidence so nearly perfect that the limiting error is much less than
+0.00001 of an inch. My assistant, with but a few months' experience, has
+made quite as accurate plates. It is necessary of course to have a glass
+plate to test the metal plates, as the upper plate _must_ be transparent.
+So far we have been dealing with perfect surfaces. Let us now see what
+shall occur in surfaces that are not plane. Suppose we now have our
+perfect test plate, and it is laid on a plate that has a compound error,
+say depressed at center and edge and high between these points. If this
+error is regular, the central bands arrange themselves as in Fig. 9. You
+may now ask, how are we to know what sort of surface we have? A ready
+solution is at hand. The bands _always travel in the direction of the
+thickest film of air_, hence on lowering the eye, if the convex edge of
+the bands travel in the direction of the arrow, we are absolutely certain
+that that part of the surface being tested is convex, while if, as in the
+central part of the bands, the concave edges advance, we know that part is
+hollow or too low. Furthermore, any small error will be rigorously
+detected, with astonishing clearness, and one of the grandest qualities of
+this test is the absence of "personal equation;" for, given a perfect test
+plate, _it won't lie_, neither will it exaggerate. I say, won't lie, but I
+must guard this by saying that the plates must coincide absolutely in
+temperature, and the touch of the finger, the heat of the hand, or any
+disturbance whatever will vitiate the results of this lovely process; but
+more of that at a future time. If our surface is plane to within a short
+distance of the edge, and is there overcorrected, or convex, the test
+shows it, as in Fig. 10. If the whole surface is regularly convex, then
+concentric rings of a breadth determined by the approach to a perfect
+plane are seen. If concave, a similar phenomenon is exhibited, except in
+the case of the convex, the broader rings are near the center, while in
+the concave they are nearer the edge. In lowering the eye while observing
+the plates, the rings of the convex plate will advance outward, those of
+the concave inward. It may be asked by the mechanician, Can this method be
+used for testing our surface plates? I answer that I have found the
+scraped surface of iron bright enough to test by sodium light. My
+assistant in the machine work scraped three 8 inch plates that were tested
+by this method and found to be very excellent, though it must be evident
+that a single cut of the scraper would change the spot over which it
+passed so much as to entirely change the appearance there, but I found I
+could use the test to get the general outline of the surface under process
+of correction. These iron plates, I would say, are simply used for
+preliminary formation of polishers. I may have something to say on the
+question of surface plates in the future, as I have made some interesting
+studies on the subject. I must now bring this paper to a close, although I
+had intended including some interesting studies of curved surfaces. There
+is, however, matter enough in that subject of itself, especially when we
+connect it with the idiosyncrasies of the material we have to deal with, a
+vital part of the subject that I have not touched upon in the present
+paper. You may now inquire, How critical is this "color test"? To answer
+this I fear I shall trench upon forbidden grounds, but I call to my help
+the words of one of our best American physicists, and I quote from a
+letter in which he says by combined calculation and experiment I have
+found the limiting error for white light to be 1/50000000 of an inch, and
+for Na or sodium light about fifty times greater, or less than 1/800000 of
+an inch. Dr. Alfred Mayer estimated and demonstrated by actual experiment
+that the smallest black spot on a white ground visible to the naked eye is
+about 1/800 of an inch at the distance of normal vision, namely, 10
+inches, and that a line, which of course has the element of extension,
+1/5000 of an inch in thickness could be seen. In our delicate "color test"
+we may decrease the diameter of our black spot a thousand times and still
+its perception is possible by the aid of our monochromatic light, and we
+may diminish our line ten thousand times, yet find it just perceivable on
+the border land of our test by white light. Do not presume I am so foolish
+as to even think that the human hand, directed by the human brain, can
+ever work the material at his command to such a high standard of
+exactness. No; from the very nature of the material we have to work with,
+we are forbidden even to hope for such an achievement; and could it be
+possible that, through some stroke of good fortune, we could attain this
+high ideal, it would be but for a moment, as from the very nature of our
+environment it would be but an ignis fatuus. There is, however, to the
+earnest mind a delight in having a high model of excellence, for as our
+model is so will our work approximate; and although we may go on
+approximating _our_ ideal forever, we can never hope to reach that which
+has been set for us by the great Master Workman.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+[JOURNAL OF GAS LIGHTING.]
+
+PHOTOMETRICAL STANDARDS.
+
+
+In carrying out a series of photometrical experiments lately, I found that
+it was a matter of considerable difficulty to keep the flames of the
+standard candles always at their proper distance from the light to be
+measured, because the wick was continually changing its position (of
+course carrying the flame with it), and thus practically lengthening or
+shortening the scale of the photometer, according as the flame was carried
+nearer to or farther from the light at the other end of the scale. In
+order, therefore, to obtain a correct idea of the extent to which this
+variation of the position of the wick might influence the readings of the
+photometer scale, I took a continuous number of photographs of the flame
+of a candle while it was burning in a room quite free from draught; no
+other person being in it during the experiment except a photographer, who
+placed sensitive dry plates in a firmly fixed camera, and changed them
+after an exposure of 30 seconds. In doing this he was careful to keep
+close to the camera, and disturb the air of the room as little as
+possible. In front of the candle a plumb-line was suspended, and remained
+immovable over its center during the whole operation. The candle was
+allowed to get itself into a normal state of burning, and then the wick
+was aligned, as shown in the photographs Nos. 1 and 2, after which it was
+left to itself.
+
+[Illustration: VARIATION IN PHOTOMETRICAL STANDARDS.]
+
+With these photographs (represented in the cuts) I beg to hand you
+full-sized drawings of the scales of a 100 inch Evans and a 60 inch
+Letheby photometer, in order to give your readers an opportunity of
+estimating for themselves the effect which such variations from the true
+distance between the standard light and that to be measured, as shown in
+this series of photographs, must exercise on photometrical observations
+made by the aid of either of the instruments named.
+
+W. SUGG.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+BLEACHING OR DYEING-YARNS AND GOODS IN VACUO.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Many attempts have been made to facilitate the penetration of textile
+fabrics by the dyeing and bleaching solutions, with which they require to
+be treated, by carrying out the treatment in vacuo, _i.e._, in such
+apparatus as shall allow of the air being withdrawn. The apparatus shown
+in the annexed engraving--Austrian Pat. Jan. 15, 1884--although not
+essentially different from those already in use, embodies, the _Journal of
+the Society of Chemical Industry_ says, some important improvements in
+detail. It consists of a drum A, the sides of which are constructed of
+stout netting, carried on a vertical axis working through a stuffing-box,
+which is fitted in the bottom of the outer or containing vessel or keir B.
+The air can be exhausted from B by means of an air pump. A contains a
+central division P, also constructed of netting, into which is inserted
+the extremity of the tube R, after being twice bent at a right angle. P is
+also in direct connection with the efflux tube E, E and R serving to
+convey the dye or bleach solutions to and from the reservoir C. The
+combination of the rotary motion communicated to A, which contains the
+goods to be dyed or bleached, with the very thorough penetration and
+circulation of the liquids effected by means of the vacuum established in
+B, is found to be eminently favorable to the rapidity and evenness of the
+dye or bleach.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ON THE MOULDING OF PORCELAIN.
+
+By CHAS. LAUTH.
+
+
+The operation of moulding presents numerous advantages over other methods
+of shaping porcelain, for by this process we avoid irregularities of form,
+twisting, and visible seams, and can manufacture thin pieces, as well as
+pieces of large dimensions, of a purity of form that it is impossible to
+obtain otherwise.
+
+The method of moulding small objects has been described with sufficient
+detail in technical works, but such is not the case with regard to large
+ones, and for this reason it will be of interest to quote some practical
+observations from a note that has been sent me by Mr. Constantine Renard,
+who, for several years, has had the superintendence of the moulding rooms
+of the Sevres works.
+
+The process of moulding consists in pouring porcelain paste, thinned with
+water, into very dry plaster moulds. This mixture gradually hardens
+against the porous sides with which it is in contact, and, when the
+thickness of the hardened layer is judged sufficient, the mould is emptied
+by inverting it. The excess of the liquid paste is thus eliminated, while
+the thicker parts remain adherent to the plaster. Shortly afterward, the
+absorption of the water continuing, the paste so shrinks in drying as to
+allow the object to detach itself from the mould. As may be seen, nothing
+is simpler when it concerns pieces of small dimensions; but the same is
+not the case when we have to mould a large one. In this case we cannot get
+rid of the liquid paste by turning the mould upside down, because of the
+latter's size, and, on another hand, it is necessary to take special
+precautions against the subsidence of the paste. Recourse is therefore had
+to another method. In the first place, an aperture is formed in the lower
+part of the mould through which the liquid may flow at the desired moment.
+Afterward, in order to prevent the solidified but still slightly soft
+paste from settling under its own weight at this moment, it is supported
+by directing a current of compressed air into the mould, or, through
+atmospheric pressure, by forming a vacuum in the metallic jacket in which
+the mould is inclosed.
+
+The history and description of these processes have been several times
+given, and I shall therefore not dwell upon them, but shall at once
+proceed to make known the new points that Mr. Renard has communicated to
+me.
+
+The first point to which it is well to direct the manufacturer's attention
+is the preparation of the plaster moulds. When it concerns an object of
+large dimensions, of a vase a yard in height, for example, the moulder is
+obliged to cut the form or core horizontally into three parts, each of
+which is moulded separately. To this effect, it is placed upon a core
+frame and surrounded with a cylinder of sheet zinc. The workman pours the
+plaster into the space between the latter and the core, and, while doing
+so, must stir the mass very rapidly with a stick, so that at the moment
+the plaster sets, it shall be as homogeneous as possible. In spite of such
+precautions, it is impossible to prevent the densest parts of the plaster
+from depositing first, through the action of gravity. These will naturally
+precipitate upon the table or upon the slanting sides of the core, and the
+mould will therefore present great inequalities as regards porosity. Since
+this defect exists in each of the pieces that have been prepared in
+succession, it will be seen that when they come to be superposed for the
+moulding of the piece, the mould as a whole will be formed of zones of
+different porosities, which will absorb water from the paste unequally.
+Farther along we shall see the inconveniences that result from this, and
+the manner of avoiding them.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1]
+
+The mould, when finished, is dried in a stove. Under such circumstances it
+often happens that there forms upon the surface of the plaster a hard
+crust which, although it is of no importance as regards the outside of the
+mould, is prejudicial to the interior because it considerably diminishes
+its absorbing power. This trouble may be avoided by coating the surfaces
+that it is necessary to preserve with clear liquid paste; but Mr. Renard
+advises that the mould be closed hermetically, so that the interior shall
+be kept from contact with warm air. In this way it is possible to prevent
+the plaster from hardening, as a result of too quick a desiccation. I now
+come to the operation of moulding. In the very first place, it is
+necessary to examine whether it is well to adopt the arrangement by
+pressure of air or by vacuum. The form of the objects will determine the
+choice. A very open piece, like a bowl, must be moulded by vacuum, on
+account of the difficulty of holding the closing disk in place if it be of
+very large dimensions. The same is the case with large vases of wood form.
+On the contrary, an elongated piece tapering from above is more easily
+moulded by pressure of the air, as are also ovoid vessels 16 to 20 inches
+in height. In any case it must not be forgotten that the operation by
+vacuum should be preferred every time the form of the objects is adapted
+to it, because this process permits of following and directing the drying,
+while with pressure it is impossible to see anything when once the
+apparatus is closed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+_Moulding by Pressure of the Air._--The plaster mould having been put in
+place upon the mould board, and the liquid paste having been long and
+thoroughly stirred in order to make it homogeneous, and get rid of the air
+bubbles, we open the cock that puts the paste reservoir in communication
+with the lower part of the mould, care having been taken beforehand to
+pour a few pints of water into the bottom of the mould. The paste in
+ascending pushes this water ahead of it, and this slightly wets the
+plaster and makes the paste rise regularly. When the mould is entirely
+filled, the paste is still allowed to flow until it slightly exceeds the
+upper level, and, spreading out over the entire thickness of the plaster,
+forms a sort of thick flange. The absorption of the liquid begins almost
+immediately, and, consequently, the level lowers. A new quantity of paste
+is introduced, and we continue thus, in regulating its flow so as to keep
+the mould always full. This operation is prolonged until the layer is
+judged to be sufficiently thick, this depending upon the dimensions, form,
+or construction of the vessel. The operation may take from one to five
+hours.
+
+The desired thickness having been obtained, it becomes a question of
+allowing the paste to descend and at the same time to support the piece by
+air pressure. The flange spoken of above is quickly cut, and the paste is
+made to rise again for the last time, in order to form a new flange, but
+one that this time will be extremely thin; then a perforated disk designed
+for forming the top joint, and acting as a conduit for the air, is placed
+upon the mould. This disk is fastened down with a screw press, and when
+the apparatus is thus arranged the eduction cock is opened, and the air
+pump maneuvered.
+
+If the flange did not exist, the air would enter between the mould and the
+piece at the first strokes of the piston, and the piece would be
+inevitably broken. Its object, then, is to form a hermetical joint,
+although it must at the same time present but a slight resistance, since,
+as soon as the liquid paste has flowed out, the piece begins to shrink,
+and it is necessary that at the first movement downward it shall be able
+to disengage itself, since it would otherwise crack.
+
+As soon as the piece begins to detach itself from the mould the air enters
+the apparatus, and the pressure gauge connected with the air pump begins
+to lower. It is then necessary, without a moment's loss of time, to remove
+the screw press, the disk, and the upper part of the mould itself, in
+order to facilitate as much as possible the contraction of the piece.
+Finally, an hour or an hour and a half later, it is necessary to remove
+the lower part of the mould, this being done in supporting the entire
+affair by the middle. The piece and what remains of the mould are, in
+reality, suspended in the air. All these preparations are designed to
+prevent cracking.
+
+_Moulding by Vacuum._--The operation by vacuum follows the same phases as
+those just described. It is well, in order to have a very even surface,
+not to form a vacuum until about three hours after the paste has been made
+to ascend. Without such a precaution the imperfections in the mould will
+be shown on the surface of the object by undulations that are
+irremediable.
+
+The first flange or vein must be preserved, and it is cut off at the
+moment the piece is detached.
+
+Moulding by vacuum, aside from the advantages noted above, permits of
+giving the pieces a greater thickness than is obtained in the pressure
+process. According to Mr. Renard, when it is desired to exceed one inch at
+the base of the piece (the maximum thickness usually obtained), the
+operation is as follows: The piece is moulded normally, and it is
+supported by a vacuum; but, at the moment at which, under ordinary
+circumstances, it would be detached, the paste is made to ascend a second
+time, when the first layer (already thick and dry) acts as a sort of
+supplementary mould, and permits of increasing the thickness by about 2/5
+of an inch. The piece is held, as at first, by vacuum, and the paste is
+introduced again until the desired thickness is obtained.
+
+Whatever be the care taken, accidents are frequent in both processes. They
+are due, in general, to the irregular contraction of the pieces, caused by
+a want of homogeneousness in the plaster of the moulds. In fact, as the
+absorption of the water does not proceed regularly over the entire surface
+of the piece, zones of dry paste are found in contact with others that are
+still soft, and hence the formation of folds, and finally the cracking and
+breaking of the piece. The joints of the moulds are also a cause of
+frequent loss, on account of the marks that they leave, and that injure
+the beauty of the form as well as the purity of the profile.
+
+Mr. Renard has devised a remedy for all such inconveniences. He takes
+unglazed muslin, cuts it into strips, and, before beginning operations,
+fixes it with a little liquid paste to the interior of the mould. This
+light fabric in no wise prevents the absorption of the water, and so the
+operation goes on as usual; but, at the moment of contraction, the piece
+of porcelain being, so to speak, supported by the muslin, comes put of the
+mould more easily and with extreme regularity. Under such circumstances
+all trace of the joint disappears, the imperfections in the mould are
+unattended with danger, and the largest pieces are moulded with entire
+safety. In a word, we have here a very important improvement in the
+process of moulding. The use of muslin is to be recommended, not only in
+the manufacture of vases, but also in the difficult preparation of large
+porcelain plates. It is likewise advantageous in the moulding of certain
+pieces of sculpture that are not very delicate, and, finally, it is very
+useful when we have to do with a damaged mould, which, instead of being
+repaired with plaster, can be fixed with well ground wet sand covered with
+a strip of muslin.
+
+_Drying of the Moulded Pieces._--When the moulded pieces become of a
+proper consistency in the mould, they are exposed to the air and then
+taken to the drying room. But, as with plaster, the surface of the paste
+dries very quickly, and this inconvenience (which amounts to nothing in
+pieces that are to be polished) is very great in pieces that carry
+ornaments in relief, since the finishing of these is much more difficult,
+the hardened paste works badly, and frequently flakes off. In order to
+remedy this inconvenience, it suffices to dust the places to be preserved
+with powdered dry paste.--_Revue Industrielle._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PHOTO-TRICYCLE APPARATUS.
+
+
+[Illustration: A PHOTO-TRICYCLE APPARATUS.]
+
+This consists of a portable folding camera, with screw focusing
+arrangement, swing back, and an adapter frame placed in the position of
+the focus screen, allowing the dark slide to be inserted so as to give the
+horizontal or vertical position to the dry plate when in the camera. To
+the front and base-board a brass swiveled side bar, made collapsible by
+means of a center slot, is attached by hinges, and this renders the camera
+rigid when open or secure when closed. The base-board is supported on a
+brass plate within which is inserted a ball-and-socket (or universal joint
+in a new form), permitting the camera to be tilted to any necessary angle,
+and fixed in such position at will. The whole apparatus is mounted upon a
+brass telescopic draw-stand, which, by means of clamps, is attached to the
+steering handle or other convenient part of the tricycle, preferably the
+form made by Messrs. Rudge & Co., of Coventry, represented in the
+cut.--_Photo. News._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A PHOTO PRINTING LIGHT.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+A printing frame is placed in the carrier, and exposed to the light of a
+gas burner kept at a fixed distance, behind which is a spherical
+reflector. The same frame may be used for other purposes.-_Photographic
+News._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A NEW ACTINOMETER.
+
+
+A selenium actinometer has been described in the _Comptes Rendus_ in a
+communication from M. Morize, of Rio de Janeiro. The instrument is used to
+measure the actinic power of sunlight when the sun is at various
+altitudes; but the same principle is applicable to other light sources.
+The sensitive part of the apparatus consists of a cylinder formed of 38
+disks of copper, isolated from each other by as many disks of mica. The
+latter being of smaller diameter than the copper disks, the annular spaces
+between the two are filled with selenium, by the simple process of rubbing
+a stick of this substance over the edges, and afterward gently warming.
+The selenium then presents a grayish appearance, and is ready for use.
+Connection is made by conductors, on opposite sides, with the odd and even
+numbers of the disks, which diminishes the resistance of the selenium. The
+cylinder thus formed is insulated by glass supports in the inside of a
+vacuum tube, for the purpose of preserving it from the disturbing
+influence of dark rays. The whole is placed upon a stand, and shielded
+from reflected light, but fully exposed to that which is to be measured
+for actinic intensity. If now a constant current of electricity is passed
+through the apparatus, as indicated by a galvanometer, the variations of
+the latter will show the effect produced upon the selenium. A scale must
+be prepared, with the zero point at the greatest possible resistance of
+the selenium, which corresponds with absolute darkness. The greatest
+effect of the light would be to annul the resistance of the selenium.
+Consequently, the cylinder must be withdrawn from the circuit to represent
+this effect; and the maximum deviation of the galvanometer is then to be
+observed, and marked 100. By dividing the range of the galvanometer thus
+obtained into 100 equal parts, the requisite actinometric scale will be
+established. In practice, the Clamond battery is used to supply the
+constant current required.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ASTRONOMICAL PHOTOGRAPHY.
+
+
+During the last few years, or rather decades of years, it has become
+rather a trite saying that to advance far in any branch of physical
+research a fair proficiency in no inconsiderable number of the sister
+sciences is an absolute necessity. But if this is true in general, none, I
+think, will question the assertion that a proficient in any of the
+physical sciences must be fairly conversant with photography as a science,
+or at least as an art. If we take for example a science which has of late
+years made rapid strides both in Europe and America, the science of
+astronomy, we shall not have far to go to find convincing proof that a
+great portion of the best work that is being done by its votaries is
+effected by the aid of photography. One eminent astronomer has quite
+lately gone so far as to declare that we no longer require observers of
+the heavens, but that their place can be better supplied by the gelatine
+plate of the photographer; and his words have been echoed by others not
+less able than himself. "Abolish the observer, and substitute the
+sensitive plate," is a sensational form of expressing the revolution in
+observational astronomy that is taking place under our eyes; but, although
+it suggests a vast amount of truth, it might leave upon the mind an
+exaggerated impression inimical to the best interests of science.
+
+The award of the highest distinction in astronomy, the gold medal of the
+Royal Astronomical Society, two years in succession, to those who have
+been most successful in celestial photography is no doubtful sign of the
+great value attached to such work. Last year it was Mr. Common who
+received the highest testimony of the merit due to his splendid
+photographs of the nebula of Orion; and this year Dr. Huggins, who has
+drawn much attention to celestial photography, by his successful attempts
+to picture the solar corona in full daylight, has received a similar
+acknowledgment of his labors in photographing the spectra of stars and
+comets and nebulæ.
+
+An adequate idea of the progress astronomy is now making by aid of
+photography can only be formed by a comprehensive view of all that is
+being at present attempted; but a rapid glance at some of the work may
+prepare the way for a more thorough investigation. A few years since, the
+astronomers who had advanced their science by aid of photography were few
+in number, and their results are soon enumerated. Some good pictures of
+the solar corona taken during solar eclipses, a series or two of sun-spot
+photographs, and a very limited number of successful attempts made upon
+the moon, and planets, and star clusters, were all the fruits of their
+labors. But now each month we learn of some new and efficient laborer in
+this field, which gives promise of so rich a harvest.
+
+Each day the sun is photographed at Greenwich, at South Kensington, in
+India, and at the Physical Observatory of Potsdam, and thus a sure record
+is obtained of all the spots upon its surface, which may serve for the
+study of the periodicity of its changes, and for their probable connection
+with the important phenomena of terrestrial magnetism and meteorology. In
+France the splendid sun-pictures obtained by Dr. Janssen at the Physical
+Observatory of Meudon have thrown into the shade all other attempts at a
+photographic study of the most delicate features of the solar surface.
+
+Dr. Huggins has shown that it is possible to obtain a daily photographic
+record of the solar prominences, and only lately he has secured results
+that justified a special expedition to the Alps to photograph the sun's
+corona, and he has now moved the Admiralty to grant a subsidy to Dr. Gill,
+the government astronomer at the Cape, by aid of which Mr. Woods can carry
+on the experiments that were so encouraging last summer in Switzerland.
+
+We may, then, reasonably hope to obtain before long a daily picture of the
+sun and a photographic record of its prominences, and even of a certain
+portion of the solar corona; but the precious moments of each solar
+eclipse will always be invaluable for picturing those wondrous details in
+the corona that are now shown us by photography, and which can be obtained
+by photography alone.
+
+Again, how very much is to be learnt in solar physics from the marvelous
+photographs of the sun's spectrum exhibited last summer by Professor
+Rowland; photographs that show as many as one hundred and fifty lines
+between H and K, and which he is still laboring to improve! The extension,
+too, of the visible solar spectrum into the ultra-violet by Corun,
+Mascart, and others, adds much to our knowledge of the sun; while the
+photographs of Abney in the ultrared increase our information in a
+direction less expected and certainly less easy of attainment. Both these
+extensions we find most ably utilized in the recent discussion of the very
+interesting photographs of the spectra of the prominences and of the
+corona taken during the total eclipse of May 18, 1882; and the
+photographic results of this eclipse afford ample proof that we can not
+only obtain pictures of the corona by photography that it would be
+impossible otherwise to procure, but also that in a few seconds
+information concerning the nature of the solar atmosphere may be furnished
+by photography that it would otherwise take centuries to accumulate, even
+under the most favorable circumstances.
+
+The advantages to be gained by accurate photographs of the moon and
+planets, that will permit great enlargements, are too obvious to call for
+lengthened notice in such a rapid sketch as the present; for it is
+principally in the observation of details that the eye cannot grasp with
+the required delicacy, or with sufficient rapidity, that photography is so
+essential for rapid and sure progress.
+
+Like the sketches of a solar eclipse, the drawings that are made of
+comets, and still more of nebulæ, even by the most accomplished artists,
+are all, to say the least, open to doubt in their delicate details. And
+the truth of this is so obvious, that it is the expressed opinion of an
+able astronomer that a single photograph of the nebula of Orion, taken by
+Mr. Common, would be of more value to posterity than the collective
+drawings of this interesting object so carefully made by Rosse, Bond,
+Secchi, and so many others.
+
+Another most important branch of astronomy, that is receiving very great
+attention at present, is the mapping of the starry heavens; and herein
+photography will perhaps do its best work for the astronomer. The trial
+star map by the brothers Henry, of a portion of the Milky Way, which they
+felt unable to observe satisfactorily by the ordinary methods, is so near
+absolute perfection that it alone proves the immense superiority of the
+photographic method in the formation of star maps. Fortunately this
+subject, which is as vast as it is fundamental, is being taken up
+vigorously. The Henries are producing a special lens for the work; Mr.
+Grubb is constructing a special Cassgrain reflector for Mr. Roberts of
+Maghull; and the Admiralty have instructed Mr. Woods to make this part of
+his work at the Cape Observatory, under the able direction of Dr. Gill.
+Besides star maps, clusters, too, and special portions of the heavens are
+being photographed by the Rev. T.E. Espin, of West Kirby; and such
+pictures will be of the greatest value, not only in fixing the position at
+a given date, but also aiding in the determination of magnitude, color,
+variability, proper motion, and even of the orbits of double and multiple
+stars, and the possible discovery of new planets and telescopic comets.
+
+Such are some of the many branches of astronomy that are receiving the
+most valuable aid at present from photography; but the very value of the
+gift that is bestowed should make exaggeration an impossibility.
+Photography can well afford to be generous, but it must first be just, in
+its estimate of the work that has still to be done in astronomy
+independently of its aid; and although the older science points with just
+pride to what is being done for her by her younger sister, still she must
+not forget that now, as in the future, she must depend largely for her
+progress, not only on the skill of the photographer and the mathematician,
+but also on the trained eye and ear and hand of her own indefatigable
+observers.--_S.J. Perry, S.J., F.R.S., in Br. Jour. of Photography._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ELECTRICITY AS A PREVENTIVE OF SCALE IN BOILERS.
+
+
+The mineral sediment that generally sticks to the sides of steam boilers,
+and the presence of which is fraught with the utmost danger, resulting in
+many instances in great injury to life and property, besides eating away
+the substance of the iron plate, was referred to in a paper lately read by
+M. Jeannolle before the Paris Academy of Sciences, in which the author
+described a new method for keeping boilers clean. This method is as
+follows:
+
+The inside of a steam boiler is placed, by means of piles of a certain
+power, in reciprocal communication, the current passing at one end through
+positive, and at the other through negative, wires. In incrusted steam
+boilers, at a temperature ranging from 212° to 300° Fahr., and a pressure
+of from 30 to 90 lb. to the square inch, the current thus engendered
+decomposes the accumulated salts, and precipitates them, from which they
+may easily be removed, either by means of a special siphon or by means of
+some other mechanical process. When boilers are free from fur, and where
+it is intended to keep them free from such, a continuous current may be
+set up, by means of which the sedimentary salts may be decomposed, and a
+precipitate produced in a pulverized form, which can be removed with equal
+facility.
+
+From a series of minute experiments made by M. Jeannolle, it appears that
+in order to render the various actions of electricity, perfect, it is
+necessary to coat either with red lead or with pulverized iron, or with
+any other conductor of electricity, an operation which must be repeated
+whenever the boiler is emptied with a view to cleaning out. The above
+system Is being advantageously applied in Calais for removing the
+incrustations of boilers. The two poles of a battery of ten to twelve
+Bunsen elements are applied to the ends of the boilers, and after thirty
+to forty hours the deposits fall from the sides to the bottom. When a
+boiler has been thus cleared, the formation of new deposits may be
+prevented by applying a much less energetic current under the same
+conditions.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ALPHABET DESIGNED BY GODFREY SYKES.
+
+
+[Illustration: SUGGESTIONS IN DECORATIVE ART.--ALPHABET DESIGNED BY
+GODFREY SYKES.]
+
+Among the many designs which have been issued by the South Kensington
+Museum authorities is the alphabet which we have illustrated here to-day.
+The letters appear frequently among the decorations of the museum
+buildings, especially in the refreshment rooms and the Ceramic gallery,
+where long inscriptions in glazed terra cotta form ornamental friezes. The
+alphabet has also been engraved to several sizes, and is used for the
+initial letters in the various official books and art publications
+relating to the museum, which are published by the Science and Art
+Department.--_Building News._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+OLD WROUGHT IRON GATE.
+
+
+[Illustration: OLD WROUGHT IRON GATE]
+
+This gate forms the entrance to Scraptoft Hall, a building of the
+eighteenth century, now the seat of Captain Barclay, and which stands at
+about five miles from Leicester, England.--_The Architect._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+BRIEF SANITARY MATTERS IN CONNECTION WITH ISOLATED COUNTRY HOUSES.[4]
+
+[Footnote 4: Read before the Boston Society of Civil Engineers, April 1884
+_Journal A. of E. Societies_.]
+
+By E.W. BOWDITCH, C.E.
+
+
+I am unable to tell you what is generally considered the best practice,
+for I am not sure there are any definitely established rules; therefore I
+can only explain _my_ ways of doing such work, which, though I try to make
+as complete and at the same time as simple as possible, I know to be far
+from perfect.
+
+Plumbing and drainage work has grown up unconsciously with my landscape
+gardening, and not finding any texts or practice that seemed wholly
+satisfactory, I have been forced to devise new arrangements from time to
+time, according to the requirements of the case in hand.
+
+To give all the details of house plumbing this evening, or any _one_
+evening, would be impossible, for lack of time, and not worth while even
+if there was time, as much of it would prove matter of little or no
+interest. I will confine my remarks, therefore, to certain elements of the
+work where my practice differs, I believe, essentially from that of most
+engineers, and where perhaps my experience, if of no assistance to other
+members of the Society, may excite their friendly criticism in such a way
+as to help me.
+
+There are two kinds of country places that I am liable to be called upon
+to prescribe for:
+
+_First._ A new place where nothing has been arranged.
+
+_Second._ An old place where the occupants have been troubled either by
+their outside arrangements or by fixtures or pipes within.
+
+Under the first head let us suppose a small tract of perhaps two acres of
+land in some inland town, where the family intends to live but six months
+in the year, though they are liable to reside there the whole twelve.
+
+There are no sewers and no public water. The soil is a stiff, retentive
+clay, rather wet in spring. The desire is expressed to have plumbing and
+drainage that shall be as inexpensive as possible, but that shall be
+entirely safe.
+
+In considering the arrangements inside the house, I find myself in the
+same predicament as the French surgeon, a specialist upon setting the
+bones of the arm, who, when a patient was brought him with his right arm
+broke, expressed his sorrow at being unable to be of assistance, as his
+specialty was the left arm.
+
+I have endeavored to post myself thoroughly upon house plumbing, but
+confess to only knowing partially about the wastes; the supplies I do not
+feel competent to pass upon.
+
+One class of annoyance caused by plumbing, perhaps the principal one, is
+due to the soil pipe or some of its fittings.
+
+Second quality of iron, poor hanging, insufficient calking, careless
+mechanics, putty, cement, rag, or paper joints--all these and a dozen
+other things are liable to be sources of trouble. Subordinate wastes are
+apt to be annoying, occasionally, too, to a less extent.
+
+The mechanical work can always be superintended, and within certain limits
+may be made secure and tight; not so easy, however, with the materials.
+
+There is seldom a valid excuse for ever making waste pipes, within a
+building, of anything but metal.
+
+Earthen tile is frequently used; also, to a limited extent, brick, stone,
+and wood; twice I have found canvas--all these, however, are inferior, and
+should never be accepted or specified. The writer believes that at the
+present time, hereabouts, lead and iron are more used for wastes than any
+other materials, and are found the most satisfactory on the whole.
+
+One or two arrangements, relative to the wastes, I have made use of that
+are not, so far as known, in general use, and that may not be the best,
+though they have served me many good turns, and I have not succeeded in
+devising any better.
+
+Soil pipe, as it is usually put in, is apt to be of cast iron, four inches
+in diameter, and is known in the market as "heavy" or "extra heavy." For
+some years the tar-coated or black enameled pipe has been the favorite, as
+being the more reliable, the writer in common with others making use of
+the same freely, until one day a cracked elbow, tar coated, was detected.
+Since that time plain, untarred pipe has been specified, and subjected to
+the so-called kerosene test, which consists of swabbing out each pipe with
+kerosene or oil and then allowing it to stand for a few hours. A moment's
+thought will convince any one that when a pipe is asphalted or tar coated
+it is very difficult to detect either sand holes or small cracks, and the
+difficulty of proper calking is increased, as lead does not cling so well
+to the tar as to plain iron.
+
+At present, the kerosene test, so far as the writer is concerned, is a
+misnomer, because raw linseed oil is used exclusively as giving more
+satisfactory results, and being less troublesome to apply.
+
+I have here a length of the ordinary "heavy 4" commercial soil pipe,
+plain, and selected at random. Yesterday noon I had it oiled at my office,
+in order to be ready for to-night, and you see, by the chalk marks I have
+made, just where the leaks were and their area. I may say here that a
+sound pipe of this caliber and standard weight is the exception rather
+than the rule, and it was selected for this experiment merely to try and
+show the reaction a little better than the heavier pipe might.
+
+Experiments of this nature I have carried along for the past two years,
+and I am glad to say that, since I began, the quality of the soil pipe
+furnished by the dealers for my work seems appreciably better than at
+first. Whether the poorer pipe is still made and sold to other customers I
+have no means of knowing; probably it is, however.
+
+A large quantity of the pipe is now being tested at my suggestion by the
+Superintendent of Construction of the Johns Hopkins Hospital, at
+Baltimore. I have not yet heard the results from him, but doubtless they
+will be interesting. A brief summary of the results may be of some
+interest.
+
+The different makers of soil pipe generally used by plumbers hereabouts
+are:
+
+Mott & Company, Abendroth, Blakslee, Dighton, Phillips & Weeden, and
+Bartlett, Hayward & Co.
+
+On 4" extra heavy pipe my results have been as follows:
+
+Percentage passed as good, single hub.  60 per ct. to 70 per ct.
+Percentage passed as good, double.      20 per ct. to 80 per ct.
+Percentage passed special castings,
+   including Y's and T's.               60 per ct.
+
+5" pipe extra heavy:
+
+Percentage passed as good, single hub.  25 per ct. to 35 per ct.
+Percentage passed as good, double.      No record.
+Percentage special castings,
+including Y's and T's.                  60 per ct.
+
+It has been stated to me by dealers that the tar coating does away with
+the necessity of any such test as the oil; while I am not prepared to
+acknowledge or deny the statement, it is well known that much poor pipe is
+tar-coated and sold in the market as good, and when coated it is almost
+impossible to detect any but _very_ defective work.
+
+The price customers are obliged to pay for soil pipe, either "heavy" or
+"extra heavy," is very high indeed, even taking off the discounts, and
+amounts (as I figure it) to $70 per long ton for 4" pipe. The present rate
+for the best water pipe of the same caliber is about $38 (now $29) per
+long ton, and the additional charge for soil pipe should guarantee the
+very best iron in the market, though it appears to be rarely furnished.
+
+It is asserted that all soil pipe is tested to a 50-pound water pressure.
+I beg leave to question the absolute truth of this, unless it be
+acknowledged that pipe is sold indiscriminately, whether it bears the test
+or not, for more than once I have found a single length of soil pipe (5
+feet) that could not bear the pressure of a column of water of its own
+height without leaking.
+
+Having obtained a satisfactory lot of soil pipe and fittings, the next
+trouble comes with the lead calking. Unfortunately, it is frequently found
+that very shallow joints are made instead of deep ones, and hard lead used
+instead of soft. My rule is, soft lead, two runnings and two calkings. By
+soft lead I mean pig lead, and by hard lead I mean old pipe and scrap lead
+that may have been melted a dozen times. Incidentally it may be remarked
+that it is quite difficult to calk a tight joint on the heavy pipe; the
+process will crack the hub.
+
+The fixtures used in a house are of minor importance--there are dozens of
+good patterns of every class. If they are carefully put in, and provided
+with suitable traps placed just as close to the fixture as possible, the
+result will usually be satisfactory.
+
+Very few instances occur where traps are placed as close to the fixtures
+they serve as they might be, and yet a very short length of untrapped
+pipe, when fouled, will sometimes smell dreadfully. A set bowl with trap
+two feet away may become in time a great nuisance if not properly used. A
+case in point where the fixture was used both as a bowl and a urinal was
+in a few months exceedingly offensive--a fact largely (though not wholly)
+due to its double service.
+
+I have never met two sanitarians who agreed upon the same water-closets,
+bowls, faucets, traps, etc.
+
+Of course, the soil pipe will be carried, of full size, through the roof,
+and sufficiently high to clear all windows.
+
+Avoid multiplicity of fixtures or pipes; cut off all fixtures not used at
+least twice a week, lest their traps dry out; have all plumbing as simple
+as possible, and try and get it all located so that outside air can be got
+directly into all closets and bath-rooms. As far as possible, set your
+fixtures in glass rather than tiles or wood. Carry the lower end of the
+main drain at least five feet beyond the cellar walls of the building, of
+cast iron.
+
+Let us now look at the outside work. The main drain (carrying everything
+except the kitchen and pantry sinks) goes through a ventilated running
+trap. An indirect fresh air inlet is provided on the house side of the
+trap (example), to prevent annoyance from puffing or pumping, or, better
+still, a pipe corresponding to the soil pipe is carried up on the outside
+of the house.
+
+The running trap ventilator should be of the same diameter as the main
+drain (4 inch), and serve as a main drain vent also. Carry this pipe on
+the outside of the house as high as the top of the chimney.
+
+A grease-trap should be provided for the kitchen and pantry sinks.
+Formerly my custom was to put in brick receptacles; it is now to put in
+Portland cement traps (Henderson pattern), though perhaps I may succeed in
+devising a cast-iron one that will answer better. The brick ones were
+occasionally heaved by the frost, and cracked; the Portland cement ones
+answer better, and when thoroughly painted with red lead do not soak an
+appreciable quantity of sewage to be offensive, but are too high priced
+($28 each). I have made one or two patterns for cast-iron ones, but none
+as yet that I feel satisfied with.
+
+Beyond the running trap an Akron pipe should convey the sewage to a tank
+or cesspool.
+
+Our supposable case is the second most difficult to take care of. The
+worst would be ledge. We have to contend with, however, hard, wet,
+impervious clay.
+
+The best way undoubtedly is to underdrain the land, and then to distribute
+the sewage on the principle of intermittent downward filtration. This is
+rather expensive, and a customer is rarely willing to pay the bills for
+the same. I should always advise it as the best; but where not allowed to
+do so, I have had fair success with shallow French drains connecting with
+the tank or cesspool.
+
+Siphon tanks, such as are advised by many sanitarians, that were used
+first in this country, I believe, by Mr. Waring, I have not been very
+successful with. Obstructions get into the siphon and stop it up, or it
+gets choked with grease. I prefer a tight tank, provided with a tell-tale,
+and that is to be opened either by a valve operated by hand, or that is
+arranged with a standing overflow like a bath tub, and that can be raised
+and secured by a hook.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+SANITARY COOKING.[5]
+
+[Footnote 5: Read before the Indiana State Sanitary Society, Seymour,
+March 13, 1884.--_The Sanitarian._]
+
+By VIRGINIA L. OPPENHEIMER, M.D., Seymour, Ind.
+
+
+    "We may live without poetry, music, and art,
+    We may live without conscience, and live without heart,
+    We may live without friends,
+    We may live without books,
+    But civilized man cannot live without cooks.
+
+    "We may live without books--
+    What is knowledge but grieving?
+    We may live without hope--
+    What is hope but deceiving?
+    We may live without love--what is passion but pining?
+    But where is the man that can live without dining?"
+
+Thus saith the poet, and forthwith turns the world over into the hands of
+the cook. And into what better hands could you fall? To you, my fat,
+jolly, four-meals-a-day friend, Mr. Gourmand, but more especially to
+_you_, my somber, lean, dyspeptic, two-meals-a-day friend, Mr. Grumbler,
+the cook is indeed a valuable friend. The cook wields a scepter that is
+only second in power to that of love; and even love has become soured
+through the evil instrumentality of the good-looking or bad-cooking cook.
+This is no jest, it is a very sad fact.
+
+Now, the question arises, how can the cook preserve the health of her
+patrons, maintain happiness in the family, and yet not throw the gourmands
+into bankruptcy? Very simple, I assure you.
+
+1. You must have _the_ cook. I mean by this, that not every one can occupy
+that important office. The greatest consideration in the qualities of a
+cook is, does she like the work? No one can fulfill the duties of any
+noteworthy office unless he labors at them with vim and willingness.
+
+2. You must have good articles of food originally.
+
+3. As our honest Iago said, "You must have change."
+
+When one arrives at adult age, he should have learned by experience what
+articles of food _do_, and what articles of food do _not_, agree with him,
+and to shun the latter, no matter how daintily served or how tempting the
+circumstances. The man who knows that _pates de foie gras_, or the livers
+of abnormally fattened geese, disagree with him, and still eats them, is
+not to be pitied when all the horrors of dyspepsia overtake him.
+
+The cooking of any article of food has evidently much, very much, to do
+with its digestibility. It is not the purpose of this paper to teach
+cooking, but merely to give some general hints as to the best as well as
+the simplest methods of preparing staple articles of food. The same
+articles of food can and should be prepared differently on each day of the
+week. Changes of diet are too likely to be underestimated. By constant
+change the digestive organs in the average person are prevented from
+having that repulsion of food which, to a greater or less extent, is
+likely to result from a sameness of diet continued for a long time.
+
+We often hear from our scientific men that this or that article of food is
+excellent for muscle, another for brain, another for bone, etc., etc. Now,
+stubborn facts are like stone walls, against which theories often butt out
+their beauty and their power. It is well known to almost every one
+nowadays that _well-cooked_ food, whether it be potatoes, meat and bread,
+fish, or anything else worthy the name of food, will well maintain,
+indefinitely, either the philosopher or the hodcarrier.
+
+Many of you know, and all of you ought to know, that the principal
+ingredients of nearly all our foods are starch and albumen. Starch is the
+principal nutritive ingredient of vegetables and breadstuffs. Albumen is
+the principal ingredient of meats, eggs, milk, and other animal
+derivatives.
+
+Starch never enters the system as starch, but must first be converted into
+sugar either in the body or out of it. The process of this transformation
+of starch into sugar is beautifully exemplified in certain plants, such as
+the beet, the so-called sugar cane, and other growths. The young plant is,
+to a great extent, composed of starch; as the plant grows older, a
+substance is produced which is called _diastase_. Through the influence of
+this _diastase_ the starch is converted into a peculiar non-crystallizable
+substance called _dextrine_, and as the plant matures, this dextrine is
+transformed into crystallizable sugar.
+
+"Dextrine is a substance that can be produced from starch by the action of
+dilute acids, alkalies, and malt extract, and by roasting it at a
+temperature between 284° and 330° F., till it is of a light brown color,
+and has the odor of overbaked bread."
+
+A simple form of dextrine may be found in the brown crust of bread--that
+sweetish substance that gives the crust its agreeable flavor. Pure
+dextrine is an insipid, odorless, yellowish-white, translucent substance,
+which dissolves in water almost as readily as sugar. As stated above, it
+is easily converted into _dextrose_, or _glucose_, as it is usually named.
+
+This _glucose_ is often sold under the name of sugar, and is the same
+against which so many of the newspapers waged such a war a year or two
+ago. These critics were evidently, for the most part, persons who knew
+little about the subject. Glucose, if free from sulphuric acid or other
+chemicals, is as harmless as any other form of sugar. Most of our candies
+contain more or less of it, and are in every way as satisfactory as when
+manufactured wholly from other sugars.
+
+It is, therefore, self-evident that, as sugar is a necessary article of
+food, the process which aids the transformation of our starchy foods must
+necessarily aid digestion. Do not understand me to say by this that, if
+all our starchy foods were converted into sugar, their digestion would
+thereby be completed. As I stated a moment ago, this sweet food, if taken
+into the stomach day after day, would soon cause that particular organ to
+rebel against this sameness of diet. In order the more clearly to
+illustrate this point, I will briefly show you how some of the every-day
+articles of food can be each day differently prepared, and thus be
+rendered more palatable, and, as a consequence, more digestible; for it is
+a demonstrated fact that savory foods are far more easily digested than
+the same foods unsavored.
+
+The art of serving and arranging dishes for the table is an accomplishment
+in itself. It is very reasonable that all things that go to make up beauty
+and harmony at the dinner table should add their full quota to the
+appetite, and, I was about to say, "to the digestion;" but will qualify
+the statement by saying, to the digestion if the appetite be not porcine.
+
+Our commonest article of food is the _potato_. Let us see how
+potatoes--which contain only twenty per cent. of starch, as against
+eighty-eight per cent. in rice, and sixty-six per cent. in wheat
+flour--can be prepared as just mentioned. We will look for a moment at the
+manner in which they are usually served by the average cook:
+
+1, boiled with their jackets on; 2, roasted in the embers; 3, roasted with
+meat; 4, fried; 5, mashed; 6, salad.
+
+1. Potatoes boiled in their jackets are excellent if properly prepared.
+But there's the rub. The trouble is, they are too often allowed to boil
+slowly and too long, and thus become water-soaked, soggy, and solid, and
+proportionately indigestible. They should be put over a brisk fire, and
+kept at a brisk boil till done; then drain off the water, sprinkle a
+little salt over them, and return to the fire a moment to dry thoroughly,
+when you will find them bursting with their white, mealy contents.
+
+2. Roasted potatoes are general favorites, and very digestible. A more
+agreeable flavor is imparted to them if roasted in hot embers (wood fire),
+care being used to keep them covered with the hot embers.
+
+3. Fried potatoes, as they are very generally served, are almost as
+digestible as rocks, but not so tempting in all their grease-dripping
+beauty as the latter. Many of you have doubtless seen the potatoes neatly
+sliced and dumped into a frying pan full of hot lard, where they were
+permitted to sink or float, and soak and sob for about a half hour or
+more. When served, they presented the picturesque spectacle of miniature
+potato islands floating at liberty in a sea of yellow grease. Now, if any
+of you can relish and digest such a mess as that, I would advise you to
+leave this clime, and eat tallow candles with the Esquimaux.
+
+If you are fond of fried potatoes, cook them in this way:
+
+Take what boiled potatoes are left from breakfast or dinner; when cold,
+remove the jackets, and cut into thin slices, season with salt, pepper,
+and a little Cayenne; have ready a hot frying pan, with enough meat
+drippings or sweet lard to cover the bottom; put in the potatoes and fry a
+rich brown, stirring constantly with a knife to prevent burning. Serve
+very hot.
+
+4. Mashed potatoes will be discussed further on.
+
+5. Potato salads are appetizing and piquant, because they are usually made
+up with strong condiments, onions, etc. They are, therefore, not very
+digestible in themselves. Nevertheless, they are so palatable that we
+cannot easily dispense with them; but, after eating them, if you expect to
+have inward peace, either split wood, walk eight and a half miles, or take
+some other light exercise.
+
+More palatable, and proportionately digestible, are the following methods
+of cooking this useful vegetable:
+
+1, Saratoga potatoes; 2, a la maitre d'hotel; 3, potato croquettes; 4,
+potatoes and cream; 5, a la Lyonnaise.
+
+1. For _Saratogas_, pare and slice your potatoes as thin as possible,
+dropping them into cold water in which is dissolved a tiny piece of alum
+to make them crisp. Let them remain in the water for an hour or longer.
+Drain, and wipe perfectly dry with a tea towel. Have ready a quantity of
+boiling lard. Drop them in, and fry a delicate brown. Drain all grease
+from them, sprinkle with salt, and serve. Here, in the crisp slices, you
+will have the much desired dextrine. Or, in other words, your potato is
+already half digested. Eat three or four potatoes prepared thus, and you
+feel no inconvenience; but how would you feel did you devour three soggy,
+water-soaked _boiled_ potatoes?
+
+2. For _a la maitre d'hotel_, pare the potatoes, cut into pieces half an
+inch wide, and the length of the potato; drop into cold water until wanted
+(an hour or so); then drain, and fry in boiling lard. Just as they begin
+to brown take them out with a skimmer; let them slightly cool; then put
+back, and fry a rich brown. This makes them puff up, and very attractive.
+
+3. For _croquettes_, take finely mashed potatoes, and mix with salt,
+pepper, and butter, and sweet milk or cream enough to moisten thoroughly.
+Mix with this one well-beaten egg, and form into small balls, taking care
+to have them smooth. Have ready one plate with a beaten egg upon it, and
+another with cracker crumbs. Dip each ball into the egg, and then into the
+crumbs, and brown nicely. Lay the croquettes on brown paper first, to get
+rid of any superfluous grease, then serve on a napkin.
+
+4. _Potatoes and cream_ are prepared by mincing cold boiled potatoes fine,
+putting them in a spider with a little melted butter in it, and letting
+them fry slightly, keeping them well covered. Add a very small piece of
+fresh butter, season with pepper and salt, and pour over them cream or
+rich milk. Let them boil up once, and serve. This is a very nice dish, and
+may be safely taken into delicate stomachs.
+
+5. _A la Lyonnaise_ is prepared as follows: Take five cold potatoes, one
+onion, butter, salt, and pepper. Slice the onion finely, and fry it in
+butter until it begins to take color; add the sliced potatoes, salt and
+pepper to taste, and keep shaking the saucepan until they are somewhat
+browned. Serve hot.
+
+A few random remarks about the preparation of albuminous foods. If the
+albumen in food is hardened by prolonged cooking, it is rendered _less_
+instead of more digestible. Therefore, the so-called _well-cooked_ meats
+are really _badly-cooked_ meats. Meats should be only half done, or rare.
+To do this properly, it is necessary to cook with a quick fire. Steaks
+should be broiled, not fried. I am in accord with a well-known orator, who
+said, recently, that "the person who fries a steak should be arrested for
+cruelty to humanity." Some few meats should always be well cooked before
+eating.[6]
+
+[Footnote 6: These are the exceptions. Pork, on account of the prevalence
+of disease in hogs, should be well done.]
+
+The same law holds good with eggs as with meats. A hard-boiled egg is only
+fit for the stomach of an ostrich; it was never intended by nature to
+adorn the human stomach. There are very many ways of preparing eggs--by
+frying, baking, poaching, shirring, etc. I will only describe briefly a
+few simple methods of making omelets.
+
+In making this elegant dish, never use more than three eggs to an
+_omelet_. Plain omelet: Separate the whites and yolks; add a teaspoonful
+of water to the whites, and beat to a stiff froth; add to the yolks a
+teaspoonful of water, and beat until light; then season with salt, and
+about two tablespoonfuls of cream or rich milk. Have your spider very hot;
+turn your whites and yolks together, and stir lightly to mix them; place a
+bit of butter in the spider, and immediately pour in your eggs. When set
+(which takes from ten to twenty seconds, and be careful that it does not
+brown too much), fold together in a half moon, remove it, sprinkle with
+powdered sugar, and serve on a hot plate. It should be eaten immediately.
+
+Fruit omelets are made by placing preserved fruits or jellies between the
+folds. Baked omelets are prepared as above, with the addition of placing
+in the oven and allowing to brown slightly.
+
+French omelet is prepared in this way: Take a half cup of boiling milk
+with a half teaspoonful of butter melted in it; pour this over one-half
+cup of bread crumbs (light bread); add salt, pepper, and the yolks of
+three eggs beaten very light; mix thoroughly; and lastly, add the whites
+whipped to a stiff froth. Stir lightly, and fry in butter. When nearly
+done, fold together in a half moon, and serve immediately.
+
+And thus we might continue _ad infinitum_, but, as was stated before, it
+is not my object to instruct you in special cooking, but to illustrate in
+this manner how much easier it is, to both the cook and your stomachs, to
+prepare healthful dishes than to do the reverse.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TIME REQUIRED TO DIGEST DIFFERENT FOODS.
+
+
+_The Monitor de la Salud_ contains in a recent number the results of some
+experiments lately made by E. Jessen on the time required for the
+digestion of certain kinds of food. The stomach of the person on whom the
+experiments were made was emptied by means of a pump; 100 grammes, equal
+to 1,544 grains, or about 2-2/3 ounces, of meat, finely chopped and mixed
+with three times the quantity of water, were introduced. The experiment
+was considered ended when the matter, on removal by the pump, was found to
+contain no muscular fibre.
+
+It will be remembered that the gramme weighs nearly 15-1/2 grains, and the
+cubic centigramme is equal to 1 gramme. The 2-2/3 ounces of meat were
+therefore mixed with nearly eight ounces of water, before being introduced
+into the stomach.
+
+The results were as follows:
+
+  Beef, raw, and finely chopped.  2  hours.
+    "   half cooked.              2½   "
+    "   well cooked.              3    "
+    "   slightly roasted.         3    "
+    "   well roasted.             4    "
+  Mutton, raw.                    2    "
+  Veal.                           2½   "
+  Pork.                           3    "
+
+The digestibility of milk was examined in the same way. The quantity used
+was regulated so that the nitrogen should be the same as in the 100
+grammes of beef.
+
+  602 cubic centimeters, nearly sixteen ounces,
+      of cow's milk, not boiled, required.        3½ hours
+  602 cubic centimeters, boiled.                  4    "
+  602   "       "        sour.                    3½   "
+  675   "       "        skimmed.                 3½   "
+  656   "       "        goat's milk, not boiled. 3½   "
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE ORGANIZATION AND PLAN OF THE UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.[7]
+
+[Footnote 7: Communicated to the National Academy of Sciences at the
+October meeting in 1884.]
+
+By J.W. POWELL.
+
+
+A Scientific institution or bureau operating under government authority
+can be controlled by statute and by superior administrative authority but
+to a limited extent. These operations are practically carried on by
+specialists, and they can be controlled only in their financial operations
+and in the general purposes for which investigations are made. Their
+methods of investigation are their own--originate with themselves, and are
+carried out by themselves. But in relation to the scientific operations of
+such a government institution, there is an unofficial authority which,
+though not immediately felt, ultimately steps in to approve or condemn,
+viz., the body of scientific men of the country; and though their
+authority is not exercised antecedently and at every stage of the work,
+yet it is so potent that no national scientific institution can grow and
+prosper without their approval, but must sooner or later fall and perish
+unless sustained by their strong influence.
+
+As director of the Geological Survey, I deeply realize that I owe
+allegiance to the scientific men of the country, and for this reason I
+desire to present to the National Academy of Sciences the organization and
+plan of operations of the Survey.
+
+
+A TOPOGRAPHIC MAP OF THE UNITED STATUS.
+
+Sound geologic research is based on geography. Without a good topographic
+map geology cannot even be thoroughly studied, and the publication of the
+results of geologic investigation is very imperfect without a good map;
+but with a good map thorough investigation and simple, intelligible
+publication become possible. Impelled by these considerations, the Survey
+is making a topographic map of the United States. The geographic basis of
+this map is a trigonometric survey by which datum points are established
+throughout the country; that is, base-lines are measured and a
+triangulation extended therefrom. This trigonometric work is executed on a
+scale only sufficiently refined for map-making purposes, and will not be
+directly useful for geodetic purposes in determining the figure of the
+earth. The hypsometric work is based upon the railroad levels of the
+country. Throughout the greater part of the country, there is a system of
+railroad lines, constituting a net-work. The levels or profiles of these
+roads have been established with reasonable accuracy, and as they cross
+each other at a multiplicity of points, a system of checks is afforded, so
+that the railroad surface of the country can be determined therefrom with
+all the accuracy necessary for the most refined and elaborate topographic
+maps. From such a hypsometric basis the reliefs for the whole country are
+determined, by running lines of levels, by trigonometric construction, and
+in mountainous regions by barometric observation.
+
+The primary triangulation having been made, the topography is executed by
+a variety of methods, adapted to the peculiar conditions found in various
+portions of the country. To a large extent the plane-table is used. In the
+hands of the topographers of the Geological Survey, the plane-table is not
+simply a portable draughting table for the field; it is practically an
+instrument of triangulation, and all minor positions of the details of
+topography are determined through its use by trigonometric construction.
+
+The scale on which the map is made is variable. In some portions of the
+prairie region, and in the region of the great plains, the topography and
+the geology alike are simple, and maps on a comparatively small scale are
+sufficient for practical purposes. For these districts it is proposed to
+construct the sheets of the map on a scale of 1-250,000, or about four
+miles to the inch. In the mountain regions of the West the geology is more
+complex, and the topography more intricate; but to a large extent these
+regions are uninhabited, and to a more limited extent uninhabitable. It
+would therefore not be wise to make a topographic or geologic survey of
+the country on an excessively elaborate plan. Over much of this area the
+sheets of the map will also be constructed on a scale of 1-250,000, but in
+special districts that scale will be increased to 1-125,000, and in the
+case of important mining districts charts will be constructed on a much
+larger scale. In the eastern portion of the United States two scales are
+adopted. In the less densely populated country a scale of 1-125,000 is
+used; in the more densely populated regions a scale of 1-62,500 is
+adopted, or about one mile to the inch. But throughout the country a few
+special districts of great importance, because of complex geologic
+structure, dense population, or other condition, will require charts on
+still larger scales. The area of the United States, exclusive of Alaska,
+is about three million square miles, and a map of the United States,
+constructed on the plan set forth above, will require not less than 2,600
+sheets. It may ultimately prove to require more than that, from the fact
+that the areas to be surveyed on the larger scale have not been fully
+determined. Besides the number of sheets in the general map of the United
+States, there will be several hundred special maps on large scales, as
+above described.
+
+Such is a brief outline of the plan so far as it has been developed at the
+present time. In this connection it should be stated that the map of the
+United States can be completed, with the present organization of the
+Geological Survey, in about 24 years; but it is greatly to be desired that
+the time for its completion may be materially diminished by increasing the
+topographic force of the Geological Survey. We ought to have a good
+topographic map of the United States by the year 1900. About one-fifth of
+the whole area of the United States, exclusive of Alaska, has been
+completed on the above plan. This includes all geographic work done in the
+United States under the auspices of the General Government and under the
+auspices of State Governments. The map herewith shows those areas that
+have been surveyed by various organizations on such a scale and in such a
+manner that the work has been accepted as sufficient for the purposes of
+the Survey.
+
+Much other work has been done, but not with sufficient refinement and
+accuracy to be of present value, though such work subserved its purpose in
+its time. An examination of the map will show that the triangulation of
+the various organizations is already largely in advance of the topography.
+The map of the United States will be a great atlas divided into sheets as
+above indicated. In all of those areas where the survey is on a scale of
+1-250,000, a page of the atlas will present an area of one degree in
+longitude and one degree in latitude. Where the scale is 1-125,000, a page
+of the atlas-sheet will represent one-fourth of a degree. Where the scale
+is 1-62,500, the atlas-sheet will represent one-sixteenth of a degree. The
+degree sheet will be designated by two numbers--one representing latitude,
+the other longitude. Where the sheets represent fractional degrees, they
+will be labeled with the same numbers, with the addition of the
+description of the proper fractional part.
+
+The organization, as at present established, executing this work, is as
+follows: First, an astronomic and computing division, the officers of
+which are engaged in determining the geographic coordinates of certain
+primary points. Second, a triangulation corps engaged in extending a
+system of triangulation over various portions of the country from measured
+base-lines. Third, a topographic corps, organized into twenty-seven
+parties, scattered over various portions of the United States. Such, in
+brief outline, is the plan for the map of the United States, and the
+organization by which it is to be made. Mr. Henry Gannett is the Chief
+Geographer.
+
+
+PALEONTOLOGY.
+
+Before giving the outline of the plan for the general geologic survey, it
+will be better to explain the accessory plans and organizations. There are
+in the Survey, as at present organized, the following paleontologic
+laboratories:
+
+1. A laboratory of vertebrate paleontology for formations other than the
+Quaternary. In connection with this laboratory there is a corps of
+paleontologists. Professor O.C. Marsh is in charge.
+
+2. There is a laboratory of invertebrate paleontology of Quaternary age,
+with a corps of paleontologists, Mr. Wm. H. Dall being in charge.
+
+3. There is a laboratory of invertebrate paleontology of Cenozoic and
+Mesozoic age, with a corps of paleontologists. Dr. C.A. White is in
+charge.
+
+4. There is a laboratory of invertebrate paleontology of Paleozoic age,
+with a corps of paleontologists. Mr. C.D. Walcott is in charge.
+
+5. There is a laboratory of fossil botany, with a corps of paleobotanists,
+Mr. Lester F. Ward being in charge.
+
+The paleontologists and paleobotanists connected with the laboratories
+above described, study and discuss in reports the fossils collected by the
+general geologists in the field. They also supplement the work of the
+field geologists by making special collections in important districts and
+at critical horizons; but the paleontologists are not held responsible for
+areal and structural geology on the one hand, and the geologists are not
+held responsible for paleontology on the other hand. In addition to the
+large number of paleontologists on the regular work of the Geological
+Survey, as above described, several paleontologists are engaged from time
+to time to make special studies.
+
+
+CHEMISTRY.
+
+There is a chemic laboratory attached to the Survey, with a large corps of
+chemists engaged in a great variety of researches relating to the
+constitution of waters, minerals, ores, and rocks. A part of the work of
+this corps is to study the methods of metamorphism and the paragenesis of
+minerals, and in this connection the chemists do work in the field; but to
+a large extent they are occupied with the study of the materials collected
+by the field geologists. Professor F.W. Clarke is in charge of this
+department.
+
+
+PHYSICAL RESEARCHES.
+
+There is a physical laboratory in the Survey, with a small corps of men
+engaged in certain physical researches of prime importance to geologic
+philosophy. These researches are experimental, and relate to the effect of
+temperatures, pressures, etc., on rocks. This laboratory is under the
+charge of the chief chemist.
+
+
+LITHOLOGY.
+
+There is a lithologic laboratory in the Survey, with a large corps of
+lithologists engaged in the microscopic study of rocks. These lithologists
+are field geologists, who examine the collections made by themselves.
+
+
+STATISTICS.
+
+There is in the Survey a division of mining statistics, with a large corps
+of men engaged in statistic work, the results of which are published in an
+annual report entitled "Mineral Resources." Mr. Albert Williams, Jr., is
+the Chief Statistician of the Survey.
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+There is in the Survey a division organized for the purpose of preparing
+illustrations for paleontologic and geologic reports. Mr. W.H. Holmes is
+in charge of this division. Illustrations will not hereafter be used for
+embellishment, but will be strictly confined to the illustration of the
+text and the presentation of such facts as can be best exhibited by
+figures and diagrams. All illustrations will, as far as possible, be
+produced by relief methods, such as wood-engraving, photo-engraving, etc.
+As large numbers of the reports of the Survey are published, this plan is
+demanded for economic reasons; but there is another consideration believed
+to be of still greater importance; illustrations made on stone cannot be
+used after the first edition, as they deteriorate somewhat by time, and it
+is customary to use the same lithographic stone for various purposes from
+time to time. The illustrations made for the reports of the Survey, if on
+relief-plates that can be cheaply electrotyped, can be used again when
+needed. This is especially desirable in paleontology, where previously
+published figures can be introduced for comparative purposes. There are
+two methods of studying the extinct life of the globe. Fossils are indices
+of geological formations, and must be grouped by formations to subserve
+the purpose of geologists. Fossils also have their biologic relations, and
+should be studied and arranged in biologic groups. Under the plan adopted
+by the Survey, the illustrations can be used over and over again for such
+purposes when needed, as reproduction can be made at the small cost of
+electrotyping. These same illustrations can be used by the public at large
+in scientific periodicals, text-books, etc. All the illustrations made by
+the Geological Survey are held for the public to be used in this manner.
+
+
+LIBRARY.
+
+The library of the Survey now contains more than 25,000 volumes, and is
+rapidly growing by means of exchanges. It is found necessary to purchase
+but few books. The librarian, Mr. C.C. Darwin, has a corps of assistants
+engaged in bibliographic work. It is proposed to prepare a catalogue of
+American and foreign publications upon American geology, which is to be a
+general authors' catalogue. In addition to this, it is proposed to publish
+bibliographies proper of special subjects constituting integral parts of
+the science of geology.
+
+
+PUBLICATIONS.
+
+The publications of the Survey are in three series: Annual Reports,
+Bulletins, and Monographs. The Annual Report constitutes a part of the
+Report of the Secretary of the Interior for each year, but is a distinct
+volume. This contains a brief summary of the purposes, plans, and
+operations of the Survey, prepared by the Director, and short
+administrative reports from the chiefs of divisions, the whole followed by
+scientific papers. These papers are selected as being those of most
+general interest, the object being to make the Annual Report a somewhat
+popular account of the doings of the Survey, that it may be widely read by
+the intelligent people of the country. Of this 5,650 copies are published
+as a part of the Secretary's report, and are distributed by the Secretary
+of the Interior, Senators, and Members of the House of Representatives;
+and an extra edition is annually ordered of 15,000 copies, distributed by
+the Survey and members of the Senate and House of Representatives. Four
+annual reports have been published; the fifth is now in the hands of the
+printer.
+
+The Bulletins of the Survey are short papers, and through them somewhat
+speedy publication is attained. Each bulletin is devoted to some specific
+topic, in order that the material ultimately published in the bulletins
+can be classified in any manner desired by scientific men. Nine bulletins
+have been published, and seven are in press. The bulletins already
+published vary in size from 5 to 325 pages each; they are sold at the cost
+of press-work and paper, and vary in price from five to twenty cents each;
+4,900 copies of each bulletin are published; 1,900 are distributed by
+Congress, 3,000 are held for sale and exchange by the Geological Survey.
+
+The Monographs of the Survey are quarto volumes. By this method of
+publication the more important and elaborate papers are given to the
+public. Six monographs, with two atlases, have been issued; five
+monographs, with two atlases, are in press; 1,900 copies of each monograph
+are distributed by Congress; 3,000 are held for sale and exchange by the
+Survey at the cost of press-work, paper, and binding. They vary in price
+from $1.05 to $11.
+
+The chiefs of divisions supervise the publications that originate in their
+several corps. The general editorial supervision is exercised by the Chief
+Clerk of the Survey, Mr. James C. Pilling.
+
+
+GENERAL GEOLOGY.
+
+In organizing the general geologic work, it became necessary, first, to
+consider what had already been done in various portions of the United
+States; and for this purpose the compilation of a general geologic map of
+the United States was begun, together with a Thesaurus of American
+formations. In addition to this the bibliographic work previously
+described was initiated, so that the literature relating to American
+geology should be readily accessible to the workers in the Survey. At this
+point it became necessary to consider the best methods of apportioning the
+work; that is, the best methods of dividing the geologic work into parts
+to be assigned to the different corps of observers. A strictly geographic
+apportionment was not deemed wise, from the fact that an unscientific
+division of labor would result, and the same classes of problems would to
+a large extent be relegated to the several corps operating in field and in
+the laboratory. It was thought best to divide the work, as far as
+possible, by subject-matter rather than by territorial areas; yet to some
+extent the two methods of division will coincide. There are in the Survey
+at present:
+
+First, a division of glacial geology, and Prof. T.C. Chamberlin, formerly
+State Geologist of Wisconsin is at its head, with a strong corps of
+assistants. There is an important field for which definite provision has
+not yet been made, namely, the study of the loess that constitutes the
+bluff formations of the Mississippi River and its tributaries. But as this
+loess proves to be intimately associated with the glacial formations of
+the same region, it is probable that it will eventually be relegated to
+the glacial division. Perhaps the division may eventually grow to such an
+extent that its field of operations will include the whole Quaternary
+geology.
+
+Second, a division of volcanic geology is organized, and Capt. Clarence E.
+Dutton, of the Ordnance Corps of the Army, is placed in charge, also with
+a strong corps of assistants.
+
+Third and fourth, two divisions have been organized to prosecute work on
+the archæan rocks, embracing within their field not only all rocks of
+archæan age, but all metamorphic crystalline schists, of whatever age they
+may be found. The first division has for its chief Prof. Raphael Pumpelly,
+assisted by a corps of geologists, and the field of his work is the
+crystalline schists of the Appalachian region, or eastern portion of the
+United States, extending from northern New England to Georgia. He will
+also include in his studies certain paleozoic formations which are
+immediately connected with the crystalline schists and involved in their
+orographic structure.
+
+The second division for the study of this class of rocks is in charge of
+Prof. Roland D. Irving, with a corps of geologists, and his field of
+operation is in the Lake Superior region. It is not proposed at present to
+undertake the study of the crystalline schists of the Rocky Mountain
+region.
+
+Fifth, another division has been organized for the study of the areal,
+structural, and historical geology of the Appalachian region, extending
+from the Atlantic, westward, to the zone which separates the mountain
+region from the great valley of the Mississippi. Mr. G.K. Gilbert has
+charge of this work, and has a large corps of assistants.
+
+Sixth, it seemed desirable, partly for scientific reasons and partly for
+administrative reasons, that a thorough topographic and geologic survey
+should be made of the Yellowstone Park, and Mr. Arnold Hague is in charge
+of the work, with a corps of assistants. When it is completed, his field
+will be expanded so as to include a large part of the Rocky Mountain
+region, but the extent of the field is not yet determined.
+
+It will thus be seen that the general geologic work relating to those
+areas where the terranes are composed of fossiliferous formations is very
+imperfectly and incompletely organized. The reason for this is twofold:
+First, the work cannot be performed very successfully until the maps are
+made; second, the Geological Survey is necessarily diverting much of its
+force to the construction of maps, and cannot with present appropriations
+expand the geologic corps so as to extend systematic work in the field
+over the entire country.
+
+
+ECONOMIC GEOLOGY.
+
+Under the organic law of the Geological Survey, investigations in economic
+geology are restricted to those States and Territories in which there are
+public lands; the extension of the work into the eastern portion of the
+United States included only that part relating to general geology. Two
+mining divisions are organized. One, in charge of Mr. George F. Becker,
+with headquarters at San Francisco, California, is at the present time
+engaged in the study of the quicksilver districts of California. The
+other, under charge of Mr. S.F. Emmons, with headquarters at Denver,
+Colorado, is engaged in studying various mining districts in that State,
+including silver, gold, iron, and coal areas. Each division has a corps of
+assistants. The lignite coals of the upper Missouri, also, are under
+investigation by Mr. Bailey Willis, with a corps of assistants.
+
+
+EMPLOYES.
+
+The employes on the Geological Survey at the close of September, 1884,
+were as follows:
+
+Appointed by the President, by and with the advice and consent of the
+Senate (Director), 1.
+
+Appointed by the Secretary of the Interior, on the recommendation of the
+Director of the Survey, 134.
+
+Employed by the chiefs of parties in the field, 148.
+
+
+APPOINTMENTS.
+
+Three classes of appointments are made on the Survey. The statute provides
+that "the scientific employes of the Geological Survey shall be selected
+by the Director, subject to the approval of the Secretary of the Interior,
+exclusively for their qualifications as professional experts." The
+provisions of this statute apply to all those cases where scientific men
+are employed who have established a reputation, and in asking for their
+appointment the Director specifically states his reasons, setting forth
+the work in which the person is to be employed, together with his
+qualifications, especially enumerating and characterizing his published
+works. On such recommendations appointments are invariably made. Young men
+who have not established a reputation in scientific research are selected
+through the agency of the Civil Service Commission on special examination,
+the papers for which are prepared in the Geological Survey. About one-half
+of the employes, however, are temporary, being engaged for services
+lasting for a few days or a few months only, largely in the field, and
+coming under two classes: Skilled laborers and common laborers. Such
+persons are employed by the Director or by the heads of divisions, and are
+discharged from the service when no longer needed. It will be seen that
+the Director is responsible for the selection of the employes, directly
+for those whom he recommends for appointment, and indirectly for those
+selected by the Civil Service Commission, as he permanently retains in the
+work. If, then, improper persons are employed, it is wholly the Director's
+fault.
+
+The appropriations made for the Geological Survey for the fiscal year
+ending June 30, 1885, aggregate the sum of $504,040. This sum does not
+include the amount appropriated for ethnologic researches--$40,000. Nor
+are the expenses for engraving and printing paid for from the above
+appropriations, but from appropriations made for the work under the
+direction of the public printer. It is estimated that the amount needed
+for engraving and printing for the same fiscal year will exceed $200,000.
+
+
+THE RELATION OF THE GOVERNMENT SURVEY TO STATE SURVEYS.
+
+The United States Geological Survey is on friendly relations with the
+various State Surveys. Between the Government Survey and the State Survey
+of New York, there is direct co-operation. The State Survey of
+Pennsylvania has rendered valuable assistance to the Government Survey,
+and negotiations have been entered into for closer relations and more
+thorough co-operation. The State Surveys of North Carolina, Kentucky, and
+Alabama are also co-operating with the Government Survey, and the director
+of the Government Survey is doing all within his power to revive State
+Surveys. The field for geologic research in the United States is of great
+magnitude, and the best results can be accomplished only by the labors of
+many scientific men engaged for a long term of years. For this reason it
+is believed that surveys should be established in all of the States and
+Territories. There is work enough for all, and the establishment of local
+surveys would greatly assist the general work prosecuted under the
+auspices of the government, and prevent it from falling into perfunctory
+channels. Its vigor and health will doubtless be promoted by all thorough
+local research.
+
+It may be of interest to scientific men to know that the Director finds
+that in presenting the general results, interests, and needs of the Survey
+to Congress, and to Committees of Congress, a thorough appreciation of the
+value of scientific research is shown by the statesmen of the country.
+Questions relating to immediately economic values are asked, as they
+should be; but questions relating to sound administration, wise methods of
+investigation, and important scientific results are vigorously urged, and
+the principle is recognized that all sound scientific research conduces to
+the welfare of the people, not only by increasing knowledge, but
+ultimately by affecting all the industries of the people.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+[THE GARDEN.]
+
+THE SUNFLOWERS.
+
+
+[Illustration: FLOWER OF HELIANTHUS ARGOPHYLLUS.]
+
+The genus Helianthus is almost entirely North-American, and for the
+distinction and limitation of its species we are indebted to the labor of
+Dr. Asa Gray, now universally recognized as the highest authority on North
+American plants. In the recently published second part of his "Synoptical
+Flora of North America" he has described thirty-nine species, six of which
+are annual. The synonyms and cross-naming adopted by previous authors have
+led to much confusion, which probably will not now be altogether cleared
+up, for Dr. Gray warns us that the characters of some of the species are
+variable, especially in cultivation. It may be added that some at least of
+the species readily form hybrids. There is always more or less difficulty
+with a variable genus in making garden plants fit wild specific types, but
+in the following notes I have described no kinds which I have not myself
+cultivated, selecting the best forms and giving them the names assigned
+severally by Dr. Gray to the species to which our garden plants seem to
+come nearest.
+
+[Illustration: HELIANTHUS ARGOPHYLLUS, SHOWING HABIT OF GROWTH.]
+
+_Helianthus multiflorus_, or, according to Asa Gray, speaking botanically,
+H. decapetalus hort. var. multiflorus, is mentioned first, because it is
+the subject of the colored illustration. The name multiflorus is
+established by long usage, and perhaps was originally given in contrast to
+the few-flowered habit of H. annuus, for the type of the species is more
+floriferous than the variety of which Asa Gray says that it is "known only
+in cultivation from early times, must have been derived from
+decapetalus," a statement which gardeners would hardly have accepted on
+less indisputable authority, as they will all think the habit and
+appearance of the two plants widely different. The variety multiflorus has
+several forms; the commonest form is double, the disk being filled with
+ligules much shorter than those of the ray flowers, after the form of many
+daisy-like composites. In this double form the day flowers are often
+wanting. It is common also on old plants in poor soils to see double and
+single flowers from the same root. In the single forms the size of the
+flowers varies, the difference being due to cultivation as often as to
+kind. I have obtained by far the finest flowers by the following
+treatment: In early spring, when the young shoots are about an inch high,
+cut some off, each with a portion of young root, and plant them singly in
+deep rich soil, and a sheltered but not shaded situation. By August each
+will have made a large bush, branching out from one stalk at the base,
+with from thirty to forty flowers open at a time, each 5 inches across.
+The same plants if well dressed produce good flowers the second season,
+but after that the stalks become crowded, and the flowers degenerate. The
+same treatment suits most of the perennial sunflowers. The following kinds
+are mentioned in the order in which they occur in Asa Gray's book:
+
+[Illustration: HELIANTHUS MULTIFLORUS, SHOWING HABIT OF GROWTH.]
+
+
+ANNUALS.
+
+_H. argophyllus_ (white-leaved, not argyrophyllus, silver-leaved, as
+written in some catalogues).--An annual with woolly leaves, neater and
+less coarse than H. annuus, with which it is said soon to degenerate in
+gardens if grown together with it.
+
+_H. annuus._--The well known sunflower in endless varieties, one of the
+most elegant having pale lemon-colored flowers; these, too, liable to pass
+into the common type if grown in the same garden.
+
+[Illustration: HELIANTHUS ORGYALIS, SHOWING HABIT OF GROWTH IN
+AUTUMN.]
+
+_H. debilis var. cucumerifolius._--I have never seen the typical species,
+but the variety was introduced a few years ago by Mr. W. Thompson, of
+Ipswich, from whose seed I have grown it. It becomes 4 feet or 5 feet
+high, with irregularly toothed deltoid leaves and spotted stalks, making a
+widely branched bush and bearing well-shaped golden flowers more than 3
+inches across, with black disks. It crosses with any perennial sunflower
+that grows near it, simulating their flowers in an annual form. I had a
+very fine cross with it and H. annuus, but the flowers of this produced no
+good seed.
+
+[Illustration: JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE (HELIANTHUS TUBEROSUS).]
+
+
+PERENNIALS.
+
+_H. orgyalis_ (the fathom-high sunflower).--The name is far within the
+true measure, which is often 9 feet or 10 feet. A very distinct species,
+increasing very slowly at the root and throwing all its growing efforts
+upward. The long linear ribbon leaves, often exceeding a foot, spreading
+in wavy masses round the tall stem, which has a palm-like tuft of them at
+the summit, are a more ornamental feature than the flowers, which are
+moderate in size and come late in the axils of the upper leaves.
+
+[Illustration: HELIANTHUS ANNUUS GLOBULUS FISTULOSUS.]
+
+_H. angustifolius._--A neat and elegant species, which I first raised from
+seed sent by Mr. W. Thompson, of Ipswich. It has a very branching habit
+quite from the base like a well-grown bush of the common wallflower. The
+flowers are abundant, about 2½ inches across, with a black disk. The
+plant, though a true herb, never comes up in my garden with more than one
+stalk each year.
+
+[Illustration: HELIANTHUS RIGIDUS (SYN. HARPALIUM RIGIDUM).]
+
+_H. rigidus_ is well known as the best of the perennial sunflowers, and
+has many synonyms, the commonest Harpalium rigidum. It need not be
+described, but one or two things about it may be noted. The shoots, which
+come up a yard or more from last year's stalk, may be transplanted as soon
+as they appear without injury to the flowering, but if put back to the old
+center, the soil, which should be deep and light, ought to be enriched.
+The species is variable, and improved forms may be expected, as it
+produces seed in England. The number of ray flowers is often very large. I
+have one form which has several rows of them, nearly hiding the disk. A
+variety is figured in _Botanical Magazine_, tab. 2,668, under the name of
+H. atro-rubens. Another comes in the same series, tab. 2,020, as H.
+diffusus. Other synonyms are H. missuricus and H. missouriensis. Its
+native range extends across North America in longitude, and covers many
+degrees of latitude. It likes a dry soil. In wet soil and wet seasons the
+flower-stalk is apt to wither in the middle, and the bud falls over and
+perishes prematurely.
+
+[Illustration: COMMON SUNFLOWER (H. ANNUUS) SHOWING HABIT OF GROWTH.]
+
+_H. Lætiflorus._--Under this name we grow in England a tall,
+much-branched, late flowering kind, with smooth and very stout and stiff
+stalks, sometimes black, sometimes green. It increases at the base of the
+stalks; it makes close growth, and shows little disposition to run at the
+root. The flowers are rather small, not more than 9 inches across, but so
+durable and so well displayed by the numerous spreading branches as to
+make the plant very useful for late decoration. I own that I cannot
+identify this plant with the lætiflorus of Asa Gray, which he tells us
+resembles tall forms of H. rigidus, with rough stalks, and bears flowers
+with numerous rays 1½ inches long.
+
+[Illustration: FLOWER OF HELIANTHUS ANNUUS.]
+
+_H. occidentalis._--Recently introduced by Mr. W. Thompson, of Ipswich,
+who gave me the plant two years ago. It is a neat species, growing about 2
+feet high, well branched, and producing at the end of July abundance of
+flowers about 2 inches across. The lower leaves are small and broad, with
+long stalks, ovate in form.
+
+[Illustration: HELIANTHUS MULTIFLORUS FL-PL.]
+
+_H. mollis_, so called from the soft white down with which the leaves are
+covered, grows about 4 feet high. Leaves large, ovate, and sessile; growth
+of the plant upright, with hardly any branches; flowers pale yellow, about
+3 inches across, not very ornamental. Cultivated at Kew, whence I had it.
+
+_H. giganteus_ grows 10 feet high; stem much branched and disposed to
+curve. Flowers about 2½ inches across, produced abundantly in August; rays
+narrow and pointed, cupped, with the ends turning outward; leaves
+lanceolate and sessile; rootstock creeping, forming tuberous thickenings
+at the base of the stems, which Asa Gray tells us were "the Indian potato
+of the Assiniboine tribe," mentioned by Douglas, who called the plant H.
+tuberosus.
+
+[Illustration: FULL SIZED FLOWER OF HELIANTHUS MULTIFLORUS.]
+
+_H. maximiliani._--Half the height of the last, which it resembles, but
+the stem is stouter, the leaves larger, as are also the flowers, which are
+produced later. It is not so floriferous and ornamental as the last.
+
+_H. lævigatus._--Smooth stalked, very distinct, does not spread at the
+roots, which are composed of finer fibers than those of most of the genus;
+stalks slender and black, growing closely together, branched near the
+summit, 5 feet high; leaves narrowly lanceolate and acute; flowers
+plentiful and about 2 inches across; rays few, and disk small.
+
+We are warned that the following species are "difficult of extrication,"
+either confluent or mixed by intercrossing.
+
+_H. doronicoides._--I place this the third in merit among perennial
+sunflowers, H. rigidus and H. multiflorus being first and second. It is 6
+feet or 7 feet high, upright in growth, with many stalks. Flowers 3½
+inches across, produced from the end of July to the end of September,
+bright golden yellow; leaves large, ovate, tapering from the middle to
+both ends; stalk leaves sessile and nearly connate, that is, clasping the
+stalk by their opposite base. The plant spreads rapidly by running
+rootstocks, and ripens seed in abundance. Figured as H. pubescens in
+_Botanical Magazine_, tab. 2,778.
+
+_H. divaricatus_ resembles the last, but is inferior, being a smaller
+plant in all parts, especially in the flowers, which come out a month
+later. The cauline leaves are stalked and diverge widely, which habit
+gives its name to the plant. A casual observer would hardly notice the
+difference between this species and the last, but when grown together the
+superiority of doronicoides as a garden plant is at once evident.
+
+_H. strumosus._--Fully 6 feet high; growth upright; rootstock less
+spreading than the last two; leaves on very short stalks, broadest at the
+base, ovate tapering by a long narrow point; flower disk narrow, but rays
+large and orange-yellow; flowers showy, 3 inches across; they come out
+late in August. I had this plant from Kew. The shape of the leaves would
+have led me rather to refer it to H. trachelifolius, a closely allied
+species.
+
+_H. decapetalus._--Five feet high; flowers from end of July; makes a dense
+forest of weak, slender stalks, much branched at the top; spreads fast;
+leaves serrate, oblong-ovate, rather large; flowers abundant, pale yellow,
+about 2 inches across; rays nearly always more than ten, in spite of the
+name.
+
+_H. tuberosus._--The well-known Jerusalem artichoke; not a plant grown for
+ornament, being too coarse and late in flowering, but several things in
+its history may be mentioned, as Dr. Asa Gray has spent labor and study
+over it. It is believed to have been cultivated by the natives before the
+discovery of America, and the edible tubers are thought to be a
+development of cultivation. Forms of it without tuberous roots are found
+wild, but whether indigenous to the place or degenerate from cultivation
+was for long uncertain. Several species of Helianthus have a tendency to
+produce similar fleshy tubers at the top of the roots. Dr. Gray used to
+refer the origin of this species to H. doronicoides, but it is now
+believed by him to be a distinct species, though one of which it is
+difficult to identify with certainty the typical form.
+
+I omitted to say that the word Helianthus is Greek for sunflower. After
+several years' careful observation, I believe the notion that the flowers
+keep their face to the sun is quite a delusion.
+
+Edge Hall. C. WOLLEY DOD.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+A QUICK FILTER.--The _Druggists Circular_ recommends chamois skin, free
+from thin places; cut it of the desired size; wash it in a weak solution
+of sal soda, or any alkali, to remove the grease, and rinse thoroughly in
+cold water before using.
+
+Tinctures, elixirs, sirups, and even mucilages are filtered rapidly. A
+pint of the thickest sirup will run through in four or five minutes. By
+washing thoroughly after each time of using, it will last a long time.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+LYE'S FUCHSIAS.
+
+
+The group of fuchsias shown in our engraving represents a collection of
+nine specimens raised and exhibited by that well known cultivator, Mr.
+James Lye, of Clyffe Hall Gardens, Market Lavington, at an exhibition held
+in Bath in September last, and which received the first prize in the
+premier class for that number of plants. For many years past Mr. Lye has
+exhibited fuchsias at exhibitions held at Bath, Trowbridge, Devizes,
+Calne, Chippenham, and elsewhere; on all occasions staging specimens of a
+high order of merit; but the plants appearing in our illustration were
+universally regarded as the best he had ever placed in an exhibition tent.
+So much were the committee of the Bath show pleased with the specimens
+that they engaged the services of a photographer to make a picture of them
+on the spot; but after being two hours making the attempt, no satisfactory
+result occurred. After the plants were taken back to Clyffe Hall, they
+were photographed as seen in the illustration. Some idea of their height
+and dimensions can be realized by a comparison with the stature of Mr.
+Lye, who is standing by his plants, and who is of average height. It
+should be mentioned that previous to being photographed they had traveled
+by road from Market Lavington to Bath and back, a distance of 52 miles, in
+addition to having been exhibited two days. They returned to their home
+apparently little the worse for wear, which immunity from harm is no doubt
+owing to the admirable system of tying adopted by Mr. Lye. It is sometimes
+said that the act of trying in the flowering shoots in this manner gives
+the plants a somewhat severely formal appearance, but there is an
+abundance of healthy foliage and a wonderful profusion of finely developed
+flowers, showing the most careful and painstaking cultivation. It is only
+those who are privileged to see these unrivaled plants who can appreciate
+them at their proper worth.
+
+It has been stated already that the varieties figured are all of Mr. Lye's
+own raising, which facts attests to the value of his seedlings, many of
+which he has produced. Four of these are dark varieties, viz., Bountiful,
+Charming, Elegance, and the Hon. Mrs. Hay--the latter one of the oldest,
+but one of the freest, and scarcely without an equal for its great freedom
+of bloom. The remaining five are light varieties, viz., Lye's Favorite,
+Harriet Lye, Star of Wilts, Pink Perfection, and Beauty of the West.
+
+[Illustration: MR. LYE'S FUSCHIAS.]
+
+The specimens figured average from two to five years of age. It is really
+marvelous what Mr. Lye can do with a fuchsia in two years; and lest it
+might be supposed that he has plenty of glass accommodation, and can keep
+his plants under glass continuously, it is due to him it should be stated
+that he is very deficient in house accommodation, having but two small
+houses, in one of which (an old house) he winters his plants and brings
+them on until he can place them with safety in the open air in early
+summer. His method of treating the specimens as set forth in his own words
+may prove helpful to some of our readers: "After the plants have done
+flowering, say about the third week in October, I cut them back into the
+shape best fitted to form symmetrical specimens, and keep them dry for a
+week or ten days, to check the bleeding of sap which follows; after that I
+give a little water just to start them into growth, so as to make shoots
+about three-quarters of an inch in length, in order to keep the old wood
+active and living. I keep them in a cold house, and give but very little
+water until the first or second week in February, when I shake the old
+soil from the roots, and re-pot them into a fresh compost made up of three
+parts good loam, one part well decomposed manure, and one part leaf-mould
+and peat, with a good bit of silver or sea sand to keep it open. In order
+to make large specimens, they are shifted as soon as the pots are filled
+with roots. About the first week in June I place them out of doors on a
+border somewhat sheltered, and syringe the plants freely every day during
+hot weather to keep the foliage clean and healthy. I top them back till
+about seven or eight weeks before I want to show them, according to the
+requirements of the variety, as some of them require it to be done more
+freely than others. I give them liquid manure, using what I get from the
+cows, which with some soot is put into a tub, and allowed to stand a week
+or ten days before using, and I give them a good dose once a week as they
+show signs of flowering."
+
+In order to preserve his plants from the effects of hail and very heavy
+rains, a rough framework is erected, and over this is stretched some
+floral shading, which can be readily removed when required; it also serves
+the purpose of shading the plants from the sun in very hot and scorching
+weather.
+
+During his career as an exhibitor of fuchsias Mr. Lye has taken nearly one
+hundred first prizes--a measure of success which fully justifies the
+bestowal of the title of being the Champion Fuchsia Grower of his
+day.--_R.D. in The Gardeners' Chronicle_.
+
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+Solicitors of American and Foreign Patents, have had 40 years' experience,
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+
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+patented through this Agency, with the name and residence of the Patentee.
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+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No.
+484, April 11, 1885, by Various
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 13939 ***
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+<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Scientific American
+Supplement, April 11, 1885.</title>
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+<body>
+<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 13939 ***</div>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/1a.png"><img src=
+"./images/1a_th.jpg" alt=" TITLE"></a></p>
+
+<h1>SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 484</h1>
+
+<h2>NEW YORK, APRIL 11, 1885</h2>
+
+<h4>Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XIX, No. 484.</h4>
+
+<h4>Scientific American established 1845</h4>
+
+<h4>Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.</h4>
+
+<h4>Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.</h4>
+
+<hr>
+<table summary="Contents" border="0" cellspacing="5">
+<tr>
+<th colspan="2">TABLE OF CONTENTS.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">I.</td>
+<td><a href="#1">ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.&mdash;Bridge over the
+Blaauw Krantz Ravine, Cape Colony.&mdash;2 engravings.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#2">Torpedo Ships.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#3">The Gas Engine.&mdash;By DUGALD
+CLERK.&mdash;Combustion engines.&mdash;First cylinder and piston
+engine.&mdash;Watt's experiments.&mdash;First gas
+engine.&mdash;Principles of the gas engine.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#4">Rapid Construction of the Canadian Pacific
+Railway.&mdash;By E.T. ABBOTT.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#5">The Osgood Mammoth Excavator.&mdash;3
+figures.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#6">Capstan Navigation on the Volga.&mdash;4
+figures.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#7">Steamboat Equipment of War Vessels.&mdash;With
+engraving of winch for raising and lowering torpedo boats.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#8">Improved Steam Trap.&mdash;1 engraving.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">II.</td>
+<td><a href="#9">TECHNOLOGY.&mdash;Critical Methods of Detecting
+Errors in Plane Surfaces.&mdash;By JOHN A. BRASHEAR.&mdash;11
+figures.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#10">Photometric Standards.&mdash;9 figures.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#11">Bleaching or Dyeing Yarns and Goods in
+Vacuo.&mdash;1 figure.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#12">On the Moulding of Porcelain.&mdash;By CHAS.
+LAUTH.&mdash;Moulding by pressure of the air.&mdash;Moulding by
+vacuum.&mdash;Drying the moulded pieces.&mdash;2 figures.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#13">Photo-Tricycle Apparatus.&mdash;1
+figure.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#14">A Photo Printing Light.&mdash;1 figure.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#15">A New Actinometer.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#16">Astronomical Photography.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#17">Electricity as a Preventive of Scale in
+Boilers.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">III.</td>
+<td><a href="#18">DECORATIVE ART.&mdash;Alphabet designed by
+Godfrey Sykes.&mdash;An engraving.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#19">Old Wrought Iron Gate.&mdash;An
+engraving.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">IV.</td>
+<td><a href="#20">GEOLOGY.&mdash;The Organization and Plan of the
+United States Geological Survey.&mdash;By J.W. POWELL.&mdash;A
+topographic map of the United
+States.&mdash;Paleontology.&mdash;Chemistry.&mdash;Physical
+researches.&mdash;Statistics.&mdash;Library.&mdash;Publications.&mdash;General
+geology.&mdash;Economic geology.&mdash;Relation of the general
+survey to the State survey.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">V.</td>
+<td><a href="#21">BOTANY, ETC.&mdash;The Sunflowers.&mdash;Annuals,
+perennials, etc.&mdash;11 engravings.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#22">Lye's Fuchsias.&mdash;1 engraving.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">VI.</td>
+<td><a href="#23">HYGIENE, ETC.&mdash;Brief Sanitary Matters in
+Connection with Isolated Country Houses.&mdash;By E.W.
+BOWDITCH.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#24">Sanitary Cooking.&mdash;By V.L.
+OPPENHEIMER.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#25">Time required to digest Different Foods.</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="1"></a></p>
+
+<h2>BLAAUW KRANTZ VIADUCT IN CAPE COLONY.</h2>
+
+<p>This viaduct is built over a rocky ravine on the railway from
+Port Alfred to Grahamstown, at a height of about 200 ft. from the
+bottom. Its length is 480 ft. 6 in., and the width of the platform
+is 15 ft., the gauge of the railway being 3 ft. 6 in. The central
+span of the viaduct is an arch of 220 ft. span between abutments,
+and about 90 ft. height; the remainder of the space on each side is
+divided into two spans by an iron pier at a distance of 68 ft. from
+the retaining wall. These piers are 36 ft. 2 in. high, and carry
+girders 144 ft. long, balanced each on a pivot in the center. One
+end of these girders is secured to the retaining walls by means of
+horizontal and vertical anchorages, while the other end rests in a
+sliding bearing on the top flange of the arch.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/1b.png"><img src=
+"./images/1b_th.jpg" alt=
+" BRIDGE OVER THE BLAAUW KRANTZ RAVINE, CAPE COLONY."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">BRIDGE OVER THE BLAAUW KRANTZ RAVINE, CAPE
+COLONY.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/1c.png"><img src=
+"./images/1c_th.jpg" alt=
+" BRIDGE OVER THE BLAAUW KRANTZ RAVINE, CAPE COLONY."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">BRIDGE OVER THE BLAAUW KRANTZ RAVINE, CAPE
+COLONY.</p>
+
+<p>In designing the structure the following points had to be
+considered: (1) That, on account of the great height above the
+ground, and on account of the high price of timber at the site, the
+structure could be easily erected without the use of scaffolding
+supporting it as a whole. (2) That, on account of the high freights
+to Port Alfred, the quantity of iron in the structure should be as
+small as possible. (3) That the single parts of the principal span
+should be easy to lift, and that there should be as few of them as
+possible. For this latter reason most of them were made in lengths
+of 20 ft. and more. The question of economy of material presented
+itself as a comparison between a few standard types, viz., the
+girder bridge of small independent spans; the cantilever bridge, or
+the continuous girder bridge in three large spans; the single
+girder bridge with one large span and several small spans; and the
+arch with small girder spans on each side. The suspension bridge
+was left out of question as inadmissible. A girder bridge with
+small independent spans on rocker piers would probably have been
+the most economical, even taking into account the great height of
+the piers near the middle of the ravine, but there would have been
+some difficulty in holding those piers in position until they could
+be secured to the girders at the top; and, moreover, such a
+structure would have been strikingly out of harmony with the
+character of the site. On the other hand, a cantilever or
+continuous girder bridge in three spans&mdash;although such
+structures have been erected in similar localities&mdash;could not
+enter into comparison of simple economy of material, because such a
+design would entirely disregard the anomaly that the greater part
+of the structure, viz., the side spans, being necessarily
+constructed to carry across a large space, would be too near the
+ground to justify the omission of further supports. The question
+was, therefore, narrowed to a comparison between the present arch
+and a central independent girder of the same span, including the
+piers on which it rests. The small side spans could obviously be
+left out in each case. The comparison was made with a view not only
+to arrive at a decision in this particular case, but also of
+answering the question of the economy of the arch more generally.
+The following table contains the weights of geometrically similar
+structures of three different spans, of which the second is the one
+here described. The so-called theoretical weight is that which the
+structure would have if no part required stiffening, leaving out
+also all connections and all wind bracing. The moving load is taken
+at one ton per foot lineal, and the strain on the iron at an
+average of four tons per square inch. The proportion of the girder
+is taken at 1 in 8.</p>
+
+<table summary="Feet vs. Weight" align="center" border="1"
+cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
+<tbody>
+<tr align="center">
+<th rowspan="2">Span in Feet.</th>
+<th colspan="2">Theoretical Weight.</th>
+<th colspan="2">Total Weight.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr align="center">
+<th>Arch.</th>
+<th>Girder.</th>
+<th>Arch.</th>
+<th>Girder.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="center">100</td>
+<td align="right">0.0724</td>
+<td align="right">0.1663</td>
+<td align="right">0.1866</td>
+<td align="right">0.2443</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="center">220</td>
+<td align="right">0.1659</td>
+<td align="right">0.4109</td>
+<td align="right">0.4476</td>
+<td align="right">0.7462</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="center">300</td>
+<td align="right">0.2414</td>
+<td align="right">0.6445</td>
+<td align="right">0.6464</td>
+<td align="right">1.2588</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr align="center">
+<th>&nbsp;</th>
+<th colspan="4">&lt;------------Tons per foot
+lineal.-------------&gt;</th>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p>It can be seen from these results that the economical advantage
+of the arch increases with the span. In small arches this advantage
+would not be large enough to counterbalance the greater cost of
+manufacture; but in the arch of 220 ft. span the advantage is
+already very marked. If the table were continued, it would show
+that the girder, even if the platform were artificially widened,
+would become impossible at a point where the arch can still be made
+without difficulty. The calculations leading to the above results
+would occupy too much space to make it desirable on this occasion
+to produce them. Our two views are from photographs.&mdash;<i>The
+Engineer.</i></p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="2"></a></p>
+
+<h2>TORPEDO SHIPS.</h2>
+
+<p>Commander Gallwey lately delivered an interesting lecture on the
+use of torpedoes in war before the royal U.S. Institution, London,
+discussed H.M.S. Polyphemus, and urged as arguments in her favor:
+1. That she has very high speed, combined with fair maneuvering
+powers. 2. That she can discharge her torpedoes with certainty
+either ahead or on the beam when proceeding at full speed. 3. That
+her crew and weapons of defense are protected by the most perfect
+of all armor possible, namely, 10 ft. of water. 4. That she only
+presents a mark of 4 ft. above the water line.</p>
+
+<p>Then, he asked, with what weapon is the ironclad going to
+vanquish these torpedo rams? Guns cannot hit her when moving at
+speed; she is proof against machine guns, and, being smaller,
+handier, and faster than most ironclads, should have a better
+chance with her ram, the more especially as it is provided with a
+weapon which has been scores of times discharged with certainty at
+300 yards. The ironclad, he answered, must use torpedoes, and then
+he maintained that the speed and handiness of the Polyphemus would
+enable her to place herself in positions where she could use her
+own torpedo to advantage, and be less likely to be hit herself. He
+then called attention to the necessity for well-protected conning
+towers in these ships, and prophesied that if a submarine ship,
+armed with torpedoes, be ever built, she will be the most
+formidable antagonist an ironclad ever had; and the nearer the
+special torpedo ship approaches this desideratum the better she
+will be.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<h2>A PLUMBING TEST.</h2>
+
+<p>A recent trial of a smoke rocket for testing drains, described
+by Mr. Cosmo Jones in the <i>Journal of the Society of Arts</i>, is
+deserving of interest. The one fixed upon is 10 in. long, 2&frac12;
+in. in diameter, and with the composition "charged rather hard," so
+as to burn for ten minutes. This gives the engineer time to light
+the fuse, insert the rocket in the drain, insert a plug behind it,
+and walk through the house to see if the smoke escapes into it at
+any point, finishing on the roof, where he finds the smoke issuing
+in volumes from the ventilating pipes. The house experimented upon
+had three ventilating pipes, and the smoke issued in dense masses
+from each of them, but did not escape anywhere into the house,
+showing that the pipes were sound. If the engineer wishes to
+increase the severity of the test, he throws a wet cloth over the
+top of the ventilating pipe, and so gets a slight pressure of smoke
+inside it.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="3"></a></p>
+
+<h2>THE GAS ENGINE.<a name="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_1_1"><sup>[1]</sup></a></h2>
+
+<h3>By DUGALD CLERK.</h3>
+
+<p>In earlier days of mechanics, before the work of the great
+Scottish engineer, James Watt, the crude steam engines of the time
+were known as "fire engines," not in the sense in which we now
+apply the term to machines for the extinguishing of fires, but as
+indicating the source from which the power was derived, motive
+power engines deriving their vitality and strength from fire. The
+modern name&mdash;steam engine&mdash;to some extent is a misleading
+one, distracting the mind from the source of power to the medium
+which conveys the power. Similarly the name "Gas Engine" masks the
+fact of the motors so called being really fire or heat engines.</p>
+
+<p>The gas engine is more emphatically a "fire engine" than ever
+the steam engine has been. In it the fire is not tamed or diluted
+by indirect contact with water, but it is used direct; the fire,
+instead of being kept to the boiler room, is introduced direct into
+the motor cylinder of the engine. This at first sight looks very
+absurd and impracticable; difficulties at once become apparent of
+so overwhelming a nature that the problem seems almost an
+impossible one; yet this is what has been successfully accomplished
+in the gas engine. Engineers accustomed to the construction of
+steam engines would not many years ago have considered any one
+proposing such a thing as having taken leave of his senses.</p>
+
+<p>The late Sir William Siemens worked for many years on combustion
+engines, some of his patents on this subject dating back to 1860.
+In the course of a conversation I had with him on the subject of
+his earlier patents, I asked him why he had entitled one of those
+patents "steam engine improvements" when it was wholly concerned
+with a gas engine using hydrogen and air in the motive cylinder,
+the combustion of the hydrogen taking place in the motive cylinder.
+He answered me that in 1860 he did not care to entitle his patent
+gas or combustion engine simply because engineers at that time
+would have thought him mad.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding this widespread incredulity among engineers, and
+the apparent novelty of the gas engine idea, fire or combustion
+engines have been proposed long, long ago. The first Newcomen steam
+engine ever set to work was used by a Mr. Back, of Wolverhampton,
+in the year 1711. Thirty-one years before this time, in
+Paris&mdash;year 1680&mdash;Huyghens presented a memoir to the
+Academy of Sciences describing a method of utilizing the expansive
+force of gunpowder. This engineer is notable as being the very
+first to propose the use of a cylinder and piston, as well as the
+first combustion engine of a practical kind.</p>
+
+<p>The engine consists of a vertical open topped cylinder, in which
+works a piston; the piston is connected by a chain passing over a
+pulley above it to a heavy weight; the upstroke is accomplished by
+the descent of the weight, which pulls the piston to the top of the
+cylinder; gunpowder placed in a tray at the bottom of the cylinder
+is now ignited, and expels the air with which the cylinder is
+filled through a shifting valve, and, after the products of
+combustion have cooled, a partial vacuum takes place and the
+atmospheric pressure forces down the piston to the bottom of its
+stroke, during which work may be obtained.</p>
+
+<p>On the board I have made a sketch of this engine. Some years
+previous to Huyghens' proposal, the Abbe Hautefeuille (1678)
+proposed a gunpowder engine without piston for pumping water. It is
+similar to Savery's steam engine, but using the pressure of the
+explosion instead of the pressure of steam. This engine, however,
+had no piston, and was only applicable as a pump. The Savery
+principle still survives in the action of the well-known pulsometer
+steam pump.</p>
+
+<p>Denys Papin, the pupil and assistant of Huyghens, continued
+experimenting upon the production of motive power, and in 1690
+published a description of his attempts at Leipzig, entitled "A New
+Method of Securing Cheaply Motive Power of Considerable
+Magnitude."</p>
+
+<p>He mentions the gunpowder engine, and states that "until now all
+experiments have been unsuccessful; and after the combustion of the
+exploded powder there always remains in the cylinder one-fifth of
+its volume of air."</p>
+
+<p>For the explosion of the gunpowder he substituted the generation
+and condensation of steam, heating the bottom of his cylinder by a
+fire; a small quantity of water contained in it was vaporized, and
+then on removing the fire the steam condensed and the piston was
+forced down. This was substantially the Newcomen steam engine, but
+without the separate boiler.</p>
+
+<p>Papin died about the year 1710, a disappointed man, about the
+same time as Newcomen. Thomas Newcomen, ironmonger and blacksmith,
+of Dartmouth, England, had first succeeded in getting his engine to
+work. The hard fight to wrest from nature a manageable motive power
+and to harness fire for industrial use was continued by this clever
+blacksmith, and he succeeded when the more profound but less
+constructively skillful philosophers had failed.</p>
+
+<p>The success of the steam method and the fight necessary to
+perfect it to the utmost absorbed the energy of most able
+engineers&mdash;Beighton, John Smeaton&mdash;accomplishing much in
+applying and perfecting it before the appearance of James Watt upon
+the scene.</p>
+
+<p>It is interesting to note that in England alone over 2,000 horse
+power of Newcomen engines were at work before Watt commenced his
+series of magnificent inventions; he commenced experimenting on a
+Newcomen engine model in 1759 at Glasgow University, and in 1774
+came to Birmingham, entered into partnership with Boulton, and 1781
+we find his beautiful double acting beam condensing engine in
+successful work.</p>
+
+<p>From that time until now the steam engine has steadily advanced,
+increasing in economy of fuel from 10 lb. of coal per horse power
+per hour to about 1&frac34; lb. per horse power per hour, which is
+the best result of to-day's steam engine practice. This result,
+according to the highest authorities, is so near to the theoretical
+result possible from a steam engine that further improvement cannot
+now be looked for. Simultaneously with the development of the steam
+engine, inventors continued to struggle with the direct acting
+combustion or gas engine, often without any definite understanding
+of why they should attempt such apparent impossibilities, but
+always by their experiments and repeated failures increasing
+knowledge, and forming a firm road upon which those following them
+traveled to success.</p>
+
+<p>In 1791 John Barber obtained a patent for an engine producing
+inflammable gas, mixing it with air, igniting it, and allowing the
+current so produced to impinge upon a reaction wheel, producing
+motion similar to the well known Aelopile, which I have at work
+upon the table. About this time, Murdoch (Jas. Watt's assistant at
+Birmingham) was busy introducing coal gas into use for lighting; in
+1792 Boulton and Watt's works were lighted up with coal gas. From
+this time many gas engines were proposed, and the more
+impracticable combustion of gunpowder received less attention.</p>
+
+<p>In 1794 Thomas Mead obtained a patent for an engine using the
+internal combustion of gas; the description is not a clear one, his
+ideas seem confused.</p>
+
+<p>In the same year Robert Street obtained a patent for an engine
+which is not unlike some now in use. The bottom of a cylinder,
+containing a piston, is heated by a fire, a few drops of spirits of
+turpentine are introduced and evaporated by the heat, the piston is
+drawn up, and air entering mixes with the inflammable vapor. A
+light is applied at a touch hole, and the explosion drives up the
+piston, which, working on a lever, forces down the piston of a pump
+for pumping water. Robt. Street adds to his description a note:
+"The quantity of spirits of tar or turpentine to be made use of is
+always proportional to the confined space, in general about 10
+drops to a cubic foot." This engine is quite a workable one,
+although the arrangements described are very crude.</p>
+
+<p>The first gas engine that was actually at work for some years;
+and was applied to a variety of purposes, was Samuel Buren's. His
+patent was granted in 1823, and in 1826 he built a locomotive
+carriage with which he made several experimental runs in London; he
+also propelled a vessel with it upon the Thames, and fitted up a
+large engine for pumping purposes. A company was formed to
+introduce his engine, but it proved too wasteful of fuel, and the
+company went into voluntary liquidation. Like almost all engines of
+this time, the combustion of gas and air was used to produce a
+vacuum, the piston being driven by atmospheric pressure.</p>
+
+<p>Buren's locomotive carriage was thus in action three years
+before the great trial in 1829, from which George Stephenson
+emerged victorious with his wonderful engine "The Rocket." To those
+curious in the matter, I may mention that S. Buren's patents are
+dated 1823, No. 4,874, and 1826, No. 5,350.</p>
+
+<p>From this time on, a continuous series of gas engine patents
+appear, 20 engines being patented between 1826 and 1860, which is
+the next date worthy of particular mention.</p>
+
+<p>In this year, 1860, the famous "Lenoir" engine appeared. The use
+of high pressure steam engines had long been common, and Lenoir's
+engine was analogous to the high pressure engine, as Buren's was to
+the condensing engine. It created a very general interest, and many
+engines were constructed and used in France, England, and America;
+it resembled very much in external appearance an ordinary high
+pressure horizontal steam engine, and it was double acting.</p>
+
+<p>During the following six years, other 20 British patents were
+granted, and the gas engine passed from the state of a troublesome
+toy to a practicable and widely useful machine.</p>
+
+<p>From 1791 to the end of 1866, in all 46 British patents were
+granted for gas engines, and in these patents are to be found the
+principles upon which the gas engines of to-day are constructed,
+many years elapsing before experience enough was gained to turn the
+proposals of the older inventors to practical account.</p>
+
+<p>The most important of these patents are:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=
+"Important Patents">
+<tr>
+<th align='left'>&nbsp;</th>
+<th align='left'>No.&nbsp;</th>
+<th align='left'>Year.</th>
+<th align='left'>&nbsp;</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Robert Street</td>
+<td align='right'>1,983</td>
+<td align='right'>1794</td>
+<td align='left'>Direct-acting engine.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Samuel Buren</td>
+<td align='right'>4,874</td>
+<td align='right'>1823</td>
+<td align='left'>Vacuum engine.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Samuel Buren</td>
+<td align='right'>5,350</td>
+<td align='right'>1826</td>
+<td align='left'>Vacuum engine.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>W.L. Wright</td>
+<td align='right'>6,525</td>
+<td align='right'>1833</td>
+<td align='left'>Direct-acting engine.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Wm. Barnett</td>
+<td align='right'>7,615</td>
+<td align='right'>1838</td>
+<td align='left'>Compression first proposed.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Barsante &amp; Matteucci</td>
+<td align='right'>1,072</td>
+<td align='right'>1854</td>
+<td align='left'>Rack &amp; clutch engine.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Drake</td>
+<td align='right'>562</td>
+<td align='right'>1855</td>
+<td align='left'>Direct-acting engine.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Lenoir</td>
+<td align='right'>335</td>
+<td align='right'>1860</td>
+<td align='left'>D.I. engine, electric ignition.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>C.W. Siemens</td>
+<td align='right'>2,074</td>
+<td align='right'>1860</td>
+<td align='left'>Compression, <i>constant pressure</i>.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Hugon</td>
+<td align='right'>2,902</td>
+<td align='right'>1860</td>
+<td align='left'>Platinum ignition.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Millein</td>
+<td align='right'>1,840</td>
+<td align='right'>1861</td>
+<td align='left'>Compression, both constant vol. and
+<i>pressure</i>.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>F.H. Wenham</td>
+<td align='right'>1,873</td>
+<td align='right'>1864</td>
+<td align='left'>Free piston.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Hugon</td>
+<td align='right'>986</td>
+<td align='right'>1865</td>
+<td align='left'>Flame ignition.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Otto and Langen</td>
+<td align='right'>434</td>
+<td align='right'>1866</td>
+<td align='left'>Rack and clutch, flame ignition.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Leaving for the present the history of the gas engine, which
+brings us to a stage comparable to the state of the steam engine
+during the Newcomen's time, it will be advisable to give some
+consideration to the principles concerned in the economical and
+efficient working of gas engines, in order to understand the more
+recent developments.</p>
+
+<p>It has been seen that gunpowder was the explosive used to
+produce a vacuum in Huyghens' engine, and that it was abandoned in
+favor of gas by Buren in 1823. The reason of departure is very
+obvious: a gunpowder explosion and a gaseous explosion differ in
+very important practical points.</p>
+
+<p>Gunpowder being a solid substance is capable of being packed
+into a very small space; the gas evolved by its decomposition is so
+great in volume that, even in the absence of any evolution of heat,
+a very high pressure would result. One cubic inch of gunpowder
+confined in a space of one cubic inch would cause a pressure by the
+gas it contains alone of 15,000 lb. per square inch; if the heating
+effect be allowed for, pressures of four times that amount, or
+60,000 lb. per square inch, are easily accounted for. These
+pressures are far too high for use in any engine, and the bare
+possibility of getting such pressure by accident put gunpowder
+quite outside the purpose of the engineer, quite apart from any
+question of comparative cost. In a proper mixture of inflammable
+gas and air is found an exceedingly safe explosive, perfectly
+manageable and quite incapable of producing pressures in any sense
+dangerous to a properly constructed engine.</p>
+
+<p>The pressure produced by the explosion of any mixture of gas and
+air is strictly determined and limited, whereas the pressure
+produced by the explosion of gunpowder depends greatly upon the
+relation between the volume of the gunpowder and the space in which
+it is confined.</p>
+
+<p>Engines of the "Lenoir" type are the simplest in idea and
+construction; in them a mixture of gas and air is made in the
+cylinder during the first half of the piston stroke, air being
+taken from the atmosphere and drawn into the cylinder by the
+forward movement of the piston. At the same time gas entering by a
+number of holes, and streaming into the air to form an explosive
+mixture, the movement of a valve cuts off the supply, and brings
+the igniting arrangement into action. The pressure produced by the
+explosion acting upon the piston makes it complete its stroke, when
+the exhaust valve opens exactly as in the steam engine. The Lenoir
+and Hugon engines, the earlier forms of this type, were double
+acting, receiving two impulses for every revolution of the crank,
+the impulse differing from that in a high pressure steam engine in
+commencing at half stroke.</p>
+
+<p>The Lenoir igniting arrangement was complicated and troublesome.
+I have it upon the table; the mixture was ignited at the proper
+time by the electric spark produced from a primary battery and
+Ruhmkorff coil.</p>
+
+<p>The Hugon engine was an advance in this respect, using a flame
+ignited, and securing greater certainty of action in a
+comparatively simple manner.</p>
+
+<p>It is really a modification of Barnett's lighting cock described
+in his patent of 1838.</p>
+
+<p>Other difficulties were found in using these engines; the
+pistons became exceedingly hot. In the case of the Lenoir larger
+engines, it sometimes became red hot, and caused complete ruin of
+the cylinder by scoring and cutting up. Hugon to prevent this
+injected some water.</p>
+
+<p>In the all important question of economy, these engines were
+found grievously wanting, Lenoir consuming 95 cubic feet per I.H.P.
+per hour; Hugon consuming 85 cubic feet per I.H.P. per hour.</p>
+
+<p>The surviving engines of this type are only used for very small
+powers, from one to four man power, or &#8539; to &frac12; horse,
+the most widely known of this kind being the "Bischoff," which is
+very largely used; its consumption of gas is even greater than the
+Lenoir, being 110 cubic feet per horse power per hour, as tested
+with a half-horse engine at a late exhibition of gas apparatus at
+Stockport.</p>
+
+<p>So large a consumption of gas prevented these engines coming
+into extended use for engines of moderate power, and led inventors
+to work to obtain better results. The force generated by the
+explosion of a mixture of gas and air is very short lived, and if
+it is to be fully utilized must be used quickly; a high pressure is
+produced, but it very quickly disappears.</p>
+
+<p>The quicker the piston moves after the maximum pressure is
+reached, the less will be the loss of heat to the sides of the
+cylinder. The flame which fills the cylinder and causes the
+increase of pressure rapidly loses heat, and the pressure
+falls.</p>
+
+<p>The idea of using a free piston was proposed as a remedy; it was
+thought that a piston connected to a crank in the ordinary manner
+could not move fast enough to utilize the pressure before it was
+lost. Many inventors proposed to perform work upon a piston free
+from any direct connection with the crank or shaft of the engine;
+the explosion after attaining its maximum pressure expends its
+force in giving velocity to a piston; the velocity so acquired
+carries it on against atmospheric pressure until the energy is all
+absorbed, and a vacuum or deficit of pressure exists in the
+cylinder instead of an excess of pressure. The return stroke is
+accomplished by the atmospheric pressure, and the work is now done
+upon the engine shaft on the return only. The method of connecting
+on the return stroke while leaving the piston free on the out
+stroke varies, but in many engines the principle was the same.</p>
+
+<p>Barsante and Matteucci, year 1857, British patent No. 1,625,
+describe the first engine of this kind, but Messrs. Otto and Langen
+were the first to successfully overcome all difficulties and make a
+marketable engine of it. Their patent was dated 1866, No. 434. To
+distinguish it from Otto's later patents, it may be called the rack
+and clutch engine.</p>
+
+<p>The economy obtained by this engine was a great advance upon the
+Lenoir. According to a test by Prof. Tresca, at the Paris
+Exhibition of 1867, the gas consumed was 44 cubic feet per
+indicated horse power per hour. According to tests I have made
+myself in Manchester with a two horse power engine, Otto and
+Langen's free piston engine consumes 40 cubic feet per I.H.P. per
+hour. This is less than one-half of the gas used by the Hugon
+engine for one horse power.</p>
+
+<p>The igniting arrangement is a very good modification of
+Barnett's lighting cock, which I have explained already, but a
+slide valve is used instead of a cock.</p>
+
+<p>Other engines carried out the same principle in a different
+manner, including Gilles' engine, but they were not commercially so
+successful as the Otto and Langen. Mr. F.H. Wenham's engine was of
+this type, and was working in England, Mr. Wenham informed me, in
+1866, his patent being taken out in 1864.</p>
+
+<p>The great objection to this kind of engine is the irregularity
+and great noise in working; this was so great as to prevent engines
+from being made larger than three horse power. The engine, however,
+did good work, and was largely used from 1866 until the end of
+1876, when Mr. Otto produced his famous engine, now known as "The
+Otto Silent Gas Engine." In this engine great economy is attained
+without the objectionable free piston by a method proposed first by
+Burnett, 1838, and also by a Frenchman, Millein, in 1861; this
+method is compression before ignition. Other inventors also
+described very clearly the advantages to be expected from
+compression, but none were able to make it commercially successful
+till Mr. Otto. To him belongs the great credit of inventing a cycle
+of operations capable of realizing compression in a simple
+manner.</p>
+
+<p>Starting from the same point as inventors did to produce the
+free piston engine&mdash;namely, that the more quickly the
+explosive force is utilized, the less will be the loss, and the
+greater the power produced from a quantity of burning gas&mdash;it
+is evident that if any method can be discovered to increase the
+pressure upon the piston without increasing the temperature of the
+flame causing this pressure, then a great gain will result, and the
+engine will convert more of the heat given to it into work. This is
+exactly what is done by compression before ignition. Suppose we
+take a mixture of gas and air of such proportions as to cause when
+exploded, or rather ignited (because explosion is too strong a
+term), a pressure of 45 lb. above atmosphere, or 60 lb. per square
+inch absolute pressure. Then this mixture, if compressed to half
+volume before igniting and kept at constant temperature, would
+give, when ignited, a pressure of 120 lb. total, or 105 lb. above
+atmosphere, and this without any increase of the temperature of the
+flame.</p>
+
+<p>The effect of compression is to make a small piston do the work
+of a large one, and convert more heat into work by lessening the
+loss of heat through the walls of the cylinder. In addition to this
+advantage, greater expansions are made possible, and therefore
+greatly increase economy.</p>
+
+<p>The Otto engine must be so familiar in appearance to all of you,
+that I need hardly trouble you with details of its external
+appearance. I shall briefly describe its action. Its strong points
+and its weak points are alike caused by its cycle. One cylinder and
+piston suffices to carry out its whole action. Its cycle is: First
+outstroke, gas and air sucked into the cylinder; first instroke,
+gas and air compressed into space; second outstroke, impulse due to
+ignition; second instroke, discharge of exhausted gases. When
+working at full power, it gets one impulse for every two
+revolutions; this seems to be a retrograde movement, but,
+notwithstanding, the advantages obtained are very great. The
+igniting arrangement is in the main similar to that used on the
+rack and clutch engine. The engine has been exceedingly successful,
+and is very economical. The Otto compression engine consumes 21
+cubic feet of gas per I.H.P. per hour, and runs with great
+smoothness.</p>
+
+<p>In 1876 I commenced my work upon gas engines, and very soon
+concluded that the compression system was the true line to proceed
+upon. It took me two years to produce a workable engine. My efforts
+have always been directed toward producing an engine giving at
+least one impulse every revolution and, if possible, to start
+without hand labor, just as a steam engine does. My first gas
+engine was running in 1878, and patented and exhibited in 1879. It
+was first exhibited at the Kilburn Royal Agricultural Society's
+show.</p>
+
+<p>This engine was self-starting, gave an ignition at every
+revolution, and ignited without external flame. It consisted of two
+cylinders, a motor, and a compressing pump, with a small
+intermediate reservoir. Suitable valves introduced the mixture of
+gas and air into the pump, and passed it when compressed from the
+reservoir to the motor cylinder. The igniting arrangement consisted
+of a platinum cage firmly fixed in a valve port; this cage was
+heated in the first instance by a flame of gas and air mixed; it
+became white hot in a few seconds, and then the engine was started
+by opening a valve.</p>
+
+<p>The platinum was kept hot by the heat derived from the
+successive ignitions, and, the engine once started, no further
+external flame was required. I have here one of these platinum
+cages which has been in use. Finding this method not well suited
+for small engines, I produced the engine which is at present in the
+market under my name.</p>
+
+<p>The cycle is different, and is designed for greater simplicity
+and the avoidance of back ignitions. It also consists of two
+cylinders, motor cylinder and the displace or charging cylinder.
+There is no intermediate reservoir. The displace crank leads the
+motor by a right angle, and takes into it the mixed charge of gas
+and air, in some cases taking air alone during the latter part of
+its stroke.</p>
+
+<p>The motor on the outstroke crosses V-shaped parts about from
+one-sixth to one-seventh from the out end, the displacer charge now
+passing into the motor cylinder, displacing the exhaust gases by
+these ports and filling the cylinder and the space at the end of it
+with the explosive mixture. The introduction of some air in advance
+of the charge serves the double purpose of cooling down the exhaust
+gases and preventing direct contact of the inflammable mixture with
+flame which may linger in the cylinder from the previous stroke.
+The instroke of the motor compresses the charge into the conical
+space at the end of the cylinder, and, when fully compressed,
+ignition is effected by means of the slide I have upon the
+table.</p>
+
+<p>This system of ignition has been found very reliable, and
+capable of acting as often as 400 times per minute, which the Otto
+ignite is quite incapable of doing. By this cycle the advantages of
+compression are gained and one step nearer to the steam engine is
+attained, that is, an impulse is given for every revolution of the
+engine.</p>
+
+<p>As a consequence, I am able with my engine to give a greater
+amount of power for a comparatively small weight. In addition to
+this, I have introduced a method of self-starting; in this I
+believe I was the first&mdash;about 100 of my engines are now using
+self-starting.</p>
+
+<p>The largest single engine I have yet made indicates 30 H.P. The
+consumption of gas in Glasgow is: Clerk engine consumes in Glasgow
+18 cubic feet per I.H.P. per hour; Clerk engine consumes in
+Manchester 22 cubic feet per I.H.P. per hour. So far as I know, the
+Otto engine and my own are the only compression engines which have
+as yet made any success in the market. Other engines are being
+continually prepared, gas engine patents being taken out just now
+at the rate of 60 per annum, but none of them have been able as yet
+to get beyond the experimental stage. The reason is simply the
+great experience necessary to produce these machines, which seem so
+very simple; but to the inexperienced inventor the subject fairly
+bristles with pitfalls.</p>
+
+<p>I have here sections of some of the earlier engines, including
+Dr. Siemens' and Messrs. Simon and Beechy. Although interesting and
+containing many good points, these have not been practically
+successful.</p>
+
+<p>The Simon engine is an adaptation of the well-known American
+petroleum motor, the Brayton, the only difference consisting in the
+use of steam as well as flame.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Siemens worked for some twenty years on gas engines, but he
+aimed rather high at first to attain even moderate success. Had he
+lived, I doubt not but that he would have succeeded in introducing
+them for large powers. In 1882 he informed me that he had in hand a
+set of gas engines of some hundreds of horse power for use on board
+ship, to be supplied with gas from one of his gas producers
+modified to suit the altered conditions.</p>
+
+<p>Summarizing the ground over which we have passed, we find the
+origin of the gas engine in the minds of the same men as were first
+to propose the steam engine, Huyghens and Papin, 1680 and 1690.
+Greater mechanical difficulties and ignorance of the nature of
+explosives caused the abandonment of the internal combustion idea,
+and the mechanical difficulties with steam being less, the steam
+engine became successful, and triumphed over its rival. The
+knowledge and skill gained in the construction of steam engines
+made it possible once again to attack the more difficult problem,
+and simultaneously with the introduction and perfecting of the
+steam engine, the gas engine idea became more and more possible,
+the practicable stage commencing with Lenoir and continuing with
+Hugon, Millein, Otto and Langen, F.H. Wenham, then Otto and Clerk.
+In 1860, 95 cubic feet of gas produced one horse power for an hour;
+in 1867, 40 cubic feet accomplished the same thing; and now (1885)
+we can get one horse power for an hour for from 15 to 20 cubic feet
+of gas, depending on the size of the engine used.</p>
+
+<p>Considered as a heat engine, the gas engine is now twice as
+efficient as the very best modern steam engine. It is true the fuel
+used at present is more expensive than coal, and for large powers
+the steam engine is the best because of this. But the way is
+clearing to change this. Gas engines as at present, if supplied
+with producer gas, produced direct from coal without leaving any
+coke, as is done in the Siemens, the Wilson, and the Dawson
+producers, will give power at one-half the cost of steam power.
+They will use &#8542; of a pound of coal per horse power per hour,
+instead of 1&frac34; lb., as is done in the best steam engines. The
+only producer that makes gas for gas engines at present is the
+Dawson, and in it anthracite is used, because of the difficulty of
+getting rid of the tar coming from the Siemens and Wilson
+producers, using any ordinary slack.</p>
+
+<p>When this difficulty has been overcome, and that it will be
+overcome there can be no manner of doubt, gas engines will rapidly
+displace the steam engine, because a gas engine with a gas
+producer, producing gas from any ordinary coal with the same ease
+as steam is produced from a boiler, will be much safer, and will
+use one-half the fuel of the very best steam engines for equal
+power. The first cost also will not be greater than that of steam.
+The engine itself will be more expensive than a steam engine of
+equal power, but the gas producer will be less expensive than the
+boiler at present. Perfect as the gas engine now is, considered as
+a machine for converting heat into work, the possibility of great
+development is not yet exhausted. Its economy may be increased two
+or even three fold; in this lies the brilliant future before it.
+The steam engine is nearly as perfect as it can be made; it
+approaches very nearly the possibility of its theory. Its defect
+does not lie in its mechanism, but in the very properties of water
+and steam itself. The loss of heat which takes place in converting
+liquid water into gaseous steam is so great that by far the greater
+portion of the heat given out by the fuel passes away either in the
+condenser or the exhaust of a steam engine; but a small proportion
+of the heat is converted into work.</p>
+
+<p>The very best steam engines convert about 11 per cent. of the
+heat given them into useful work, the remaining 89 per cent. being
+wasted, principally in the exhaust of the engine.</p>
+
+<p>Gas engines now convert 20 per cent. of the heat given to them
+into work, and very probably will, in a few years more, convert 60
+per cent. into useful work. The conclusion, then, is irresistible
+that, when engineers have gained greater experience with gas
+engines and gas producers, they will displace steam engines
+entirely for every use&mdash;mills, locomotives, and ships.</p>
+
+<a name="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1">[1]</a>
+
+<div class="note">Lecture by Mr. Dugald Clerk, before the Literary
+and Philosophical Society, Oldham.</div>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="4"></a></p>
+
+<h2>RAPID CONSTRUCTION OF THE CANADIAN PACIFIC RAILWAY.</h2>
+
+<h3>By E.T. ABBOTT, Member of the Engineers' Club of Minnesota.
+Read December 12, 1884.</h3>
+
+<p>During the winter of 1881 and 1882, the contract was let to
+Messrs. Langdon, Sheppard &amp; Co., of Minneapolis, to construct
+during the working season of the latter year, or prior to January
+1, 1883, 500 miles of railroad on the western extension of the
+above company; the contract being for the grading, bridging,
+track-laying, and surfacing, also including the laying of the
+necessary depot sidings and their grading. The idea that any such
+amount of road could be built in that country in that time was
+looked upon by the writer hereof, as well as by railroad men
+generally, as a huge joke, perpetrated to gull the Canadians. At
+the time the contract was let, the Canadian Pacific Railway was in
+operation to Brandon, the crossing of the Assiniboine River, 132
+miles west of Winnipeg. The track was laid, however, to a point
+about 50 miles west of this, and the grading done generally in an
+unfinished state for thirty miles further. This was the condition
+of things when the contract was entered into to build 500
+miles&mdash;the east end of the 500-mile contract being at Station
+4,660 (Station 0 being at Brandon) and extending west to a few
+miles beyond the Saskatchewan River.</p>
+
+<p>The spring of 1882 opened in the most unpromising manner for
+railroad operations, being the wettest ever known in that country.
+Traffic over the St. Paul, Minneapolis &amp; Manitoba Railroad,
+between St. Paul and Winnipeg, was entirely suspended from April 15
+to the 28th, owing to the floods on the Red River at St. Vincent
+and Emerson, a serious blow to an early start, as on this single
+track depended the transportation of all supplies, men, timber, and
+contractors' plant, together with all track materials (except
+ties), all of these things having to come from or through St. Paul
+and Minneapolis. The writer hereof was appointed a division
+engineer, and reported at Winnipeg the 15th of April, getting
+through on the last train before the St. Vincent flood. No sooner
+was the line open from St. Paul to Winnipeg than the cotillon
+opened between Winnipeg and Brandon, with a succession of washouts
+that defied and defeated all efforts to get trains over, so it was
+not until the fifth day of May that I left Winnipeg to take charge
+of the second division of 30 miles.</p>
+
+<p>By extremely "dizzy" speed I was landed at the end of the track,
+180 miles from Winnipeg, on the evening of the 9th (4 days). My
+outfit consisted of three assistant engineers and the necessary
+paraphernalia for three complete camps, 30 days' provisions (which
+turned out to be about 20), 11 carts and ponies, the latter being
+extremely poor after a winter's diet on buffalo grass and no grain.
+On the 18th day of May I had my division organized and camps in
+running order. The country was literally under water, dry ground
+being the exception, and I look upon the feat of getting across the
+country at all as the engineering triumph of my life.</p>
+
+<p>On May 20 a genuine blizzard set in, lasting 24 hours, snowed
+five inches, and froze the sloughs over with half an inch of ice, a
+decidedly interesting event to the writer, as he was 18 miles from
+the nearest wood, therefore lay in his blankets and ate hard tack.
+I stabled my ponies in the cook tent, and after they had literally
+eaten of the sod inside the tent, I divided my floor with them.</p>
+
+<p>On 28th day of May I saw the first contractor, who broke ground
+at station 7,150. On the 1st of June I was relieved from this
+division, and ordered to take the next, 50 miles west. On the 13th
+day of June ground was broken on this division, at station 8,070,
+or only about 62 miles west of the east end of the 500-mile
+contract. It looked at this time as though they might build 150
+miles, but not more. But from this time on very rapid progress was
+made. On July 17 the track reached station 7,000, making however up
+to this time but about 50 miles of track-laying, including that
+laid on the old grade; but large forces were put on to surfacing,
+and the track already laid was put in excellent condition for
+getting material to the front. The weather from this until the
+freezing-up was all that could be desired. Work ceased about the
+1st of January, 1883, for the season, and the final estimate for
+the work was as follows: 6,103,986 cubic yards earth excavation,
+2,395,750 feet B.M. timber in bridges and the culverts, 85,708
+lineal feet piling, 435 miles of track-laying. This work was all
+done in 182 working days, including stormy ones, when little, if
+anything, could be done, making a daily average of 33,548 yards
+excavation, 13,150 feet B.M. timber, 471 feet piling, 2-38/100
+miles track-laying. We never had an accurate force report made of
+the whole line, but roughly there were employed 5,000 men and 1,700
+teams.</p>
+
+<p>The admirable organization of the contractors was something
+wonderful. The grading work was practically all done by
+sub-contractors, Messrs. Langdon, Sheppard &amp; Co. confining
+themselves to putting in the supplies and doing the bridge work,
+surfacing, and track-laying. The grading forces were scattered
+along about 150 miles ahead of the track and supply stores,
+established about 50 miles apart, and in no case were
+sub-contractors expected to haul supplies over 100 miles. If I
+remember rightly, there were four trains of about forty wagons
+each, hauling supplies from the end of track to the stores.</p>
+
+<p>As can be readily seen, the vital point of the whole work, and
+the problem to solve, was food for men and horses. 1,700 bushels of
+oats every day and 15,000 pounds of provisions, Sundays and all,
+for an entire season, which at the beginning of the work had to
+come about 170 miles by rail, and then be taken from 50 to 150
+miles by teams across a wilderness, is on the face of it
+considerable of an undertaking, to say nothing about hauling the
+pile-drivers, piles, and bridge-timber there. To keep from delaying
+the track, sidings 1,500 feet long were graded, about 7 miles
+apart. A side-track crew, together with an engine, four flats, and
+caboose, were always in readiness; and as soon as a siding was
+reached, in five hours the switches would be in, and the next day
+it would be surfaced and all in working order, when the operating
+department would fill it with track material and supplies. From the
+head of the siding to the end of the track the ground was in hands
+of track-laying engine, never going back of the last siding for
+supplies or material, and my recollection is that there were but
+six hours' delay to the track from lack of material the whole
+season, at any rate up to some time in November. The track-laying
+crew was equal to 4 miles per day, and in the month of August 92
+miles of track were laid. The ties were cut on the line of the road
+about 100 miles east of Winnipeg, so the shortest distance any ties
+were hauled was 270 miles; the actual daily burden of the single
+track from Winnipeg west was 24 cars steel, 24 cars ties, aside
+from the transportation of grain and provisions, bridge material,
+and lumber for station houses. The station buildings were kept
+right up by the company itself, and a depot built with rooms for
+the agent every 15 miles, or at every second siding. The importance
+of keeping the buildings up with the track was impressed on the
+mind of the superintendent of this branch, and, as a satire, he
+telegraphed asking permission to haul his stuff ahead of the track
+by teams, he being on the track-layers' heels with his stations and
+tanks the whole season. The telegraph line was also built, and kept
+right up to the end of the track, three or four miles being the
+furthest they were at any time behind.</p>
+
+<p>It might be supposed that work done so rapidly would not be well
+done, but it is the best built prairie road I know of on this
+continent. It is built almost entirely free from cuts, and the work
+is at least 20 per cent. heavier than would ordinarily be made
+across the same country in the States, on account of snow. 2,640
+ties were laid to the mile, and the track ballasting kept well up
+with the laying; so well, in fact, and so well done, that as 100
+mile sections were completed schedule trains were put on 20 miles
+an hour, and the operating department had nothing to do but make a
+time table; the road was <i>built</i> by the construction
+department before the operating department was asked to take it.
+The engineering was organized in divisions of 30 miles each, and as
+each was finished the parties moved ahead again to the front, the
+engineers usually finding men sitting on their shovels waiting for
+the work to be laid out for them. It was as much as the locating
+parties could do to keep out of the way of the construction. The
+roadbed was built 14 ft. wide in embankment and 20 in the very few
+cuts there were, there being no cuts of any moment except through
+the Coteaus and the Saskatchewan crossing, and these have since
+been widened out on account of snow, so that the road can be
+operated the year round and the bucking-snow account cut no figure
+in the operating expenses.</p>
+
+<p>The country is a virgin desert. From Winnipeg to the Pacific
+Ocean there are a few places that might attain to the dignity of an
+<i>oasis</i>&mdash;at Brandon, Portage la Prairie, etc.&mdash;but
+it is generally what I should call worthless; 100 miles to wood and
+100 feet to water was the general experience west of the Moose jaw,
+and the months of June, July, and August are the only three in the
+year that it is safe to bet you will not have sleighing. I burned
+wood and used stakes that were hauled by carts 85 miles, and none
+any nearer. It is a matter of some pride that both the engineering
+and the construction were done by what our Canadian neighbors
+kindly termed "Yankee importations." However, there was one thing
+that in the building of this road was in marked contrast to any
+other Pacific road ever constructed, that is, there was no
+lawlessness, no whisky, and not even a knock-down fight that I ever
+heard of the whole season, and even in the midst of 12,000 Indians,
+all armed with Winchester rifles and plenty of ammunition, not one
+of the locating or construction parties ever had a military escort,
+nor were any depredations ever committed, except the running off of
+a few horses, which were usually recovered; and I think there were
+but two fatal accidents during the season, one man killed on the
+Grand Coule Bridge, and another from being kicked by a horse.</p>
+
+<p>The track was all laid from one end, and in no case were rails
+hauled ahead by teams. Two iron cars were used, the empty returning
+one being turned up beside the track to let the loaded one by.</p>
+
+<p>The feat in rapid construction accomplished by this company will
+never be duplicated, done as it was by a reckless expenditure of
+money, the orders to the engineers being to <i>get there</i>
+regardless of expense and horse-flesh; if you killed a horse by
+hard driving, his harness would fit another, and there was no
+scrutiny bestowed on vouchers when the work was done; and I must
+pay the tribute to the company to say that everything that money
+would buy was sent to make the engineers comfortable. It was bad
+enough at best, and the Chief Engineer (J.C. James) rightly
+considered that any expense bestowed on the engineering part of the
+work was a good investment.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="5"></a></p>
+
+<h2>THE OSGOOD MAMMOTH EXCAVATOR.</h2>
+
+<p>In the accompanying illustration, we present to our readers a
+mammoth excavator, built by the Osgood Dredge Company of Albany,
+N.Y., for the Pacific Guano Company of California, for uncovering
+their phosphate deposits on Chisholm Island, South Colombia.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/4a.png"><img src=
+"./images/4a_th.jpg" alt=" THE OSGOOD MAMMOTH EXCAVATOR."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">THE OSGOOD MAMMOTH EXCAVATOR.</p>
+
+<p>In order to bring out more clearly the principal problem
+involved in the construction of this machine, we shall state first
+the proposed method of its operation. This is as follows, viz.: The
+excavator is to dig a trench thirty feet wide, down to the
+phosphate rock, and the entire length of the bed&mdash;about one
+quarter of a mile&mdash;dumping the earth of the first cut to one
+side. The phosphate is taken out behind the excavator. On reaching
+the end of the bed, the excavator is reversed and starts back,
+making a second cut thirty feet wide, and dumping now into the cut
+from which the phosphate has just been removed. In this way the
+entire bed is traversed, the excavator turning over the earth in
+great furrows thirty feet wide, and giving an opportunity to
+simultaneously get out all the phosphate.</p>
+
+<p>As will be seen, the main problem presented was to turn the car
+around at each end of the cut in a very limited space. To
+accomplish this, the car is mounted on a fixed axle at each end and
+on a truck under its center of gravity; this is somewhat forward of
+the geometrical center of the car. The frame of the truck is
+circular, thirteen feet in diameter, made of I beams curved to
+shape. The circle carries a track, on which a ring of coned rollers
+revolves, which in turn supports the car. By pulling out the track
+from under both ends of the car, the whole weight is balanced on
+this central turntable truck, thus admitting of the car being
+turned, end for end, within its own length. This method of turning
+the car, and the size of the machine, are the principal
+features.</p>
+
+<p>The car is 40' &times; 13', with arched truss sides. The track
+is seven feet gauge, the spread between tracks 20 feet, the height
+of the A frame 38 feet, length of boom 40 feet, swinging in a
+circle of 30 feet radius, and through two-thirds of the entire
+circle. It has a steel dipper of 46 cubic feet capacity, 1 inch
+steel chains, 10" &times; 12" double cylinder hoisting engine, and
+6&frac14;" &times; 8" double cylinder reversible crowding engine.
+The drums are fitted with friction clutches. Owing to the great
+distance at which the dipper is handled, its size is reduced, and
+because it swings on the arc of so large a circle the capacity of
+this machine is only one-half of that of the No. 1 excavator built
+by the Osgood Dredge Company. Nevertheless it will do the work of
+from 75 to 100 men, since its capacity is from 800 to 1,000 cubic
+yards per day, the amount of rock <i>uncovered</i> depending, of
+course, upon the depth of earth overlying it. The excavator will
+dump 30 feet from the center line of the car, and 26 feet above the
+track, which is laid on the rock. Total weight about fifty tons.
+The crew required for its operation consists of 1 engineer, 1
+fireman, 1 craneman, and 4 to 5 pit men to tend jacks, move track,
+etc.</p>
+
+<p>In the illustration the boiler connections are omitted, also the
+housing for the protection of the crew. The design is characterized
+by the evident care which has been bestowed upon securing
+simplicity and durability.&mdash;<i>American Engineer.</i></p>
+
+<hr>
+<h2>THE OSGOOD EXCAVATOR.</h2>
+
+<p>At a recent meeting of the Engineers' Club of Philadelphia, Mr.
+John C. Trautwine, Jr., exhibited and described drawings of a large
+land dredge built by the Osgood Dredge Co., of Albany, New York,
+for the Pacific Guano Co., to be used in removing 8 to 15 feet of
+material from the phosphate rock at Bull River, S.C.</p>
+
+<p>The more prominent features of the machine are the car-body, the
+water tank, boiler and engine, the A frame (so-called from its
+slight resemblance to the letter A), the boom, the dipper-handle;
+and the dipper, drawings of which were shown and described in
+detail.</p>
+
+<p>Before the excavation is begun, the forward end of the car (the
+end nearest the dipper) is lifted clear of the track by means of 3
+screw-jacks. When the machine has excavated as far in advance of
+itself as the length of the boom and that of the dipper-handle will
+permit, say about 8 feet, the car is again lowered to the track,
+the screw-jacks removed, and the car is moved forward about 8 feet
+by winding the rope upon the drum, the other end of the rope being
+attached to any suitable fixed object near the line of the track.
+The forward end of the car is then again lifted by means of the 3
+screw-jacks, and the digging is resumed. The machine cuts a channel
+from 25 to 35 feet wide, and deposits all the dirt upon one side.
+If necessary, it can dump earth about 25 feet above the track. The
+miners follow in the wake of the machine, getting out the phosphate
+as fast as it is uncovered. When the machine reaches the end of the
+field it is lowered to the track and the screw-jacks are removed.
+Shoes or skids are then placed upon the track, and the wheels of
+the turntable are run up on them. This lifts the end wheels clear
+of the track, so that the car and machine rest entirely upon the
+turntable. By now blocking the turntable wheels and winding up only
+<i>one</i> of the ropes, the car body and the machine are swung
+around end for end. The digging is then resumed in the opposite
+direction, the temporary track, upon which the machine travels,
+being shifted to one side, so that the second channel is made
+alongside of the first. The earth removed in cutting this second
+channel is dumped into the first channel, the phosphate (as stated
+above) having been first removed.</p>
+
+<p>The dipper is of plate steel, and holds 1&frac34; cubic yards of
+earth when even full.</p>
+
+<p>The machine is manned by an engineer, a fireman, and a
+dipper-tender, besides which from five to ten laborers are
+required. These look after the track, etc.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="6"></a></p>
+
+<h2>CAPSTAN NAVIGATION ON THE VOLGA.</h2>
+
+<p>On several of the large rivers on the Continent, with rapid
+currents, cable towage has been introduced in addition to the older
+methods of transporting merchandise by sailing and steam boats or
+by towage with screw or paddle tugs. A chain or wire rope is laid
+on the bottom of the river bed, fixed to anchors at the ends and
+passed over a chain pulley driven by the steam engine and guided by
+pulleys on the steam tug, the tug lifting it out of the water at
+the bow and dropping it over the stern and winding itself with the
+barges attached to it along the chain, the latter being utilized as
+a rule only for the up journey, while down the river the tugs are
+propelled by paddles or screws, and can tow a sufficient number of
+barges with the assistance of the current. The system has been
+found advantageous, as, although the power required for drawing the
+barges and tugs against the current is of course the same in all
+cases, the slip and waste of power by screws and paddles is
+avoided. The size of the screws or paddles is also limited by the
+nature of the river and its traffic, and with cable towage a larger
+number of barges can be hauled, while the progress made is definite
+and there is no drifting back, as occurs with paddle or screw tugs
+when they have temporarily to slow or stop their engines on account
+of passing vessels. Several streams, as the Elbe, Rhine, and Rhone,
+have now such cables laid for long distances in those parts of the
+rivers where the traffic is sufficient to warrant the adoption of
+the system. While this has been introduced only during the last 16
+or 18 years, a similar method of transporting merchandise has been
+in use in Russia on the river Volga for upward of 40 years.
+Navigation on this river is interrupted for about half the year by
+the ice, and the traffic is of larger amount only during part of
+the summer, while the length of the river itself is very great, so
+that laying down permanent cables would not pay; while, on the
+other hand, the current is so strong that towage of some sort must
+be resorted to for the transport of large quantities. The problem
+has been solved by the introduction of the capstan navigation or
+towage.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/4b.png"><img src=
+"./images/4b_th.jpg" alt=" CAPSTAN NAVIGATION ON THE VOLGA.">
+</a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">CAPSTAN NAVIGATION ON THE VOLGA.</p>
+
+<p>There are two kinds of capstans in use, one actuated by
+horse-power and the other by steam engines. A horse capstan boat
+carries according to size 150 to 200 horses, which are stabled in
+the hold. On deck a number of horse gears are arranged at which the
+horses work. The power of the separate gears is transmitted to a
+main shaft, which is connected to the drums that wind on the rope.
+The horses work under an awning to protect them from the burning
+sunshine, and are changed every three hours. Eight and sometimes
+ten horses work at each horse gear. The horses are changed without
+interruption of the work, the gears being disengaged from the main
+shaft in rotation and the horses taken out and put in while the
+gear is standing. The horses are bought at the place of departure
+in the south of Russia and resold at the destination, usually
+Nishny-Novgorod, at a fair profit, the capstan boat carrying fodder
+and provender for the attendants. The capstan is accompanied by a
+steam launch which carries the anchor and hawser forward in advance
+of the capstan. The latter has a diameter of as much as 5 in., and
+is two to three miles in length. The anchor is dropped by the tug
+and the hawser carried back to the capstan, where it is attached to
+one of the rope drums, and the boat with the barges attached to it
+towed along by the horse gears described above winding on the
+hawser. The advance continues without interruption day and night,
+the launch taking a second anchor and hawser forward and dropping
+the anchor in advance of the first by a hawser's length, so that
+when the capstan has wound up the first hawser it finds a second
+one ready for attachment to the rope drum. The launch receives the
+first hawser, picks up the anchor, and passes the capstan to drop
+it again in advance of the anchor previously placed, and carries
+the hawser back to the capstan, and so on. A capstan tows twelve or
+more barges, placed in twos or threes beside and close behind each
+other, with a load of a million pounds, or about 16,000 to 17,000
+tons. From Astrachan and the mouth of the Kama the capstans make
+during the season from the beginning of May to the end of July in
+the most favorable case two journeys to the fair of
+Nishny-Novgorod; after this time no more journeys are made, as the
+freights are wanting. At the end of the up-stream journey the
+horses are sold, as mentioned before, and the capstan towed down
+stream by the steam launch to Astrachan or the Kama mouth, where
+meanwhile a fresh lot of barges has been loaded and got ready, a
+new supply of horses is bought, and the operation repeated.</p>
+
+<p>Besides these horse capstans there are steam capstans which are
+less complicated and have condensing steam engines of about 100
+horse power, the power being transmitted by gearing to the rope
+drum. The rope drum shaft projects on both sides beyond the boards
+of the boat, and for the return journey paddle wheels, are put on
+to assist the launch in towing the clumsy and big capstan boat down
+the river. The steam capstans tow considerably larger masses of
+goods than the horse capstans and also travel somewhat quicker, so
+that the launch has scarcely sufficient time to drop and raise the
+anchors and also to make double the journey. We do not doubt that
+this system of towage might with suitable modifications be
+advantageously employed on the large rivers in America and
+elsewhere for the slow transport of large quantities of raw
+materials and other bulky merchandise, a low speed being, as is
+well known, much more economical than a high speed, as many of the
+resistances increase as the square and even higher powers of the
+velocity.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="7"></a></p>
+
+<h2>STEAMBOAT EQUIPMENT OF WAR VESSELS.</h2>
+
+<p>The larger ships in the navy, and some of the more recent small
+ones, such as the new cruisers of the Phaeton class, are fitted
+with powerful steam winches of a type made by Messrs. Belliss and
+Co. These are used for lifting the pinnaces and torpedo boats.</p>
+
+<p>We give an illustration of one of these winches. The cylinders
+are 6 in. in diameter and 10 in. stroke. The barrel is grooved for
+wire rope, and is safe to raise the second class steel torpedo
+boats, weighing nearly 12 tons as lifted. The worm gearing is very
+carefully cut, so that the work can be done quietly and safely.
+With machinery of this kind a boat is soon put into the water, and
+as an arrangement is fitted for filling the boat's boilers with hot
+water from the ship's boilers, the small craft can be under way in
+a very short time from the order being given.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. White is fitting compound engines with outside condensers to
+boats as small as 21 ft. long, and we give a view of a pair of
+compound engines of a new design, which Messrs. Belliss are making
+for the boats of this class. The cylinders are 4 in. and 7 in. in
+diameter by 5 in. stroke. The general arrangement is well shown in
+the engraving. On a trial recently made, a 25 ft. cutter with this
+type of engines reached a speed of 7.4 knots.</p>
+
+<p>About three years ago the late Controller of the Navy, Admiral
+Sir W. Houston Stewart, wished to ascertain the relative
+consumption of fuel in various classes of small vessels. An order
+was accordingly sent to Portsmouth, and a series of trials were
+made. From the official reports of these we extract the information
+contained in tables F and G, and we think the details cannot fail
+to be of interest to our readers. The run around the island was
+made in company with other boats, without stopping, and
+observations were taken every half hour. The power given out by the
+engines was fairly constant throughout. The distance covered was 56
+knots, and the total amount of fuel consumed, including that
+required for raising steam, was 1,218 lb. of coal and 84 lb. of
+wood. The time taken in raising steam to 60 lb. pressure was
+forty-three minutes. The rate of consumption of fuel is of course
+not the lowest that could be obtained, as a speed of over 10 knots
+is higher than that at which the machinery could be worked most
+economically.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/5a.png"><img src=
+"./images/5a_th.jpg" alt=
+" STEAM WINCH FOR HOISTING AND LOWERING PINNACLES AND TORPEDO BOATS.">
+</a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">STEAM WINCH FOR HOISTING AND LOWERING PINNACLES AND
+TORPEDO BOATS.</p>
+
+<p>The trials afterward made to find the best results that could be
+obtained in fuel consumption were rather spoiled by the roughness
+of the weather on the day they were made. The same boat was run for
+10 miles around the measured mile buoys in Stokes Bay. The
+following are some of the results recorded:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=
+"Table F.&mdash;Report of Trials of Engines of H.M. 48 ft. Twin Screw Steam Pinnace, No. 110."
+ title=
+"&lt;i&gt;Table F.&mdash;Report of Trials of Engines of H.M. 48 ft. Twin Screw Steam Pinnace, No. 110.&lt;/i&gt;">
+<tr>
+<th colspan="4"><i>Table F.&mdash;Report of Trials of Engines of
+H.M. 48 ft. Twin Screw Steam Pinnace, No. 110.</i></th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Date</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>August 4, 1881.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Where tried</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>Round the Isle of Wight</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left' rowspan="2">Draught of water</td>
+<td align='left'>Forward</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>3 ft. &frac12; in.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Aft</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>3 ft. 6&frac12; in.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Average boiler pressure</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>104.81 lb.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left' rowspan="2">Average pressure in receivers</td>
+<td align='left'>Starboard</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>16.27 lb.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Port</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>16.54 lb.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Mean air pressure in stokehold</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>1.4 in. water.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Vacuum in condenser, average</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>26.72 in.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Weather barometer</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>30.37 in.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left' rowspan="2">Revolutions per minute</td>
+<td align='left'>Starboard</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>240.75</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Port</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>251.95</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left' rowspan="4">Mean pressure in cylinders</td>
+<td align='left' rowspan="2">Starboard</td>
+<td align='left'>High&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>45.33 lb.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Low</td>
+<td align='left'>16.16 lb.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left' rowspan="2">Port</td>
+<td align='left'>High</td>
+<td align='left'>43.16 lb.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Low</td>
+<td align='left'>15.3 lb.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left' rowspan="5">Indicated horse-power</td>
+<td align='left' rowspan="2">Starboard</td>
+<td align='left'>High</td>
+<td align='left'>18.20 lb.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Low</td>
+<td align='left'>16.32 lb.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left' rowspan="2">Port</td>
+<td align='left'>High</td>
+<td align='left'>18.13 lb.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Low</td>
+<td align='left'>16.17 lb.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Collective Total</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>68.82 lb.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Speed by log</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>10.18 knots.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Force of wind</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>One.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Sea</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>Smooth.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Quantity of coal on board</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>1 ton.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Description</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>Nixon's navigation.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Consumption per indicated horse-power per
+hour</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>4.17 lb.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Time under way</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>5 hrs. 30 min.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<br>
+<hr>
+<br>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=
+"Table G.&mdash;Report of Trial of Engines of H.M. 48 ft. Steam Pinnace No. 110.">
+<tr>
+<th colspan="4"><i>Table G.&mdash;Report of Trial of Engines of
+H.M. 48 ft. Steam Pinnace No. 110.</i></th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>When tried</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>August 3, 1881.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Where tried</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>Stokes Bay.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left' rowspan="2">Draught</td>
+<td align='left'>Forward</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>3 ft. 1 in.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Aft</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>3 ft. 3&frac14; in.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Average boiler pressure</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>55.52 lb.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Vacuum</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>25.12 in.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Weather barometer</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>30.35 in.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Revolutions per minute</td>
+<td align='left'>starboard</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>165.54</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'>port</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>161.55</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left' rowspan="5">Indicated horse-power<a name=
+"FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2"><sup>[2]</sup></a></td>
+<td align='left' rowspan="2">Starboard</td>
+<td align='left'>High&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>5.05</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Low</td>
+<td align='left'>5.53</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left' rowspan="2">Port</td>
+<td align='left'>High</td>
+<td align='left'>3.75</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Low</td>
+<td align='left'>4.02</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Collective Total</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>18.35</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Speed of vessel by log (approximate)</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>7.404</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left' rowspan="2">Wind</td>
+<td align='left'>Force</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>4 to 5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Direction</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>Bow and Quarter.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>State of sea</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>Rough.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>In connection with this subject it may perhaps be of interest to
+give particulars of a French and American steam launch; these we
+extract from the United States official report before
+mentioned.</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=
+"&lt;i&gt;Steam Launch of the French Steamer Mouche.&lt;/i&gt;">
+<tr>
+<th colspan="2"><i>Steam Launch of the French Steamer
+Mouche.</i></th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Length on low water level</td>
+<td align='left'>27 ft. 10&frac12; in.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Breadth</td>
+<td align='left'>5 ft. 11 in.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Depth to rabbet of keel</td>
+<td align='left'>3 ft. 3&#8531; in.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Draught of water aft</td>
+<td align='left'>2 ft. 1&frac12; in.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Weight of hull and fittings</td>
+<td align='left'>2,646 lb.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Weight of machinery with water in
+boiler&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>3,473 lb.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The boat is built of wood, and coppered. The engine consists of
+one non-condensing cylinder, 7&frac12; in. in diameter and 5.9 in.
+stroke. The boiler has 4.3 square feet of grate surface. The screw
+is 21&#8532; in. in diameter by 43.3 in, pitch. The speed is 7
+knots per hour obtained with 245 revolutions per minute, the slip
+being 19.7 per cent. of the speed.</p>
+
+<p>The United States navy steam cutters built at the Philadelphia
+navy yard are of the following dimensions:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=
+"Dimensions of Navy Steam Cutters">
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Length</td>
+<td align='left'>27 ft. 7&frac12; in.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Breadth</td>
+<td align='left'>7 ft. 10 in.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Depth to rabbet of keel</td>
+<td align='left'>3 ft. 11&frac34; in.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Displacement (to two feet above rabbet of
+keel)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>5.96 tons.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Weight of hull and fittings</td>
+<td align='left'>4,675 lb.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Weight of engine</td>
+<td align='left'>1,240 lb.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Weight of boiler</td>
+<td align='left'>3,112 lb.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Weight of water in boiler and tanks</td>
+<td align='left'>2,696 lb.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The engine has a single cylinder 8 in. in diameter and 8 in.
+stroke of piston. The screw is four bladed, 4 in. long and 31 in.
+in diameter by 45 in. pitch. The following is the performance at
+draught of water 2 feet above rabbet of keel:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=
+"Performance of engine">
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Boiler pressure</td>
+<td align='left'>90 lb.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Revolutions</td>
+<td align='left'>353</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Speed</td>
+<td align='left'>7.8 knots.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Indicated horse power.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>53</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>These boats are of 1870 type, but may be taken as typical of a
+large number of steam cutters in the United States navy. The naval
+authorities have, however, been lately engaged in extensive
+experiments with compound condensing engines in small boats, and
+the results have proved so conclusively the advantages of the
+latter system that it will doubtless be largely adopted in
+future.&mdash;<i>Engineer.</i></p>
+
+<a name="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2">[2]</a>
+
+<div class="note">In consequence of the seas breaking over the
+boat, a large number of diagrams were destroyed, and, on account of
+the roughness of the weather, cards were only taken with the
+greatest difficulty. The records of power developed are therefore
+not put forward as authoritative.</div>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="8"></a></p>
+
+<h2>IMPROVED STEAM TRAP.</h2>
+
+<p>The illustrations we give represent an expansion trap by Mr.
+Hyde, and made by Mr. S. Farron, Ashton-under-Lyne. The general
+appearance of this arrangement is as in Fig. 1 or Fig. 3, the
+center view, Fig. 2, showing what is the cardinal feature of the
+trap, viz., that it contains a collector for silt, sand, or
+sediment which is not, as in most other traps, carried out through
+the valve with the efflux of water. The escape valve also is made
+very large, so that while the trap may be made short, or, in other
+words, the expansion pipe may not be long, a tolerably large area
+of outlet is obtained with the short lift due to the small movement
+of the expansion pipe.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/5b.png"><img src=
+"./images/5b_th.jpg" alt=" IMPROVED STEAM TRAP."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">IMPROVED STEAM TRAP.</p>
+
+<p>The object of a steam trap is for the removal of water of
+condensation without allowing the escape of steam from drying
+apparatus and steam pipes used for heating, power, or other
+purposes. One of the plans employed is by an expansion pipe having
+a valve fixed to its end, so that when the pipe shortens from being
+cooler, due to the presence of the water, the valve opens and
+allows the escape of the water until the steam comes to the trap,
+which, being hotter, lengthens the pipe and closes the valve. Now
+with this kind of trap, and, in fact, with any variety of trap, we
+understand that it has been frequently the experience of the user
+to find his contrivance inoperative because the silt or sand that
+may be present in the pipes has been carried to the valve and
+lodged there by the water, causing it to stick, and with expansion
+traps not to close properly or to work abnormally some way or
+other. The putting of these contrivances to rights involves a
+certain amount of trouble, which is completely obviated by the
+arrangement shown in the annexed engravings, which is certainly a
+simple, strong, and substantial article. The foot of the trap is
+made of cast iron, the seat of the valve being of gun metal, let
+into the diaphragm, cast inside the hollow cylinder. The valve, D,
+is also of gun metal, and passing to outside through a stuffing box
+is connected to the central expansion pipe by a nut at E. The valve
+is set by two brass nuts at the top, so as to be just tight when
+steam hot; if, then, from the presence of water the trap is cooled,
+the pipe contracts and the water escapes. A mud door is provided,
+by which the mud can be removed as required. The silt or dirt that
+may be in the pipes is carried to the trap by the water, and is
+deposited in the cavity, as shown, the water rises, and when the
+valve, D, opens escapes at the pipe, F, and may be allowed to run
+to waste. A pipe is not shown attached to F, but needless to say
+one may be connected and led anywhere, provided the steam pressure
+is sufficient. For this purpose the stuffing-box is provided; it is
+really not required if the water runs to waste, as is represented
+in the engraving. To give our readers some idea of the dimensions
+of the valve, we may say that the smallest size of trap has 1 in.
+expansion pipe and a valve 3 in. diameter, the next size 1&frac14;
+in. expansion pipe and a valve 4&frac12; in. diameter, and the
+largest size has a pipe 1&frac12; in. and a valve 6 in. diameter.
+Altogether, the contrivance has some important practical advantages
+to recommend it.&mdash;<i>Mech. World.</i></p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="9"></a></p>
+
+<h2>CRITICAL METHODS OF DETECTING ERRORS IN PLANE SURFACES.<a name=
+"FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3"><sup>[3]</sup></a></h2>
+
+<h3>By JOHN A. BRASHEAR.</h3>
+
+<p>In our study of the exact methods of measurement in use to-day,
+in the various branches of scientific investigation, we should not
+forget that it has been a plant of very slow growth, and it is
+interesting indeed to glance along the pathway of the past to see
+how step by step our micron of to-day has been evolved from the
+cubit, the hand's breadth, the span, and, if you please, the
+barleycorn of our schoolboy days. It would also be a pleasant task
+to investigate the properties of the gnomon of the Chinese,
+Egyptians, and Peruvians, the scarphie of Eratosthenes, the
+astrolabe of Hipparchus, the parallactic rules of Ptolemy,
+Regimontanus Purbach, and Walther, the sextants and quadrants of
+Tycho Brahe, and the modifications of these various instruments,
+the invention and use of which, from century to century, bringing
+us at last to the telescopic age, or the days of Lippershay,
+Jannsen, and Galileo.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/6a.png"><img src=
+"./images/6a_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 1."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 1.</p>
+
+<p>It would also be a most pleasant task to follow the evolution of
+our subject in the new era of investigation ushered in by the
+invention of that marvelous instrument, the telescope, followed
+closely by the work of Kepler, Scheiner, Cassini, Huyghens, Newton,
+Digges, Nonius, Vernier, Hall, Dollond, Herschel, Short, Bird,
+Ramsden, Troughton, Smeaton, Fraunhofer, and a host of others, each
+of whom has contributed a noble share in the elimination of sources
+of error, until to-day we are satisfied only with units of
+measurement of the most exact and refined nature. Although it would
+be pleasant to review the work of these past masters, it is beyond
+the scope of the present paper, and even now I can only hope to
+call your attention to one phase of this important subject. For a
+number of years I have been practically interested in the subject
+of the production of plane and curved surfaces particularly for
+optical purposes, <i>i.e.</i>, in the production of such surfaces
+free if possible from all traces of error, and it will be pleasant
+to me if I shall be able to add to the interest of this association
+by giving you some of my own practical experience; and may I trust
+that it will be an incentive to all engaged in kindred work <i>to
+do that work well?</i></p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/6b.png"><img src=
+"./images/6b_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 2."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 2.</p>
+
+<p>In the production of a perfectly plane surface, there are many
+difficulties to contend with, and it will not be possible in the
+limits of this paper to discuss the methods of eliminating errors
+when found; but I must content myself with giving a description of
+various methods of detecting existing errors in the surfaces that
+are being worked, whether, for instance, it be an error of
+concavity, convexity, periodic or local error.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/6c.png"><img src=
+"./images/6c_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 3"></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 3</p>
+
+<p>A very excellent method was devised by the celebrated Rosse,
+which is frequently used at the present time; and those eminent
+workers, the Clarks of Cambridge, use a modification of the Rosse
+method which in their hands is productive of the very highest
+results. The device is very simple, consisting of a telescope
+(<i>a</i>, Fig. 1) in which aberrations have been well corrected,
+so that the focal plane of the objective is as sharp as possible.
+This telescope is first directed to a distant object, preferably a
+celestial one, and focused for parallel rays. The surface,
+<i>b</i>, to be tested is now placed so that the reflected image of
+the same object, whatever it may be, can be observed by the same
+telescope. It is evident that if the surface be a true plane, its
+action upon the beam of light that comes from the object will be
+simply to change its direction, but not disturb or change it any
+other way, hence the reflected image of the object should be seen
+by the telescope, <i>a</i>, without in any way changing the
+original focus. If, however, the supposed plane surface proves to
+be <i>convex</i>, the image will not be sharply defined in the
+telescope until the eyepiece is moved <i>away</i> from the object
+glass; while if the converse is the case, and the supposed plane is
+concave, the eyepiece must now be moved <i>toward</i> the objective
+in order to obtain a sharp image, and the amount of convexity or
+concavity may be known by the change in the focal plane. If the
+surface has periodic or irregular errors, no sharp image can be
+obtained, no matter how much the eyepiece may be moved in or
+out.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/6d.png"><img src=
+"./images/6d_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 4"></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 4</p>
+
+<p>This test may be made still more delicate by using the observing
+telescope, <i>a</i>, at as low an angle as possible, thereby
+bringing out with still greater effect any error that may exist in
+the surface under examination, and is the plan generally used by
+Alvan Clark &amp; Sons. Another and very excellent method is that
+illustrated in Fig. 2, in which a second telescope, <i>b</i>, is
+introduced. In place of the eyepiece of this second telescope, a
+diaphragm is introduced in which a number of small holes are
+drilled, as in Fig. 2, <i>x</i>, or a slit is cut similar to the
+slit used in a spectroscope as shown at <i>y</i>, same figure. The
+telescope, <i>a</i>, is now focused very accurately on a celestial
+or other very distant object, and the focus marked. The object
+glass of the telescope, <i>b</i>, is now placed against and
+"square" with the object glass of telescope <i>a</i>, and on
+looking through telescope a an image of the diaphragm with its
+holes or the slit is seen. This diaphragm must now be moved until a
+sharp image is seen in telescope <i>a</i>. The two telescopes are
+now mounted as in Fig. 2, and the plate to be tested placed in
+front of the two telescopes as at <i>c</i>. It is evident, as in
+the former case, that if the surface is a true plane, the reflected
+image of the holes or slit thrown upon it by the telescope,
+<i>b</i>, will be seen sharply defined in the telescope,
+<i>a</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/7a.png"><img src=
+"./images/7a_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 5."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 5.</p>
+
+<p>If any error of convexity exists in the plate, the focal plane
+is disturbed, and the eyepiece must be moved <i>out</i>. If the
+plate is concave, it must be moved <i>in</i> to obtain a sharp
+image. Irregular errors in the plate or surface will produce a
+blurred or indistinct image, and, as in the first instance, no
+amount of focusing will help matters. These methods are both good,
+but are not satisfactory in the highest degree, and two or three
+important factors bar the way to the very best results. One is that
+the aberrations of the telescopes must be perfectly corrected, a
+very difficult matter of itself, and requiring the highest skill of
+the optician. Another, the fact that the human eye will accommodate
+itself to small distances when setting the focus of the observing
+telescope. I have frequently made experiments to find out how much
+this accommodation was in my own case, and found it to amount to as
+much as 1/40 of an inch. This is no doubt partly the fault of the
+telescopes themselves, but unless the eye is rigorously educated in
+this work, it is apt to accommodate itself to a small amount, and
+will invariably do so if there is a preconceived notion or bias
+<i>in the direction of the accommodation</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/7b.png"><img src=
+"./images/7b_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 6."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 6.</p>
+
+<p>Talking with Prof. C.A. Young a few months since on this
+subject, he remarked that he noticed that the eye grew more exact
+in its demands as it grew older, in regard to the focal point. A
+third and very serious objection to the second method is caused by
+diffraction from the edges of the holes or the slit. Let me explain
+this briefly. When light falls upon a slit, such as we have here,
+it is turned out of its course; as the slit has two edges, and the
+light that falls on either side is deflected both right and left,
+the rays that cross from the right side of the slit toward the
+left, and from the left side of the slit toward the right, produce
+interference of the wave lengths, and when perfect interference
+occurs, dark lines are seen. You can have a very pretty
+illustration of this by cutting a fine slit in a card and holding
+it several inches from the eye, when the dark lines caused by a
+total extinction of the light by interference may be seen.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/7c.png"><img src=
+"./images/7c_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 7."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 7.</p>
+
+<p>If now you look toward the edge of a gas or lamp flame; you will
+see a series of colored bands, that bring out the phenomenon of
+partial interference. This experiment shows the difficulty in
+obtaining a perfect focus of the holes or the slit in the
+diaphragm, as the interference fringes are always more or less
+annoying. Notwithstanding these defects of the two systems I have
+mentioned, in the hands of the practical workman they are
+productive of very good results, and very many excellent surfaces
+have been made by their use, and we are not justified in ignoring
+them, because they are the stepping stones to lead us on to better
+ones. In my early work Dr. Draper suggested a very excellent plan
+for testing a flat surface, which I briefly describe. It is a well
+known truth that, if an artificial star is placed in the exact
+center of curvature of a truly spherical mirror, and an eyepiece be
+used to examine the image close beside the source of light, the
+star will be sharply defined, and will bear very high
+magnification. If the eyepiece is now drawn toward the observer,
+the star disk begins to expand; and if the mirror be a truly
+spherical one, the expanded disk will be equally illuminated,
+except the outer edge, which usually shows two or more light and
+dark rings, due to diffraction, as already explained.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/7d.png"><img src=
+"./images/7d_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 8."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 8.</p>
+
+<p>Now if we push the eyepiece toward the mirror the same distance
+on the opposite side of the true focal plane, precisely the same
+appearance will be noted in the expanded star disk. If we now place
+our plane surface any where in the path of the rays from the great
+mirror, we should have identically the same phenomena repeated. Of
+course it is presumed, and is necessary, that the plane mirror
+shall be much less in area than the spherical mirror, else the beam
+of light from the artificial star will be shut off, yet I may here
+say that any one part of a truly spherical mirror will act just as
+well as the whole surface, there being of course a loss of light
+according to the area of the mirror shut off.</p>
+
+<p>This principle is illustrated in Fig. 3, where <i>a</i> is the
+spherical mirror, <i>b</i> the source of light, <i>c</i> the
+eyepiece as used when the plane is not interposed, <i>d</i> the
+plane introduced into the path at an angle of 45&deg; to the
+central beam, and <i>e</i> the position of eyepiece when used the
+with the plane. When the plane is not in the way, the converging
+beam goes back to the eyepiece, <i>c</i>. When the plane, <i>d</i>,
+is introduced, the beam is turned at a right angle, and if it is a
+perfect surface, not only does the focal plane remain exactly of
+the same length, but the expanded star disks, are similar on either
+side of the focal plane.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/7e.png"><img src=
+"./images/7e_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 9."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 9.</p>
+
+<p>I might go on to elaborate this method, to show how it may be
+made still more exact, but as it will come under the discussion of
+spherical surfaces, I will leave it for the present. Unfortunately
+for this process, it demands a large truly spherical surface, which
+is just as difficult of attainment as any form of regular surface.
+We come now to an instrument that does not depend upon optical
+means for detecting errors of surface, namely, the spherometer,
+which as the name would indicate means sphere measure, but it is
+about as well adapted for plane as it is for spherical work, and
+Prof. Harkness has been, using one for some time past in
+determining the errors of the plane mirrors used in the transit of
+Venus photographic instruments. At the meeting of the American
+Association of Science in Philadelphia, there was quite a
+discussion as to the relative merits of the spherometer test and
+another form which I shall presently mention, Prof. Harkness
+claiming that he could, by the use of the spherometer, detect
+errors bordering closely on one five-hundred-thousandth of an inch.
+Some physicists express doubt on this, but Prof. Harkness has no
+doubt worked with very sensitive instruments, and over very small
+areas at one time.</p>
+
+<p>I have not had occasion to use this instrument in my own work,
+as a more simple, delicate, and efficient method was at my command,
+but for one measurement of convex surfaces I know of nothing that
+can take its place. I will briefly describe the method of using
+it.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/7f.png"><img src=
+"./images/7f_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 10."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 10.</p>
+
+<p>The usual form of the instrument is shown in Fig. 4; <i>a</i> is
+a steel screw working in the nut of the stout tripod frame,
+<i>b</i>; <i>c c c</i> are three legs with carefully prepared
+points; <i>d</i> is a divided standard to read the whole number of
+revolutions of the screw, <i>a</i>, the edge of which also serves
+the purpose of a pointer to read off the division on the top of the
+milled head, <i>e</i>. Still further refinement may be had by
+placing a vernier here. To measure a plane or curved surface with
+this instrument, a perfect plane or perfect spherical surface of
+known radius must be used to determine the zero point of the
+division. Taking for granted that we have this standard plate, the
+spherometer is placed upon it, and the readings of the divided head
+and indicator, <i>d</i>, noted when the point of the screw,
+<i>a</i>, just touches the surface, <i>f</i>. Herein, however, lies
+the great difficulty in using this instrument, <i>i.e.</i>, to know
+the exact instant of contact of the point of screw, <i>a</i>, on
+the surface, <i>f</i>. Many devices have been added to the
+spherometer to make it as sensitive as possible, such as the
+contact level, the electric contact, and the compound lever
+contact. The latter is probably the best, and is made essentially
+as in Fig. 5.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/7g.png"><img src=
+"./images/7g_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 11."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 11.</p>
+
+<p>I am indebted for this plan to Dr. Alfred Mayer. As in the
+previous figure, <i>a</i> is the screw; this screw is bored out,
+and a central steel pin turned to fit resting on a shoulder at
+<i>c</i>. The end of <i>d</i> projects below the screw, <i>a</i>,
+and the end, <i>e</i>, projects above the milled head, and the
+knife edge or pivot point rests against the lever, <i>f</i>, which
+in turn rests against the long lever, <i>g</i>, the point,
+<i>h</i>, of which moves along the division at <i>j</i>. It is
+evident that if the point of the pin just touches the plate, no
+movement of the index lever, <i>g</i>, will be seen; but if any
+pressure be applied, the lever will move through a multiplied arc,
+owing to the short fulcri of the two levers. Notwithstanding all
+these precautions, we must also take into account the flexure of
+the material, the elasticity of the points of contact, and other
+idiosyncrasies, and you can readily see that practice alone in an
+instrument so delicate will bring about the very best results. Dr.
+Alfred Mayer's method of getting over the great difficulty of
+knowing when all four points are in contact is quite simple. The
+standard plate is set on the box, <i>g</i>, Fig. 4, which acts as a
+resonater. The screw, <i>a</i>, is brought down until it touches
+the plate. When the pressure of the screw is enough to lift off
+either or all of the legs, and the plate is gently tapped with the
+finger, a <i>rattle</i> is heard, which is the tell-tale of
+imperfect contact of all the points. The screw is now reversed
+gently and slowly until the <i>moment</i> the rattle ceases, and
+then the reading is taken. Here the sense of hearing is brought
+into play. This is also the case when the electric contact is used.
+This is so arranged that the instant of touching of the point of
+screw, <i>a</i>, completes the electric circuit, in which an
+electromagnet of short thick wire is placed. At the moment of
+contact, or perhaps a little before contact, the bell rings, and
+the turning of the screw must be instantly stopped. Here are
+several elements that must be remembered. First, it takes time to
+set the bell ringing, time for the sound to pass to the ear, time
+for the sensation to be carried to the brain, time for the brain to
+send word to the hand to cease turning the screw, and, if you
+please, it takes time for the hand to stop. You may say, of what
+use are such refinements? I may reply, what use is there in trying
+to do anything the very best it can be done? If our investigation
+of nature's profound mysteries can be partially solved with good
+instrumental means, what is the result if we have better ones
+placed in our hands, and what, we ask, if the <i>best</i> are given
+to the physicist? We have only to compare the telescope of Galileo,
+the prism of Newton, the pile of Volta, and what was done with
+them, to the marvelous work of the telescope, spectroscope, and
+dynamo of to-day. But I must proceed. It will be recognized that in
+working with the spherometer, only the points in actual contact can
+be measured at one time, for you may see by Fig. 6 that the four
+points, <i>a a a a</i>, may all be normal to a true plane, and yet
+errors of depression, as at <i>e</i>, or elevation, as at <i>b</i>,
+exist between them, so that the instrument must be used over every
+available part of the surface if it is to be tested rigorously. As
+to how exact this method is I cannot say from actual experience, as
+in my work I have had recourse to other methods that I shall
+describe. I have already quoted you the words of Prof. Harkness.
+Dr. Hastings, whose practical as well as theoretical knowledge is
+of the most critical character, tells me that he considers it quite
+easy to measure to 1/80000 of an inch with the ordinary form of
+instrument. Here is a very fine spherometer that Dr. Hastings works
+with from time to time, and which he calls his standard
+spherometer. It is delicately made, its screw being 50 to the inch,
+or more exactly 0.01998 inch, or within 2/100000 of being 1/50 of
+an inch pitch. The principal screw has a point which is itself an
+independent screw, that was put in to investigate the errors of the
+main screw, but it was found that the error of this screw was not
+as much as the 0.00001 of an inch. The head is divided into two
+hundred parts, and by estimation can be read to 1/100000 of an
+inch. Its constants are known, and it may be understood that it
+would not do to handle it very roughly. I could dwell here longer
+on this fascinating subject, but must haste. I may add that if this
+spherometer is placed on a plate of glass and exact contact
+obtained, and then removed, and the hand held over the plate
+without touching it, the difference in the temperature of the glass
+and that of the hand would be sufficient to distort the surface
+enough to be readily recognized by the spherometer when replaced.
+Any one desiring to investigate this subject further will find it
+fully discussed in that splendid series of papers by Dr. Alfred
+Mayer on the minute measurements of modern science published in
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENTS, to which I was indebted years ago
+for most valuable information, as well as to most encouraging words
+from Prof. Thurston, whom you all so well and favorably know. I now
+invite your attention to the method for testing the flat surfaces
+on which Prof. Rowland rules the beautiful diffraction gratings now
+so well known over the scientific world, as also other plane
+surfaces for heliostats, etc., etc. I am now approaching the border
+land of what may be called the abstruse in science, in which I
+humbly acknowledge it would take a vast volume to contain all I
+don't know; yet I hope to make plain to you this most beautiful and
+accurate method, and for fear I may forget to give due credit, I
+will say that I am indebted to Dr. Hastings for it, with whom it
+was an original discovery, though he told me he afterward found it
+had been in use by Steinheil, the celebrated optician of Munich.
+The principle was discovered by the immortal Newton, and it shows
+how much can be made of the ordinary phenomena seen in our
+every-day life when placed in the hands of the investigator. We
+have all seen the beautiful play of colors on the soap bubble, or
+when the drop of oil spreads over the surface of the water. Place a
+lens of long curvature on a piece of plane polished glass, and,
+looking at it obliquely, a black central spot is seen with rings of
+various width and color surrounding it. If the lens is a true
+curve, and the glass beneath it a true plane, these rings of color
+will be perfectly concentric and arranged in regular decreasing
+intervals. This apparatus is known as Newton's color glass, because
+he not only measured the phenomena, but established the laws of the
+appearances presented. I will now endeavor to explain the general
+principle by which this phenomenon is utilized in the testing of
+plane surfaces. Suppose that we place on the lower plate, lenses of
+constantly increasing curvature until that curvature becomes nil,
+or in other words a true plane. The rings of color will constantly
+increase in width as the curvature of the lens increases, until at
+last one color alone is seen over the whole surface, provided,
+however, the same angle of observation be maintained, and provided
+further that the film of air between the glasses is of absolutely
+the same relative thickness throughout. I say the film of air, for
+I presume that it would be utterly impossible to exclude particles
+of dust so that absolute contact could take place. Early physicists
+maintained that absolute molecular contact was impossible, and that
+the central separation of the glasses in Newton's experiment was
+1/250,000 of an inch, but Sir Wm. Thomson has shown that the
+separation is caused by shreds or particles of dust. However, if
+this separation is equal throughout, we have the phenomena as
+described; but if the dust particles are thicker under one side
+than the other, our phenomena will change to broad parallel bands
+as in Fig. 8, the broader the bands the nearer the absolute
+parallelism of the plates. In Fig. 7 let <i>a</i> and <i>b</i>
+represent the two plates we are testing. Rays of white light,
+<i>c</i>, falling upon the upper surface of plate <i>a</i>, are
+partially reflected off in the direction of rays <i>d</i>, but as
+these rays do not concern us now, I have not sketched them. Part of
+the light passes on through the upper plate, where it is bent out
+of its course somewhat, and, falling upon the <i>lower</i> surface
+of the upper plate, some of this light is again reflected toward
+the eye at <i>d</i>. As some of the light passes through the upper
+plate, and, passing through the film of air between the plates,
+falling on the upper surface of the <i>lower</i> one, this in turn
+is reflected; but as the light that falls on this surface has had
+to traverse the film of air <i>twice</i>, it is retarded by a
+certain number of half or whole wave-lengths, and the beautiful
+phenomena of interference take place, some of the colors of white
+light being obliterated, while others come to the eye. When the
+position of the eye changes, the color is seen to change. I have
+not time to dwell further on this part of my subject, which is
+discussed in most advanced works on physics, and especially well
+described in Dr. Eugene Lommel's work on "The Nature of Light." I
+remarked that if the two surfaces were perfectly <i>plane</i>,
+there would be one color seen, or else colors of the first or
+second order would arrange themselves in broad parallel bands, but
+this would also take place in plates of slight curvature, for the
+requirement is, as I said, a film of air of equal thickness
+throughout. You can see at once that this condition could be
+obtained in a perfect convex surface fitting a perfect concave of
+the same radius. Fortunately we have a check to guard against this
+error. To produce a perfect plane, <i>three surfaces must</i> be
+worked together, unless we have a true plane to commence with; but
+to make this true plane by this method we <i>must</i> work three
+together, and if each one comes up to the demands of this most
+rigorous test, we may rest assured that we have attained a degree
+of accuracy almost beyond human conception. Let me illustrate.
+Suppose we have plates 1, 2, and 3, Fig. 11. Suppose 1 and 2 to be
+accurately convex and 3 accurately concave, of the same radius. Now
+it is evident that 3 will exactly fit 1 and 2, and that 1 and 2
+will separately fit No. 3, <i>but</i> when 1 and 2 are placed
+together, they will only touch in the center, and there is no
+possible way to make three plates coincide when they are
+alternately tested upon one another than to make <i>perfect
+planes</i> out of them. As it is difficult to see the colors well
+on metal surfaces, a one-colored light is used, such as the sodium
+flame, which gives to the eye in our test, dark and bright bands
+instead of colored ones. When these plates are worked and tested
+upon one another until they all present the same appearance, one
+may be reserved for a test plate for future use. Here is a small
+test plate made by the celebrated Steinheil, and here two made by
+myself, and I may be pardoned in saying that I was much gratified
+to find the coincidence so nearly perfect that the limiting error
+is much less than 0.00001 of an inch. My assistant, with but a few
+months' experience, has made quite as accurate plates. It is
+necessary of course to have a glass plate to test the metal plates,
+as the upper plate <i>must</i> be transparent. So far we have been
+dealing with perfect surfaces. Let us now see what shall occur in
+surfaces that are not plane. Suppose we now have our perfect test
+plate, and it is laid on a plate that has a compound error, say
+depressed at center and edge and high between these points. If this
+error is regular, the central bands arrange themselves as in Fig.
+9. You may now ask, how are we to know what sort of surface we
+have? A ready solution is at hand. The bands <i>always travel in
+the direction of the thickest film of air</i>, hence on lowering
+the eye, if the convex edge of the bands travel in the direction of
+the arrow, we are absolutely certain that that part of the surface
+being tested is convex, while if, as in the central part of the
+bands, the concave edges advance, we know that part is hollow or
+too low. Furthermore, any small error will be rigorously detected,
+with astonishing clearness, and one of the grandest qualities of
+this test is the absence of "personal equation;" for, given a
+perfect test plate, <i>it won't lie</i>, neither will it
+exaggerate. I say, won't lie, but I must guard this by saying that
+the plates must coincide absolutely in temperature, and the touch
+of the finger, the heat of the hand, or any disturbance whatever
+will vitiate the results of this lovely process; but more of that
+at a future time. If our surface is plane to within a short
+distance of the edge, and is there overcorrected, or convex, the
+test shows it, as in Fig. 10. If the whole surface is regularly
+convex, then concentric rings of a breadth determined by the
+approach to a perfect plane are seen. If concave, a similar
+phenomenon is exhibited, except in the case of the convex, the
+broader rings are near the center, while in the concave they are
+nearer the edge. In lowering the eye while observing the plates,
+the rings of the convex plate will advance outward, those of the
+concave inward. It may be asked by the mechanician, Can this method
+be used for testing our surface plates? I answer that I have found
+the scraped surface of iron bright enough to test by sodium light.
+My assistant in the machine work scraped three 8 inch plates that
+were tested by this method and found to be very excellent, though
+it must be evident that a single cut of the scraper would change
+the spot over which it passed so much as to entirely change the
+appearance there, but I found I could use the test to get the
+general outline of the surface under process of correction. These
+iron plates, I would say, are simply used for preliminary formation
+of polishers. I may have something to say on the question of
+surface plates in the future, as I have made some interesting
+studies on the subject. I must now bring this paper to a close,
+although I had intended including some interesting studies of
+curved surfaces. There is, however, matter enough in that subject
+of itself, especially when we connect it with the idiosyncrasies of
+the material we have to deal with, a vital part of the subject that
+I have not touched upon in the present paper. You may now inquire,
+How critical is this "color test"? To answer this I fear I shall
+trench upon forbidden grounds, but I call to my help the words of
+one of our best American physicists, and I quote from a letter in
+which he says by combined calculation and experiment I have found
+the limiting error for white light to be 1/50000000 of an inch, and
+for Na or sodium light about fifty times greater, or less than
+1/800000 of an inch. Dr. Alfred Mayer estimated and demonstrated by
+actual experiment that the smallest black spot on a white ground
+visible to the naked eye is about 1/800 of an inch at the distance
+of normal vision, namely, 10 inches, and that a line, which of
+course has the element of extension, 1/5000 of an inch in thickness
+could be seen. In our delicate "color test" we may decrease the
+diameter of our black spot a thousand times and still its
+perception is possible by the aid of our monochromatic light, and
+we may diminish our line ten thousand times, yet find it just
+perceivable on the border land of our test by white light. Do not
+presume I am so foolish as to even think that the human hand,
+directed by the human brain, can ever work the material at his
+command to such a high standard of exactness. No; from the very
+nature of the material we have to work with, we are forbidden even
+to hope for such an achievement; and could it be possible that,
+through some stroke of good fortune, we could attain this high
+ideal, it would be but for a moment, as from the very nature of our
+environment it would be but an ignis fatuus. There is, however, to
+the earnest mind a delight in having a high model of excellence,
+for as our model is so will our work approximate; and although we
+may go on approximating <i>our</i> ideal forever, we can never hope
+to reach that which has been set for us by the great Master
+Workman.</p>
+
+<a name="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3">[3]</a>
+
+<div class="note">A paper read before the Engineers' Society of
+Western Pennsylvania, Dec. 10, 1884.</div>
+
+<hr>
+<h3>[JOURNAL OF GAS LIGHTING.]</h3>
+
+<p><a name="10"></a></p>
+
+<h2>PHOTOMETRICAL STANDARDS.</h2>
+
+<p>In carrying out a series of photometrical experiments lately, I
+found that it was a matter of considerable difficulty to keep the
+flames of the standard candles always at their proper distance from
+the light to be measured, because the wick was continually changing
+its position (of course carrying the flame with it), and thus
+practically lengthening or shortening the scale of the photometer,
+according as the flame was carried nearer to or farther from the
+light at the other end of the scale. In order, therefore, to obtain
+a correct idea of the extent to which this variation of the
+position of the wick might influence the readings of the photometer
+scale, I took a continuous number of photographs of the flame of a
+candle while it was burning in a room quite free from draught; no
+other person being in it during the experiment except a
+photographer, who placed sensitive dry plates in a firmly fixed
+camera, and changed them after an exposure of 30 seconds. In doing
+this he was careful to keep close to the camera, and disturb the
+air of the room as little as possible. In front of the candle a
+plumb-line was suspended, and remained immovable over its center
+during the whole operation. The candle was allowed to get itself
+into a normal state of burning, and then the wick was aligned, as
+shown in the photographs Nos. 1 and 2, after which it was left to
+itself.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/8a.png"><img src=
+"./images/8a_th.jpg" alt=" VARIATION IN PHOTOMETRICAL STANDARDS.">
+</a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">VARIATION IN PHOTOMETRICAL STANDARDS.</p>
+
+<p>With these photographs (represented in the cuts) I beg to hand
+you full-sized drawings of the scales of a 100 inch Evans and a 60
+inch Letheby photometer, in order to give your readers an
+opportunity of estimating for themselves the effect which such
+variations from the true distance between the standard light and
+that to be measured, as shown in this series of photographs, must
+exercise on photometrical observations made by the aid of either of
+the instruments named.</p>
+
+<p>W. SUGG.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="11"></a></p>
+
+<h2>BLEACHING OR DYEING-YARNS AND GOODS IN VACUO.</h2>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/8b.png"><img src=
+"./images/8b_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p>
+
+<p>Many attempts have been made to facilitate the penetration of
+textile fabrics by the dyeing and bleaching solutions, with which
+they require to be treated, by carrying out the treatment in vacuo,
+<i>i.e.</i>, in such apparatus as shall allow of the air being
+withdrawn. The apparatus shown in the annexed
+engraving&mdash;Austrian Pat. Jan. 15, 1884&mdash;although not
+essentially different from those already in use, embodies, the
+<i>Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry</i> says, some
+important improvements in detail. It consists of a drum A, the
+sides of which are constructed of stout netting, carried on a
+vertical axis working through a stuffing-box, which is fitted in
+the bottom of the outer or containing vessel or keir B. The air can
+be exhausted from B by means of an air pump. A contains a central
+division P, also constructed of netting, into which is inserted the
+extremity of the tube R, after being twice bent at a right angle. P
+is also in direct connection with the efflux tube E, E and R
+serving to convey the dye or bleach solutions to and from the
+reservoir C. The combination of the rotary motion communicated to
+A, which contains the goods to be dyed or bleached, with the very
+thorough penetration and circulation of the liquids effected by
+means of the vacuum established in B, is found to be eminently
+favorable to the rapidity and evenness of the dye or bleach.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="12"></a></p>
+
+<h2>ON THE MOULDING OF PORCELAIN.</h2>
+
+<h3>By CHAS. LAUTH.</h3>
+
+<p>The operation of moulding presents numerous advantages over
+other methods of shaping porcelain, for by this process we avoid
+irregularities of form, twisting, and visible seams, and can
+manufacture thin pieces, as well as pieces of large dimensions, of
+a purity of form that it is impossible to obtain otherwise.</p>
+
+<p>The method of moulding small objects has been described with
+sufficient detail in technical works, but such is not the case with
+regard to large ones, and for this reason it will be of interest to
+quote some practical observations from a note that has been sent me
+by Mr. Constantine Renard, who, for several years, has had the
+superintendence of the moulding rooms of the Sevres works.</p>
+
+<p>The process of moulding consists in pouring porcelain paste,
+thinned with water, into very dry plaster moulds. This mixture
+gradually hardens against the porous sides with which it is in
+contact, and, when the thickness of the hardened layer is judged
+sufficient, the mould is emptied by inverting it. The excess of the
+liquid paste is thus eliminated, while the thicker parts remain
+adherent to the plaster. Shortly afterward, the absorption of the
+water continuing, the paste so shrinks in drying as to allow the
+object to detach itself from the mould. As may be seen, nothing is
+simpler when it concerns pieces of small dimensions; but the same
+is not the case when we have to mould a large one. In this case we
+cannot get rid of the liquid paste by turning the mould upside
+down, because of the latter's size, and, on another hand, it is
+necessary to take special precautions against the subsidence of the
+paste. Recourse is therefore had to another method. In the first
+place, an aperture is formed in the lower part of the mould through
+which the liquid may flow at the desired moment. Afterward, in
+order to prevent the solidified but still slightly soft paste from
+settling under its own weight at this moment, it is supported by
+directing a current of compressed air into the mould, or, through
+atmospheric pressure, by forming a vacuum in the metallic jacket in
+which the mould is inclosed.</p>
+
+<p>The history and description of these processes have been several
+times given, and I shall therefore not dwell upon them, but shall
+at once proceed to make known the new points that Mr. Renard has
+communicated to me.</p>
+
+<p>The first point to which it is well to direct the manufacturer's
+attention is the preparation of the plaster moulds. When it
+concerns an object of large dimensions, of a vase a yard in height,
+for example, the moulder is obliged to cut the form or core
+horizontally into three parts, each of which is moulded separately.
+To this effect, it is placed upon a core frame and surrounded with
+a cylinder of sheet zinc. The workman pours the plaster into the
+space between the latter and the core, and, while doing so, must
+stir the mass very rapidly with a stick, so that at the moment the
+plaster sets, it shall be as homogeneous as possible. In spite of
+such precautions, it is impossible to prevent the densest parts of
+the plaster from depositing first, through the action of gravity.
+These will naturally precipitate upon the table or upon the
+slanting sides of the core, and the mould will therefore present
+great inequalities as regards porosity. Since this defect exists in
+each of the pieces that have been prepared in succession, it will
+be seen that when they come to be superposed for the moulding of
+the piece, the mould as a whole will be formed of zones of
+different porosities, which will absorb water from the paste
+unequally. Farther along we shall see the inconveniences that
+result from this, and the manner of avoiding them.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/9a.png"><img src=
+"./images/9a_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 1"></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 1</p>
+
+<p>The mould, when finished, is dried in a stove. Under such
+circumstances it often happens that there forms upon the surface of
+the plaster a hard crust which, although it is of no importance as
+regards the outside of the mould, is prejudicial to the interior
+because it considerably diminishes its absorbing power. This
+trouble may be avoided by coating the surfaces that it is necessary
+to preserve with clear liquid paste; but Mr. Renard advises that
+the mould be closed hermetically, so that the interior shall be
+kept from contact with warm air. In this way it is possible to
+prevent the plaster from hardening, as a result of too quick a
+desiccation. I now come to the operation of moulding. In the very
+first place, it is necessary to examine whether it is well to adopt
+the arrangement by pressure of air or by vacuum. The form of the
+objects will determine the choice. A very open piece, like a bowl,
+must be moulded by vacuum, on account of the difficulty of holding
+the closing disk in place if it be of very large dimensions. The
+same is the case with large vases of wood form. On the contrary, an
+elongated piece tapering from above is more easily moulded by
+pressure of the air, as are also ovoid vessels 16 to 20 inches in
+height. In any case it must not be forgotten that the operation by
+vacuum should be preferred every time the form of the objects is
+adapted to it, because this process permits of following and
+directing the drying, while with pressure it is impossible to see
+anything when once the apparatus is closed.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/9c.png"><img src=
+"./images/9c_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 2."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 2.</p>
+
+<p><i>Moulding by Pressure of the Air.</i>&mdash;The plaster mould
+having been put in place upon the mould board, and the liquid paste
+having been long and thoroughly stirred in order to make it
+homogeneous, and get rid of the air bubbles, we open the cock that
+puts the paste reservoir in communication with the lower part of
+the mould, care having been taken beforehand to pour a few pints of
+water into the bottom of the mould. The paste in ascending pushes
+this water ahead of it, and this slightly wets the plaster and
+makes the paste rise regularly. When the mould is entirely filled,
+the paste is still allowed to flow until it slightly exceeds the
+upper level, and, spreading out over the entire thickness of the
+plaster, forms a sort of thick flange. The absorption of the liquid
+begins almost immediately, and, consequently, the level lowers. A
+new quantity of paste is introduced, and we continue thus, in
+regulating its flow so as to keep the mould always full. This
+operation is prolonged until the layer is judged to be sufficiently
+thick, this depending upon the dimensions, form, or construction of
+the vessel. The operation may take from one to five hours.</p>
+
+<p>The desired thickness having been obtained, it becomes a
+question of allowing the paste to descend and at the same time to
+support the piece by air pressure. The flange spoken of above is
+quickly cut, and the paste is made to rise again for the last time,
+in order to form a new flange, but one that this time will be
+extremely thin; then a perforated disk designed for forming the top
+joint, and acting as a conduit for the air, is placed upon the
+mould. This disk is fastened down with a screw press, and when the
+apparatus is thus arranged the eduction cock is opened, and the air
+pump maneuvered.</p>
+
+<p>If the flange did not exist, the air would enter between the
+mould and the piece at the first strokes of the piston, and the
+piece would be inevitably broken. Its object, then, is to form a
+hermetical joint, although it must at the same time present but a
+slight resistance, since, as soon as the liquid paste has flowed
+out, the piece begins to shrink, and it is necessary that at the
+first movement downward it shall be able to disengage itself, since
+it would otherwise crack.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as the piece begins to detach itself from the mould the
+air enters the apparatus, and the pressure gauge connected with the
+air pump begins to lower. It is then necessary, without a moment's
+loss of time, to remove the screw press, the disk, and the upper
+part of the mould itself, in order to facilitate as much as
+possible the contraction of the piece. Finally, an hour or an hour
+and a half later, it is necessary to remove the lower part of the
+mould, this being done in supporting the entire affair by the
+middle. The piece and what remains of the mould are, in reality,
+suspended in the air. All these preparations are designed to
+prevent cracking.</p>
+
+<p><i>Moulding by Vacuum.</i>&mdash;The operation by vacuum follows
+the same phases as those just described. It is well, in order to
+have a very even surface, not to form a vacuum until about three
+hours after the paste has been made to ascend. Without such a
+precaution the imperfections in the mould will be shown on the
+surface of the object by undulations that are irremediable.</p>
+
+<p>The first flange or vein must be preserved, and it is cut off at
+the moment the piece is detached.</p>
+
+<p>Moulding by vacuum, aside from the advantages noted above,
+permits of giving the pieces a greater thickness than is obtained
+in the pressure process. According to Mr. Renard, when it is
+desired to exceed one inch at the base of the piece (the maximum
+thickness usually obtained), the operation is as follows: The piece
+is moulded normally, and it is supported by a vacuum; but, at the
+moment at which, under ordinary circumstances, it would be
+detached, the paste is made to ascend a second time, when the first
+layer (already thick and dry) acts as a sort of supplementary
+mould, and permits of increasing the thickness by about &#8534; of
+an inch. The piece is held, as at first, by vacuum, and the paste
+is introduced again until the desired thickness is obtained.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever be the care taken, accidents are frequent in both
+processes. They are due, in general, to the irregular contraction
+of the pieces, caused by a want of homogeneousness in the plaster
+of the moulds. In fact, as the absorption of the water does not
+proceed regularly over the entire surface of the piece, zones of
+dry paste are found in contact with others that are still soft, and
+hence the formation of folds, and finally the cracking and breaking
+of the piece. The joints of the moulds are also a cause of frequent
+loss, on account of the marks that they leave, and that injure the
+beauty of the form as well as the purity of the profile.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Renard has devised a remedy for all such inconveniences. He
+takes unglazed muslin, cuts it into strips, and, before beginning
+operations, fixes it with a little liquid paste to the interior of
+the mould. This light fabric in no wise prevents the absorption of
+the water, and so the operation goes on as usual; but, at the
+moment of contraction, the piece of porcelain being, so to speak,
+supported by the muslin, comes put of the mould more easily and
+with extreme regularity. Under such circumstances all trace of the
+joint disappears, the imperfections in the mould are unattended
+with danger, and the largest pieces are moulded with entire safety.
+In a word, we have here a very important improvement in the process
+of moulding. The use of muslin is to be recommended, not only in
+the manufacture of vases, but also in the difficult preparation of
+large porcelain plates. It is likewise advantageous in the moulding
+of certain pieces of sculpture that are not very delicate, and,
+finally, it is very useful when we have to do with a damaged mould,
+which, instead of being repaired with plaster, can be fixed with
+well ground wet sand covered with a strip of muslin.</p>
+
+<p><i>Drying of the Moulded Pieces.</i>&mdash;When the moulded
+pieces become of a proper consistency in the mould, they are
+exposed to the air and then taken to the drying room. But, as with
+plaster, the surface of the paste dries very quickly, and this
+inconvenience (which amounts to nothing in pieces that are to be
+polished) is very great in pieces that carry ornaments in relief,
+since the finishing of these is much more difficult, the hardened
+paste works badly, and frequently flakes off. In order to remedy
+this inconvenience, it suffices to dust the places to be preserved
+with powdered dry paste.&mdash;<i>Revue Industrielle.</i></p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="13"></a></p>
+
+<h2>PHOTO-TRICYCLE APPARATUS.</h2>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/9b.png"><img src=
+"./images/9b_th.jpg" alt=" A PHOTO-TRICYCLE APPARATUS."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">A PHOTO-TRICYCLE APPARATUS.</p>
+
+<p>This consists of a portable folding camera, with screw focusing
+arrangement, swing back, and an adapter frame placed in the
+position of the focus screen, allowing the dark slide to be
+inserted so as to give the horizontal or vertical position to the
+dry plate when in the camera. To the front and base-board a brass
+swiveled side bar, made collapsible by means of a center slot, is
+attached by hinges, and this renders the camera rigid when open or
+secure when closed. The base-board is supported on a brass plate
+within which is inserted a ball-and-socket (or universal joint in a
+new form), permitting the camera to be tilted to any necessary
+angle, and fixed in such position at will. The whole apparatus is
+mounted upon a brass telescopic draw-stand, which, by means of
+clamps, is attached to the steering handle or other convenient part
+of the tricycle, preferably the form made by Messrs. Rudge &amp;
+Co., of Coventry, represented in the cut.&mdash;<i>Photo.
+News.</i></p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="14"></a></p>
+
+<h2>A PHOTO PRINTING LIGHT.</h2>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/9d.png"><img src=
+"./images/9d_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p>
+
+<p>A printing frame is placed in the carrier, and exposed to the
+light of a gas burner kept at a fixed distance, behind which is a
+spherical reflector. The same frame may be used for other
+purposes.-<i>Photographic News.</i></p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="15"></a></p>
+
+<h2>A NEW ACTINOMETER.</h2>
+
+<p>A selenium actinometer has been described in the <i>Comptes
+Rendus</i> in a communication from M. Morize, of Rio de Janeiro.
+The instrument is used to measure the actinic power of sunlight
+when the sun is at various altitudes; but the same principle is
+applicable to other light sources. The sensitive part of the
+apparatus consists of a cylinder formed of 38 disks of copper,
+isolated from each other by as many disks of mica. The latter being
+of smaller diameter than the copper disks, the annular spaces
+between the two are filled with selenium, by the simple process of
+rubbing a stick of this substance over the edges, and afterward
+gently warming. The selenium then presents a grayish appearance,
+and is ready for use. Connection is made by conductors, on opposite
+sides, with the odd and even numbers of the disks, which diminishes
+the resistance of the selenium. The cylinder thus formed is
+insulated by glass supports in the inside of a vacuum tube, for the
+purpose of preserving it from the disturbing influence of dark
+rays. The whole is placed upon a stand, and shielded from reflected
+light, but fully exposed to that which is to be measured for
+actinic intensity. If now a constant current of electricity is
+passed through the apparatus, as indicated by a galvanometer, the
+variations of the latter will show the effect produced upon the
+selenium. A scale must be prepared, with the zero point at the
+greatest possible resistance of the selenium, which corresponds
+with absolute darkness. The greatest effect of the light would be
+to annul the resistance of the selenium. Consequently, the cylinder
+must be withdrawn from the circuit to represent this effect; and
+the maximum deviation of the galvanometer is then to be observed,
+and marked 100. By dividing the range of the galvanometer thus
+obtained into 100 equal parts, the requisite actinometric scale
+will be established. In practice, the Clamond battery is used to
+supply the constant current required.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="16"></a></p>
+
+<h2>ASTRONOMICAL PHOTOGRAPHY.</h2>
+
+<p>During the last few years, or rather decades of years, it has
+become rather a trite saying that to advance far in any branch of
+physical research a fair proficiency in no inconsiderable number of
+the sister sciences is an absolute necessity. But if this is true
+in general, none, I think, will question the assertion that a
+proficient in any of the physical sciences must be fairly
+conversant with photography as a science, or at least as an art. If
+we take for example a science which has of late years made rapid
+strides both in Europe and America, the science of astronomy, we
+shall not have far to go to find convincing proof that a great
+portion of the best work that is being done by its votaries is
+effected by the aid of photography. One eminent astronomer has
+quite lately gone so far as to declare that we no longer require
+observers of the heavens, but that their place can be better
+supplied by the gelatine plate of the photographer; and his words
+have been echoed by others not less able than himself. "Abolish the
+observer, and substitute the sensitive plate," is a sensational
+form of expressing the revolution in observational astronomy that
+is taking place under our eyes; but, although it suggests a vast
+amount of truth, it might leave upon the mind an exaggerated
+impression inimical to the best interests of science.</p>
+
+<p>The award of the highest distinction in astronomy, the gold
+medal of the Royal Astronomical Society, two years in succession,
+to those who have been most successful in celestial photography is
+no doubtful sign of the great value attached to such work. Last
+year it was Mr. Common who received the highest testimony of the
+merit due to his splendid photographs of the nebula of Orion; and
+this year Dr. Huggins, who has drawn much attention to celestial
+photography, by his successful attempts to picture the solar corona
+in full daylight, has received a similar acknowledgment of his
+labors in photographing the spectra of stars and comets and
+nebul&aelig;.</p>
+
+<p>An adequate idea of the progress astronomy is now making by aid
+of photography can only be formed by a comprehensive view of all
+that is being at present attempted; but a rapid glance at some of
+the work may prepare the way for a more thorough investigation. A
+few years since, the astronomers who had advanced their science by
+aid of photography were few in number, and their results are soon
+enumerated. Some good pictures of the solar corona taken during
+solar eclipses, a series or two of sun-spot photographs, and a very
+limited number of successful attempts made upon the moon, and
+planets, and star clusters, were all the fruits of their labors.
+But now each month we learn of some new and efficient laborer in
+this field, which gives promise of so rich a harvest.</p>
+
+<p>Each day the sun is photographed at Greenwich, at South
+Kensington, in India, and at the Physical Observatory of Potsdam,
+and thus a sure record is obtained of all the spots upon its
+surface, which may serve for the study of the periodicity of its
+changes, and for their probable connection with the important
+phenomena of terrestrial magnetism and meteorology. In France the
+splendid sun-pictures obtained by Dr. Janssen at the Physical
+Observatory of Meudon have thrown into the shade all other attempts
+at a photographic study of the most delicate features of the solar
+surface.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Huggins has shown that it is possible to obtain a daily
+photographic record of the solar prominences, and only lately he
+has secured results that justified a special expedition to the Alps
+to photograph the sun's corona, and he has now moved the Admiralty
+to grant a subsidy to Dr. Gill, the government astronomer at the
+Cape, by aid of which Mr. Woods can carry on the experiments that
+were so encouraging last summer in Switzerland.</p>
+
+<p>We may, then, reasonably hope to obtain before long a daily
+picture of the sun and a photographic record of its prominences,
+and even of a certain portion of the solar corona; but the precious
+moments of each solar eclipse will always be invaluable for
+picturing those wondrous details in the corona that are now shown
+us by photography, and which can be obtained by photography
+alone.</p>
+
+<p>Again, how very much is to be learnt in solar physics from the
+marvelous photographs of the sun's spectrum exhibited last summer
+by Professor Rowland; photographs that show as many as one hundred
+and fifty lines between H and K, and which he is still laboring to
+improve! The extension, too, of the visible solar spectrum into the
+ultra-violet by Corun, Mascart, and others, adds much to our
+knowledge of the sun; while the photographs of Abney in the
+ultrared increase our information in a direction less expected and
+certainly less easy of attainment. Both these extensions we find
+most ably utilized in the recent discussion of the very interesting
+photographs of the spectra of the prominences and of the corona
+taken during the total eclipse of May 18, 1882; and the
+photographic results of this eclipse afford ample proof that we can
+not only obtain pictures of the corona by photography that it would
+be impossible otherwise to procure, but also that in a few seconds
+information concerning the nature of the solar atmosphere may be
+furnished by photography that it would otherwise take centuries to
+accumulate, even under the most favorable circumstances.</p>
+
+<p>The advantages to be gained by accurate photographs of the moon
+and planets, that will permit great enlargements, are too obvious
+to call for lengthened notice in such a rapid sketch as the
+present; for it is principally in the observation of details that
+the eye cannot grasp with the required delicacy, or with sufficient
+rapidity, that photography is so essential for rapid and sure
+progress.</p>
+
+<p>Like the sketches of a solar eclipse, the drawings that are made
+of comets, and still more of nebul&aelig;, even by the most
+accomplished artists, are all, to say the least, open to doubt in
+their delicate details. And the truth of this is so obvious, that
+it is the expressed opinion of an able astronomer that a single
+photograph of the nebula of Orion, taken by Mr. Common, would be of
+more value to posterity than the collective drawings of this
+interesting object so carefully made by Rosse, Bond, Secchi, and so
+many others.</p>
+
+<p>Another most important branch of astronomy, that is receiving
+very great attention at present, is the mapping of the starry
+heavens; and herein photography will perhaps do its best work for
+the astronomer. The trial star map by the brothers Henry, of a
+portion of the Milky Way, which they felt unable to observe
+satisfactorily by the ordinary methods, is so near absolute
+perfection that it alone proves the immense superiority of the
+photographic method in the formation of star maps. Fortunately this
+subject, which is as vast as it is fundamental, is being taken up
+vigorously. The Henries are producing a special lens for the work;
+Mr. Grubb is constructing a special Cassgrain reflector for Mr.
+Roberts of Maghull; and the Admiralty have instructed Mr. Woods to
+make this part of his work at the Cape Observatory, under the able
+direction of Dr. Gill. Besides star maps, clusters, too, and
+special portions of the heavens are being photographed by the Rev.
+T.E. Espin, of West Kirby; and such pictures will be of the
+greatest value, not only in fixing the position at a given date,
+but also aiding in the determination of magnitude, color,
+variability, proper motion, and even of the orbits of double and
+multiple stars, and the possible discovery of new planets and
+telescopic comets.</p>
+
+<p>Such are some of the many branches of astronomy that are
+receiving the most valuable aid at present from photography; but
+the very value of the gift that is bestowed should make
+exaggeration an impossibility. Photography can well afford to be
+generous, but it must first be just, in its estimate of the work
+that has still to be done in astronomy independently of its aid;
+and although the older science points with just pride to what is
+being done for her by her younger sister, still she must not forget
+that now, as in the future, she must depend largely for her
+progress, not only on the skill of the photographer and the
+mathematician, but also on the trained eye and ear and hand of her
+own indefatigable observers.&mdash;<i>S.J. Perry, S.J., F.R.S., in
+Br. Jour. of Photography</i>.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="17"></a></p>
+
+<h2>ELECTRICITY AS A PREVENTIVE OF SCALE IN BOILERS.</h2>
+
+<p>The mineral sediment that generally sticks to the sides of steam
+boilers, and the presence of which is fraught with the utmost
+danger, resulting in many instances in great injury to life and
+property, besides eating away the substance of the iron plate, was
+referred to in a paper lately read by M. Jeannolle before the Paris
+Academy of Sciences, in which the author described a new method for
+keeping boilers clean. This method is as follows:</p>
+
+<p>The inside of a steam boiler is placed, by means of piles of a
+certain power, in reciprocal communication, the current passing at
+one end through positive, and at the other through negative, wires.
+In incrusted steam boilers, at a temperature ranging from 212&deg;
+to 300&deg; Fahr., and a pressure of from 30 to 90 lb. to the
+square inch, the current thus engendered decomposes the accumulated
+salts, and precipitates them, from which they may easily be
+removed, either by means of a special siphon or by means of some
+other mechanical process. When boilers are free from fur, and where
+it is intended to keep them free from such, a continuous current
+may be set up, by means of which the sedimentary salts may be
+decomposed, and a precipitate produced in a pulverized form, which
+can be removed with equal facility.</p>
+
+<p>From a series of minute experiments made by M. Jeannolle, it
+appears that in order to render the various actions of electricity,
+perfect, it is necessary to coat either with red lead or with
+pulverized iron, or with any other conductor of electricity, an
+operation which must be repeated whenever the boiler is emptied
+with a view to cleaning out. The above system Is being
+advantageously applied in Calais for removing the incrustations of
+boilers. The two poles of a battery of ten to twelve Bunsen
+elements are applied to the ends of the boilers, and after thirty
+to forty hours the deposits fall from the sides to the bottom. When
+a boiler has been thus cleared, the formation of new deposits may
+be prevented by applying a much less energetic current under the
+same conditions.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="18"></a></p>
+
+<h2>ALPHABET DESIGNED BY GODFREY SYKES.</h2>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/10a.png"><img src=
+"./images/10a_th.jpg" alt=
+" SUGGESTIONS IN DECORATIVE ART.&mdash;ALPHABET DESIGNED BY GODFREY SYKES.">
+</a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">SUGGESTIONS IN DECORATIVE ART.&mdash;ALPHABET
+DESIGNED BY GODFREY SYKES.</p>
+
+<p>Among the many designs which have been issued by the South
+Kensington Museum authorities is the alphabet which we have
+illustrated here to-day. The letters appear frequently among the
+decorations of the museum buildings, especially in the refreshment
+rooms and the Ceramic gallery, where long inscriptions in glazed
+terra cotta form ornamental friezes. The alphabet has also been
+engraved to several sizes, and is used for the initial letters in
+the various official books and art publications relating to the
+museum, which are published by the Science and Art
+Department.&mdash;<i>Building News.</i></p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="19"></a></p>
+
+<h2>OLD WROUGHT IRON GATE.</h2>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/11a.png"><img src=
+"./images/11a_th.jpg" alt=" OLD WROUGHT IRON GATE"></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">OLD WROUGHT IRON GATE</p>
+
+<p>This gate forms the entrance to Scraptoft Hall, a building of
+the eighteenth century, now the seat of Captain Barclay, and which
+stands at about five miles from Leicester, England.&mdash;<i>The
+Architect.</i></p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="23"></a></p>
+
+<h2>BRIEF SANITARY MATTERS IN CONNECTION WITH ISOLATED COUNTRY
+HOUSES.<a name="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_4_4"><sup>[4]</sup></a></h2>
+
+<h3>By E.W. BOWDITCH, C.E.</h3>
+
+<p>I am unable to tell you what is generally considered the best
+practice, for I am not sure there are any definitely established
+rules; therefore I can only explain <i>my</i> ways of doing such
+work, which, though I try to make as complete and at the same time
+as simple as possible, I know to be far from perfect.</p>
+
+<p>Plumbing and drainage work has grown up unconsciously with my
+landscape gardening, and not finding any texts or practice that
+seemed wholly satisfactory, I have been forced to devise new
+arrangements from time to time, according to the requirements of
+the case in hand.</p>
+
+<p>To give all the details of house plumbing this evening, or any
+<i>one</i> evening, would be impossible, for lack of time, and not
+worth while even if there was time, as much of it would prove
+matter of little or no interest. I will confine my remarks,
+therefore, to certain elements of the work where my practice
+differs, I believe, essentially from that of most engineers, and
+where perhaps my experience, if of no assistance to other members
+of the Society, may excite their friendly criticism in such a way
+as to help me.</p>
+
+<p>There are two kinds of country places that I am liable to be
+called upon to prescribe for:</p>
+
+<p><i>First.</i> A new place where nothing has been arranged.</p>
+
+<p><i>Second.</i> An old place where the occupants have been
+troubled either by their outside arrangements or by fixtures or
+pipes within.</p>
+
+<p>Under the first head let us suppose a small tract of perhaps two
+acres of land in some inland town, where the family intends to live
+but six months in the year, though they are liable to reside there
+the whole twelve.</p>
+
+<p>There are no sewers and no public water. The soil is a stiff,
+retentive clay, rather wet in spring. The desire is expressed to
+have plumbing and drainage that shall be as inexpensive as
+possible, but that shall be entirely safe.</p>
+
+<p>In considering the arrangements inside the house, I find myself
+in the same predicament as the French surgeon, a specialist upon
+setting the bones of the arm, who, when a patient was brought him
+with his right arm broke, expressed his sorrow at being unable to
+be of assistance, as his specialty was the left arm.</p>
+
+<p>I have endeavored to post myself thoroughly upon house plumbing,
+but confess to only knowing partially about the wastes; the
+supplies I do not feel competent to pass upon.</p>
+
+<p>One class of annoyance caused by plumbing, perhaps the principal
+one, is due to the soil pipe or some of its fittings.</p>
+
+<p>Second quality of iron, poor hanging, insufficient calking,
+careless mechanics, putty, cement, rag, or paper joints&mdash;all
+these and a dozen other things are liable to be sources of trouble.
+Subordinate wastes are apt to be annoying, occasionally, too, to a
+less extent.</p>
+
+<p>The mechanical work can always be superintended, and within
+certain limits may be made secure and tight; not so easy, however,
+with the materials.</p>
+
+<p>There is seldom a valid excuse for ever making waste pipes,
+within a building, of anything but metal.</p>
+
+<p>Earthen tile is frequently used; also, to a limited extent,
+brick, stone, and wood; twice I have found canvas&mdash;all these,
+however, are inferior, and should never be accepted or specified.
+The writer believes that at the present time, hereabouts, lead and
+iron are more used for wastes than any other materials, and are
+found the most satisfactory on the whole.</p>
+
+<p>One or two arrangements, relative to the wastes, I have made use
+of that are not, so far as known, in general use, and that may not
+be the best, though they have served me many good turns, and I have
+not succeeded in devising any better.</p>
+
+<p>Soil pipe, as it is usually put in, is apt to be of cast iron,
+four inches in diameter, and is known in the market as "heavy" or
+"extra heavy." For some years the tar-coated or black enameled pipe
+has been the favorite, as being the more reliable, the writer in
+common with others making use of the same freely, until one day a
+cracked elbow, tar coated, was detected. Since that time plain,
+untarred pipe has been specified, and subjected to the so-called
+kerosene test, which consists of swabbing out each pipe with
+kerosene or oil and then allowing it to stand for a few hours. A
+moment's thought will convince any one that when a pipe is
+asphalted or tar coated it is very difficult to detect either sand
+holes or small cracks, and the difficulty of proper calking is
+increased, as lead does not cling so well to the tar as to plain
+iron.</p>
+
+<p>At present, the kerosene test, so far as the writer is
+concerned, is a misnomer, because raw linseed oil is used
+exclusively as giving more satisfactory results, and being less
+troublesome to apply.</p>
+
+<p>I have here a length of the ordinary "heavy 4" commercial soil
+pipe, plain, and selected at random. Yesterday noon I had it oiled
+at my office, in order to be ready for to-night, and you see, by
+the chalk marks I have made, just where the leaks were and their
+area. I may say here that a sound pipe of this caliber and standard
+weight is the exception rather than the rule, and it was selected
+for this experiment merely to try and show the reaction a little
+better than the heavier pipe might.</p>
+
+<p>Experiments of this nature I have carried along for the past two
+years, and I am glad to say that, since I began, the quality of the
+soil pipe furnished by the dealers for my work seems appreciably
+better than at first. Whether the poorer pipe is still made and
+sold to other customers I have no means of knowing; probably it is,
+however.</p>
+
+<p>A large quantity of the pipe is now being tested at my
+suggestion by the Superintendent of Construction of the Johns
+Hopkins Hospital, at Baltimore. I have not yet heard the results
+from him, but doubtless they will be interesting. A brief summary
+of the results may be of some interest.</p>
+
+<p>The different makers of soil pipe generally used by plumbers
+hereabouts are:</p>
+
+<p>Mott &amp; Company, Abendroth, Blakslee, Dighton, Phillips &amp;
+Weeden, and Bartlett, Hayward &amp; Co.</p>
+
+<p>On 4" extra heavy pipe my results have been as follows:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Percentage passed as good, single hub.</td>
+<td align='left'>60 per ct. to 70 per ct.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Percentage passed as good, double.</td>
+<td align='left'>20 per ct. to 80 per ct.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Percentage passed special castings, including Y's
+and T's.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>60 per ct.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>5" pipe extra heavy:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Percentage passed as good, single hub.</td>
+<td align='left'>25 per ct. to 35 per ct.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Percentage passed as good, double.</td>
+<td align='left'>No record.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Percentage special castings, including Y's and
+T's.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>60 per ct.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>It has been stated to me by dealers that the tar coating does
+away with the necessity of any such test as the oil; while I am not
+prepared to acknowledge or deny the statement, it is well known
+that much poor pipe is tar-coated and sold in the market as good,
+and when coated it is almost impossible to detect any but
+<i>very</i> defective work.</p>
+
+<p>The price customers are obliged to pay for soil pipe, either
+"heavy" or "extra heavy," is very high indeed, even taking off the
+discounts, and amounts (as I figure it) to $70 per long ton for 4"
+pipe. The present rate for the best water pipe of the same caliber
+is about $38 (now $29) per long ton, and the additional charge for
+soil pipe should guarantee the very best iron in the market, though
+it appears to be rarely furnished.</p>
+
+<p>It is asserted that all soil pipe is tested to a 50-pound water
+pressure. I beg leave to question the absolute truth of this,
+unless it be acknowledged that pipe is sold indiscriminately,
+whether it bears the test or not, for more than once I have found a
+single length of soil pipe (5 feet) that could not bear the
+pressure of a column of water of its own height without
+leaking.</p>
+
+<p>Having obtained a satisfactory lot of soil pipe and fittings,
+the next trouble comes with the lead calking. Unfortunately, it is
+frequently found that very shallow joints are made instead of deep
+ones, and hard lead used instead of soft. My rule is, soft lead,
+two runnings and two calkings. By soft lead I mean pig lead, and by
+hard lead I mean old pipe and scrap lead that may have been melted
+a dozen times. Incidentally it may be remarked that it is quite
+difficult to calk a tight joint on the heavy pipe; the process will
+crack the hub.</p>
+
+<p>The fixtures used in a house are of minor importance&mdash;there
+are dozens of good patterns of every class. If they are carefully
+put in, and provided with suitable traps placed just as close to
+the fixture as possible, the result will usually be
+satisfactory.</p>
+
+<p>Very few instances occur where traps are placed as close to the
+fixtures they serve as they might be, and yet a very short length
+of untrapped pipe, when fouled, will sometimes smell dreadfully. A
+set bowl with trap two feet away may become in time a great
+nuisance if not properly used. A case in point where the fixture
+was used both as a bowl and a urinal was in a few months
+exceedingly offensive&mdash;a fact largely (though not wholly) due
+to its double service.</p>
+
+<p>I have never met two sanitarians who agreed upon the same
+water-closets, bowls, faucets, traps, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Of course, the soil pipe will be carried, of full size, through
+the roof, and sufficiently high to clear all windows.</p>
+
+<p>Avoid multiplicity of fixtures or pipes; cut off all fixtures
+not used at least twice a week, lest their traps dry out; have all
+plumbing as simple as possible, and try and get it all located so
+that outside air can be got directly into all closets and
+bath-rooms. As far as possible, set your fixtures in glass rather
+than tiles or wood. Carry the lower end of the main drain at least
+five feet beyond the cellar walls of the building, of cast
+iron.</p>
+
+<p>Let us now look at the outside work. The main drain (carrying
+everything except the kitchen and pantry sinks) goes through a
+ventilated running trap. An indirect fresh air inlet is provided on
+the house side of the trap (example), to prevent annoyance from
+puffing or pumping, or, better still, a pipe corresponding to the
+soil pipe is carried up on the outside of the house.</p>
+
+<p>The running trap ventilator should be of the same diameter as
+the main drain (4 inch), and serve as a main drain vent also. Carry
+this pipe on the outside of the house as high as the top of the
+chimney.</p>
+
+<p>A grease-trap should be provided for the kitchen and pantry
+sinks. Formerly my custom was to put in brick receptacles; it is
+now to put in Portland cement traps (Henderson pattern), though
+perhaps I may succeed in devising a cast-iron one that will answer
+better. The brick ones were occasionally heaved by the frost, and
+cracked; the Portland cement ones answer better, and when
+thoroughly painted with red lead do not soak an appreciable
+quantity of sewage to be offensive, but are too high priced ($28
+each). I have made one or two patterns for cast-iron ones, but none
+as yet that I feel satisfied with.</p>
+
+<p>Beyond the running trap an Akron pipe should convey the sewage
+to a tank or cesspool.</p>
+
+<p>Our supposable case is the second most difficult to take care
+of. The worst would be ledge. We have to contend with, however,
+hard, wet, impervious clay.</p>
+
+<p>The best way undoubtedly is to underdrain the land, and then to
+distribute the sewage on the principle of intermittent downward
+filtration. This is rather expensive, and a customer is rarely
+willing to pay the bills for the same. I should always advise it as
+the best; but where not allowed to do so, I have had fair success
+with shallow French drains connecting with the tank or
+cesspool.</p>
+
+<p>Siphon tanks, such as are advised by many sanitarians, that were
+used first in this country, I believe, by Mr. Waring, I have not
+been very successful with. Obstructions get into the siphon and
+stop it up, or it gets choked with grease. I prefer a tight tank,
+provided with a tell-tale, and that is to be opened either by a
+valve operated by hand, or that is arranged with a standing
+overflow like a bath tub, and that can be raised and secured by a
+hook.</p>
+
+<a name="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4">[4]</a>
+
+<div class="note">Read before the Boston Society of Civil
+Engineers, April 1884 <i>Journal A. of E. Societies</i>.</div>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="24"></a></p>
+
+<h2>SANITARY COOKING.<a name="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_5_5"><sup>[5]</sup></a></h2>
+
+<h3>By VIRGINIA L. OPPENHEIMER, M.D., Seymour, Ind.</h3>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza"><span>"We may live without poetry, music, and
+art,<br>
+</span> <span>We may live without conscience, and live without
+heart,<br>
+</span> <span>We may live without friends,<br>
+</span> <span>We may live without books,<br>
+</span> <span>But civilized man cannot live without cooks.<br>
+</span></div>
+
+<div class="stanza"><span>"We may live without books&mdash;<br>
+</span> <span>What is knowledge but grieving?<br>
+</span> <span>We may live without hope&mdash;<br>
+</span> <span>What is hope but deceiving?<br>
+</span> <span>We may live without love&mdash;what is passion but
+pining?<br>
+</span> <span>But where is the man that can live without
+dining?"<br>
+</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Thus saith the poet, and forthwith turns the world over into the
+hands of the cook. And into what better hands could you fall? To
+you, my fat, jolly, four-meals-a-day friend, Mr. Gourmand, but more
+especially to <i>you</i>, my somber, lean, dyspeptic,
+two-meals-a-day friend, Mr. Grumbler, the cook is indeed a valuable
+friend. The cook wields a scepter that is only second in power to
+that of love; and even love has become soured through the evil
+instrumentality of the good-looking or bad-cooking cook. This is no
+jest, it is a very sad fact.</p>
+
+<p>Now, the question arises, how can the cook preserve the health
+of her patrons, maintain happiness in the family, and yet not throw
+the gourmands into bankruptcy? Very simple, I assure you.</p>
+
+<ol>
+<li>You must have <i>the</i> cook. I mean by this, that not every
+one can occupy that important office. The greatest consideration in
+the qualities of a cook is, does she like the work? No one can
+fulfill the duties of any noteworthy office unless he labors at
+them with vim and willingness.</li>
+
+<li>You must have good articles of food originally.</li>
+
+<li>As our honest Iago said, "You must have change."</li>
+</ol>
+
+<p>When one arrives at adult age, he should have learned by
+experience what articles of food <i>do</i>, and what articles of
+food do <i>not</i>, agree with him, and to shun the latter, no
+matter how daintily served or how tempting the circumstances. The
+man who knows that <i>pates de foie gras</i>, or the livers of
+abnormally fattened geese, disagree with him, and still eats them,
+is not to be pitied when all the horrors of dyspepsia overtake
+him.</p>
+
+<p>The cooking of any article of food has evidently much, very
+much, to do with its digestibility. It is not the purpose of this
+paper to teach cooking, but merely to give some general hints as to
+the best as well as the simplest methods of preparing staple
+articles of food. The same articles of food can and should be
+prepared differently on each day of the week. Changes of diet are
+too likely to be underestimated. By constant change the digestive
+organs in the average person are prevented from having that
+repulsion of food which, to a greater or less extent, is likely to
+result from a sameness of diet continued for a long time.</p>
+
+<p>We often hear from our scientific men that this or that article
+of food is excellent for muscle, another for brain, another for
+bone, etc., etc. Now, stubborn facts are like stone walls, against
+which theories often butt out their beauty and their power. It is
+well known to almost every one nowadays that <i>well-cooked</i>
+food, whether it be potatoes, meat and bread, fish, or anything
+else worthy the name of food, will well maintain, indefinitely,
+either the philosopher or the hodcarrier.</p>
+
+<p>Many of you know, and all of you ought to know, that the
+principal ingredients of nearly all our foods are starch and
+albumen. Starch is the principal nutritive ingredient of vegetables
+and breadstuffs. Albumen is the principal ingredient of meats,
+eggs, milk, and other animal derivatives.</p>
+
+<p>Starch never enters the system as starch, but must first be
+converted into sugar either in the body or out of it. The process
+of this transformation of starch into sugar is beautifully
+exemplified in certain plants, such as the beet, the so-called
+sugar cane, and other growths. The young plant is, to a great
+extent, composed of starch; as the plant grows older, a substance
+is produced which is called <i>diastase</i>. Through the influence
+of this <i>diastase</i> the starch is converted into a peculiar
+non-crystallizable substance called <i>dextrine</i>, and as the
+plant matures, this dextrine is transformed into crystallizable
+sugar.</p>
+
+<p>"Dextrine is a substance that can be produced from starch by the
+action of dilute acids, alkalies, and malt extract, and by roasting
+it at a temperature between 284&deg; and 330&deg; F., till it is of
+a light brown color, and has the odor of overbaked bread."</p>
+
+<p>A simple form of dextrine may be found in the brown crust of
+bread&mdash;that sweetish substance that gives the crust its
+agreeable flavor. Pure dextrine is an insipid, odorless,
+yellowish-white, translucent substance, which dissolves in water
+almost as readily as sugar. As stated above, it is easily converted
+into <i>dextrose</i>, or <i>glucose</i>, as it is usually
+named.</p>
+
+<p>This <i>glucose</i> is often sold under the name of sugar, and
+is the same against which so many of the newspapers waged such a
+war a year or two ago. These critics were evidently, for the most
+part, persons who knew little about the subject. Glucose, if free
+from sulphuric acid or other chemicals, is as harmless as any other
+form of sugar. Most of our candies contain more or less of it, and
+are in every way as satisfactory as when manufactured wholly from
+other sugars.</p>
+
+<p>It is, therefore, self-evident that, as sugar is a necessary
+article of food, the process which aids the transformation of our
+starchy foods must necessarily aid digestion. Do not understand me
+to say by this that, if all our starchy foods were converted into
+sugar, their digestion would thereby be completed. As I stated a
+moment ago, this sweet food, if taken into the stomach day after
+day, would soon cause that particular organ to rebel against this
+sameness of diet. In order the more clearly to illustrate this
+point, I will briefly show you how some of the every-day articles
+of food can be each day differently prepared, and thus be rendered
+more palatable, and, as a consequence, more digestible; for it is a
+demonstrated fact that savory foods are far more easily digested
+than the same foods unsavored.</p>
+
+<p>The art of serving and arranging dishes for the table is an
+accomplishment in itself. It is very reasonable that all things
+that go to make up beauty and harmony at the dinner table should
+add their full quota to the appetite, and, I was about to say, "to
+the digestion;" but will qualify the statement by saying, to the
+digestion if the appetite be not porcine.</p>
+
+<p>Our commonest article of food is the <i>potato</i>. Let us see
+how potatoes&mdash;which contain only twenty per cent. of starch,
+as against eighty-eight per cent. in rice, and sixty-six per cent.
+in wheat flour&mdash;can be prepared as just mentioned. We will
+look for a moment at the manner in which they are usually served by
+the average cook:</p>
+
+<p>1, boiled with their jackets on; 2, roasted in the embers; 3,
+roasted with meat; 4, fried; 5, mashed; 6, salad.</p>
+
+<p>1. Potatoes boiled in their jackets are excellent if properly
+prepared. But there's the rub. The trouble is, they are too often
+allowed to boil slowly and too long, and thus become water-soaked,
+soggy, and solid, and proportionately indigestible. They should be
+put over a brisk fire, and kept at a brisk boil till done; then
+drain off the water, sprinkle a little salt over them, and return
+to the fire a moment to dry thoroughly, when you will find them
+bursting with their white, mealy contents.</p>
+
+<p>2. Roasted potatoes are general favorites, and very digestible.
+A more agreeable flavor is imparted to them if roasted in hot
+embers (wood fire), care being used to keep them covered with the
+hot embers.</p>
+
+<p>3. Fried potatoes, as they are very generally served, are almost
+as digestible as rocks, but not so tempting in all their
+grease-dripping beauty as the latter. Many of you have doubtless
+seen the potatoes neatly sliced and dumped into a frying pan full
+of hot lard, where they were permitted to sink or float, and soak
+and sob for about a half hour or more. When served, they presented
+the picturesque spectacle of miniature potato islands floating at
+liberty in a sea of yellow grease. Now, if any of you can relish
+and digest such a mess as that, I would advise you to leave this
+clime, and eat tallow candles with the Esquimaux.</p>
+
+<p>If you are fond of fried potatoes, cook them in this way:</p>
+
+<p>Take what boiled potatoes are left from breakfast or dinner;
+when cold, remove the jackets, and cut into thin slices, season
+with salt, pepper, and a little Cayenne; have ready a hot frying
+pan, with enough meat drippings or sweet lard to cover the bottom;
+put in the potatoes and fry a rich brown, stirring constantly with
+a knife to prevent burning. Serve very hot.</p>
+
+<p>4. Mashed potatoes will be discussed further on.</p>
+
+<p>5. Potato salads are appetizing and piquant, because they are
+usually made up with strong condiments, onions, etc. They are,
+therefore, not very digestible in themselves. Nevertheless, they
+are so palatable that we cannot easily dispense with them; but,
+after eating them, if you expect to have inward peace, either split
+wood, walk eight and a half miles, or take some other light
+exercise.</p>
+
+<p>More palatable, and proportionately digestible, are the
+following methods of cooking this useful vegetable:</p>
+
+<p>1, Saratoga potatoes; 2, a la maitre d'hotel; 3, potato
+croquettes; 4, potatoes and cream; 5, a la Lyonnaise.</p>
+
+<p>1. For <i>Saratogas</i>, pare and slice your potatoes as thin as
+possible, dropping them into cold water in which is dissolved a
+tiny piece of alum to make them crisp. Let them remain in the water
+for an hour or longer. Drain, and wipe perfectly dry with a tea
+towel. Have ready a quantity of boiling lard. Drop them in, and fry
+a delicate brown. Drain all grease from them, sprinkle with salt,
+and serve. Here, in the crisp slices, you will have the much
+desired dextrine. Or, in other words, your potato is already half
+digested. Eat three or four potatoes prepared thus, and you feel no
+inconvenience; but how would you feel did you devour three soggy,
+water-soaked <i>boiled</i> potatoes?</p>
+
+<p>2. For <i>a la maitre d'hotel</i>, pare the potatoes, cut into
+pieces half an inch wide, and the length of the potato; drop into
+cold water until wanted (an hour or so); then drain, and fry in
+boiling lard. Just as they begin to brown take them out with a
+skimmer; let them slightly cool; then put back, and fry a rich
+brown. This makes them puff up, and very attractive.</p>
+
+<p>3. For <i>croquettes</i>, take finely mashed potatoes, and mix
+with salt, pepper, and butter, and sweet milk or cream enough to
+moisten thoroughly. Mix with this one well-beaten egg, and form
+into small balls, taking care to have them smooth. Have ready one
+plate with a beaten egg upon it, and another with cracker crumbs.
+Dip each ball into the egg, and then into the crumbs, and brown
+nicely. Lay the croquettes on brown paper first, to get rid of any
+superfluous grease, then serve on a napkin.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Potatoes and cream</i> are prepared by mincing cold boiled
+potatoes fine, putting them in a spider with a little melted butter
+in it, and letting them fry slightly, keeping them well covered.
+Add a very small piece of fresh butter, season with pepper and
+salt, and pour over them cream or rich milk. Let them boil up once,
+and serve. This is a very nice dish, and may be safely taken into
+delicate stomachs.</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>A la Lyonnaise</i> is prepared as follows: Take five cold
+potatoes, one onion, butter, salt, and pepper. Slice the onion
+finely, and fry it in butter until it begins to take color; add the
+sliced potatoes, salt and pepper to taste, and keep shaking the
+saucepan until they are somewhat browned. Serve hot.</p>
+
+<p>A few random remarks about the preparation of albuminous foods.
+If the albumen in food is hardened by prolonged cooking, it is
+rendered <i>less</i> instead of more digestible. Therefore, the
+so-called <i>well-cooked</i> meats are really <i>badly-cooked</i>
+meats. Meats should be only half done, or rare. To do this
+properly, it is necessary to cook with a quick fire. Steaks should
+be broiled, not fried. I am in accord with a well-known orator, who
+said, recently, that "the person who fries a steak should be
+arrested for cruelty to humanity." Some few meats should always be
+well cooked before eating.<a name="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_6_6"><sup>[6]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>The same law holds good with eggs as with meats. A hard-boiled
+egg is only fit for the stomach of an ostrich; it was never
+intended by nature to adorn the human stomach. There are very many
+ways of preparing eggs&mdash;by frying, baking, poaching, shirring,
+etc. I will only describe briefly a few simple methods of making
+omelets.</p>
+
+<p>In making this elegant dish, never use more than three eggs to
+an <i>omelet</i>. Plain omelet: Separate the whites and yolks; add
+a teaspoonful of water to the whites, and beat to a stiff froth;
+add to the yolks a teaspoonful of water, and beat until light; then
+season with salt, and about two tablespoonfuls of cream or rich
+milk. Have your spider very hot; turn your whites and yolks
+together, and stir lightly to mix them; place a bit of butter in
+the spider, and immediately pour in your eggs. When set (which
+takes from ten to twenty seconds, and be careful that it does not
+brown too much), fold together in a half moon, remove it, sprinkle
+with powdered sugar, and serve on a hot plate. It should be eaten
+immediately.</p>
+
+<p>Fruit omelets are made by placing preserved fruits or jellies
+between the folds. Baked omelets are prepared as above, with the
+addition of placing in the oven and allowing to brown slightly.</p>
+
+<p>French omelet is prepared in this way: Take a half cup of
+boiling milk with a half teaspoonful of butter melted in it; pour
+this over one-half cup of bread crumbs (light bread); add salt,
+pepper, and the yolks of three eggs beaten very light; mix
+thoroughly; and lastly, add the whites whipped to a stiff froth.
+Stir lightly, and fry in butter. When nearly done, fold together in
+a half moon, and serve immediately.</p>
+
+<p>And thus we might continue <i>ad infinitum</i>, but, as was
+stated before, it is not my object to instruct you in special
+cooking, but to illustrate in this manner how much easier it is, to
+both the cook and your stomachs, to prepare healthful dishes than
+to do the reverse.</p>
+
+<a name="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5">[5]</a>
+
+<div class="note">Read before the Indiana State Sanitary Society,
+Seymour, March 13, 1884.&mdash;<i>The Sanitarian.</i></div>
+
+<a name="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6">[6]</a>
+
+<div class="note">These are the exceptions. Pork, on account of the
+prevalence of disease in hogs, should be well done.</div>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="25"></a></p>
+
+<h2>TIME REQUIRED TO DIGEST DIFFERENT FOODS.</h2>
+
+<p><i>The Monitor de la Salud</i> contains in a recent number the
+results of some experiments lately made by E. Jessen on the time
+required for the digestion of certain kinds of food. The stomach of
+the person on whom the experiments were made was emptied by means
+of a pump; 100 grammes, equal to 1,544 grains, or about 2&#8532;
+ounces, of meat, finely chopped and mixed with three times the
+quantity of water, were introduced. The experiment was considered
+ended when the matter, on removal by the pump, was found to contain
+no muscular fibre.</p>
+
+<p>It will be remembered that the gramme weighs nearly 15&frac12;
+grains, and the cubic centigramme is equal to 1 gramme. The
+2&#8532; ounces of meat were therefore mixed with nearly eight
+ounces of water, before being introduced into the stomach.</p>
+
+<p>The results were as follows:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Beef, raw, and finely chopped.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>2 hours.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Beef, half cooked.</td>
+<td align='left'>2&frac12; hours.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Beef, well cooked.</td>
+<td align='left'>3 hours.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Beef, slightly roasted.</td>
+<td align='left'>3 hours.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Beef, well roasted.</td>
+<td align='left'>4 hours.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Mutton, raw.</td>
+<td align='left'>2 hours.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Veal.</td>
+<td align='left'>2&frac12; hours.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Pork.</td>
+<td align='left'>3 hours.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The digestibility of milk was examined in the same way. The
+quantity used was regulated so that the nitrogen should be the same
+as in the 100 grammes of beef.</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>602 cubic centimeters, nearly sixteen ounces, of
+cow's milk, not boiled, required.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>3&frac12; hours</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>602 cubic centimeters, boiled.</td>
+<td align='left'>4 hours</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>602 sour.</td>
+<td align='left'>3&frac12; hours</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>675 skimmed.</td>
+<td align='left'>3&frac12; hours</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>656 goat's milk, not boiled.</td>
+<td align='left'>3&frac12; hours</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="20"></a></p>
+
+<h2>THE ORGANIZATION AND PLAN OF THE UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL
+SURVEY.<a name="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_7_7"><sup>[7]</sup></a></h2>
+
+<h3>By J.W. POWELL.</h3>
+
+<p>A Scientific institution or bureau operating under government
+authority can be controlled by statute and by superior
+administrative authority but to a limited extent. These operations
+are practically carried on by specialists, and they can be
+controlled only in their financial operations and in the general
+purposes for which investigations are made. Their methods of
+investigation are their own&mdash;originate with themselves, and
+are carried out by themselves. But in relation to the scientific
+operations of such a government institution, there is an unofficial
+authority which, though not immediately felt, ultimately steps in
+to approve or condemn, viz., the body of scientific men of the
+country; and though their authority is not exercised antecedently
+and at every stage of the work, yet it is so potent that no
+national scientific institution can grow and prosper without their
+approval, but must sooner or later fall and perish unless sustained
+by their strong influence.</p>
+
+<p>As director of the Geological Survey, I deeply realize that I
+owe allegiance to the scientific men of the country, and for this
+reason I desire to present to the National Academy of Sciences the
+organization and plan of operations of the Survey.</p>
+
+<h3>A TOPOGRAPHIC MAP OF THE UNITED STATUS.</h3>
+
+<p>Sound geologic research is based on geography. Without a good
+topographic map geology cannot even be thoroughly studied, and the
+publication of the results of geologic investigation is very
+imperfect without a good map; but with a good map thorough
+investigation and simple, intelligible publication become possible.
+Impelled by these considerations, the Survey is making a
+topographic map of the United States. The geographic basis of this
+map is a trigonometric survey by which datum points are established
+throughout the country; that is, base-lines are measured and a
+triangulation extended therefrom. This trigonometric work is
+executed on a scale only sufficiently refined for map-making
+purposes, and will not be directly useful for geodetic purposes in
+determining the figure of the earth. The hypsometric work is based
+upon the railroad levels of the country. Throughout the greater
+part of the country, there is a system of railroad lines,
+constituting a net-work. The levels or profiles of these roads have
+been established with reasonable accuracy, and as they cross each
+other at a multiplicity of points, a system of checks is afforded,
+so that the railroad surface of the country can be determined
+therefrom with all the accuracy necessary for the most refined and
+elaborate topographic maps. From such a hypsometric basis the
+reliefs for the whole country are determined, by running lines of
+levels, by trigonometric construction, and in mountainous regions
+by barometric observation.</p>
+
+<p>The primary triangulation having been made, the topography is
+executed by a variety of methods, adapted to the peculiar
+conditions found in various portions of the country. To a large
+extent the plane-table is used. In the hands of the topographers of
+the Geological Survey, the plane-table is not simply a portable
+draughting table for the field; it is practically an instrument of
+triangulation, and all minor positions of the details of topography
+are determined through its use by trigonometric construction.</p>
+
+<p>The scale on which the map is made is variable. In some portions
+of the prairie region, and in the region of the great plains, the
+topography and the geology alike are simple, and maps on a
+comparatively small scale are sufficient for practical purposes.
+For these districts it is proposed to construct the sheets of the
+map on a scale of 1-250,000, or about four miles to the inch. In
+the mountain regions of the West the geology is more complex, and
+the topography more intricate; but to a large extent these regions
+are uninhabited, and to a more limited extent uninhabitable. It
+would therefore not be wise to make a topographic or geologic
+survey of the country on an excessively elaborate plan. Over much
+of this area the sheets of the map will also be constructed on a
+scale of 1-250,000, but in special districts that scale will be
+increased to 1-125,000, and in the case of important mining
+districts charts will be constructed on a much larger scale. In the
+eastern portion of the United States two scales are adopted. In the
+less densely populated country a scale of 1-125,000 is used; in the
+more densely populated regions a scale of 1-62,500 is adopted, or
+about one mile to the inch. But throughout the country a few
+special districts of great importance, because of complex geologic
+structure, dense population, or other condition, will require
+charts on still larger scales. The area of the United States,
+exclusive of Alaska, is about three million square miles, and a map
+of the United States, constructed on the plan set forth above, will
+require not less than 2,600 sheets. It may ultimately prove to
+require more than that, from the fact that the areas to be surveyed
+on the larger scale have not been fully determined. Besides the
+number of sheets in the general map of the United States, there
+will be several hundred special maps on large scales, as above
+described.</p>
+
+<p>Such is a brief outline of the plan so far as it has been
+developed at the present time. In this connection it should be
+stated that the map of the United States can be completed, with the
+present organization of the Geological Survey, in about 24 years;
+but it is greatly to be desired that the time for its completion
+may be materially diminished by increasing the topographic force of
+the Geological Survey. We ought to have a good topographic map of
+the United States by the year 1900. About one-fifth of the whole
+area of the United States, exclusive of Alaska, has been completed
+on the above plan. This includes all geographic work done in the
+United States under the auspices of the General Government and
+under the auspices of State Governments. The map herewith shows
+those areas that have been surveyed by various organizations on
+such a scale and in such a manner that the work has been accepted
+as sufficient for the purposes of the Survey.</p>
+
+<p>Much other work has been done, but not with sufficient
+refinement and accuracy to be of present value, though such work
+subserved its purpose in its time. An examination of the map will
+show that the triangulation of the various organizations is already
+largely in advance of the topography. The map of the United States
+will be a great atlas divided into sheets as above indicated. In
+all of those areas where the survey is on a scale of 1-250,000, a
+page of the atlas will present an area of one degree in longitude
+and one degree in latitude. Where the scale is 1-125,000, a page of
+the atlas-sheet will represent one-fourth of a degree. Where the
+scale is 1-62,500, the atlas-sheet will represent one-sixteenth of
+a degree. The degree sheet will be designated by two
+numbers&mdash;one representing latitude, the other longitude. Where
+the sheets represent fractional degrees, they will be labeled with
+the same numbers, with the addition of the description of the
+proper fractional part.</p>
+
+<p>The organization, as at present established, executing this
+work, is as follows: First, an astronomic and computing division,
+the officers of which are engaged in determining the geographic
+coordinates of certain primary points. Second, a triangulation
+corps engaged in extending a system of triangulation over various
+portions of the country from measured base-lines. Third, a
+topographic corps, organized into twenty-seven parties, scattered
+over various portions of the United States. Such, in brief outline,
+is the plan for the map of the United States, and the organization
+by which it is to be made. Mr. Henry Gannett is the Chief
+Geographer.</p>
+
+<h3>PALEONTOLOGY.</h3>
+
+<p>Before giving the outline of the plan for the general geologic
+survey, it will be better to explain the accessory plans and
+organizations. There are in the Survey, as at present organized,
+the following paleontologic laboratories:</p>
+
+<p>1. A laboratory of vertebrate paleontology for formations other
+than the Quaternary. In connection with this laboratory there is a
+corps of paleontologists. Professor O.C. Marsh is in charge.</p>
+
+<p>2. There is a laboratory of invertebrate paleontology of
+Quaternary age, with a corps of paleontologists, Mr. Wm. H. Dall
+being in charge.</p>
+
+<p>3. There is a laboratory of invertebrate paleontology of
+Cenozoic and Mesozoic age, with a corps of paleontologists. Dr.
+C.A. White is in charge.</p>
+
+<p>4. There is a laboratory of invertebrate paleontology of
+Paleozoic age, with a corps of paleontologists. Mr. C.D. Walcott is
+in charge.</p>
+
+<p>5. There is a laboratory of fossil botany, with a corps of
+paleobotanists, Mr. Lester F. Ward being in charge.</p>
+
+<p>The paleontologists and paleobotanists connected with the
+laboratories above described, study and discuss in reports the
+fossils collected by the general geologists in the field. They also
+supplement the work of the field geologists by making special
+collections in important districts and at critical horizons; but
+the paleontologists are not held responsible for areal and
+structural geology on the one hand, and the geologists are not held
+responsible for paleontology on the other hand. In addition to the
+large number of paleontologists on the regular work of the
+Geological Survey, as above described, several paleontologists are
+engaged from time to time to make special studies.</p>
+
+<h3>CHEMISTRY.</h3>
+
+<p>There is a chemic laboratory attached to the Survey, with a
+large corps of chemists engaged in a great variety of researches
+relating to the constitution of waters, minerals, ores, and rocks.
+A part of the work of this corps is to study the methods of
+metamorphism and the paragenesis of minerals, and in this
+connection the chemists do work in the field; but to a large extent
+they are occupied with the study of the materials collected by the
+field geologists. Professor F.W. Clarke is in charge of this
+department.</p>
+
+<h3>PHYSICAL RESEARCHES.</h3>
+
+<p>There is a physical laboratory in the Survey, with a small corps
+of men engaged in certain physical researches of prime importance
+to geologic philosophy. These researches are experimental, and
+relate to the effect of temperatures, pressures, etc., on rocks.
+This laboratory is under the charge of the chief chemist.</p>
+
+<h3>LITHOLOGY.</h3>
+
+<p>There is a lithologic laboratory in the Survey, with a large
+corps of lithologists engaged in the microscopic study of rocks.
+These lithologists are field geologists, who examine the
+collections made by themselves.</p>
+
+<h3>STATISTICS.</h3>
+
+<p>There is in the Survey a division of mining statistics, with a
+large corps of men engaged in statistic work, the results of which
+are published in an annual report entitled "Mineral Resources." Mr.
+Albert Williams, Jr., is the Chief Statistician of the Survey.</p>
+
+<h3>ILLUSTRATIONS.</h3>
+
+<p>There is in the Survey a division organized for the purpose of
+preparing illustrations for paleontologic and geologic reports. Mr.
+W.H. Holmes is in charge of this division. Illustrations will not
+hereafter be used for embellishment, but will be strictly confined
+to the illustration of the text and the presentation of such facts
+as can be best exhibited by figures and diagrams. All illustrations
+will, as far as possible, be produced by relief methods, such as
+wood-engraving, photo-engraving, etc. As large numbers of the
+reports of the Survey are published, this plan is demanded for
+economic reasons; but there is another consideration believed to be
+of still greater importance; illustrations made on stone cannot be
+used after the first edition, as they deteriorate somewhat by time,
+and it is customary to use the same lithographic stone for various
+purposes from time to time. The illustrations made for the reports
+of the Survey, if on relief-plates that can be cheaply
+electrotyped, can be used again when needed. This is especially
+desirable in paleontology, where previously published figures can
+be introduced for comparative purposes. There are two methods of
+studying the extinct life of the globe. Fossils are indices of
+geological formations, and must be grouped by formations to
+subserve the purpose of geologists. Fossils also have their
+biologic relations, and should be studied and arranged in biologic
+groups. Under the plan adopted by the Survey, the illustrations can
+be used over and over again for such purposes when needed, as
+reproduction can be made at the small cost of electrotyping. These
+same illustrations can be used by the public at large in scientific
+periodicals, text-books, etc. All the illustrations made by the
+Geological Survey are held for the public to be used in this
+manner.</p>
+
+<h3>LIBRARY.</h3>
+
+<p>The library of the Survey now contains more than 25,000 volumes,
+and is rapidly growing by means of exchanges. It is found necessary
+to purchase but few books. The librarian, Mr. C.C. Darwin, has a
+corps of assistants engaged in bibliographic work. It is proposed
+to prepare a catalogue of American and foreign publications upon
+American geology, which is to be a general authors' catalogue. In
+addition to this, it is proposed to publish bibliographies proper
+of special subjects constituting integral parts of the science of
+geology.</p>
+
+<h3>PUBLICATIONS.</h3>
+
+<p>The publications of the Survey are in three series: Annual
+Reports, Bulletins, and Monographs. The Annual Report constitutes a
+part of the Report of the Secretary of the Interior for each year,
+but is a distinct volume. This contains a brief summary of the
+purposes, plans, and operations of the Survey, prepared by the
+Director, and short administrative reports from the chiefs of
+divisions, the whole followed by scientific papers. These papers
+are selected as being those of most general interest, the object
+being to make the Annual Report a somewhat popular account of the
+doings of the Survey, that it may be widely read by the intelligent
+people of the country. Of this 5,650 copies are published as a part
+of the Secretary's report, and are distributed by the Secretary of
+the Interior, Senators, and Members of the House of
+Representatives; and an extra edition is annually ordered of 15,000
+copies, distributed by the Survey and members of the Senate and
+House of Representatives. Four annual reports have been published;
+the fifth is now in the hands of the printer.</p>
+
+<p>The Bulletins of the Survey are short papers, and through them
+somewhat speedy publication is attained. Each bulletin is devoted
+to some specific topic, in order that the material ultimately
+published in the bulletins can be classified in any manner desired
+by scientific men. Nine bulletins have been published, and seven
+are in press. The bulletins already published vary in size from 5
+to 325 pages each; they are sold at the cost of press-work and
+paper, and vary in price from five to twenty cents each; 4,900
+copies of each bulletin are published; 1,900 are distributed by
+Congress, 3,000 are held for sale and exchange by the Geological
+Survey.</p>
+
+<p>The Monographs of the Survey are quarto volumes. By this method
+of publication the more important and elaborate papers are given to
+the public. Six monographs, with two atlases, have been issued;
+five monographs, with two atlases, are in press; 1,900 copies of
+each monograph are distributed by Congress; 3,000 are held for sale
+and exchange by the Survey at the cost of press-work, paper, and
+binding. They vary in price from $1.05 to $11.</p>
+
+<p>The chiefs of divisions supervise the publications that
+originate in their several corps. The general editorial supervision
+is exercised by the Chief Clerk of the Survey, Mr. James C.
+Pilling.</p>
+
+<h3>GENERAL GEOLOGY.</h3>
+
+<p>In organizing the general geologic work, it became necessary,
+first, to consider what had already been done in various portions
+of the United States; and for this purpose the compilation of a
+general geologic map of the United States was begun, together with
+a Thesaurus of American formations. In addition to this the
+bibliographic work previously described was initiated, so that the
+literature relating to American geology should be readily
+accessible to the workers in the Survey. At this point it became
+necessary to consider the best methods of apportioning the work;
+that is, the best methods of dividing the geologic work into parts
+to be assigned to the different corps of observers. A strictly
+geographic apportionment was not deemed wise, from the fact that an
+unscientific division of labor would result, and the same classes
+of problems would to a large extent be relegated to the several
+corps operating in field and in the laboratory. It was thought best
+to divide the work, as far as possible, by subject-matter rather
+than by territorial areas; yet to some extent the two methods of
+division will coincide. There are in the Survey at present:</p>
+
+<p>First, a division of glacial geology, and Prof. T.C. Chamberlin,
+formerly State Geologist of Wisconsin is at its head, with a strong
+corps of assistants. There is an important field for which definite
+provision has not yet been made, namely, the study of the loess
+that constitutes the bluff formations of the Mississippi River and
+its tributaries. But as this loess proves to be intimately
+associated with the glacial formations of the same region, it is
+probable that it will eventually be relegated to the glacial
+division. Perhaps the division may eventually grow to such an
+extent that its field of operations will include the whole
+Quaternary geology.</p>
+
+<p>Second, a division of volcanic geology is organized, and Capt.
+Clarence E. Dutton, of the Ordnance Corps of the Army, is placed in
+charge, also with a strong corps of assistants.</p>
+
+<p>Third and fourth, two divisions have been organized to prosecute
+work on the arch&aelig;an rocks, embracing within their field not
+only all rocks of arch&aelig;an age, but all metamorphic
+crystalline schists, of whatever age they may be found. The first
+division has for its chief Prof. Raphael Pumpelly, assisted by a
+corps of geologists, and the field of his work is the crystalline
+schists of the Appalachian region, or eastern portion of the United
+States, extending from northern New England to Georgia. He will
+also include in his studies certain paleozoic formations which are
+immediately connected with the crystalline schists and involved in
+their orographic structure.</p>
+
+<p>The second division for the study of this class of rocks is in
+charge of Prof. Roland D. Irving, with a corps of geologists, and
+his field of operation is in the Lake Superior region. It is not
+proposed at present to undertake the study of the crystalline
+schists of the Rocky Mountain region.</p>
+
+<p>Fifth, another division has been organized for the study of the
+areal, structural, and historical geology of the Appalachian
+region, extending from the Atlantic, westward, to the zone which
+separates the mountain region from the great valley of the
+Mississippi. Mr. G.K. Gilbert has charge of this work, and has a
+large corps of assistants.</p>
+
+<p>Sixth, it seemed desirable, partly for scientific reasons and
+partly for administrative reasons, that a thorough topographic and
+geologic survey should be made of the Yellowstone Park, and Mr.
+Arnold Hague is in charge of the work, with a corps of assistants.
+When it is completed, his field will be expanded so as to include a
+large part of the Rocky Mountain region, but the extent of the
+field is not yet determined.</p>
+
+<p>It will thus be seen that the general geologic work relating to
+those areas where the terranes are composed of fossiliferous
+formations is very imperfectly and incompletely organized. The
+reason for this is twofold: First, the work cannot be performed
+very successfully until the maps are made; second, the Geological
+Survey is necessarily diverting much of its force to the
+construction of maps, and cannot with present appropriations expand
+the geologic corps so as to extend systematic work in the field
+over the entire country.</p>
+
+<h3>ECONOMIC GEOLOGY.</h3>
+
+<p>Under the organic law of the Geological Survey, investigations
+in economic geology are restricted to those States and Territories
+in which there are public lands; the extension of the work into the
+eastern portion of the United States included only that part
+relating to general geology. Two mining divisions are organized.
+One, in charge of Mr. George F. Becker, with headquarters at San
+Francisco, California, is at the present time engaged in the study
+of the quicksilver districts of California. The other, under charge
+of Mr. S.F. Emmons, with headquarters at Denver, Colorado, is
+engaged in studying various mining districts in that State,
+including silver, gold, iron, and coal areas. Each division has a
+corps of assistants. The lignite coals of the upper Missouri, also,
+are under investigation by Mr. Bailey Willis, with a corps of
+assistants.</p>
+
+<h3>EMPLOYES.</h3>
+
+<p>The employes on the Geological Survey at the close of September,
+1884, were as follows:</p>
+
+<p>Appointed by the President, by and with the advice and consent
+of the Senate (Director), 1.</p>
+
+<p>Appointed by the Secretary of the Interior, on the
+recommendation of the Director of the Survey, 134.</p>
+
+<p>Employed by the chiefs of parties in the field, 148.</p>
+
+<h3>APPOINTMENTS.</h3>
+
+<p>Three classes of appointments are made on the Survey. The
+statute provides that "the scientific employes of the Geological
+Survey shall be selected by the Director, subject to the approval
+of the Secretary of the Interior, exclusively for their
+qualifications as professional experts." The provisions of this
+statute apply to all those cases where scientific men are employed
+who have established a reputation, and in asking for their
+appointment the Director specifically states his reasons, setting
+forth the work in which the person is to be employed, together with
+his qualifications, especially enumerating and characterizing his
+published works. On such recommendations appointments are
+invariably made. Young men who have not established a reputation in
+scientific research are selected through the agency of the Civil
+Service Commission on special examination, the papers for which are
+prepared in the Geological Survey. About one-half of the employes,
+however, are temporary, being engaged for services lasting for a
+few days or a few months only, largely in the field, and coming
+under two classes: Skilled laborers and common laborers. Such
+persons are employed by the Director or by the heads of divisions,
+and are discharged from the service when no longer needed. It will
+be seen that the Director is responsible for the selection of the
+employes, directly for those whom he recommends for appointment,
+and indirectly for those selected by the Civil Service Commission,
+as he permanently retains in the work. If, then, improper persons
+are employed, it is wholly the Director's fault.</p>
+
+<p>The appropriations made for the Geological Survey for the fiscal
+year ending June 30, 1885, aggregate the sum of $504,040. This sum
+does not include the amount appropriated for ethnologic
+researches&mdash;$40,000. Nor are the expenses for engraving and
+printing paid for from the above appropriations, but from
+appropriations made for the work under the direction of the public
+printer. It is estimated that the amount needed for engraving and
+printing for the same fiscal year will exceed $200,000.</p>
+
+<h3>THE RELATION OF THE GOVERNMENT SURVEY TO STATE SURVEYS.</h3>
+
+<p>The United States Geological Survey is on friendly relations
+with the various State Surveys. Between the Government Survey and
+the State Survey of New York, there is direct co-operation. The
+State Survey of Pennsylvania has rendered valuable assistance to
+the Government Survey, and negotiations have been entered into for
+closer relations and more thorough co-operation. The State Surveys
+of North Carolina, Kentucky, and Alabama are also co-operating with
+the Government Survey, and the director of the Government Survey is
+doing all within his power to revive State Surveys. The field for
+geologic research in the United States is of great magnitude, and
+the best results can be accomplished only by the labors of many
+scientific men engaged for a long term of years. For this reason it
+is believed that surveys should be established in all of the States
+and Territories. There is work enough for all, and the
+establishment of local surveys would greatly assist the general
+work prosecuted under the auspices of the government, and prevent
+it from falling into perfunctory channels. Its vigor and health
+will doubtless be promoted by all thorough local research.</p>
+
+<p>It may be of interest to scientific men to know that the
+Director finds that in presenting the general results, interests,
+and needs of the Survey to Congress, and to Committees of Congress,
+a thorough appreciation of the value of scientific research is
+shown by the statesmen of the country. Questions relating to
+immediately economic values are asked, as they should be; but
+questions relating to sound administration, wise methods of
+investigation, and important scientific results are vigorously
+urged, and the principle is recognized that all sound scientific
+research conduces to the welfare of the people, not only by
+increasing knowledge, but ultimately by affecting all the
+industries of the people.</p>
+
+<a name="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7">[7]</a>
+
+<div class="note">Communicated to the National Academy of Sciences
+at the October meeting in 1884.</div>
+
+<hr>
+<h3>[THE GARDEN.]</h3>
+
+<p><a name="21"></a></p>
+
+<h2>THE SUNFLOWERS.</h2>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/14a.png"><img src=
+"./images/14a_th.jpg" alt=" FLOWER OF HELIANTHUS ARGOPHYLLUS.">
+</a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FLOWER OF HELIANTHUS ARGOPHYLLUS.</p>
+
+<p>The genus Helianthus is almost entirely North-American, and for
+the distinction and limitation of its species we are indebted to
+the labor of Dr. Asa Gray, now universally recognized as the
+highest authority on North American plants. In the recently
+published second part of his "Synoptical Flora of North America" he
+has described thirty-nine species, six of which are annual. The
+synonyms and cross-naming adopted by previous authors have led to
+much confusion, which probably will not now be altogether cleared
+up, for Dr. Gray warns us that the characters of some of the
+species are variable, especially in cultivation. It may be added
+that some at least of the species readily form hybrids. There is
+always more or less difficulty with a variable genus in making
+garden plants fit wild specific types, but in the following notes I
+have described no kinds which I have not myself cultivated,
+selecting the best forms and giving them the names assigned
+severally by Dr. Gray to the species to which our garden plants
+seem to come nearest.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/14b.png"><img src=
+"./images/14b_th.jpg" alt=
+" HELIANTHUS ARGOPHYLLUS, SHOWING HABIT OF GROWTH."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">HELIANTHUS ARGOPHYLLUS, SHOWING HABIT OF GROWTH.</p>
+
+<p><i>Helianthus multiflorus</i>, or, according to Asa Gray,
+speaking botanically, H. decapetalus hort. var. multiflorus, is
+mentioned first, because it is the subject of the colored
+illustration. The name multiflorus is established by long usage,
+and perhaps was originally given in contrast to the few-flowered
+habit of H. annuus, for the type of the species is more floriferous
+than the variety of which Asa Gray says that it is "known only in
+cultivation from early times, must have been derived from
+decapetalus," a statement which gardeners would hardly have
+accepted on less indisputable authority, as they will all think the
+habit and appearance of the two plants widely different. The
+variety multiflorus has several forms; the commonest form is
+double, the disk being filled with ligules much shorter than those
+of the ray flowers, after the form of many daisy-like composites.
+In this double form the day flowers are often wanting. It is common
+also on old plants in poor soils to see double and single flowers
+from the same root. In the single forms the size of the flowers
+varies, the difference being due to cultivation as often as to
+kind. I have obtained by far the finest flowers by the following
+treatment: In early spring, when the young shoots are about an inch
+high, cut some off, each with a portion of young root, and plant
+them singly in deep rich soil, and a sheltered but not shaded
+situation. By August each will have made a large bush, branching
+out from one stalk at the base, with from thirty to forty flowers
+open at a time, each 5 inches across. The same plants if well
+dressed produce good flowers the second season, but after that the
+stalks become crowded, and the flowers degenerate. The same
+treatment suits most of the perennial sunflowers. The following
+kinds are mentioned in the order in which they occur in Asa Gray's
+book:</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/14c.png"><img src=
+"./images/14c_th.jpg" alt=
+" HELIANTHUS MULTIFLORUS, SHOWING HABIT OF GROWTH."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">HELIANTHUS MULTIFLORUS, SHOWING HABIT OF GROWTH.</p>
+
+<h3>ANNUALS.</h3>
+
+<p><i>H. argophyllus</i> (white-leaved, not argyrophyllus,
+silver-leaved, as written in some catalogues).&mdash;An annual with
+woolly leaves, neater and less coarse than H. annuus, with which it
+is said soon to degenerate in gardens if grown together with
+it.</p>
+
+<p><i>H. annuus.</i>&mdash;The well known sunflower in endless
+varieties, one of the most elegant having pale lemon-colored
+flowers; these, too, liable to pass into the common type if grown
+in the same garden.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/14d.png"><img src=
+"./images/14d_th.jpg" alt=
+" HELIANTHUS ORGYALIS, SHOWING HABIT OF GROWTH IN AUTUMN."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">HELIANTHUS ORGYALIS, SHOWING HABIT OF GROWTH IN
+AUTUMN.</p>
+
+<p><i>H. debilis var. cucumerifolius.</i>&mdash;I have never seen
+the typical species, but the variety was introduced a few years ago
+by Mr. W. Thompson, of Ipswich, from whose seed I have grown it. It
+becomes 4 feet or 5 feet high, with irregularly toothed deltoid
+leaves and spotted stalks, making a widely branched bush and
+bearing well-shaped golden flowers more than 3 inches across, with
+black disks. It crosses with any perennial sunflower that grows
+near it, simulating their flowers in an annual form. I had a very
+fine cross with it and H. annuus, but the flowers of this produced
+no good seed.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/14e.png"><img src=
+"./images/14e_th.jpg" alt=
+" JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE (HELIANTHUS TUBEROSUS)."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE (HELIANTHUS TUBEROSUS).</p>
+
+<h3>PERENNIALS.</h3>
+
+<p><i>H. orgyalis</i> (the fathom-high sunflower).&mdash;The name
+is far within the true measure, which is often 9 feet or 10 feet. A
+very distinct species, increasing very slowly at the root and
+throwing all its growing efforts upward. The long linear ribbon
+leaves, often exceeding a foot, spreading in wavy masses round the
+tall stem, which has a palm-like tuft of them at the summit, are a
+more ornamental feature than the flowers, which are moderate in
+size and come late in the axils of the upper leaves.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/15a.png"><img src=
+"./images/15a_th.jpg" alt=
+" HELIANTHUS ANNUUS GLOBULUS FISTULOSUS."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">HELIANTHUS ANNUUS GLOBULUS FISTULOSUS.</p>
+
+<p><i>H. angustifolius.</i>&mdash;A neat and elegant species, which
+I first raised from seed sent by Mr. W. Thompson, of Ipswich. It
+has a very branching habit quite from the base like a well-grown
+bush of the common wallflower. The flowers are abundant, about
+2&frac12; inches across, with a black disk. The plant, though a
+true herb, never comes up in my garden with more than one stalk
+each year.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/15b.png"><img src=
+"./images/15b_th.jpg" alt=
+" HELIANTHUS RIGIDUS (SYN. HARPALIUM RIGIDUM)."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">HELIANTHUS RIGIDUS (SYN. HARPALIUM RIGIDUM).</p>
+
+<p><i>H. rigidus</i> is well known as the best of the perennial
+sunflowers, and has many synonyms, the commonest Harpalium rigidum.
+It need not be described, but one or two things about it may be
+noted. The shoots, which come up a yard or more from last year's
+stalk, may be transplanted as soon as they appear without injury to
+the flowering, but if put back to the old center, the soil, which
+should be deep and light, ought to be enriched. The species is
+variable, and improved forms may be expected, as it produces seed
+in England. The number of ray flowers is often very large. I have
+one form which has several rows of them, nearly hiding the disk. A
+variety is figured in <i>Botanical Magazine</i>, tab. 2,668, under
+the name of H. atro-rubens. Another comes in the same series, tab.
+2,020, as H. diffusus. Other synonyms are H. missuricus and H.
+missouriensis. Its native range extends across North America in
+longitude, and covers many degrees of latitude. It likes a dry
+soil. In wet soil and wet seasons the flower-stalk is apt to wither
+in the middle, and the bud falls over and perishes prematurely.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/15c.png"><img src=
+"./images/15c_th.jpg" alt=
+" COMMON SUNFLOWER (H. ANNUUS) SHOWING HABIT OF GROWTH."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">COMMON SUNFLOWER (H. ANNUUS) SHOWING HABIT OF
+GROWTH.</p>
+
+<p><i>H. L&aelig;tiflorus.</i>&mdash;Under this name we grow in
+England a tall, much-branched, late flowering kind, with smooth and
+very stout and stiff stalks, sometimes black, sometimes green. It
+increases at the base of the stalks; it makes close growth, and
+shows little disposition to run at the root. The flowers are rather
+small, not more than 9 inches across, but so durable and so well
+displayed by the numerous spreading branches as to make the plant
+very useful for late decoration. I own that I cannot identify this
+plant with the l&aelig;tiflorus of Asa Gray, which he tells us
+resembles tall forms of H. rigidus, with rough stalks, and bears
+flowers with numerous rays 1&frac12; inches long.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/15d.png"><img src=
+"./images/15d_th.jpg" alt=" FLOWER OF HELIANTHUS ANNUUS."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FLOWER OF HELIANTHUS ANNUUS.</p>
+
+<p><i>H. occidentalis.</i>&mdash;Recently introduced by Mr. W.
+Thompson, of Ipswich, who gave me the plant two years ago. It is a
+neat species, growing about 2 feet high, well branched, and
+producing at the end of July abundance of flowers about 2 inches
+across. The lower leaves are small and broad, with long stalks,
+ovate in form.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/15e.png"><img src=
+"./images/15e_th.jpg" alt=" HELIANTHUS MULTIFLORUS FL-PL."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">HELIANTHUS MULTIFLORUS FL-PL.</p>
+
+<p><i>H. mollis</i>, so called from the soft white down with which
+the leaves are covered, grows about 4 feet high. Leaves large,
+ovate, and sessile; growth of the plant upright, with hardly any
+branches; flowers pale yellow, about 3 inches across, not very
+ornamental. Cultivated at Kew, whence I had it.</p>
+
+<p><i>H. giganteus</i> grows 10 feet high; stem much branched and
+disposed to curve. Flowers about 2&frac12; inches across, produced
+abundantly in August; rays narrow and pointed, cupped, with the
+ends turning outward; leaves lanceolate and sessile; rootstock
+creeping, forming tuberous thickenings at the base of the stems,
+which Asa Gray tells us were "the Indian potato of the Assiniboine
+tribe," mentioned by Douglas, who called the plant H.
+tuberosus.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/15f.png"><img src=
+"./images/15f_th.jpg" alt=
+" FULL SIZED FLOWER OF HELIANTHUS MULTIFLORUS."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FULL SIZED FLOWER OF HELIANTHUS MULTIFLORUS.</p>
+
+<p><i>H. maximiliani.</i>&mdash;Half the height of the last, which
+it resembles, but the stem is stouter, the leaves larger, as are
+also the flowers, which are produced later. It is not so
+floriferous and ornamental as the last.</p>
+
+<p><i>H. l&aelig;vigatus.</i>&mdash;Smooth stalked, very distinct,
+does not spread at the roots, which are composed of finer fibers
+than those of most of the genus; stalks slender and black, growing
+closely together, branched near the summit, 5 feet high; leaves
+narrowly lanceolate and acute; flowers plentiful and about 2 inches
+across; rays few, and disk small.</p>
+
+<p>We are warned that the following species are "difficult of
+extrication," either confluent or mixed by intercrossing.</p>
+
+<p><i>H. doronicoides.</i>&mdash;I place this the third in merit
+among perennial sunflowers, H. rigidus and H. multiflorus being
+first and second. It is 6 feet or 7 feet high, upright in growth,
+with many stalks. Flowers 3&frac12; inches across, produced from
+the end of July to the end of September, bright golden yellow;
+leaves large, ovate, tapering from the middle to both ends; stalk
+leaves sessile and nearly connate, that is, clasping the stalk by
+their opposite base. The plant spreads rapidly by running
+rootstocks, and ripens seed in abundance. Figured as H. pubescens
+in <i>Botanical Magazine</i>, tab. 2,778.</p>
+
+<p><i>H. divaricatus</i> resembles the last, but is inferior, being
+a smaller plant in all parts, especially in the flowers, which come
+out a month later. The cauline leaves are stalked and diverge
+widely, which habit gives its name to the plant. A casual observer
+would hardly notice the difference between this species and the
+last, but when grown together the superiority of doronicoides as a
+garden plant is at once evident.</p>
+
+<p><i>H. strumosus.</i>&mdash;Fully 6 feet high; growth upright;
+rootstock less spreading than the last two; leaves on very short
+stalks, broadest at the base, ovate tapering by a long narrow
+point; flower disk narrow, but rays large and orange-yellow;
+flowers showy, 3 inches across; they come out late in August. I had
+this plant from Kew. The shape of the leaves would have led me
+rather to refer it to H. trachelifolius, a closely allied
+species.</p>
+
+<p><i>H. decapetalus.</i>&mdash;Five feet high; flowers from end of
+July; makes a dense forest of weak, slender stalks, much branched
+at the top; spreads fast; leaves serrate, oblong-ovate, rather
+large; flowers abundant, pale yellow, about 2 inches across; rays
+nearly always more than ten, in spite of the name.</p>
+
+<p><i>H. tuberosus.</i>&mdash;The well-known Jerusalem artichoke;
+not a plant grown for ornament, being too coarse and late in
+flowering, but several things in its history may be mentioned, as
+Dr. Asa Gray has spent labor and study over it. It is believed to
+have been cultivated by the natives before the discovery of
+America, and the edible tubers are thought to be a development of
+cultivation. Forms of it without tuberous roots are found wild, but
+whether indigenous to the place or degenerate from cultivation was
+for long uncertain. Several species of Helianthus have a tendency
+to produce similar fleshy tubers at the top of the roots. Dr. Gray
+used to refer the origin of this species to H. doronicoides, but it
+is now believed by him to be a distinct species, though one of
+which it is difficult to identify with certainty the typical
+form.</p>
+
+<p>I omitted to say that the word Helianthus is Greek for
+sunflower. After several years' careful observation, I believe the
+notion that the flowers keep their face to the sun is quite a
+delusion.</p>
+
+<p>Edge Hall. C. WOLLEY DOD.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p>A QUICK FILTER.&mdash;The <i>Druggists Circular</i> recommends
+chamois skin, free from thin places; cut it of the desired size;
+wash it in a weak solution of sal soda, or any alkali, to remove
+the grease, and rinse thoroughly in cold water before using.</p>
+
+<p>Tinctures, elixirs, sirups, and even mucilages are filtered
+rapidly. A pint of the thickest sirup will run through in four or
+five minutes. By washing thoroughly after each time of using, it
+will last a long time.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="22"></a></p>
+
+<h2>LYE'S FUCHSIAS.</h2>
+
+<p>The group of fuchsias shown in our engraving represents a
+collection of nine specimens raised and exhibited by that well
+known cultivator, Mr. James Lye, of Clyffe Hall Gardens, Market
+Lavington, at an exhibition held in Bath in September last, and
+which received the first prize in the premier class for that number
+of plants. For many years past Mr. Lye has exhibited fuchsias at
+exhibitions held at Bath, Trowbridge, Devizes, Calne, Chippenham,
+and elsewhere; on all occasions staging specimens of a high order
+of merit; but the plants appearing in our illustration were
+universally regarded as the best he had ever placed in an
+exhibition tent. So much were the committee of the Bath show
+pleased with the specimens that they engaged the services of a
+photographer to make a picture of them on the spot; but after being
+two hours making the attempt, no satisfactory result occurred.
+After the plants were taken back to Clyffe Hall, they were
+photographed as seen in the illustration. Some idea of their height
+and dimensions can be realized by a comparison with the stature of
+Mr. Lye, who is standing by his plants, and who is of average
+height. It should be mentioned that previous to being photographed
+they had traveled by road from Market Lavington to Bath and back, a
+distance of 52 miles, in addition to having been exhibited two
+days. They returned to their home apparently little the worse for
+wear, which immunity from harm is no doubt owing to the admirable
+system of tying adopted by Mr. Lye. It is sometimes said that the
+act of trying in the flowering shoots in this manner gives the
+plants a somewhat severely formal appearance, but there is an
+abundance of healthy foliage and a wonderful profusion of finely
+developed flowers, showing the most careful and painstaking
+cultivation. It is only those who are privileged to see these
+unrivaled plants who can appreciate them at their proper worth.</p>
+
+<p>It has been stated already that the varieties figured are all of
+Mr. Lye's own raising, which facts attests to the value of his
+seedlings, many of which he has produced. Four of these are dark
+varieties, viz., Bountiful, Charming, Elegance, and the Hon. Mrs.
+Hay&mdash;the latter one of the oldest, but one of the freest, and
+scarcely without an equal for its great freedom of bloom. The
+remaining five are light varieties, viz., Lye's Favorite, Harriet
+Lye, Star of Wilts, Pink Perfection, and Beauty of the West.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/16a.png"><img src=
+"./images/16a_th.jpg" alt=" MR. LYE'S FUSCHIAS."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">MR. LYE'S FUSCHIAS.</p>
+
+<p>The specimens figured average from two to five years of age. It
+is really marvelous what Mr. Lye can do with a fuchsia in two
+years; and lest it might be supposed that he has plenty of glass
+accommodation, and can keep his plants under glass continuously, it
+is due to him it should be stated that he is very deficient in
+house accommodation, having but two small houses, in one of which
+(an old house) he winters his plants and brings them on until he
+can place them with safety in the open air in early summer. His
+method of treating the specimens as set forth in his own words may
+prove helpful to some of our readers: "After the plants have done
+flowering, say about the third week in October, I cut them back
+into the shape best fitted to form symmetrical specimens, and keep
+them dry for a week or ten days, to check the bleeding of sap which
+follows; after that I give a little water just to start them into
+growth, so as to make shoots about three-quarters of an inch in
+length, in order to keep the old wood active and living. I keep
+them in a cold house, and give but very little water until the
+first or second week in February, when I shake the old soil from
+the roots, and re-pot them into a fresh compost made up of three
+parts good loam, one part well decomposed manure, and one part
+leaf-mould and peat, with a good bit of silver or sea sand to keep
+it open. In order to make large specimens, they are shifted as soon
+as the pots are filled with roots. About the first week in June I
+place them out of doors on a border somewhat sheltered, and syringe
+the plants freely every day during hot weather to keep the foliage
+clean and healthy. I top them back till about seven or eight weeks
+before I want to show them, according to the requirements of the
+variety, as some of them require it to be done more freely than
+others. I give them liquid manure, using what I get from the cows,
+which with some soot is put into a tub, and allowed to stand a week
+or ten days before using, and I give them a good dose once a week
+as they show signs of flowering."</p>
+
+<p>In order to preserve his plants from the effects of hail and
+very heavy rains, a rough framework is erected, and over this is
+stretched some floral shading, which can be readily removed when
+required; it also serves the purpose of shading the plants from the
+sun in very hot and scorching weather.</p>
+
+<p>During his career as an exhibitor of fuchsias Mr. Lye has taken
+nearly one hundred first prizes&mdash;a measure of success which
+fully justifies the bestowal of the title of being the Champion
+Fuchsia Grower of his day.&mdash;<i>R.D. in The Gardeners'
+Chronicle</i>.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p>A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important
+scientific papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be
+had gratis at this office.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<h2>THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT.</h2>
+
+<h3>PUBLISHED WEEKLY.</h3>
+
+<h3>Terms of Subscription, $5 a Year.</h3>
+
+<p>Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the
+United States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any
+foreign country.</p>
+
+<p>All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement,
+January 1, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each.</p>
+
+<p>All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise be supplied.
+Two volumes are issued yearly. Price of each volume, $2.50,
+stitched in paper, or $3.50, bound in stiff covers.</p>
+
+<p>COMBINED RATES&mdash;One copy of SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN and one
+copy of SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, one year, postpaid,
+$7.00.</p>
+
+<p>A liberal discount to booksellers, news agents, and
+canvassers.</p>
+
+<p><b>MUNN &amp; CO., Publishers,</b></p>
+
+<p><b>361 Broadway, New York, N.Y.</b></p>
+
+<hr>
+<h2>PATENTS.</h2>
+
+<p>In connection with the <b>Scientific American</b>, Messrs. MUNN
+&amp; Co. are Solicitors of American and Foreign Patents, have had
+40 years' experience, and now have the largest establishment in the
+world. Patents are obtained on the best terms.</p>
+
+<p>A special notice is made in the <b>Scientific American</b> of
+all Inventions patented through this Agency, with the name and
+residence of the Patentee. By the immense circulation thus given,
+public attention is directed to the merits of the new patent, and
+sales or introduction often easily effected.</p>
+
+<p>Any person who has made a new discovery or invention can
+ascertain, free of charge, whether a patent can probably be
+obtained, by writing to MUNN &amp; Co.</p>
+
+<p>We also send free our Hand Book about the Patent Laws, Patents,
+Caveats. Trade Marks, their costs, and how procured. Address</p>
+
+<p><b>MUNN &amp; CO., 361 Broadway, New York.</b></p>
+
+<p>Branch Office, cor. F and 7th Sts., Washington, D.C.</p>
+
+<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 13939 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
+
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+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #13939 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/13939)
diff --git a/old/13939-8.txt b/old/13939-8.txt
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 484,
+April 11, 1885, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 484, April 11, 1885
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: November 3, 2004 [EBook #13939]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by PG Distributed Proofreaders
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 484
+
+
+
+
+NEW YORK, APRIL 11, 1885
+
+Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XIX, No. 484.
+
+Scientific American established 1845
+
+Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.
+
+Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+
+I.   ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--Bridge over the Blaauw
+     Krantz Ravine, Cape Colony.--2 engravings.
+
+     Torpedo Ships.
+
+     The Gas Engine.--By DUGALD CLERK.--Combustion engines.--First
+     cylinder and piston engine.--Watt's experiments.--First gas
+     engine.--Principles of the gas engine.
+
+     Rapid Construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway.--By E.T.
+     ABBOTT.
+
+     The Osgood Mammoth Excavator.--3 figures.
+
+     Capstan Navigation on the Volga.--4 figures.
+
+     Steamboat Equipment of War Vessels.--With engraving of winch
+     for raising and lowering torpedo boats.
+
+     Improved Steam Trap.--1 engraving.
+
+
+II.  TECHNOLOGY.--Critical Methods of Detecting Errors in Plane
+     Surfaces.--By JOHN A. BRASHEAR.--11 figures.
+
+     Photometric Standards.--9 figures.
+
+     Bleaching or Dyeing Yarns and Goods in Vacuo.--1 figure.
+
+     On the Moulding of Porcelain.--By CHAS. LAUTH.--Moulding by
+     pressure of the air.--Moulding by vacuum.--Drying the moulded
+     pieces.--2 figures.
+
+     Photo-Tricycle Apparatus.--1 figure.
+
+     A Photo Printing Light.--1 figure.
+
+     A New Actinometer.
+
+     Astronomical Photography.
+
+     Electricity as a Preventive of Scale in Boilers.
+
+
+III. DECORATIVE ART.--Alphabet designed by Godfrey Sykes.--An
+     engraving.
+
+     Old Wrought Iron Gate.--An engraving.
+
+
+IV.  GEOLOGY.--The Organization and Plan of the United States
+     Geological Survey.--By J.W. POWELL.--A topographic map
+     of the United States.--Paleontology.--Chemistry.--Physical
+     researches.--Statistics.--Library.--Publications.--General
+     geology.--Economic geology.--Relation of the general survey
+     to the State survey.
+
+
+V.   BOTANY, ETC.--The Sunflowers.--Annuals, perennials, etc.--11
+     engravings.
+
+     Lye's Fuchsias.--1 engraving.
+
+
+VI.  HYGIENE, ETC.--Brief Sanitary Matters in Connection with
+     Isolated Country Houses.--By E.W. BOWDITCH.
+
+     Sanitary Cooking.--By V.L. OPPENHEIMER.
+
+     Time required to digest Different Foods.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE BLAAUW KRANTZ VIADUCT IN CAPE COLONY.
+
+
+This viaduct is built over a rocky ravine on the railway from Port Alfred
+to Grahamstown, at a height of about 200 ft. from the bottom. Its length
+is 480 ft. 6 in., and the width of the platform is 15 ft., the gauge of
+the railway being 3 ft. 6 in. The central span of the viaduct is an arch
+of 220 ft. span between abutments, and about 90 ft. height; the remainder
+of the space on each side is divided into two spans by an iron pier at a
+distance of 68 ft. from the retaining wall. These piers are 36 ft. 2 in.
+high, and carry girders 144 ft. long, balanced each on a pivot in the
+center. One end of these girders is secured to the retaining walls by
+means of horizontal and vertical anchorages, while the other end rests in
+a sliding bearing on the top flange of the arch.
+
+[Illustration: BRIDGE OVER THE BLAAUW KRANTZ RAVINE, CAPE COLONY.]
+
+[Illustration: BRIDGE OVER THE BLAAUW KRANTZ RAVINE, CAPE COLONY.]
+
+In designing the structure the following points had to be considered: (1)
+That, on account of the great height above the ground, and on account of
+the high price of timber at the site, the structure could be easily
+erected without the use of scaffolding supporting it as a whole. (2) That,
+on account of the high freights to Port Alfred, the quantity of iron in
+the structure should be as small as possible. (3) That the single parts of
+the principal span should be easy to lift, and that there should be as few
+of them as possible. For this latter reason most of them were made in
+lengths of 20 ft. and more. The question of economy of material presented
+itself as a comparison between a few standard types, viz., the girder
+bridge of small independent spans; the cantilever bridge, or the
+continuous girder bridge in three large spans; the single girder bridge
+with one large span and several small spans; and the arch with small
+girder spans on each side. The suspension bridge was left out of question
+as inadmissible. A girder bridge with small independent spans on rocker
+piers would probably have been the most economical, even taking into
+account the great height of the piers near the middle of the ravine, but
+there would have been some difficulty in holding those piers in position
+until they could be secured to the girders at the top; and, moreover, such
+a structure would have been strikingly out of harmony with the character
+of the site. On the other hand, a cantilever or continuous girder bridge
+in three spans--although such structures have been erected in similar
+localities--could not enter into comparison of simple economy of material,
+because such a design would entirely disregard the anomaly that the
+greater part of the structure, viz., the side spans, being necessarily
+constructed to carry across a large space, would be too near the ground to
+justify the omission of further supports. The question was, therefore,
+narrowed to a comparison between the present arch and a central
+independent girder of the same span, including the piers on which it
+rests. The small side spans could obviously be left out in each case. The
+comparison was made with a view not only to arrive at a decision in this
+particular case, but also of answering the question of the economy of the
+arch more generally. The following table contains the weights of
+geometrically similar structures of three different spans, of which the
+second is the one here described. The so-called theoretical weight is that
+which the structure would have if no part required stiffening, leaving out
+also all connections and all wind bracing. The moving load is taken at one
+ton per foot lineal, and the strain on the iron at an average of four tons
+per square inch. The proportion of the girder is taken at 1 in 8.
+
+--------------+-----------------------+------------------------+
+              |  Theoretical Weight.  |      Total Weight.     |
+Span in Feet. +-----------------------+------------------------|
+              |  Arch.  |   Girder.   |     Arch.  |   Girder. |
+--------------+---------+-------------+------------+-----------|
+     100      | 0.0724  |   0.1663    |    0.1866  |   0.2443  |
+     220      | 0.1659  |   0.4109    |    0.4476  |   0.7462  |
+     300      | 0.2414  |   0.6445    |    0.6464  |   1.2588  |
+--------------+---------+-------------+------------+-----------+
+              |<------------Tons per foot lineal.------------->|
+
+It can be seen from these results that the economical advantage of the
+arch increases with the span. In small arches this advantage would not be
+large enough to counterbalance the greater cost of manufacture; but in the
+arch of 220 ft. span the advantage is already very marked. If the table
+were continued, it would show that the girder, even if the platform were
+artificially widened, would become impossible at a point where the arch
+can still be made without difficulty. The calculations leading to the
+above results would occupy too much space to make it desirable on this
+occasion to produce them. Our two views are from photographs.--_The
+Engineer._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TORPEDO SHIPS.
+
+
+Commander Gallwey lately delivered an interesting lecture on the use of
+torpedoes in war before the royal U.S. Institution, London, discussed
+H.M.S. Polyphemus, and urged as arguments in her favor: 1. That she has
+very high speed, combined with fair maneuvering powers. 2. That she can
+discharge her torpedoes with certainty either ahead or on the beam when
+proceeding at full speed. 3. That her crew and weapons of defense are
+protected by the most perfect of all armor possible, namely, 10 ft. of
+water. 4. That she only presents a mark of 4 ft. above the water line.
+
+Then, he asked, with what weapon is the ironclad going to vanquish these
+torpedo rams? Guns cannot hit her when moving at speed; she is proof
+against machine guns, and, being smaller, handier, and faster than most
+ironclads, should have a better chance with her ram, the more especially
+as it is provided with a weapon which has been scores of times discharged
+with certainty at 300 yards. The ironclad, he answered, must use
+torpedoes, and then he maintained that the speed and handiness of the
+Polyphemus would enable her to place herself in positions where she could
+use her own torpedo to advantage, and be less likely to be hit herself. He
+then called attention to the necessity for well-protected conning towers
+in these ships, and prophesied that if a submarine ship, armed with
+torpedoes, be ever built, she will be the most formidable antagonist an
+ironclad ever had; and the nearer the special torpedo ship approaches this
+desideratum the better she will be.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A PLUMBING TEST.
+
+
+A recent trial of a smoke rocket for testing drains, described by Mr.
+Cosmo Jones in the _Journal of the Society of Arts_, is deserving of
+interest. The one fixed upon is 10 in. long, 2½ in. in diameter, and with
+the composition "charged rather hard," so as to burn for ten minutes. This
+gives the engineer time to light the fuse, insert the rocket in the drain,
+insert a plug behind it, and walk through the house to see if the smoke
+escapes into it at any point, finishing on the roof, where he finds the
+smoke issuing in volumes from the ventilating pipes. The house
+experimented upon had three ventilating pipes, and the smoke issued in
+dense masses from each of them, but did not escape anywhere into the
+house, showing that the pipes were sound. If the engineer wishes to
+increase the severity of the test, he throws a wet cloth over the top of
+the ventilating pipe, and so gets a slight pressure of smoke inside it.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE GAS ENGINE.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Lecture by Mr. Dugald Clerk, before the Literary and
+Philosophical Society, Oldham.]
+
+By DUGALD CLERK.
+
+
+In earlier days of mechanics, before the work of the great Scottish
+engineer, James Watt, the crude steam engines of the time were known as
+"fire engines," not in the sense in which we now apply the term to
+machines for the extinguishing of fires, but as indicating the source from
+which the power was derived, motive power engines deriving their vitality
+and strength from fire. The modern name--steam engine--to some extent is a
+misleading one, distracting the mind from the source of power to the
+medium which conveys the power. Similarly the name "Gas Engine" masks the
+fact of the motors so called being really fire or heat engines.
+
+The gas engine is more emphatically a "fire engine" than ever the steam
+engine has been. In it the fire is not tamed or diluted by indirect
+contact with water, but it is used direct; the fire, instead of being kept
+to the boiler room, is introduced direct into the motor cylinder of the
+engine. This at first sight looks very absurd and impracticable;
+difficulties at once become apparent of so overwhelming a nature that the
+problem seems almost an impossible one; yet this is what has been
+successfully accomplished in the gas engine. Engineers accustomed to the
+construction of steam engines would not many years ago have considered any
+one proposing such a thing as having taken leave of his senses.
+
+The late Sir William Siemens worked for many years on combustion engines,
+some of his patents on this subject dating back to 1860. In the course of
+a conversation I had with him on the subject of his earlier patents, I
+asked him why he had entitled one of those patents "steam engine
+improvements" when it was wholly concerned with a gas engine using
+hydrogen and air in the motive cylinder, the combustion of the hydrogen
+taking place in the motive cylinder. He answered me that in 1860 he did
+not care to entitle his patent gas or combustion engine simply because
+engineers at that time would have thought him mad.
+
+Notwithstanding this widespread incredulity among engineers, and the
+apparent novelty of the gas engine idea, fire or combustion engines have
+been proposed long, long ago. The first Newcomen steam engine ever set to
+work was used by a Mr. Back, of Wolverhampton, in the year 1711.
+Thirty-one years before this time, in Paris--year 1680--Huyghens presented
+a memoir to the Academy of Sciences describing a method of utilizing the
+expansive force of gunpowder. This engineer is notable as being the very
+first to propose the use of a cylinder and piston, as well as the first
+combustion engine of a practical kind.
+
+The engine consists of a vertical open topped cylinder, in which works a
+piston; the piston is connected by a chain passing over a pulley above it
+to a heavy weight; the upstroke is accomplished by the descent of the
+weight, which pulls the piston to the top of the cylinder; gunpowder
+placed in a tray at the bottom of the cylinder is now ignited, and expels
+the air with which the cylinder is filled through a shifting valve, and,
+after the products of combustion have cooled, a partial vacuum takes place
+and the atmospheric pressure forces down the piston to the bottom of its
+stroke, during which work may be obtained.
+
+On the board I have made a sketch of this engine. Some years previous to
+Huyghens' proposal, the Abbe Hautefeuille (1678) proposed a gunpowder
+engine without piston for pumping water. It is similar to Savery's steam
+engine, but using the pressure of the explosion instead of the pressure of
+steam. This engine, however, had no piston, and was only applicable as a
+pump. The Savery principle still survives in the action of the well-known
+pulsometer steam pump.
+
+Denys Papin, the pupil and assistant of Huyghens, continued experimenting
+upon the production of motive power, and in 1690 published a description
+of his attempts at Leipzig, entitled "A New Method of Securing Cheaply
+Motive Power of Considerable Magnitude."
+
+He mentions the gunpowder engine, and states that "until now all
+experiments have been unsuccessful; and after the combustion of the
+exploded powder there always remains in the cylinder one-fifth of its
+volume of air."
+
+For the explosion of the gunpowder he substituted the generation and
+condensation of steam, heating the bottom of his cylinder by a fire; a
+small quantity of water contained in it was vaporized, and then on
+removing the fire the steam condensed and the piston was forced down. This
+was substantially the Newcomen steam engine, but without the separate
+boiler.
+
+Papin died about the year 1710, a disappointed man, about the same time as
+Newcomen. Thomas Newcomen, ironmonger and blacksmith, of Dartmouth,
+England, had first succeeded in getting his engine to work. The hard fight
+to wrest from nature a manageable motive power and to harness fire for
+industrial use was continued by this clever blacksmith, and he succeeded
+when the more profound but less constructively skillful philosophers had
+failed.
+
+The success of the steam method and the fight necessary to perfect it to
+the utmost absorbed the energy of most able engineers--Beighton, John
+Smeaton--accomplishing much in applying and perfecting it before the
+appearance of James Watt upon the scene.
+
+It is interesting to note that in England alone over 2,000 horse power of
+Newcomen engines were at work before Watt commenced his series of
+magnificent inventions; he commenced experimenting on a Newcomen engine
+model in 1759 at Glasgow University, and in 1774 came to Birmingham,
+entered into partnership with Boulton, and 1781 we find his beautiful
+double acting beam condensing engine in successful work.
+
+From that time until now the steam engine has steadily advanced,
+increasing in economy of fuel from 10 lb. of coal per horse power per hour
+to about 1¾ lb. per horse power per hour, which is the best result of
+to-day's steam engine practice. This result, according to the highest
+authorities, is so near to the theoretical result possible from a steam
+engine that further improvement cannot now be looked for. Simultaneously
+with the development of the steam engine, inventors continued to struggle
+with the direct acting combustion or gas engine, often without any
+definite understanding of why they should attempt such apparent
+impossibilities, but always by their experiments and repeated failures
+increasing knowledge, and forming a firm road upon which those following
+them traveled to success.
+
+In 1791 John Barber obtained a patent for an engine producing inflammable
+gas, mixing it with air, igniting it, and allowing the current so produced
+to impinge upon a reaction wheel, producing motion similar to the well
+known Aelopile, which I have at work upon the table. About this time,
+Murdoch (Jas. Watt's assistant at Birmingham) was busy introducing coal
+gas into use for lighting; in 1792 Boulton and Watt's works were lighted
+up with coal gas. From this time many gas engines were proposed, and the
+more impracticable combustion of gunpowder received less attention.
+
+In 1794 Thomas Mead obtained a patent for an engine using the internal
+combustion of gas; the description is not a clear one, his ideas seem
+confused.
+
+In the same year Robert Street obtained a patent for an engine which is
+not unlike some now in use. The bottom of a cylinder, containing a piston,
+is heated by a fire, a few drops of spirits of turpentine are introduced
+and evaporated by the heat, the piston is drawn up, and air entering mixes
+with the inflammable vapor. A light is applied at a touch hole, and the
+explosion drives up the piston, which, working on a lever, forces down the
+piston of a pump for pumping water. Robt. Street adds to his description a
+note: "The quantity of spirits of tar or turpentine to be made use of is
+always proportional to the confined space, in general about 10 drops to a
+cubic foot." This engine is quite a workable one, although the
+arrangements described are very crude.
+
+The first gas engine that was actually at work for some years; and was
+applied to a variety of purposes, was Samuel Buren's. His patent was
+granted in 1823, and in 1826 he built a locomotive carriage with which he
+made several experimental runs in London; he also propelled a vessel with
+it upon the Thames, and fitted up a large engine for pumping purposes. A
+company was formed to introduce his engine, but it proved too wasteful of
+fuel, and the company went into voluntary liquidation. Like almost all
+engines of this time, the combustion of gas and air was used to produce a
+vacuum, the piston being driven by atmospheric pressure.
+
+Buren's locomotive carriage was thus in action three years before the
+great trial in 1829, from which George Stephenson emerged victorious with
+his wonderful engine "The Rocket." To those curious in the matter, I may
+mention that S. Buren's patents are dated 1823, No. 4,874, and 1826, No.
+5,350.
+
+From this time on, a continuous series of gas engine patents appear, 20
+engines being patented between 1826 and 1860, which is the next date
+worthy of particular mention.
+
+In this year, 1860, the famous "Lenoir" engine appeared. The use of high
+pressure steam engines had long been common, and Lenoir's engine was
+analogous to the high pressure engine, as Buren's was to the condensing
+engine. It created a very general interest, and many engines were
+constructed and used in France, England, and America; it resembled very
+much in external appearance an ordinary high pressure horizontal steam
+engine, and it was double acting.
+
+During the following six years, other 20 British patents were granted, and
+the gas engine passed from the state of a troublesome toy to a practicable
+and widely useful machine.
+
+From 1791 to the end of 1866, in all 46 British patents were granted for
+gas engines, and in these patents are to be found the principles upon
+which the gas engines of to-day are constructed, many years elapsing
+before experience enough was gained to turn the proposals of the older
+inventors to practical account.
+
+The most important of these patents are:
+
+                      No.  Year.
+Robert Street         1,983 1794  Direct-acting engine.
+Samuel Buren          4,874 1823  Vacuum engine.
+Samuel Buren          5,350 1826  Vacuum engine.
+W.L. Wright           6,525 1833  Direct-acting engine.
+Wm. Barnett           7,615 1838  Compression first proposed.
+Barsante & Matteucci  1,072 1854  Rack & clutch engine.
+Drake                   562 1855  Direct-acting engine.
+Lenoir                  335 1860  D.I. engine, electric ignition.
+C.W. Siemens          2,074 1860  Compression, _constant
+                                    pressure_.
+Hugon                 2,902 1860  Platinum ignition.
+Millein               1,840 1861  Compression, both constant vol. and
+                                    _pressure_.
+F.H. Wenham           1,873 1864  Free piston.
+Hugon                   986 1865  Flame ignition.
+Otto and Langen         434 1866  Rack and clutch, flame ignition.
+
+Leaving for the present the history of the gas engine, which brings us to
+a stage comparable to the state of the steam engine during the Newcomen's
+time, it will be advisable to give some consideration to the principles
+concerned in the economical and efficient working of gas engines, in order
+to understand the more recent developments.
+
+It has been seen that gunpowder was the explosive used to produce a vacuum
+in Huyghens' engine, and that it was abandoned in favor of gas by Buren in
+1823. The reason of departure is very obvious: a gunpowder explosion and a
+gaseous explosion differ in very important practical points.
+
+Gunpowder being a solid substance is capable of being packed into a very
+small space; the gas evolved by its decomposition is so great in volume
+that, even in the absence of any evolution of heat, a very high pressure
+would result. One cubic inch of gunpowder confined in a space of one cubic
+inch would cause a pressure by the gas it contains alone of 15,000 lb. per
+square inch; if the heating effect be allowed for, pressures of four times
+that amount, or 60,000 lb. per square inch, are easily accounted for.
+These pressures are far too high for use in any engine, and the bare
+possibility of getting such pressure by accident put gunpowder quite
+outside the purpose of the engineer, quite apart from any question of
+comparative cost. In a proper mixture of inflammable gas and air is found
+an exceedingly safe explosive, perfectly manageable and quite incapable of
+producing pressures in any sense dangerous to a properly constructed
+engine.
+
+The pressure produced by the explosion of any mixture of gas and air is
+strictly determined and limited, whereas the pressure produced by the
+explosion of gunpowder depends greatly upon the relation between the
+volume of the gunpowder and the space in which it is confined.
+
+Engines of the "Lenoir" type are the simplest in idea and construction; in
+them a mixture of gas and air is made in the cylinder during the first
+half of the piston stroke, air being taken from the atmosphere and drawn
+into the cylinder by the forward movement of the piston. At the same time
+gas entering by a number of holes, and streaming into the air to form an
+explosive mixture, the movement of a valve cuts off the supply, and brings
+the igniting arrangement into action. The pressure produced by the
+explosion acting upon the piston makes it complete its stroke, when the
+exhaust valve opens exactly as in the steam engine. The Lenoir and Hugon
+engines, the earlier forms of this type, were double acting, receiving two
+impulses for every revolution of the crank, the impulse differing from
+that in a high pressure steam engine in commencing at half stroke.
+
+The Lenoir igniting arrangement was complicated and troublesome. I have it
+upon the table; the mixture was ignited at the proper time by the electric
+spark produced from a primary battery and Ruhmkorff coil.
+
+The Hugon engine was an advance in this respect, using a flame ignited,
+and securing greater certainty of action in a comparatively simple manner.
+
+It is really a modification of Barnett's lighting cock described in his
+patent of 1838.
+
+Other difficulties were found in using these engines; the pistons became
+exceedingly hot. In the case of the Lenoir larger engines, it sometimes
+became red hot, and caused complete ruin of the cylinder by scoring and
+cutting up. Hugon to prevent this injected some water.
+
+In the all important question of economy, these engines were found
+grievously wanting, Lenoir consuming 95 cubic feet per I.H.P. per hour;
+Hugon consuming 85 cubic feet per I.H.P. per hour.
+
+The surviving engines of this type are only used for very small powers,
+from one to four man power, or 1/8 to 1/2 horse, the most widely known of
+this kind being the "Bischoff," which is very largely used; its
+consumption of gas is even greater than the Lenoir, being 110 cubic feet
+per horse power per hour, as tested with a half-horse engine at a late
+exhibition of gas apparatus at Stockport.
+
+So large a consumption of gas prevented these engines coming into extended
+use for engines of moderate power, and led inventors to work to obtain
+better results. The force generated by the explosion of a mixture of gas
+and air is very short lived, and if it is to be fully utilized must be
+used quickly; a high pressure is produced, but it very quickly disappears.
+
+The quicker the piston moves after the maximum pressure is reached, the
+less will be the loss of heat to the sides of the cylinder. The flame
+which fills the cylinder and causes the increase of pressure rapidly loses
+heat, and the pressure falls.
+
+The idea of using a free piston was proposed as a remedy; it was thought
+that a piston connected to a crank in the ordinary manner could not move
+fast enough to utilize the pressure before it was lost. Many inventors
+proposed to perform work upon a piston free from any direct connection
+with the crank or shaft of the engine; the explosion after attaining its
+maximum pressure expends its force in giving velocity to a piston; the
+velocity so acquired carries it on against atmospheric pressure until the
+energy is all absorbed, and a vacuum or deficit of pressure exists in the
+cylinder instead of an excess of pressure. The return stroke is
+accomplished by the atmospheric pressure, and the work is now done upon
+the engine shaft on the return only. The method of connecting on the
+return stroke while leaving the piston free on the out stroke varies, but
+in many engines the principle was the same.
+
+Barsante and Matteucci, year 1857, British patent No. 1,625, describe the
+first engine of this kind, but Messrs. Otto and Langen were the first to
+successfully overcome all difficulties and make a marketable engine of it.
+Their patent was dated 1866, No. 434. To distinguish it from Otto's later
+patents, it may be called the rack and clutch engine.
+
+The economy obtained by this engine was a great advance upon the Lenoir.
+According to a test by Prof. Tresca, at the Paris Exhibition of 1867, the
+gas consumed was 44 cubic feet per indicated horse power per hour.
+According to tests I have made myself in Manchester with a two horse power
+engine, Otto and Langen's free piston engine consumes 40 cubic feet per
+I.H.P. per hour. This is less than one-half of the gas used by the Hugon
+engine for one horse power.
+
+The igniting arrangement is a very good modification of Barnett's lighting
+cock, which I have explained already, but a slide valve is used instead of
+a cock.
+
+Other engines carried out the same principle in a different manner,
+including Gilles' engine, but they were not commercially so successful as
+the Otto and Langen. Mr. F.H. Wenham's engine was of this type, and was
+working in England, Mr. Wenham informed me, in 1866, his patent being
+taken out in 1864.
+
+The great objection to this kind of engine is the irregularity and great
+noise in working; this was so great as to prevent engines from being made
+larger than three horse power. The engine, however, did good work, and was
+largely used from 1866 until the end of 1876, when Mr. Otto produced his
+famous engine, now known as "The Otto Silent Gas Engine." In this engine
+great economy is attained without the objectionable free piston by a
+method proposed first by Burnett, 1838, and also by a Frenchman, Millein,
+in 1861; this method is compression before ignition. Other inventors also
+described very clearly the advantages to be expected from compression, but
+none were able to make it commercially successful till Mr. Otto. To him
+belongs the great credit of inventing a cycle of operations capable of
+realizing compression in a simple manner.
+
+Starting from the same point as inventors did to produce the free piston
+engine--namely, that the more quickly the explosive force is utilized, the
+less will be the loss, and the greater the power produced from a quantity
+of burning gas--it is evident that if any method can be discovered to
+increase the pressure upon the piston without increasing the temperature
+of the flame causing this pressure, then a great gain will result, and
+the engine will convert more of the heat given to it into work. This is
+exactly what is done by compression before ignition. Suppose we take a
+mixture of gas and air of such proportions as to cause when exploded, or
+rather ignited (because explosion is too strong a term), a pressure of 45
+lb. above atmosphere, or 60 lb. per square inch absolute pressure. Then
+this mixture, if compressed to half volume before igniting and kept at
+constant temperature, would give, when ignited, a pressure of 120 lb.
+total, or 105 lb. above atmosphere, and this without any increase of the
+temperature of the flame.
+
+The effect of compression is to make a small piston do the work of a large
+one, and convert more heat into work by lessening the loss of heat through
+the walls of the cylinder. In addition to this advantage, greater
+expansions are made possible, and therefore greatly increase economy.
+
+The Otto engine must be so familiar in appearance to all of you, that I
+need hardly trouble you with details of its external appearance. I shall
+briefly describe its action. Its strong points and its weak points are
+alike caused by its cycle. One cylinder and piston suffices to carry out
+its whole action. Its cycle is: First outstroke, gas and air sucked into
+the cylinder; first instroke, gas and air compressed into space; second
+outstroke, impulse due to ignition; second instroke, discharge of
+exhausted gases. When working at full power, it gets one impulse for every
+two revolutions; this seems to be a retrograde movement, but,
+notwithstanding, the advantages obtained are very great. The igniting
+arrangement is in the main similar to that used on the rack and clutch
+engine. The engine has been exceedingly successful, and is very
+economical. The Otto compression engine consumes 21 cubic feet of gas per
+I.H.P. per hour, and runs with great smoothness.
+
+In 1876 I commenced my work upon gas engines, and very soon concluded that
+the compression system was the true line to proceed upon. It took me two
+years to produce a workable engine. My efforts have always been directed
+toward producing an engine giving at least one impulse every revolution
+and, if possible, to start without hand labor, just as a steam engine
+does. My first gas engine was running in 1878, and patented and exhibited
+in 1879. It was first exhibited at the Kilburn Royal Agricultural
+Society's show.
+
+This engine was self-starting, gave an ignition at every revolution, and
+ignited without external flame. It consisted of two cylinders, a motor,
+and a compressing pump, with a small intermediate reservoir. Suitable
+valves introduced the mixture of gas and air into the pump, and passed it
+when compressed from the reservoir to the motor cylinder. The igniting
+arrangement consisted of a platinum cage firmly fixed in a valve port;
+this cage was heated in the first instance by a flame of gas and air
+mixed; it became white hot in a few seconds, and then the engine was
+started by opening a valve.
+
+The platinum was kept hot by the heat derived from the successive
+ignitions, and, the engine once started, no further external flame was
+required. I have here one of these platinum cages which has been in use.
+Finding this method not well suited for small engines, I produced the
+engine which is at present in the market under my name.
+
+The cycle is different, and is designed for greater simplicity and the
+avoidance of back ignitions. It also consists of two cylinders, motor
+cylinder and the displace or charging cylinder. There is no intermediate
+reservoir. The displace crank leads the motor by a right angle, and takes
+into it the mixed charge of gas and air, in some cases taking air alone
+during the latter part of its stroke.
+
+The motor on the outstroke crosses V-shaped parts about from one-sixth to
+one-seventh from the out end, the displacer charge now passing into the
+motor cylinder, displacing the exhaust gases by these ports and filling
+the cylinder and the space at the end of it with the explosive mixture.
+The introduction of some air in advance of the charge serves the double
+purpose of cooling down the exhaust gases and preventing direct contact of
+the inflammable mixture with flame which may linger in the cylinder from
+the previous stroke. The instroke of the motor compresses the charge into
+the conical space at the end of the cylinder, and, when fully compressed,
+ignition is effected by means of the slide I have upon the table.
+
+This system of ignition has been found very reliable, and capable of
+acting as often as 400 times per minute, which the Otto ignite is quite
+incapable of doing. By this cycle the advantages of compression are gained
+and one step nearer to the steam engine is attained, that is, an impulse
+is given for every revolution of the engine.
+
+As a consequence, I am able with my engine to give a greater amount of
+power for a comparatively small weight. In addition to this, I have
+introduced a method of self-starting; in this I believe I was the
+first--about 100 of my engines are now using self-starting.
+
+The largest single engine I have yet made indicates 30 H.P. The
+consumption of gas in Glasgow is: Clerk engine consumes in Glasgow 18
+cubic feet per I.H.P. per hour; Clerk engine consumes in Manchester 22
+cubic feet per I.H.P. per hour. So far as I know, the Otto engine and my
+own are the only compression engines which have as yet made any success in
+the market. Other engines are being continually prepared, gas engine
+patents being taken out just now at the rate of 60 per annum, but none of
+them have been able as yet to get beyond the experimental stage. The
+reason is simply the great experience necessary to produce these machines,
+which seem so very simple; but to the inexperienced inventor the subject
+fairly bristles with pitfalls.
+
+I have here sections of some of the earlier engines, including Dr.
+Siemens' and Messrs. Simon and Beechy. Although interesting and containing
+many good points, these have not been practically successful.
+
+The Simon engine is an adaptation of the well-known American petroleum
+motor, the Brayton, the only difference consisting in the use of steam as
+well as flame.
+
+Dr. Siemens worked for some twenty years on gas engines, but he aimed
+rather high at first to attain even moderate success. Had he lived, I
+doubt not but that he would have succeeded in introducing them for large
+powers. In 1882 he informed me that he had in hand a set of gas engines of
+some hundreds of horse power for use on board ship, to be supplied with
+gas from one of his gas producers modified to suit the altered
+conditions.
+
+Summarizing the ground over which we have passed, we find the origin of
+the gas engine in the minds of the same men as were first to propose the
+steam engine, Huyghens and Papin, 1680 and 1690. Greater mechanical
+difficulties and ignorance of the nature of explosives caused the
+abandonment of the internal combustion idea, and the mechanical
+difficulties with steam being less, the steam engine became successful,
+and triumphed over its rival. The knowledge and skill gained in the
+construction of steam engines made it possible once again to attack the
+more difficult problem, and simultaneously with the introduction and
+perfecting of the steam engine, the gas engine idea became more and more
+possible, the practicable stage commencing with Lenoir and continuing with
+Hugon, Millein, Otto and Langen, F.H. Wenham, then Otto and Clerk. In
+1860, 95 cubic feet of gas produced one horse power for an hour; in 1867,
+40 cubic feet accomplished the same thing; and now (1885) we can get one
+horse power for an hour for from 15 to 20 cubic feet of gas, depending on
+the size of the engine used.
+
+Considered as a heat engine, the gas engine is now twice as efficient as
+the very best modern steam engine. It is true the fuel used at present
+is more expensive than coal, and for large powers the steam engine is
+the best because of this. But the way is clearing to change this. Gas
+engines as at present, if supplied with producer gas, produced direct
+from coal without leaving any coke, as is done in the Siemens, the
+Wilson, and the Dawson producers, will give power at one-half the cost
+of steam power. They will use 7/8 of a pound of coal per horse power per
+hour, instead of 1-3/4 lb., as is done in the best steam engines. The
+only producer that makes gas for gas engines at present is the Dawson,
+and in it anthracite is used, because of the difficulty of getting rid
+of the tar coming from the Siemens and Wilson producers, using any
+ordinary slack.
+
+When this difficulty has been overcome, and that it will be overcome there
+can be no manner of doubt, gas engines will rapidly displace the steam
+engine, because a gas engine with a gas producer, producing gas from any
+ordinary coal with the same ease as steam is produced from a boiler, will
+be much safer, and will use one-half the fuel of the very best steam
+engines for equal power. The first cost also will not be greater than that
+of steam. The engine itself will be more expensive than a steam engine of
+equal power, but the gas producer will be less expensive than the boiler
+at present. Perfect as the gas engine now is, considered as a machine for
+converting heat into work, the possibility of great development is not yet
+exhausted. Its economy may be increased two or even three fold; in this
+lies the brilliant future before it. The steam engine is nearly as perfect
+as it can be made; it approaches very nearly the possibility of its
+theory. Its defect does not lie in its mechanism, but in the very
+properties of water and steam itself. The loss of heat which takes place
+in converting liquid water into gaseous steam is so great that by far the
+greater portion of the heat given out by the fuel passes away either in
+the condenser or the exhaust of a steam engine; but a small proportion of
+the heat is converted into work.
+
+The very best steam engines convert about 11 per cent. of the heat given
+them into useful work, the remaining 89 per cent. being wasted,
+principally in the exhaust of the engine.
+
+Gas engines now convert 20 per cent. of the heat given to them into work,
+and very probably will, in a few years more, convert 60 per cent. into
+useful work. The conclusion, then, is irresistible that, when engineers
+have gained greater experience with gas engines and gas producers, they
+will displace steam engines entirely for every use--mills, locomotives,
+and ships.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+RAPID CONSTRUCTION OF THE CANADIAN PACIFIC RAILWAY.
+
+By E.T. ABBOTT, Member of the Engineers' Club of Minnesota. Read December
+12, 1884.
+
+
+During the winter of 1881 and 1882, the contract was let to Messrs.
+Langdon, Sheppard & Co., of Minneapolis, to construct during the working
+season of the latter year, or prior to January 1, 1883, 500 miles of
+railroad on the western extension of the above company; the contract being
+for the grading, bridging, track-laying, and surfacing, also including the
+laying of the necessary depot sidings and their grading. The idea that any
+such amount of road could be built in that country in that time was looked
+upon by the writer hereof, as well as by railroad men generally, as a huge
+joke, perpetrated to gull the Canadians. At the time the contract was let,
+the Canadian Pacific Railway was in operation to Brandon, the crossing of
+the Assiniboine River, 132 miles west of Winnipeg. The track was laid,
+however, to a point about 50 miles west of this, and the grading done
+generally in an unfinished state for thirty miles further. This was the
+condition of things when the contract was entered into to build 500
+miles--the east end of the 500-mile contract being at Station 4,660
+(Station being at Brandon) and extending west to a few miles beyond the
+Saskatchewan River.
+
+The spring of 1882 opened in the most unpromising manner for railroad
+operations, being the wettest ever known in that country. Traffic over the
+St. Paul, Minneapolis & Manitoba Railroad, between St. Paul and Winnipeg,
+was entirely suspended from April 15 to the 28th, owing to the floods on
+the Red River at St. Vincent and Emerson, a serious blow to an early
+start, as on this single track depended the transportation of all
+supplies, men, timber, and contractors' plant, together with all track
+materials (except ties), all of these things having to come from or
+through St. Paul and Minneapolis. The writer hereof was appointed a
+division engineer, and reported at Winnipeg the 15th of April, getting
+through on the last train before the St. Vincent flood. No sooner was the
+line open from St. Paul to Winnipeg than the cotillon opened between
+Winnipeg and Brandon, with a succession of washouts that defied and
+defeated all efforts to get trains over, so it was not until the fifth day
+of May that I left Winnipeg to take charge of the second division of 30
+miles.
+
+By extremely "dizzy" speed I was landed at the end of the track, 180 miles
+from Winnipeg, on the evening of the 9th (4 days). My outfit consisted of
+three assistant engineers and the necessary paraphernalia for three
+complete camps, 30 days' provisions (which turned out to be about 20), 11
+carts and ponies, the latter being extremely poor after a winter's diet
+on buffalo grass and no grain. On the 18th day of May I had my division
+organized and camps in running order. The country was literally under
+water, dry ground being the exception, and I look upon the feat of getting
+across the country at all as the engineering triumph of my life.
+
+On May 20 a genuine blizzard set in, lasting 24 hours, snowed five inches,
+and froze the sloughs over with half an inch of ice, a decidedly
+interesting event to the writer, as he was 18 miles from the nearest wood,
+therefore lay in his blankets and ate hard tack. I stabled my ponies in
+the cook tent, and after they had literally eaten of the sod inside the
+tent, I divided my floor with them.
+
+On 28th day of May I saw the first contractor, who broke ground at station
+7,150. On the 1st of June I was relieved from this division, and ordered
+to take the next, 50 miles west. On the 13th day of June ground was broken
+on this division, at station 8,070, or only about 62 miles west of the
+east end of the 500-mile contract. It looked at this time as though they
+might build 150 miles, but not more. But from this time on very rapid
+progress was made. On July 17 the track reached station 7,000, making
+however up to this time but about 50 miles of track-laying, including that
+laid on the old grade; but large forces were put on to surfacing, and the
+track already laid was put in excellent condition for getting material to
+the front. The weather from this until the freezing-up was all that could
+be desired. Work ceased about the 1st of January, 1883, for the season,
+and the final estimate for the work was as follows: 6,103,986 cubic yards
+earth excavation, 2,395,750 feet B.M. timber in bridges and the culverts,
+85,708 lineal feet piling, 435 miles of track-laying. This work was all
+done in 182 working days, including stormy ones, when little, if anything,
+could be done, making a daily average of 33,548 yards excavation, 13,150
+feet B.M. timber, 471 feet piling, 2-38/100 miles track-laying. We never
+had an accurate force report made of the whole line, but roughly there
+were employed 5,000 men and 1,700 teams.
+
+The admirable organization of the contractors was something wonderful. The
+grading work was practically all done by sub-contractors, Messrs. Langdon,
+Sheppard & Co. confining themselves to putting in the supplies and doing
+the bridge work, surfacing, and track-laying. The grading forces were
+scattered along about 150 miles ahead of the track and supply stores,
+established about 50 miles apart, and in no case were sub-contractors
+expected to haul supplies over 100 miles. If I remember rightly, there
+were four trains of about forty wagons each, hauling supplies from the end
+of track to the stores.
+
+As can be readily seen, the vital point of the whole work, and the problem
+to solve, was food for men and horses. 1,700 bushels of oats every day and
+15,000 pounds of provisions, Sundays and all, for an entire season, which
+at the beginning of the work had to come about 170 miles by rail, and then
+be taken from 50 to 150 miles by teams across a wilderness, is on the face
+of it considerable of an undertaking, to say nothing about hauling the
+pile-drivers, piles, and bridge-timber there. To keep from delaying the
+track, sidings 1,500 feet long were graded, about 7 miles apart. A
+side-track crew, together with an engine, four flats, and caboose, were
+always in readiness; and as soon as a siding was reached, in five hours
+the switches would be in, and the next day it would be surfaced and all in
+working order, when the operating department would fill it with track
+material and supplies. From the head of the siding to the end of the track
+the ground was in hands of track-laying engine, never going back of the
+last siding for supplies or material, and my recollection is that there
+were but six hours' delay to the track from lack of material the whole
+season, at any rate up to some time in November. The track-laying crew was
+equal to 4 miles per day, and in the month of August 92 miles of track
+were laid. The ties were cut on the line of the road about 100 miles east
+of Winnipeg, so the shortest distance any ties were hauled was 270 miles;
+the actual daily burden of the single track from Winnipeg west was 24 cars
+steel, 24 cars ties, aside from the transportation of grain and
+provisions, bridge material, and lumber for station houses. The station
+buildings were kept right up by the company itself, and a depot built with
+rooms for the agent every 15 miles, or at every second siding. The
+importance of keeping the buildings up with the track was impressed on the
+mind of the superintendent of this branch, and, as a satire, he
+telegraphed asking permission to haul his stuff ahead of the track by
+teams, he being on the track-layers' heels with his stations and tanks the
+whole season. The telegraph line was also built, and kept right up to the
+end of the track, three or four miles being the furthest they were at any
+time behind.
+
+It might be supposed that work done so rapidly would not be well done, but
+it is the best built prairie road I know of on this continent. It is built
+almost entirely free from cuts, and the work is at least 20 per cent.
+heavier than would ordinarily be made across the same country in the
+States, on account of snow. 2,640 ties were laid to the mile, and the
+track ballasting kept well up with the laying; so well, in fact, and so
+well done, that as 100 mile sections were completed schedule trains were
+put on 20 miles an hour, and the operating department had nothing to do
+but make a time table; the road was _built_ by the construction department
+before the operating department was asked to take it. The engineering was
+organized in divisions of 30 miles each, and as each was finished the
+parties moved ahead again to the front, the engineers usually finding men
+sitting on their shovels waiting for the work to be laid out for them. It
+was as much as the locating parties could do to keep out of the way of the
+construction. The roadbed was built 14 ft. wide in embankment and 20 in
+the very few cuts there were, there being no cuts of any moment except
+through the Coteaus and the Saskatchewan crossing, and these have since
+been widened out on account of snow, so that the road can be operated the
+year round and the bucking-snow account cut no figure in the operating
+expenses.
+
+The country is a virgin desert. From Winnipeg to the Pacific Ocean there
+are a few places that might attain to the dignity of an _oasis_--at
+Brandon, Portage la Prairie, etc.--but it is generally what I should call
+worthless; 100 miles to wood and 100 feet to water was the general
+experience west of the Moose jaw, and the months of June, July, and August
+are the only three in the year that it is safe to bet you will not have
+sleighing. I burned wood and used stakes that were hauled by carts 85
+miles, and none any nearer. It is a matter of some pride that both the
+engineering and the construction were done by what our Canadian neighbors
+kindly termed "Yankee importations." However, there was one thing that in
+the building of this road was in marked contrast to any other Pacific road
+ever constructed, that is, there was no lawlessness, no whisky, and not
+even a knock-down fight that I ever heard of the whole season, and even in
+the midst of 12,000 Indians, all armed with Winchester rifles and plenty
+of ammunition, not one of the locating or construction parties ever had a
+military escort, nor were any depredations ever committed, except the
+running off of a few horses, which were usually recovered; and I think
+there were but two fatal accidents during the season, one man killed on
+the Grand Coule Bridge, and another from being kicked by a horse.
+
+The track was all laid from one end, and in no case were rails hauled
+ahead by teams. Two iron cars were used, the empty returning one being
+turned up beside the track to let the loaded one by.
+
+The feat in rapid construction accomplished by this company will never be
+duplicated, done as it was by a reckless expenditure of money, the orders
+to the engineers being to _get there_ regardless of expense and
+horse-flesh; if you killed a horse by hard driving, his harness would fit
+another, and there was no scrutiny bestowed on vouchers when the work was
+done; and I must pay the tribute to the company to say that everything
+that money would buy was sent to make the engineers comfortable. It was
+bad enough at best, and the Chief Engineer (J.C. James) rightly considered
+that any expense bestowed on the engineering part of the work was a good
+investment.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE OSGOOD MAMMOTH EXCAVATOR.
+
+
+In the accompanying illustration, we present to our readers a mammoth
+excavator, built by the Osgood Dredge Company of Albany, N.Y., for the
+Pacific Guano Company of California, for uncovering their phosphate
+deposits on Chisholm Island, South Colombia.
+
+[Illustration: THE OSGOOD MAMMOTH EXCAVATOR.]
+
+In order to bring out more clearly the principal problem involved in the
+construction of this machine, we shall state first the proposed method of
+its operation. This is as follows, viz.: The excavator is to dig a trench
+thirty feet wide, down to the phosphate rock, and the entire length of the
+bed--about one quarter of a mile--dumping the earth of the first cut to
+one side. The phosphate is taken out behind the excavator. On reaching the
+end of the bed, the excavator is reversed and starts back, making a second
+cut thirty feet wide, and dumping now into the cut from which the
+phosphate has just been removed. In this way the entire bed is traversed,
+the excavator turning over the earth in great furrows thirty feet wide,
+and giving an opportunity to simultaneously get out all the phosphate.
+
+As will be seen, the main problem presented was to turn the car around at
+each end of the cut in a very limited space. To accomplish this, the car
+is mounted on a fixed axle at each end and on a truck under its center of
+gravity; this is somewhat forward of the geometrical center of the car.
+The frame of the truck is circular, thirteen feet in diameter, made of I
+beams curved to shape. The circle carries a track, on which a ring of
+coned rollers revolves, which in turn supports the car. By pulling out the
+track from under both ends of the car, the whole weight is balanced on
+this central turntable truck, thus admitting of the car being turned, end
+for end, within its own length. This method of turning the car, and the
+size of the machine, are the principal features.
+
+The car is 40' × 13', with arched truss sides. The track is seven feet
+gauge, the spread between tracks 20 feet, the height of the A frame 38
+feet, length of boom 40 feet, swinging in a circle of 30 feet radius, and
+through two-thirds of the entire circle. It has a steel dipper of 46 cubic
+feet capacity, 1 inch steel chains, 10" × 12" double cylinder hoisting
+engine, and 6¼" × 8" double cylinder reversible crowding engine. The
+drums are fitted with friction clutches. Owing to the great distance at
+which the dipper is handled, its size is reduced, and because it swings on
+the arc of so large a circle the capacity of this machine is only one-half
+of that of the No. 1 excavator built by the Osgood Dredge Company.
+Nevertheless it will do the work of from 75 to 100 men, since its capacity
+is from 800 to 1,000 cubic yards per day, the amount of rock _uncovered_
+depending, of course, upon the depth of earth overlying it. The excavator
+will dump 30 feet from the center line of the car, and 26 feet above the
+track, which is laid on the rock. Total weight about fifty tons. The crew
+required for its operation consists of 1 engineer, 1 fireman, 1 craneman,
+and 4 to 5 pit men to tend jacks, move track, etc.
+
+In the illustration the boiler connections are omitted, also the housing
+for the protection of the crew. The design is characterized by the evident
+care which has been bestowed upon securing simplicity and
+durability.--_American Engineer._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE OSGOOD EXCAVATOR.
+
+
+At a recent meeting of the Engineers' Club of Philadelphia, Mr. John C.
+Trautwine, Jr., exhibited and described drawings of a large land dredge
+built by the Osgood Dredge Co., of Albany, New York, for the Pacific Guano
+Co., to be used in removing 8 to 15 feet of material from the phosphate
+rock at Bull River, S.C.
+
+The more prominent features of the machine are the car-body, the water
+tank, boiler and engine, the A frame (so-called from its slight
+resemblance to the letter A), the boom, the dipper-handle; and the dipper,
+drawings of which were shown and described in detail.
+
+Before the excavation is begun, the forward end of the car (the end
+nearest the dipper) is lifted clear of the track by means of 3
+screw-jacks. When the machine has excavated as far in advance of itself as
+the length of the boom and that of the dipper-handle will permit, say
+about 8 feet, the car is again lowered to the track, the screw-jacks
+removed, and the car is moved forward about 8 feet by winding the rope
+upon the drum, the other end of the rope being attached to any suitable
+fixed object near the line of the track. The forward end of the car is
+then again lifted by means of the 3 screw-jacks, and the digging is
+resumed. The machine cuts a channel from 25 to 35 feet wide, and deposits
+all the dirt upon one side. If necessary, it can dump earth about 25 feet
+above the track. The miners follow in the wake of the machine, getting out
+the phosphate as fast as it is uncovered. When the machine reaches the end
+of the field it is lowered to the track and the screw-jacks are removed.
+Shoes or skids are then placed upon the track, and the wheels of the
+turntable are run up on them. This lifts the end wheels clear of the
+track, so that the car and machine rest entirely upon the turntable. By
+now blocking the turntable wheels and winding up only _one_ of the ropes,
+the car body and the machine are swung around end for end. The digging is
+then resumed in the opposite direction, the temporary track, upon which
+the machine travels, being shifted to one side, so that the second channel
+is made alongside of the first. The earth removed in cutting this second
+channel is dumped into the first channel, the phosphate (as stated above)
+having been first removed.
+
+The dipper is of plate steel, and holds 1¾ cubic yards of earth when even
+full.
+
+The machine is manned by an engineer, a fireman, and a dipper-tender,
+besides which from five to ten laborers are required. These look after the
+track, etc.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CAPSTAN NAVIGATION ON THE VOLGA.
+
+
+On several of the large rivers on the Continent, with rapid currents,
+cable towage has been introduced in addition to the older methods of
+transporting merchandise by sailing and steam boats or by towage with
+screw or paddle tugs. A chain or wire rope is laid on the bottom of the
+river bed, fixed to anchors at the ends and passed over a chain pulley
+driven by the steam engine and guided by pulleys on the steam tug, the tug
+lifting it out of the water at the bow and dropping it over the stern and
+winding itself with the barges attached to it along the chain, the latter
+being utilized as a rule only for the up journey, while down the river the
+tugs are propelled by paddles or screws, and can tow a sufficient number
+of barges with the assistance of the current. The system has been found
+advantageous, as, although the power required for drawing the barges and
+tugs against the current is of course the same in all cases, the slip and
+waste of power by screws and paddles is avoided. The size of the screws or
+paddles is also limited by the nature of the river and its traffic, and
+with cable towage a larger number of barges can be hauled, while the
+progress made is definite and there is no drifting back, as occurs with
+paddle or screw tugs when they have temporarily to slow or stop their
+engines on account of passing vessels. Several streams, as the Elbe,
+Rhine, and Rhone, have now such cables laid for long distances in those
+parts of the rivers where the traffic is sufficient to warrant the
+adoption of the system. While this has been introduced only during the
+last 16 or 18 years, a similar method of transporting merchandise has been
+in use in Russia on the river Volga for upward of 40 years. Navigation on
+this river is interrupted for about half the year by the ice, and the
+traffic is of larger amount only during part of the summer, while the
+length of the river itself is very great, so that laying down permanent
+cables would not pay; while, on the other hand, the current is so strong
+that towage of some sort must be resorted to for the transport of large
+quantities. The problem has been solved by the introduction of the capstan
+navigation or towage.
+
+[Illustration: CAPSTAN NAVIGATION ON THE VOLGA.]
+
+There are two kinds of capstans in use, one actuated by horse-power and
+the other by steam engines. A horse capstan boat carries according to size
+150 to 200 horses, which are stabled in the hold. On deck a number of
+horse gears are arranged at which the horses work. The power of the
+separate gears is transmitted to a main shaft, which is connected to the
+drums that wind on the rope. The horses work under an awning to protect
+them from the burning sunshine, and are changed every three hours. Eight
+and sometimes ten horses work at each horse gear. The horses are changed
+without interruption of the work, the gears being disengaged from the main
+shaft in rotation and the horses taken out and put in while the gear is
+standing. The horses are bought at the place of departure in the south of
+Russia and resold at the destination, usually Nishny-Novgorod, at a fair
+profit, the capstan boat carrying fodder and provender for the attendants.
+The capstan is accompanied by a steam launch which carries the anchor and
+hawser forward in advance of the capstan. The latter has a diameter of as
+much as 5 in., and is two to three miles in length. The anchor is dropped
+by the tug and the hawser carried back to the capstan, where it is
+attached to one of the rope drums, and the boat with the barges attached
+to it towed along by the horse gears described above winding on the
+hawser. The advance continues without interruption day and night, the
+launch taking a second anchor and hawser forward and dropping the anchor
+in advance of the first by a hawser's length, so that when the capstan has
+wound up the first hawser it finds a second one ready for attachment to
+the rope drum. The launch receives the first hawser, picks up the anchor,
+and passes the capstan to drop it again in advance of the anchor
+previously placed, and carries the hawser back to the capstan, and so on.
+A capstan tows twelve or more barges, placed in twos or threes beside and
+close behind each other, with a load of a million pounds, or about 16,000
+to 17,000 tons. From Astrachan and the mouth of the Kama the capstans make
+during the season from the beginning of May to the end of July in the most
+favorable case two journeys to the fair of Nishny-Novgorod; after this
+time no more journeys are made, as the freights are wanting. At the end of
+the up-stream journey the horses are sold, as mentioned before, and the
+capstan towed down stream by the steam launch to Astrachan or the Kama
+mouth, where meanwhile a fresh lot of barges has been loaded and got
+ready, a new supply of horses is bought, and the operation repeated.
+
+Besides these horse capstans there are steam capstans which are less
+complicated and have condensing steam engines of about 100 horse power,
+the power being transmitted by gearing to the rope drum. The rope drum
+shaft projects on both sides beyond the boards of the boat, and for the
+return journey paddle wheels, are put on to assist the launch in towing
+the clumsy and big capstan boat down the river. The steam capstans tow
+considerably larger masses of goods than the horse capstans and also
+travel somewhat quicker, so that the launch has scarcely sufficient time
+to drop and raise the anchors and also to make double the journey. We do
+not doubt that this system of towage might with suitable modifications be
+advantageously employed on the large rivers in America and elsewhere for
+the slow transport of large quantities of raw materials and other bulky
+merchandise, a low speed being, as is well known, much more economical
+than a high speed, as many of the resistances increase as the square and
+even higher powers of the velocity.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+STEAMBOAT EQUIPMENT OF WAR VESSELS.
+
+
+The larger ships in the navy, and some of the more recent small ones, such
+as the new cruisers of the Phaeton class, are fitted with powerful steam
+winches of a type made by Messrs. Belliss and Co. These are used for
+lifting the pinnaces and torpedo boats.
+
+We give an illustration of one of these winches. The cylinders are 6 in.
+in diameter and 10 in. stroke. The barrel is grooved for wire rope, and is
+safe to raise the second class steel torpedo boats, weighing nearly 12
+tons as lifted. The worm gearing is very carefully cut, so that the work
+can be done quietly and safely. With machinery of this kind a boat is soon
+put into the water, and as an arrangement is fitted for filling the boat's
+boilers with hot water from the ship's boilers, the small craft can be
+under way in a very short time from the order being given.
+
+Mr. White is fitting compound engines with outside condensers to boats as
+small as 21 ft. long, and we give a view of a pair of compound engines of
+a new design, which Messrs. Belliss are making for the boats of this
+class. The cylinders are 4 in. and 7 in. in diameter by 5 in. stroke. The
+general arrangement is well shown in the engraving. On a trial recently
+made, a 25 ft. cutter with this type of engines reached a speed of 7.4
+knots.
+
+About three years ago the late Controller of the Navy, Admiral Sir W.
+Houston Stewart, wished to ascertain the relative consumption of fuel in
+various classes of small vessels. An order was accordingly sent to
+Portsmouth, and a series of trials were made. From the official reports of
+these we extract the information contained in tables F and G, and we think
+the details cannot fail to be of interest to our readers. The run around
+the island was made in company with other boats, without stopping, and
+observations were taken every half hour. The power given out by the
+engines was fairly constant throughout. The distance covered was 56 knots,
+and the total amount of fuel consumed, including that required for raising
+steam, was 1,218 lb. of coal and 84 lb. of wood. The time taken in raising
+steam to 60 lb. pressure was forty-three minutes. The rate of consumption
+of fuel is of course not the lowest that could be obtained, as a speed of
+over 10 knots is higher than that at which the machinery could be worked
+most economically.
+
+[Illustration: STEAM WINCH FOR HOISTING AND LOWERING PINNACLES AND
+TORPEDO BOATS.]
+
+The trials afterward made to find the best results that could be obtained
+in fuel consumption were rather spoiled by the roughness of the weather on
+the day they were made. The same boat was run for 10 miles around the
+measured mile buoys in Stokes Bay. The following are some of the results
+recorded:
+
+_Table F.--Report of Trials of Engines of H.M. 48 ft.
+Twin Screw Steam Pinnace, No. 110._
+
+Date                                           August 4, 1881.
+
+Where tried                                    Round the Isle of
+                                                   Wight
+
+Draught of water / Forward                       3 ft. ½ in.
+                 \ Aft                           3 ft. 6½ in.
+Average boiler pressure                          104.81 lb.
+Average pressure in receivers   / Starboard       16.27  "
+                                \ Port            16.54  "
+Mean air pressure in stokehold                   1.4 in. water.
+Vacuum in condenser, average                      26.72 in.
+Weather barometer                                 30.37  "
+Revolutions per minute    / Starboard            240.75
+                          \ Port                 251.95
+                                                    lb.
+Mean pressure in cylinders / Starboard / High     45.33
+                           |           \ Low      16.16
+                           \ Port      / High     43.16
+                                       \ Low      15.3
+Indicated horse-power      / Starboard / High     18.20
+                           |           \ Low      16.32
+                           | Port      / High     18.13
+                           |           \ Low      16.17
+                           \ Collective Total     68.82
+Speed by log                                      10.18 knots.
+Force of wind                                         One.
+Sea                                                  Smooth.
+Quantity of coal on board                             1 ton.
+Description                                    Nixon's navigation.
+Consumption per indicated horse-power per hour     4.17 lb.
+Time under way                                    5 hrs. 30 min.
+
+
+_Table G.--Report of Trial of Engines of H.M. 48 ft. Steam Pinnace No.
+110._
+
+When tried                                        August 3, 1881.
+Where tried                                         Stokes Bay.
+Draught   / Forward                                 3 ft. 1 in.
+          \ Aft                                     3 ft. 3¼ in.
+Average boiler pressure                               55.52 lb.
+Vacuum                                                25.12 in.
+Weather barometer                                     30.35 "
+Revolutions per minute  / starboard                  165.54
+                        \ port                       161.55
+Indicated horse-power[2]   / Starboard / High          5.05
+                           |           \ Low           5.53
+                           | Port      / High          3.75
+                           |           \ Low           4.02
+                           \ Collective Total         18.35
+Speed of vessel by log (approximate)                   7.404
+Wind      / Force                                     4 to 5
+          \ Direction                             Bow and Quarter.
+State of sea                                           Rough.
+
+[Footnote 2: In consequence of the seas breaking over the boat, a large
+number of diagrams were destroyed, and, on account of the roughness of the
+weather, cards were only taken with the greatest difficulty. The records
+of power developed are therefore not put forward as authoritative.]
+
+In connection with this subject it may perhaps be of interest to give
+particulars of a French and American steam launch; these we extract from
+the United States official report before mentioned.
+
+_Steam Launch of the French Steamer Mouche_.
+
+Length on low water level                   27 ft. 10-1/2 in.
+Breadth                                      5 ft. 11 in.
+Depth to rabbet of keel                      3 ft. 3-1/3 in.
+Draught of water aft                         2 ft. 1-1/2 in.
+Weight of hull and fittings                   2,646 lb.
+Weight of machinery with water in boiler      3,473 lb.
+
+The boat is built of wood, and coppered. The engine consists of one
+non-condensing cylinder, 7-1/2 in. in diameter and 5.9 in. stroke. The
+boiler has 4.3 square feet of grate surface. The screw is 21-2/3 in. in
+diameter by 43.3 in, pitch. The speed is 7 knots per hour obtained with
+245 revolutions per minute, the slip being 19.7 per cent. of the speed.
+
+The United States navy steam cutters built at the Philadelphia navy yard
+are of the following dimensions:
+
+Length                                          27 ft. 7½ in.
+Breadth                                          7 ft. 10 in.
+Depth to rabbet of keel                          3 ft. 11¾ in.
+Displacement (to two feet above rabbet of keel)    5.96 tons.
+Weight of hull and fittings                         4,675 lb.
+   "      engine                                    1,240  "
+   "      boiler                                    3,112  "
+   "      water in boiler and tanks                 2,696  "
+
+The engine has a single cylinder 8 in. in diameter and 8 in. stroke of
+piston. The screw is four bladed, 4 in. long and 31 in. in diameter by 45
+in. pitch. The following is the performance at draught of water 2 feet
+above rabbet of keel:
+
+Boiler pressure           90 lb.
+Revolutions                353
+Speed                    7.8 knots.
+Indicated horse power.      53
+
+These boats are of 1870 type, but may be taken as typical of a large
+number of steam cutters in the United States navy. The naval authorities
+have, however, been lately engaged in extensive experiments with compound
+condensing engines in small boats, and the results have proved so
+conclusively the advantages of the latter system that it will doubtless be
+largely adopted in future.--_Engineer._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+IMPROVED STEAM TRAP.
+
+
+The illustrations we give represent an expansion trap by Mr. Hyde, and
+made by Mr. S. Farron, Ashton-under-Lyne. The general appearance of this
+arrangement is as in Fig. 1 or Fig. 3, the center view, Fig. 2, showing
+what is the cardinal feature of the trap, viz., that it contains a
+collector for silt, sand, or sediment which is not, as in most other
+traps, carried out through the valve with the efflux of water. The escape
+valve also is made very large, so that while the trap may be made short,
+or, in other words, the expansion pipe may not be long, a tolerably large
+area of outlet is obtained with the short lift due to the small movement
+of the expansion pipe.
+
+[Illustration: IMPROVED STEAM TRAP.]
+
+The object of a steam trap is for the removal of water of condensation
+without allowing the escape of steam from drying apparatus and steam pipes
+used for heating, power, or other purposes. One of the plans employed is
+by an expansion pipe having a valve fixed to its end, so that when the
+pipe shortens from being cooler, due to the presence of the water, the
+valve opens and allows the escape of the water until the steam comes to
+the trap, which, being hotter, lengthens the pipe and closes the valve.
+Now with this kind of trap, and, in fact, with any variety of trap, we
+understand that it has been frequently the experience of the user to find
+his contrivance inoperative because the silt or sand that may be present
+in the pipes has been carried to the valve and lodged there by the water,
+causing it to stick, and with expansion traps not to close properly or to
+work abnormally some way or other. The putting of these contrivances to
+rights involves a certain amount of trouble, which is completely obviated
+by the arrangement shown in the annexed engravings, which is certainly a
+simple, strong, and substantial article. The foot of the trap is made of
+cast iron, the seat of the valve being of gun metal, let into the
+diaphragm, cast inside the hollow cylinder. The valve, D, is also of gun
+metal, and passing to outside through a stuffing box is connected to the
+central expansion pipe by a nut at E. The valve is set by two brass nuts
+at the top, so as to be just tight when steam hot; if, then, from the
+presence of water the trap is cooled, the pipe contracts and the water
+escapes. A mud door is provided, by which the mud can be removed as
+required. The silt or dirt that may be in the pipes is carried to the trap
+by the water, and is deposited in the cavity, as shown, the water rises,
+and when the valve, D, opens escapes at the pipe, F, and may be allowed to
+run to waste. A pipe is not shown attached to F, but needless to say one
+may be connected and led anywhere, provided the steam pressure is
+sufficient. For this purpose the stuffing-box is provided; it is really
+not required if the water runs to waste, as is represented in the
+engraving. To give our readers some idea of the dimensions of the valve,
+we may say that the smallest size of trap has 1 in. expansion pipe and a
+valve 3 in. diameter, the next size 1¼ in. expansion pipe and a valve 4½
+in. diameter, and the largest size has a pipe 1½ in. and a valve 6 in.
+diameter. Altogether, the contrivance has some important practical
+advantages to recommend it.--_Mech. World._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CRITICAL METHODS OF DETECTING ERRORS IN PLANE SURFACES.[3]
+
+[Footnote 3: A paper read before the Engineers' Society of Western
+Pennsylvania, Dec. 10, 1884.]
+
+By JOHN A. BRASHEAR.
+
+
+In our study of the exact methods of measurement in use to-day, in the
+various branches of scientific investigation, we should not forget that it
+has been a plant of very slow growth, and it is interesting indeed to
+glance along the pathway of the past to see how step by step our micron of
+to-day has been evolved from the cubit, the hand's breadth, the span, and,
+if you please, the barleycorn of our schoolboy days. It would also be a
+pleasant task to investigate the properties of the gnomon of the Chinese,
+Egyptians, and Peruvians, the scarphie of Eratosthenes, the astrolabe of
+Hipparchus, the parallactic rules of Ptolemy, Regimontanus Purbach, and
+Walther, the sextants and quadrants of Tycho Brahe, and the modifications
+of these various instruments, the invention and use of which, from century
+to century, bringing us at last to the telescopic age, or the days of
+Lippershay, Jannsen, and Galileo.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+It would also be a most pleasant task to follow the evolution of our
+subject in the new era of investigation ushered in by the invention of
+that marvelous instrument, the telescope, followed closely by the work of
+Kepler, Scheiner, Cassini, Huyghens, Newton, Digges, Nonius, Vernier,
+Hall, Dollond, Herschel, Short, Bird, Ramsden, Troughton, Smeaton,
+Fraunhofer, and a host of others, each of whom has contributed a noble
+share in the elimination of sources of error, until to-day we are
+satisfied only with units of measurement of the most exact and refined
+nature. Although it would be pleasant to review the work of these past
+masters, it is beyond the scope of the present paper, and even now I can
+only hope to call your attention to one phase of this important subject.
+For a number of years I have been practically interested in the subject of
+the production of plane and curved surfaces particularly for optical
+purposes, _i.e._, in the production of such surfaces free if possible from
+all traces of error, and it will be pleasant to me if I shall be able to
+add to the interest of this association by giving you some of my own
+practical experience; and may I trust that it will be an incentive to all
+engaged in kindred work _to do that work well?_
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+In the production of a perfectly plane surface, there are many
+difficulties to contend with, and it will not be possible in the limits of
+this paper to discuss the methods of eliminating errors when found; but I
+must content myself with giving a description of various methods of
+detecting existing errors in the surfaces that are being worked, whether,
+for instance, it be an error of concavity, convexity, periodic or local
+error.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3]
+
+A very excellent method was devised by the celebrated Rosse, which is
+frequently used at the present time; and those eminent workers, the Clarks
+of Cambridge, use a modification of the Rosse method which in their hands
+is productive of the very highest results. The device is very simple,
+consisting of a telescope (_a_, Fig. 1) in which aberrations have been
+well corrected, so that the focal plane of the objective is as sharp as
+possible. This telescope is first directed to a distant object, preferably
+a celestial one, and focused for parallel rays. The surface, _b_, to be
+tested is now placed so that the reflected image of the same object,
+whatever it may be, can be observed by the same telescope. It is evident
+that if the surface be a true plane, its action upon the beam of light
+that comes from the object will be simply to change its direction, but not
+disturb or change it any other way, hence the reflected image of the
+object should be seen by the telescope, _a_, without in any way changing
+the original focus. If, however, the supposed plane surface proves to be
+_convex_, the image will not be sharply defined in the telescope until the
+eyepiece is moved _away_ from the object glass; while if the converse is
+the case, and the supposed plane is concave, the eyepiece must now be
+moved _toward_ the objective in order to obtain a sharp image, and the
+amount of convexity or concavity may be known by the change in the focal
+plane. If the surface has periodic or irregular errors, no sharp image can
+be obtained, no matter how much the eyepiece may be moved in or out.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4]
+
+This test may be made still more delicate by using the observing
+telescope, _a_, at as low an angle as possible, thereby bringing out with
+still greater effect any error that may exist in the surface under
+examination, and is the plan generally used by Alvan Clark & Sons. Another
+and very excellent method is that illustrated in Fig. 2, in which a second
+telescope, _b_, is introduced. In place of the eyepiece of this second
+telescope, a diaphragm is introduced in which a number of small holes are
+drilled, as in Fig. 2, _x_, or a slit is cut similar to the slit used in a
+spectroscope as shown at _y_, same figure. The telescope, _a_, is now
+focused very accurately on a celestial or other very distant object, and
+the focus marked. The object glass of the telescope, _b_, is now placed
+against and "square" with the object glass of telescope _a_, and on
+looking through telescope a an image of the diaphragm with its holes or
+the slit is seen. This diaphragm must now be moved until a sharp image is
+seen in telescope _a_. The two telescopes are now mounted as in Fig. 2,
+and the plate to be tested placed in front of the two telescopes as at
+_c_. It is evident, as in the former case, that if the surface is a true
+plane, the reflected image of the holes or slit thrown upon it by the
+telescope, _b_, will be seen sharply defined in the telescope, _a_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.]
+
+If any error of convexity exists in the plate, the focal plane is
+disturbed, and the eyepiece must be moved _out_. If the plate is concave,
+it must be moved _in_ to obtain a sharp image. Irregular errors in the
+plate or surface will produce a blurred or indistinct image, and, as in
+the first instance, no amount of focusing will help matters. These methods
+are both good, but are not satisfactory in the highest degree, and two or
+three important factors bar the way to the very best results. One is that
+the aberrations of the telescopes must be perfectly corrected, a very
+difficult matter of itself, and requiring the highest skill of the
+optician. Another, the fact that the human eye will accommodate itself to
+small distances when setting the focus of the observing telescope. I have
+frequently made experiments to find out how much this accommodation was in
+my own case, and found it to amount to as much as 1/40 of an inch. This is
+no doubt partly the fault of the telescopes themselves, but unless the eye
+is rigorously educated in this work, it is apt to accommodate itself to a
+small amount, and will invariably do so if there is a preconceived notion
+or bias _in the direction of the accommodation_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.]
+
+Talking with Prof. C.A. Young a few months since on this subject, he
+remarked that he noticed that the eye grew more exact in its demands as it
+grew older, in regard to the focal point. A third and very serious
+objection to the second method is caused by diffraction from the edges of
+the holes or the slit. Let me explain this briefly. When light falls upon
+a slit, such as we have here, it is turned out of its course; as the slit
+has two edges, and the light that falls on either side is deflected both
+right and left, the rays that cross from the right side of the slit toward
+the left, and from the left side of the slit toward the right, produce
+interference of the wave lengths, and when perfect interference occurs,
+dark lines are seen. You can have a very pretty illustration of this by
+cutting a fine slit in a card and holding it several inches from the eye,
+when the dark lines caused by a total extinction of the light by
+interference may be seen.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.]
+
+If now you look toward the edge of a gas or lamp flame; you will see a
+series of colored bands, that bring out the phenomenon of partial
+interference. This experiment shows the difficulty in obtaining a perfect
+focus of the holes or the slit in the diaphragm, as the interference
+fringes are always more or less annoying. Notwithstanding these defects of
+the two systems I have mentioned, in the hands of the practical workman
+they are productive of very good results, and very many excellent surfaces
+have been made by their use, and we are not justified in ignoring them,
+because they are the stepping stones to lead us on to better ones. In my
+early work Dr. Draper suggested a very excellent plan for testing a flat
+surface, which I briefly describe. It is a well known truth that, if an
+artificial star is placed in the exact center of curvature of a truly
+spherical mirror, and an eyepiece be used to examine the image close
+beside the source of light, the star will be sharply defined, and will
+bear very high magnification. If the eyepiece is now drawn toward the
+observer, the star disk begins to expand; and if the mirror be a truly
+spherical one, the expanded disk will be equally illuminated, except the
+outer edge, which usually shows two or more light and dark rings, due to
+diffraction, as already explained.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+Now if we push the eyepiece toward the mirror the same distance on the
+opposite side of the true focal plane, precisely the same appearance will
+be noted in the expanded star disk. If we now place our plane surface any
+where in the path of the rays from the great mirror, we should have
+identically the same phenomena repeated. Of course it is presumed, and is
+necessary, that the plane mirror shall be much less in area than the
+spherical mirror, else the beam of light from the artificial star will be
+shut off, yet I may here say that any one part of a truly spherical mirror
+will act just as well as the whole surface, there being of course a loss
+of light according to the area of the mirror shut off.
+
+This principle is illustrated in Fig. 3, where _a_ is the spherical
+mirror, _b_ the source of light, _c_ the eyepiece as used when the plane
+is not interposed, _d_ the plane introduced into the path at an angle of
+45° to the central beam, and _e_ the position of eyepiece when used the
+with the plane. When the plane is not in the way, the converging beam goes
+back to the eyepiece, _c_. When the plane, _d_, is introduced, the beam is
+turned at a right angle, and if it is a perfect surface, not only does the
+focal plane remain exactly of the same length, but the expanded star
+disks, are similar on either side of the focal plane.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+I might go on to elaborate this method, to show how it may be made still
+more exact, but as it will come under the discussion of spherical
+surfaces, I will leave it for the present. Unfortunately for this process,
+it demands a large truly spherical surface, which is just as difficult of
+attainment as any form of regular surface. We come now to an instrument
+that does not depend upon optical means for detecting errors of surface,
+namely, the spherometer, which as the name would indicate means sphere
+measure, but it is about as well adapted for plane as it is for spherical
+work, and Prof. Harkness has been, using one for some time past in
+determining the errors of the plane mirrors used in the transit of Venus
+photographic instruments. At the meeting of the American Association of
+Science in Philadelphia, there was quite a discussion as to the relative
+merits of the spherometer test and another form which I shall
+presently mention, Prof. Harkness claiming that he could, by the
+use of the spherometer, detect errors bordering closely on one
+five-hundred-thousandth of an inch. Some physicists express doubt on this,
+but Prof. Harkness has no doubt worked with very sensitive instruments,
+and over very small areas at one time.
+
+I have not had occasion to use this instrument in my own work, as a more
+simple, delicate, and efficient method was at my command, but for one
+measurement of convex surfaces I know of nothing that can take its place.
+I will briefly describe the method of using it.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.]
+
+The usual form of the instrument is shown in Fig. 4; _a_ is a steel screw
+working in the nut of the stout tripod frame, _b_; _c c c_ are three legs
+with carefully prepared points; _d_ is a divided standard to read the
+whole number of revolutions of the screw, _a_, the edge of which also
+serves the purpose of a pointer to read off the division on the top of the
+milled head, _e_. Still further refinement may be had by placing a vernier
+here. To measure a plane or curved surface with this instrument, a perfect
+plane or perfect spherical surface of known radius must be used to
+determine the zero point of the division. Taking for granted that we have
+this standard plate, the spherometer is placed upon it, and the readings
+of the divided head and indicator, _d_, noted when the point of the screw,
+_a_, just touches the surface, _f_. Herein, however, lies the great
+difficulty in using this instrument, _i.e._, to know the exact instant of
+contact of the point of screw, _a_, on the surface, _f_. Many devices have
+been added to the spherometer to make it as sensitive as possible, such as
+the contact level, the electric contact, and the compound lever contact.
+The latter is probably the best, and is made essentially as in Fig. 5.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.]
+
+I am indebted for this plan to Dr. Alfred Mayer. As in the previous
+figure, _a_ is the screw; this screw is bored out, and a central steel pin
+turned to fit resting on a shoulder at _c_. The end of _d_ projects below
+the screw, _a_, and the end, _e_, projects above the milled head, and the
+knife edge or pivot point rests against the lever, _f_, which in turn
+rests against the long lever, _g_, the point, _h_, of which moves along
+the division at _j_. It is evident that if the point of the pin just
+touches the plate, no movement of the index lever, _g_, will be seen; but
+if any pressure be applied, the lever will move through a multiplied arc,
+owing to the short fulcri of the two levers. Notwithstanding all these
+precautions, we must also take into account the flexure of the material,
+the elasticity of the points of contact, and other idiosyncrasies, and you
+can readily see that practice alone in an instrument so delicate will
+bring about the very best results. Dr. Alfred Mayer's method of getting
+over the great difficulty of knowing when all four points are in contact
+is quite simple. The standard plate is set on the box, _g_, Fig. 4, which
+acts as a resonater. The screw, _a_, is brought down until it touches the
+plate. When the pressure of the screw is enough to lift off either or all
+of the legs, and the plate is gently tapped with the finger, a _rattle_ is
+heard, which is the tell-tale of imperfect contact of all the points. The
+screw is now reversed gently and slowly until the _moment_ the rattle
+ceases, and then the reading is taken. Here the sense of hearing is
+brought into play. This is also the case when the electric contact is
+used. This is so arranged that the instant of touching of the point of
+screw, _a_, completes the electric circuit, in which an electromagnet of
+short thick wire is placed. At the moment of contact, or perhaps a little
+before contact, the bell rings, and the turning of the screw must be
+instantly stopped. Here are several elements that must be remembered.
+First, it takes time to set the bell ringing, time for the sound to pass
+to the ear, time for the sensation to be carried to the brain, time for
+the brain to send word to the hand to cease turning the screw, and, if you
+please, it takes time for the hand to stop. You may say, of what use are
+such refinements? I may reply, what use is there in trying to do anything
+the very best it can be done? If our investigation of nature's profound
+mysteries can be partially solved with good instrumental means, what is
+the result if we have better ones placed in our hands, and what, we ask,
+if the _best_ are given to the physicist? We have only to compare the
+telescope of Galileo, the prism of Newton, the pile of Volta, and what was
+done with them, to the marvelous work of the telescope, spectroscope, and
+dynamo of to-day. But I must proceed. It will be recognized that in
+working with the spherometer, only the points in actual contact can be
+measured at one time, for you may see by Fig. 6 that the four points, _a a
+a a_, may all be normal to a true plane, and yet errors of depression, as
+at _e_, or elevation, as at _b_, exist between them, so that the
+instrument must be used over every available part of the surface if it is
+to be tested rigorously. As to how exact this method is I cannot say from
+actual experience, as in my work I have had recourse to other methods that
+I shall describe. I have already quoted you the words of Prof. Harkness.
+Dr. Hastings, whose practical as well as theoretical knowledge is of the
+most critical character, tells me that he considers it quite easy to
+measure to 1/80000 of an inch with the ordinary form of instrument. Here
+is a very fine spherometer that Dr. Hastings works with from time to time,
+and which he calls his standard spherometer. It is delicately made, its
+screw being 50 to the inch, or more exactly 0.01998 inch, or within
+2/100000 of being 1/50 of an inch pitch. The principal screw has a point
+which is itself an independent screw, that was put in to investigate the
+errors of the main screw, but it was found that the error of this screw
+was not as much as the 0.00001 of an inch. The head is divided into two
+hundred parts, and by estimation can be read to 1/100000 of an inch. Its
+constants are known, and it may be understood that it would not do to
+handle it very roughly. I could dwell here longer on this fascinating
+subject, but must haste. I may add that if this spherometer is placed on a
+plate of glass and exact contact obtained, and then removed, and the hand
+held over the plate without touching it, the difference in the temperature
+of the glass and that of the hand would be sufficient to distort the
+surface enough to be readily recognized by the spherometer when replaced.
+Any one desiring to investigate this subject further will find it fully
+discussed in that splendid series of papers by Dr. Alfred Mayer on the
+minute measurements of modern science published in SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN
+SUPPLEMENTS, to which I was indebted years ago for most valuable
+information, as well as to most encouraging words from Prof. Thurston,
+whom you all so well and favorably know. I now invite your attention to
+the method for testing the flat surfaces on which Prof. Rowland rules the
+beautiful diffraction gratings now so well known over the scientific
+world, as also other plane surfaces for heliostats, etc., etc. I am now
+approaching the border land of what may be called the abstruse in science,
+in which I humbly acknowledge it would take a vast volume to contain all I
+don't know; yet I hope to make plain to you this most beautiful and
+accurate method, and for fear I may forget to give due credit, I will say
+that I am indebted to Dr. Hastings for it, with whom it was an original
+discovery, though he told me he afterward found it had been in use by
+Steinheil, the celebrated optician of Munich. The principle was discovered
+by the immortal Newton, and it shows how much can be made of the ordinary
+phenomena seen in our every-day life when placed in the hands of the
+investigator. We have all seen the beautiful play of colors on the soap
+bubble, or when the drop of oil spreads over the surface of the water.
+Place a lens of long curvature on a piece of plane polished glass, and,
+looking at it obliquely, a black central spot is seen with rings of
+various width and color surrounding it. If the lens is a true curve, and
+the glass beneath it a true plane, these rings of color will be perfectly
+concentric and arranged in regular decreasing intervals. This apparatus is
+known as Newton's color glass, because he not only measured the phenomena,
+but established the laws of the appearances presented. I will now endeavor
+to explain the general principle by which this phenomenon is utilized in
+the testing of plane surfaces. Suppose that we place on the lower plate,
+lenses of constantly increasing curvature until that curvature becomes
+nil, or in other words a true plane. The rings of color will constantly
+increase in width as the curvature of the lens increases, until at last
+one color alone is seen over the whole surface, provided, however, the
+same angle of observation be maintained, and provided further that the
+film of air between the glasses is of absolutely the same relative
+thickness throughout. I say the film of air, for I presume that it would
+be utterly impossible to exclude particles of dust so that absolute
+contact could take place. Early physicists maintained that absolute
+molecular contact was impossible, and that the central separation of the
+glasses in Newton's experiment was 1/250,000 of an inch, but Sir Wm.
+Thomson has shown that the separation is caused by shreds or particles of
+dust. However, if this separation is equal throughout, we have the
+phenomena as described; but if the dust particles are thicker under one
+side than the other, our phenomena will change to broad parallel bands as
+in Fig. 8, the broader the bands the nearer the absolute parallelism of
+the plates. In Fig. 7 let _a_ and _b_ represent the two plates we are
+testing. Rays of white light, _c_, falling upon the upper surface of plate
+_a_, are partially reflected off in the direction of rays _d_, but as
+these rays do not concern us now, I have not sketched them. Part of the
+light passes on through the upper plate, where it is bent out of its
+course somewhat, and, falling upon the _lower_ surface of the upper plate,
+some of this light is again reflected toward the eye at _d_. As some of
+the light passes through the upper plate, and, passing through the film of
+air between the plates, falling on the upper surface of the _lower_ one,
+this in turn is reflected; but as the light that falls on this surface has
+had to traverse the film of air _twice_, it is retarded by a certain
+number of half or whole wave-lengths, and the beautiful phenomena of
+interference take place, some of the colors of white light being
+obliterated, while others come to the eye. When the position of the eye
+changes, the color is seen to change. I have not time to dwell further on
+this part of my subject, which is discussed in most advanced works on
+physics, and especially well described in Dr. Eugene Lommel's work on "The
+Nature of Light." I remarked that if the two surfaces were perfectly
+_plane_, there would be one color seen, or else colors of the first or
+second order would arrange themselves in broad parallel bands, but this
+would also take place in plates of slight curvature, for the requirement
+is, as I said, a film of air of equal thickness throughout. You can see at
+once that this condition could be obtained in a perfect convex surface
+fitting a perfect concave of the same radius. Fortunately we have a check
+to guard against this error. To produce a perfect plane, _three surfaces
+must_ be worked together, unless we have a true plane to commence with;
+but to make this true plane by this method we _must_ work three together,
+and if each one comes up to the demands of this most rigorous test, we may
+rest assured that we have attained a degree of accuracy almost beyond
+human conception. Let me illustrate. Suppose we have plates 1, 2, and 3,
+Fig. 11. Suppose 1 and 2 to be accurately convex and 3 accurately concave,
+of the same radius. Now it is evident that 3 will exactly fit 1 and 2, and
+that 1 and 2 will separately fit No. 3, _but_ when 1 and 2 are placed
+together, they will only touch in the center, and there is no possible
+way to make three plates coincide when they are alternately tested upon
+one another than to make _perfect planes_ out of them. As it is difficult
+to see the colors well on metal surfaces, a one-colored light is used,
+such as the sodium flame, which gives to the eye in our test, dark and
+bright bands instead of colored ones. When these plates are worked and
+tested upon one another until they all present the same appearance, one
+may be reserved for a test plate for future use. Here is a small test
+plate made by the celebrated Steinheil, and here two made by myself, and I
+may be pardoned in saying that I was much gratified to find the
+coincidence so nearly perfect that the limiting error is much less than
+0.00001 of an inch. My assistant, with but a few months' experience, has
+made quite as accurate plates. It is necessary of course to have a glass
+plate to test the metal plates, as the upper plate _must_ be transparent.
+So far we have been dealing with perfect surfaces. Let us now see what
+shall occur in surfaces that are not plane. Suppose we now have our
+perfect test plate, and it is laid on a plate that has a compound error,
+say depressed at center and edge and high between these points. If this
+error is regular, the central bands arrange themselves as in Fig. 9. You
+may now ask, how are we to know what sort of surface we have? A ready
+solution is at hand. The bands _always travel in the direction of the
+thickest film of air_, hence on lowering the eye, if the convex edge of
+the bands travel in the direction of the arrow, we are absolutely certain
+that that part of the surface being tested is convex, while if, as in the
+central part of the bands, the concave edges advance, we know that part is
+hollow or too low. Furthermore, any small error will be rigorously
+detected, with astonishing clearness, and one of the grandest qualities of
+this test is the absence of "personal equation;" for, given a perfect test
+plate, _it won't lie_, neither will it exaggerate. I say, won't lie, but I
+must guard this by saying that the plates must coincide absolutely in
+temperature, and the touch of the finger, the heat of the hand, or any
+disturbance whatever will vitiate the results of this lovely process; but
+more of that at a future time. If our surface is plane to within a short
+distance of the edge, and is there overcorrected, or convex, the test
+shows it, as in Fig. 10. If the whole surface is regularly convex, then
+concentric rings of a breadth determined by the approach to a perfect
+plane are seen. If concave, a similar phenomenon is exhibited, except in
+the case of the convex, the broader rings are near the center, while in
+the concave they are nearer the edge. In lowering the eye while observing
+the plates, the rings of the convex plate will advance outward, those of
+the concave inward. It may be asked by the mechanician, Can this method be
+used for testing our surface plates? I answer that I have found the
+scraped surface of iron bright enough to test by sodium light. My
+assistant in the machine work scraped three 8 inch plates that were tested
+by this method and found to be very excellent, though it must be evident
+that a single cut of the scraper would change the spot over which it
+passed so much as to entirely change the appearance there, but I found I
+could use the test to get the general outline of the surface under process
+of correction. These iron plates, I would say, are simply used for
+preliminary formation of polishers. I may have something to say on the
+question of surface plates in the future, as I have made some interesting
+studies on the subject. I must now bring this paper to a close, although I
+had intended including some interesting studies of curved surfaces. There
+is, however, matter enough in that subject of itself, especially when we
+connect it with the idiosyncrasies of the material we have to deal with, a
+vital part of the subject that I have not touched upon in the present
+paper. You may now inquire, How critical is this "color test"? To answer
+this I fear I shall trench upon forbidden grounds, but I call to my help
+the words of one of our best American physicists, and I quote from a
+letter in which he says by combined calculation and experiment I have
+found the limiting error for white light to be 1/50000000 of an inch, and
+for Na or sodium light about fifty times greater, or less than 1/800000 of
+an inch. Dr. Alfred Mayer estimated and demonstrated by actual experiment
+that the smallest black spot on a white ground visible to the naked eye is
+about 1/800 of an inch at the distance of normal vision, namely, 10
+inches, and that a line, which of course has the element of extension,
+1/5000 of an inch in thickness could be seen. In our delicate "color test"
+we may decrease the diameter of our black spot a thousand times and still
+its perception is possible by the aid of our monochromatic light, and we
+may diminish our line ten thousand times, yet find it just perceivable on
+the border land of our test by white light. Do not presume I am so foolish
+as to even think that the human hand, directed by the human brain, can
+ever work the material at his command to such a high standard of
+exactness. No; from the very nature of the material we have to work with,
+we are forbidden even to hope for such an achievement; and could it be
+possible that, through some stroke of good fortune, we could attain this
+high ideal, it would be but for a moment, as from the very nature of our
+environment it would be but an ignis fatuus. There is, however, to the
+earnest mind a delight in having a high model of excellence, for as our
+model is so will our work approximate; and although we may go on
+approximating _our_ ideal forever, we can never hope to reach that which
+has been set for us by the great Master Workman.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+[JOURNAL OF GAS LIGHTING.]
+
+PHOTOMETRICAL STANDARDS.
+
+
+In carrying out a series of photometrical experiments lately, I found that
+it was a matter of considerable difficulty to keep the flames of the
+standard candles always at their proper distance from the light to be
+measured, because the wick was continually changing its position (of
+course carrying the flame with it), and thus practically lengthening or
+shortening the scale of the photometer, according as the flame was carried
+nearer to or farther from the light at the other end of the scale. In
+order, therefore, to obtain a correct idea of the extent to which this
+variation of the position of the wick might influence the readings of the
+photometer scale, I took a continuous number of photographs of the flame
+of a candle while it was burning in a room quite free from draught; no
+other person being in it during the experiment except a photographer, who
+placed sensitive dry plates in a firmly fixed camera, and changed them
+after an exposure of 30 seconds. In doing this he was careful to keep
+close to the camera, and disturb the air of the room as little as
+possible. In front of the candle a plumb-line was suspended, and remained
+immovable over its center during the whole operation. The candle was
+allowed to get itself into a normal state of burning, and then the wick
+was aligned, as shown in the photographs Nos. 1 and 2, after which it was
+left to itself.
+
+[Illustration: VARIATION IN PHOTOMETRICAL STANDARDS.]
+
+With these photographs (represented in the cuts) I beg to hand you
+full-sized drawings of the scales of a 100 inch Evans and a 60 inch
+Letheby photometer, in order to give your readers an opportunity of
+estimating for themselves the effect which such variations from the true
+distance between the standard light and that to be measured, as shown in
+this series of photographs, must exercise on photometrical observations
+made by the aid of either of the instruments named.
+
+W. SUGG.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+BLEACHING OR DYEING-YARNS AND GOODS IN VACUO.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Many attempts have been made to facilitate the penetration of textile
+fabrics by the dyeing and bleaching solutions, with which they require to
+be treated, by carrying out the treatment in vacuo, _i.e._, in such
+apparatus as shall allow of the air being withdrawn. The apparatus shown
+in the annexed engraving--Austrian Pat. Jan. 15, 1884--although not
+essentially different from those already in use, embodies, the _Journal of
+the Society of Chemical Industry_ says, some important improvements in
+detail. It consists of a drum A, the sides of which are constructed of
+stout netting, carried on a vertical axis working through a stuffing-box,
+which is fitted in the bottom of the outer or containing vessel or keir B.
+The air can be exhausted from B by means of an air pump. A contains a
+central division P, also constructed of netting, into which is inserted
+the extremity of the tube R, after being twice bent at a right angle. P is
+also in direct connection with the efflux tube E, E and R serving to
+convey the dye or bleach solutions to and from the reservoir C. The
+combination of the rotary motion communicated to A, which contains the
+goods to be dyed or bleached, with the very thorough penetration and
+circulation of the liquids effected by means of the vacuum established in
+B, is found to be eminently favorable to the rapidity and evenness of the
+dye or bleach.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ON THE MOULDING OF PORCELAIN.
+
+By CHAS. LAUTH.
+
+
+The operation of moulding presents numerous advantages over other methods
+of shaping porcelain, for by this process we avoid irregularities of form,
+twisting, and visible seams, and can manufacture thin pieces, as well as
+pieces of large dimensions, of a purity of form that it is impossible to
+obtain otherwise.
+
+The method of moulding small objects has been described with sufficient
+detail in technical works, but such is not the case with regard to large
+ones, and for this reason it will be of interest to quote some practical
+observations from a note that has been sent me by Mr. Constantine Renard,
+who, for several years, has had the superintendence of the moulding rooms
+of the Sevres works.
+
+The process of moulding consists in pouring porcelain paste, thinned with
+water, into very dry plaster moulds. This mixture gradually hardens
+against the porous sides with which it is in contact, and, when the
+thickness of the hardened layer is judged sufficient, the mould is emptied
+by inverting it. The excess of the liquid paste is thus eliminated, while
+the thicker parts remain adherent to the plaster. Shortly afterward, the
+absorption of the water continuing, the paste so shrinks in drying as to
+allow the object to detach itself from the mould. As may be seen, nothing
+is simpler when it concerns pieces of small dimensions; but the same is
+not the case when we have to mould a large one. In this case we cannot get
+rid of the liquid paste by turning the mould upside down, because of the
+latter's size, and, on another hand, it is necessary to take special
+precautions against the subsidence of the paste. Recourse is therefore had
+to another method. In the first place, an aperture is formed in the lower
+part of the mould through which the liquid may flow at the desired moment.
+Afterward, in order to prevent the solidified but still slightly soft
+paste from settling under its own weight at this moment, it is supported
+by directing a current of compressed air into the mould, or, through
+atmospheric pressure, by forming a vacuum in the metallic jacket in which
+the mould is inclosed.
+
+The history and description of these processes have been several times
+given, and I shall therefore not dwell upon them, but shall at once
+proceed to make known the new points that Mr. Renard has communicated to
+me.
+
+The first point to which it is well to direct the manufacturer's attention
+is the preparation of the plaster moulds. When it concerns an object of
+large dimensions, of a vase a yard in height, for example, the moulder is
+obliged to cut the form or core horizontally into three parts, each of
+which is moulded separately. To this effect, it is placed upon a core
+frame and surrounded with a cylinder of sheet zinc. The workman pours the
+plaster into the space between the latter and the core, and, while doing
+so, must stir the mass very rapidly with a stick, so that at the moment
+the plaster sets, it shall be as homogeneous as possible. In spite of such
+precautions, it is impossible to prevent the densest parts of the plaster
+from depositing first, through the action of gravity. These will naturally
+precipitate upon the table or upon the slanting sides of the core, and the
+mould will therefore present great inequalities as regards porosity. Since
+this defect exists in each of the pieces that have been prepared in
+succession, it will be seen that when they come to be superposed for the
+moulding of the piece, the mould as a whole will be formed of zones of
+different porosities, which will absorb water from the paste unequally.
+Farther along we shall see the inconveniences that result from this, and
+the manner of avoiding them.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1]
+
+The mould, when finished, is dried in a stove. Under such circumstances it
+often happens that there forms upon the surface of the plaster a hard
+crust which, although it is of no importance as regards the outside of the
+mould, is prejudicial to the interior because it considerably diminishes
+its absorbing power. This trouble may be avoided by coating the surfaces
+that it is necessary to preserve with clear liquid paste; but Mr. Renard
+advises that the mould be closed hermetically, so that the interior shall
+be kept from contact with warm air. In this way it is possible to prevent
+the plaster from hardening, as a result of too quick a desiccation. I now
+come to the operation of moulding. In the very first place, it is
+necessary to examine whether it is well to adopt the arrangement by
+pressure of air or by vacuum. The form of the objects will determine the
+choice. A very open piece, like a bowl, must be moulded by vacuum, on
+account of the difficulty of holding the closing disk in place if it be of
+very large dimensions. The same is the case with large vases of wood form.
+On the contrary, an elongated piece tapering from above is more easily
+moulded by pressure of the air, as are also ovoid vessels 16 to 20 inches
+in height. In any case it must not be forgotten that the operation by
+vacuum should be preferred every time the form of the objects is adapted
+to it, because this process permits of following and directing the drying,
+while with pressure it is impossible to see anything when once the
+apparatus is closed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+_Moulding by Pressure of the Air._--The plaster mould having been put in
+place upon the mould board, and the liquid paste having been long and
+thoroughly stirred in order to make it homogeneous, and get rid of the air
+bubbles, we open the cock that puts the paste reservoir in communication
+with the lower part of the mould, care having been taken beforehand to
+pour a few pints of water into the bottom of the mould. The paste in
+ascending pushes this water ahead of it, and this slightly wets the
+plaster and makes the paste rise regularly. When the mould is entirely
+filled, the paste is still allowed to flow until it slightly exceeds the
+upper level, and, spreading out over the entire thickness of the plaster,
+forms a sort of thick flange. The absorption of the liquid begins almost
+immediately, and, consequently, the level lowers. A new quantity of paste
+is introduced, and we continue thus, in regulating its flow so as to keep
+the mould always full. This operation is prolonged until the layer is
+judged to be sufficiently thick, this depending upon the dimensions, form,
+or construction of the vessel. The operation may take from one to five
+hours.
+
+The desired thickness having been obtained, it becomes a question of
+allowing the paste to descend and at the same time to support the piece by
+air pressure. The flange spoken of above is quickly cut, and the paste is
+made to rise again for the last time, in order to form a new flange, but
+one that this time will be extremely thin; then a perforated disk designed
+for forming the top joint, and acting as a conduit for the air, is placed
+upon the mould. This disk is fastened down with a screw press, and when
+the apparatus is thus arranged the eduction cock is opened, and the air
+pump maneuvered.
+
+If the flange did not exist, the air would enter between the mould and the
+piece at the first strokes of the piston, and the piece would be
+inevitably broken. Its object, then, is to form a hermetical joint,
+although it must at the same time present but a slight resistance, since,
+as soon as the liquid paste has flowed out, the piece begins to shrink,
+and it is necessary that at the first movement downward it shall be able
+to disengage itself, since it would otherwise crack.
+
+As soon as the piece begins to detach itself from the mould the air enters
+the apparatus, and the pressure gauge connected with the air pump begins
+to lower. It is then necessary, without a moment's loss of time, to remove
+the screw press, the disk, and the upper part of the mould itself, in
+order to facilitate as much as possible the contraction of the piece.
+Finally, an hour or an hour and a half later, it is necessary to remove
+the lower part of the mould, this being done in supporting the entire
+affair by the middle. The piece and what remains of the mould are, in
+reality, suspended in the air. All these preparations are designed to
+prevent cracking.
+
+_Moulding by Vacuum._--The operation by vacuum follows the same phases as
+those just described. It is well, in order to have a very even surface,
+not to form a vacuum until about three hours after the paste has been made
+to ascend. Without such a precaution the imperfections in the mould will
+be shown on the surface of the object by undulations that are
+irremediable.
+
+The first flange or vein must be preserved, and it is cut off at the
+moment the piece is detached.
+
+Moulding by vacuum, aside from the advantages noted above, permits of
+giving the pieces a greater thickness than is obtained in the pressure
+process. According to Mr. Renard, when it is desired to exceed one inch at
+the base of the piece (the maximum thickness usually obtained), the
+operation is as follows: The piece is moulded normally, and it is
+supported by a vacuum; but, at the moment at which, under ordinary
+circumstances, it would be detached, the paste is made to ascend a second
+time, when the first layer (already thick and dry) acts as a sort of
+supplementary mould, and permits of increasing the thickness by about 2/5
+of an inch. The piece is held, as at first, by vacuum, and the paste is
+introduced again until the desired thickness is obtained.
+
+Whatever be the care taken, accidents are frequent in both processes. They
+are due, in general, to the irregular contraction of the pieces, caused by
+a want of homogeneousness in the plaster of the moulds. In fact, as the
+absorption of the water does not proceed regularly over the entire surface
+of the piece, zones of dry paste are found in contact with others that are
+still soft, and hence the formation of folds, and finally the cracking and
+breaking of the piece. The joints of the moulds are also a cause of
+frequent loss, on account of the marks that they leave, and that injure
+the beauty of the form as well as the purity of the profile.
+
+Mr. Renard has devised a remedy for all such inconveniences. He takes
+unglazed muslin, cuts it into strips, and, before beginning operations,
+fixes it with a little liquid paste to the interior of the mould. This
+light fabric in no wise prevents the absorption of the water, and so the
+operation goes on as usual; but, at the moment of contraction, the piece
+of porcelain being, so to speak, supported by the muslin, comes put of the
+mould more easily and with extreme regularity. Under such circumstances
+all trace of the joint disappears, the imperfections in the mould are
+unattended with danger, and the largest pieces are moulded with entire
+safety. In a word, we have here a very important improvement in the
+process of moulding. The use of muslin is to be recommended, not only in
+the manufacture of vases, but also in the difficult preparation of large
+porcelain plates. It is likewise advantageous in the moulding of certain
+pieces of sculpture that are not very delicate, and, finally, it is very
+useful when we have to do with a damaged mould, which, instead of being
+repaired with plaster, can be fixed with well ground wet sand covered with
+a strip of muslin.
+
+_Drying of the Moulded Pieces._--When the moulded pieces become of a
+proper consistency in the mould, they are exposed to the air and then
+taken to the drying room. But, as with plaster, the surface of the paste
+dries very quickly, and this inconvenience (which amounts to nothing in
+pieces that are to be polished) is very great in pieces that carry
+ornaments in relief, since the finishing of these is much more difficult,
+the hardened paste works badly, and frequently flakes off. In order to
+remedy this inconvenience, it suffices to dust the places to be preserved
+with powdered dry paste.--_Revue Industrielle._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PHOTO-TRICYCLE APPARATUS.
+
+
+[Illustration: A PHOTO-TRICYCLE APPARATUS.]
+
+This consists of a portable folding camera, with screw focusing
+arrangement, swing back, and an adapter frame placed in the position of
+the focus screen, allowing the dark slide to be inserted so as to give the
+horizontal or vertical position to the dry plate when in the camera. To
+the front and base-board a brass swiveled side bar, made collapsible by
+means of a center slot, is attached by hinges, and this renders the camera
+rigid when open or secure when closed. The base-board is supported on a
+brass plate within which is inserted a ball-and-socket (or universal joint
+in a new form), permitting the camera to be tilted to any necessary angle,
+and fixed in such position at will. The whole apparatus is mounted upon a
+brass telescopic draw-stand, which, by means of clamps, is attached to the
+steering handle or other convenient part of the tricycle, preferably the
+form made by Messrs. Rudge & Co., of Coventry, represented in the
+cut.--_Photo. News._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A PHOTO PRINTING LIGHT.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+A printing frame is placed in the carrier, and exposed to the light of a
+gas burner kept at a fixed distance, behind which is a spherical
+reflector. The same frame may be used for other purposes.-_Photographic
+News._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A NEW ACTINOMETER.
+
+
+A selenium actinometer has been described in the _Comptes Rendus_ in a
+communication from M. Morize, of Rio de Janeiro. The instrument is used to
+measure the actinic power of sunlight when the sun is at various
+altitudes; but the same principle is applicable to other light sources.
+The sensitive part of the apparatus consists of a cylinder formed of 38
+disks of copper, isolated from each other by as many disks of mica. The
+latter being of smaller diameter than the copper disks, the annular spaces
+between the two are filled with selenium, by the simple process of rubbing
+a stick of this substance over the edges, and afterward gently warming.
+The selenium then presents a grayish appearance, and is ready for use.
+Connection is made by conductors, on opposite sides, with the odd and even
+numbers of the disks, which diminishes the resistance of the selenium. The
+cylinder thus formed is insulated by glass supports in the inside of a
+vacuum tube, for the purpose of preserving it from the disturbing
+influence of dark rays. The whole is placed upon a stand, and shielded
+from reflected light, but fully exposed to that which is to be measured
+for actinic intensity. If now a constant current of electricity is passed
+through the apparatus, as indicated by a galvanometer, the variations of
+the latter will show the effect produced upon the selenium. A scale must
+be prepared, with the zero point at the greatest possible resistance of
+the selenium, which corresponds with absolute darkness. The greatest
+effect of the light would be to annul the resistance of the selenium.
+Consequently, the cylinder must be withdrawn from the circuit to represent
+this effect; and the maximum deviation of the galvanometer is then to be
+observed, and marked 100. By dividing the range of the galvanometer thus
+obtained into 100 equal parts, the requisite actinometric scale will be
+established. In practice, the Clamond battery is used to supply the
+constant current required.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ASTRONOMICAL PHOTOGRAPHY.
+
+
+During the last few years, or rather decades of years, it has become
+rather a trite saying that to advance far in any branch of physical
+research a fair proficiency in no inconsiderable number of the sister
+sciences is an absolute necessity. But if this is true in general, none, I
+think, will question the assertion that a proficient in any of the
+physical sciences must be fairly conversant with photography as a science,
+or at least as an art. If we take for example a science which has of late
+years made rapid strides both in Europe and America, the science of
+astronomy, we shall not have far to go to find convincing proof that a
+great portion of the best work that is being done by its votaries is
+effected by the aid of photography. One eminent astronomer has quite
+lately gone so far as to declare that we no longer require observers of
+the heavens, but that their place can be better supplied by the gelatine
+plate of the photographer; and his words have been echoed by others not
+less able than himself. "Abolish the observer, and substitute the
+sensitive plate," is a sensational form of expressing the revolution in
+observational astronomy that is taking place under our eyes; but, although
+it suggests a vast amount of truth, it might leave upon the mind an
+exaggerated impression inimical to the best interests of science.
+
+The award of the highest distinction in astronomy, the gold medal of the
+Royal Astronomical Society, two years in succession, to those who have
+been most successful in celestial photography is no doubtful sign of the
+great value attached to such work. Last year it was Mr. Common who
+received the highest testimony of the merit due to his splendid
+photographs of the nebula of Orion; and this year Dr. Huggins, who has
+drawn much attention to celestial photography, by his successful attempts
+to picture the solar corona in full daylight, has received a similar
+acknowledgment of his labors in photographing the spectra of stars and
+comets and nebulæ.
+
+An adequate idea of the progress astronomy is now making by aid of
+photography can only be formed by a comprehensive view of all that is
+being at present attempted; but a rapid glance at some of the work may
+prepare the way for a more thorough investigation. A few years since, the
+astronomers who had advanced their science by aid of photography were few
+in number, and their results are soon enumerated. Some good pictures of
+the solar corona taken during solar eclipses, a series or two of sun-spot
+photographs, and a very limited number of successful attempts made upon
+the moon, and planets, and star clusters, were all the fruits of their
+labors. But now each month we learn of some new and efficient laborer in
+this field, which gives promise of so rich a harvest.
+
+Each day the sun is photographed at Greenwich, at South Kensington, in
+India, and at the Physical Observatory of Potsdam, and thus a sure record
+is obtained of all the spots upon its surface, which may serve for the
+study of the periodicity of its changes, and for their probable connection
+with the important phenomena of terrestrial magnetism and meteorology. In
+France the splendid sun-pictures obtained by Dr. Janssen at the Physical
+Observatory of Meudon have thrown into the shade all other attempts at a
+photographic study of the most delicate features of the solar surface.
+
+Dr. Huggins has shown that it is possible to obtain a daily photographic
+record of the solar prominences, and only lately he has secured results
+that justified a special expedition to the Alps to photograph the sun's
+corona, and he has now moved the Admiralty to grant a subsidy to Dr. Gill,
+the government astronomer at the Cape, by aid of which Mr. Woods can carry
+on the experiments that were so encouraging last summer in Switzerland.
+
+We may, then, reasonably hope to obtain before long a daily picture of the
+sun and a photographic record of its prominences, and even of a certain
+portion of the solar corona; but the precious moments of each solar
+eclipse will always be invaluable for picturing those wondrous details in
+the corona that are now shown us by photography, and which can be obtained
+by photography alone.
+
+Again, how very much is to be learnt in solar physics from the marvelous
+photographs of the sun's spectrum exhibited last summer by Professor
+Rowland; photographs that show as many as one hundred and fifty lines
+between H and K, and which he is still laboring to improve! The extension,
+too, of the visible solar spectrum into the ultra-violet by Corun,
+Mascart, and others, adds much to our knowledge of the sun; while the
+photographs of Abney in the ultrared increase our information in a
+direction less expected and certainly less easy of attainment. Both these
+extensions we find most ably utilized in the recent discussion of the very
+interesting photographs of the spectra of the prominences and of the
+corona taken during the total eclipse of May 18, 1882; and the
+photographic results of this eclipse afford ample proof that we can not
+only obtain pictures of the corona by photography that it would be
+impossible otherwise to procure, but also that in a few seconds
+information concerning the nature of the solar atmosphere may be furnished
+by photography that it would otherwise take centuries to accumulate, even
+under the most favorable circumstances.
+
+The advantages to be gained by accurate photographs of the moon and
+planets, that will permit great enlargements, are too obvious to call for
+lengthened notice in such a rapid sketch as the present; for it is
+principally in the observation of details that the eye cannot grasp with
+the required delicacy, or with sufficient rapidity, that photography is so
+essential for rapid and sure progress.
+
+Like the sketches of a solar eclipse, the drawings that are made of
+comets, and still more of nebulæ, even by the most accomplished artists,
+are all, to say the least, open to doubt in their delicate details. And
+the truth of this is so obvious, that it is the expressed opinion of an
+able astronomer that a single photograph of the nebula of Orion, taken by
+Mr. Common, would be of more value to posterity than the collective
+drawings of this interesting object so carefully made by Rosse, Bond,
+Secchi, and so many others.
+
+Another most important branch of astronomy, that is receiving very great
+attention at present, is the mapping of the starry heavens; and herein
+photography will perhaps do its best work for the astronomer. The trial
+star map by the brothers Henry, of a portion of the Milky Way, which they
+felt unable to observe satisfactorily by the ordinary methods, is so near
+absolute perfection that it alone proves the immense superiority of the
+photographic method in the formation of star maps. Fortunately this
+subject, which is as vast as it is fundamental, is being taken up
+vigorously. The Henries are producing a special lens for the work; Mr.
+Grubb is constructing a special Cassgrain reflector for Mr. Roberts of
+Maghull; and the Admiralty have instructed Mr. Woods to make this part of
+his work at the Cape Observatory, under the able direction of Dr. Gill.
+Besides star maps, clusters, too, and special portions of the heavens are
+being photographed by the Rev. T.E. Espin, of West Kirby; and such
+pictures will be of the greatest value, not only in fixing the position at
+a given date, but also aiding in the determination of magnitude, color,
+variability, proper motion, and even of the orbits of double and multiple
+stars, and the possible discovery of new planets and telescopic comets.
+
+Such are some of the many branches of astronomy that are receiving the
+most valuable aid at present from photography; but the very value of the
+gift that is bestowed should make exaggeration an impossibility.
+Photography can well afford to be generous, but it must first be just, in
+its estimate of the work that has still to be done in astronomy
+independently of its aid; and although the older science points with just
+pride to what is being done for her by her younger sister, still she must
+not forget that now, as in the future, she must depend largely for her
+progress, not only on the skill of the photographer and the mathematician,
+but also on the trained eye and ear and hand of her own indefatigable
+observers.--_S.J. Perry, S.J., F.R.S., in Br. Jour. of Photography._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ELECTRICITY AS A PREVENTIVE OF SCALE IN BOILERS.
+
+
+The mineral sediment that generally sticks to the sides of steam boilers,
+and the presence of which is fraught with the utmost danger, resulting in
+many instances in great injury to life and property, besides eating away
+the substance of the iron plate, was referred to in a paper lately read by
+M. Jeannolle before the Paris Academy of Sciences, in which the author
+described a new method for keeping boilers clean. This method is as
+follows:
+
+The inside of a steam boiler is placed, by means of piles of a certain
+power, in reciprocal communication, the current passing at one end through
+positive, and at the other through negative, wires. In incrusted steam
+boilers, at a temperature ranging from 212° to 300° Fahr., and a pressure
+of from 30 to 90 lb. to the square inch, the current thus engendered
+decomposes the accumulated salts, and precipitates them, from which they
+may easily be removed, either by means of a special siphon or by means of
+some other mechanical process. When boilers are free from fur, and where
+it is intended to keep them free from such, a continuous current may be
+set up, by means of which the sedimentary salts may be decomposed, and a
+precipitate produced in a pulverized form, which can be removed with equal
+facility.
+
+From a series of minute experiments made by M. Jeannolle, it appears that
+in order to render the various actions of electricity, perfect, it is
+necessary to coat either with red lead or with pulverized iron, or with
+any other conductor of electricity, an operation which must be repeated
+whenever the boiler is emptied with a view to cleaning out. The above
+system Is being advantageously applied in Calais for removing the
+incrustations of boilers. The two poles of a battery of ten to twelve
+Bunsen elements are applied to the ends of the boilers, and after thirty
+to forty hours the deposits fall from the sides to the bottom. When a
+boiler has been thus cleared, the formation of new deposits may be
+prevented by applying a much less energetic current under the same
+conditions.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ALPHABET DESIGNED BY GODFREY SYKES.
+
+
+[Illustration: SUGGESTIONS IN DECORATIVE ART.--ALPHABET DESIGNED BY
+GODFREY SYKES.]
+
+Among the many designs which have been issued by the South Kensington
+Museum authorities is the alphabet which we have illustrated here to-day.
+The letters appear frequently among the decorations of the museum
+buildings, especially in the refreshment rooms and the Ceramic gallery,
+where long inscriptions in glazed terra cotta form ornamental friezes. The
+alphabet has also been engraved to several sizes, and is used for the
+initial letters in the various official books and art publications
+relating to the museum, which are published by the Science and Art
+Department.--_Building News._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+OLD WROUGHT IRON GATE.
+
+
+[Illustration: OLD WROUGHT IRON GATE]
+
+This gate forms the entrance to Scraptoft Hall, a building of the
+eighteenth century, now the seat of Captain Barclay, and which stands at
+about five miles from Leicester, England.--_The Architect._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+BRIEF SANITARY MATTERS IN CONNECTION WITH ISOLATED COUNTRY HOUSES.[4]
+
+[Footnote 4: Read before the Boston Society of Civil Engineers, April 1884
+_Journal A. of E. Societies_.]
+
+By E.W. BOWDITCH, C.E.
+
+
+I am unable to tell you what is generally considered the best practice,
+for I am not sure there are any definitely established rules; therefore I
+can only explain _my_ ways of doing such work, which, though I try to make
+as complete and at the same time as simple as possible, I know to be far
+from perfect.
+
+Plumbing and drainage work has grown up unconsciously with my landscape
+gardening, and not finding any texts or practice that seemed wholly
+satisfactory, I have been forced to devise new arrangements from time to
+time, according to the requirements of the case in hand.
+
+To give all the details of house plumbing this evening, or any _one_
+evening, would be impossible, for lack of time, and not worth while even
+if there was time, as much of it would prove matter of little or no
+interest. I will confine my remarks, therefore, to certain elements of the
+work where my practice differs, I believe, essentially from that of most
+engineers, and where perhaps my experience, if of no assistance to other
+members of the Society, may excite their friendly criticism in such a way
+as to help me.
+
+There are two kinds of country places that I am liable to be called upon
+to prescribe for:
+
+_First._ A new place where nothing has been arranged.
+
+_Second._ An old place where the occupants have been troubled either by
+their outside arrangements or by fixtures or pipes within.
+
+Under the first head let us suppose a small tract of perhaps two acres of
+land in some inland town, where the family intends to live but six months
+in the year, though they are liable to reside there the whole twelve.
+
+There are no sewers and no public water. The soil is a stiff, retentive
+clay, rather wet in spring. The desire is expressed to have plumbing and
+drainage that shall be as inexpensive as possible, but that shall be
+entirely safe.
+
+In considering the arrangements inside the house, I find myself in the
+same predicament as the French surgeon, a specialist upon setting the
+bones of the arm, who, when a patient was brought him with his right arm
+broke, expressed his sorrow at being unable to be of assistance, as his
+specialty was the left arm.
+
+I have endeavored to post myself thoroughly upon house plumbing, but
+confess to only knowing partially about the wastes; the supplies I do not
+feel competent to pass upon.
+
+One class of annoyance caused by plumbing, perhaps the principal one, is
+due to the soil pipe or some of its fittings.
+
+Second quality of iron, poor hanging, insufficient calking, careless
+mechanics, putty, cement, rag, or paper joints--all these and a dozen
+other things are liable to be sources of trouble. Subordinate wastes are
+apt to be annoying, occasionally, too, to a less extent.
+
+The mechanical work can always be superintended, and within certain limits
+may be made secure and tight; not so easy, however, with the materials.
+
+There is seldom a valid excuse for ever making waste pipes, within a
+building, of anything but metal.
+
+Earthen tile is frequently used; also, to a limited extent, brick, stone,
+and wood; twice I have found canvas--all these, however, are inferior, and
+should never be accepted or specified. The writer believes that at the
+present time, hereabouts, lead and iron are more used for wastes than any
+other materials, and are found the most satisfactory on the whole.
+
+One or two arrangements, relative to the wastes, I have made use of that
+are not, so far as known, in general use, and that may not be the best,
+though they have served me many good turns, and I have not succeeded in
+devising any better.
+
+Soil pipe, as it is usually put in, is apt to be of cast iron, four inches
+in diameter, and is known in the market as "heavy" or "extra heavy." For
+some years the tar-coated or black enameled pipe has been the favorite, as
+being the more reliable, the writer in common with others making use of
+the same freely, until one day a cracked elbow, tar coated, was detected.
+Since that time plain, untarred pipe has been specified, and subjected to
+the so-called kerosene test, which consists of swabbing out each pipe with
+kerosene or oil and then allowing it to stand for a few hours. A moment's
+thought will convince any one that when a pipe is asphalted or tar coated
+it is very difficult to detect either sand holes or small cracks, and the
+difficulty of proper calking is increased, as lead does not cling so well
+to the tar as to plain iron.
+
+At present, the kerosene test, so far as the writer is concerned, is a
+misnomer, because raw linseed oil is used exclusively as giving more
+satisfactory results, and being less troublesome to apply.
+
+I have here a length of the ordinary "heavy 4" commercial soil pipe,
+plain, and selected at random. Yesterday noon I had it oiled at my office,
+in order to be ready for to-night, and you see, by the chalk marks I have
+made, just where the leaks were and their area. I may say here that a
+sound pipe of this caliber and standard weight is the exception rather
+than the rule, and it was selected for this experiment merely to try and
+show the reaction a little better than the heavier pipe might.
+
+Experiments of this nature I have carried along for the past two years,
+and I am glad to say that, since I began, the quality of the soil pipe
+furnished by the dealers for my work seems appreciably better than at
+first. Whether the poorer pipe is still made and sold to other customers I
+have no means of knowing; probably it is, however.
+
+A large quantity of the pipe is now being tested at my suggestion by the
+Superintendent of Construction of the Johns Hopkins Hospital, at
+Baltimore. I have not yet heard the results from him, but doubtless they
+will be interesting. A brief summary of the results may be of some
+interest.
+
+The different makers of soil pipe generally used by plumbers hereabouts
+are:
+
+Mott & Company, Abendroth, Blakslee, Dighton, Phillips & Weeden, and
+Bartlett, Hayward & Co.
+
+On 4" extra heavy pipe my results have been as follows:
+
+Percentage passed as good, single hub.  60 per ct. to 70 per ct.
+Percentage passed as good, double.      20 per ct. to 80 per ct.
+Percentage passed special castings,
+   including Y's and T's.               60 per ct.
+
+5" pipe extra heavy:
+
+Percentage passed as good, single hub.  25 per ct. to 35 per ct.
+Percentage passed as good, double.      No record.
+Percentage special castings,
+including Y's and T's.                  60 per ct.
+
+It has been stated to me by dealers that the tar coating does away with
+the necessity of any such test as the oil; while I am not prepared to
+acknowledge or deny the statement, it is well known that much poor pipe is
+tar-coated and sold in the market as good, and when coated it is almost
+impossible to detect any but _very_ defective work.
+
+The price customers are obliged to pay for soil pipe, either "heavy" or
+"extra heavy," is very high indeed, even taking off the discounts, and
+amounts (as I figure it) to $70 per long ton for 4" pipe. The present rate
+for the best water pipe of the same caliber is about $38 (now $29) per
+long ton, and the additional charge for soil pipe should guarantee the
+very best iron in the market, though it appears to be rarely furnished.
+
+It is asserted that all soil pipe is tested to a 50-pound water pressure.
+I beg leave to question the absolute truth of this, unless it be
+acknowledged that pipe is sold indiscriminately, whether it bears the test
+or not, for more than once I have found a single length of soil pipe (5
+feet) that could not bear the pressure of a column of water of its own
+height without leaking.
+
+Having obtained a satisfactory lot of soil pipe and fittings, the next
+trouble comes with the lead calking. Unfortunately, it is frequently found
+that very shallow joints are made instead of deep ones, and hard lead used
+instead of soft. My rule is, soft lead, two runnings and two calkings. By
+soft lead I mean pig lead, and by hard lead I mean old pipe and scrap lead
+that may have been melted a dozen times. Incidentally it may be remarked
+that it is quite difficult to calk a tight joint on the heavy pipe; the
+process will crack the hub.
+
+The fixtures used in a house are of minor importance--there are dozens of
+good patterns of every class. If they are carefully put in, and provided
+with suitable traps placed just as close to the fixture as possible, the
+result will usually be satisfactory.
+
+Very few instances occur where traps are placed as close to the fixtures
+they serve as they might be, and yet a very short length of untrapped
+pipe, when fouled, will sometimes smell dreadfully. A set bowl with trap
+two feet away may become in time a great nuisance if not properly used. A
+case in point where the fixture was used both as a bowl and a urinal was
+in a few months exceedingly offensive--a fact largely (though not wholly)
+due to its double service.
+
+I have never met two sanitarians who agreed upon the same water-closets,
+bowls, faucets, traps, etc.
+
+Of course, the soil pipe will be carried, of full size, through the roof,
+and sufficiently high to clear all windows.
+
+Avoid multiplicity of fixtures or pipes; cut off all fixtures not used at
+least twice a week, lest their traps dry out; have all plumbing as simple
+as possible, and try and get it all located so that outside air can be got
+directly into all closets and bath-rooms. As far as possible, set your
+fixtures in glass rather than tiles or wood. Carry the lower end of the
+main drain at least five feet beyond the cellar walls of the building, of
+cast iron.
+
+Let us now look at the outside work. The main drain (carrying everything
+except the kitchen and pantry sinks) goes through a ventilated running
+trap. An indirect fresh air inlet is provided on the house side of the
+trap (example), to prevent annoyance from puffing or pumping, or, better
+still, a pipe corresponding to the soil pipe is carried up on the outside
+of the house.
+
+The running trap ventilator should be of the same diameter as the main
+drain (4 inch), and serve as a main drain vent also. Carry this pipe on
+the outside of the house as high as the top of the chimney.
+
+A grease-trap should be provided for the kitchen and pantry sinks.
+Formerly my custom was to put in brick receptacles; it is now to put in
+Portland cement traps (Henderson pattern), though perhaps I may succeed in
+devising a cast-iron one that will answer better. The brick ones were
+occasionally heaved by the frost, and cracked; the Portland cement ones
+answer better, and when thoroughly painted with red lead do not soak an
+appreciable quantity of sewage to be offensive, but are too high priced
+($28 each). I have made one or two patterns for cast-iron ones, but none
+as yet that I feel satisfied with.
+
+Beyond the running trap an Akron pipe should convey the sewage to a tank
+or cesspool.
+
+Our supposable case is the second most difficult to take care of. The
+worst would be ledge. We have to contend with, however, hard, wet,
+impervious clay.
+
+The best way undoubtedly is to underdrain the land, and then to distribute
+the sewage on the principle of intermittent downward filtration. This is
+rather expensive, and a customer is rarely willing to pay the bills for
+the same. I should always advise it as the best; but where not allowed to
+do so, I have had fair success with shallow French drains connecting with
+the tank or cesspool.
+
+Siphon tanks, such as are advised by many sanitarians, that were used
+first in this country, I believe, by Mr. Waring, I have not been very
+successful with. Obstructions get into the siphon and stop it up, or it
+gets choked with grease. I prefer a tight tank, provided with a tell-tale,
+and that is to be opened either by a valve operated by hand, or that is
+arranged with a standing overflow like a bath tub, and that can be raised
+and secured by a hook.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+SANITARY COOKING.[5]
+
+[Footnote 5: Read before the Indiana State Sanitary Society, Seymour,
+March 13, 1884.--_The Sanitarian._]
+
+By VIRGINIA L. OPPENHEIMER, M.D., Seymour, Ind.
+
+
+    "We may live without poetry, music, and art,
+    We may live without conscience, and live without heart,
+    We may live without friends,
+    We may live without books,
+    But civilized man cannot live without cooks.
+
+    "We may live without books--
+    What is knowledge but grieving?
+    We may live without hope--
+    What is hope but deceiving?
+    We may live without love--what is passion but pining?
+    But where is the man that can live without dining?"
+
+Thus saith the poet, and forthwith turns the world over into the hands of
+the cook. And into what better hands could you fall? To you, my fat,
+jolly, four-meals-a-day friend, Mr. Gourmand, but more especially to
+_you_, my somber, lean, dyspeptic, two-meals-a-day friend, Mr. Grumbler,
+the cook is indeed a valuable friend. The cook wields a scepter that is
+only second in power to that of love; and even love has become soured
+through the evil instrumentality of the good-looking or bad-cooking cook.
+This is no jest, it is a very sad fact.
+
+Now, the question arises, how can the cook preserve the health of her
+patrons, maintain happiness in the family, and yet not throw the gourmands
+into bankruptcy? Very simple, I assure you.
+
+1. You must have _the_ cook. I mean by this, that not every one can occupy
+that important office. The greatest consideration in the qualities of a
+cook is, does she like the work? No one can fulfill the duties of any
+noteworthy office unless he labors at them with vim and willingness.
+
+2. You must have good articles of food originally.
+
+3. As our honest Iago said, "You must have change."
+
+When one arrives at adult age, he should have learned by experience what
+articles of food _do_, and what articles of food do _not_, agree with him,
+and to shun the latter, no matter how daintily served or how tempting the
+circumstances. The man who knows that _pates de foie gras_, or the livers
+of abnormally fattened geese, disagree with him, and still eats them, is
+not to be pitied when all the horrors of dyspepsia overtake him.
+
+The cooking of any article of food has evidently much, very much, to do
+with its digestibility. It is not the purpose of this paper to teach
+cooking, but merely to give some general hints as to the best as well as
+the simplest methods of preparing staple articles of food. The same
+articles of food can and should be prepared differently on each day of the
+week. Changes of diet are too likely to be underestimated. By constant
+change the digestive organs in the average person are prevented from
+having that repulsion of food which, to a greater or less extent, is
+likely to result from a sameness of diet continued for a long time.
+
+We often hear from our scientific men that this or that article of food is
+excellent for muscle, another for brain, another for bone, etc., etc. Now,
+stubborn facts are like stone walls, against which theories often butt out
+their beauty and their power. It is well known to almost every one
+nowadays that _well-cooked_ food, whether it be potatoes, meat and bread,
+fish, or anything else worthy the name of food, will well maintain,
+indefinitely, either the philosopher or the hodcarrier.
+
+Many of you know, and all of you ought to know, that the principal
+ingredients of nearly all our foods are starch and albumen. Starch is the
+principal nutritive ingredient of vegetables and breadstuffs. Albumen is
+the principal ingredient of meats, eggs, milk, and other animal
+derivatives.
+
+Starch never enters the system as starch, but must first be converted into
+sugar either in the body or out of it. The process of this transformation
+of starch into sugar is beautifully exemplified in certain plants, such as
+the beet, the so-called sugar cane, and other growths. The young plant is,
+to a great extent, composed of starch; as the plant grows older, a
+substance is produced which is called _diastase_. Through the influence of
+this _diastase_ the starch is converted into a peculiar non-crystallizable
+substance called _dextrine_, and as the plant matures, this dextrine is
+transformed into crystallizable sugar.
+
+"Dextrine is a substance that can be produced from starch by the action of
+dilute acids, alkalies, and malt extract, and by roasting it at a
+temperature between 284° and 330° F., till it is of a light brown color,
+and has the odor of overbaked bread."
+
+A simple form of dextrine may be found in the brown crust of bread--that
+sweetish substance that gives the crust its agreeable flavor. Pure
+dextrine is an insipid, odorless, yellowish-white, translucent substance,
+which dissolves in water almost as readily as sugar. As stated above, it
+is easily converted into _dextrose_, or _glucose_, as it is usually named.
+
+This _glucose_ is often sold under the name of sugar, and is the same
+against which so many of the newspapers waged such a war a year or two
+ago. These critics were evidently, for the most part, persons who knew
+little about the subject. Glucose, if free from sulphuric acid or other
+chemicals, is as harmless as any other form of sugar. Most of our candies
+contain more or less of it, and are in every way as satisfactory as when
+manufactured wholly from other sugars.
+
+It is, therefore, self-evident that, as sugar is a necessary article of
+food, the process which aids the transformation of our starchy foods must
+necessarily aid digestion. Do not understand me to say by this that, if
+all our starchy foods were converted into sugar, their digestion would
+thereby be completed. As I stated a moment ago, this sweet food, if taken
+into the stomach day after day, would soon cause that particular organ to
+rebel against this sameness of diet. In order the more clearly to
+illustrate this point, I will briefly show you how some of the every-day
+articles of food can be each day differently prepared, and thus be
+rendered more palatable, and, as a consequence, more digestible; for it is
+a demonstrated fact that savory foods are far more easily digested than
+the same foods unsavored.
+
+The art of serving and arranging dishes for the table is an accomplishment
+in itself. It is very reasonable that all things that go to make up beauty
+and harmony at the dinner table should add their full quota to the
+appetite, and, I was about to say, "to the digestion;" but will qualify
+the statement by saying, to the digestion if the appetite be not porcine.
+
+Our commonest article of food is the _potato_. Let us see how
+potatoes--which contain only twenty per cent. of starch, as against
+eighty-eight per cent. in rice, and sixty-six per cent. in wheat
+flour--can be prepared as just mentioned. We will look for a moment at the
+manner in which they are usually served by the average cook:
+
+1, boiled with their jackets on; 2, roasted in the embers; 3, roasted with
+meat; 4, fried; 5, mashed; 6, salad.
+
+1. Potatoes boiled in their jackets are excellent if properly prepared.
+But there's the rub. The trouble is, they are too often allowed to boil
+slowly and too long, and thus become water-soaked, soggy, and solid, and
+proportionately indigestible. They should be put over a brisk fire, and
+kept at a brisk boil till done; then drain off the water, sprinkle a
+little salt over them, and return to the fire a moment to dry thoroughly,
+when you will find them bursting with their white, mealy contents.
+
+2. Roasted potatoes are general favorites, and very digestible. A more
+agreeable flavor is imparted to them if roasted in hot embers (wood fire),
+care being used to keep them covered with the hot embers.
+
+3. Fried potatoes, as they are very generally served, are almost as
+digestible as rocks, but not so tempting in all their grease-dripping
+beauty as the latter. Many of you have doubtless seen the potatoes neatly
+sliced and dumped into a frying pan full of hot lard, where they were
+permitted to sink or float, and soak and sob for about a half hour or
+more. When served, they presented the picturesque spectacle of miniature
+potato islands floating at liberty in a sea of yellow grease. Now, if any
+of you can relish and digest such a mess as that, I would advise you to
+leave this clime, and eat tallow candles with the Esquimaux.
+
+If you are fond of fried potatoes, cook them in this way:
+
+Take what boiled potatoes are left from breakfast or dinner; when cold,
+remove the jackets, and cut into thin slices, season with salt, pepper,
+and a little Cayenne; have ready a hot frying pan, with enough meat
+drippings or sweet lard to cover the bottom; put in the potatoes and fry a
+rich brown, stirring constantly with a knife to prevent burning. Serve
+very hot.
+
+4. Mashed potatoes will be discussed further on.
+
+5. Potato salads are appetizing and piquant, because they are usually made
+up with strong condiments, onions, etc. They are, therefore, not very
+digestible in themselves. Nevertheless, they are so palatable that we
+cannot easily dispense with them; but, after eating them, if you expect to
+have inward peace, either split wood, walk eight and a half miles, or take
+some other light exercise.
+
+More palatable, and proportionately digestible, are the following methods
+of cooking this useful vegetable:
+
+1, Saratoga potatoes; 2, a la maitre d'hotel; 3, potato croquettes; 4,
+potatoes and cream; 5, a la Lyonnaise.
+
+1. For _Saratogas_, pare and slice your potatoes as thin as possible,
+dropping them into cold water in which is dissolved a tiny piece of alum
+to make them crisp. Let them remain in the water for an hour or longer.
+Drain, and wipe perfectly dry with a tea towel. Have ready a quantity of
+boiling lard. Drop them in, and fry a delicate brown. Drain all grease
+from them, sprinkle with salt, and serve. Here, in the crisp slices, you
+will have the much desired dextrine. Or, in other words, your potato is
+already half digested. Eat three or four potatoes prepared thus, and you
+feel no inconvenience; but how would you feel did you devour three soggy,
+water-soaked _boiled_ potatoes?
+
+2. For _a la maitre d'hotel_, pare the potatoes, cut into pieces half an
+inch wide, and the length of the potato; drop into cold water until wanted
+(an hour or so); then drain, and fry in boiling lard. Just as they begin
+to brown take them out with a skimmer; let them slightly cool; then put
+back, and fry a rich brown. This makes them puff up, and very attractive.
+
+3. For _croquettes_, take finely mashed potatoes, and mix with salt,
+pepper, and butter, and sweet milk or cream enough to moisten thoroughly.
+Mix with this one well-beaten egg, and form into small balls, taking care
+to have them smooth. Have ready one plate with a beaten egg upon it, and
+another with cracker crumbs. Dip each ball into the egg, and then into the
+crumbs, and brown nicely. Lay the croquettes on brown paper first, to get
+rid of any superfluous grease, then serve on a napkin.
+
+4. _Potatoes and cream_ are prepared by mincing cold boiled potatoes fine,
+putting them in a spider with a little melted butter in it, and letting
+them fry slightly, keeping them well covered. Add a very small piece of
+fresh butter, season with pepper and salt, and pour over them cream or
+rich milk. Let them boil up once, and serve. This is a very nice dish, and
+may be safely taken into delicate stomachs.
+
+5. _A la Lyonnaise_ is prepared as follows: Take five cold potatoes, one
+onion, butter, salt, and pepper. Slice the onion finely, and fry it in
+butter until it begins to take color; add the sliced potatoes, salt and
+pepper to taste, and keep shaking the saucepan until they are somewhat
+browned. Serve hot.
+
+A few random remarks about the preparation of albuminous foods. If the
+albumen in food is hardened by prolonged cooking, it is rendered _less_
+instead of more digestible. Therefore, the so-called _well-cooked_ meats
+are really _badly-cooked_ meats. Meats should be only half done, or rare.
+To do this properly, it is necessary to cook with a quick fire. Steaks
+should be broiled, not fried. I am in accord with a well-known orator, who
+said, recently, that "the person who fries a steak should be arrested for
+cruelty to humanity." Some few meats should always be well cooked before
+eating.[6]
+
+[Footnote 6: These are the exceptions. Pork, on account of the prevalence
+of disease in hogs, should be well done.]
+
+The same law holds good with eggs as with meats. A hard-boiled egg is only
+fit for the stomach of an ostrich; it was never intended by nature to
+adorn the human stomach. There are very many ways of preparing eggs--by
+frying, baking, poaching, shirring, etc. I will only describe briefly a
+few simple methods of making omelets.
+
+In making this elegant dish, never use more than three eggs to an
+_omelet_. Plain omelet: Separate the whites and yolks; add a teaspoonful
+of water to the whites, and beat to a stiff froth; add to the yolks a
+teaspoonful of water, and beat until light; then season with salt, and
+about two tablespoonfuls of cream or rich milk. Have your spider very hot;
+turn your whites and yolks together, and stir lightly to mix them; place a
+bit of butter in the spider, and immediately pour in your eggs. When set
+(which takes from ten to twenty seconds, and be careful that it does not
+brown too much), fold together in a half moon, remove it, sprinkle with
+powdered sugar, and serve on a hot plate. It should be eaten immediately.
+
+Fruit omelets are made by placing preserved fruits or jellies between the
+folds. Baked omelets are prepared as above, with the addition of placing
+in the oven and allowing to brown slightly.
+
+French omelet is prepared in this way: Take a half cup of boiling milk
+with a half teaspoonful of butter melted in it; pour this over one-half
+cup of bread crumbs (light bread); add salt, pepper, and the yolks of
+three eggs beaten very light; mix thoroughly; and lastly, add the whites
+whipped to a stiff froth. Stir lightly, and fry in butter. When nearly
+done, fold together in a half moon, and serve immediately.
+
+And thus we might continue _ad infinitum_, but, as was stated before, it
+is not my object to instruct you in special cooking, but to illustrate in
+this manner how much easier it is, to both the cook and your stomachs, to
+prepare healthful dishes than to do the reverse.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TIME REQUIRED TO DIGEST DIFFERENT FOODS.
+
+
+_The Monitor de la Salud_ contains in a recent number the results of some
+experiments lately made by E. Jessen on the time required for the
+digestion of certain kinds of food. The stomach of the person on whom the
+experiments were made was emptied by means of a pump; 100 grammes, equal
+to 1,544 grains, or about 2-2/3 ounces, of meat, finely chopped and mixed
+with three times the quantity of water, were introduced. The experiment
+was considered ended when the matter, on removal by the pump, was found to
+contain no muscular fibre.
+
+It will be remembered that the gramme weighs nearly 15-1/2 grains, and the
+cubic centigramme is equal to 1 gramme. The 2-2/3 ounces of meat were
+therefore mixed with nearly eight ounces of water, before being introduced
+into the stomach.
+
+The results were as follows:
+
+  Beef, raw, and finely chopped.  2  hours.
+    "   half cooked.              2½   "
+    "   well cooked.              3    "
+    "   slightly roasted.         3    "
+    "   well roasted.             4    "
+  Mutton, raw.                    2    "
+  Veal.                           2½   "
+  Pork.                           3    "
+
+The digestibility of milk was examined in the same way. The quantity used
+was regulated so that the nitrogen should be the same as in the 100
+grammes of beef.
+
+  602 cubic centimeters, nearly sixteen ounces,
+      of cow's milk, not boiled, required.        3½ hours
+  602 cubic centimeters, boiled.                  4    "
+  602   "       "        sour.                    3½   "
+  675   "       "        skimmed.                 3½   "
+  656   "       "        goat's milk, not boiled. 3½   "
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE ORGANIZATION AND PLAN OF THE UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.[7]
+
+[Footnote 7: Communicated to the National Academy of Sciences at the
+October meeting in 1884.]
+
+By J.W. POWELL.
+
+
+A Scientific institution or bureau operating under government authority
+can be controlled by statute and by superior administrative authority but
+to a limited extent. These operations are practically carried on by
+specialists, and they can be controlled only in their financial operations
+and in the general purposes for which investigations are made. Their
+methods of investigation are their own--originate with themselves, and are
+carried out by themselves. But in relation to the scientific operations of
+such a government institution, there is an unofficial authority which,
+though not immediately felt, ultimately steps in to approve or condemn,
+viz., the body of scientific men of the country; and though their
+authority is not exercised antecedently and at every stage of the work,
+yet it is so potent that no national scientific institution can grow and
+prosper without their approval, but must sooner or later fall and perish
+unless sustained by their strong influence.
+
+As director of the Geological Survey, I deeply realize that I owe
+allegiance to the scientific men of the country, and for this reason I
+desire to present to the National Academy of Sciences the organization and
+plan of operations of the Survey.
+
+
+A TOPOGRAPHIC MAP OF THE UNITED STATUS.
+
+Sound geologic research is based on geography. Without a good topographic
+map geology cannot even be thoroughly studied, and the publication of the
+results of geologic investigation is very imperfect without a good map;
+but with a good map thorough investigation and simple, intelligible
+publication become possible. Impelled by these considerations, the Survey
+is making a topographic map of the United States. The geographic basis of
+this map is a trigonometric survey by which datum points are established
+throughout the country; that is, base-lines are measured and a
+triangulation extended therefrom. This trigonometric work is executed on a
+scale only sufficiently refined for map-making purposes, and will not be
+directly useful for geodetic purposes in determining the figure of the
+earth. The hypsometric work is based upon the railroad levels of the
+country. Throughout the greater part of the country, there is a system of
+railroad lines, constituting a net-work. The levels or profiles of these
+roads have been established with reasonable accuracy, and as they cross
+each other at a multiplicity of points, a system of checks is afforded, so
+that the railroad surface of the country can be determined therefrom with
+all the accuracy necessary for the most refined and elaborate topographic
+maps. From such a hypsometric basis the reliefs for the whole country are
+determined, by running lines of levels, by trigonometric construction, and
+in mountainous regions by barometric observation.
+
+The primary triangulation having been made, the topography is executed by
+a variety of methods, adapted to the peculiar conditions found in various
+portions of the country. To a large extent the plane-table is used. In the
+hands of the topographers of the Geological Survey, the plane-table is not
+simply a portable draughting table for the field; it is practically an
+instrument of triangulation, and all minor positions of the details of
+topography are determined through its use by trigonometric construction.
+
+The scale on which the map is made is variable. In some portions of the
+prairie region, and in the region of the great plains, the topography and
+the geology alike are simple, and maps on a comparatively small scale are
+sufficient for practical purposes. For these districts it is proposed to
+construct the sheets of the map on a scale of 1-250,000, or about four
+miles to the inch. In the mountain regions of the West the geology is more
+complex, and the topography more intricate; but to a large extent these
+regions are uninhabited, and to a more limited extent uninhabitable. It
+would therefore not be wise to make a topographic or geologic survey of
+the country on an excessively elaborate plan. Over much of this area the
+sheets of the map will also be constructed on a scale of 1-250,000, but in
+special districts that scale will be increased to 1-125,000, and in the
+case of important mining districts charts will be constructed on a much
+larger scale. In the eastern portion of the United States two scales are
+adopted. In the less densely populated country a scale of 1-125,000 is
+used; in the more densely populated regions a scale of 1-62,500 is
+adopted, or about one mile to the inch. But throughout the country a few
+special districts of great importance, because of complex geologic
+structure, dense population, or other condition, will require charts on
+still larger scales. The area of the United States, exclusive of Alaska,
+is about three million square miles, and a map of the United States,
+constructed on the plan set forth above, will require not less than 2,600
+sheets. It may ultimately prove to require more than that, from the fact
+that the areas to be surveyed on the larger scale have not been fully
+determined. Besides the number of sheets in the general map of the United
+States, there will be several hundred special maps on large scales, as
+above described.
+
+Such is a brief outline of the plan so far as it has been developed at the
+present time. In this connection it should be stated that the map of the
+United States can be completed, with the present organization of the
+Geological Survey, in about 24 years; but it is greatly to be desired that
+the time for its completion may be materially diminished by increasing the
+topographic force of the Geological Survey. We ought to have a good
+topographic map of the United States by the year 1900. About one-fifth of
+the whole area of the United States, exclusive of Alaska, has been
+completed on the above plan. This includes all geographic work done in the
+United States under the auspices of the General Government and under the
+auspices of State Governments. The map herewith shows those areas that
+have been surveyed by various organizations on such a scale and in such a
+manner that the work has been accepted as sufficient for the purposes of
+the Survey.
+
+Much other work has been done, but not with sufficient refinement and
+accuracy to be of present value, though such work subserved its purpose in
+its time. An examination of the map will show that the triangulation of
+the various organizations is already largely in advance of the topography.
+The map of the United States will be a great atlas divided into sheets as
+above indicated. In all of those areas where the survey is on a scale of
+1-250,000, a page of the atlas will present an area of one degree in
+longitude and one degree in latitude. Where the scale is 1-125,000, a page
+of the atlas-sheet will represent one-fourth of a degree. Where the scale
+is 1-62,500, the atlas-sheet will represent one-sixteenth of a degree. The
+degree sheet will be designated by two numbers--one representing latitude,
+the other longitude. Where the sheets represent fractional degrees, they
+will be labeled with the same numbers, with the addition of the
+description of the proper fractional part.
+
+The organization, as at present established, executing this work, is as
+follows: First, an astronomic and computing division, the officers of
+which are engaged in determining the geographic coordinates of certain
+primary points. Second, a triangulation corps engaged in extending a
+system of triangulation over various portions of the country from measured
+base-lines. Third, a topographic corps, organized into twenty-seven
+parties, scattered over various portions of the United States. Such, in
+brief outline, is the plan for the map of the United States, and the
+organization by which it is to be made. Mr. Henry Gannett is the Chief
+Geographer.
+
+
+PALEONTOLOGY.
+
+Before giving the outline of the plan for the general geologic survey, it
+will be better to explain the accessory plans and organizations. There are
+in the Survey, as at present organized, the following paleontologic
+laboratories:
+
+1. A laboratory of vertebrate paleontology for formations other than the
+Quaternary. In connection with this laboratory there is a corps of
+paleontologists. Professor O.C. Marsh is in charge.
+
+2. There is a laboratory of invertebrate paleontology of Quaternary age,
+with a corps of paleontologists, Mr. Wm. H. Dall being in charge.
+
+3. There is a laboratory of invertebrate paleontology of Cenozoic and
+Mesozoic age, with a corps of paleontologists. Dr. C.A. White is in
+charge.
+
+4. There is a laboratory of invertebrate paleontology of Paleozoic age,
+with a corps of paleontologists. Mr. C.D. Walcott is in charge.
+
+5. There is a laboratory of fossil botany, with a corps of paleobotanists,
+Mr. Lester F. Ward being in charge.
+
+The paleontologists and paleobotanists connected with the laboratories
+above described, study and discuss in reports the fossils collected by the
+general geologists in the field. They also supplement the work of the
+field geologists by making special collections in important districts and
+at critical horizons; but the paleontologists are not held responsible for
+areal and structural geology on the one hand, and the geologists are not
+held responsible for paleontology on the other hand. In addition to the
+large number of paleontologists on the regular work of the Geological
+Survey, as above described, several paleontologists are engaged from time
+to time to make special studies.
+
+
+CHEMISTRY.
+
+There is a chemic laboratory attached to the Survey, with a large corps of
+chemists engaged in a great variety of researches relating to the
+constitution of waters, minerals, ores, and rocks. A part of the work of
+this corps is to study the methods of metamorphism and the paragenesis of
+minerals, and in this connection the chemists do work in the field; but to
+a large extent they are occupied with the study of the materials collected
+by the field geologists. Professor F.W. Clarke is in charge of this
+department.
+
+
+PHYSICAL RESEARCHES.
+
+There is a physical laboratory in the Survey, with a small corps of men
+engaged in certain physical researches of prime importance to geologic
+philosophy. These researches are experimental, and relate to the effect of
+temperatures, pressures, etc., on rocks. This laboratory is under the
+charge of the chief chemist.
+
+
+LITHOLOGY.
+
+There is a lithologic laboratory in the Survey, with a large corps of
+lithologists engaged in the microscopic study of rocks. These lithologists
+are field geologists, who examine the collections made by themselves.
+
+
+STATISTICS.
+
+There is in the Survey a division of mining statistics, with a large corps
+of men engaged in statistic work, the results of which are published in an
+annual report entitled "Mineral Resources." Mr. Albert Williams, Jr., is
+the Chief Statistician of the Survey.
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+There is in the Survey a division organized for the purpose of preparing
+illustrations for paleontologic and geologic reports. Mr. W.H. Holmes is
+in charge of this division. Illustrations will not hereafter be used for
+embellishment, but will be strictly confined to the illustration of the
+text and the presentation of such facts as can be best exhibited by
+figures and diagrams. All illustrations will, as far as possible, be
+produced by relief methods, such as wood-engraving, photo-engraving, etc.
+As large numbers of the reports of the Survey are published, this plan is
+demanded for economic reasons; but there is another consideration believed
+to be of still greater importance; illustrations made on stone cannot be
+used after the first edition, as they deteriorate somewhat by time, and it
+is customary to use the same lithographic stone for various purposes from
+time to time. The illustrations made for the reports of the Survey, if on
+relief-plates that can be cheaply electrotyped, can be used again when
+needed. This is especially desirable in paleontology, where previously
+published figures can be introduced for comparative purposes. There are
+two methods of studying the extinct life of the globe. Fossils are indices
+of geological formations, and must be grouped by formations to subserve
+the purpose of geologists. Fossils also have their biologic relations, and
+should be studied and arranged in biologic groups. Under the plan adopted
+by the Survey, the illustrations can be used over and over again for such
+purposes when needed, as reproduction can be made at the small cost of
+electrotyping. These same illustrations can be used by the public at large
+in scientific periodicals, text-books, etc. All the illustrations made by
+the Geological Survey are held for the public to be used in this manner.
+
+
+LIBRARY.
+
+The library of the Survey now contains more than 25,000 volumes, and is
+rapidly growing by means of exchanges. It is found necessary to purchase
+but few books. The librarian, Mr. C.C. Darwin, has a corps of assistants
+engaged in bibliographic work. It is proposed to prepare a catalogue of
+American and foreign publications upon American geology, which is to be a
+general authors' catalogue. In addition to this, it is proposed to publish
+bibliographies proper of special subjects constituting integral parts of
+the science of geology.
+
+
+PUBLICATIONS.
+
+The publications of the Survey are in three series: Annual Reports,
+Bulletins, and Monographs. The Annual Report constitutes a part of the
+Report of the Secretary of the Interior for each year, but is a distinct
+volume. This contains a brief summary of the purposes, plans, and
+operations of the Survey, prepared by the Director, and short
+administrative reports from the chiefs of divisions, the whole followed by
+scientific papers. These papers are selected as being those of most
+general interest, the object being to make the Annual Report a somewhat
+popular account of the doings of the Survey, that it may be widely read by
+the intelligent people of the country. Of this 5,650 copies are published
+as a part of the Secretary's report, and are distributed by the Secretary
+of the Interior, Senators, and Members of the House of Representatives;
+and an extra edition is annually ordered of 15,000 copies, distributed by
+the Survey and members of the Senate and House of Representatives. Four
+annual reports have been published; the fifth is now in the hands of the
+printer.
+
+The Bulletins of the Survey are short papers, and through them somewhat
+speedy publication is attained. Each bulletin is devoted to some specific
+topic, in order that the material ultimately published in the bulletins
+can be classified in any manner desired by scientific men. Nine bulletins
+have been published, and seven are in press. The bulletins already
+published vary in size from 5 to 325 pages each; they are sold at the cost
+of press-work and paper, and vary in price from five to twenty cents each;
+4,900 copies of each bulletin are published; 1,900 are distributed by
+Congress, 3,000 are held for sale and exchange by the Geological Survey.
+
+The Monographs of the Survey are quarto volumes. By this method of
+publication the more important and elaborate papers are given to the
+public. Six monographs, with two atlases, have been issued; five
+monographs, with two atlases, are in press; 1,900 copies of each monograph
+are distributed by Congress; 3,000 are held for sale and exchange by the
+Survey at the cost of press-work, paper, and binding. They vary in price
+from $1.05 to $11.
+
+The chiefs of divisions supervise the publications that originate in their
+several corps. The general editorial supervision is exercised by the Chief
+Clerk of the Survey, Mr. James C. Pilling.
+
+
+GENERAL GEOLOGY.
+
+In organizing the general geologic work, it became necessary, first, to
+consider what had already been done in various portions of the United
+States; and for this purpose the compilation of a general geologic map of
+the United States was begun, together with a Thesaurus of American
+formations. In addition to this the bibliographic work previously
+described was initiated, so that the literature relating to American
+geology should be readily accessible to the workers in the Survey. At this
+point it became necessary to consider the best methods of apportioning the
+work; that is, the best methods of dividing the geologic work into parts
+to be assigned to the different corps of observers. A strictly geographic
+apportionment was not deemed wise, from the fact that an unscientific
+division of labor would result, and the same classes of problems would to
+a large extent be relegated to the several corps operating in field and in
+the laboratory. It was thought best to divide the work, as far as
+possible, by subject-matter rather than by territorial areas; yet to some
+extent the two methods of division will coincide. There are in the Survey
+at present:
+
+First, a division of glacial geology, and Prof. T.C. Chamberlin, formerly
+State Geologist of Wisconsin is at its head, with a strong corps of
+assistants. There is an important field for which definite provision has
+not yet been made, namely, the study of the loess that constitutes the
+bluff formations of the Mississippi River and its tributaries. But as this
+loess proves to be intimately associated with the glacial formations of
+the same region, it is probable that it will eventually be relegated to
+the glacial division. Perhaps the division may eventually grow to such an
+extent that its field of operations will include the whole Quaternary
+geology.
+
+Second, a division of volcanic geology is organized, and Capt. Clarence E.
+Dutton, of the Ordnance Corps of the Army, is placed in charge, also with
+a strong corps of assistants.
+
+Third and fourth, two divisions have been organized to prosecute work on
+the archæan rocks, embracing within their field not only all rocks of
+archæan age, but all metamorphic crystalline schists, of whatever age they
+may be found. The first division has for its chief Prof. Raphael Pumpelly,
+assisted by a corps of geologists, and the field of his work is the
+crystalline schists of the Appalachian region, or eastern portion of the
+United States, extending from northern New England to Georgia. He will
+also include in his studies certain paleozoic formations which are
+immediately connected with the crystalline schists and involved in their
+orographic structure.
+
+The second division for the study of this class of rocks is in charge of
+Prof. Roland D. Irving, with a corps of geologists, and his field of
+operation is in the Lake Superior region. It is not proposed at present to
+undertake the study of the crystalline schists of the Rocky Mountain
+region.
+
+Fifth, another division has been organized for the study of the areal,
+structural, and historical geology of the Appalachian region, extending
+from the Atlantic, westward, to the zone which separates the mountain
+region from the great valley of the Mississippi. Mr. G.K. Gilbert has
+charge of this work, and has a large corps of assistants.
+
+Sixth, it seemed desirable, partly for scientific reasons and partly for
+administrative reasons, that a thorough topographic and geologic survey
+should be made of the Yellowstone Park, and Mr. Arnold Hague is in charge
+of the work, with a corps of assistants. When it is completed, his field
+will be expanded so as to include a large part of the Rocky Mountain
+region, but the extent of the field is not yet determined.
+
+It will thus be seen that the general geologic work relating to those
+areas where the terranes are composed of fossiliferous formations is very
+imperfectly and incompletely organized. The reason for this is twofold:
+First, the work cannot be performed very successfully until the maps are
+made; second, the Geological Survey is necessarily diverting much of its
+force to the construction of maps, and cannot with present appropriations
+expand the geologic corps so as to extend systematic work in the field
+over the entire country.
+
+
+ECONOMIC GEOLOGY.
+
+Under the organic law of the Geological Survey, investigations in economic
+geology are restricted to those States and Territories in which there are
+public lands; the extension of the work into the eastern portion of the
+United States included only that part relating to general geology. Two
+mining divisions are organized. One, in charge of Mr. George F. Becker,
+with headquarters at San Francisco, California, is at the present time
+engaged in the study of the quicksilver districts of California. The
+other, under charge of Mr. S.F. Emmons, with headquarters at Denver,
+Colorado, is engaged in studying various mining districts in that State,
+including silver, gold, iron, and coal areas. Each division has a corps of
+assistants. The lignite coals of the upper Missouri, also, are under
+investigation by Mr. Bailey Willis, with a corps of assistants.
+
+
+EMPLOYES.
+
+The employes on the Geological Survey at the close of September, 1884,
+were as follows:
+
+Appointed by the President, by and with the advice and consent of the
+Senate (Director), 1.
+
+Appointed by the Secretary of the Interior, on the recommendation of the
+Director of the Survey, 134.
+
+Employed by the chiefs of parties in the field, 148.
+
+
+APPOINTMENTS.
+
+Three classes of appointments are made on the Survey. The statute provides
+that "the scientific employes of the Geological Survey shall be selected
+by the Director, subject to the approval of the Secretary of the Interior,
+exclusively for their qualifications as professional experts." The
+provisions of this statute apply to all those cases where scientific men
+are employed who have established a reputation, and in asking for their
+appointment the Director specifically states his reasons, setting forth
+the work in which the person is to be employed, together with his
+qualifications, especially enumerating and characterizing his published
+works. On such recommendations appointments are invariably made. Young men
+who have not established a reputation in scientific research are selected
+through the agency of the Civil Service Commission on special examination,
+the papers for which are prepared in the Geological Survey. About one-half
+of the employes, however, are temporary, being engaged for services
+lasting for a few days or a few months only, largely in the field, and
+coming under two classes: Skilled laborers and common laborers. Such
+persons are employed by the Director or by the heads of divisions, and are
+discharged from the service when no longer needed. It will be seen that
+the Director is responsible for the selection of the employes, directly
+for those whom he recommends for appointment, and indirectly for those
+selected by the Civil Service Commission, as he permanently retains in the
+work. If, then, improper persons are employed, it is wholly the Director's
+fault.
+
+The appropriations made for the Geological Survey for the fiscal year
+ending June 30, 1885, aggregate the sum of $504,040. This sum does not
+include the amount appropriated for ethnologic researches--$40,000. Nor
+are the expenses for engraving and printing paid for from the above
+appropriations, but from appropriations made for the work under the
+direction of the public printer. It is estimated that the amount needed
+for engraving and printing for the same fiscal year will exceed $200,000.
+
+
+THE RELATION OF THE GOVERNMENT SURVEY TO STATE SURVEYS.
+
+The United States Geological Survey is on friendly relations with the
+various State Surveys. Between the Government Survey and the State Survey
+of New York, there is direct co-operation. The State Survey of
+Pennsylvania has rendered valuable assistance to the Government Survey,
+and negotiations have been entered into for closer relations and more
+thorough co-operation. The State Surveys of North Carolina, Kentucky, and
+Alabama are also co-operating with the Government Survey, and the director
+of the Government Survey is doing all within his power to revive State
+Surveys. The field for geologic research in the United States is of great
+magnitude, and the best results can be accomplished only by the labors of
+many scientific men engaged for a long term of years. For this reason it
+is believed that surveys should be established in all of the States and
+Territories. There is work enough for all, and the establishment of local
+surveys would greatly assist the general work prosecuted under the
+auspices of the government, and prevent it from falling into perfunctory
+channels. Its vigor and health will doubtless be promoted by all thorough
+local research.
+
+It may be of interest to scientific men to know that the Director finds
+that in presenting the general results, interests, and needs of the Survey
+to Congress, and to Committees of Congress, a thorough appreciation of the
+value of scientific research is shown by the statesmen of the country.
+Questions relating to immediately economic values are asked, as they
+should be; but questions relating to sound administration, wise methods of
+investigation, and important scientific results are vigorously urged, and
+the principle is recognized that all sound scientific research conduces to
+the welfare of the people, not only by increasing knowledge, but
+ultimately by affecting all the industries of the people.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+[THE GARDEN.]
+
+THE SUNFLOWERS.
+
+
+[Illustration: FLOWER OF HELIANTHUS ARGOPHYLLUS.]
+
+The genus Helianthus is almost entirely North-American, and for the
+distinction and limitation of its species we are indebted to the labor of
+Dr. Asa Gray, now universally recognized as the highest authority on North
+American plants. In the recently published second part of his "Synoptical
+Flora of North America" he has described thirty-nine species, six of which
+are annual. The synonyms and cross-naming adopted by previous authors have
+led to much confusion, which probably will not now be altogether cleared
+up, for Dr. Gray warns us that the characters of some of the species are
+variable, especially in cultivation. It may be added that some at least of
+the species readily form hybrids. There is always more or less difficulty
+with a variable genus in making garden plants fit wild specific types, but
+in the following notes I have described no kinds which I have not myself
+cultivated, selecting the best forms and giving them the names assigned
+severally by Dr. Gray to the species to which our garden plants seem to
+come nearest.
+
+[Illustration: HELIANTHUS ARGOPHYLLUS, SHOWING HABIT OF GROWTH.]
+
+_Helianthus multiflorus_, or, according to Asa Gray, speaking botanically,
+H. decapetalus hort. var. multiflorus, is mentioned first, because it is
+the subject of the colored illustration. The name multiflorus is
+established by long usage, and perhaps was originally given in contrast to
+the few-flowered habit of H. annuus, for the type of the species is more
+floriferous than the variety of which Asa Gray says that it is "known only
+in cultivation from early times, must have been derived from
+decapetalus," a statement which gardeners would hardly have accepted on
+less indisputable authority, as they will all think the habit and
+appearance of the two plants widely different. The variety multiflorus has
+several forms; the commonest form is double, the disk being filled with
+ligules much shorter than those of the ray flowers, after the form of many
+daisy-like composites. In this double form the day flowers are often
+wanting. It is common also on old plants in poor soils to see double and
+single flowers from the same root. In the single forms the size of the
+flowers varies, the difference being due to cultivation as often as to
+kind. I have obtained by far the finest flowers by the following
+treatment: In early spring, when the young shoots are about an inch high,
+cut some off, each with a portion of young root, and plant them singly in
+deep rich soil, and a sheltered but not shaded situation. By August each
+will have made a large bush, branching out from one stalk at the base,
+with from thirty to forty flowers open at a time, each 5 inches across.
+The same plants if well dressed produce good flowers the second season,
+but after that the stalks become crowded, and the flowers degenerate. The
+same treatment suits most of the perennial sunflowers. The following kinds
+are mentioned in the order in which they occur in Asa Gray's book:
+
+[Illustration: HELIANTHUS MULTIFLORUS, SHOWING HABIT OF GROWTH.]
+
+
+ANNUALS.
+
+_H. argophyllus_ (white-leaved, not argyrophyllus, silver-leaved, as
+written in some catalogues).--An annual with woolly leaves, neater and
+less coarse than H. annuus, with which it is said soon to degenerate in
+gardens if grown together with it.
+
+_H. annuus._--The well known sunflower in endless varieties, one of the
+most elegant having pale lemon-colored flowers; these, too, liable to pass
+into the common type if grown in the same garden.
+
+[Illustration: HELIANTHUS ORGYALIS, SHOWING HABIT OF GROWTH IN
+AUTUMN.]
+
+_H. debilis var. cucumerifolius._--I have never seen the typical species,
+but the variety was introduced a few years ago by Mr. W. Thompson, of
+Ipswich, from whose seed I have grown it. It becomes 4 feet or 5 feet
+high, with irregularly toothed deltoid leaves and spotted stalks, making a
+widely branched bush and bearing well-shaped golden flowers more than 3
+inches across, with black disks. It crosses with any perennial sunflower
+that grows near it, simulating their flowers in an annual form. I had a
+very fine cross with it and H. annuus, but the flowers of this produced no
+good seed.
+
+[Illustration: JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE (HELIANTHUS TUBEROSUS).]
+
+
+PERENNIALS.
+
+_H. orgyalis_ (the fathom-high sunflower).--The name is far within the
+true measure, which is often 9 feet or 10 feet. A very distinct species,
+increasing very slowly at the root and throwing all its growing efforts
+upward. The long linear ribbon leaves, often exceeding a foot, spreading
+in wavy masses round the tall stem, which has a palm-like tuft of them at
+the summit, are a more ornamental feature than the flowers, which are
+moderate in size and come late in the axils of the upper leaves.
+
+[Illustration: HELIANTHUS ANNUUS GLOBULUS FISTULOSUS.]
+
+_H. angustifolius._--A neat and elegant species, which I first raised from
+seed sent by Mr. W. Thompson, of Ipswich. It has a very branching habit
+quite from the base like a well-grown bush of the common wallflower. The
+flowers are abundant, about 2½ inches across, with a black disk. The
+plant, though a true herb, never comes up in my garden with more than one
+stalk each year.
+
+[Illustration: HELIANTHUS RIGIDUS (SYN. HARPALIUM RIGIDUM).]
+
+_H. rigidus_ is well known as the best of the perennial sunflowers, and
+has many synonyms, the commonest Harpalium rigidum. It need not be
+described, but one or two things about it may be noted. The shoots, which
+come up a yard or more from last year's stalk, may be transplanted as soon
+as they appear without injury to the flowering, but if put back to the old
+center, the soil, which should be deep and light, ought to be enriched.
+The species is variable, and improved forms may be expected, as it
+produces seed in England. The number of ray flowers is often very large. I
+have one form which has several rows of them, nearly hiding the disk. A
+variety is figured in _Botanical Magazine_, tab. 2,668, under the name of
+H. atro-rubens. Another comes in the same series, tab. 2,020, as H.
+diffusus. Other synonyms are H. missuricus and H. missouriensis. Its
+native range extends across North America in longitude, and covers many
+degrees of latitude. It likes a dry soil. In wet soil and wet seasons the
+flower-stalk is apt to wither in the middle, and the bud falls over and
+perishes prematurely.
+
+[Illustration: COMMON SUNFLOWER (H. ANNUUS) SHOWING HABIT OF GROWTH.]
+
+_H. Lætiflorus._--Under this name we grow in England a tall,
+much-branched, late flowering kind, with smooth and very stout and stiff
+stalks, sometimes black, sometimes green. It increases at the base of the
+stalks; it makes close growth, and shows little disposition to run at the
+root. The flowers are rather small, not more than 9 inches across, but so
+durable and so well displayed by the numerous spreading branches as to
+make the plant very useful for late decoration. I own that I cannot
+identify this plant with the lætiflorus of Asa Gray, which he tells us
+resembles tall forms of H. rigidus, with rough stalks, and bears flowers
+with numerous rays 1½ inches long.
+
+[Illustration: FLOWER OF HELIANTHUS ANNUUS.]
+
+_H. occidentalis._--Recently introduced by Mr. W. Thompson, of Ipswich,
+who gave me the plant two years ago. It is a neat species, growing about 2
+feet high, well branched, and producing at the end of July abundance of
+flowers about 2 inches across. The lower leaves are small and broad, with
+long stalks, ovate in form.
+
+[Illustration: HELIANTHUS MULTIFLORUS FL-PL.]
+
+_H. mollis_, so called from the soft white down with which the leaves are
+covered, grows about 4 feet high. Leaves large, ovate, and sessile; growth
+of the plant upright, with hardly any branches; flowers pale yellow, about
+3 inches across, not very ornamental. Cultivated at Kew, whence I had it.
+
+_H. giganteus_ grows 10 feet high; stem much branched and disposed to
+curve. Flowers about 2½ inches across, produced abundantly in August; rays
+narrow and pointed, cupped, with the ends turning outward; leaves
+lanceolate and sessile; rootstock creeping, forming tuberous thickenings
+at the base of the stems, which Asa Gray tells us were "the Indian potato
+of the Assiniboine tribe," mentioned by Douglas, who called the plant H.
+tuberosus.
+
+[Illustration: FULL SIZED FLOWER OF HELIANTHUS MULTIFLORUS.]
+
+_H. maximiliani._--Half the height of the last, which it resembles, but
+the stem is stouter, the leaves larger, as are also the flowers, which are
+produced later. It is not so floriferous and ornamental as the last.
+
+_H. lævigatus._--Smooth stalked, very distinct, does not spread at the
+roots, which are composed of finer fibers than those of most of the genus;
+stalks slender and black, growing closely together, branched near the
+summit, 5 feet high; leaves narrowly lanceolate and acute; flowers
+plentiful and about 2 inches across; rays few, and disk small.
+
+We are warned that the following species are "difficult of extrication,"
+either confluent or mixed by intercrossing.
+
+_H. doronicoides._--I place this the third in merit among perennial
+sunflowers, H. rigidus and H. multiflorus being first and second. It is 6
+feet or 7 feet high, upright in growth, with many stalks. Flowers 3½
+inches across, produced from the end of July to the end of September,
+bright golden yellow; leaves large, ovate, tapering from the middle to
+both ends; stalk leaves sessile and nearly connate, that is, clasping the
+stalk by their opposite base. The plant spreads rapidly by running
+rootstocks, and ripens seed in abundance. Figured as H. pubescens in
+_Botanical Magazine_, tab. 2,778.
+
+_H. divaricatus_ resembles the last, but is inferior, being a smaller
+plant in all parts, especially in the flowers, which come out a month
+later. The cauline leaves are stalked and diverge widely, which habit
+gives its name to the plant. A casual observer would hardly notice the
+difference between this species and the last, but when grown together the
+superiority of doronicoides as a garden plant is at once evident.
+
+_H. strumosus._--Fully 6 feet high; growth upright; rootstock less
+spreading than the last two; leaves on very short stalks, broadest at the
+base, ovate tapering by a long narrow point; flower disk narrow, but rays
+large and orange-yellow; flowers showy, 3 inches across; they come out
+late in August. I had this plant from Kew. The shape of the leaves would
+have led me rather to refer it to H. trachelifolius, a closely allied
+species.
+
+_H. decapetalus._--Five feet high; flowers from end of July; makes a dense
+forest of weak, slender stalks, much branched at the top; spreads fast;
+leaves serrate, oblong-ovate, rather large; flowers abundant, pale yellow,
+about 2 inches across; rays nearly always more than ten, in spite of the
+name.
+
+_H. tuberosus._--The well-known Jerusalem artichoke; not a plant grown for
+ornament, being too coarse and late in flowering, but several things in
+its history may be mentioned, as Dr. Asa Gray has spent labor and study
+over it. It is believed to have been cultivated by the natives before the
+discovery of America, and the edible tubers are thought to be a
+development of cultivation. Forms of it without tuberous roots are found
+wild, but whether indigenous to the place or degenerate from cultivation
+was for long uncertain. Several species of Helianthus have a tendency to
+produce similar fleshy tubers at the top of the roots. Dr. Gray used to
+refer the origin of this species to H. doronicoides, but it is now
+believed by him to be a distinct species, though one of which it is
+difficult to identify with certainty the typical form.
+
+I omitted to say that the word Helianthus is Greek for sunflower. After
+several years' careful observation, I believe the notion that the flowers
+keep their face to the sun is quite a delusion.
+
+Edge Hall. C. WOLLEY DOD.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+A QUICK FILTER.--The _Druggists Circular_ recommends chamois skin, free
+from thin places; cut it of the desired size; wash it in a weak solution
+of sal soda, or any alkali, to remove the grease, and rinse thoroughly in
+cold water before using.
+
+Tinctures, elixirs, sirups, and even mucilages are filtered rapidly. A
+pint of the thickest sirup will run through in four or five minutes. By
+washing thoroughly after each time of using, it will last a long time.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+LYE'S FUCHSIAS.
+
+
+The group of fuchsias shown in our engraving represents a collection of
+nine specimens raised and exhibited by that well known cultivator, Mr.
+James Lye, of Clyffe Hall Gardens, Market Lavington, at an exhibition held
+in Bath in September last, and which received the first prize in the
+premier class for that number of plants. For many years past Mr. Lye has
+exhibited fuchsias at exhibitions held at Bath, Trowbridge, Devizes,
+Calne, Chippenham, and elsewhere; on all occasions staging specimens of a
+high order of merit; but the plants appearing in our illustration were
+universally regarded as the best he had ever placed in an exhibition tent.
+So much were the committee of the Bath show pleased with the specimens
+that they engaged the services of a photographer to make a picture of them
+on the spot; but after being two hours making the attempt, no satisfactory
+result occurred. After the plants were taken back to Clyffe Hall, they
+were photographed as seen in the illustration. Some idea of their height
+and dimensions can be realized by a comparison with the stature of Mr.
+Lye, who is standing by his plants, and who is of average height. It
+should be mentioned that previous to being photographed they had traveled
+by road from Market Lavington to Bath and back, a distance of 52 miles, in
+addition to having been exhibited two days. They returned to their home
+apparently little the worse for wear, which immunity from harm is no doubt
+owing to the admirable system of tying adopted by Mr. Lye. It is sometimes
+said that the act of trying in the flowering shoots in this manner gives
+the plants a somewhat severely formal appearance, but there is an
+abundance of healthy foliage and a wonderful profusion of finely developed
+flowers, showing the most careful and painstaking cultivation. It is only
+those who are privileged to see these unrivaled plants who can appreciate
+them at their proper worth.
+
+It has been stated already that the varieties figured are all of Mr. Lye's
+own raising, which facts attests to the value of his seedlings, many of
+which he has produced. Four of these are dark varieties, viz., Bountiful,
+Charming, Elegance, and the Hon. Mrs. Hay--the latter one of the oldest,
+but one of the freest, and scarcely without an equal for its great freedom
+of bloom. The remaining five are light varieties, viz., Lye's Favorite,
+Harriet Lye, Star of Wilts, Pink Perfection, and Beauty of the West.
+
+[Illustration: MR. LYE'S FUSCHIAS.]
+
+The specimens figured average from two to five years of age. It is really
+marvelous what Mr. Lye can do with a fuchsia in two years; and lest it
+might be supposed that he has plenty of glass accommodation, and can keep
+his plants under glass continuously, it is due to him it should be stated
+that he is very deficient in house accommodation, having but two small
+houses, in one of which (an old house) he winters his plants and brings
+them on until he can place them with safety in the open air in early
+summer. His method of treating the specimens as set forth in his own words
+may prove helpful to some of our readers: "After the plants have done
+flowering, say about the third week in October, I cut them back into the
+shape best fitted to form symmetrical specimens, and keep them dry for a
+week or ten days, to check the bleeding of sap which follows; after that I
+give a little water just to start them into growth, so as to make shoots
+about three-quarters of an inch in length, in order to keep the old wood
+active and living. I keep them in a cold house, and give but very little
+water until the first or second week in February, when I shake the old
+soil from the roots, and re-pot them into a fresh compost made up of three
+parts good loam, one part well decomposed manure, and one part leaf-mould
+and peat, with a good bit of silver or sea sand to keep it open. In order
+to make large specimens, they are shifted as soon as the pots are filled
+with roots. About the first week in June I place them out of doors on a
+border somewhat sheltered, and syringe the plants freely every day during
+hot weather to keep the foliage clean and healthy. I top them back till
+about seven or eight weeks before I want to show them, according to the
+requirements of the variety, as some of them require it to be done more
+freely than others. I give them liquid manure, using what I get from the
+cows, which with some soot is put into a tub, and allowed to stand a week
+or ten days before using, and I give them a good dose once a week as they
+show signs of flowering."
+
+In order to preserve his plants from the effects of hail and very heavy
+rains, a rough framework is erected, and over this is stretched some
+floral shading, which can be readily removed when required; it also serves
+the purpose of shading the plants from the sun in very hot and scorching
+weather.
+
+During his career as an exhibitor of fuchsias Mr. Lye has taken nearly one
+hundred first prizes--a measure of success which fully justifies the
+bestowal of the title of being the Champion Fuchsia Grower of his
+day.--_R.D. in The Gardeners' Chronicle_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
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+<html>
+<head>
+<meta name="generator" content="HTML Tidy, see www.w3.org">
+<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content=
+"text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1">
+<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Scientific American
+Supplement, April 11, 1885.</title>
+<style type="text/css">
+
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+p {  margin-top: .75em; text-align: justify; margin-bottom: .75em; }
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+<body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 484,
+April 11, 1885, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 484, April 11, 1885
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: November 3, 2004 [EBook #13939]
+[Last updated: March 26, 2012]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by PG Distributed Proofreaders
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/1a.png"><img src=
+"./images/1a_th.jpg" alt=" TITLE"></a></p>
+
+<h1>SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 484</h1>
+
+<h2>NEW YORK, APRIL 11, 1885</h2>
+
+<h4>Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XIX, No. 484.</h4>
+
+<h4>Scientific American established 1845</h4>
+
+<h4>Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.</h4>
+
+<h4>Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.</h4>
+
+<hr>
+<table summary="Contents" border="0" cellspacing="5">
+<tr>
+<th colspan="2">TABLE OF CONTENTS.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">I.</td>
+<td><a href="#1">ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.&mdash;Bridge over the
+Blaauw Krantz Ravine, Cape Colony.&mdash;2 engravings.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#2">Torpedo Ships.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#3">The Gas Engine.&mdash;By DUGALD
+CLERK.&mdash;Combustion engines.&mdash;First cylinder and piston
+engine.&mdash;Watt's experiments.&mdash;First gas
+engine.&mdash;Principles of the gas engine.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#4">Rapid Construction of the Canadian Pacific
+Railway.&mdash;By E.T. ABBOTT.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#5">The Osgood Mammoth Excavator.&mdash;3
+figures.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#6">Capstan Navigation on the Volga.&mdash;4
+figures.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#7">Steamboat Equipment of War Vessels.&mdash;With
+engraving of winch for raising and lowering torpedo boats.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#8">Improved Steam Trap.&mdash;1 engraving.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">II.</td>
+<td><a href="#9">TECHNOLOGY.&mdash;Critical Methods of Detecting
+Errors in Plane Surfaces.&mdash;By JOHN A. BRASHEAR.&mdash;11
+figures.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#10">Photometric Standards.&mdash;9 figures.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#11">Bleaching or Dyeing Yarns and Goods in
+Vacuo.&mdash;1 figure.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#12">On the Moulding of Porcelain.&mdash;By CHAS.
+LAUTH.&mdash;Moulding by pressure of the air.&mdash;Moulding by
+vacuum.&mdash;Drying the moulded pieces.&mdash;2 figures.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#13">Photo-Tricycle Apparatus.&mdash;1
+figure.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#14">A Photo Printing Light.&mdash;1 figure.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#15">A New Actinometer.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#16">Astronomical Photography.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#17">Electricity as a Preventive of Scale in
+Boilers.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">III.</td>
+<td><a href="#18">DECORATIVE ART.&mdash;Alphabet designed by
+Godfrey Sykes.&mdash;An engraving.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#19">Old Wrought Iron Gate.&mdash;An
+engraving.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">IV.</td>
+<td><a href="#20">GEOLOGY.&mdash;The Organization and Plan of the
+United States Geological Survey.&mdash;By J.W. POWELL.&mdash;A
+topographic map of the United
+States.&mdash;Paleontology.&mdash;Chemistry.&mdash;Physical
+researches.&mdash;Statistics.&mdash;Library.&mdash;Publications.&mdash;General
+geology.&mdash;Economic geology.&mdash;Relation of the general
+survey to the State survey.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">V.</td>
+<td><a href="#21">BOTANY, ETC.&mdash;The Sunflowers.&mdash;Annuals,
+perennials, etc.&mdash;11 engravings.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#22">Lye's Fuchsias.&mdash;1 engraving.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">VI.</td>
+<td><a href="#23">HYGIENE, ETC.&mdash;Brief Sanitary Matters in
+Connection with Isolated Country Houses.&mdash;By E.W.
+BOWDITCH.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#24">Sanitary Cooking.&mdash;By V.L.
+OPPENHEIMER.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#25">Time required to digest Different Foods.</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="1"></a></p>
+
+<h2>BLAAUW KRANTZ VIADUCT IN CAPE COLONY.</h2>
+
+<p>This viaduct is built over a rocky ravine on the railway from
+Port Alfred to Grahamstown, at a height of about 200 ft. from the
+bottom. Its length is 480 ft. 6 in., and the width of the platform
+is 15 ft., the gauge of the railway being 3 ft. 6 in. The central
+span of the viaduct is an arch of 220 ft. span between abutments,
+and about 90 ft. height; the remainder of the space on each side is
+divided into two spans by an iron pier at a distance of 68 ft. from
+the retaining wall. These piers are 36 ft. 2 in. high, and carry
+girders 144 ft. long, balanced each on a pivot in the center. One
+end of these girders is secured to the retaining walls by means of
+horizontal and vertical anchorages, while the other end rests in a
+sliding bearing on the top flange of the arch.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/1b.png"><img src=
+"./images/1b_th.jpg" alt=
+" BRIDGE OVER THE BLAAUW KRANTZ RAVINE, CAPE COLONY."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">BRIDGE OVER THE BLAAUW KRANTZ RAVINE, CAPE
+COLONY.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/1c.png"><img src=
+"./images/1c_th.jpg" alt=
+" BRIDGE OVER THE BLAAUW KRANTZ RAVINE, CAPE COLONY."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">BRIDGE OVER THE BLAAUW KRANTZ RAVINE, CAPE
+COLONY.</p>
+
+<p>In designing the structure the following points had to be
+considered: (1) That, on account of the great height above the
+ground, and on account of the high price of timber at the site, the
+structure could be easily erected without the use of scaffolding
+supporting it as a whole. (2) That, on account of the high freights
+to Port Alfred, the quantity of iron in the structure should be as
+small as possible. (3) That the single parts of the principal span
+should be easy to lift, and that there should be as few of them as
+possible. For this latter reason most of them were made in lengths
+of 20 ft. and more. The question of economy of material presented
+itself as a comparison between a few standard types, viz., the
+girder bridge of small independent spans; the cantilever bridge, or
+the continuous girder bridge in three large spans; the single
+girder bridge with one large span and several small spans; and the
+arch with small girder spans on each side. The suspension bridge
+was left out of question as inadmissible. A girder bridge with
+small independent spans on rocker piers would probably have been
+the most economical, even taking into account the great height of
+the piers near the middle of the ravine, but there would have been
+some difficulty in holding those piers in position until they could
+be secured to the girders at the top; and, moreover, such a
+structure would have been strikingly out of harmony with the
+character of the site. On the other hand, a cantilever or
+continuous girder bridge in three spans&mdash;although such
+structures have been erected in similar localities&mdash;could not
+enter into comparison of simple economy of material, because such a
+design would entirely disregard the anomaly that the greater part
+of the structure, viz., the side spans, being necessarily
+constructed to carry across a large space, would be too near the
+ground to justify the omission of further supports. The question
+was, therefore, narrowed to a comparison between the present arch
+and a central independent girder of the same span, including the
+piers on which it rests. The small side spans could obviously be
+left out in each case. The comparison was made with a view not only
+to arrive at a decision in this particular case, but also of
+answering the question of the economy of the arch more generally.
+The following table contains the weights of geometrically similar
+structures of three different spans, of which the second is the one
+here described. The so-called theoretical weight is that which the
+structure would have if no part required stiffening, leaving out
+also all connections and all wind bracing. The moving load is taken
+at one ton per foot lineal, and the strain on the iron at an
+average of four tons per square inch. The proportion of the girder
+is taken at 1 in 8.</p>
+
+<table summary="Feet vs. Weight" align="center" border="1"
+cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
+<tbody>
+<tr align="center">
+<th rowspan="2">Span in Feet.</th>
+<th colspan="2">Theoretical Weight.</th>
+<th colspan="2">Total Weight.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr align="center">
+<th>Arch.</th>
+<th>Girder.</th>
+<th>Arch.</th>
+<th>Girder.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="center">100</td>
+<td align="right">0.0724</td>
+<td align="right">0.1663</td>
+<td align="right">0.1866</td>
+<td align="right">0.2443</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="center">220</td>
+<td align="right">0.1659</td>
+<td align="right">0.4109</td>
+<td align="right">0.4476</td>
+<td align="right">0.7462</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="center">300</td>
+<td align="right">0.2414</td>
+<td align="right">0.6445</td>
+<td align="right">0.6464</td>
+<td align="right">1.2588</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr align="center">
+<th>&nbsp;</th>
+<th colspan="4">&lt;------------Tons per foot
+lineal.-------------&gt;</th>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p>It can be seen from these results that the economical advantage
+of the arch increases with the span. In small arches this advantage
+would not be large enough to counterbalance the greater cost of
+manufacture; but in the arch of 220 ft. span the advantage is
+already very marked. If the table were continued, it would show
+that the girder, even if the platform were artificially widened,
+would become impossible at a point where the arch can still be made
+without difficulty. The calculations leading to the above results
+would occupy too much space to make it desirable on this occasion
+to produce them. Our two views are from photographs.&mdash;<i>The
+Engineer.</i></p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="2"></a></p>
+
+<h2>TORPEDO SHIPS.</h2>
+
+<p>Commander Gallwey lately delivered an interesting lecture on the
+use of torpedoes in war before the royal U.S. Institution, London,
+discussed H.M.S. Polyphemus, and urged as arguments in her favor:
+1. That she has very high speed, combined with fair maneuvering
+powers. 2. That she can discharge her torpedoes with certainty
+either ahead or on the beam when proceeding at full speed. 3. That
+her crew and weapons of defense are protected by the most perfect
+of all armor possible, namely, 10 ft. of water. 4. That she only
+presents a mark of 4 ft. above the water line.</p>
+
+<p>Then, he asked, with what weapon is the ironclad going to
+vanquish these torpedo rams? Guns cannot hit her when moving at
+speed; she is proof against machine guns, and, being smaller,
+handier, and faster than most ironclads, should have a better
+chance with her ram, the more especially as it is provided with a
+weapon which has been scores of times discharged with certainty at
+300 yards. The ironclad, he answered, must use torpedoes, and then
+he maintained that the speed and handiness of the Polyphemus would
+enable her to place herself in positions where she could use her
+own torpedo to advantage, and be less likely to be hit herself. He
+then called attention to the necessity for well-protected conning
+towers in these ships, and prophesied that if a submarine ship,
+armed with torpedoes, be ever built, she will be the most
+formidable antagonist an ironclad ever had; and the nearer the
+special torpedo ship approaches this desideratum the better she
+will be.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<h2>A PLUMBING TEST.</h2>
+
+<p>A recent trial of a smoke rocket for testing drains, described
+by Mr. Cosmo Jones in the <i>Journal of the Society of Arts</i>, is
+deserving of interest. The one fixed upon is 10 in. long, 2&frac12;
+in. in diameter, and with the composition "charged rather hard," so
+as to burn for ten minutes. This gives the engineer time to light
+the fuse, insert the rocket in the drain, insert a plug behind it,
+and walk through the house to see if the smoke escapes into it at
+any point, finishing on the roof, where he finds the smoke issuing
+in volumes from the ventilating pipes. The house experimented upon
+had three ventilating pipes, and the smoke issued in dense masses
+from each of them, but did not escape anywhere into the house,
+showing that the pipes were sound. If the engineer wishes to
+increase the severity of the test, he throws a wet cloth over the
+top of the ventilating pipe, and so gets a slight pressure of smoke
+inside it.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="3"></a></p>
+
+<h2>THE GAS ENGINE.<a name="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_1_1"><sup>[1]</sup></a></h2>
+
+<h3>By DUGALD CLERK.</h3>
+
+<p>In earlier days of mechanics, before the work of the great
+Scottish engineer, James Watt, the crude steam engines of the time
+were known as "fire engines," not in the sense in which we now
+apply the term to machines for the extinguishing of fires, but as
+indicating the source from which the power was derived, motive
+power engines deriving their vitality and strength from fire. The
+modern name&mdash;steam engine&mdash;to some extent is a misleading
+one, distracting the mind from the source of power to the medium
+which conveys the power. Similarly the name "Gas Engine" masks the
+fact of the motors so called being really fire or heat engines.</p>
+
+<p>The gas engine is more emphatically a "fire engine" than ever
+the steam engine has been. In it the fire is not tamed or diluted
+by indirect contact with water, but it is used direct; the fire,
+instead of being kept to the boiler room, is introduced direct into
+the motor cylinder of the engine. This at first sight looks very
+absurd and impracticable; difficulties at once become apparent of
+so overwhelming a nature that the problem seems almost an
+impossible one; yet this is what has been successfully accomplished
+in the gas engine. Engineers accustomed to the construction of
+steam engines would not many years ago have considered any one
+proposing such a thing as having taken leave of his senses.</p>
+
+<p>The late Sir William Siemens worked for many years on combustion
+engines, some of his patents on this subject dating back to 1860.
+In the course of a conversation I had with him on the subject of
+his earlier patents, I asked him why he had entitled one of those
+patents "steam engine improvements" when it was wholly concerned
+with a gas engine using hydrogen and air in the motive cylinder,
+the combustion of the hydrogen taking place in the motive cylinder.
+He answered me that in 1860 he did not care to entitle his patent
+gas or combustion engine simply because engineers at that time
+would have thought him mad.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding this widespread incredulity among engineers, and
+the apparent novelty of the gas engine idea, fire or combustion
+engines have been proposed long, long ago. The first Newcomen steam
+engine ever set to work was used by a Mr. Back, of Wolverhampton,
+in the year 1711. Thirty-one years before this time, in
+Paris&mdash;year 1680&mdash;Huyghens presented a memoir to the
+Academy of Sciences describing a method of utilizing the expansive
+force of gunpowder. This engineer is notable as being the very
+first to propose the use of a cylinder and piston, as well as the
+first combustion engine of a practical kind.</p>
+
+<p>The engine consists of a vertical open topped cylinder, in which
+works a piston; the piston is connected by a chain passing over a
+pulley above it to a heavy weight; the upstroke is accomplished by
+the descent of the weight, which pulls the piston to the top of the
+cylinder; gunpowder placed in a tray at the bottom of the cylinder
+is now ignited, and expels the air with which the cylinder is
+filled through a shifting valve, and, after the products of
+combustion have cooled, a partial vacuum takes place and the
+atmospheric pressure forces down the piston to the bottom of its
+stroke, during which work may be obtained.</p>
+
+<p>On the board I have made a sketch of this engine. Some years
+previous to Huyghens' proposal, the Abbe Hautefeuille (1678)
+proposed a gunpowder engine without piston for pumping water. It is
+similar to Savery's steam engine, but using the pressure of the
+explosion instead of the pressure of steam. This engine, however,
+had no piston, and was only applicable as a pump. The Savery
+principle still survives in the action of the well-known pulsometer
+steam pump.</p>
+
+<p>Denys Papin, the pupil and assistant of Huyghens, continued
+experimenting upon the production of motive power, and in 1690
+published a description of his attempts at Leipzig, entitled "A New
+Method of Securing Cheaply Motive Power of Considerable
+Magnitude."</p>
+
+<p>He mentions the gunpowder engine, and states that "until now all
+experiments have been unsuccessful; and after the combustion of the
+exploded powder there always remains in the cylinder one-fifth of
+its volume of air."</p>
+
+<p>For the explosion of the gunpowder he substituted the generation
+and condensation of steam, heating the bottom of his cylinder by a
+fire; a small quantity of water contained in it was vaporized, and
+then on removing the fire the steam condensed and the piston was
+forced down. This was substantially the Newcomen steam engine, but
+without the separate boiler.</p>
+
+<p>Papin died about the year 1710, a disappointed man, about the
+same time as Newcomen. Thomas Newcomen, ironmonger and blacksmith,
+of Dartmouth, England, had first succeeded in getting his engine to
+work. The hard fight to wrest from nature a manageable motive power
+and to harness fire for industrial use was continued by this clever
+blacksmith, and he succeeded when the more profound but less
+constructively skillful philosophers had failed.</p>
+
+<p>The success of the steam method and the fight necessary to
+perfect it to the utmost absorbed the energy of most able
+engineers&mdash;Beighton, John Smeaton&mdash;accomplishing much in
+applying and perfecting it before the appearance of James Watt upon
+the scene.</p>
+
+<p>It is interesting to note that in England alone over 2,000 horse
+power of Newcomen engines were at work before Watt commenced his
+series of magnificent inventions; he commenced experimenting on a
+Newcomen engine model in 1759 at Glasgow University, and in 1774
+came to Birmingham, entered into partnership with Boulton, and 1781
+we find his beautiful double acting beam condensing engine in
+successful work.</p>
+
+<p>From that time until now the steam engine has steadily advanced,
+increasing in economy of fuel from 10 lb. of coal per horse power
+per hour to about 1&frac34; lb. per horse power per hour, which is
+the best result of to-day's steam engine practice. This result,
+according to the highest authorities, is so near to the theoretical
+result possible from a steam engine that further improvement cannot
+now be looked for. Simultaneously with the development of the steam
+engine, inventors continued to struggle with the direct acting
+combustion or gas engine, often without any definite understanding
+of why they should attempt such apparent impossibilities, but
+always by their experiments and repeated failures increasing
+knowledge, and forming a firm road upon which those following them
+traveled to success.</p>
+
+<p>In 1791 John Barber obtained a patent for an engine producing
+inflammable gas, mixing it with air, igniting it, and allowing the
+current so produced to impinge upon a reaction wheel, producing
+motion similar to the well known Aelopile, which I have at work
+upon the table. About this time, Murdoch (Jas. Watt's assistant at
+Birmingham) was busy introducing coal gas into use for lighting; in
+1792 Boulton and Watt's works were lighted up with coal gas. From
+this time many gas engines were proposed, and the more
+impracticable combustion of gunpowder received less attention.</p>
+
+<p>In 1794 Thomas Mead obtained a patent for an engine using the
+internal combustion of gas; the description is not a clear one, his
+ideas seem confused.</p>
+
+<p>In the same year Robert Street obtained a patent for an engine
+which is not unlike some now in use. The bottom of a cylinder,
+containing a piston, is heated by a fire, a few drops of spirits of
+turpentine are introduced and evaporated by the heat, the piston is
+drawn up, and air entering mixes with the inflammable vapor. A
+light is applied at a touch hole, and the explosion drives up the
+piston, which, working on a lever, forces down the piston of a pump
+for pumping water. Robt. Street adds to his description a note:
+"The quantity of spirits of tar or turpentine to be made use of is
+always proportional to the confined space, in general about 10
+drops to a cubic foot." This engine is quite a workable one,
+although the arrangements described are very crude.</p>
+
+<p>The first gas engine that was actually at work for some years;
+and was applied to a variety of purposes, was Samuel Buren's. His
+patent was granted in 1823, and in 1826 he built a locomotive
+carriage with which he made several experimental runs in London; he
+also propelled a vessel with it upon the Thames, and fitted up a
+large engine for pumping purposes. A company was formed to
+introduce his engine, but it proved too wasteful of fuel, and the
+company went into voluntary liquidation. Like almost all engines of
+this time, the combustion of gas and air was used to produce a
+vacuum, the piston being driven by atmospheric pressure.</p>
+
+<p>Buren's locomotive carriage was thus in action three years
+before the great trial in 1829, from which George Stephenson
+emerged victorious with his wonderful engine "The Rocket." To those
+curious in the matter, I may mention that S. Buren's patents are
+dated 1823, No. 4,874, and 1826, No. 5,350.</p>
+
+<p>From this time on, a continuous series of gas engine patents
+appear, 20 engines being patented between 1826 and 1860, which is
+the next date worthy of particular mention.</p>
+
+<p>In this year, 1860, the famous "Lenoir" engine appeared. The use
+of high pressure steam engines had long been common, and Lenoir's
+engine was analogous to the high pressure engine, as Buren's was to
+the condensing engine. It created a very general interest, and many
+engines were constructed and used in France, England, and America;
+it resembled very much in external appearance an ordinary high
+pressure horizontal steam engine, and it was double acting.</p>
+
+<p>During the following six years, other 20 British patents were
+granted, and the gas engine passed from the state of a troublesome
+toy to a practicable and widely useful machine.</p>
+
+<p>From 1791 to the end of 1866, in all 46 British patents were
+granted for gas engines, and in these patents are to be found the
+principles upon which the gas engines of to-day are constructed,
+many years elapsing before experience enough was gained to turn the
+proposals of the older inventors to practical account.</p>
+
+<p>The most important of these patents are:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=
+"Important Patents">
+<tr>
+<th align='left'>&nbsp;</th>
+<th align='left'>No.&nbsp;</th>
+<th align='left'>Year.</th>
+<th align='left'>&nbsp;</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Robert Street</td>
+<td align='right'>1,983</td>
+<td align='right'>1794</td>
+<td align='left'>Direct-acting engine.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Samuel Buren</td>
+<td align='right'>4,874</td>
+<td align='right'>1823</td>
+<td align='left'>Vacuum engine.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Samuel Buren</td>
+<td align='right'>5,350</td>
+<td align='right'>1826</td>
+<td align='left'>Vacuum engine.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>W.L. Wright</td>
+<td align='right'>6,525</td>
+<td align='right'>1833</td>
+<td align='left'>Direct-acting engine.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Wm. Barnett</td>
+<td align='right'>7,615</td>
+<td align='right'>1838</td>
+<td align='left'>Compression first proposed.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Barsante &amp; Matteucci</td>
+<td align='right'>1,072</td>
+<td align='right'>1854</td>
+<td align='left'>Rack &amp; clutch engine.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Drake</td>
+<td align='right'>562</td>
+<td align='right'>1855</td>
+<td align='left'>Direct-acting engine.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Lenoir</td>
+<td align='right'>335</td>
+<td align='right'>1860</td>
+<td align='left'>D.I. engine, electric ignition.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>C.W. Siemens</td>
+<td align='right'>2,074</td>
+<td align='right'>1860</td>
+<td align='left'>Compression, <i>constant pressure</i>.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Hugon</td>
+<td align='right'>2,902</td>
+<td align='right'>1860</td>
+<td align='left'>Platinum ignition.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Millein</td>
+<td align='right'>1,840</td>
+<td align='right'>1861</td>
+<td align='left'>Compression, both constant vol. and
+<i>pressure</i>.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>F.H. Wenham</td>
+<td align='right'>1,873</td>
+<td align='right'>1864</td>
+<td align='left'>Free piston.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Hugon</td>
+<td align='right'>986</td>
+<td align='right'>1865</td>
+<td align='left'>Flame ignition.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Otto and Langen</td>
+<td align='right'>434</td>
+<td align='right'>1866</td>
+<td align='left'>Rack and clutch, flame ignition.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Leaving for the present the history of the gas engine, which
+brings us to a stage comparable to the state of the steam engine
+during the Newcomen's time, it will be advisable to give some
+consideration to the principles concerned in the economical and
+efficient working of gas engines, in order to understand the more
+recent developments.</p>
+
+<p>It has been seen that gunpowder was the explosive used to
+produce a vacuum in Huyghens' engine, and that it was abandoned in
+favor of gas by Buren in 1823. The reason of departure is very
+obvious: a gunpowder explosion and a gaseous explosion differ in
+very important practical points.</p>
+
+<p>Gunpowder being a solid substance is capable of being packed
+into a very small space; the gas evolved by its decomposition is so
+great in volume that, even in the absence of any evolution of heat,
+a very high pressure would result. One cubic inch of gunpowder
+confined in a space of one cubic inch would cause a pressure by the
+gas it contains alone of 15,000 lb. per square inch; if the heating
+effect be allowed for, pressures of four times that amount, or
+60,000 lb. per square inch, are easily accounted for. These
+pressures are far too high for use in any engine, and the bare
+possibility of getting such pressure by accident put gunpowder
+quite outside the purpose of the engineer, quite apart from any
+question of comparative cost. In a proper mixture of inflammable
+gas and air is found an exceedingly safe explosive, perfectly
+manageable and quite incapable of producing pressures in any sense
+dangerous to a properly constructed engine.</p>
+
+<p>The pressure produced by the explosion of any mixture of gas and
+air is strictly determined and limited, whereas the pressure
+produced by the explosion of gunpowder depends greatly upon the
+relation between the volume of the gunpowder and the space in which
+it is confined.</p>
+
+<p>Engines of the "Lenoir" type are the simplest in idea and
+construction; in them a mixture of gas and air is made in the
+cylinder during the first half of the piston stroke, air being
+taken from the atmosphere and drawn into the cylinder by the
+forward movement of the piston. At the same time gas entering by a
+number of holes, and streaming into the air to form an explosive
+mixture, the movement of a valve cuts off the supply, and brings
+the igniting arrangement into action. The pressure produced by the
+explosion acting upon the piston makes it complete its stroke, when
+the exhaust valve opens exactly as in the steam engine. The Lenoir
+and Hugon engines, the earlier forms of this type, were double
+acting, receiving two impulses for every revolution of the crank,
+the impulse differing from that in a high pressure steam engine in
+commencing at half stroke.</p>
+
+<p>The Lenoir igniting arrangement was complicated and troublesome.
+I have it upon the table; the mixture was ignited at the proper
+time by the electric spark produced from a primary battery and
+Ruhmkorff coil.</p>
+
+<p>The Hugon engine was an advance in this respect, using a flame
+ignited, and securing greater certainty of action in a
+comparatively simple manner.</p>
+
+<p>It is really a modification of Barnett's lighting cock described
+in his patent of 1838.</p>
+
+<p>Other difficulties were found in using these engines; the
+pistons became exceedingly hot. In the case of the Lenoir larger
+engines, it sometimes became red hot, and caused complete ruin of
+the cylinder by scoring and cutting up. Hugon to prevent this
+injected some water.</p>
+
+<p>In the all important question of economy, these engines were
+found grievously wanting, Lenoir consuming 95 cubic feet per I.H.P.
+per hour; Hugon consuming 85 cubic feet per I.H.P. per hour.</p>
+
+<p>The surviving engines of this type are only used for very small
+powers, from one to four man power, or &#8539; to &frac12; horse,
+the most widely known of this kind being the "Bischoff," which is
+very largely used; its consumption of gas is even greater than the
+Lenoir, being 110 cubic feet per horse power per hour, as tested
+with a half-horse engine at a late exhibition of gas apparatus at
+Stockport.</p>
+
+<p>So large a consumption of gas prevented these engines coming
+into extended use for engines of moderate power, and led inventors
+to work to obtain better results. The force generated by the
+explosion of a mixture of gas and air is very short lived, and if
+it is to be fully utilized must be used quickly; a high pressure is
+produced, but it very quickly disappears.</p>
+
+<p>The quicker the piston moves after the maximum pressure is
+reached, the less will be the loss of heat to the sides of the
+cylinder. The flame which fills the cylinder and causes the
+increase of pressure rapidly loses heat, and the pressure
+falls.</p>
+
+<p>The idea of using a free piston was proposed as a remedy; it was
+thought that a piston connected to a crank in the ordinary manner
+could not move fast enough to utilize the pressure before it was
+lost. Many inventors proposed to perform work upon a piston free
+from any direct connection with the crank or shaft of the engine;
+the explosion after attaining its maximum pressure expends its
+force in giving velocity to a piston; the velocity so acquired
+carries it on against atmospheric pressure until the energy is all
+absorbed, and a vacuum or deficit of pressure exists in the
+cylinder instead of an excess of pressure. The return stroke is
+accomplished by the atmospheric pressure, and the work is now done
+upon the engine shaft on the return only. The method of connecting
+on the return stroke while leaving the piston free on the out
+stroke varies, but in many engines the principle was the same.</p>
+
+<p>Barsante and Matteucci, year 1857, British patent No. 1,625,
+describe the first engine of this kind, but Messrs. Otto and Langen
+were the first to successfully overcome all difficulties and make a
+marketable engine of it. Their patent was dated 1866, No. 434. To
+distinguish it from Otto's later patents, it may be called the rack
+and clutch engine.</p>
+
+<p>The economy obtained by this engine was a great advance upon the
+Lenoir. According to a test by Prof. Tresca, at the Paris
+Exhibition of 1867, the gas consumed was 44 cubic feet per
+indicated horse power per hour. According to tests I have made
+myself in Manchester with a two horse power engine, Otto and
+Langen's free piston engine consumes 40 cubic feet per I.H.P. per
+hour. This is less than one-half of the gas used by the Hugon
+engine for one horse power.</p>
+
+<p>The igniting arrangement is a very good modification of
+Barnett's lighting cock, which I have explained already, but a
+slide valve is used instead of a cock.</p>
+
+<p>Other engines carried out the same principle in a different
+manner, including Gilles' engine, but they were not commercially so
+successful as the Otto and Langen. Mr. F.H. Wenham's engine was of
+this type, and was working in England, Mr. Wenham informed me, in
+1866, his patent being taken out in 1864.</p>
+
+<p>The great objection to this kind of engine is the irregularity
+and great noise in working; this was so great as to prevent engines
+from being made larger than three horse power. The engine, however,
+did good work, and was largely used from 1866 until the end of
+1876, when Mr. Otto produced his famous engine, now known as "The
+Otto Silent Gas Engine." In this engine great economy is attained
+without the objectionable free piston by a method proposed first by
+Burnett, 1838, and also by a Frenchman, Millein, in 1861; this
+method is compression before ignition. Other inventors also
+described very clearly the advantages to be expected from
+compression, but none were able to make it commercially successful
+till Mr. Otto. To him belongs the great credit of inventing a cycle
+of operations capable of realizing compression in a simple
+manner.</p>
+
+<p>Starting from the same point as inventors did to produce the
+free piston engine&mdash;namely, that the more quickly the
+explosive force is utilized, the less will be the loss, and the
+greater the power produced from a quantity of burning gas&mdash;it
+is evident that if any method can be discovered to increase the
+pressure upon the piston without increasing the temperature of the
+flame causing this pressure, then a great gain will result, and the
+engine will convert more of the heat given to it into work. This is
+exactly what is done by compression before ignition. Suppose we
+take a mixture of gas and air of such proportions as to cause when
+exploded, or rather ignited (because explosion is too strong a
+term), a pressure of 45 lb. above atmosphere, or 60 lb. per square
+inch absolute pressure. Then this mixture, if compressed to half
+volume before igniting and kept at constant temperature, would
+give, when ignited, a pressure of 120 lb. total, or 105 lb. above
+atmosphere, and this without any increase of the temperature of the
+flame.</p>
+
+<p>The effect of compression is to make a small piston do the work
+of a large one, and convert more heat into work by lessening the
+loss of heat through the walls of the cylinder. In addition to this
+advantage, greater expansions are made possible, and therefore
+greatly increase economy.</p>
+
+<p>The Otto engine must be so familiar in appearance to all of you,
+that I need hardly trouble you with details of its external
+appearance. I shall briefly describe its action. Its strong points
+and its weak points are alike caused by its cycle. One cylinder and
+piston suffices to carry out its whole action. Its cycle is: First
+outstroke, gas and air sucked into the cylinder; first instroke,
+gas and air compressed into space; second outstroke, impulse due to
+ignition; second instroke, discharge of exhausted gases. When
+working at full power, it gets one impulse for every two
+revolutions; this seems to be a retrograde movement, but,
+notwithstanding, the advantages obtained are very great. The
+igniting arrangement is in the main similar to that used on the
+rack and clutch engine. The engine has been exceedingly successful,
+and is very economical. The Otto compression engine consumes 21
+cubic feet of gas per I.H.P. per hour, and runs with great
+smoothness.</p>
+
+<p>In 1876 I commenced my work upon gas engines, and very soon
+concluded that the compression system was the true line to proceed
+upon. It took me two years to produce a workable engine. My efforts
+have always been directed toward producing an engine giving at
+least one impulse every revolution and, if possible, to start
+without hand labor, just as a steam engine does. My first gas
+engine was running in 1878, and patented and exhibited in 1879. It
+was first exhibited at the Kilburn Royal Agricultural Society's
+show.</p>
+
+<p>This engine was self-starting, gave an ignition at every
+revolution, and ignited without external flame. It consisted of two
+cylinders, a motor, and a compressing pump, with a small
+intermediate reservoir. Suitable valves introduced the mixture of
+gas and air into the pump, and passed it when compressed from the
+reservoir to the motor cylinder. The igniting arrangement consisted
+of a platinum cage firmly fixed in a valve port; this cage was
+heated in the first instance by a flame of gas and air mixed; it
+became white hot in a few seconds, and then the engine was started
+by opening a valve.</p>
+
+<p>The platinum was kept hot by the heat derived from the
+successive ignitions, and, the engine once started, no further
+external flame was required. I have here one of these platinum
+cages which has been in use. Finding this method not well suited
+for small engines, I produced the engine which is at present in the
+market under my name.</p>
+
+<p>The cycle is different, and is designed for greater simplicity
+and the avoidance of back ignitions. It also consists of two
+cylinders, motor cylinder and the displace or charging cylinder.
+There is no intermediate reservoir. The displace crank leads the
+motor by a right angle, and takes into it the mixed charge of gas
+and air, in some cases taking air alone during the latter part of
+its stroke.</p>
+
+<p>The motor on the outstroke crosses V-shaped parts about from
+one-sixth to one-seventh from the out end, the displacer charge now
+passing into the motor cylinder, displacing the exhaust gases by
+these ports and filling the cylinder and the space at the end of it
+with the explosive mixture. The introduction of some air in advance
+of the charge serves the double purpose of cooling down the exhaust
+gases and preventing direct contact of the inflammable mixture with
+flame which may linger in the cylinder from the previous stroke.
+The instroke of the motor compresses the charge into the conical
+space at the end of the cylinder, and, when fully compressed,
+ignition is effected by means of the slide I have upon the
+table.</p>
+
+<p>This system of ignition has been found very reliable, and
+capable of acting as often as 400 times per minute, which the Otto
+ignite is quite incapable of doing. By this cycle the advantages of
+compression are gained and one step nearer to the steam engine is
+attained, that is, an impulse is given for every revolution of the
+engine.</p>
+
+<p>As a consequence, I am able with my engine to give a greater
+amount of power for a comparatively small weight. In addition to
+this, I have introduced a method of self-starting; in this I
+believe I was the first&mdash;about 100 of my engines are now using
+self-starting.</p>
+
+<p>The largest single engine I have yet made indicates 30 H.P. The
+consumption of gas in Glasgow is: Clerk engine consumes in Glasgow
+18 cubic feet per I.H.P. per hour; Clerk engine consumes in
+Manchester 22 cubic feet per I.H.P. per hour. So far as I know, the
+Otto engine and my own are the only compression engines which have
+as yet made any success in the market. Other engines are being
+continually prepared, gas engine patents being taken out just now
+at the rate of 60 per annum, but none of them have been able as yet
+to get beyond the experimental stage. The reason is simply the
+great experience necessary to produce these machines, which seem so
+very simple; but to the inexperienced inventor the subject fairly
+bristles with pitfalls.</p>
+
+<p>I have here sections of some of the earlier engines, including
+Dr. Siemens' and Messrs. Simon and Beechy. Although interesting and
+containing many good points, these have not been practically
+successful.</p>
+
+<p>The Simon engine is an adaptation of the well-known American
+petroleum motor, the Brayton, the only difference consisting in the
+use of steam as well as flame.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Siemens worked for some twenty years on gas engines, but he
+aimed rather high at first to attain even moderate success. Had he
+lived, I doubt not but that he would have succeeded in introducing
+them for large powers. In 1882 he informed me that he had in hand a
+set of gas engines of some hundreds of horse power for use on board
+ship, to be supplied with gas from one of his gas producers
+modified to suit the altered conditions.</p>
+
+<p>Summarizing the ground over which we have passed, we find the
+origin of the gas engine in the minds of the same men as were first
+to propose the steam engine, Huyghens and Papin, 1680 and 1690.
+Greater mechanical difficulties and ignorance of the nature of
+explosives caused the abandonment of the internal combustion idea,
+and the mechanical difficulties with steam being less, the steam
+engine became successful, and triumphed over its rival. The
+knowledge and skill gained in the construction of steam engines
+made it possible once again to attack the more difficult problem,
+and simultaneously with the introduction and perfecting of the
+steam engine, the gas engine idea became more and more possible,
+the practicable stage commencing with Lenoir and continuing with
+Hugon, Millein, Otto and Langen, F.H. Wenham, then Otto and Clerk.
+In 1860, 95 cubic feet of gas produced one horse power for an hour;
+in 1867, 40 cubic feet accomplished the same thing; and now (1885)
+we can get one horse power for an hour for from 15 to 20 cubic feet
+of gas, depending on the size of the engine used.</p>
+
+<p>Considered as a heat engine, the gas engine is now twice as
+efficient as the very best modern steam engine. It is true the fuel
+used at present is more expensive than coal, and for large powers
+the steam engine is the best because of this. But the way is
+clearing to change this. Gas engines as at present, if supplied
+with producer gas, produced direct from coal without leaving any
+coke, as is done in the Siemens, the Wilson, and the Dawson
+producers, will give power at one-half the cost of steam power.
+They will use &#8542; of a pound of coal per horse power per hour,
+instead of 1&frac34; lb., as is done in the best steam engines. The
+only producer that makes gas for gas engines at present is the
+Dawson, and in it anthracite is used, because of the difficulty of
+getting rid of the tar coming from the Siemens and Wilson
+producers, using any ordinary slack.</p>
+
+<p>When this difficulty has been overcome, and that it will be
+overcome there can be no manner of doubt, gas engines will rapidly
+displace the steam engine, because a gas engine with a gas
+producer, producing gas from any ordinary coal with the same ease
+as steam is produced from a boiler, will be much safer, and will
+use one-half the fuel of the very best steam engines for equal
+power. The first cost also will not be greater than that of steam.
+The engine itself will be more expensive than a steam engine of
+equal power, but the gas producer will be less expensive than the
+boiler at present. Perfect as the gas engine now is, considered as
+a machine for converting heat into work, the possibility of great
+development is not yet exhausted. Its economy may be increased two
+or even three fold; in this lies the brilliant future before it.
+The steam engine is nearly as perfect as it can be made; it
+approaches very nearly the possibility of its theory. Its defect
+does not lie in its mechanism, but in the very properties of water
+and steam itself. The loss of heat which takes place in converting
+liquid water into gaseous steam is so great that by far the greater
+portion of the heat given out by the fuel passes away either in the
+condenser or the exhaust of a steam engine; but a small proportion
+of the heat is converted into work.</p>
+
+<p>The very best steam engines convert about 11 per cent. of the
+heat given them into useful work, the remaining 89 per cent. being
+wasted, principally in the exhaust of the engine.</p>
+
+<p>Gas engines now convert 20 per cent. of the heat given to them
+into work, and very probably will, in a few years more, convert 60
+per cent. into useful work. The conclusion, then, is irresistible
+that, when engineers have gained greater experience with gas
+engines and gas producers, they will displace steam engines
+entirely for every use&mdash;mills, locomotives, and ships.</p>
+
+<a name="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1">[1]</a>
+
+<div class="note">Lecture by Mr. Dugald Clerk, before the Literary
+and Philosophical Society, Oldham.</div>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="4"></a></p>
+
+<h2>RAPID CONSTRUCTION OF THE CANADIAN PACIFIC RAILWAY.</h2>
+
+<h3>By E.T. ABBOTT, Member of the Engineers' Club of Minnesota.
+Read December 12, 1884.</h3>
+
+<p>During the winter of 1881 and 1882, the contract was let to
+Messrs. Langdon, Sheppard &amp; Co., of Minneapolis, to construct
+during the working season of the latter year, or prior to January
+1, 1883, 500 miles of railroad on the western extension of the
+above company; the contract being for the grading, bridging,
+track-laying, and surfacing, also including the laying of the
+necessary depot sidings and their grading. The idea that any such
+amount of road could be built in that country in that time was
+looked upon by the writer hereof, as well as by railroad men
+generally, as a huge joke, perpetrated to gull the Canadians. At
+the time the contract was let, the Canadian Pacific Railway was in
+operation to Brandon, the crossing of the Assiniboine River, 132
+miles west of Winnipeg. The track was laid, however, to a point
+about 50 miles west of this, and the grading done generally in an
+unfinished state for thirty miles further. This was the condition
+of things when the contract was entered into to build 500
+miles&mdash;the east end of the 500-mile contract being at Station
+4,660 (Station 0 being at Brandon) and extending west to a few
+miles beyond the Saskatchewan River.</p>
+
+<p>The spring of 1882 opened in the most unpromising manner for
+railroad operations, being the wettest ever known in that country.
+Traffic over the St. Paul, Minneapolis &amp; Manitoba Railroad,
+between St. Paul and Winnipeg, was entirely suspended from April 15
+to the 28th, owing to the floods on the Red River at St. Vincent
+and Emerson, a serious blow to an early start, as on this single
+track depended the transportation of all supplies, men, timber, and
+contractors' plant, together with all track materials (except
+ties), all of these things having to come from or through St. Paul
+and Minneapolis. The writer hereof was appointed a division
+engineer, and reported at Winnipeg the 15th of April, getting
+through on the last train before the St. Vincent flood. No sooner
+was the line open from St. Paul to Winnipeg than the cotillon
+opened between Winnipeg and Brandon, with a succession of washouts
+that defied and defeated all efforts to get trains over, so it was
+not until the fifth day of May that I left Winnipeg to take charge
+of the second division of 30 miles.</p>
+
+<p>By extremely "dizzy" speed I was landed at the end of the track,
+180 miles from Winnipeg, on the evening of the 9th (4 days). My
+outfit consisted of three assistant engineers and the necessary
+paraphernalia for three complete camps, 30 days' provisions (which
+turned out to be about 20), 11 carts and ponies, the latter being
+extremely poor after a winter's diet on buffalo grass and no grain.
+On the 18th day of May I had my division organized and camps in
+running order. The country was literally under water, dry ground
+being the exception, and I look upon the feat of getting across the
+country at all as the engineering triumph of my life.</p>
+
+<p>On May 20 a genuine blizzard set in, lasting 24 hours, snowed
+five inches, and froze the sloughs over with half an inch of ice, a
+decidedly interesting event to the writer, as he was 18 miles from
+the nearest wood, therefore lay in his blankets and ate hard tack.
+I stabled my ponies in the cook tent, and after they had literally
+eaten of the sod inside the tent, I divided my floor with them.</p>
+
+<p>On 28th day of May I saw the first contractor, who broke ground
+at station 7,150. On the 1st of June I was relieved from this
+division, and ordered to take the next, 50 miles west. On the 13th
+day of June ground was broken on this division, at station 8,070,
+or only about 62 miles west of the east end of the 500-mile
+contract. It looked at this time as though they might build 150
+miles, but not more. But from this time on very rapid progress was
+made. On July 17 the track reached station 7,000, making however up
+to this time but about 50 miles of track-laying, including that
+laid on the old grade; but large forces were put on to surfacing,
+and the track already laid was put in excellent condition for
+getting material to the front. The weather from this until the
+freezing-up was all that could be desired. Work ceased about the
+1st of January, 1883, for the season, and the final estimate for
+the work was as follows: 6,103,986 cubic yards earth excavation,
+2,395,750 feet B.M. timber in bridges and the culverts, 85,708
+lineal feet piling, 435 miles of track-laying. This work was all
+done in 182 working days, including stormy ones, when little, if
+anything, could be done, making a daily average of 33,548 yards
+excavation, 13,150 feet B.M. timber, 471 feet piling, 2-38/100
+miles track-laying. We never had an accurate force report made of
+the whole line, but roughly there were employed 5,000 men and 1,700
+teams.</p>
+
+<p>The admirable organization of the contractors was something
+wonderful. The grading work was practically all done by
+sub-contractors, Messrs. Langdon, Sheppard &amp; Co. confining
+themselves to putting in the supplies and doing the bridge work,
+surfacing, and track-laying. The grading forces were scattered
+along about 150 miles ahead of the track and supply stores,
+established about 50 miles apart, and in no case were
+sub-contractors expected to haul supplies over 100 miles. If I
+remember rightly, there were four trains of about forty wagons
+each, hauling supplies from the end of track to the stores.</p>
+
+<p>As can be readily seen, the vital point of the whole work, and
+the problem to solve, was food for men and horses. 1,700 bushels of
+oats every day and 15,000 pounds of provisions, Sundays and all,
+for an entire season, which at the beginning of the work had to
+come about 170 miles by rail, and then be taken from 50 to 150
+miles by teams across a wilderness, is on the face of it
+considerable of an undertaking, to say nothing about hauling the
+pile-drivers, piles, and bridge-timber there. To keep from delaying
+the track, sidings 1,500 feet long were graded, about 7 miles
+apart. A side-track crew, together with an engine, four flats, and
+caboose, were always in readiness; and as soon as a siding was
+reached, in five hours the switches would be in, and the next day
+it would be surfaced and all in working order, when the operating
+department would fill it with track material and supplies. From the
+head of the siding to the end of the track the ground was in hands
+of track-laying engine, never going back of the last siding for
+supplies or material, and my recollection is that there were but
+six hours' delay to the track from lack of material the whole
+season, at any rate up to some time in November. The track-laying
+crew was equal to 4 miles per day, and in the month of August 92
+miles of track were laid. The ties were cut on the line of the road
+about 100 miles east of Winnipeg, so the shortest distance any ties
+were hauled was 270 miles; the actual daily burden of the single
+track from Winnipeg west was 24 cars steel, 24 cars ties, aside
+from the transportation of grain and provisions, bridge material,
+and lumber for station houses. The station buildings were kept
+right up by the company itself, and a depot built with rooms for
+the agent every 15 miles, or at every second siding. The importance
+of keeping the buildings up with the track was impressed on the
+mind of the superintendent of this branch, and, as a satire, he
+telegraphed asking permission to haul his stuff ahead of the track
+by teams, he being on the track-layers' heels with his stations and
+tanks the whole season. The telegraph line was also built, and kept
+right up to the end of the track, three or four miles being the
+furthest they were at any time behind.</p>
+
+<p>It might be supposed that work done so rapidly would not be well
+done, but it is the best built prairie road I know of on this
+continent. It is built almost entirely free from cuts, and the work
+is at least 20 per cent. heavier than would ordinarily be made
+across the same country in the States, on account of snow. 2,640
+ties were laid to the mile, and the track ballasting kept well up
+with the laying; so well, in fact, and so well done, that as 100
+mile sections were completed schedule trains were put on 20 miles
+an hour, and the operating department had nothing to do but make a
+time table; the road was <i>built</i> by the construction
+department before the operating department was asked to take it.
+The engineering was organized in divisions of 30 miles each, and as
+each was finished the parties moved ahead again to the front, the
+engineers usually finding men sitting on their shovels waiting for
+the work to be laid out for them. It was as much as the locating
+parties could do to keep out of the way of the construction. The
+roadbed was built 14 ft. wide in embankment and 20 in the very few
+cuts there were, there being no cuts of any moment except through
+the Coteaus and the Saskatchewan crossing, and these have since
+been widened out on account of snow, so that the road can be
+operated the year round and the bucking-snow account cut no figure
+in the operating expenses.</p>
+
+<p>The country is a virgin desert. From Winnipeg to the Pacific
+Ocean there are a few places that might attain to the dignity of an
+<i>oasis</i>&mdash;at Brandon, Portage la Prairie, etc.&mdash;but
+it is generally what I should call worthless; 100 miles to wood and
+100 feet to water was the general experience west of the Moose jaw,
+and the months of June, July, and August are the only three in the
+year that it is safe to bet you will not have sleighing. I burned
+wood and used stakes that were hauled by carts 85 miles, and none
+any nearer. It is a matter of some pride that both the engineering
+and the construction were done by what our Canadian neighbors
+kindly termed "Yankee importations." However, there was one thing
+that in the building of this road was in marked contrast to any
+other Pacific road ever constructed, that is, there was no
+lawlessness, no whisky, and not even a knock-down fight that I ever
+heard of the whole season, and even in the midst of 12,000 Indians,
+all armed with Winchester rifles and plenty of ammunition, not one
+of the locating or construction parties ever had a military escort,
+nor were any depredations ever committed, except the running off of
+a few horses, which were usually recovered; and I think there were
+but two fatal accidents during the season, one man killed on the
+Grand Coule Bridge, and another from being kicked by a horse.</p>
+
+<p>The track was all laid from one end, and in no case were rails
+hauled ahead by teams. Two iron cars were used, the empty returning
+one being turned up beside the track to let the loaded one by.</p>
+
+<p>The feat in rapid construction accomplished by this company will
+never be duplicated, done as it was by a reckless expenditure of
+money, the orders to the engineers being to <i>get there</i>
+regardless of expense and horse-flesh; if you killed a horse by
+hard driving, his harness would fit another, and there was no
+scrutiny bestowed on vouchers when the work was done; and I must
+pay the tribute to the company to say that everything that money
+would buy was sent to make the engineers comfortable. It was bad
+enough at best, and the Chief Engineer (J.C. James) rightly
+considered that any expense bestowed on the engineering part of the
+work was a good investment.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="5"></a></p>
+
+<h2>THE OSGOOD MAMMOTH EXCAVATOR.</h2>
+
+<p>In the accompanying illustration, we present to our readers a
+mammoth excavator, built by the Osgood Dredge Company of Albany,
+N.Y., for the Pacific Guano Company of California, for uncovering
+their phosphate deposits on Chisholm Island, South Colombia.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/4a.png"><img src=
+"./images/4a_th.jpg" alt=" THE OSGOOD MAMMOTH EXCAVATOR."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">THE OSGOOD MAMMOTH EXCAVATOR.</p>
+
+<p>In order to bring out more clearly the principal problem
+involved in the construction of this machine, we shall state first
+the proposed method of its operation. This is as follows, viz.: The
+excavator is to dig a trench thirty feet wide, down to the
+phosphate rock, and the entire length of the bed&mdash;about one
+quarter of a mile&mdash;dumping the earth of the first cut to one
+side. The phosphate is taken out behind the excavator. On reaching
+the end of the bed, the excavator is reversed and starts back,
+making a second cut thirty feet wide, and dumping now into the cut
+from which the phosphate has just been removed. In this way the
+entire bed is traversed, the excavator turning over the earth in
+great furrows thirty feet wide, and giving an opportunity to
+simultaneously get out all the phosphate.</p>
+
+<p>As will be seen, the main problem presented was to turn the car
+around at each end of the cut in a very limited space. To
+accomplish this, the car is mounted on a fixed axle at each end and
+on a truck under its center of gravity; this is somewhat forward of
+the geometrical center of the car. The frame of the truck is
+circular, thirteen feet in diameter, made of I beams curved to
+shape. The circle carries a track, on which a ring of coned rollers
+revolves, which in turn supports the car. By pulling out the track
+from under both ends of the car, the whole weight is balanced on
+this central turntable truck, thus admitting of the car being
+turned, end for end, within its own length. This method of turning
+the car, and the size of the machine, are the principal
+features.</p>
+
+<p>The car is 40' &times; 13', with arched truss sides. The track
+is seven feet gauge, the spread between tracks 20 feet, the height
+of the A frame 38 feet, length of boom 40 feet, swinging in a
+circle of 30 feet radius, and through two-thirds of the entire
+circle. It has a steel dipper of 46 cubic feet capacity, 1 inch
+steel chains, 10" &times; 12" double cylinder hoisting engine, and
+6&frac14;" &times; 8" double cylinder reversible crowding engine.
+The drums are fitted with friction clutches. Owing to the great
+distance at which the dipper is handled, its size is reduced, and
+because it swings on the arc of so large a circle the capacity of
+this machine is only one-half of that of the No. 1 excavator built
+by the Osgood Dredge Company. Nevertheless it will do the work of
+from 75 to 100 men, since its capacity is from 800 to 1,000 cubic
+yards per day, the amount of rock <i>uncovered</i> depending, of
+course, upon the depth of earth overlying it. The excavator will
+dump 30 feet from the center line of the car, and 26 feet above the
+track, which is laid on the rock. Total weight about fifty tons.
+The crew required for its operation consists of 1 engineer, 1
+fireman, 1 craneman, and 4 to 5 pit men to tend jacks, move track,
+etc.</p>
+
+<p>In the illustration the boiler connections are omitted, also the
+housing for the protection of the crew. The design is characterized
+by the evident care which has been bestowed upon securing
+simplicity and durability.&mdash;<i>American Engineer.</i></p>
+
+<hr>
+<h2>THE OSGOOD EXCAVATOR.</h2>
+
+<p>At a recent meeting of the Engineers' Club of Philadelphia, Mr.
+John C. Trautwine, Jr., exhibited and described drawings of a large
+land dredge built by the Osgood Dredge Co., of Albany, New York,
+for the Pacific Guano Co., to be used in removing 8 to 15 feet of
+material from the phosphate rock at Bull River, S.C.</p>
+
+<p>The more prominent features of the machine are the car-body, the
+water tank, boiler and engine, the A frame (so-called from its
+slight resemblance to the letter A), the boom, the dipper-handle;
+and the dipper, drawings of which were shown and described in
+detail.</p>
+
+<p>Before the excavation is begun, the forward end of the car (the
+end nearest the dipper) is lifted clear of the track by means of 3
+screw-jacks. When the machine has excavated as far in advance of
+itself as the length of the boom and that of the dipper-handle will
+permit, say about 8 feet, the car is again lowered to the track,
+the screw-jacks removed, and the car is moved forward about 8 feet
+by winding the rope upon the drum, the other end of the rope being
+attached to any suitable fixed object near the line of the track.
+The forward end of the car is then again lifted by means of the 3
+screw-jacks, and the digging is resumed. The machine cuts a channel
+from 25 to 35 feet wide, and deposits all the dirt upon one side.
+If necessary, it can dump earth about 25 feet above the track. The
+miners follow in the wake of the machine, getting out the phosphate
+as fast as it is uncovered. When the machine reaches the end of the
+field it is lowered to the track and the screw-jacks are removed.
+Shoes or skids are then placed upon the track, and the wheels of
+the turntable are run up on them. This lifts the end wheels clear
+of the track, so that the car and machine rest entirely upon the
+turntable. By now blocking the turntable wheels and winding up only
+<i>one</i> of the ropes, the car body and the machine are swung
+around end for end. The digging is then resumed in the opposite
+direction, the temporary track, upon which the machine travels,
+being shifted to one side, so that the second channel is made
+alongside of the first. The earth removed in cutting this second
+channel is dumped into the first channel, the phosphate (as stated
+above) having been first removed.</p>
+
+<p>The dipper is of plate steel, and holds 1&frac34; cubic yards of
+earth when even full.</p>
+
+<p>The machine is manned by an engineer, a fireman, and a
+dipper-tender, besides which from five to ten laborers are
+required. These look after the track, etc.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="6"></a></p>
+
+<h2>CAPSTAN NAVIGATION ON THE VOLGA.</h2>
+
+<p>On several of the large rivers on the Continent, with rapid
+currents, cable towage has been introduced in addition to the older
+methods of transporting merchandise by sailing and steam boats or
+by towage with screw or paddle tugs. A chain or wire rope is laid
+on the bottom of the river bed, fixed to anchors at the ends and
+passed over a chain pulley driven by the steam engine and guided by
+pulleys on the steam tug, the tug lifting it out of the water at
+the bow and dropping it over the stern and winding itself with the
+barges attached to it along the chain, the latter being utilized as
+a rule only for the up journey, while down the river the tugs are
+propelled by paddles or screws, and can tow a sufficient number of
+barges with the assistance of the current. The system has been
+found advantageous, as, although the power required for drawing the
+barges and tugs against the current is of course the same in all
+cases, the slip and waste of power by screws and paddles is
+avoided. The size of the screws or paddles is also limited by the
+nature of the river and its traffic, and with cable towage a larger
+number of barges can be hauled, while the progress made is definite
+and there is no drifting back, as occurs with paddle or screw tugs
+when they have temporarily to slow or stop their engines on account
+of passing vessels. Several streams, as the Elbe, Rhine, and Rhone,
+have now such cables laid for long distances in those parts of the
+rivers where the traffic is sufficient to warrant the adoption of
+the system. While this has been introduced only during the last 16
+or 18 years, a similar method of transporting merchandise has been
+in use in Russia on the river Volga for upward of 40 years.
+Navigation on this river is interrupted for about half the year by
+the ice, and the traffic is of larger amount only during part of
+the summer, while the length of the river itself is very great, so
+that laying down permanent cables would not pay; while, on the
+other hand, the current is so strong that towage of some sort must
+be resorted to for the transport of large quantities. The problem
+has been solved by the introduction of the capstan navigation or
+towage.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/4b.png"><img src=
+"./images/4b_th.jpg" alt=" CAPSTAN NAVIGATION ON THE VOLGA.">
+</a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">CAPSTAN NAVIGATION ON THE VOLGA.</p>
+
+<p>There are two kinds of capstans in use, one actuated by
+horse-power and the other by steam engines. A horse capstan boat
+carries according to size 150 to 200 horses, which are stabled in
+the hold. On deck a number of horse gears are arranged at which the
+horses work. The power of the separate gears is transmitted to a
+main shaft, which is connected to the drums that wind on the rope.
+The horses work under an awning to protect them from the burning
+sunshine, and are changed every three hours. Eight and sometimes
+ten horses work at each horse gear. The horses are changed without
+interruption of the work, the gears being disengaged from the main
+shaft in rotation and the horses taken out and put in while the
+gear is standing. The horses are bought at the place of departure
+in the south of Russia and resold at the destination, usually
+Nishny-Novgorod, at a fair profit, the capstan boat carrying fodder
+and provender for the attendants. The capstan is accompanied by a
+steam launch which carries the anchor and hawser forward in advance
+of the capstan. The latter has a diameter of as much as 5 in., and
+is two to three miles in length. The anchor is dropped by the tug
+and the hawser carried back to the capstan, where it is attached to
+one of the rope drums, and the boat with the barges attached to it
+towed along by the horse gears described above winding on the
+hawser. The advance continues without interruption day and night,
+the launch taking a second anchor and hawser forward and dropping
+the anchor in advance of the first by a hawser's length, so that
+when the capstan has wound up the first hawser it finds a second
+one ready for attachment to the rope drum. The launch receives the
+first hawser, picks up the anchor, and passes the capstan to drop
+it again in advance of the anchor previously placed, and carries
+the hawser back to the capstan, and so on. A capstan tows twelve or
+more barges, placed in twos or threes beside and close behind each
+other, with a load of a million pounds, or about 16,000 to 17,000
+tons. From Astrachan and the mouth of the Kama the capstans make
+during the season from the beginning of May to the end of July in
+the most favorable case two journeys to the fair of
+Nishny-Novgorod; after this time no more journeys are made, as the
+freights are wanting. At the end of the up-stream journey the
+horses are sold, as mentioned before, and the capstan towed down
+stream by the steam launch to Astrachan or the Kama mouth, where
+meanwhile a fresh lot of barges has been loaded and got ready, a
+new supply of horses is bought, and the operation repeated.</p>
+
+<p>Besides these horse capstans there are steam capstans which are
+less complicated and have condensing steam engines of about 100
+horse power, the power being transmitted by gearing to the rope
+drum. The rope drum shaft projects on both sides beyond the boards
+of the boat, and for the return journey paddle wheels, are put on
+to assist the launch in towing the clumsy and big capstan boat down
+the river. The steam capstans tow considerably larger masses of
+goods than the horse capstans and also travel somewhat quicker, so
+that the launch has scarcely sufficient time to drop and raise the
+anchors and also to make double the journey. We do not doubt that
+this system of towage might with suitable modifications be
+advantageously employed on the large rivers in America and
+elsewhere for the slow transport of large quantities of raw
+materials and other bulky merchandise, a low speed being, as is
+well known, much more economical than a high speed, as many of the
+resistances increase as the square and even higher powers of the
+velocity.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="7"></a></p>
+
+<h2>STEAMBOAT EQUIPMENT OF WAR VESSELS.</h2>
+
+<p>The larger ships in the navy, and some of the more recent small
+ones, such as the new cruisers of the Phaeton class, are fitted
+with powerful steam winches of a type made by Messrs. Belliss and
+Co. These are used for lifting the pinnaces and torpedo boats.</p>
+
+<p>We give an illustration of one of these winches. The cylinders
+are 6 in. in diameter and 10 in. stroke. The barrel is grooved for
+wire rope, and is safe to raise the second class steel torpedo
+boats, weighing nearly 12 tons as lifted. The worm gearing is very
+carefully cut, so that the work can be done quietly and safely.
+With machinery of this kind a boat is soon put into the water, and
+as an arrangement is fitted for filling the boat's boilers with hot
+water from the ship's boilers, the small craft can be under way in
+a very short time from the order being given.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. White is fitting compound engines with outside condensers to
+boats as small as 21 ft. long, and we give a view of a pair of
+compound engines of a new design, which Messrs. Belliss are making
+for the boats of this class. The cylinders are 4 in. and 7 in. in
+diameter by 5 in. stroke. The general arrangement is well shown in
+the engraving. On a trial recently made, a 25 ft. cutter with this
+type of engines reached a speed of 7.4 knots.</p>
+
+<p>About three years ago the late Controller of the Navy, Admiral
+Sir W. Houston Stewart, wished to ascertain the relative
+consumption of fuel in various classes of small vessels. An order
+was accordingly sent to Portsmouth, and a series of trials were
+made. From the official reports of these we extract the information
+contained in tables F and G, and we think the details cannot fail
+to be of interest to our readers. The run around the island was
+made in company with other boats, without stopping, and
+observations were taken every half hour. The power given out by the
+engines was fairly constant throughout. The distance covered was 56
+knots, and the total amount of fuel consumed, including that
+required for raising steam, was 1,218 lb. of coal and 84 lb. of
+wood. The time taken in raising steam to 60 lb. pressure was
+forty-three minutes. The rate of consumption of fuel is of course
+not the lowest that could be obtained, as a speed of over 10 knots
+is higher than that at which the machinery could be worked most
+economically.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/5a.png"><img src=
+"./images/5a_th.jpg" alt=
+" STEAM WINCH FOR HOISTING AND LOWERING PINNACLES AND TORPEDO BOATS.">
+</a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">STEAM WINCH FOR HOISTING AND LOWERING PINNACLES AND
+TORPEDO BOATS.</p>
+
+<p>The trials afterward made to find the best results that could be
+obtained in fuel consumption were rather spoiled by the roughness
+of the weather on the day they were made. The same boat was run for
+10 miles around the measured mile buoys in Stokes Bay. The
+following are some of the results recorded:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=
+"Table F.&mdash;Report of Trials of Engines of H.M. 48 ft. Twin Screw Steam Pinnace, No. 110."
+ title=
+"&lt;i&gt;Table F.&mdash;Report of Trials of Engines of H.M. 48 ft. Twin Screw Steam Pinnace, No. 110.&lt;/i&gt;">
+<tr>
+<th colspan="4"><i>Table F.&mdash;Report of Trials of Engines of
+H.M. 48 ft. Twin Screw Steam Pinnace, No. 110.</i></th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Date</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>August 4, 1881.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Where tried</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>Round the Isle of Wight</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left' rowspan="2">Draught of water</td>
+<td align='left'>Forward</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>3 ft. &frac12; in.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Aft</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>3 ft. 6&frac12; in.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Average boiler pressure</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>104.81 lb.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left' rowspan="2">Average pressure in receivers</td>
+<td align='left'>Starboard</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>16.27 lb.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Port</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>16.54 lb.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Mean air pressure in stokehold</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>1.4 in. water.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Vacuum in condenser, average</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>26.72 in.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Weather barometer</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>30.37 in.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left' rowspan="2">Revolutions per minute</td>
+<td align='left'>Starboard</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>240.75</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Port</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>251.95</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left' rowspan="4">Mean pressure in cylinders</td>
+<td align='left' rowspan="2">Starboard</td>
+<td align='left'>High&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>45.33 lb.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Low</td>
+<td align='left'>16.16 lb.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left' rowspan="2">Port</td>
+<td align='left'>High</td>
+<td align='left'>43.16 lb.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Low</td>
+<td align='left'>15.3 lb.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left' rowspan="5">Indicated horse-power</td>
+<td align='left' rowspan="2">Starboard</td>
+<td align='left'>High</td>
+<td align='left'>18.20 lb.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Low</td>
+<td align='left'>16.32 lb.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left' rowspan="2">Port</td>
+<td align='left'>High</td>
+<td align='left'>18.13 lb.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Low</td>
+<td align='left'>16.17 lb.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Collective Total</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>68.82 lb.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Speed by log</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>10.18 knots.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Force of wind</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>One.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Sea</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>Smooth.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Quantity of coal on board</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>1 ton.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Description</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>Nixon's navigation.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Consumption per indicated horse-power per
+hour</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>4.17 lb.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Time under way</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>5 hrs. 30 min.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<br>
+<hr>
+<br>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=
+"Table G.&mdash;Report of Trial of Engines of H.M. 48 ft. Steam Pinnace No. 110.">
+<tr>
+<th colspan="4"><i>Table G.&mdash;Report of Trial of Engines of
+H.M. 48 ft. Steam Pinnace No. 110.</i></th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>When tried</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>August 3, 1881.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Where tried</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>Stokes Bay.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left' rowspan="2">Draught</td>
+<td align='left'>Forward</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>3 ft. 1 in.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Aft</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>3 ft. 3&frac14; in.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Average boiler pressure</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>55.52 lb.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Vacuum</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>25.12 in.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Weather barometer</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>30.35 in.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Revolutions per minute</td>
+<td align='left'>starboard</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>165.54</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'>port</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>161.55</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left' rowspan="5">Indicated horse-power<a name=
+"FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2"><sup>[2]</sup></a></td>
+<td align='left' rowspan="2">Starboard</td>
+<td align='left'>High&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>5.05</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Low</td>
+<td align='left'>5.53</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left' rowspan="2">Port</td>
+<td align='left'>High</td>
+<td align='left'>3.75</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Low</td>
+<td align='left'>4.02</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Collective Total</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>18.35</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Speed of vessel by log (approximate)</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>7.404</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left' rowspan="2">Wind</td>
+<td align='left'>Force</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>4 to 5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Direction</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>Bow and Quarter.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>State of sea</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>Rough.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>In connection with this subject it may perhaps be of interest to
+give particulars of a French and American steam launch; these we
+extract from the United States official report before
+mentioned.</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=
+"&lt;i&gt;Steam Launch of the French Steamer Mouche.&lt;/i&gt;">
+<tr>
+<th colspan="2"><i>Steam Launch of the French Steamer
+Mouche.</i></th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Length on low water level</td>
+<td align='left'>27 ft. 10&frac12; in.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Breadth</td>
+<td align='left'>5 ft. 11 in.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Depth to rabbet of keel</td>
+<td align='left'>3 ft. 3&#8531; in.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Draught of water aft</td>
+<td align='left'>2 ft. 1&frac12; in.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Weight of hull and fittings</td>
+<td align='left'>2,646 lb.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Weight of machinery with water in
+boiler&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>3,473 lb.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The boat is built of wood, and coppered. The engine consists of
+one non-condensing cylinder, 7&frac12; in. in diameter and 5.9 in.
+stroke. The boiler has 4.3 square feet of grate surface. The screw
+is 21&#8532; in. in diameter by 43.3 in, pitch. The speed is 7
+knots per hour obtained with 245 revolutions per minute, the slip
+being 19.7 per cent. of the speed.</p>
+
+<p>The United States navy steam cutters built at the Philadelphia
+navy yard are of the following dimensions:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=
+"Dimensions of Navy Steam Cutters">
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Length</td>
+<td align='left'>27 ft. 7&frac12; in.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Breadth</td>
+<td align='left'>7 ft. 10 in.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Depth to rabbet of keel</td>
+<td align='left'>3 ft. 11&frac34; in.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Displacement (to two feet above rabbet of
+keel)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>5.96 tons.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Weight of hull and fittings</td>
+<td align='left'>4,675 lb.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Weight of engine</td>
+<td align='left'>1,240 lb.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Weight of boiler</td>
+<td align='left'>3,112 lb.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Weight of water in boiler and tanks</td>
+<td align='left'>2,696 lb.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The engine has a single cylinder 8 in. in diameter and 8 in.
+stroke of piston. The screw is four bladed, 4 in. long and 31 in.
+in diameter by 45 in. pitch. The following is the performance at
+draught of water 2 feet above rabbet of keel:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=
+"Performance of engine">
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Boiler pressure</td>
+<td align='left'>90 lb.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Revolutions</td>
+<td align='left'>353</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Speed</td>
+<td align='left'>7.8 knots.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Indicated horse power.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>53</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>These boats are of 1870 type, but may be taken as typical of a
+large number of steam cutters in the United States navy. The naval
+authorities have, however, been lately engaged in extensive
+experiments with compound condensing engines in small boats, and
+the results have proved so conclusively the advantages of the
+latter system that it will doubtless be largely adopted in
+future.&mdash;<i>Engineer.</i></p>
+
+<a name="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2">[2]</a>
+
+<div class="note">In consequence of the seas breaking over the
+boat, a large number of diagrams were destroyed, and, on account of
+the roughness of the weather, cards were only taken with the
+greatest difficulty. The records of power developed are therefore
+not put forward as authoritative.</div>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="8"></a></p>
+
+<h2>IMPROVED STEAM TRAP.</h2>
+
+<p>The illustrations we give represent an expansion trap by Mr.
+Hyde, and made by Mr. S. Farron, Ashton-under-Lyne. The general
+appearance of this arrangement is as in Fig. 1 or Fig. 3, the
+center view, Fig. 2, showing what is the cardinal feature of the
+trap, viz., that it contains a collector for silt, sand, or
+sediment which is not, as in most other traps, carried out through
+the valve with the efflux of water. The escape valve also is made
+very large, so that while the trap may be made short, or, in other
+words, the expansion pipe may not be long, a tolerably large area
+of outlet is obtained with the short lift due to the small movement
+of the expansion pipe.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/5b.png"><img src=
+"./images/5b_th.jpg" alt=" IMPROVED STEAM TRAP."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">IMPROVED STEAM TRAP.</p>
+
+<p>The object of a steam trap is for the removal of water of
+condensation without allowing the escape of steam from drying
+apparatus and steam pipes used for heating, power, or other
+purposes. One of the plans employed is by an expansion pipe having
+a valve fixed to its end, so that when the pipe shortens from being
+cooler, due to the presence of the water, the valve opens and
+allows the escape of the water until the steam comes to the trap,
+which, being hotter, lengthens the pipe and closes the valve. Now
+with this kind of trap, and, in fact, with any variety of trap, we
+understand that it has been frequently the experience of the user
+to find his contrivance inoperative because the silt or sand that
+may be present in the pipes has been carried to the valve and
+lodged there by the water, causing it to stick, and with expansion
+traps not to close properly or to work abnormally some way or
+other. The putting of these contrivances to rights involves a
+certain amount of trouble, which is completely obviated by the
+arrangement shown in the annexed engravings, which is certainly a
+simple, strong, and substantial article. The foot of the trap is
+made of cast iron, the seat of the valve being of gun metal, let
+into the diaphragm, cast inside the hollow cylinder. The valve, D,
+is also of gun metal, and passing to outside through a stuffing box
+is connected to the central expansion pipe by a nut at E. The valve
+is set by two brass nuts at the top, so as to be just tight when
+steam hot; if, then, from the presence of water the trap is cooled,
+the pipe contracts and the water escapes. A mud door is provided,
+by which the mud can be removed as required. The silt or dirt that
+may be in the pipes is carried to the trap by the water, and is
+deposited in the cavity, as shown, the water rises, and when the
+valve, D, opens escapes at the pipe, F, and may be allowed to run
+to waste. A pipe is not shown attached to F, but needless to say
+one may be connected and led anywhere, provided the steam pressure
+is sufficient. For this purpose the stuffing-box is provided; it is
+really not required if the water runs to waste, as is represented
+in the engraving. To give our readers some idea of the dimensions
+of the valve, we may say that the smallest size of trap has 1 in.
+expansion pipe and a valve 3 in. diameter, the next size 1&frac14;
+in. expansion pipe and a valve 4&frac12; in. diameter, and the
+largest size has a pipe 1&frac12; in. and a valve 6 in. diameter.
+Altogether, the contrivance has some important practical advantages
+to recommend it.&mdash;<i>Mech. World.</i></p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="9"></a></p>
+
+<h2>CRITICAL METHODS OF DETECTING ERRORS IN PLANE SURFACES.<a name=
+"FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3"><sup>[3]</sup></a></h2>
+
+<h3>By JOHN A. BRASHEAR.</h3>
+
+<p>In our study of the exact methods of measurement in use to-day,
+in the various branches of scientific investigation, we should not
+forget that it has been a plant of very slow growth, and it is
+interesting indeed to glance along the pathway of the past to see
+how step by step our micron of to-day has been evolved from the
+cubit, the hand's breadth, the span, and, if you please, the
+barleycorn of our schoolboy days. It would also be a pleasant task
+to investigate the properties of the gnomon of the Chinese,
+Egyptians, and Peruvians, the scarphie of Eratosthenes, the
+astrolabe of Hipparchus, the parallactic rules of Ptolemy,
+Regimontanus Purbach, and Walther, the sextants and quadrants of
+Tycho Brahe, and the modifications of these various instruments,
+the invention and use of which, from century to century, bringing
+us at last to the telescopic age, or the days of Lippershay,
+Jannsen, and Galileo.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/6a.png"><img src=
+"./images/6a_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 1."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 1.</p>
+
+<p>It would also be a most pleasant task to follow the evolution of
+our subject in the new era of investigation ushered in by the
+invention of that marvelous instrument, the telescope, followed
+closely by the work of Kepler, Scheiner, Cassini, Huyghens, Newton,
+Digges, Nonius, Vernier, Hall, Dollond, Herschel, Short, Bird,
+Ramsden, Troughton, Smeaton, Fraunhofer, and a host of others, each
+of whom has contributed a noble share in the elimination of sources
+of error, until to-day we are satisfied only with units of
+measurement of the most exact and refined nature. Although it would
+be pleasant to review the work of these past masters, it is beyond
+the scope of the present paper, and even now I can only hope to
+call your attention to one phase of this important subject. For a
+number of years I have been practically interested in the subject
+of the production of plane and curved surfaces particularly for
+optical purposes, <i>i.e.</i>, in the production of such surfaces
+free if possible from all traces of error, and it will be pleasant
+to me if I shall be able to add to the interest of this association
+by giving you some of my own practical experience; and may I trust
+that it will be an incentive to all engaged in kindred work <i>to
+do that work well?</i></p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/6b.png"><img src=
+"./images/6b_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 2."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 2.</p>
+
+<p>In the production of a perfectly plane surface, there are many
+difficulties to contend with, and it will not be possible in the
+limits of this paper to discuss the methods of eliminating errors
+when found; but I must content myself with giving a description of
+various methods of detecting existing errors in the surfaces that
+are being worked, whether, for instance, it be an error of
+concavity, convexity, periodic or local error.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/6c.png"><img src=
+"./images/6c_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 3"></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 3</p>
+
+<p>A very excellent method was devised by the celebrated Rosse,
+which is frequently used at the present time; and those eminent
+workers, the Clarks of Cambridge, use a modification of the Rosse
+method which in their hands is productive of the very highest
+results. The device is very simple, consisting of a telescope
+(<i>a</i>, Fig. 1) in which aberrations have been well corrected,
+so that the focal plane of the objective is as sharp as possible.
+This telescope is first directed to a distant object, preferably a
+celestial one, and focused for parallel rays. The surface,
+<i>b</i>, to be tested is now placed so that the reflected image of
+the same object, whatever it may be, can be observed by the same
+telescope. It is evident that if the surface be a true plane, its
+action upon the beam of light that comes from the object will be
+simply to change its direction, but not disturb or change it any
+other way, hence the reflected image of the object should be seen
+by the telescope, <i>a</i>, without in any way changing the
+original focus. If, however, the supposed plane surface proves to
+be <i>convex</i>, the image will not be sharply defined in the
+telescope until the eyepiece is moved <i>away</i> from the object
+glass; while if the converse is the case, and the supposed plane is
+concave, the eyepiece must now be moved <i>toward</i> the objective
+in order to obtain a sharp image, and the amount of convexity or
+concavity may be known by the change in the focal plane. If the
+surface has periodic or irregular errors, no sharp image can be
+obtained, no matter how much the eyepiece may be moved in or
+out.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/6d.png"><img src=
+"./images/6d_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 4"></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 4</p>
+
+<p>This test may be made still more delicate by using the observing
+telescope, <i>a</i>, at as low an angle as possible, thereby
+bringing out with still greater effect any error that may exist in
+the surface under examination, and is the plan generally used by
+Alvan Clark &amp; Sons. Another and very excellent method is that
+illustrated in Fig. 2, in which a second telescope, <i>b</i>, is
+introduced. In place of the eyepiece of this second telescope, a
+diaphragm is introduced in which a number of small holes are
+drilled, as in Fig. 2, <i>x</i>, or a slit is cut similar to the
+slit used in a spectroscope as shown at <i>y</i>, same figure. The
+telescope, <i>a</i>, is now focused very accurately on a celestial
+or other very distant object, and the focus marked. The object
+glass of the telescope, <i>b</i>, is now placed against and
+"square" with the object glass of telescope <i>a</i>, and on
+looking through telescope a an image of the diaphragm with its
+holes or the slit is seen. This diaphragm must now be moved until a
+sharp image is seen in telescope <i>a</i>. The two telescopes are
+now mounted as in Fig. 2, and the plate to be tested placed in
+front of the two telescopes as at <i>c</i>. It is evident, as in
+the former case, that if the surface is a true plane, the reflected
+image of the holes or slit thrown upon it by the telescope,
+<i>b</i>, will be seen sharply defined in the telescope,
+<i>a</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/7a.png"><img src=
+"./images/7a_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 5."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 5.</p>
+
+<p>If any error of convexity exists in the plate, the focal plane
+is disturbed, and the eyepiece must be moved <i>out</i>. If the
+plate is concave, it must be moved <i>in</i> to obtain a sharp
+image. Irregular errors in the plate or surface will produce a
+blurred or indistinct image, and, as in the first instance, no
+amount of focusing will help matters. These methods are both good,
+but are not satisfactory in the highest degree, and two or three
+important factors bar the way to the very best results. One is that
+the aberrations of the telescopes must be perfectly corrected, a
+very difficult matter of itself, and requiring the highest skill of
+the optician. Another, the fact that the human eye will accommodate
+itself to small distances when setting the focus of the observing
+telescope. I have frequently made experiments to find out how much
+this accommodation was in my own case, and found it to amount to as
+much as 1/40 of an inch. This is no doubt partly the fault of the
+telescopes themselves, but unless the eye is rigorously educated in
+this work, it is apt to accommodate itself to a small amount, and
+will invariably do so if there is a preconceived notion or bias
+<i>in the direction of the accommodation</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/7b.png"><img src=
+"./images/7b_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 6."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 6.</p>
+
+<p>Talking with Prof. C.A. Young a few months since on this
+subject, he remarked that he noticed that the eye grew more exact
+in its demands as it grew older, in regard to the focal point. A
+third and very serious objection to the second method is caused by
+diffraction from the edges of the holes or the slit. Let me explain
+this briefly. When light falls upon a slit, such as we have here,
+it is turned out of its course; as the slit has two edges, and the
+light that falls on either side is deflected both right and left,
+the rays that cross from the right side of the slit toward the
+left, and from the left side of the slit toward the right, produce
+interference of the wave lengths, and when perfect interference
+occurs, dark lines are seen. You can have a very pretty
+illustration of this by cutting a fine slit in a card and holding
+it several inches from the eye, when the dark lines caused by a
+total extinction of the light by interference may be seen.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/7c.png"><img src=
+"./images/7c_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 7."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 7.</p>
+
+<p>If now you look toward the edge of a gas or lamp flame; you will
+see a series of colored bands, that bring out the phenomenon of
+partial interference. This experiment shows the difficulty in
+obtaining a perfect focus of the holes or the slit in the
+diaphragm, as the interference fringes are always more or less
+annoying. Notwithstanding these defects of the two systems I have
+mentioned, in the hands of the practical workman they are
+productive of very good results, and very many excellent surfaces
+have been made by their use, and we are not justified in ignoring
+them, because they are the stepping stones to lead us on to better
+ones. In my early work Dr. Draper suggested a very excellent plan
+for testing a flat surface, which I briefly describe. It is a well
+known truth that, if an artificial star is placed in the exact
+center of curvature of a truly spherical mirror, and an eyepiece be
+used to examine the image close beside the source of light, the
+star will be sharply defined, and will bear very high
+magnification. If the eyepiece is now drawn toward the observer,
+the star disk begins to expand; and if the mirror be a truly
+spherical one, the expanded disk will be equally illuminated,
+except the outer edge, which usually shows two or more light and
+dark rings, due to diffraction, as already explained.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/7d.png"><img src=
+"./images/7d_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 8."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 8.</p>
+
+<p>Now if we push the eyepiece toward the mirror the same distance
+on the opposite side of the true focal plane, precisely the same
+appearance will be noted in the expanded star disk. If we now place
+our plane surface any where in the path of the rays from the great
+mirror, we should have identically the same phenomena repeated. Of
+course it is presumed, and is necessary, that the plane mirror
+shall be much less in area than the spherical mirror, else the beam
+of light from the artificial star will be shut off, yet I may here
+say that any one part of a truly spherical mirror will act just as
+well as the whole surface, there being of course a loss of light
+according to the area of the mirror shut off.</p>
+
+<p>This principle is illustrated in Fig. 3, where <i>a</i> is the
+spherical mirror, <i>b</i> the source of light, <i>c</i> the
+eyepiece as used when the plane is not interposed, <i>d</i> the
+plane introduced into the path at an angle of 45&deg; to the
+central beam, and <i>e</i> the position of eyepiece when used the
+with the plane. When the plane is not in the way, the converging
+beam goes back to the eyepiece, <i>c</i>. When the plane, <i>d</i>,
+is introduced, the beam is turned at a right angle, and if it is a
+perfect surface, not only does the focal plane remain exactly of
+the same length, but the expanded star disks, are similar on either
+side of the focal plane.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/7e.png"><img src=
+"./images/7e_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 9."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 9.</p>
+
+<p>I might go on to elaborate this method, to show how it may be
+made still more exact, but as it will come under the discussion of
+spherical surfaces, I will leave it for the present. Unfortunately
+for this process, it demands a large truly spherical surface, which
+is just as difficult of attainment as any form of regular surface.
+We come now to an instrument that does not depend upon optical
+means for detecting errors of surface, namely, the spherometer,
+which as the name would indicate means sphere measure, but it is
+about as well adapted for plane as it is for spherical work, and
+Prof. Harkness has been, using one for some time past in
+determining the errors of the plane mirrors used in the transit of
+Venus photographic instruments. At the meeting of the American
+Association of Science in Philadelphia, there was quite a
+discussion as to the relative merits of the spherometer test and
+another form which I shall presently mention, Prof. Harkness
+claiming that he could, by the use of the spherometer, detect
+errors bordering closely on one five-hundred-thousandth of an inch.
+Some physicists express doubt on this, but Prof. Harkness has no
+doubt worked with very sensitive instruments, and over very small
+areas at one time.</p>
+
+<p>I have not had occasion to use this instrument in my own work,
+as a more simple, delicate, and efficient method was at my command,
+but for one measurement of convex surfaces I know of nothing that
+can take its place. I will briefly describe the method of using
+it.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/7f.png"><img src=
+"./images/7f_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 10."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 10.</p>
+
+<p>The usual form of the instrument is shown in Fig. 4; <i>a</i> is
+a steel screw working in the nut of the stout tripod frame,
+<i>b</i>; <i>c c c</i> are three legs with carefully prepared
+points; <i>d</i> is a divided standard to read the whole number of
+revolutions of the screw, <i>a</i>, the edge of which also serves
+the purpose of a pointer to read off the division on the top of the
+milled head, <i>e</i>. Still further refinement may be had by
+placing a vernier here. To measure a plane or curved surface with
+this instrument, a perfect plane or perfect spherical surface of
+known radius must be used to determine the zero point of the
+division. Taking for granted that we have this standard plate, the
+spherometer is placed upon it, and the readings of the divided head
+and indicator, <i>d</i>, noted when the point of the screw,
+<i>a</i>, just touches the surface, <i>f</i>. Herein, however, lies
+the great difficulty in using this instrument, <i>i.e.</i>, to know
+the exact instant of contact of the point of screw, <i>a</i>, on
+the surface, <i>f</i>. Many devices have been added to the
+spherometer to make it as sensitive as possible, such as the
+contact level, the electric contact, and the compound lever
+contact. The latter is probably the best, and is made essentially
+as in Fig. 5.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/7g.png"><img src=
+"./images/7g_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 11."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 11.</p>
+
+<p>I am indebted for this plan to Dr. Alfred Mayer. As in the
+previous figure, <i>a</i> is the screw; this screw is bored out,
+and a central steel pin turned to fit resting on a shoulder at
+<i>c</i>. The end of <i>d</i> projects below the screw, <i>a</i>,
+and the end, <i>e</i>, projects above the milled head, and the
+knife edge or pivot point rests against the lever, <i>f</i>, which
+in turn rests against the long lever, <i>g</i>, the point,
+<i>h</i>, of which moves along the division at <i>j</i>. It is
+evident that if the point of the pin just touches the plate, no
+movement of the index lever, <i>g</i>, will be seen; but if any
+pressure be applied, the lever will move through a multiplied arc,
+owing to the short fulcri of the two levers. Notwithstanding all
+these precautions, we must also take into account the flexure of
+the material, the elasticity of the points of contact, and other
+idiosyncrasies, and you can readily see that practice alone in an
+instrument so delicate will bring about the very best results. Dr.
+Alfred Mayer's method of getting over the great difficulty of
+knowing when all four points are in contact is quite simple. The
+standard plate is set on the box, <i>g</i>, Fig. 4, which acts as a
+resonater. The screw, <i>a</i>, is brought down until it touches
+the plate. When the pressure of the screw is enough to lift off
+either or all of the legs, and the plate is gently tapped with the
+finger, a <i>rattle</i> is heard, which is the tell-tale of
+imperfect contact of all the points. The screw is now reversed
+gently and slowly until the <i>moment</i> the rattle ceases, and
+then the reading is taken. Here the sense of hearing is brought
+into play. This is also the case when the electric contact is used.
+This is so arranged that the instant of touching of the point of
+screw, <i>a</i>, completes the electric circuit, in which an
+electromagnet of short thick wire is placed. At the moment of
+contact, or perhaps a little before contact, the bell rings, and
+the turning of the screw must be instantly stopped. Here are
+several elements that must be remembered. First, it takes time to
+set the bell ringing, time for the sound to pass to the ear, time
+for the sensation to be carried to the brain, time for the brain to
+send word to the hand to cease turning the screw, and, if you
+please, it takes time for the hand to stop. You may say, of what
+use are such refinements? I may reply, what use is there in trying
+to do anything the very best it can be done? If our investigation
+of nature's profound mysteries can be partially solved with good
+instrumental means, what is the result if we have better ones
+placed in our hands, and what, we ask, if the <i>best</i> are given
+to the physicist? We have only to compare the telescope of Galileo,
+the prism of Newton, the pile of Volta, and what was done with
+them, to the marvelous work of the telescope, spectroscope, and
+dynamo of to-day. But I must proceed. It will be recognized that in
+working with the spherometer, only the points in actual contact can
+be measured at one time, for you may see by Fig. 6 that the four
+points, <i>a a a a</i>, may all be normal to a true plane, and yet
+errors of depression, as at <i>e</i>, or elevation, as at <i>b</i>,
+exist between them, so that the instrument must be used over every
+available part of the surface if it is to be tested rigorously. As
+to how exact this method is I cannot say from actual experience, as
+in my work I have had recourse to other methods that I shall
+describe. I have already quoted you the words of Prof. Harkness.
+Dr. Hastings, whose practical as well as theoretical knowledge is
+of the most critical character, tells me that he considers it quite
+easy to measure to 1/80000 of an inch with the ordinary form of
+instrument. Here is a very fine spherometer that Dr. Hastings works
+with from time to time, and which he calls his standard
+spherometer. It is delicately made, its screw being 50 to the inch,
+or more exactly 0.01998 inch, or within 2/100000 of being 1/50 of
+an inch pitch. The principal screw has a point which is itself an
+independent screw, that was put in to investigate the errors of the
+main screw, but it was found that the error of this screw was not
+as much as the 0.00001 of an inch. The head is divided into two
+hundred parts, and by estimation can be read to 1/100000 of an
+inch. Its constants are known, and it may be understood that it
+would not do to handle it very roughly. I could dwell here longer
+on this fascinating subject, but must haste. I may add that if this
+spherometer is placed on a plate of glass and exact contact
+obtained, and then removed, and the hand held over the plate
+without touching it, the difference in the temperature of the glass
+and that of the hand would be sufficient to distort the surface
+enough to be readily recognized by the spherometer when replaced.
+Any one desiring to investigate this subject further will find it
+fully discussed in that splendid series of papers by Dr. Alfred
+Mayer on the minute measurements of modern science published in
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENTS, to which I was indebted years ago
+for most valuable information, as well as to most encouraging words
+from Prof. Thurston, whom you all so well and favorably know. I now
+invite your attention to the method for testing the flat surfaces
+on which Prof. Rowland rules the beautiful diffraction gratings now
+so well known over the scientific world, as also other plane
+surfaces for heliostats, etc., etc. I am now approaching the border
+land of what may be called the abstruse in science, in which I
+humbly acknowledge it would take a vast volume to contain all I
+don't know; yet I hope to make plain to you this most beautiful and
+accurate method, and for fear I may forget to give due credit, I
+will say that I am indebted to Dr. Hastings for it, with whom it
+was an original discovery, though he told me he afterward found it
+had been in use by Steinheil, the celebrated optician of Munich.
+The principle was discovered by the immortal Newton, and it shows
+how much can be made of the ordinary phenomena seen in our
+every-day life when placed in the hands of the investigator. We
+have all seen the beautiful play of colors on the soap bubble, or
+when the drop of oil spreads over the surface of the water. Place a
+lens of long curvature on a piece of plane polished glass, and,
+looking at it obliquely, a black central spot is seen with rings of
+various width and color surrounding it. If the lens is a true
+curve, and the glass beneath it a true plane, these rings of color
+will be perfectly concentric and arranged in regular decreasing
+intervals. This apparatus is known as Newton's color glass, because
+he not only measured the phenomena, but established the laws of the
+appearances presented. I will now endeavor to explain the general
+principle by which this phenomenon is utilized in the testing of
+plane surfaces. Suppose that we place on the lower plate, lenses of
+constantly increasing curvature until that curvature becomes nil,
+or in other words a true plane. The rings of color will constantly
+increase in width as the curvature of the lens increases, until at
+last one color alone is seen over the whole surface, provided,
+however, the same angle of observation be maintained, and provided
+further that the film of air between the glasses is of absolutely
+the same relative thickness throughout. I say the film of air, for
+I presume that it would be utterly impossible to exclude particles
+of dust so that absolute contact could take place. Early physicists
+maintained that absolute molecular contact was impossible, and that
+the central separation of the glasses in Newton's experiment was
+1/250,000 of an inch, but Sir Wm. Thomson has shown that the
+separation is caused by shreds or particles of dust. However, if
+this separation is equal throughout, we have the phenomena as
+described; but if the dust particles are thicker under one side
+than the other, our phenomena will change to broad parallel bands
+as in Fig. 8, the broader the bands the nearer the absolute
+parallelism of the plates. In Fig. 7 let <i>a</i> and <i>b</i>
+represent the two plates we are testing. Rays of white light,
+<i>c</i>, falling upon the upper surface of plate <i>a</i>, are
+partially reflected off in the direction of rays <i>d</i>, but as
+these rays do not concern us now, I have not sketched them. Part of
+the light passes on through the upper plate, where it is bent out
+of its course somewhat, and, falling upon the <i>lower</i> surface
+of the upper plate, some of this light is again reflected toward
+the eye at <i>d</i>. As some of the light passes through the upper
+plate, and, passing through the film of air between the plates,
+falling on the upper surface of the <i>lower</i> one, this in turn
+is reflected; but as the light that falls on this surface has had
+to traverse the film of air <i>twice</i>, it is retarded by a
+certain number of half or whole wave-lengths, and the beautiful
+phenomena of interference take place, some of the colors of white
+light being obliterated, while others come to the eye. When the
+position of the eye changes, the color is seen to change. I have
+not time to dwell further on this part of my subject, which is
+discussed in most advanced works on physics, and especially well
+described in Dr. Eugene Lommel's work on "The Nature of Light." I
+remarked that if the two surfaces were perfectly <i>plane</i>,
+there would be one color seen, or else colors of the first or
+second order would arrange themselves in broad parallel bands, but
+this would also take place in plates of slight curvature, for the
+requirement is, as I said, a film of air of equal thickness
+throughout. You can see at once that this condition could be
+obtained in a perfect convex surface fitting a perfect concave of
+the same radius. Fortunately we have a check to guard against this
+error. To produce a perfect plane, <i>three surfaces must</i> be
+worked together, unless we have a true plane to commence with; but
+to make this true plane by this method we <i>must</i> work three
+together, and if each one comes up to the demands of this most
+rigorous test, we may rest assured that we have attained a degree
+of accuracy almost beyond human conception. Let me illustrate.
+Suppose we have plates 1, 2, and 3, Fig. 11. Suppose 1 and 2 to be
+accurately convex and 3 accurately concave, of the same radius. Now
+it is evident that 3 will exactly fit 1 and 2, and that 1 and 2
+will separately fit No. 3, <i>but</i> when 1 and 2 are placed
+together, they will only touch in the center, and there is no
+possible way to make three plates coincide when they are
+alternately tested upon one another than to make <i>perfect
+planes</i> out of them. As it is difficult to see the colors well
+on metal surfaces, a one-colored light is used, such as the sodium
+flame, which gives to the eye in our test, dark and bright bands
+instead of colored ones. When these plates are worked and tested
+upon one another until they all present the same appearance, one
+may be reserved for a test plate for future use. Here is a small
+test plate made by the celebrated Steinheil, and here two made by
+myself, and I may be pardoned in saying that I was much gratified
+to find the coincidence so nearly perfect that the limiting error
+is much less than 0.00001 of an inch. My assistant, with but a few
+months' experience, has made quite as accurate plates. It is
+necessary of course to have a glass plate to test the metal plates,
+as the upper plate <i>must</i> be transparent. So far we have been
+dealing with perfect surfaces. Let us now see what shall occur in
+surfaces that are not plane. Suppose we now have our perfect test
+plate, and it is laid on a plate that has a compound error, say
+depressed at center and edge and high between these points. If this
+error is regular, the central bands arrange themselves as in Fig.
+9. You may now ask, how are we to know what sort of surface we
+have? A ready solution is at hand. The bands <i>always travel in
+the direction of the thickest film of air</i>, hence on lowering
+the eye, if the convex edge of the bands travel in the direction of
+the arrow, we are absolutely certain that that part of the surface
+being tested is convex, while if, as in the central part of the
+bands, the concave edges advance, we know that part is hollow or
+too low. Furthermore, any small error will be rigorously detected,
+with astonishing clearness, and one of the grandest qualities of
+this test is the absence of "personal equation;" for, given a
+perfect test plate, <i>it won't lie</i>, neither will it
+exaggerate. I say, won't lie, but I must guard this by saying that
+the plates must coincide absolutely in temperature, and the touch
+of the finger, the heat of the hand, or any disturbance whatever
+will vitiate the results of this lovely process; but more of that
+at a future time. If our surface is plane to within a short
+distance of the edge, and is there overcorrected, or convex, the
+test shows it, as in Fig. 10. If the whole surface is regularly
+convex, then concentric rings of a breadth determined by the
+approach to a perfect plane are seen. If concave, a similar
+phenomenon is exhibited, except in the case of the convex, the
+broader rings are near the center, while in the concave they are
+nearer the edge. In lowering the eye while observing the plates,
+the rings of the convex plate will advance outward, those of the
+concave inward. It may be asked by the mechanician, Can this method
+be used for testing our surface plates? I answer that I have found
+the scraped surface of iron bright enough to test by sodium light.
+My assistant in the machine work scraped three 8 inch plates that
+were tested by this method and found to be very excellent, though
+it must be evident that a single cut of the scraper would change
+the spot over which it passed so much as to entirely change the
+appearance there, but I found I could use the test to get the
+general outline of the surface under process of correction. These
+iron plates, I would say, are simply used for preliminary formation
+of polishers. I may have something to say on the question of
+surface plates in the future, as I have made some interesting
+studies on the subject. I must now bring this paper to a close,
+although I had intended including some interesting studies of
+curved surfaces. There is, however, matter enough in that subject
+of itself, especially when we connect it with the idiosyncrasies of
+the material we have to deal with, a vital part of the subject that
+I have not touched upon in the present paper. You may now inquire,
+How critical is this "color test"? To answer this I fear I shall
+trench upon forbidden grounds, but I call to my help the words of
+one of our best American physicists, and I quote from a letter in
+which he says by combined calculation and experiment I have found
+the limiting error for white light to be 1/50000000 of an inch, and
+for Na or sodium light about fifty times greater, or less than
+1/800000 of an inch. Dr. Alfred Mayer estimated and demonstrated by
+actual experiment that the smallest black spot on a white ground
+visible to the naked eye is about 1/800 of an inch at the distance
+of normal vision, namely, 10 inches, and that a line, which of
+course has the element of extension, 1/5000 of an inch in thickness
+could be seen. In our delicate "color test" we may decrease the
+diameter of our black spot a thousand times and still its
+perception is possible by the aid of our monochromatic light, and
+we may diminish our line ten thousand times, yet find it just
+perceivable on the border land of our test by white light. Do not
+presume I am so foolish as to even think that the human hand,
+directed by the human brain, can ever work the material at his
+command to such a high standard of exactness. No; from the very
+nature of the material we have to work with, we are forbidden even
+to hope for such an achievement; and could it be possible that,
+through some stroke of good fortune, we could attain this high
+ideal, it would be but for a moment, as from the very nature of our
+environment it would be but an ignis fatuus. There is, however, to
+the earnest mind a delight in having a high model of excellence,
+for as our model is so will our work approximate; and although we
+may go on approximating <i>our</i> ideal forever, we can never hope
+to reach that which has been set for us by the great Master
+Workman.</p>
+
+<a name="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3">[3]</a>
+
+<div class="note">A paper read before the Engineers' Society of
+Western Pennsylvania, Dec. 10, 1884.</div>
+
+<hr>
+<h3>[JOURNAL OF GAS LIGHTING.]</h3>
+
+<p><a name="10"></a></p>
+
+<h2>PHOTOMETRICAL STANDARDS.</h2>
+
+<p>In carrying out a series of photometrical experiments lately, I
+found that it was a matter of considerable difficulty to keep the
+flames of the standard candles always at their proper distance from
+the light to be measured, because the wick was continually changing
+its position (of course carrying the flame with it), and thus
+practically lengthening or shortening the scale of the photometer,
+according as the flame was carried nearer to or farther from the
+light at the other end of the scale. In order, therefore, to obtain
+a correct idea of the extent to which this variation of the
+position of the wick might influence the readings of the photometer
+scale, I took a continuous number of photographs of the flame of a
+candle while it was burning in a room quite free from draught; no
+other person being in it during the experiment except a
+photographer, who placed sensitive dry plates in a firmly fixed
+camera, and changed them after an exposure of 30 seconds. In doing
+this he was careful to keep close to the camera, and disturb the
+air of the room as little as possible. In front of the candle a
+plumb-line was suspended, and remained immovable over its center
+during the whole operation. The candle was allowed to get itself
+into a normal state of burning, and then the wick was aligned, as
+shown in the photographs Nos. 1 and 2, after which it was left to
+itself.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/8a.png"><img src=
+"./images/8a_th.jpg" alt=" VARIATION IN PHOTOMETRICAL STANDARDS.">
+</a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">VARIATION IN PHOTOMETRICAL STANDARDS.</p>
+
+<p>With these photographs (represented in the cuts) I beg to hand
+you full-sized drawings of the scales of a 100 inch Evans and a 60
+inch Letheby photometer, in order to give your readers an
+opportunity of estimating for themselves the effect which such
+variations from the true distance between the standard light and
+that to be measured, as shown in this series of photographs, must
+exercise on photometrical observations made by the aid of either of
+the instruments named.</p>
+
+<p>W. SUGG.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="11"></a></p>
+
+<h2>BLEACHING OR DYEING-YARNS AND GOODS IN VACUO.</h2>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/8b.png"><img src=
+"./images/8b_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p>
+
+<p>Many attempts have been made to facilitate the penetration of
+textile fabrics by the dyeing and bleaching solutions, with which
+they require to be treated, by carrying out the treatment in vacuo,
+<i>i.e.</i>, in such apparatus as shall allow of the air being
+withdrawn. The apparatus shown in the annexed
+engraving&mdash;Austrian Pat. Jan. 15, 1884&mdash;although not
+essentially different from those already in use, embodies, the
+<i>Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry</i> says, some
+important improvements in detail. It consists of a drum A, the
+sides of which are constructed of stout netting, carried on a
+vertical axis working through a stuffing-box, which is fitted in
+the bottom of the outer or containing vessel or keir B. The air can
+be exhausted from B by means of an air pump. A contains a central
+division P, also constructed of netting, into which is inserted the
+extremity of the tube R, after being twice bent at a right angle. P
+is also in direct connection with the efflux tube E, E and R
+serving to convey the dye or bleach solutions to and from the
+reservoir C. The combination of the rotary motion communicated to
+A, which contains the goods to be dyed or bleached, with the very
+thorough penetration and circulation of the liquids effected by
+means of the vacuum established in B, is found to be eminently
+favorable to the rapidity and evenness of the dye or bleach.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="12"></a></p>
+
+<h2>ON THE MOULDING OF PORCELAIN.</h2>
+
+<h3>By CHAS. LAUTH.</h3>
+
+<p>The operation of moulding presents numerous advantages over
+other methods of shaping porcelain, for by this process we avoid
+irregularities of form, twisting, and visible seams, and can
+manufacture thin pieces, as well as pieces of large dimensions, of
+a purity of form that it is impossible to obtain otherwise.</p>
+
+<p>The method of moulding small objects has been described with
+sufficient detail in technical works, but such is not the case with
+regard to large ones, and for this reason it will be of interest to
+quote some practical observations from a note that has been sent me
+by Mr. Constantine Renard, who, for several years, has had the
+superintendence of the moulding rooms of the Sevres works.</p>
+
+<p>The process of moulding consists in pouring porcelain paste,
+thinned with water, into very dry plaster moulds. This mixture
+gradually hardens against the porous sides with which it is in
+contact, and, when the thickness of the hardened layer is judged
+sufficient, the mould is emptied by inverting it. The excess of the
+liquid paste is thus eliminated, while the thicker parts remain
+adherent to the plaster. Shortly afterward, the absorption of the
+water continuing, the paste so shrinks in drying as to allow the
+object to detach itself from the mould. As may be seen, nothing is
+simpler when it concerns pieces of small dimensions; but the same
+is not the case when we have to mould a large one. In this case we
+cannot get rid of the liquid paste by turning the mould upside
+down, because of the latter's size, and, on another hand, it is
+necessary to take special precautions against the subsidence of the
+paste. Recourse is therefore had to another method. In the first
+place, an aperture is formed in the lower part of the mould through
+which the liquid may flow at the desired moment. Afterward, in
+order to prevent the solidified but still slightly soft paste from
+settling under its own weight at this moment, it is supported by
+directing a current of compressed air into the mould, or, through
+atmospheric pressure, by forming a vacuum in the metallic jacket in
+which the mould is inclosed.</p>
+
+<p>The history and description of these processes have been several
+times given, and I shall therefore not dwell upon them, but shall
+at once proceed to make known the new points that Mr. Renard has
+communicated to me.</p>
+
+<p>The first point to which it is well to direct the manufacturer's
+attention is the preparation of the plaster moulds. When it
+concerns an object of large dimensions, of a vase a yard in height,
+for example, the moulder is obliged to cut the form or core
+horizontally into three parts, each of which is moulded separately.
+To this effect, it is placed upon a core frame and surrounded with
+a cylinder of sheet zinc. The workman pours the plaster into the
+space between the latter and the core, and, while doing so, must
+stir the mass very rapidly with a stick, so that at the moment the
+plaster sets, it shall be as homogeneous as possible. In spite of
+such precautions, it is impossible to prevent the densest parts of
+the plaster from depositing first, through the action of gravity.
+These will naturally precipitate upon the table or upon the
+slanting sides of the core, and the mould will therefore present
+great inequalities as regards porosity. Since this defect exists in
+each of the pieces that have been prepared in succession, it will
+be seen that when they come to be superposed for the moulding of
+the piece, the mould as a whole will be formed of zones of
+different porosities, which will absorb water from the paste
+unequally. Farther along we shall see the inconveniences that
+result from this, and the manner of avoiding them.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/9a.png"><img src=
+"./images/9a_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 1"></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 1</p>
+
+<p>The mould, when finished, is dried in a stove. Under such
+circumstances it often happens that there forms upon the surface of
+the plaster a hard crust which, although it is of no importance as
+regards the outside of the mould, is prejudicial to the interior
+because it considerably diminishes its absorbing power. This
+trouble may be avoided by coating the surfaces that it is necessary
+to preserve with clear liquid paste; but Mr. Renard advises that
+the mould be closed hermetically, so that the interior shall be
+kept from contact with warm air. In this way it is possible to
+prevent the plaster from hardening, as a result of too quick a
+desiccation. I now come to the operation of moulding. In the very
+first place, it is necessary to examine whether it is well to adopt
+the arrangement by pressure of air or by vacuum. The form of the
+objects will determine the choice. A very open piece, like a bowl,
+must be moulded by vacuum, on account of the difficulty of holding
+the closing disk in place if it be of very large dimensions. The
+same is the case with large vases of wood form. On the contrary, an
+elongated piece tapering from above is more easily moulded by
+pressure of the air, as are also ovoid vessels 16 to 20 inches in
+height. In any case it must not be forgotten that the operation by
+vacuum should be preferred every time the form of the objects is
+adapted to it, because this process permits of following and
+directing the drying, while with pressure it is impossible to see
+anything when once the apparatus is closed.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/9c.png"><img src=
+"./images/9c_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 2."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 2.</p>
+
+<p><i>Moulding by Pressure of the Air.</i>&mdash;The plaster mould
+having been put in place upon the mould board, and the liquid paste
+having been long and thoroughly stirred in order to make it
+homogeneous, and get rid of the air bubbles, we open the cock that
+puts the paste reservoir in communication with the lower part of
+the mould, care having been taken beforehand to pour a few pints of
+water into the bottom of the mould. The paste in ascending pushes
+this water ahead of it, and this slightly wets the plaster and
+makes the paste rise regularly. When the mould is entirely filled,
+the paste is still allowed to flow until it slightly exceeds the
+upper level, and, spreading out over the entire thickness of the
+plaster, forms a sort of thick flange. The absorption of the liquid
+begins almost immediately, and, consequently, the level lowers. A
+new quantity of paste is introduced, and we continue thus, in
+regulating its flow so as to keep the mould always full. This
+operation is prolonged until the layer is judged to be sufficiently
+thick, this depending upon the dimensions, form, or construction of
+the vessel. The operation may take from one to five hours.</p>
+
+<p>The desired thickness having been obtained, it becomes a
+question of allowing the paste to descend and at the same time to
+support the piece by air pressure. The flange spoken of above is
+quickly cut, and the paste is made to rise again for the last time,
+in order to form a new flange, but one that this time will be
+extremely thin; then a perforated disk designed for forming the top
+joint, and acting as a conduit for the air, is placed upon the
+mould. This disk is fastened down with a screw press, and when the
+apparatus is thus arranged the eduction cock is opened, and the air
+pump maneuvered.</p>
+
+<p>If the flange did not exist, the air would enter between the
+mould and the piece at the first strokes of the piston, and the
+piece would be inevitably broken. Its object, then, is to form a
+hermetical joint, although it must at the same time present but a
+slight resistance, since, as soon as the liquid paste has flowed
+out, the piece begins to shrink, and it is necessary that at the
+first movement downward it shall be able to disengage itself, since
+it would otherwise crack.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as the piece begins to detach itself from the mould the
+air enters the apparatus, and the pressure gauge connected with the
+air pump begins to lower. It is then necessary, without a moment's
+loss of time, to remove the screw press, the disk, and the upper
+part of the mould itself, in order to facilitate as much as
+possible the contraction of the piece. Finally, an hour or an hour
+and a half later, it is necessary to remove the lower part of the
+mould, this being done in supporting the entire affair by the
+middle. The piece and what remains of the mould are, in reality,
+suspended in the air. All these preparations are designed to
+prevent cracking.</p>
+
+<p><i>Moulding by Vacuum.</i>&mdash;The operation by vacuum follows
+the same phases as those just described. It is well, in order to
+have a very even surface, not to form a vacuum until about three
+hours after the paste has been made to ascend. Without such a
+precaution the imperfections in the mould will be shown on the
+surface of the object by undulations that are irremediable.</p>
+
+<p>The first flange or vein must be preserved, and it is cut off at
+the moment the piece is detached.</p>
+
+<p>Moulding by vacuum, aside from the advantages noted above,
+permits of giving the pieces a greater thickness than is obtained
+in the pressure process. According to Mr. Renard, when it is
+desired to exceed one inch at the base of the piece (the maximum
+thickness usually obtained), the operation is as follows: The piece
+is moulded normally, and it is supported by a vacuum; but, at the
+moment at which, under ordinary circumstances, it would be
+detached, the paste is made to ascend a second time, when the first
+layer (already thick and dry) acts as a sort of supplementary
+mould, and permits of increasing the thickness by about &#8534; of
+an inch. The piece is held, as at first, by vacuum, and the paste
+is introduced again until the desired thickness is obtained.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever be the care taken, accidents are frequent in both
+processes. They are due, in general, to the irregular contraction
+of the pieces, caused by a want of homogeneousness in the plaster
+of the moulds. In fact, as the absorption of the water does not
+proceed regularly over the entire surface of the piece, zones of
+dry paste are found in contact with others that are still soft, and
+hence the formation of folds, and finally the cracking and breaking
+of the piece. The joints of the moulds are also a cause of frequent
+loss, on account of the marks that they leave, and that injure the
+beauty of the form as well as the purity of the profile.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Renard has devised a remedy for all such inconveniences. He
+takes unglazed muslin, cuts it into strips, and, before beginning
+operations, fixes it with a little liquid paste to the interior of
+the mould. This light fabric in no wise prevents the absorption of
+the water, and so the operation goes on as usual; but, at the
+moment of contraction, the piece of porcelain being, so to speak,
+supported by the muslin, comes put of the mould more easily and
+with extreme regularity. Under such circumstances all trace of the
+joint disappears, the imperfections in the mould are unattended
+with danger, and the largest pieces are moulded with entire safety.
+In a word, we have here a very important improvement in the process
+of moulding. The use of muslin is to be recommended, not only in
+the manufacture of vases, but also in the difficult preparation of
+large porcelain plates. It is likewise advantageous in the moulding
+of certain pieces of sculpture that are not very delicate, and,
+finally, it is very useful when we have to do with a damaged mould,
+which, instead of being repaired with plaster, can be fixed with
+well ground wet sand covered with a strip of muslin.</p>
+
+<p><i>Drying of the Moulded Pieces.</i>&mdash;When the moulded
+pieces become of a proper consistency in the mould, they are
+exposed to the air and then taken to the drying room. But, as with
+plaster, the surface of the paste dries very quickly, and this
+inconvenience (which amounts to nothing in pieces that are to be
+polished) is very great in pieces that carry ornaments in relief,
+since the finishing of these is much more difficult, the hardened
+paste works badly, and frequently flakes off. In order to remedy
+this inconvenience, it suffices to dust the places to be preserved
+with powdered dry paste.&mdash;<i>Revue Industrielle.</i></p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="13"></a></p>
+
+<h2>PHOTO-TRICYCLE APPARATUS.</h2>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/9b.png"><img src=
+"./images/9b_th.jpg" alt=" A PHOTO-TRICYCLE APPARATUS."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">A PHOTO-TRICYCLE APPARATUS.</p>
+
+<p>This consists of a portable folding camera, with screw focusing
+arrangement, swing back, and an adapter frame placed in the
+position of the focus screen, allowing the dark slide to be
+inserted so as to give the horizontal or vertical position to the
+dry plate when in the camera. To the front and base-board a brass
+swiveled side bar, made collapsible by means of a center slot, is
+attached by hinges, and this renders the camera rigid when open or
+secure when closed. The base-board is supported on a brass plate
+within which is inserted a ball-and-socket (or universal joint in a
+new form), permitting the camera to be tilted to any necessary
+angle, and fixed in such position at will. The whole apparatus is
+mounted upon a brass telescopic draw-stand, which, by means of
+clamps, is attached to the steering handle or other convenient part
+of the tricycle, preferably the form made by Messrs. Rudge &amp;
+Co., of Coventry, represented in the cut.&mdash;<i>Photo.
+News.</i></p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="14"></a></p>
+
+<h2>A PHOTO PRINTING LIGHT.</h2>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/9d.png"><img src=
+"./images/9d_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p>
+
+<p>A printing frame is placed in the carrier, and exposed to the
+light of a gas burner kept at a fixed distance, behind which is a
+spherical reflector. The same frame may be used for other
+purposes.-<i>Photographic News.</i></p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="15"></a></p>
+
+<h2>A NEW ACTINOMETER.</h2>
+
+<p>A selenium actinometer has been described in the <i>Comptes
+Rendus</i> in a communication from M. Morize, of Rio de Janeiro.
+The instrument is used to measure the actinic power of sunlight
+when the sun is at various altitudes; but the same principle is
+applicable to other light sources. The sensitive part of the
+apparatus consists of a cylinder formed of 38 disks of copper,
+isolated from each other by as many disks of mica. The latter being
+of smaller diameter than the copper disks, the annular spaces
+between the two are filled with selenium, by the simple process of
+rubbing a stick of this substance over the edges, and afterward
+gently warming. The selenium then presents a grayish appearance,
+and is ready for use. Connection is made by conductors, on opposite
+sides, with the odd and even numbers of the disks, which diminishes
+the resistance of the selenium. The cylinder thus formed is
+insulated by glass supports in the inside of a vacuum tube, for the
+purpose of preserving it from the disturbing influence of dark
+rays. The whole is placed upon a stand, and shielded from reflected
+light, but fully exposed to that which is to be measured for
+actinic intensity. If now a constant current of electricity is
+passed through the apparatus, as indicated by a galvanometer, the
+variations of the latter will show the effect produced upon the
+selenium. A scale must be prepared, with the zero point at the
+greatest possible resistance of the selenium, which corresponds
+with absolute darkness. The greatest effect of the light would be
+to annul the resistance of the selenium. Consequently, the cylinder
+must be withdrawn from the circuit to represent this effect; and
+the maximum deviation of the galvanometer is then to be observed,
+and marked 100. By dividing the range of the galvanometer thus
+obtained into 100 equal parts, the requisite actinometric scale
+will be established. In practice, the Clamond battery is used to
+supply the constant current required.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="16"></a></p>
+
+<h2>ASTRONOMICAL PHOTOGRAPHY.</h2>
+
+<p>During the last few years, or rather decades of years, it has
+become rather a trite saying that to advance far in any branch of
+physical research a fair proficiency in no inconsiderable number of
+the sister sciences is an absolute necessity. But if this is true
+in general, none, I think, will question the assertion that a
+proficient in any of the physical sciences must be fairly
+conversant with photography as a science, or at least as an art. If
+we take for example a science which has of late years made rapid
+strides both in Europe and America, the science of astronomy, we
+shall not have far to go to find convincing proof that a great
+portion of the best work that is being done by its votaries is
+effected by the aid of photography. One eminent astronomer has
+quite lately gone so far as to declare that we no longer require
+observers of the heavens, but that their place can be better
+supplied by the gelatine plate of the photographer; and his words
+have been echoed by others not less able than himself. "Abolish the
+observer, and substitute the sensitive plate," is a sensational
+form of expressing the revolution in observational astronomy that
+is taking place under our eyes; but, although it suggests a vast
+amount of truth, it might leave upon the mind an exaggerated
+impression inimical to the best interests of science.</p>
+
+<p>The award of the highest distinction in astronomy, the gold
+medal of the Royal Astronomical Society, two years in succession,
+to those who have been most successful in celestial photography is
+no doubtful sign of the great value attached to such work. Last
+year it was Mr. Common who received the highest testimony of the
+merit due to his splendid photographs of the nebula of Orion; and
+this year Dr. Huggins, who has drawn much attention to celestial
+photography, by his successful attempts to picture the solar corona
+in full daylight, has received a similar acknowledgment of his
+labors in photographing the spectra of stars and comets and
+nebul&aelig;.</p>
+
+<p>An adequate idea of the progress astronomy is now making by aid
+of photography can only be formed by a comprehensive view of all
+that is being at present attempted; but a rapid glance at some of
+the work may prepare the way for a more thorough investigation. A
+few years since, the astronomers who had advanced their science by
+aid of photography were few in number, and their results are soon
+enumerated. Some good pictures of the solar corona taken during
+solar eclipses, a series or two of sun-spot photographs, and a very
+limited number of successful attempts made upon the moon, and
+planets, and star clusters, were all the fruits of their labors.
+But now each month we learn of some new and efficient laborer in
+this field, which gives promise of so rich a harvest.</p>
+
+<p>Each day the sun is photographed at Greenwich, at South
+Kensington, in India, and at the Physical Observatory of Potsdam,
+and thus a sure record is obtained of all the spots upon its
+surface, which may serve for the study of the periodicity of its
+changes, and for their probable connection with the important
+phenomena of terrestrial magnetism and meteorology. In France the
+splendid sun-pictures obtained by Dr. Janssen at the Physical
+Observatory of Meudon have thrown into the shade all other attempts
+at a photographic study of the most delicate features of the solar
+surface.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Huggins has shown that it is possible to obtain a daily
+photographic record of the solar prominences, and only lately he
+has secured results that justified a special expedition to the Alps
+to photograph the sun's corona, and he has now moved the Admiralty
+to grant a subsidy to Dr. Gill, the government astronomer at the
+Cape, by aid of which Mr. Woods can carry on the experiments that
+were so encouraging last summer in Switzerland.</p>
+
+<p>We may, then, reasonably hope to obtain before long a daily
+picture of the sun and a photographic record of its prominences,
+and even of a certain portion of the solar corona; but the precious
+moments of each solar eclipse will always be invaluable for
+picturing those wondrous details in the corona that are now shown
+us by photography, and which can be obtained by photography
+alone.</p>
+
+<p>Again, how very much is to be learnt in solar physics from the
+marvelous photographs of the sun's spectrum exhibited last summer
+by Professor Rowland; photographs that show as many as one hundred
+and fifty lines between H and K, and which he is still laboring to
+improve! The extension, too, of the visible solar spectrum into the
+ultra-violet by Corun, Mascart, and others, adds much to our
+knowledge of the sun; while the photographs of Abney in the
+ultrared increase our information in a direction less expected and
+certainly less easy of attainment. Both these extensions we find
+most ably utilized in the recent discussion of the very interesting
+photographs of the spectra of the prominences and of the corona
+taken during the total eclipse of May 18, 1882; and the
+photographic results of this eclipse afford ample proof that we can
+not only obtain pictures of the corona by photography that it would
+be impossible otherwise to procure, but also that in a few seconds
+information concerning the nature of the solar atmosphere may be
+furnished by photography that it would otherwise take centuries to
+accumulate, even under the most favorable circumstances.</p>
+
+<p>The advantages to be gained by accurate photographs of the moon
+and planets, that will permit great enlargements, are too obvious
+to call for lengthened notice in such a rapid sketch as the
+present; for it is principally in the observation of details that
+the eye cannot grasp with the required delicacy, or with sufficient
+rapidity, that photography is so essential for rapid and sure
+progress.</p>
+
+<p>Like the sketches of a solar eclipse, the drawings that are made
+of comets, and still more of nebul&aelig;, even by the most
+accomplished artists, are all, to say the least, open to doubt in
+their delicate details. And the truth of this is so obvious, that
+it is the expressed opinion of an able astronomer that a single
+photograph of the nebula of Orion, taken by Mr. Common, would be of
+more value to posterity than the collective drawings of this
+interesting object so carefully made by Rosse, Bond, Secchi, and so
+many others.</p>
+
+<p>Another most important branch of astronomy, that is receiving
+very great attention at present, is the mapping of the starry
+heavens; and herein photography will perhaps do its best work for
+the astronomer. The trial star map by the brothers Henry, of a
+portion of the Milky Way, which they felt unable to observe
+satisfactorily by the ordinary methods, is so near absolute
+perfection that it alone proves the immense superiority of the
+photographic method in the formation of star maps. Fortunately this
+subject, which is as vast as it is fundamental, is being taken up
+vigorously. The Henries are producing a special lens for the work;
+Mr. Grubb is constructing a special Cassgrain reflector for Mr.
+Roberts of Maghull; and the Admiralty have instructed Mr. Woods to
+make this part of his work at the Cape Observatory, under the able
+direction of Dr. Gill. Besides star maps, clusters, too, and
+special portions of the heavens are being photographed by the Rev.
+T.E. Espin, of West Kirby; and such pictures will be of the
+greatest value, not only in fixing the position at a given date,
+but also aiding in the determination of magnitude, color,
+variability, proper motion, and even of the orbits of double and
+multiple stars, and the possible discovery of new planets and
+telescopic comets.</p>
+
+<p>Such are some of the many branches of astronomy that are
+receiving the most valuable aid at present from photography; but
+the very value of the gift that is bestowed should make
+exaggeration an impossibility. Photography can well afford to be
+generous, but it must first be just, in its estimate of the work
+that has still to be done in astronomy independently of its aid;
+and although the older science points with just pride to what is
+being done for her by her younger sister, still she must not forget
+that now, as in the future, she must depend largely for her
+progress, not only on the skill of the photographer and the
+mathematician, but also on the trained eye and ear and hand of her
+own indefatigable observers.&mdash;<i>S.J. Perry, S.J., F.R.S., in
+Br. Jour. of Photography</i>.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="17"></a></p>
+
+<h2>ELECTRICITY AS A PREVENTIVE OF SCALE IN BOILERS.</h2>
+
+<p>The mineral sediment that generally sticks to the sides of steam
+boilers, and the presence of which is fraught with the utmost
+danger, resulting in many instances in great injury to life and
+property, besides eating away the substance of the iron plate, was
+referred to in a paper lately read by M. Jeannolle before the Paris
+Academy of Sciences, in which the author described a new method for
+keeping boilers clean. This method is as follows:</p>
+
+<p>The inside of a steam boiler is placed, by means of piles of a
+certain power, in reciprocal communication, the current passing at
+one end through positive, and at the other through negative, wires.
+In incrusted steam boilers, at a temperature ranging from 212&deg;
+to 300&deg; Fahr., and a pressure of from 30 to 90 lb. to the
+square inch, the current thus engendered decomposes the accumulated
+salts, and precipitates them, from which they may easily be
+removed, either by means of a special siphon or by means of some
+other mechanical process. When boilers are free from fur, and where
+it is intended to keep them free from such, a continuous current
+may be set up, by means of which the sedimentary salts may be
+decomposed, and a precipitate produced in a pulverized form, which
+can be removed with equal facility.</p>
+
+<p>From a series of minute experiments made by M. Jeannolle, it
+appears that in order to render the various actions of electricity,
+perfect, it is necessary to coat either with red lead or with
+pulverized iron, or with any other conductor of electricity, an
+operation which must be repeated whenever the boiler is emptied
+with a view to cleaning out. The above system Is being
+advantageously applied in Calais for removing the incrustations of
+boilers. The two poles of a battery of ten to twelve Bunsen
+elements are applied to the ends of the boilers, and after thirty
+to forty hours the deposits fall from the sides to the bottom. When
+a boiler has been thus cleared, the formation of new deposits may
+be prevented by applying a much less energetic current under the
+same conditions.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="18"></a></p>
+
+<h2>ALPHABET DESIGNED BY GODFREY SYKES.</h2>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/10a.png"><img src=
+"./images/10a_th.jpg" alt=
+" SUGGESTIONS IN DECORATIVE ART.&mdash;ALPHABET DESIGNED BY GODFREY SYKES.">
+</a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">SUGGESTIONS IN DECORATIVE ART.&mdash;ALPHABET
+DESIGNED BY GODFREY SYKES.</p>
+
+<p>Among the many designs which have been issued by the South
+Kensington Museum authorities is the alphabet which we have
+illustrated here to-day. The letters appear frequently among the
+decorations of the museum buildings, especially in the refreshment
+rooms and the Ceramic gallery, where long inscriptions in glazed
+terra cotta form ornamental friezes. The alphabet has also been
+engraved to several sizes, and is used for the initial letters in
+the various official books and art publications relating to the
+museum, which are published by the Science and Art
+Department.&mdash;<i>Building News.</i></p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="19"></a></p>
+
+<h2>OLD WROUGHT IRON GATE.</h2>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/11a.png"><img src=
+"./images/11a_th.jpg" alt=" OLD WROUGHT IRON GATE"></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">OLD WROUGHT IRON GATE</p>
+
+<p>This gate forms the entrance to Scraptoft Hall, a building of
+the eighteenth century, now the seat of Captain Barclay, and which
+stands at about five miles from Leicester, England.&mdash;<i>The
+Architect.</i></p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="23"></a></p>
+
+<h2>BRIEF SANITARY MATTERS IN CONNECTION WITH ISOLATED COUNTRY
+HOUSES.<a name="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_4_4"><sup>[4]</sup></a></h2>
+
+<h3>By E.W. BOWDITCH, C.E.</h3>
+
+<p>I am unable to tell you what is generally considered the best
+practice, for I am not sure there are any definitely established
+rules; therefore I can only explain <i>my</i> ways of doing such
+work, which, though I try to make as complete and at the same time
+as simple as possible, I know to be far from perfect.</p>
+
+<p>Plumbing and drainage work has grown up unconsciously with my
+landscape gardening, and not finding any texts or practice that
+seemed wholly satisfactory, I have been forced to devise new
+arrangements from time to time, according to the requirements of
+the case in hand.</p>
+
+<p>To give all the details of house plumbing this evening, or any
+<i>one</i> evening, would be impossible, for lack of time, and not
+worth while even if there was time, as much of it would prove
+matter of little or no interest. I will confine my remarks,
+therefore, to certain elements of the work where my practice
+differs, I believe, essentially from that of most engineers, and
+where perhaps my experience, if of no assistance to other members
+of the Society, may excite their friendly criticism in such a way
+as to help me.</p>
+
+<p>There are two kinds of country places that I am liable to be
+called upon to prescribe for:</p>
+
+<p><i>First.</i> A new place where nothing has been arranged.</p>
+
+<p><i>Second.</i> An old place where the occupants have been
+troubled either by their outside arrangements or by fixtures or
+pipes within.</p>
+
+<p>Under the first head let us suppose a small tract of perhaps two
+acres of land in some inland town, where the family intends to live
+but six months in the year, though they are liable to reside there
+the whole twelve.</p>
+
+<p>There are no sewers and no public water. The soil is a stiff,
+retentive clay, rather wet in spring. The desire is expressed to
+have plumbing and drainage that shall be as inexpensive as
+possible, but that shall be entirely safe.</p>
+
+<p>In considering the arrangements inside the house, I find myself
+in the same predicament as the French surgeon, a specialist upon
+setting the bones of the arm, who, when a patient was brought him
+with his right arm broke, expressed his sorrow at being unable to
+be of assistance, as his specialty was the left arm.</p>
+
+<p>I have endeavored to post myself thoroughly upon house plumbing,
+but confess to only knowing partially about the wastes; the
+supplies I do not feel competent to pass upon.</p>
+
+<p>One class of annoyance caused by plumbing, perhaps the principal
+one, is due to the soil pipe or some of its fittings.</p>
+
+<p>Second quality of iron, poor hanging, insufficient calking,
+careless mechanics, putty, cement, rag, or paper joints&mdash;all
+these and a dozen other things are liable to be sources of trouble.
+Subordinate wastes are apt to be annoying, occasionally, too, to a
+less extent.</p>
+
+<p>The mechanical work can always be superintended, and within
+certain limits may be made secure and tight; not so easy, however,
+with the materials.</p>
+
+<p>There is seldom a valid excuse for ever making waste pipes,
+within a building, of anything but metal.</p>
+
+<p>Earthen tile is frequently used; also, to a limited extent,
+brick, stone, and wood; twice I have found canvas&mdash;all these,
+however, are inferior, and should never be accepted or specified.
+The writer believes that at the present time, hereabouts, lead and
+iron are more used for wastes than any other materials, and are
+found the most satisfactory on the whole.</p>
+
+<p>One or two arrangements, relative to the wastes, I have made use
+of that are not, so far as known, in general use, and that may not
+be the best, though they have served me many good turns, and I have
+not succeeded in devising any better.</p>
+
+<p>Soil pipe, as it is usually put in, is apt to be of cast iron,
+four inches in diameter, and is known in the market as "heavy" or
+"extra heavy." For some years the tar-coated or black enameled pipe
+has been the favorite, as being the more reliable, the writer in
+common with others making use of the same freely, until one day a
+cracked elbow, tar coated, was detected. Since that time plain,
+untarred pipe has been specified, and subjected to the so-called
+kerosene test, which consists of swabbing out each pipe with
+kerosene or oil and then allowing it to stand for a few hours. A
+moment's thought will convince any one that when a pipe is
+asphalted or tar coated it is very difficult to detect either sand
+holes or small cracks, and the difficulty of proper calking is
+increased, as lead does not cling so well to the tar as to plain
+iron.</p>
+
+<p>At present, the kerosene test, so far as the writer is
+concerned, is a misnomer, because raw linseed oil is used
+exclusively as giving more satisfactory results, and being less
+troublesome to apply.</p>
+
+<p>I have here a length of the ordinary "heavy 4" commercial soil
+pipe, plain, and selected at random. Yesterday noon I had it oiled
+at my office, in order to be ready for to-night, and you see, by
+the chalk marks I have made, just where the leaks were and their
+area. I may say here that a sound pipe of this caliber and standard
+weight is the exception rather than the rule, and it was selected
+for this experiment merely to try and show the reaction a little
+better than the heavier pipe might.</p>
+
+<p>Experiments of this nature I have carried along for the past two
+years, and I am glad to say that, since I began, the quality of the
+soil pipe furnished by the dealers for my work seems appreciably
+better than at first. Whether the poorer pipe is still made and
+sold to other customers I have no means of knowing; probably it is,
+however.</p>
+
+<p>A large quantity of the pipe is now being tested at my
+suggestion by the Superintendent of Construction of the Johns
+Hopkins Hospital, at Baltimore. I have not yet heard the results
+from him, but doubtless they will be interesting. A brief summary
+of the results may be of some interest.</p>
+
+<p>The different makers of soil pipe generally used by plumbers
+hereabouts are:</p>
+
+<p>Mott &amp; Company, Abendroth, Blakslee, Dighton, Phillips &amp;
+Weeden, and Bartlett, Hayward &amp; Co.</p>
+
+<p>On 4" extra heavy pipe my results have been as follows:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Percentage passed as good, single hub.</td>
+<td align='left'>60 per ct. to 70 per ct.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Percentage passed as good, double.</td>
+<td align='left'>20 per ct. to 80 per ct.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Percentage passed special castings, including Y's
+and T's.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>60 per ct.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>5" pipe extra heavy:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Percentage passed as good, single hub.</td>
+<td align='left'>25 per ct. to 35 per ct.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Percentage passed as good, double.</td>
+<td align='left'>No record.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Percentage special castings, including Y's and
+T's.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>60 per ct.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>It has been stated to me by dealers that the tar coating does
+away with the necessity of any such test as the oil; while I am not
+prepared to acknowledge or deny the statement, it is well known
+that much poor pipe is tar-coated and sold in the market as good,
+and when coated it is almost impossible to detect any but
+<i>very</i> defective work.</p>
+
+<p>The price customers are obliged to pay for soil pipe, either
+"heavy" or "extra heavy," is very high indeed, even taking off the
+discounts, and amounts (as I figure it) to $70 per long ton for 4"
+pipe. The present rate for the best water pipe of the same caliber
+is about $38 (now $29) per long ton, and the additional charge for
+soil pipe should guarantee the very best iron in the market, though
+it appears to be rarely furnished.</p>
+
+<p>It is asserted that all soil pipe is tested to a 50-pound water
+pressure. I beg leave to question the absolute truth of this,
+unless it be acknowledged that pipe is sold indiscriminately,
+whether it bears the test or not, for more than once I have found a
+single length of soil pipe (5 feet) that could not bear the
+pressure of a column of water of its own height without
+leaking.</p>
+
+<p>Having obtained a satisfactory lot of soil pipe and fittings,
+the next trouble comes with the lead calking. Unfortunately, it is
+frequently found that very shallow joints are made instead of deep
+ones, and hard lead used instead of soft. My rule is, soft lead,
+two runnings and two calkings. By soft lead I mean pig lead, and by
+hard lead I mean old pipe and scrap lead that may have been melted
+a dozen times. Incidentally it may be remarked that it is quite
+difficult to calk a tight joint on the heavy pipe; the process will
+crack the hub.</p>
+
+<p>The fixtures used in a house are of minor importance&mdash;there
+are dozens of good patterns of every class. If they are carefully
+put in, and provided with suitable traps placed just as close to
+the fixture as possible, the result will usually be
+satisfactory.</p>
+
+<p>Very few instances occur where traps are placed as close to the
+fixtures they serve as they might be, and yet a very short length
+of untrapped pipe, when fouled, will sometimes smell dreadfully. A
+set bowl with trap two feet away may become in time a great
+nuisance if not properly used. A case in point where the fixture
+was used both as a bowl and a urinal was in a few months
+exceedingly offensive&mdash;a fact largely (though not wholly) due
+to its double service.</p>
+
+<p>I have never met two sanitarians who agreed upon the same
+water-closets, bowls, faucets, traps, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Of course, the soil pipe will be carried, of full size, through
+the roof, and sufficiently high to clear all windows.</p>
+
+<p>Avoid multiplicity of fixtures or pipes; cut off all fixtures
+not used at least twice a week, lest their traps dry out; have all
+plumbing as simple as possible, and try and get it all located so
+that outside air can be got directly into all closets and
+bath-rooms. As far as possible, set your fixtures in glass rather
+than tiles or wood. Carry the lower end of the main drain at least
+five feet beyond the cellar walls of the building, of cast
+iron.</p>
+
+<p>Let us now look at the outside work. The main drain (carrying
+everything except the kitchen and pantry sinks) goes through a
+ventilated running trap. An indirect fresh air inlet is provided on
+the house side of the trap (example), to prevent annoyance from
+puffing or pumping, or, better still, a pipe corresponding to the
+soil pipe is carried up on the outside of the house.</p>
+
+<p>The running trap ventilator should be of the same diameter as
+the main drain (4 inch), and serve as a main drain vent also. Carry
+this pipe on the outside of the house as high as the top of the
+chimney.</p>
+
+<p>A grease-trap should be provided for the kitchen and pantry
+sinks. Formerly my custom was to put in brick receptacles; it is
+now to put in Portland cement traps (Henderson pattern), though
+perhaps I may succeed in devising a cast-iron one that will answer
+better. The brick ones were occasionally heaved by the frost, and
+cracked; the Portland cement ones answer better, and when
+thoroughly painted with red lead do not soak an appreciable
+quantity of sewage to be offensive, but are too high priced ($28
+each). I have made one or two patterns for cast-iron ones, but none
+as yet that I feel satisfied with.</p>
+
+<p>Beyond the running trap an Akron pipe should convey the sewage
+to a tank or cesspool.</p>
+
+<p>Our supposable case is the second most difficult to take care
+of. The worst would be ledge. We have to contend with, however,
+hard, wet, impervious clay.</p>
+
+<p>The best way undoubtedly is to underdrain the land, and then to
+distribute the sewage on the principle of intermittent downward
+filtration. This is rather expensive, and a customer is rarely
+willing to pay the bills for the same. I should always advise it as
+the best; but where not allowed to do so, I have had fair success
+with shallow French drains connecting with the tank or
+cesspool.</p>
+
+<p>Siphon tanks, such as are advised by many sanitarians, that were
+used first in this country, I believe, by Mr. Waring, I have not
+been very successful with. Obstructions get into the siphon and
+stop it up, or it gets choked with grease. I prefer a tight tank,
+provided with a tell-tale, and that is to be opened either by a
+valve operated by hand, or that is arranged with a standing
+overflow like a bath tub, and that can be raised and secured by a
+hook.</p>
+
+<a name="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4">[4]</a>
+
+<div class="note">Read before the Boston Society of Civil
+Engineers, April 1884 <i>Journal A. of E. Societies</i>.</div>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="24"></a></p>
+
+<h2>SANITARY COOKING.<a name="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_5_5"><sup>[5]</sup></a></h2>
+
+<h3>By VIRGINIA L. OPPENHEIMER, M.D., Seymour, Ind.</h3>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza"><span>"We may live without poetry, music, and
+art,<br>
+</span> <span>We may live without conscience, and live without
+heart,<br>
+</span> <span>We may live without friends,<br>
+</span> <span>We may live without books,<br>
+</span> <span>But civilized man cannot live without cooks.<br>
+</span></div>
+
+<div class="stanza"><span>"We may live without books&mdash;<br>
+</span> <span>What is knowledge but grieving?<br>
+</span> <span>We may live without hope&mdash;<br>
+</span> <span>What is hope but deceiving?<br>
+</span> <span>We may live without love&mdash;what is passion but
+pining?<br>
+</span> <span>But where is the man that can live without
+dining?"<br>
+</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Thus saith the poet, and forthwith turns the world over into the
+hands of the cook. And into what better hands could you fall? To
+you, my fat, jolly, four-meals-a-day friend, Mr. Gourmand, but more
+especially to <i>you</i>, my somber, lean, dyspeptic,
+two-meals-a-day friend, Mr. Grumbler, the cook is indeed a valuable
+friend. The cook wields a scepter that is only second in power to
+that of love; and even love has become soured through the evil
+instrumentality of the good-looking or bad-cooking cook. This is no
+jest, it is a very sad fact.</p>
+
+<p>Now, the question arises, how can the cook preserve the health
+of her patrons, maintain happiness in the family, and yet not throw
+the gourmands into bankruptcy? Very simple, I assure you.</p>
+
+<ol>
+<li>You must have <i>the</i> cook. I mean by this, that not every
+one can occupy that important office. The greatest consideration in
+the qualities of a cook is, does she like the work? No one can
+fulfill the duties of any noteworthy office unless he labors at
+them with vim and willingness.</li>
+
+<li>You must have good articles of food originally.</li>
+
+<li>As our honest Iago said, "You must have change."</li>
+</ol>
+
+<p>When one arrives at adult age, he should have learned by
+experience what articles of food <i>do</i>, and what articles of
+food do <i>not</i>, agree with him, and to shun the latter, no
+matter how daintily served or how tempting the circumstances. The
+man who knows that <i>pates de foie gras</i>, or the livers of
+abnormally fattened geese, disagree with him, and still eats them,
+is not to be pitied when all the horrors of dyspepsia overtake
+him.</p>
+
+<p>The cooking of any article of food has evidently much, very
+much, to do with its digestibility. It is not the purpose of this
+paper to teach cooking, but merely to give some general hints as to
+the best as well as the simplest methods of preparing staple
+articles of food. The same articles of food can and should be
+prepared differently on each day of the week. Changes of diet are
+too likely to be underestimated. By constant change the digestive
+organs in the average person are prevented from having that
+repulsion of food which, to a greater or less extent, is likely to
+result from a sameness of diet continued for a long time.</p>
+
+<p>We often hear from our scientific men that this or that article
+of food is excellent for muscle, another for brain, another for
+bone, etc., etc. Now, stubborn facts are like stone walls, against
+which theories often butt out their beauty and their power. It is
+well known to almost every one nowadays that <i>well-cooked</i>
+food, whether it be potatoes, meat and bread, fish, or anything
+else worthy the name of food, will well maintain, indefinitely,
+either the philosopher or the hodcarrier.</p>
+
+<p>Many of you know, and all of you ought to know, that the
+principal ingredients of nearly all our foods are starch and
+albumen. Starch is the principal nutritive ingredient of vegetables
+and breadstuffs. Albumen is the principal ingredient of meats,
+eggs, milk, and other animal derivatives.</p>
+
+<p>Starch never enters the system as starch, but must first be
+converted into sugar either in the body or out of it. The process
+of this transformation of starch into sugar is beautifully
+exemplified in certain plants, such as the beet, the so-called
+sugar cane, and other growths. The young plant is, to a great
+extent, composed of starch; as the plant grows older, a substance
+is produced which is called <i>diastase</i>. Through the influence
+of this <i>diastase</i> the starch is converted into a peculiar
+non-crystallizable substance called <i>dextrine</i>, and as the
+plant matures, this dextrine is transformed into crystallizable
+sugar.</p>
+
+<p>"Dextrine is a substance that can be produced from starch by the
+action of dilute acids, alkalies, and malt extract, and by roasting
+it at a temperature between 284&deg; and 330&deg; F., till it is of
+a light brown color, and has the odor of overbaked bread."</p>
+
+<p>A simple form of dextrine may be found in the brown crust of
+bread&mdash;that sweetish substance that gives the crust its
+agreeable flavor. Pure dextrine is an insipid, odorless,
+yellowish-white, translucent substance, which dissolves in water
+almost as readily as sugar. As stated above, it is easily converted
+into <i>dextrose</i>, or <i>glucose</i>, as it is usually
+named.</p>
+
+<p>This <i>glucose</i> is often sold under the name of sugar, and
+is the same against which so many of the newspapers waged such a
+war a year or two ago. These critics were evidently, for the most
+part, persons who knew little about the subject. Glucose, if free
+from sulphuric acid or other chemicals, is as harmless as any other
+form of sugar. Most of our candies contain more or less of it, and
+are in every way as satisfactory as when manufactured wholly from
+other sugars.</p>
+
+<p>It is, therefore, self-evident that, as sugar is a necessary
+article of food, the process which aids the transformation of our
+starchy foods must necessarily aid digestion. Do not understand me
+to say by this that, if all our starchy foods were converted into
+sugar, their digestion would thereby be completed. As I stated a
+moment ago, this sweet food, if taken into the stomach day after
+day, would soon cause that particular organ to rebel against this
+sameness of diet. In order the more clearly to illustrate this
+point, I will briefly show you how some of the every-day articles
+of food can be each day differently prepared, and thus be rendered
+more palatable, and, as a consequence, more digestible; for it is a
+demonstrated fact that savory foods are far more easily digested
+than the same foods unsavored.</p>
+
+<p>The art of serving and arranging dishes for the table is an
+accomplishment in itself. It is very reasonable that all things
+that go to make up beauty and harmony at the dinner table should
+add their full quota to the appetite, and, I was about to say, "to
+the digestion;" but will qualify the statement by saying, to the
+digestion if the appetite be not porcine.</p>
+
+<p>Our commonest article of food is the <i>potato</i>. Let us see
+how potatoes&mdash;which contain only twenty per cent. of starch,
+as against eighty-eight per cent. in rice, and sixty-six per cent.
+in wheat flour&mdash;can be prepared as just mentioned. We will
+look for a moment at the manner in which they are usually served by
+the average cook:</p>
+
+<p>1, boiled with their jackets on; 2, roasted in the embers; 3,
+roasted with meat; 4, fried; 5, mashed; 6, salad.</p>
+
+<p>1. Potatoes boiled in their jackets are excellent if properly
+prepared. But there's the rub. The trouble is, they are too often
+allowed to boil slowly and too long, and thus become water-soaked,
+soggy, and solid, and proportionately indigestible. They should be
+put over a brisk fire, and kept at a brisk boil till done; then
+drain off the water, sprinkle a little salt over them, and return
+to the fire a moment to dry thoroughly, when you will find them
+bursting with their white, mealy contents.</p>
+
+<p>2. Roasted potatoes are general favorites, and very digestible.
+A more agreeable flavor is imparted to them if roasted in hot
+embers (wood fire), care being used to keep them covered with the
+hot embers.</p>
+
+<p>3. Fried potatoes, as they are very generally served, are almost
+as digestible as rocks, but not so tempting in all their
+grease-dripping beauty as the latter. Many of you have doubtless
+seen the potatoes neatly sliced and dumped into a frying pan full
+of hot lard, where they were permitted to sink or float, and soak
+and sob for about a half hour or more. When served, they presented
+the picturesque spectacle of miniature potato islands floating at
+liberty in a sea of yellow grease. Now, if any of you can relish
+and digest such a mess as that, I would advise you to leave this
+clime, and eat tallow candles with the Esquimaux.</p>
+
+<p>If you are fond of fried potatoes, cook them in this way:</p>
+
+<p>Take what boiled potatoes are left from breakfast or dinner;
+when cold, remove the jackets, and cut into thin slices, season
+with salt, pepper, and a little Cayenne; have ready a hot frying
+pan, with enough meat drippings or sweet lard to cover the bottom;
+put in the potatoes and fry a rich brown, stirring constantly with
+a knife to prevent burning. Serve very hot.</p>
+
+<p>4. Mashed potatoes will be discussed further on.</p>
+
+<p>5. Potato salads are appetizing and piquant, because they are
+usually made up with strong condiments, onions, etc. They are,
+therefore, not very digestible in themselves. Nevertheless, they
+are so palatable that we cannot easily dispense with them; but,
+after eating them, if you expect to have inward peace, either split
+wood, walk eight and a half miles, or take some other light
+exercise.</p>
+
+<p>More palatable, and proportionately digestible, are the
+following methods of cooking this useful vegetable:</p>
+
+<p>1, Saratoga potatoes; 2, a la maitre d'hotel; 3, potato
+croquettes; 4, potatoes and cream; 5, a la Lyonnaise.</p>
+
+<p>1. For <i>Saratogas</i>, pare and slice your potatoes as thin as
+possible, dropping them into cold water in which is dissolved a
+tiny piece of alum to make them crisp. Let them remain in the water
+for an hour or longer. Drain, and wipe perfectly dry with a tea
+towel. Have ready a quantity of boiling lard. Drop them in, and fry
+a delicate brown. Drain all grease from them, sprinkle with salt,
+and serve. Here, in the crisp slices, you will have the much
+desired dextrine. Or, in other words, your potato is already half
+digested. Eat three or four potatoes prepared thus, and you feel no
+inconvenience; but how would you feel did you devour three soggy,
+water-soaked <i>boiled</i> potatoes?</p>
+
+<p>2. For <i>a la maitre d'hotel</i>, pare the potatoes, cut into
+pieces half an inch wide, and the length of the potato; drop into
+cold water until wanted (an hour or so); then drain, and fry in
+boiling lard. Just as they begin to brown take them out with a
+skimmer; let them slightly cool; then put back, and fry a rich
+brown. This makes them puff up, and very attractive.</p>
+
+<p>3. For <i>croquettes</i>, take finely mashed potatoes, and mix
+with salt, pepper, and butter, and sweet milk or cream enough to
+moisten thoroughly. Mix with this one well-beaten egg, and form
+into small balls, taking care to have them smooth. Have ready one
+plate with a beaten egg upon it, and another with cracker crumbs.
+Dip each ball into the egg, and then into the crumbs, and brown
+nicely. Lay the croquettes on brown paper first, to get rid of any
+superfluous grease, then serve on a napkin.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Potatoes and cream</i> are prepared by mincing cold boiled
+potatoes fine, putting them in a spider with a little melted butter
+in it, and letting them fry slightly, keeping them well covered.
+Add a very small piece of fresh butter, season with pepper and
+salt, and pour over them cream or rich milk. Let them boil up once,
+and serve. This is a very nice dish, and may be safely taken into
+delicate stomachs.</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>A la Lyonnaise</i> is prepared as follows: Take five cold
+potatoes, one onion, butter, salt, and pepper. Slice the onion
+finely, and fry it in butter until it begins to take color; add the
+sliced potatoes, salt and pepper to taste, and keep shaking the
+saucepan until they are somewhat browned. Serve hot.</p>
+
+<p>A few random remarks about the preparation of albuminous foods.
+If the albumen in food is hardened by prolonged cooking, it is
+rendered <i>less</i> instead of more digestible. Therefore, the
+so-called <i>well-cooked</i> meats are really <i>badly-cooked</i>
+meats. Meats should be only half done, or rare. To do this
+properly, it is necessary to cook with a quick fire. Steaks should
+be broiled, not fried. I am in accord with a well-known orator, who
+said, recently, that "the person who fries a steak should be
+arrested for cruelty to humanity." Some few meats should always be
+well cooked before eating.<a name="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_6_6"><sup>[6]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>The same law holds good with eggs as with meats. A hard-boiled
+egg is only fit for the stomach of an ostrich; it was never
+intended by nature to adorn the human stomach. There are very many
+ways of preparing eggs&mdash;by frying, baking, poaching, shirring,
+etc. I will only describe briefly a few simple methods of making
+omelets.</p>
+
+<p>In making this elegant dish, never use more than three eggs to
+an <i>omelet</i>. Plain omelet: Separate the whites and yolks; add
+a teaspoonful of water to the whites, and beat to a stiff froth;
+add to the yolks a teaspoonful of water, and beat until light; then
+season with salt, and about two tablespoonfuls of cream or rich
+milk. Have your spider very hot; turn your whites and yolks
+together, and stir lightly to mix them; place a bit of butter in
+the spider, and immediately pour in your eggs. When set (which
+takes from ten to twenty seconds, and be careful that it does not
+brown too much), fold together in a half moon, remove it, sprinkle
+with powdered sugar, and serve on a hot plate. It should be eaten
+immediately.</p>
+
+<p>Fruit omelets are made by placing preserved fruits or jellies
+between the folds. Baked omelets are prepared as above, with the
+addition of placing in the oven and allowing to brown slightly.</p>
+
+<p>French omelet is prepared in this way: Take a half cup of
+boiling milk with a half teaspoonful of butter melted in it; pour
+this over one-half cup of bread crumbs (light bread); add salt,
+pepper, and the yolks of three eggs beaten very light; mix
+thoroughly; and lastly, add the whites whipped to a stiff froth.
+Stir lightly, and fry in butter. When nearly done, fold together in
+a half moon, and serve immediately.</p>
+
+<p>And thus we might continue <i>ad infinitum</i>, but, as was
+stated before, it is not my object to instruct you in special
+cooking, but to illustrate in this manner how much easier it is, to
+both the cook and your stomachs, to prepare healthful dishes than
+to do the reverse.</p>
+
+<a name="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5">[5]</a>
+
+<div class="note">Read before the Indiana State Sanitary Society,
+Seymour, March 13, 1884.&mdash;<i>The Sanitarian.</i></div>
+
+<a name="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6">[6]</a>
+
+<div class="note">These are the exceptions. Pork, on account of the
+prevalence of disease in hogs, should be well done.</div>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="25"></a></p>
+
+<h2>TIME REQUIRED TO DIGEST DIFFERENT FOODS.</h2>
+
+<p><i>The Monitor de la Salud</i> contains in a recent number the
+results of some experiments lately made by E. Jessen on the time
+required for the digestion of certain kinds of food. The stomach of
+the person on whom the experiments were made was emptied by means
+of a pump; 100 grammes, equal to 1,544 grains, or about 2&#8532;
+ounces, of meat, finely chopped and mixed with three times the
+quantity of water, were introduced. The experiment was considered
+ended when the matter, on removal by the pump, was found to contain
+no muscular fibre.</p>
+
+<p>It will be remembered that the gramme weighs nearly 15&frac12;
+grains, and the cubic centigramme is equal to 1 gramme. The
+2&#8532; ounces of meat were therefore mixed with nearly eight
+ounces of water, before being introduced into the stomach.</p>
+
+<p>The results were as follows:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Beef, raw, and finely chopped.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>2 hours.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Beef, half cooked.</td>
+<td align='left'>2&frac12; hours.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Beef, well cooked.</td>
+<td align='left'>3 hours.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Beef, slightly roasted.</td>
+<td align='left'>3 hours.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Beef, well roasted.</td>
+<td align='left'>4 hours.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Mutton, raw.</td>
+<td align='left'>2 hours.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Veal.</td>
+<td align='left'>2&frac12; hours.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Pork.</td>
+<td align='left'>3 hours.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The digestibility of milk was examined in the same way. The
+quantity used was regulated so that the nitrogen should be the same
+as in the 100 grammes of beef.</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>602 cubic centimeters, nearly sixteen ounces, of
+cow's milk, not boiled, required.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td align='left'>3&frac12; hours</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>602 cubic centimeters, boiled.</td>
+<td align='left'>4 hours</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>602 sour.</td>
+<td align='left'>3&frac12; hours</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>675 skimmed.</td>
+<td align='left'>3&frac12; hours</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>656 goat's milk, not boiled.</td>
+<td align='left'>3&frac12; hours</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="20"></a></p>
+
+<h2>THE ORGANIZATION AND PLAN OF THE UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL
+SURVEY.<a name="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_7_7"><sup>[7]</sup></a></h2>
+
+<h3>By J.W. POWELL.</h3>
+
+<p>A Scientific institution or bureau operating under government
+authority can be controlled by statute and by superior
+administrative authority but to a limited extent. These operations
+are practically carried on by specialists, and they can be
+controlled only in their financial operations and in the general
+purposes for which investigations are made. Their methods of
+investigation are their own&mdash;originate with themselves, and
+are carried out by themselves. But in relation to the scientific
+operations of such a government institution, there is an unofficial
+authority which, though not immediately felt, ultimately steps in
+to approve or condemn, viz., the body of scientific men of the
+country; and though their authority is not exercised antecedently
+and at every stage of the work, yet it is so potent that no
+national scientific institution can grow and prosper without their
+approval, but must sooner or later fall and perish unless sustained
+by their strong influence.</p>
+
+<p>As director of the Geological Survey, I deeply realize that I
+owe allegiance to the scientific men of the country, and for this
+reason I desire to present to the National Academy of Sciences the
+organization and plan of operations of the Survey.</p>
+
+<h3>A TOPOGRAPHIC MAP OF THE UNITED STATUS.</h3>
+
+<p>Sound geologic research is based on geography. Without a good
+topographic map geology cannot even be thoroughly studied, and the
+publication of the results of geologic investigation is very
+imperfect without a good map; but with a good map thorough
+investigation and simple, intelligible publication become possible.
+Impelled by these considerations, the Survey is making a
+topographic map of the United States. The geographic basis of this
+map is a trigonometric survey by which datum points are established
+throughout the country; that is, base-lines are measured and a
+triangulation extended therefrom. This trigonometric work is
+executed on a scale only sufficiently refined for map-making
+purposes, and will not be directly useful for geodetic purposes in
+determining the figure of the earth. The hypsometric work is based
+upon the railroad levels of the country. Throughout the greater
+part of the country, there is a system of railroad lines,
+constituting a net-work. The levels or profiles of these roads have
+been established with reasonable accuracy, and as they cross each
+other at a multiplicity of points, a system of checks is afforded,
+so that the railroad surface of the country can be determined
+therefrom with all the accuracy necessary for the most refined and
+elaborate topographic maps. From such a hypsometric basis the
+reliefs for the whole country are determined, by running lines of
+levels, by trigonometric construction, and in mountainous regions
+by barometric observation.</p>
+
+<p>The primary triangulation having been made, the topography is
+executed by a variety of methods, adapted to the peculiar
+conditions found in various portions of the country. To a large
+extent the plane-table is used. In the hands of the topographers of
+the Geological Survey, the plane-table is not simply a portable
+draughting table for the field; it is practically an instrument of
+triangulation, and all minor positions of the details of topography
+are determined through its use by trigonometric construction.</p>
+
+<p>The scale on which the map is made is variable. In some portions
+of the prairie region, and in the region of the great plains, the
+topography and the geology alike are simple, and maps on a
+comparatively small scale are sufficient for practical purposes.
+For these districts it is proposed to construct the sheets of the
+map on a scale of 1-250,000, or about four miles to the inch. In
+the mountain regions of the West the geology is more complex, and
+the topography more intricate; but to a large extent these regions
+are uninhabited, and to a more limited extent uninhabitable. It
+would therefore not be wise to make a topographic or geologic
+survey of the country on an excessively elaborate plan. Over much
+of this area the sheets of the map will also be constructed on a
+scale of 1-250,000, but in special districts that scale will be
+increased to 1-125,000, and in the case of important mining
+districts charts will be constructed on a much larger scale. In the
+eastern portion of the United States two scales are adopted. In the
+less densely populated country a scale of 1-125,000 is used; in the
+more densely populated regions a scale of 1-62,500 is adopted, or
+about one mile to the inch. But throughout the country a few
+special districts of great importance, because of complex geologic
+structure, dense population, or other condition, will require
+charts on still larger scales. The area of the United States,
+exclusive of Alaska, is about three million square miles, and a map
+of the United States, constructed on the plan set forth above, will
+require not less than 2,600 sheets. It may ultimately prove to
+require more than that, from the fact that the areas to be surveyed
+on the larger scale have not been fully determined. Besides the
+number of sheets in the general map of the United States, there
+will be several hundred special maps on large scales, as above
+described.</p>
+
+<p>Such is a brief outline of the plan so far as it has been
+developed at the present time. In this connection it should be
+stated that the map of the United States can be completed, with the
+present organization of the Geological Survey, in about 24 years;
+but it is greatly to be desired that the time for its completion
+may be materially diminished by increasing the topographic force of
+the Geological Survey. We ought to have a good topographic map of
+the United States by the year 1900. About one-fifth of the whole
+area of the United States, exclusive of Alaska, has been completed
+on the above plan. This includes all geographic work done in the
+United States under the auspices of the General Government and
+under the auspices of State Governments. The map herewith shows
+those areas that have been surveyed by various organizations on
+such a scale and in such a manner that the work has been accepted
+as sufficient for the purposes of the Survey.</p>
+
+<p>Much other work has been done, but not with sufficient
+refinement and accuracy to be of present value, though such work
+subserved its purpose in its time. An examination of the map will
+show that the triangulation of the various organizations is already
+largely in advance of the topography. The map of the United States
+will be a great atlas divided into sheets as above indicated. In
+all of those areas where the survey is on a scale of 1-250,000, a
+page of the atlas will present an area of one degree in longitude
+and one degree in latitude. Where the scale is 1-125,000, a page of
+the atlas-sheet will represent one-fourth of a degree. Where the
+scale is 1-62,500, the atlas-sheet will represent one-sixteenth of
+a degree. The degree sheet will be designated by two
+numbers&mdash;one representing latitude, the other longitude. Where
+the sheets represent fractional degrees, they will be labeled with
+the same numbers, with the addition of the description of the
+proper fractional part.</p>
+
+<p>The organization, as at present established, executing this
+work, is as follows: First, an astronomic and computing division,
+the officers of which are engaged in determining the geographic
+coordinates of certain primary points. Second, a triangulation
+corps engaged in extending a system of triangulation over various
+portions of the country from measured base-lines. Third, a
+topographic corps, organized into twenty-seven parties, scattered
+over various portions of the United States. Such, in brief outline,
+is the plan for the map of the United States, and the organization
+by which it is to be made. Mr. Henry Gannett is the Chief
+Geographer.</p>
+
+<h3>PALEONTOLOGY.</h3>
+
+<p>Before giving the outline of the plan for the general geologic
+survey, it will be better to explain the accessory plans and
+organizations. There are in the Survey, as at present organized,
+the following paleontologic laboratories:</p>
+
+<p>1. A laboratory of vertebrate paleontology for formations other
+than the Quaternary. In connection with this laboratory there is a
+corps of paleontologists. Professor O.C. Marsh is in charge.</p>
+
+<p>2. There is a laboratory of invertebrate paleontology of
+Quaternary age, with a corps of paleontologists, Mr. Wm. H. Dall
+being in charge.</p>
+
+<p>3. There is a laboratory of invertebrate paleontology of
+Cenozoic and Mesozoic age, with a corps of paleontologists. Dr.
+C.A. White is in charge.</p>
+
+<p>4. There is a laboratory of invertebrate paleontology of
+Paleozoic age, with a corps of paleontologists. Mr. C.D. Walcott is
+in charge.</p>
+
+<p>5. There is a laboratory of fossil botany, with a corps of
+paleobotanists, Mr. Lester F. Ward being in charge.</p>
+
+<p>The paleontologists and paleobotanists connected with the
+laboratories above described, study and discuss in reports the
+fossils collected by the general geologists in the field. They also
+supplement the work of the field geologists by making special
+collections in important districts and at critical horizons; but
+the paleontologists are not held responsible for areal and
+structural geology on the one hand, and the geologists are not held
+responsible for paleontology on the other hand. In addition to the
+large number of paleontologists on the regular work of the
+Geological Survey, as above described, several paleontologists are
+engaged from time to time to make special studies.</p>
+
+<h3>CHEMISTRY.</h3>
+
+<p>There is a chemic laboratory attached to the Survey, with a
+large corps of chemists engaged in a great variety of researches
+relating to the constitution of waters, minerals, ores, and rocks.
+A part of the work of this corps is to study the methods of
+metamorphism and the paragenesis of minerals, and in this
+connection the chemists do work in the field; but to a large extent
+they are occupied with the study of the materials collected by the
+field geologists. Professor F.W. Clarke is in charge of this
+department.</p>
+
+<h3>PHYSICAL RESEARCHES.</h3>
+
+<p>There is a physical laboratory in the Survey, with a small corps
+of men engaged in certain physical researches of prime importance
+to geologic philosophy. These researches are experimental, and
+relate to the effect of temperatures, pressures, etc., on rocks.
+This laboratory is under the charge of the chief chemist.</p>
+
+<h3>LITHOLOGY.</h3>
+
+<p>There is a lithologic laboratory in the Survey, with a large
+corps of lithologists engaged in the microscopic study of rocks.
+These lithologists are field geologists, who examine the
+collections made by themselves.</p>
+
+<h3>STATISTICS.</h3>
+
+<p>There is in the Survey a division of mining statistics, with a
+large corps of men engaged in statistic work, the results of which
+are published in an annual report entitled "Mineral Resources." Mr.
+Albert Williams, Jr., is the Chief Statistician of the Survey.</p>
+
+<h3>ILLUSTRATIONS.</h3>
+
+<p>There is in the Survey a division organized for the purpose of
+preparing illustrations for paleontologic and geologic reports. Mr.
+W.H. Holmes is in charge of this division. Illustrations will not
+hereafter be used for embellishment, but will be strictly confined
+to the illustration of the text and the presentation of such facts
+as can be best exhibited by figures and diagrams. All illustrations
+will, as far as possible, be produced by relief methods, such as
+wood-engraving, photo-engraving, etc. As large numbers of the
+reports of the Survey are published, this plan is demanded for
+economic reasons; but there is another consideration believed to be
+of still greater importance; illustrations made on stone cannot be
+used after the first edition, as they deteriorate somewhat by time,
+and it is customary to use the same lithographic stone for various
+purposes from time to time. The illustrations made for the reports
+of the Survey, if on relief-plates that can be cheaply
+electrotyped, can be used again when needed. This is especially
+desirable in paleontology, where previously published figures can
+be introduced for comparative purposes. There are two methods of
+studying the extinct life of the globe. Fossils are indices of
+geological formations, and must be grouped by formations to
+subserve the purpose of geologists. Fossils also have their
+biologic relations, and should be studied and arranged in biologic
+groups. Under the plan adopted by the Survey, the illustrations can
+be used over and over again for such purposes when needed, as
+reproduction can be made at the small cost of electrotyping. These
+same illustrations can be used by the public at large in scientific
+periodicals, text-books, etc. All the illustrations made by the
+Geological Survey are held for the public to be used in this
+manner.</p>
+
+<h3>LIBRARY.</h3>
+
+<p>The library of the Survey now contains more than 25,000 volumes,
+and is rapidly growing by means of exchanges. It is found necessary
+to purchase but few books. The librarian, Mr. C.C. Darwin, has a
+corps of assistants engaged in bibliographic work. It is proposed
+to prepare a catalogue of American and foreign publications upon
+American geology, which is to be a general authors' catalogue. In
+addition to this, it is proposed to publish bibliographies proper
+of special subjects constituting integral parts of the science of
+geology.</p>
+
+<h3>PUBLICATIONS.</h3>
+
+<p>The publications of the Survey are in three series: Annual
+Reports, Bulletins, and Monographs. The Annual Report constitutes a
+part of the Report of the Secretary of the Interior for each year,
+but is a distinct volume. This contains a brief summary of the
+purposes, plans, and operations of the Survey, prepared by the
+Director, and short administrative reports from the chiefs of
+divisions, the whole followed by scientific papers. These papers
+are selected as being those of most general interest, the object
+being to make the Annual Report a somewhat popular account of the
+doings of the Survey, that it may be widely read by the intelligent
+people of the country. Of this 5,650 copies are published as a part
+of the Secretary's report, and are distributed by the Secretary of
+the Interior, Senators, and Members of the House of
+Representatives; and an extra edition is annually ordered of 15,000
+copies, distributed by the Survey and members of the Senate and
+House of Representatives. Four annual reports have been published;
+the fifth is now in the hands of the printer.</p>
+
+<p>The Bulletins of the Survey are short papers, and through them
+somewhat speedy publication is attained. Each bulletin is devoted
+to some specific topic, in order that the material ultimately
+published in the bulletins can be classified in any manner desired
+by scientific men. Nine bulletins have been published, and seven
+are in press. The bulletins already published vary in size from 5
+to 325 pages each; they are sold at the cost of press-work and
+paper, and vary in price from five to twenty cents each; 4,900
+copies of each bulletin are published; 1,900 are distributed by
+Congress, 3,000 are held for sale and exchange by the Geological
+Survey.</p>
+
+<p>The Monographs of the Survey are quarto volumes. By this method
+of publication the more important and elaborate papers are given to
+the public. Six monographs, with two atlases, have been issued;
+five monographs, with two atlases, are in press; 1,900 copies of
+each monograph are distributed by Congress; 3,000 are held for sale
+and exchange by the Survey at the cost of press-work, paper, and
+binding. They vary in price from $1.05 to $11.</p>
+
+<p>The chiefs of divisions supervise the publications that
+originate in their several corps. The general editorial supervision
+is exercised by the Chief Clerk of the Survey, Mr. James C.
+Pilling.</p>
+
+<h3>GENERAL GEOLOGY.</h3>
+
+<p>In organizing the general geologic work, it became necessary,
+first, to consider what had already been done in various portions
+of the United States; and for this purpose the compilation of a
+general geologic map of the United States was begun, together with
+a Thesaurus of American formations. In addition to this the
+bibliographic work previously described was initiated, so that the
+literature relating to American geology should be readily
+accessible to the workers in the Survey. At this point it became
+necessary to consider the best methods of apportioning the work;
+that is, the best methods of dividing the geologic work into parts
+to be assigned to the different corps of observers. A strictly
+geographic apportionment was not deemed wise, from the fact that an
+unscientific division of labor would result, and the same classes
+of problems would to a large extent be relegated to the several
+corps operating in field and in the laboratory. It was thought best
+to divide the work, as far as possible, by subject-matter rather
+than by territorial areas; yet to some extent the two methods of
+division will coincide. There are in the Survey at present:</p>
+
+<p>First, a division of glacial geology, and Prof. T.C. Chamberlin,
+formerly State Geologist of Wisconsin is at its head, with a strong
+corps of assistants. There is an important field for which definite
+provision has not yet been made, namely, the study of the loess
+that constitutes the bluff formations of the Mississippi River and
+its tributaries. But as this loess proves to be intimately
+associated with the glacial formations of the same region, it is
+probable that it will eventually be relegated to the glacial
+division. Perhaps the division may eventually grow to such an
+extent that its field of operations will include the whole
+Quaternary geology.</p>
+
+<p>Second, a division of volcanic geology is organized, and Capt.
+Clarence E. Dutton, of the Ordnance Corps of the Army, is placed in
+charge, also with a strong corps of assistants.</p>
+
+<p>Third and fourth, two divisions have been organized to prosecute
+work on the arch&aelig;an rocks, embracing within their field not
+only all rocks of arch&aelig;an age, but all metamorphic
+crystalline schists, of whatever age they may be found. The first
+division has for its chief Prof. Raphael Pumpelly, assisted by a
+corps of geologists, and the field of his work is the crystalline
+schists of the Appalachian region, or eastern portion of the United
+States, extending from northern New England to Georgia. He will
+also include in his studies certain paleozoic formations which are
+immediately connected with the crystalline schists and involved in
+their orographic structure.</p>
+
+<p>The second division for the study of this class of rocks is in
+charge of Prof. Roland D. Irving, with a corps of geologists, and
+his field of operation is in the Lake Superior region. It is not
+proposed at present to undertake the study of the crystalline
+schists of the Rocky Mountain region.</p>
+
+<p>Fifth, another division has been organized for the study of the
+areal, structural, and historical geology of the Appalachian
+region, extending from the Atlantic, westward, to the zone which
+separates the mountain region from the great valley of the
+Mississippi. Mr. G.K. Gilbert has charge of this work, and has a
+large corps of assistants.</p>
+
+<p>Sixth, it seemed desirable, partly for scientific reasons and
+partly for administrative reasons, that a thorough topographic and
+geologic survey should be made of the Yellowstone Park, and Mr.
+Arnold Hague is in charge of the work, with a corps of assistants.
+When it is completed, his field will be expanded so as to include a
+large part of the Rocky Mountain region, but the extent of the
+field is not yet determined.</p>
+
+<p>It will thus be seen that the general geologic work relating to
+those areas where the terranes are composed of fossiliferous
+formations is very imperfectly and incompletely organized. The
+reason for this is twofold: First, the work cannot be performed
+very successfully until the maps are made; second, the Geological
+Survey is necessarily diverting much of its force to the
+construction of maps, and cannot with present appropriations expand
+the geologic corps so as to extend systematic work in the field
+over the entire country.</p>
+
+<h3>ECONOMIC GEOLOGY.</h3>
+
+<p>Under the organic law of the Geological Survey, investigations
+in economic geology are restricted to those States and Territories
+in which there are public lands; the extension of the work into the
+eastern portion of the United States included only that part
+relating to general geology. Two mining divisions are organized.
+One, in charge of Mr. George F. Becker, with headquarters at San
+Francisco, California, is at the present time engaged in the study
+of the quicksilver districts of California. The other, under charge
+of Mr. S.F. Emmons, with headquarters at Denver, Colorado, is
+engaged in studying various mining districts in that State,
+including silver, gold, iron, and coal areas. Each division has a
+corps of assistants. The lignite coals of the upper Missouri, also,
+are under investigation by Mr. Bailey Willis, with a corps of
+assistants.</p>
+
+<h3>EMPLOYES.</h3>
+
+<p>The employes on the Geological Survey at the close of September,
+1884, were as follows:</p>
+
+<p>Appointed by the President, by and with the advice and consent
+of the Senate (Director), 1.</p>
+
+<p>Appointed by the Secretary of the Interior, on the
+recommendation of the Director of the Survey, 134.</p>
+
+<p>Employed by the chiefs of parties in the field, 148.</p>
+
+<h3>APPOINTMENTS.</h3>
+
+<p>Three classes of appointments are made on the Survey. The
+statute provides that "the scientific employes of the Geological
+Survey shall be selected by the Director, subject to the approval
+of the Secretary of the Interior, exclusively for their
+qualifications as professional experts." The provisions of this
+statute apply to all those cases where scientific men are employed
+who have established a reputation, and in asking for their
+appointment the Director specifically states his reasons, setting
+forth the work in which the person is to be employed, together with
+his qualifications, especially enumerating and characterizing his
+published works. On such recommendations appointments are
+invariably made. Young men who have not established a reputation in
+scientific research are selected through the agency of the Civil
+Service Commission on special examination, the papers for which are
+prepared in the Geological Survey. About one-half of the employes,
+however, are temporary, being engaged for services lasting for a
+few days or a few months only, largely in the field, and coming
+under two classes: Skilled laborers and common laborers. Such
+persons are employed by the Director or by the heads of divisions,
+and are discharged from the service when no longer needed. It will
+be seen that the Director is responsible for the selection of the
+employes, directly for those whom he recommends for appointment,
+and indirectly for those selected by the Civil Service Commission,
+as he permanently retains in the work. If, then, improper persons
+are employed, it is wholly the Director's fault.</p>
+
+<p>The appropriations made for the Geological Survey for the fiscal
+year ending June 30, 1885, aggregate the sum of $504,040. This sum
+does not include the amount appropriated for ethnologic
+researches&mdash;$40,000. Nor are the expenses for engraving and
+printing paid for from the above appropriations, but from
+appropriations made for the work under the direction of the public
+printer. It is estimated that the amount needed for engraving and
+printing for the same fiscal year will exceed $200,000.</p>
+
+<h3>THE RELATION OF THE GOVERNMENT SURVEY TO STATE SURVEYS.</h3>
+
+<p>The United States Geological Survey is on friendly relations
+with the various State Surveys. Between the Government Survey and
+the State Survey of New York, there is direct co-operation. The
+State Survey of Pennsylvania has rendered valuable assistance to
+the Government Survey, and negotiations have been entered into for
+closer relations and more thorough co-operation. The State Surveys
+of North Carolina, Kentucky, and Alabama are also co-operating with
+the Government Survey, and the director of the Government Survey is
+doing all within his power to revive State Surveys. The field for
+geologic research in the United States is of great magnitude, and
+the best results can be accomplished only by the labors of many
+scientific men engaged for a long term of years. For this reason it
+is believed that surveys should be established in all of the States
+and Territories. There is work enough for all, and the
+establishment of local surveys would greatly assist the general
+work prosecuted under the auspices of the government, and prevent
+it from falling into perfunctory channels. Its vigor and health
+will doubtless be promoted by all thorough local research.</p>
+
+<p>It may be of interest to scientific men to know that the
+Director finds that in presenting the general results, interests,
+and needs of the Survey to Congress, and to Committees of Congress,
+a thorough appreciation of the value of scientific research is
+shown by the statesmen of the country. Questions relating to
+immediately economic values are asked, as they should be; but
+questions relating to sound administration, wise methods of
+investigation, and important scientific results are vigorously
+urged, and the principle is recognized that all sound scientific
+research conduces to the welfare of the people, not only by
+increasing knowledge, but ultimately by affecting all the
+industries of the people.</p>
+
+<a name="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7">[7]</a>
+
+<div class="note">Communicated to the National Academy of Sciences
+at the October meeting in 1884.</div>
+
+<hr>
+<h3>[THE GARDEN.]</h3>
+
+<p><a name="21"></a></p>
+
+<h2>THE SUNFLOWERS.</h2>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/14a.png"><img src=
+"./images/14a_th.jpg" alt=" FLOWER OF HELIANTHUS ARGOPHYLLUS.">
+</a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FLOWER OF HELIANTHUS ARGOPHYLLUS.</p>
+
+<p>The genus Helianthus is almost entirely North-American, and for
+the distinction and limitation of its species we are indebted to
+the labor of Dr. Asa Gray, now universally recognized as the
+highest authority on North American plants. In the recently
+published second part of his "Synoptical Flora of North America" he
+has described thirty-nine species, six of which are annual. The
+synonyms and cross-naming adopted by previous authors have led to
+much confusion, which probably will not now be altogether cleared
+up, for Dr. Gray warns us that the characters of some of the
+species are variable, especially in cultivation. It may be added
+that some at least of the species readily form hybrids. There is
+always more or less difficulty with a variable genus in making
+garden plants fit wild specific types, but in the following notes I
+have described no kinds which I have not myself cultivated,
+selecting the best forms and giving them the names assigned
+severally by Dr. Gray to the species to which our garden plants
+seem to come nearest.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/14b.png"><img src=
+"./images/14b_th.jpg" alt=
+" HELIANTHUS ARGOPHYLLUS, SHOWING HABIT OF GROWTH."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">HELIANTHUS ARGOPHYLLUS, SHOWING HABIT OF GROWTH.</p>
+
+<p><i>Helianthus multiflorus</i>, or, according to Asa Gray,
+speaking botanically, H. decapetalus hort. var. multiflorus, is
+mentioned first, because it is the subject of the colored
+illustration. The name multiflorus is established by long usage,
+and perhaps was originally given in contrast to the few-flowered
+habit of H. annuus, for the type of the species is more floriferous
+than the variety of which Asa Gray says that it is "known only in
+cultivation from early times, must have been derived from
+decapetalus," a statement which gardeners would hardly have
+accepted on less indisputable authority, as they will all think the
+habit and appearance of the two plants widely different. The
+variety multiflorus has several forms; the commonest form is
+double, the disk being filled with ligules much shorter than those
+of the ray flowers, after the form of many daisy-like composites.
+In this double form the day flowers are often wanting. It is common
+also on old plants in poor soils to see double and single flowers
+from the same root. In the single forms the size of the flowers
+varies, the difference being due to cultivation as often as to
+kind. I have obtained by far the finest flowers by the following
+treatment: In early spring, when the young shoots are about an inch
+high, cut some off, each with a portion of young root, and plant
+them singly in deep rich soil, and a sheltered but not shaded
+situation. By August each will have made a large bush, branching
+out from one stalk at the base, with from thirty to forty flowers
+open at a time, each 5 inches across. The same plants if well
+dressed produce good flowers the second season, but after that the
+stalks become crowded, and the flowers degenerate. The same
+treatment suits most of the perennial sunflowers. The following
+kinds are mentioned in the order in which they occur in Asa Gray's
+book:</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/14c.png"><img src=
+"./images/14c_th.jpg" alt=
+" HELIANTHUS MULTIFLORUS, SHOWING HABIT OF GROWTH."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">HELIANTHUS MULTIFLORUS, SHOWING HABIT OF GROWTH.</p>
+
+<h3>ANNUALS.</h3>
+
+<p><i>H. argophyllus</i> (white-leaved, not argyrophyllus,
+silver-leaved, as written in some catalogues).&mdash;An annual with
+woolly leaves, neater and less coarse than H. annuus, with which it
+is said soon to degenerate in gardens if grown together with
+it.</p>
+
+<p><i>H. annuus.</i>&mdash;The well known sunflower in endless
+varieties, one of the most elegant having pale lemon-colored
+flowers; these, too, liable to pass into the common type if grown
+in the same garden.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/14d.png"><img src=
+"./images/14d_th.jpg" alt=
+" HELIANTHUS ORGYALIS, SHOWING HABIT OF GROWTH IN AUTUMN."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">HELIANTHUS ORGYALIS, SHOWING HABIT OF GROWTH IN
+AUTUMN.</p>
+
+<p><i>H. debilis var. cucumerifolius.</i>&mdash;I have never seen
+the typical species, but the variety was introduced a few years ago
+by Mr. W. Thompson, of Ipswich, from whose seed I have grown it. It
+becomes 4 feet or 5 feet high, with irregularly toothed deltoid
+leaves and spotted stalks, making a widely branched bush and
+bearing well-shaped golden flowers more than 3 inches across, with
+black disks. It crosses with any perennial sunflower that grows
+near it, simulating their flowers in an annual form. I had a very
+fine cross with it and H. annuus, but the flowers of this produced
+no good seed.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/14e.png"><img src=
+"./images/14e_th.jpg" alt=
+" JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE (HELIANTHUS TUBEROSUS)."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE (HELIANTHUS TUBEROSUS).</p>
+
+<h3>PERENNIALS.</h3>
+
+<p><i>H. orgyalis</i> (the fathom-high sunflower).&mdash;The name
+is far within the true measure, which is often 9 feet or 10 feet. A
+very distinct species, increasing very slowly at the root and
+throwing all its growing efforts upward. The long linear ribbon
+leaves, often exceeding a foot, spreading in wavy masses round the
+tall stem, which has a palm-like tuft of them at the summit, are a
+more ornamental feature than the flowers, which are moderate in
+size and come late in the axils of the upper leaves.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/15a.png"><img src=
+"./images/15a_th.jpg" alt=
+" HELIANTHUS ANNUUS GLOBULUS FISTULOSUS."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">HELIANTHUS ANNUUS GLOBULUS FISTULOSUS.</p>
+
+<p><i>H. angustifolius.</i>&mdash;A neat and elegant species, which
+I first raised from seed sent by Mr. W. Thompson, of Ipswich. It
+has a very branching habit quite from the base like a well-grown
+bush of the common wallflower. The flowers are abundant, about
+2&frac12; inches across, with a black disk. The plant, though a
+true herb, never comes up in my garden with more than one stalk
+each year.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/15b.png"><img src=
+"./images/15b_th.jpg" alt=
+" HELIANTHUS RIGIDUS (SYN. HARPALIUM RIGIDUM)."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">HELIANTHUS RIGIDUS (SYN. HARPALIUM RIGIDUM).</p>
+
+<p><i>H. rigidus</i> is well known as the best of the perennial
+sunflowers, and has many synonyms, the commonest Harpalium rigidum.
+It need not be described, but one or two things about it may be
+noted. The shoots, which come up a yard or more from last year's
+stalk, may be transplanted as soon as they appear without injury to
+the flowering, but if put back to the old center, the soil, which
+should be deep and light, ought to be enriched. The species is
+variable, and improved forms may be expected, as it produces seed
+in England. The number of ray flowers is often very large. I have
+one form which has several rows of them, nearly hiding the disk. A
+variety is figured in <i>Botanical Magazine</i>, tab. 2,668, under
+the name of H. atro-rubens. Another comes in the same series, tab.
+2,020, as H. diffusus. Other synonyms are H. missuricus and H.
+missouriensis. Its native range extends across North America in
+longitude, and covers many degrees of latitude. It likes a dry
+soil. In wet soil and wet seasons the flower-stalk is apt to wither
+in the middle, and the bud falls over and perishes prematurely.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/15c.png"><img src=
+"./images/15c_th.jpg" alt=
+" COMMON SUNFLOWER (H. ANNUUS) SHOWING HABIT OF GROWTH."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">COMMON SUNFLOWER (H. ANNUUS) SHOWING HABIT OF
+GROWTH.</p>
+
+<p><i>H. L&aelig;tiflorus.</i>&mdash;Under this name we grow in
+England a tall, much-branched, late flowering kind, with smooth and
+very stout and stiff stalks, sometimes black, sometimes green. It
+increases at the base of the stalks; it makes close growth, and
+shows little disposition to run at the root. The flowers are rather
+small, not more than 9 inches across, but so durable and so well
+displayed by the numerous spreading branches as to make the plant
+very useful for late decoration. I own that I cannot identify this
+plant with the l&aelig;tiflorus of Asa Gray, which he tells us
+resembles tall forms of H. rigidus, with rough stalks, and bears
+flowers with numerous rays 1&frac12; inches long.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/15d.png"><img src=
+"./images/15d_th.jpg" alt=" FLOWER OF HELIANTHUS ANNUUS."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FLOWER OF HELIANTHUS ANNUUS.</p>
+
+<p><i>H. occidentalis.</i>&mdash;Recently introduced by Mr. W.
+Thompson, of Ipswich, who gave me the plant two years ago. It is a
+neat species, growing about 2 feet high, well branched, and
+producing at the end of July abundance of flowers about 2 inches
+across. The lower leaves are small and broad, with long stalks,
+ovate in form.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/15e.png"><img src=
+"./images/15e_th.jpg" alt=" HELIANTHUS MULTIFLORUS FL-PL."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">HELIANTHUS MULTIFLORUS FL-PL.</p>
+
+<p><i>H. mollis</i>, so called from the soft white down with which
+the leaves are covered, grows about 4 feet high. Leaves large,
+ovate, and sessile; growth of the plant upright, with hardly any
+branches; flowers pale yellow, about 3 inches across, not very
+ornamental. Cultivated at Kew, whence I had it.</p>
+
+<p><i>H. giganteus</i> grows 10 feet high; stem much branched and
+disposed to curve. Flowers about 2&frac12; inches across, produced
+abundantly in August; rays narrow and pointed, cupped, with the
+ends turning outward; leaves lanceolate and sessile; rootstock
+creeping, forming tuberous thickenings at the base of the stems,
+which Asa Gray tells us were "the Indian potato of the Assiniboine
+tribe," mentioned by Douglas, who called the plant H.
+tuberosus.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/15f.png"><img src=
+"./images/15f_th.jpg" alt=
+" FULL SIZED FLOWER OF HELIANTHUS MULTIFLORUS."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FULL SIZED FLOWER OF HELIANTHUS MULTIFLORUS.</p>
+
+<p><i>H. maximiliani.</i>&mdash;Half the height of the last, which
+it resembles, but the stem is stouter, the leaves larger, as are
+also the flowers, which are produced later. It is not so
+floriferous and ornamental as the last.</p>
+
+<p><i>H. l&aelig;vigatus.</i>&mdash;Smooth stalked, very distinct,
+does not spread at the roots, which are composed of finer fibers
+than those of most of the genus; stalks slender and black, growing
+closely together, branched near the summit, 5 feet high; leaves
+narrowly lanceolate and acute; flowers plentiful and about 2 inches
+across; rays few, and disk small.</p>
+
+<p>We are warned that the following species are "difficult of
+extrication," either confluent or mixed by intercrossing.</p>
+
+<p><i>H. doronicoides.</i>&mdash;I place this the third in merit
+among perennial sunflowers, H. rigidus and H. multiflorus being
+first and second. It is 6 feet or 7 feet high, upright in growth,
+with many stalks. Flowers 3&frac12; inches across, produced from
+the end of July to the end of September, bright golden yellow;
+leaves large, ovate, tapering from the middle to both ends; stalk
+leaves sessile and nearly connate, that is, clasping the stalk by
+their opposite base. The plant spreads rapidly by running
+rootstocks, and ripens seed in abundance. Figured as H. pubescens
+in <i>Botanical Magazine</i>, tab. 2,778.</p>
+
+<p><i>H. divaricatus</i> resembles the last, but is inferior, being
+a smaller plant in all parts, especially in the flowers, which come
+out a month later. The cauline leaves are stalked and diverge
+widely, which habit gives its name to the plant. A casual observer
+would hardly notice the difference between this species and the
+last, but when grown together the superiority of doronicoides as a
+garden plant is at once evident.</p>
+
+<p><i>H. strumosus.</i>&mdash;Fully 6 feet high; growth upright;
+rootstock less spreading than the last two; leaves on very short
+stalks, broadest at the base, ovate tapering by a long narrow
+point; flower disk narrow, but rays large and orange-yellow;
+flowers showy, 3 inches across; they come out late in August. I had
+this plant from Kew. The shape of the leaves would have led me
+rather to refer it to H. trachelifolius, a closely allied
+species.</p>
+
+<p><i>H. decapetalus.</i>&mdash;Five feet high; flowers from end of
+July; makes a dense forest of weak, slender stalks, much branched
+at the top; spreads fast; leaves serrate, oblong-ovate, rather
+large; flowers abundant, pale yellow, about 2 inches across; rays
+nearly always more than ten, in spite of the name.</p>
+
+<p><i>H. tuberosus.</i>&mdash;The well-known Jerusalem artichoke;
+not a plant grown for ornament, being too coarse and late in
+flowering, but several things in its history may be mentioned, as
+Dr. Asa Gray has spent labor and study over it. It is believed to
+have been cultivated by the natives before the discovery of
+America, and the edible tubers are thought to be a development of
+cultivation. Forms of it without tuberous roots are found wild, but
+whether indigenous to the place or degenerate from cultivation was
+for long uncertain. Several species of Helianthus have a tendency
+to produce similar fleshy tubers at the top of the roots. Dr. Gray
+used to refer the origin of this species to H. doronicoides, but it
+is now believed by him to be a distinct species, though one of
+which it is difficult to identify with certainty the typical
+form.</p>
+
+<p>I omitted to say that the word Helianthus is Greek for
+sunflower. After several years' careful observation, I believe the
+notion that the flowers keep their face to the sun is quite a
+delusion.</p>
+
+<p>Edge Hall. C. WOLLEY DOD.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p>A QUICK FILTER.&mdash;The <i>Druggists Circular</i> recommends
+chamois skin, free from thin places; cut it of the desired size;
+wash it in a weak solution of sal soda, or any alkali, to remove
+the grease, and rinse thoroughly in cold water before using.</p>
+
+<p>Tinctures, elixirs, sirups, and even mucilages are filtered
+rapidly. A pint of the thickest sirup will run through in four or
+five minutes. By washing thoroughly after each time of using, it
+will last a long time.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="22"></a></p>
+
+<h2>LYE'S FUCHSIAS.</h2>
+
+<p>The group of fuchsias shown in our engraving represents a
+collection of nine specimens raised and exhibited by that well
+known cultivator, Mr. James Lye, of Clyffe Hall Gardens, Market
+Lavington, at an exhibition held in Bath in September last, and
+which received the first prize in the premier class for that number
+of plants. For many years past Mr. Lye has exhibited fuchsias at
+exhibitions held at Bath, Trowbridge, Devizes, Calne, Chippenham,
+and elsewhere; on all occasions staging specimens of a high order
+of merit; but the plants appearing in our illustration were
+universally regarded as the best he had ever placed in an
+exhibition tent. So much were the committee of the Bath show
+pleased with the specimens that they engaged the services of a
+photographer to make a picture of them on the spot; but after being
+two hours making the attempt, no satisfactory result occurred.
+After the plants were taken back to Clyffe Hall, they were
+photographed as seen in the illustration. Some idea of their height
+and dimensions can be realized by a comparison with the stature of
+Mr. Lye, who is standing by his plants, and who is of average
+height. It should be mentioned that previous to being photographed
+they had traveled by road from Market Lavington to Bath and back, a
+distance of 52 miles, in addition to having been exhibited two
+days. They returned to their home apparently little the worse for
+wear, which immunity from harm is no doubt owing to the admirable
+system of tying adopted by Mr. Lye. It is sometimes said that the
+act of trying in the flowering shoots in this manner gives the
+plants a somewhat severely formal appearance, but there is an
+abundance of healthy foliage and a wonderful profusion of finely
+developed flowers, showing the most careful and painstaking
+cultivation. It is only those who are privileged to see these
+unrivaled plants who can appreciate them at their proper worth.</p>
+
+<p>It has been stated already that the varieties figured are all of
+Mr. Lye's own raising, which facts attests to the value of his
+seedlings, many of which he has produced. Four of these are dark
+varieties, viz., Bountiful, Charming, Elegance, and the Hon. Mrs.
+Hay&mdash;the latter one of the oldest, but one of the freest, and
+scarcely without an equal for its great freedom of bloom. The
+remaining five are light varieties, viz., Lye's Favorite, Harriet
+Lye, Star of Wilts, Pink Perfection, and Beauty of the West.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/16a.png"><img src=
+"./images/16a_th.jpg" alt=" MR. LYE'S FUSCHIAS."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">MR. LYE'S FUSCHIAS.</p>
+
+<p>The specimens figured average from two to five years of age. It
+is really marvelous what Mr. Lye can do with a fuchsia in two
+years; and lest it might be supposed that he has plenty of glass
+accommodation, and can keep his plants under glass continuously, it
+is due to him it should be stated that he is very deficient in
+house accommodation, having but two small houses, in one of which
+(an old house) he winters his plants and brings them on until he
+can place them with safety in the open air in early summer. His
+method of treating the specimens as set forth in his own words may
+prove helpful to some of our readers: "After the plants have done
+flowering, say about the third week in October, I cut them back
+into the shape best fitted to form symmetrical specimens, and keep
+them dry for a week or ten days, to check the bleeding of sap which
+follows; after that I give a little water just to start them into
+growth, so as to make shoots about three-quarters of an inch in
+length, in order to keep the old wood active and living. I keep
+them in a cold house, and give but very little water until the
+first or second week in February, when I shake the old soil from
+the roots, and re-pot them into a fresh compost made up of three
+parts good loam, one part well decomposed manure, and one part
+leaf-mould and peat, with a good bit of silver or sea sand to keep
+it open. In order to make large specimens, they are shifted as soon
+as the pots are filled with roots. About the first week in June I
+place them out of doors on a border somewhat sheltered, and syringe
+the plants freely every day during hot weather to keep the foliage
+clean and healthy. I top them back till about seven or eight weeks
+before I want to show them, according to the requirements of the
+variety, as some of them require it to be done more freely than
+others. I give them liquid manure, using what I get from the cows,
+which with some soot is put into a tub, and allowed to stand a week
+or ten days before using, and I give them a good dose once a week
+as they show signs of flowering."</p>
+
+<p>In order to preserve his plants from the effects of hail and
+very heavy rains, a rough framework is erected, and over this is
+stretched some floral shading, which can be readily removed when
+required; it also serves the purpose of shading the plants from the
+sun in very hot and scorching weather.</p>
+
+<p>During his career as an exhibitor of fuchsias Mr. Lye has taken
+nearly one hundred first prizes&mdash;a measure of success which
+fully justifies the bestowal of the title of being the Champion
+Fuchsia Grower of his day.&mdash;<i>R.D. in The Gardeners'
+Chronicle</i>.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p>A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important
+scientific papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be
+had gratis at this office.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<h2>THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT.</h2>
+
+<h3>PUBLISHED WEEKLY.</h3>
+
+<h3>Terms of Subscription, $5 a Year.</h3>
+
+<p>Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the
+United States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any
+foreign country.</p>
+
+<p>All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement,
+January 1, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each.</p>
+
+<p>All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise be supplied.
+Two volumes are issued yearly. Price of each volume, $2.50,
+stitched in paper, or $3.50, bound in stiff covers.</p>
+
+<p>COMBINED RATES&mdash;One copy of SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN and one
+copy of SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, one year, postpaid,
+$7.00.</p>
+
+<p>A liberal discount to booksellers, news agents, and
+canvassers.</p>
+
+<p><b>MUNN &amp; CO., Publishers,</b></p>
+
+<p><b>361 Broadway, New York, N.Y.</b></p>
+
+<hr>
+<h2>PATENTS.</h2>
+
+<p>In connection with the <b>Scientific American</b>, Messrs. MUNN
+&amp; Co. are Solicitors of American and Foreign Patents, have had
+40 years' experience, and now have the largest establishment in the
+world. Patents are obtained on the best terms.</p>
+
+<p>A special notice is made in the <b>Scientific American</b> of
+all Inventions patented through this Agency, with the name and
+residence of the Patentee. By the immense circulation thus given,
+public attention is directed to the merits of the new patent, and
+sales or introduction often easily effected.</p>
+
+<p>Any person who has made a new discovery or invention can
+ascertain, free of charge, whether a patent can probably be
+obtained, by writing to MUNN &amp; Co.</p>
+
+<p>We also send free our Hand Book about the Patent Laws, Patents,
+Caveats. Trade Marks, their costs, and how procured. Address</p>
+
+<p><b>MUNN &amp; CO., 361 Broadway, New York.</b></p>
+
+<p>Branch Office, cor. F and 7th Sts., Washington, D.C.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No.
+484, April 11, 1885, by Various
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+</body>
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 484,
+April 11, 1885, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 484, April 11, 1885
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: November 3, 2004 [EBook #13939]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by PG Distributed Proofreaders
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 484
+
+
+
+
+NEW YORK, APRIL 11, 1885
+
+Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XIX, No. 484.
+
+Scientific American established 1845
+
+Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.
+
+Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+
+I.   ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--Bridge over the Blaauw
+     Krantz Ravine, Cape Colony.--2 engravings.
+
+     Torpedo Ships.
+
+     The Gas Engine.--By DUGALD CLERK.--Combustion engines.--First
+     cylinder and piston engine.--Watt's experiments.--First gas
+     engine.--Principles of the gas engine.
+
+     Rapid Construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway.--By E.T.
+     ABBOTT.
+
+     The Osgood Mammoth Excavator.--3 figures.
+
+     Capstan Navigation on the Volga.--4 figures.
+
+     Steamboat Equipment of War Vessels.--With engraving of winch
+     for raising and lowering torpedo boats.
+
+     Improved Steam Trap.--1 engraving.
+
+
+II.  TECHNOLOGY.--Critical Methods of Detecting Errors in Plane
+     Surfaces.--By JOHN A. BRASHEAR.--11 figures.
+
+     Photometric Standards.--9 figures.
+
+     Bleaching or Dyeing Yarns and Goods in Vacuo.--1 figure.
+
+     On the Moulding of Porcelain.--By CHAS. LAUTH.--Moulding by
+     pressure of the air.--Moulding by vacuum.--Drying the moulded
+     pieces.--2 figures.
+
+     Photo-Tricycle Apparatus.--1 figure.
+
+     A Photo Printing Light.--1 figure.
+
+     A New Actinometer.
+
+     Astronomical Photography.
+
+     Electricity as a Preventive of Scale in Boilers.
+
+
+III. DECORATIVE ART.--Alphabet designed by Godfrey Sykes.--An
+     engraving.
+
+     Old Wrought Iron Gate.--An engraving.
+
+
+IV.  GEOLOGY.--The Organization and Plan of the United States
+     Geological Survey.--By J.W. POWELL.--A topographic map
+     of the United States.--Paleontology.--Chemistry.--Physical
+     researches.--Statistics.--Library.--Publications.--General
+     geology.--Economic geology.--Relation of the general survey
+     to the State survey.
+
+
+V.   BOTANY, ETC.--The Sunflowers.--Annuals, perennials, etc.--11
+     engravings.
+
+     Lye's Fuchsias.--1 engraving.
+
+
+VI.  HYGIENE, ETC.--Brief Sanitary Matters in Connection with
+     Isolated Country Houses.--By E.W. BOWDITCH.
+
+     Sanitary Cooking.--By V.L. OPPENHEIMER.
+
+     Time required to digest Different Foods.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE BLAAUW KRANTZ VIADUCT IN CAPE COLONY.
+
+
+This viaduct is built over a rocky ravine on the railway from Port Alfred
+to Grahamstown, at a height of about 200 ft. from the bottom. Its length
+is 480 ft. 6 in., and the width of the platform is 15 ft., the gauge of
+the railway being 3 ft. 6 in. The central span of the viaduct is an arch
+of 220 ft. span between abutments, and about 90 ft. height; the remainder
+of the space on each side is divided into two spans by an iron pier at a
+distance of 68 ft. from the retaining wall. These piers are 36 ft. 2 in.
+high, and carry girders 144 ft. long, balanced each on a pivot in the
+center. One end of these girders is secured to the retaining walls by
+means of horizontal and vertical anchorages, while the other end rests in
+a sliding bearing on the top flange of the arch.
+
+[Illustration: BRIDGE OVER THE BLAAUW KRANTZ RAVINE, CAPE COLONY.]
+
+[Illustration: BRIDGE OVER THE BLAAUW KRANTZ RAVINE, CAPE COLONY.]
+
+In designing the structure the following points had to be considered: (1)
+That, on account of the great height above the ground, and on account of
+the high price of timber at the site, the structure could be easily
+erected without the use of scaffolding supporting it as a whole. (2) That,
+on account of the high freights to Port Alfred, the quantity of iron in
+the structure should be as small as possible. (3) That the single parts of
+the principal span should be easy to lift, and that there should be as few
+of them as possible. For this latter reason most of them were made in
+lengths of 20 ft. and more. The question of economy of material presented
+itself as a comparison between a few standard types, viz., the girder
+bridge of small independent spans; the cantilever bridge, or the
+continuous girder bridge in three large spans; the single girder bridge
+with one large span and several small spans; and the arch with small
+girder spans on each side. The suspension bridge was left out of question
+as inadmissible. A girder bridge with small independent spans on rocker
+piers would probably have been the most economical, even taking into
+account the great height of the piers near the middle of the ravine, but
+there would have been some difficulty in holding those piers in position
+until they could be secured to the girders at the top; and, moreover, such
+a structure would have been strikingly out of harmony with the character
+of the site. On the other hand, a cantilever or continuous girder bridge
+in three spans--although such structures have been erected in similar
+localities--could not enter into comparison of simple economy of material,
+because such a design would entirely disregard the anomaly that the
+greater part of the structure, viz., the side spans, being necessarily
+constructed to carry across a large space, would be too near the ground to
+justify the omission of further supports. The question was, therefore,
+narrowed to a comparison between the present arch and a central
+independent girder of the same span, including the piers on which it
+rests. The small side spans could obviously be left out in each case. The
+comparison was made with a view not only to arrive at a decision in this
+particular case, but also of answering the question of the economy of the
+arch more generally. The following table contains the weights of
+geometrically similar structures of three different spans, of which the
+second is the one here described. The so-called theoretical weight is that
+which the structure would have if no part required stiffening, leaving out
+also all connections and all wind bracing. The moving load is taken at one
+ton per foot lineal, and the strain on the iron at an average of four tons
+per square inch. The proportion of the girder is taken at 1 in 8.
+
+--------------+-----------------------+------------------------+
+              |  Theoretical Weight.  |      Total Weight.     |
+Span in Feet. +-----------------------+------------------------|
+              |  Arch.  |   Girder.   |     Arch.  |   Girder. |
+--------------+---------+-------------+------------+-----------|
+     100      | 0.0724  |   0.1663    |    0.1866  |   0.2443  |
+     220      | 0.1659  |   0.4109    |    0.4476  |   0.7462  |
+     300      | 0.2414  |   0.6445    |    0.6464  |   1.2588  |
+--------------+---------+-------------+------------+-----------+
+              |<------------Tons per foot lineal.------------->|
+
+It can be seen from these results that the economical advantage of the
+arch increases with the span. In small arches this advantage would not be
+large enough to counterbalance the greater cost of manufacture; but in the
+arch of 220 ft. span the advantage is already very marked. If the table
+were continued, it would show that the girder, even if the platform were
+artificially widened, would become impossible at a point where the arch
+can still be made without difficulty. The calculations leading to the
+above results would occupy too much space to make it desirable on this
+occasion to produce them. Our two views are from photographs.--_The
+Engineer._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TORPEDO SHIPS.
+
+
+Commander Gallwey lately delivered an interesting lecture on the use of
+torpedoes in war before the royal U.S. Institution, London, discussed
+H.M.S. Polyphemus, and urged as arguments in her favor: 1. That she has
+very high speed, combined with fair maneuvering powers. 2. That she can
+discharge her torpedoes with certainty either ahead or on the beam when
+proceeding at full speed. 3. That her crew and weapons of defense are
+protected by the most perfect of all armor possible, namely, 10 ft. of
+water. 4. That she only presents a mark of 4 ft. above the water line.
+
+Then, he asked, with what weapon is the ironclad going to vanquish these
+torpedo rams? Guns cannot hit her when moving at speed; she is proof
+against machine guns, and, being smaller, handier, and faster than most
+ironclads, should have a better chance with her ram, the more especially
+as it is provided with a weapon which has been scores of times discharged
+with certainty at 300 yards. The ironclad, he answered, must use
+torpedoes, and then he maintained that the speed and handiness of the
+Polyphemus would enable her to place herself in positions where she could
+use her own torpedo to advantage, and be less likely to be hit herself. He
+then called attention to the necessity for well-protected conning towers
+in these ships, and prophesied that if a submarine ship, armed with
+torpedoes, be ever built, she will be the most formidable antagonist an
+ironclad ever had; and the nearer the special torpedo ship approaches this
+desideratum the better she will be.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A PLUMBING TEST.
+
+
+A recent trial of a smoke rocket for testing drains, described by Mr.
+Cosmo Jones in the _Journal of the Society of Arts_, is deserving of
+interest. The one fixed upon is 10 in. long, 21/2 in. in diameter, and with
+the composition "charged rather hard," so as to burn for ten minutes. This
+gives the engineer time to light the fuse, insert the rocket in the drain,
+insert a plug behind it, and walk through the house to see if the smoke
+escapes into it at any point, finishing on the roof, where he finds the
+smoke issuing in volumes from the ventilating pipes. The house
+experimented upon had three ventilating pipes, and the smoke issued in
+dense masses from each of them, but did not escape anywhere into the
+house, showing that the pipes were sound. If the engineer wishes to
+increase the severity of the test, he throws a wet cloth over the top of
+the ventilating pipe, and so gets a slight pressure of smoke inside it.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE GAS ENGINE.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Lecture by Mr. Dugald Clerk, before the Literary and
+Philosophical Society, Oldham.]
+
+By DUGALD CLERK.
+
+
+In earlier days of mechanics, before the work of the great Scottish
+engineer, James Watt, the crude steam engines of the time were known as
+"fire engines," not in the sense in which we now apply the term to
+machines for the extinguishing of fires, but as indicating the source from
+which the power was derived, motive power engines deriving their vitality
+and strength from fire. The modern name--steam engine--to some extent is a
+misleading one, distracting the mind from the source of power to the
+medium which conveys the power. Similarly the name "Gas Engine" masks the
+fact of the motors so called being really fire or heat engines.
+
+The gas engine is more emphatically a "fire engine" than ever the steam
+engine has been. In it the fire is not tamed or diluted by indirect
+contact with water, but it is used direct; the fire, instead of being kept
+to the boiler room, is introduced direct into the motor cylinder of the
+engine. This at first sight looks very absurd and impracticable;
+difficulties at once become apparent of so overwhelming a nature that the
+problem seems almost an impossible one; yet this is what has been
+successfully accomplished in the gas engine. Engineers accustomed to the
+construction of steam engines would not many years ago have considered any
+one proposing such a thing as having taken leave of his senses.
+
+The late Sir William Siemens worked for many years on combustion engines,
+some of his patents on this subject dating back to 1860. In the course of
+a conversation I had with him on the subject of his earlier patents, I
+asked him why he had entitled one of those patents "steam engine
+improvements" when it was wholly concerned with a gas engine using
+hydrogen and air in the motive cylinder, the combustion of the hydrogen
+taking place in the motive cylinder. He answered me that in 1860 he did
+not care to entitle his patent gas or combustion engine simply because
+engineers at that time would have thought him mad.
+
+Notwithstanding this widespread incredulity among engineers, and the
+apparent novelty of the gas engine idea, fire or combustion engines have
+been proposed long, long ago. The first Newcomen steam engine ever set to
+work was used by a Mr. Back, of Wolverhampton, in the year 1711.
+Thirty-one years before this time, in Paris--year 1680--Huyghens presented
+a memoir to the Academy of Sciences describing a method of utilizing the
+expansive force of gunpowder. This engineer is notable as being the very
+first to propose the use of a cylinder and piston, as well as the first
+combustion engine of a practical kind.
+
+The engine consists of a vertical open topped cylinder, in which works a
+piston; the piston is connected by a chain passing over a pulley above it
+to a heavy weight; the upstroke is accomplished by the descent of the
+weight, which pulls the piston to the top of the cylinder; gunpowder
+placed in a tray at the bottom of the cylinder is now ignited, and expels
+the air with which the cylinder is filled through a shifting valve, and,
+after the products of combustion have cooled, a partial vacuum takes place
+and the atmospheric pressure forces down the piston to the bottom of its
+stroke, during which work may be obtained.
+
+On the board I have made a sketch of this engine. Some years previous to
+Huyghens' proposal, the Abbe Hautefeuille (1678) proposed a gunpowder
+engine without piston for pumping water. It is similar to Savery's steam
+engine, but using the pressure of the explosion instead of the pressure of
+steam. This engine, however, had no piston, and was only applicable as a
+pump. The Savery principle still survives in the action of the well-known
+pulsometer steam pump.
+
+Denys Papin, the pupil and assistant of Huyghens, continued experimenting
+upon the production of motive power, and in 1690 published a description
+of his attempts at Leipzig, entitled "A New Method of Securing Cheaply
+Motive Power of Considerable Magnitude."
+
+He mentions the gunpowder engine, and states that "until now all
+experiments have been unsuccessful; and after the combustion of the
+exploded powder there always remains in the cylinder one-fifth of its
+volume of air."
+
+For the explosion of the gunpowder he substituted the generation and
+condensation of steam, heating the bottom of his cylinder by a fire; a
+small quantity of water contained in it was vaporized, and then on
+removing the fire the steam condensed and the piston was forced down. This
+was substantially the Newcomen steam engine, but without the separate
+boiler.
+
+Papin died about the year 1710, a disappointed man, about the same time as
+Newcomen. Thomas Newcomen, ironmonger and blacksmith, of Dartmouth,
+England, had first succeeded in getting his engine to work. The hard fight
+to wrest from nature a manageable motive power and to harness fire for
+industrial use was continued by this clever blacksmith, and he succeeded
+when the more profound but less constructively skillful philosophers had
+failed.
+
+The success of the steam method and the fight necessary to perfect it to
+the utmost absorbed the energy of most able engineers--Beighton, John
+Smeaton--accomplishing much in applying and perfecting it before the
+appearance of James Watt upon the scene.
+
+It is interesting to note that in England alone over 2,000 horse power of
+Newcomen engines were at work before Watt commenced his series of
+magnificent inventions; he commenced experimenting on a Newcomen engine
+model in 1759 at Glasgow University, and in 1774 came to Birmingham,
+entered into partnership with Boulton, and 1781 we find his beautiful
+double acting beam condensing engine in successful work.
+
+From that time until now the steam engine has steadily advanced,
+increasing in economy of fuel from 10 lb. of coal per horse power per hour
+to about 13/4 lb. per horse power per hour, which is the best result of
+to-day's steam engine practice. This result, according to the highest
+authorities, is so near to the theoretical result possible from a steam
+engine that further improvement cannot now be looked for. Simultaneously
+with the development of the steam engine, inventors continued to struggle
+with the direct acting combustion or gas engine, often without any
+definite understanding of why they should attempt such apparent
+impossibilities, but always by their experiments and repeated failures
+increasing knowledge, and forming a firm road upon which those following
+them traveled to success.
+
+In 1791 John Barber obtained a patent for an engine producing inflammable
+gas, mixing it with air, igniting it, and allowing the current so produced
+to impinge upon a reaction wheel, producing motion similar to the well
+known Aelopile, which I have at work upon the table. About this time,
+Murdoch (Jas. Watt's assistant at Birmingham) was busy introducing coal
+gas into use for lighting; in 1792 Boulton and Watt's works were lighted
+up with coal gas. From this time many gas engines were proposed, and the
+more impracticable combustion of gunpowder received less attention.
+
+In 1794 Thomas Mead obtained a patent for an engine using the internal
+combustion of gas; the description is not a clear one, his ideas seem
+confused.
+
+In the same year Robert Street obtained a patent for an engine which is
+not unlike some now in use. The bottom of a cylinder, containing a piston,
+is heated by a fire, a few drops of spirits of turpentine are introduced
+and evaporated by the heat, the piston is drawn up, and air entering mixes
+with the inflammable vapor. A light is applied at a touch hole, and the
+explosion drives up the piston, which, working on a lever, forces down the
+piston of a pump for pumping water. Robt. Street adds to his description a
+note: "The quantity of spirits of tar or turpentine to be made use of is
+always proportional to the confined space, in general about 10 drops to a
+cubic foot." This engine is quite a workable one, although the
+arrangements described are very crude.
+
+The first gas engine that was actually at work for some years; and was
+applied to a variety of purposes, was Samuel Buren's. His patent was
+granted in 1823, and in 1826 he built a locomotive carriage with which he
+made several experimental runs in London; he also propelled a vessel with
+it upon the Thames, and fitted up a large engine for pumping purposes. A
+company was formed to introduce his engine, but it proved too wasteful of
+fuel, and the company went into voluntary liquidation. Like almost all
+engines of this time, the combustion of gas and air was used to produce a
+vacuum, the piston being driven by atmospheric pressure.
+
+Buren's locomotive carriage was thus in action three years before the
+great trial in 1829, from which George Stephenson emerged victorious with
+his wonderful engine "The Rocket." To those curious in the matter, I may
+mention that S. Buren's patents are dated 1823, No. 4,874, and 1826, No.
+5,350.
+
+From this time on, a continuous series of gas engine patents appear, 20
+engines being patented between 1826 and 1860, which is the next date
+worthy of particular mention.
+
+In this year, 1860, the famous "Lenoir" engine appeared. The use of high
+pressure steam engines had long been common, and Lenoir's engine was
+analogous to the high pressure engine, as Buren's was to the condensing
+engine. It created a very general interest, and many engines were
+constructed and used in France, England, and America; it resembled very
+much in external appearance an ordinary high pressure horizontal steam
+engine, and it was double acting.
+
+During the following six years, other 20 British patents were granted, and
+the gas engine passed from the state of a troublesome toy to a practicable
+and widely useful machine.
+
+From 1791 to the end of 1866, in all 46 British patents were granted for
+gas engines, and in these patents are to be found the principles upon
+which the gas engines of to-day are constructed, many years elapsing
+before experience enough was gained to turn the proposals of the older
+inventors to practical account.
+
+The most important of these patents are:
+
+                      No.  Year.
+Robert Street         1,983 1794  Direct-acting engine.
+Samuel Buren          4,874 1823  Vacuum engine.
+Samuel Buren          5,350 1826  Vacuum engine.
+W.L. Wright           6,525 1833  Direct-acting engine.
+Wm. Barnett           7,615 1838  Compression first proposed.
+Barsante & Matteucci  1,072 1854  Rack & clutch engine.
+Drake                   562 1855  Direct-acting engine.
+Lenoir                  335 1860  D.I. engine, electric ignition.
+C.W. Siemens          2,074 1860  Compression, _constant
+                                    pressure_.
+Hugon                 2,902 1860  Platinum ignition.
+Millein               1,840 1861  Compression, both constant vol. and
+                                    _pressure_.
+F.H. Wenham           1,873 1864  Free piston.
+Hugon                   986 1865  Flame ignition.
+Otto and Langen         434 1866  Rack and clutch, flame ignition.
+
+Leaving for the present the history of the gas engine, which brings us to
+a stage comparable to the state of the steam engine during the Newcomen's
+time, it will be advisable to give some consideration to the principles
+concerned in the economical and efficient working of gas engines, in order
+to understand the more recent developments.
+
+It has been seen that gunpowder was the explosive used to produce a vacuum
+in Huyghens' engine, and that it was abandoned in favor of gas by Buren in
+1823. The reason of departure is very obvious: a gunpowder explosion and a
+gaseous explosion differ in very important practical points.
+
+Gunpowder being a solid substance is capable of being packed into a very
+small space; the gas evolved by its decomposition is so great in volume
+that, even in the absence of any evolution of heat, a very high pressure
+would result. One cubic inch of gunpowder confined in a space of one cubic
+inch would cause a pressure by the gas it contains alone of 15,000 lb. per
+square inch; if the heating effect be allowed for, pressures of four times
+that amount, or 60,000 lb. per square inch, are easily accounted for.
+These pressures are far too high for use in any engine, and the bare
+possibility of getting such pressure by accident put gunpowder quite
+outside the purpose of the engineer, quite apart from any question of
+comparative cost. In a proper mixture of inflammable gas and air is found
+an exceedingly safe explosive, perfectly manageable and quite incapable of
+producing pressures in any sense dangerous to a properly constructed
+engine.
+
+The pressure produced by the explosion of any mixture of gas and air is
+strictly determined and limited, whereas the pressure produced by the
+explosion of gunpowder depends greatly upon the relation between the
+volume of the gunpowder and the space in which it is confined.
+
+Engines of the "Lenoir" type are the simplest in idea and construction; in
+them a mixture of gas and air is made in the cylinder during the first
+half of the piston stroke, air being taken from the atmosphere and drawn
+into the cylinder by the forward movement of the piston. At the same time
+gas entering by a number of holes, and streaming into the air to form an
+explosive mixture, the movement of a valve cuts off the supply, and brings
+the igniting arrangement into action. The pressure produced by the
+explosion acting upon the piston makes it complete its stroke, when the
+exhaust valve opens exactly as in the steam engine. The Lenoir and Hugon
+engines, the earlier forms of this type, were double acting, receiving two
+impulses for every revolution of the crank, the impulse differing from
+that in a high pressure steam engine in commencing at half stroke.
+
+The Lenoir igniting arrangement was complicated and troublesome. I have it
+upon the table; the mixture was ignited at the proper time by the electric
+spark produced from a primary battery and Ruhmkorff coil.
+
+The Hugon engine was an advance in this respect, using a flame ignited,
+and securing greater certainty of action in a comparatively simple manner.
+
+It is really a modification of Barnett's lighting cock described in his
+patent of 1838.
+
+Other difficulties were found in using these engines; the pistons became
+exceedingly hot. In the case of the Lenoir larger engines, it sometimes
+became red hot, and caused complete ruin of the cylinder by scoring and
+cutting up. Hugon to prevent this injected some water.
+
+In the all important question of economy, these engines were found
+grievously wanting, Lenoir consuming 95 cubic feet per I.H.P. per hour;
+Hugon consuming 85 cubic feet per I.H.P. per hour.
+
+The surviving engines of this type are only used for very small powers,
+from one to four man power, or 1/8 to 1/2 horse, the most widely known of
+this kind being the "Bischoff," which is very largely used; its
+consumption of gas is even greater than the Lenoir, being 110 cubic feet
+per horse power per hour, as tested with a half-horse engine at a late
+exhibition of gas apparatus at Stockport.
+
+So large a consumption of gas prevented these engines coming into extended
+use for engines of moderate power, and led inventors to work to obtain
+better results. The force generated by the explosion of a mixture of gas
+and air is very short lived, and if it is to be fully utilized must be
+used quickly; a high pressure is produced, but it very quickly disappears.
+
+The quicker the piston moves after the maximum pressure is reached, the
+less will be the loss of heat to the sides of the cylinder. The flame
+which fills the cylinder and causes the increase of pressure rapidly loses
+heat, and the pressure falls.
+
+The idea of using a free piston was proposed as a remedy; it was thought
+that a piston connected to a crank in the ordinary manner could not move
+fast enough to utilize the pressure before it was lost. Many inventors
+proposed to perform work upon a piston free from any direct connection
+with the crank or shaft of the engine; the explosion after attaining its
+maximum pressure expends its force in giving velocity to a piston; the
+velocity so acquired carries it on against atmospheric pressure until the
+energy is all absorbed, and a vacuum or deficit of pressure exists in the
+cylinder instead of an excess of pressure. The return stroke is
+accomplished by the atmospheric pressure, and the work is now done upon
+the engine shaft on the return only. The method of connecting on the
+return stroke while leaving the piston free on the out stroke varies, but
+in many engines the principle was the same.
+
+Barsante and Matteucci, year 1857, British patent No. 1,625, describe the
+first engine of this kind, but Messrs. Otto and Langen were the first to
+successfully overcome all difficulties and make a marketable engine of it.
+Their patent was dated 1866, No. 434. To distinguish it from Otto's later
+patents, it may be called the rack and clutch engine.
+
+The economy obtained by this engine was a great advance upon the Lenoir.
+According to a test by Prof. Tresca, at the Paris Exhibition of 1867, the
+gas consumed was 44 cubic feet per indicated horse power per hour.
+According to tests I have made myself in Manchester with a two horse power
+engine, Otto and Langen's free piston engine consumes 40 cubic feet per
+I.H.P. per hour. This is less than one-half of the gas used by the Hugon
+engine for one horse power.
+
+The igniting arrangement is a very good modification of Barnett's lighting
+cock, which I have explained already, but a slide valve is used instead of
+a cock.
+
+Other engines carried out the same principle in a different manner,
+including Gilles' engine, but they were not commercially so successful as
+the Otto and Langen. Mr. F.H. Wenham's engine was of this type, and was
+working in England, Mr. Wenham informed me, in 1866, his patent being
+taken out in 1864.
+
+The great objection to this kind of engine is the irregularity and great
+noise in working; this was so great as to prevent engines from being made
+larger than three horse power. The engine, however, did good work, and was
+largely used from 1866 until the end of 1876, when Mr. Otto produced his
+famous engine, now known as "The Otto Silent Gas Engine." In this engine
+great economy is attained without the objectionable free piston by a
+method proposed first by Burnett, 1838, and also by a Frenchman, Millein,
+in 1861; this method is compression before ignition. Other inventors also
+described very clearly the advantages to be expected from compression, but
+none were able to make it commercially successful till Mr. Otto. To him
+belongs the great credit of inventing a cycle of operations capable of
+realizing compression in a simple manner.
+
+Starting from the same point as inventors did to produce the free piston
+engine--namely, that the more quickly the explosive force is utilized, the
+less will be the loss, and the greater the power produced from a quantity
+of burning gas--it is evident that if any method can be discovered to
+increase the pressure upon the piston without increasing the temperature
+of the flame causing this pressure, then a great gain will result, and
+the engine will convert more of the heat given to it into work. This is
+exactly what is done by compression before ignition. Suppose we take a
+mixture of gas and air of such proportions as to cause when exploded, or
+rather ignited (because explosion is too strong a term), a pressure of 45
+lb. above atmosphere, or 60 lb. per square inch absolute pressure. Then
+this mixture, if compressed to half volume before igniting and kept at
+constant temperature, would give, when ignited, a pressure of 120 lb.
+total, or 105 lb. above atmosphere, and this without any increase of the
+temperature of the flame.
+
+The effect of compression is to make a small piston do the work of a large
+one, and convert more heat into work by lessening the loss of heat through
+the walls of the cylinder. In addition to this advantage, greater
+expansions are made possible, and therefore greatly increase economy.
+
+The Otto engine must be so familiar in appearance to all of you, that I
+need hardly trouble you with details of its external appearance. I shall
+briefly describe its action. Its strong points and its weak points are
+alike caused by its cycle. One cylinder and piston suffices to carry out
+its whole action. Its cycle is: First outstroke, gas and air sucked into
+the cylinder; first instroke, gas and air compressed into space; second
+outstroke, impulse due to ignition; second instroke, discharge of
+exhausted gases. When working at full power, it gets one impulse for every
+two revolutions; this seems to be a retrograde movement, but,
+notwithstanding, the advantages obtained are very great. The igniting
+arrangement is in the main similar to that used on the rack and clutch
+engine. The engine has been exceedingly successful, and is very
+economical. The Otto compression engine consumes 21 cubic feet of gas per
+I.H.P. per hour, and runs with great smoothness.
+
+In 1876 I commenced my work upon gas engines, and very soon concluded that
+the compression system was the true line to proceed upon. It took me two
+years to produce a workable engine. My efforts have always been directed
+toward producing an engine giving at least one impulse every revolution
+and, if possible, to start without hand labor, just as a steam engine
+does. My first gas engine was running in 1878, and patented and exhibited
+in 1879. It was first exhibited at the Kilburn Royal Agricultural
+Society's show.
+
+This engine was self-starting, gave an ignition at every revolution, and
+ignited without external flame. It consisted of two cylinders, a motor,
+and a compressing pump, with a small intermediate reservoir. Suitable
+valves introduced the mixture of gas and air into the pump, and passed it
+when compressed from the reservoir to the motor cylinder. The igniting
+arrangement consisted of a platinum cage firmly fixed in a valve port;
+this cage was heated in the first instance by a flame of gas and air
+mixed; it became white hot in a few seconds, and then the engine was
+started by opening a valve.
+
+The platinum was kept hot by the heat derived from the successive
+ignitions, and, the engine once started, no further external flame was
+required. I have here one of these platinum cages which has been in use.
+Finding this method not well suited for small engines, I produced the
+engine which is at present in the market under my name.
+
+The cycle is different, and is designed for greater simplicity and the
+avoidance of back ignitions. It also consists of two cylinders, motor
+cylinder and the displace or charging cylinder. There is no intermediate
+reservoir. The displace crank leads the motor by a right angle, and takes
+into it the mixed charge of gas and air, in some cases taking air alone
+during the latter part of its stroke.
+
+The motor on the outstroke crosses V-shaped parts about from one-sixth to
+one-seventh from the out end, the displacer charge now passing into the
+motor cylinder, displacing the exhaust gases by these ports and filling
+the cylinder and the space at the end of it with the explosive mixture.
+The introduction of some air in advance of the charge serves the double
+purpose of cooling down the exhaust gases and preventing direct contact of
+the inflammable mixture with flame which may linger in the cylinder from
+the previous stroke. The instroke of the motor compresses the charge into
+the conical space at the end of the cylinder, and, when fully compressed,
+ignition is effected by means of the slide I have upon the table.
+
+This system of ignition has been found very reliable, and capable of
+acting as often as 400 times per minute, which the Otto ignite is quite
+incapable of doing. By this cycle the advantages of compression are gained
+and one step nearer to the steam engine is attained, that is, an impulse
+is given for every revolution of the engine.
+
+As a consequence, I am able with my engine to give a greater amount of
+power for a comparatively small weight. In addition to this, I have
+introduced a method of self-starting; in this I believe I was the
+first--about 100 of my engines are now using self-starting.
+
+The largest single engine I have yet made indicates 30 H.P. The
+consumption of gas in Glasgow is: Clerk engine consumes in Glasgow 18
+cubic feet per I.H.P. per hour; Clerk engine consumes in Manchester 22
+cubic feet per I.H.P. per hour. So far as I know, the Otto engine and my
+own are the only compression engines which have as yet made any success in
+the market. Other engines are being continually prepared, gas engine
+patents being taken out just now at the rate of 60 per annum, but none of
+them have been able as yet to get beyond the experimental stage. The
+reason is simply the great experience necessary to produce these machines,
+which seem so very simple; but to the inexperienced inventor the subject
+fairly bristles with pitfalls.
+
+I have here sections of some of the earlier engines, including Dr.
+Siemens' and Messrs. Simon and Beechy. Although interesting and containing
+many good points, these have not been practically successful.
+
+The Simon engine is an adaptation of the well-known American petroleum
+motor, the Brayton, the only difference consisting in the use of steam as
+well as flame.
+
+Dr. Siemens worked for some twenty years on gas engines, but he aimed
+rather high at first to attain even moderate success. Had he lived, I
+doubt not but that he would have succeeded in introducing them for large
+powers. In 1882 he informed me that he had in hand a set of gas engines of
+some hundreds of horse power for use on board ship, to be supplied with
+gas from one of his gas producers modified to suit the altered
+conditions.
+
+Summarizing the ground over which we have passed, we find the origin of
+the gas engine in the minds of the same men as were first to propose the
+steam engine, Huyghens and Papin, 1680 and 1690. Greater mechanical
+difficulties and ignorance of the nature of explosives caused the
+abandonment of the internal combustion idea, and the mechanical
+difficulties with steam being less, the steam engine became successful,
+and triumphed over its rival. The knowledge and skill gained in the
+construction of steam engines made it possible once again to attack the
+more difficult problem, and simultaneously with the introduction and
+perfecting of the steam engine, the gas engine idea became more and more
+possible, the practicable stage commencing with Lenoir and continuing with
+Hugon, Millein, Otto and Langen, F.H. Wenham, then Otto and Clerk. In
+1860, 95 cubic feet of gas produced one horse power for an hour; in 1867,
+40 cubic feet accomplished the same thing; and now (1885) we can get one
+horse power for an hour for from 15 to 20 cubic feet of gas, depending on
+the size of the engine used.
+
+Considered as a heat engine, the gas engine is now twice as efficient as
+the very best modern steam engine. It is true the fuel used at present
+is more expensive than coal, and for large powers the steam engine is
+the best because of this. But the way is clearing to change this. Gas
+engines as at present, if supplied with producer gas, produced direct
+from coal without leaving any coke, as is done in the Siemens, the
+Wilson, and the Dawson producers, will give power at one-half the cost
+of steam power. They will use 7/8 of a pound of coal per horse power per
+hour, instead of 1-3/4 lb., as is done in the best steam engines. The
+only producer that makes gas for gas engines at present is the Dawson,
+and in it anthracite is used, because of the difficulty of getting rid
+of the tar coming from the Siemens and Wilson producers, using any
+ordinary slack.
+
+When this difficulty has been overcome, and that it will be overcome there
+can be no manner of doubt, gas engines will rapidly displace the steam
+engine, because a gas engine with a gas producer, producing gas from any
+ordinary coal with the same ease as steam is produced from a boiler, will
+be much safer, and will use one-half the fuel of the very best steam
+engines for equal power. The first cost also will not be greater than that
+of steam. The engine itself will be more expensive than a steam engine of
+equal power, but the gas producer will be less expensive than the boiler
+at present. Perfect as the gas engine now is, considered as a machine for
+converting heat into work, the possibility of great development is not yet
+exhausted. Its economy may be increased two or even three fold; in this
+lies the brilliant future before it. The steam engine is nearly as perfect
+as it can be made; it approaches very nearly the possibility of its
+theory. Its defect does not lie in its mechanism, but in the very
+properties of water and steam itself. The loss of heat which takes place
+in converting liquid water into gaseous steam is so great that by far the
+greater portion of the heat given out by the fuel passes away either in
+the condenser or the exhaust of a steam engine; but a small proportion of
+the heat is converted into work.
+
+The very best steam engines convert about 11 per cent. of the heat given
+them into useful work, the remaining 89 per cent. being wasted,
+principally in the exhaust of the engine.
+
+Gas engines now convert 20 per cent. of the heat given to them into work,
+and very probably will, in a few years more, convert 60 per cent. into
+useful work. The conclusion, then, is irresistible that, when engineers
+have gained greater experience with gas engines and gas producers, they
+will displace steam engines entirely for every use--mills, locomotives,
+and ships.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+RAPID CONSTRUCTION OF THE CANADIAN PACIFIC RAILWAY.
+
+By E.T. ABBOTT, Member of the Engineers' Club of Minnesota. Read December
+12, 1884.
+
+
+During the winter of 1881 and 1882, the contract was let to Messrs.
+Langdon, Sheppard & Co., of Minneapolis, to construct during the working
+season of the latter year, or prior to January 1, 1883, 500 miles of
+railroad on the western extension of the above company; the contract being
+for the grading, bridging, track-laying, and surfacing, also including the
+laying of the necessary depot sidings and their grading. The idea that any
+such amount of road could be built in that country in that time was looked
+upon by the writer hereof, as well as by railroad men generally, as a huge
+joke, perpetrated to gull the Canadians. At the time the contract was let,
+the Canadian Pacific Railway was in operation to Brandon, the crossing of
+the Assiniboine River, 132 miles west of Winnipeg. The track was laid,
+however, to a point about 50 miles west of this, and the grading done
+generally in an unfinished state for thirty miles further. This was the
+condition of things when the contract was entered into to build 500
+miles--the east end of the 500-mile contract being at Station 4,660
+(Station being at Brandon) and extending west to a few miles beyond the
+Saskatchewan River.
+
+The spring of 1882 opened in the most unpromising manner for railroad
+operations, being the wettest ever known in that country. Traffic over the
+St. Paul, Minneapolis & Manitoba Railroad, between St. Paul and Winnipeg,
+was entirely suspended from April 15 to the 28th, owing to the floods on
+the Red River at St. Vincent and Emerson, a serious blow to an early
+start, as on this single track depended the transportation of all
+supplies, men, timber, and contractors' plant, together with all track
+materials (except ties), all of these things having to come from or
+through St. Paul and Minneapolis. The writer hereof was appointed a
+division engineer, and reported at Winnipeg the 15th of April, getting
+through on the last train before the St. Vincent flood. No sooner was the
+line open from St. Paul to Winnipeg than the cotillon opened between
+Winnipeg and Brandon, with a succession of washouts that defied and
+defeated all efforts to get trains over, so it was not until the fifth day
+of May that I left Winnipeg to take charge of the second division of 30
+miles.
+
+By extremely "dizzy" speed I was landed at the end of the track, 180 miles
+from Winnipeg, on the evening of the 9th (4 days). My outfit consisted of
+three assistant engineers and the necessary paraphernalia for three
+complete camps, 30 days' provisions (which turned out to be about 20), 11
+carts and ponies, the latter being extremely poor after a winter's diet
+on buffalo grass and no grain. On the 18th day of May I had my division
+organized and camps in running order. The country was literally under
+water, dry ground being the exception, and I look upon the feat of getting
+across the country at all as the engineering triumph of my life.
+
+On May 20 a genuine blizzard set in, lasting 24 hours, snowed five inches,
+and froze the sloughs over with half an inch of ice, a decidedly
+interesting event to the writer, as he was 18 miles from the nearest wood,
+therefore lay in his blankets and ate hard tack. I stabled my ponies in
+the cook tent, and after they had literally eaten of the sod inside the
+tent, I divided my floor with them.
+
+On 28th day of May I saw the first contractor, who broke ground at station
+7,150. On the 1st of June I was relieved from this division, and ordered
+to take the next, 50 miles west. On the 13th day of June ground was broken
+on this division, at station 8,070, or only about 62 miles west of the
+east end of the 500-mile contract. It looked at this time as though they
+might build 150 miles, but not more. But from this time on very rapid
+progress was made. On July 17 the track reached station 7,000, making
+however up to this time but about 50 miles of track-laying, including that
+laid on the old grade; but large forces were put on to surfacing, and the
+track already laid was put in excellent condition for getting material to
+the front. The weather from this until the freezing-up was all that could
+be desired. Work ceased about the 1st of January, 1883, for the season,
+and the final estimate for the work was as follows: 6,103,986 cubic yards
+earth excavation, 2,395,750 feet B.M. timber in bridges and the culverts,
+85,708 lineal feet piling, 435 miles of track-laying. This work was all
+done in 182 working days, including stormy ones, when little, if anything,
+could be done, making a daily average of 33,548 yards excavation, 13,150
+feet B.M. timber, 471 feet piling, 2-38/100 miles track-laying. We never
+had an accurate force report made of the whole line, but roughly there
+were employed 5,000 men and 1,700 teams.
+
+The admirable organization of the contractors was something wonderful. The
+grading work was practically all done by sub-contractors, Messrs. Langdon,
+Sheppard & Co. confining themselves to putting in the supplies and doing
+the bridge work, surfacing, and track-laying. The grading forces were
+scattered along about 150 miles ahead of the track and supply stores,
+established about 50 miles apart, and in no case were sub-contractors
+expected to haul supplies over 100 miles. If I remember rightly, there
+were four trains of about forty wagons each, hauling supplies from the end
+of track to the stores.
+
+As can be readily seen, the vital point of the whole work, and the problem
+to solve, was food for men and horses. 1,700 bushels of oats every day and
+15,000 pounds of provisions, Sundays and all, for an entire season, which
+at the beginning of the work had to come about 170 miles by rail, and then
+be taken from 50 to 150 miles by teams across a wilderness, is on the face
+of it considerable of an undertaking, to say nothing about hauling the
+pile-drivers, piles, and bridge-timber there. To keep from delaying the
+track, sidings 1,500 feet long were graded, about 7 miles apart. A
+side-track crew, together with an engine, four flats, and caboose, were
+always in readiness; and as soon as a siding was reached, in five hours
+the switches would be in, and the next day it would be surfaced and all in
+working order, when the operating department would fill it with track
+material and supplies. From the head of the siding to the end of the track
+the ground was in hands of track-laying engine, never going back of the
+last siding for supplies or material, and my recollection is that there
+were but six hours' delay to the track from lack of material the whole
+season, at any rate up to some time in November. The track-laying crew was
+equal to 4 miles per day, and in the month of August 92 miles of track
+were laid. The ties were cut on the line of the road about 100 miles east
+of Winnipeg, so the shortest distance any ties were hauled was 270 miles;
+the actual daily burden of the single track from Winnipeg west was 24 cars
+steel, 24 cars ties, aside from the transportation of grain and
+provisions, bridge material, and lumber for station houses. The station
+buildings were kept right up by the company itself, and a depot built with
+rooms for the agent every 15 miles, or at every second siding. The
+importance of keeping the buildings up with the track was impressed on the
+mind of the superintendent of this branch, and, as a satire, he
+telegraphed asking permission to haul his stuff ahead of the track by
+teams, he being on the track-layers' heels with his stations and tanks the
+whole season. The telegraph line was also built, and kept right up to the
+end of the track, three or four miles being the furthest they were at any
+time behind.
+
+It might be supposed that work done so rapidly would not be well done, but
+it is the best built prairie road I know of on this continent. It is built
+almost entirely free from cuts, and the work is at least 20 per cent.
+heavier than would ordinarily be made across the same country in the
+States, on account of snow. 2,640 ties were laid to the mile, and the
+track ballasting kept well up with the laying; so well, in fact, and so
+well done, that as 100 mile sections were completed schedule trains were
+put on 20 miles an hour, and the operating department had nothing to do
+but make a time table; the road was _built_ by the construction department
+before the operating department was asked to take it. The engineering was
+organized in divisions of 30 miles each, and as each was finished the
+parties moved ahead again to the front, the engineers usually finding men
+sitting on their shovels waiting for the work to be laid out for them. It
+was as much as the locating parties could do to keep out of the way of the
+construction. The roadbed was built 14 ft. wide in embankment and 20 in
+the very few cuts there were, there being no cuts of any moment except
+through the Coteaus and the Saskatchewan crossing, and these have since
+been widened out on account of snow, so that the road can be operated the
+year round and the bucking-snow account cut no figure in the operating
+expenses.
+
+The country is a virgin desert. From Winnipeg to the Pacific Ocean there
+are a few places that might attain to the dignity of an _oasis_--at
+Brandon, Portage la Prairie, etc.--but it is generally what I should call
+worthless; 100 miles to wood and 100 feet to water was the general
+experience west of the Moose jaw, and the months of June, July, and August
+are the only three in the year that it is safe to bet you will not have
+sleighing. I burned wood and used stakes that were hauled by carts 85
+miles, and none any nearer. It is a matter of some pride that both the
+engineering and the construction were done by what our Canadian neighbors
+kindly termed "Yankee importations." However, there was one thing that in
+the building of this road was in marked contrast to any other Pacific road
+ever constructed, that is, there was no lawlessness, no whisky, and not
+even a knock-down fight that I ever heard of the whole season, and even in
+the midst of 12,000 Indians, all armed with Winchester rifles and plenty
+of ammunition, not one of the locating or construction parties ever had a
+military escort, nor were any depredations ever committed, except the
+running off of a few horses, which were usually recovered; and I think
+there were but two fatal accidents during the season, one man killed on
+the Grand Coule Bridge, and another from being kicked by a horse.
+
+The track was all laid from one end, and in no case were rails hauled
+ahead by teams. Two iron cars were used, the empty returning one being
+turned up beside the track to let the loaded one by.
+
+The feat in rapid construction accomplished by this company will never be
+duplicated, done as it was by a reckless expenditure of money, the orders
+to the engineers being to _get there_ regardless of expense and
+horse-flesh; if you killed a horse by hard driving, his harness would fit
+another, and there was no scrutiny bestowed on vouchers when the work was
+done; and I must pay the tribute to the company to say that everything
+that money would buy was sent to make the engineers comfortable. It was
+bad enough at best, and the Chief Engineer (J.C. James) rightly considered
+that any expense bestowed on the engineering part of the work was a good
+investment.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE OSGOOD MAMMOTH EXCAVATOR.
+
+
+In the accompanying illustration, we present to our readers a mammoth
+excavator, built by the Osgood Dredge Company of Albany, N.Y., for the
+Pacific Guano Company of California, for uncovering their phosphate
+deposits on Chisholm Island, South Colombia.
+
+[Illustration: THE OSGOOD MAMMOTH EXCAVATOR.]
+
+In order to bring out more clearly the principal problem involved in the
+construction of this machine, we shall state first the proposed method of
+its operation. This is as follows, viz.: The excavator is to dig a trench
+thirty feet wide, down to the phosphate rock, and the entire length of the
+bed--about one quarter of a mile--dumping the earth of the first cut to
+one side. The phosphate is taken out behind the excavator. On reaching the
+end of the bed, the excavator is reversed and starts back, making a second
+cut thirty feet wide, and dumping now into the cut from which the
+phosphate has just been removed. In this way the entire bed is traversed,
+the excavator turning over the earth in great furrows thirty feet wide,
+and giving an opportunity to simultaneously get out all the phosphate.
+
+As will be seen, the main problem presented was to turn the car around at
+each end of the cut in a very limited space. To accomplish this, the car
+is mounted on a fixed axle at each end and on a truck under its center of
+gravity; this is somewhat forward of the geometrical center of the car.
+The frame of the truck is circular, thirteen feet in diameter, made of I
+beams curved to shape. The circle carries a track, on which a ring of
+coned rollers revolves, which in turn supports the car. By pulling out the
+track from under both ends of the car, the whole weight is balanced on
+this central turntable truck, thus admitting of the car being turned, end
+for end, within its own length. This method of turning the car, and the
+size of the machine, are the principal features.
+
+The car is 40' x 13', with arched truss sides. The track is seven feet
+gauge, the spread between tracks 20 feet, the height of the A frame 38
+feet, length of boom 40 feet, swinging in a circle of 30 feet radius, and
+through two-thirds of the entire circle. It has a steel dipper of 46 cubic
+feet capacity, 1 inch steel chains, 10" x 12" double cylinder hoisting
+engine, and 61/4" x 8" double cylinder reversible crowding engine. The
+drums are fitted with friction clutches. Owing to the great distance at
+which the dipper is handled, its size is reduced, and because it swings on
+the arc of so large a circle the capacity of this machine is only one-half
+of that of the No. 1 excavator built by the Osgood Dredge Company.
+Nevertheless it will do the work of from 75 to 100 men, since its capacity
+is from 800 to 1,000 cubic yards per day, the amount of rock _uncovered_
+depending, of course, upon the depth of earth overlying it. The excavator
+will dump 30 feet from the center line of the car, and 26 feet above the
+track, which is laid on the rock. Total weight about fifty tons. The crew
+required for its operation consists of 1 engineer, 1 fireman, 1 craneman,
+and 4 to 5 pit men to tend jacks, move track, etc.
+
+In the illustration the boiler connections are omitted, also the housing
+for the protection of the crew. The design is characterized by the evident
+care which has been bestowed upon securing simplicity and
+durability.--_American Engineer._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE OSGOOD EXCAVATOR.
+
+
+At a recent meeting of the Engineers' Club of Philadelphia, Mr. John C.
+Trautwine, Jr., exhibited and described drawings of a large land dredge
+built by the Osgood Dredge Co., of Albany, New York, for the Pacific Guano
+Co., to be used in removing 8 to 15 feet of material from the phosphate
+rock at Bull River, S.C.
+
+The more prominent features of the machine are the car-body, the water
+tank, boiler and engine, the A frame (so-called from its slight
+resemblance to the letter A), the boom, the dipper-handle; and the dipper,
+drawings of which were shown and described in detail.
+
+Before the excavation is begun, the forward end of the car (the end
+nearest the dipper) is lifted clear of the track by means of 3
+screw-jacks. When the machine has excavated as far in advance of itself as
+the length of the boom and that of the dipper-handle will permit, say
+about 8 feet, the car is again lowered to the track, the screw-jacks
+removed, and the car is moved forward about 8 feet by winding the rope
+upon the drum, the other end of the rope being attached to any suitable
+fixed object near the line of the track. The forward end of the car is
+then again lifted by means of the 3 screw-jacks, and the digging is
+resumed. The machine cuts a channel from 25 to 35 feet wide, and deposits
+all the dirt upon one side. If necessary, it can dump earth about 25 feet
+above the track. The miners follow in the wake of the machine, getting out
+the phosphate as fast as it is uncovered. When the machine reaches the end
+of the field it is lowered to the track and the screw-jacks are removed.
+Shoes or skids are then placed upon the track, and the wheels of the
+turntable are run up on them. This lifts the end wheels clear of the
+track, so that the car and machine rest entirely upon the turntable. By
+now blocking the turntable wheels and winding up only _one_ of the ropes,
+the car body and the machine are swung around end for end. The digging is
+then resumed in the opposite direction, the temporary track, upon which
+the machine travels, being shifted to one side, so that the second channel
+is made alongside of the first. The earth removed in cutting this second
+channel is dumped into the first channel, the phosphate (as stated above)
+having been first removed.
+
+The dipper is of plate steel, and holds 13/4 cubic yards of earth when even
+full.
+
+The machine is manned by an engineer, a fireman, and a dipper-tender,
+besides which from five to ten laborers are required. These look after the
+track, etc.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CAPSTAN NAVIGATION ON THE VOLGA.
+
+
+On several of the large rivers on the Continent, with rapid currents,
+cable towage has been introduced in addition to the older methods of
+transporting merchandise by sailing and steam boats or by towage with
+screw or paddle tugs. A chain or wire rope is laid on the bottom of the
+river bed, fixed to anchors at the ends and passed over a chain pulley
+driven by the steam engine and guided by pulleys on the steam tug, the tug
+lifting it out of the water at the bow and dropping it over the stern and
+winding itself with the barges attached to it along the chain, the latter
+being utilized as a rule only for the up journey, while down the river the
+tugs are propelled by paddles or screws, and can tow a sufficient number
+of barges with the assistance of the current. The system has been found
+advantageous, as, although the power required for drawing the barges and
+tugs against the current is of course the same in all cases, the slip and
+waste of power by screws and paddles is avoided. The size of the screws or
+paddles is also limited by the nature of the river and its traffic, and
+with cable towage a larger number of barges can be hauled, while the
+progress made is definite and there is no drifting back, as occurs with
+paddle or screw tugs when they have temporarily to slow or stop their
+engines on account of passing vessels. Several streams, as the Elbe,
+Rhine, and Rhone, have now such cables laid for long distances in those
+parts of the rivers where the traffic is sufficient to warrant the
+adoption of the system. While this has been introduced only during the
+last 16 or 18 years, a similar method of transporting merchandise has been
+in use in Russia on the river Volga for upward of 40 years. Navigation on
+this river is interrupted for about half the year by the ice, and the
+traffic is of larger amount only during part of the summer, while the
+length of the river itself is very great, so that laying down permanent
+cables would not pay; while, on the other hand, the current is so strong
+that towage of some sort must be resorted to for the transport of large
+quantities. The problem has been solved by the introduction of the capstan
+navigation or towage.
+
+[Illustration: CAPSTAN NAVIGATION ON THE VOLGA.]
+
+There are two kinds of capstans in use, one actuated by horse-power and
+the other by steam engines. A horse capstan boat carries according to size
+150 to 200 horses, which are stabled in the hold. On deck a number of
+horse gears are arranged at which the horses work. The power of the
+separate gears is transmitted to a main shaft, which is connected to the
+drums that wind on the rope. The horses work under an awning to protect
+them from the burning sunshine, and are changed every three hours. Eight
+and sometimes ten horses work at each horse gear. The horses are changed
+without interruption of the work, the gears being disengaged from the main
+shaft in rotation and the horses taken out and put in while the gear is
+standing. The horses are bought at the place of departure in the south of
+Russia and resold at the destination, usually Nishny-Novgorod, at a fair
+profit, the capstan boat carrying fodder and provender for the attendants.
+The capstan is accompanied by a steam launch which carries the anchor and
+hawser forward in advance of the capstan. The latter has a diameter of as
+much as 5 in., and is two to three miles in length. The anchor is dropped
+by the tug and the hawser carried back to the capstan, where it is
+attached to one of the rope drums, and the boat with the barges attached
+to it towed along by the horse gears described above winding on the
+hawser. The advance continues without interruption day and night, the
+launch taking a second anchor and hawser forward and dropping the anchor
+in advance of the first by a hawser's length, so that when the capstan has
+wound up the first hawser it finds a second one ready for attachment to
+the rope drum. The launch receives the first hawser, picks up the anchor,
+and passes the capstan to drop it again in advance of the anchor
+previously placed, and carries the hawser back to the capstan, and so on.
+A capstan tows twelve or more barges, placed in twos or threes beside and
+close behind each other, with a load of a million pounds, or about 16,000
+to 17,000 tons. From Astrachan and the mouth of the Kama the capstans make
+during the season from the beginning of May to the end of July in the most
+favorable case two journeys to the fair of Nishny-Novgorod; after this
+time no more journeys are made, as the freights are wanting. At the end of
+the up-stream journey the horses are sold, as mentioned before, and the
+capstan towed down stream by the steam launch to Astrachan or the Kama
+mouth, where meanwhile a fresh lot of barges has been loaded and got
+ready, a new supply of horses is bought, and the operation repeated.
+
+Besides these horse capstans there are steam capstans which are less
+complicated and have condensing steam engines of about 100 horse power,
+the power being transmitted by gearing to the rope drum. The rope drum
+shaft projects on both sides beyond the boards of the boat, and for the
+return journey paddle wheels, are put on to assist the launch in towing
+the clumsy and big capstan boat down the river. The steam capstans tow
+considerably larger masses of goods than the horse capstans and also
+travel somewhat quicker, so that the launch has scarcely sufficient time
+to drop and raise the anchors and also to make double the journey. We do
+not doubt that this system of towage might with suitable modifications be
+advantageously employed on the large rivers in America and elsewhere for
+the slow transport of large quantities of raw materials and other bulky
+merchandise, a low speed being, as is well known, much more economical
+than a high speed, as many of the resistances increase as the square and
+even higher powers of the velocity.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+STEAMBOAT EQUIPMENT OF WAR VESSELS.
+
+
+The larger ships in the navy, and some of the more recent small ones, such
+as the new cruisers of the Phaeton class, are fitted with powerful steam
+winches of a type made by Messrs. Belliss and Co. These are used for
+lifting the pinnaces and torpedo boats.
+
+We give an illustration of one of these winches. The cylinders are 6 in.
+in diameter and 10 in. stroke. The barrel is grooved for wire rope, and is
+safe to raise the second class steel torpedo boats, weighing nearly 12
+tons as lifted. The worm gearing is very carefully cut, so that the work
+can be done quietly and safely. With machinery of this kind a boat is soon
+put into the water, and as an arrangement is fitted for filling the boat's
+boilers with hot water from the ship's boilers, the small craft can be
+under way in a very short time from the order being given.
+
+Mr. White is fitting compound engines with outside condensers to boats as
+small as 21 ft. long, and we give a view of a pair of compound engines of
+a new design, which Messrs. Belliss are making for the boats of this
+class. The cylinders are 4 in. and 7 in. in diameter by 5 in. stroke. The
+general arrangement is well shown in the engraving. On a trial recently
+made, a 25 ft. cutter with this type of engines reached a speed of 7.4
+knots.
+
+About three years ago the late Controller of the Navy, Admiral Sir W.
+Houston Stewart, wished to ascertain the relative consumption of fuel in
+various classes of small vessels. An order was accordingly sent to
+Portsmouth, and a series of trials were made. From the official reports of
+these we extract the information contained in tables F and G, and we think
+the details cannot fail to be of interest to our readers. The run around
+the island was made in company with other boats, without stopping, and
+observations were taken every half hour. The power given out by the
+engines was fairly constant throughout. The distance covered was 56 knots,
+and the total amount of fuel consumed, including that required for raising
+steam, was 1,218 lb. of coal and 84 lb. of wood. The time taken in raising
+steam to 60 lb. pressure was forty-three minutes. The rate of consumption
+of fuel is of course not the lowest that could be obtained, as a speed of
+over 10 knots is higher than that at which the machinery could be worked
+most economically.
+
+[Illustration: STEAM WINCH FOR HOISTING AND LOWERING PINNACLES AND
+TORPEDO BOATS.]
+
+The trials afterward made to find the best results that could be obtained
+in fuel consumption were rather spoiled by the roughness of the weather on
+the day they were made. The same boat was run for 10 miles around the
+measured mile buoys in Stokes Bay. The following are some of the results
+recorded:
+
+_Table F.--Report of Trials of Engines of H.M. 48 ft.
+Twin Screw Steam Pinnace, No. 110._
+
+Date                                           August 4, 1881.
+
+Where tried                                    Round the Isle of
+                                                   Wight
+
+Draught of water / Forward                       3 ft. 1/2 in.
+                 \ Aft                           3 ft. 61/2 in.
+Average boiler pressure                          104.81 lb.
+Average pressure in receivers   / Starboard       16.27  "
+                                \ Port            16.54  "
+Mean air pressure in stokehold                   1.4 in. water.
+Vacuum in condenser, average                      26.72 in.
+Weather barometer                                 30.37  "
+Revolutions per minute    / Starboard            240.75
+                          \ Port                 251.95
+                                                    lb.
+Mean pressure in cylinders / Starboard / High     45.33
+                           |           \ Low      16.16
+                           \ Port      / High     43.16
+                                       \ Low      15.3
+Indicated horse-power      / Starboard / High     18.20
+                           |           \ Low      16.32
+                           | Port      / High     18.13
+                           |           \ Low      16.17
+                           \ Collective Total     68.82
+Speed by log                                      10.18 knots.
+Force of wind                                         One.
+Sea                                                  Smooth.
+Quantity of coal on board                             1 ton.
+Description                                    Nixon's navigation.
+Consumption per indicated horse-power per hour     4.17 lb.
+Time under way                                    5 hrs. 30 min.
+
+
+_Table G.--Report of Trial of Engines of H.M. 48 ft. Steam Pinnace No.
+110._
+
+When tried                                        August 3, 1881.
+Where tried                                         Stokes Bay.
+Draught   / Forward                                 3 ft. 1 in.
+          \ Aft                                     3 ft. 31/4 in.
+Average boiler pressure                               55.52 lb.
+Vacuum                                                25.12 in.
+Weather barometer                                     30.35 "
+Revolutions per minute  / starboard                  165.54
+                        \ port                       161.55
+Indicated horse-power[2]   / Starboard / High          5.05
+                           |           \ Low           5.53
+                           | Port      / High          3.75
+                           |           \ Low           4.02
+                           \ Collective Total         18.35
+Speed of vessel by log (approximate)                   7.404
+Wind      / Force                                     4 to 5
+          \ Direction                             Bow and Quarter.
+State of sea                                           Rough.
+
+[Footnote 2: In consequence of the seas breaking over the boat, a large
+number of diagrams were destroyed, and, on account of the roughness of the
+weather, cards were only taken with the greatest difficulty. The records
+of power developed are therefore not put forward as authoritative.]
+
+In connection with this subject it may perhaps be of interest to give
+particulars of a French and American steam launch; these we extract from
+the United States official report before mentioned.
+
+_Steam Launch of the French Steamer Mouche_.
+
+Length on low water level                   27 ft. 10-1/2 in.
+Breadth                                      5 ft. 11 in.
+Depth to rabbet of keel                      3 ft. 3-1/3 in.
+Draught of water aft                         2 ft. 1-1/2 in.
+Weight of hull and fittings                   2,646 lb.
+Weight of machinery with water in boiler      3,473 lb.
+
+The boat is built of wood, and coppered. The engine consists of one
+non-condensing cylinder, 7-1/2 in. in diameter and 5.9 in. stroke. The
+boiler has 4.3 square feet of grate surface. The screw is 21-2/3 in. in
+diameter by 43.3 in, pitch. The speed is 7 knots per hour obtained with
+245 revolutions per minute, the slip being 19.7 per cent. of the speed.
+
+The United States navy steam cutters built at the Philadelphia navy yard
+are of the following dimensions:
+
+Length                                          27 ft. 71/2 in.
+Breadth                                          7 ft. 10 in.
+Depth to rabbet of keel                          3 ft. 113/4 in.
+Displacement (to two feet above rabbet of keel)    5.96 tons.
+Weight of hull and fittings                         4,675 lb.
+   "      engine                                    1,240  "
+   "      boiler                                    3,112  "
+   "      water in boiler and tanks                 2,696  "
+
+The engine has a single cylinder 8 in. in diameter and 8 in. stroke of
+piston. The screw is four bladed, 4 in. long and 31 in. in diameter by 45
+in. pitch. The following is the performance at draught of water 2 feet
+above rabbet of keel:
+
+Boiler pressure           90 lb.
+Revolutions                353
+Speed                    7.8 knots.
+Indicated horse power.      53
+
+These boats are of 1870 type, but may be taken as typical of a large
+number of steam cutters in the United States navy. The naval authorities
+have, however, been lately engaged in extensive experiments with compound
+condensing engines in small boats, and the results have proved so
+conclusively the advantages of the latter system that it will doubtless be
+largely adopted in future.--_Engineer._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+IMPROVED STEAM TRAP.
+
+
+The illustrations we give represent an expansion trap by Mr. Hyde, and
+made by Mr. S. Farron, Ashton-under-Lyne. The general appearance of this
+arrangement is as in Fig. 1 or Fig. 3, the center view, Fig. 2, showing
+what is the cardinal feature of the trap, viz., that it contains a
+collector for silt, sand, or sediment which is not, as in most other
+traps, carried out through the valve with the efflux of water. The escape
+valve also is made very large, so that while the trap may be made short,
+or, in other words, the expansion pipe may not be long, a tolerably large
+area of outlet is obtained with the short lift due to the small movement
+of the expansion pipe.
+
+[Illustration: IMPROVED STEAM TRAP.]
+
+The object of a steam trap is for the removal of water of condensation
+without allowing the escape of steam from drying apparatus and steam pipes
+used for heating, power, or other purposes. One of the plans employed is
+by an expansion pipe having a valve fixed to its end, so that when the
+pipe shortens from being cooler, due to the presence of the water, the
+valve opens and allows the escape of the water until the steam comes to
+the trap, which, being hotter, lengthens the pipe and closes the valve.
+Now with this kind of trap, and, in fact, with any variety of trap, we
+understand that it has been frequently the experience of the user to find
+his contrivance inoperative because the silt or sand that may be present
+in the pipes has been carried to the valve and lodged there by the water,
+causing it to stick, and with expansion traps not to close properly or to
+work abnormally some way or other. The putting of these contrivances to
+rights involves a certain amount of trouble, which is completely obviated
+by the arrangement shown in the annexed engravings, which is certainly a
+simple, strong, and substantial article. The foot of the trap is made of
+cast iron, the seat of the valve being of gun metal, let into the
+diaphragm, cast inside the hollow cylinder. The valve, D, is also of gun
+metal, and passing to outside through a stuffing box is connected to the
+central expansion pipe by a nut at E. The valve is set by two brass nuts
+at the top, so as to be just tight when steam hot; if, then, from the
+presence of water the trap is cooled, the pipe contracts and the water
+escapes. A mud door is provided, by which the mud can be removed as
+required. The silt or dirt that may be in the pipes is carried to the trap
+by the water, and is deposited in the cavity, as shown, the water rises,
+and when the valve, D, opens escapes at the pipe, F, and may be allowed to
+run to waste. A pipe is not shown attached to F, but needless to say one
+may be connected and led anywhere, provided the steam pressure is
+sufficient. For this purpose the stuffing-box is provided; it is really
+not required if the water runs to waste, as is represented in the
+engraving. To give our readers some idea of the dimensions of the valve,
+we may say that the smallest size of trap has 1 in. expansion pipe and a
+valve 3 in. diameter, the next size 11/4 in. expansion pipe and a valve 41/2
+in. diameter, and the largest size has a pipe 11/2 in. and a valve 6 in.
+diameter. Altogether, the contrivance has some important practical
+advantages to recommend it.--_Mech. World._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CRITICAL METHODS OF DETECTING ERRORS IN PLANE SURFACES.[3]
+
+[Footnote 3: A paper read before the Engineers' Society of Western
+Pennsylvania, Dec. 10, 1884.]
+
+By JOHN A. BRASHEAR.
+
+
+In our study of the exact methods of measurement in use to-day, in the
+various branches of scientific investigation, we should not forget that it
+has been a plant of very slow growth, and it is interesting indeed to
+glance along the pathway of the past to see how step by step our micron of
+to-day has been evolved from the cubit, the hand's breadth, the span, and,
+if you please, the barleycorn of our schoolboy days. It would also be a
+pleasant task to investigate the properties of the gnomon of the Chinese,
+Egyptians, and Peruvians, the scarphie of Eratosthenes, the astrolabe of
+Hipparchus, the parallactic rules of Ptolemy, Regimontanus Purbach, and
+Walther, the sextants and quadrants of Tycho Brahe, and the modifications
+of these various instruments, the invention and use of which, from century
+to century, bringing us at last to the telescopic age, or the days of
+Lippershay, Jannsen, and Galileo.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+It would also be a most pleasant task to follow the evolution of our
+subject in the new era of investigation ushered in by the invention of
+that marvelous instrument, the telescope, followed closely by the work of
+Kepler, Scheiner, Cassini, Huyghens, Newton, Digges, Nonius, Vernier,
+Hall, Dollond, Herschel, Short, Bird, Ramsden, Troughton, Smeaton,
+Fraunhofer, and a host of others, each of whom has contributed a noble
+share in the elimination of sources of error, until to-day we are
+satisfied only with units of measurement of the most exact and refined
+nature. Although it would be pleasant to review the work of these past
+masters, it is beyond the scope of the present paper, and even now I can
+only hope to call your attention to one phase of this important subject.
+For a number of years I have been practically interested in the subject of
+the production of plane and curved surfaces particularly for optical
+purposes, _i.e._, in the production of such surfaces free if possible from
+all traces of error, and it will be pleasant to me if I shall be able to
+add to the interest of this association by giving you some of my own
+practical experience; and may I trust that it will be an incentive to all
+engaged in kindred work _to do that work well?_
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+In the production of a perfectly plane surface, there are many
+difficulties to contend with, and it will not be possible in the limits of
+this paper to discuss the methods of eliminating errors when found; but I
+must content myself with giving a description of various methods of
+detecting existing errors in the surfaces that are being worked, whether,
+for instance, it be an error of concavity, convexity, periodic or local
+error.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3]
+
+A very excellent method was devised by the celebrated Rosse, which is
+frequently used at the present time; and those eminent workers, the Clarks
+of Cambridge, use a modification of the Rosse method which in their hands
+is productive of the very highest results. The device is very simple,
+consisting of a telescope (_a_, Fig. 1) in which aberrations have been
+well corrected, so that the focal plane of the objective is as sharp as
+possible. This telescope is first directed to a distant object, preferably
+a celestial one, and focused for parallel rays. The surface, _b_, to be
+tested is now placed so that the reflected image of the same object,
+whatever it may be, can be observed by the same telescope. It is evident
+that if the surface be a true plane, its action upon the beam of light
+that comes from the object will be simply to change its direction, but not
+disturb or change it any other way, hence the reflected image of the
+object should be seen by the telescope, _a_, without in any way changing
+the original focus. If, however, the supposed plane surface proves to be
+_convex_, the image will not be sharply defined in the telescope until the
+eyepiece is moved _away_ from the object glass; while if the converse is
+the case, and the supposed plane is concave, the eyepiece must now be
+moved _toward_ the objective in order to obtain a sharp image, and the
+amount of convexity or concavity may be known by the change in the focal
+plane. If the surface has periodic or irregular errors, no sharp image can
+be obtained, no matter how much the eyepiece may be moved in or out.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4]
+
+This test may be made still more delicate by using the observing
+telescope, _a_, at as low an angle as possible, thereby bringing out with
+still greater effect any error that may exist in the surface under
+examination, and is the plan generally used by Alvan Clark & Sons. Another
+and very excellent method is that illustrated in Fig. 2, in which a second
+telescope, _b_, is introduced. In place of the eyepiece of this second
+telescope, a diaphragm is introduced in which a number of small holes are
+drilled, as in Fig. 2, _x_, or a slit is cut similar to the slit used in a
+spectroscope as shown at _y_, same figure. The telescope, _a_, is now
+focused very accurately on a celestial or other very distant object, and
+the focus marked. The object glass of the telescope, _b_, is now placed
+against and "square" with the object glass of telescope _a_, and on
+looking through telescope a an image of the diaphragm with its holes or
+the slit is seen. This diaphragm must now be moved until a sharp image is
+seen in telescope _a_. The two telescopes are now mounted as in Fig. 2,
+and the plate to be tested placed in front of the two telescopes as at
+_c_. It is evident, as in the former case, that if the surface is a true
+plane, the reflected image of the holes or slit thrown upon it by the
+telescope, _b_, will be seen sharply defined in the telescope, _a_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.]
+
+If any error of convexity exists in the plate, the focal plane is
+disturbed, and the eyepiece must be moved _out_. If the plate is concave,
+it must be moved _in_ to obtain a sharp image. Irregular errors in the
+plate or surface will produce a blurred or indistinct image, and, as in
+the first instance, no amount of focusing will help matters. These methods
+are both good, but are not satisfactory in the highest degree, and two or
+three important factors bar the way to the very best results. One is that
+the aberrations of the telescopes must be perfectly corrected, a very
+difficult matter of itself, and requiring the highest skill of the
+optician. Another, the fact that the human eye will accommodate itself to
+small distances when setting the focus of the observing telescope. I have
+frequently made experiments to find out how much this accommodation was in
+my own case, and found it to amount to as much as 1/40 of an inch. This is
+no doubt partly the fault of the telescopes themselves, but unless the eye
+is rigorously educated in this work, it is apt to accommodate itself to a
+small amount, and will invariably do so if there is a preconceived notion
+or bias _in the direction of the accommodation_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.]
+
+Talking with Prof. C.A. Young a few months since on this subject, he
+remarked that he noticed that the eye grew more exact in its demands as it
+grew older, in regard to the focal point. A third and very serious
+objection to the second method is caused by diffraction from the edges of
+the holes or the slit. Let me explain this briefly. When light falls upon
+a slit, such as we have here, it is turned out of its course; as the slit
+has two edges, and the light that falls on either side is deflected both
+right and left, the rays that cross from the right side of the slit toward
+the left, and from the left side of the slit toward the right, produce
+interference of the wave lengths, and when perfect interference occurs,
+dark lines are seen. You can have a very pretty illustration of this by
+cutting a fine slit in a card and holding it several inches from the eye,
+when the dark lines caused by a total extinction of the light by
+interference may be seen.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.]
+
+If now you look toward the edge of a gas or lamp flame; you will see a
+series of colored bands, that bring out the phenomenon of partial
+interference. This experiment shows the difficulty in obtaining a perfect
+focus of the holes or the slit in the diaphragm, as the interference
+fringes are always more or less annoying. Notwithstanding these defects of
+the two systems I have mentioned, in the hands of the practical workman
+they are productive of very good results, and very many excellent surfaces
+have been made by their use, and we are not justified in ignoring them,
+because they are the stepping stones to lead us on to better ones. In my
+early work Dr. Draper suggested a very excellent plan for testing a flat
+surface, which I briefly describe. It is a well known truth that, if an
+artificial star is placed in the exact center of curvature of a truly
+spherical mirror, and an eyepiece be used to examine the image close
+beside the source of light, the star will be sharply defined, and will
+bear very high magnification. If the eyepiece is now drawn toward the
+observer, the star disk begins to expand; and if the mirror be a truly
+spherical one, the expanded disk will be equally illuminated, except the
+outer edge, which usually shows two or more light and dark rings, due to
+diffraction, as already explained.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+Now if we push the eyepiece toward the mirror the same distance on the
+opposite side of the true focal plane, precisely the same appearance will
+be noted in the expanded star disk. If we now place our plane surface any
+where in the path of the rays from the great mirror, we should have
+identically the same phenomena repeated. Of course it is presumed, and is
+necessary, that the plane mirror shall be much less in area than the
+spherical mirror, else the beam of light from the artificial star will be
+shut off, yet I may here say that any one part of a truly spherical mirror
+will act just as well as the whole surface, there being of course a loss
+of light according to the area of the mirror shut off.
+
+This principle is illustrated in Fig. 3, where _a_ is the spherical
+mirror, _b_ the source of light, _c_ the eyepiece as used when the plane
+is not interposed, _d_ the plane introduced into the path at an angle of
+45 deg. to the central beam, and _e_ the position of eyepiece when used the
+with the plane. When the plane is not in the way, the converging beam goes
+back to the eyepiece, _c_. When the plane, _d_, is introduced, the beam is
+turned at a right angle, and if it is a perfect surface, not only does the
+focal plane remain exactly of the same length, but the expanded star
+disks, are similar on either side of the focal plane.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+I might go on to elaborate this method, to show how it may be made still
+more exact, but as it will come under the discussion of spherical
+surfaces, I will leave it for the present. Unfortunately for this process,
+it demands a large truly spherical surface, which is just as difficult of
+attainment as any form of regular surface. We come now to an instrument
+that does not depend upon optical means for detecting errors of surface,
+namely, the spherometer, which as the name would indicate means sphere
+measure, but it is about as well adapted for plane as it is for spherical
+work, and Prof. Harkness has been, using one for some time past in
+determining the errors of the plane mirrors used in the transit of Venus
+photographic instruments. At the meeting of the American Association of
+Science in Philadelphia, there was quite a discussion as to the relative
+merits of the spherometer test and another form which I shall
+presently mention, Prof. Harkness claiming that he could, by the
+use of the spherometer, detect errors bordering closely on one
+five-hundred-thousandth of an inch. Some physicists express doubt on this,
+but Prof. Harkness has no doubt worked with very sensitive instruments,
+and over very small areas at one time.
+
+I have not had occasion to use this instrument in my own work, as a more
+simple, delicate, and efficient method was at my command, but for one
+measurement of convex surfaces I know of nothing that can take its place.
+I will briefly describe the method of using it.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.]
+
+The usual form of the instrument is shown in Fig. 4; _a_ is a steel screw
+working in the nut of the stout tripod frame, _b_; _c c c_ are three legs
+with carefully prepared points; _d_ is a divided standard to read the
+whole number of revolutions of the screw, _a_, the edge of which also
+serves the purpose of a pointer to read off the division on the top of the
+milled head, _e_. Still further refinement may be had by placing a vernier
+here. To measure a plane or curved surface with this instrument, a perfect
+plane or perfect spherical surface of known radius must be used to
+determine the zero point of the division. Taking for granted that we have
+this standard plate, the spherometer is placed upon it, and the readings
+of the divided head and indicator, _d_, noted when the point of the screw,
+_a_, just touches the surface, _f_. Herein, however, lies the great
+difficulty in using this instrument, _i.e._, to know the exact instant of
+contact of the point of screw, _a_, on the surface, _f_. Many devices have
+been added to the spherometer to make it as sensitive as possible, such as
+the contact level, the electric contact, and the compound lever contact.
+The latter is probably the best, and is made essentially as in Fig. 5.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.]
+
+I am indebted for this plan to Dr. Alfred Mayer. As in the previous
+figure, _a_ is the screw; this screw is bored out, and a central steel pin
+turned to fit resting on a shoulder at _c_. The end of _d_ projects below
+the screw, _a_, and the end, _e_, projects above the milled head, and the
+knife edge or pivot point rests against the lever, _f_, which in turn
+rests against the long lever, _g_, the point, _h_, of which moves along
+the division at _j_. It is evident that if the point of the pin just
+touches the plate, no movement of the index lever, _g_, will be seen; but
+if any pressure be applied, the lever will move through a multiplied arc,
+owing to the short fulcri of the two levers. Notwithstanding all these
+precautions, we must also take into account the flexure of the material,
+the elasticity of the points of contact, and other idiosyncrasies, and you
+can readily see that practice alone in an instrument so delicate will
+bring about the very best results. Dr. Alfred Mayer's method of getting
+over the great difficulty of knowing when all four points are in contact
+is quite simple. The standard plate is set on the box, _g_, Fig. 4, which
+acts as a resonater. The screw, _a_, is brought down until it touches the
+plate. When the pressure of the screw is enough to lift off either or all
+of the legs, and the plate is gently tapped with the finger, a _rattle_ is
+heard, which is the tell-tale of imperfect contact of all the points. The
+screw is now reversed gently and slowly until the _moment_ the rattle
+ceases, and then the reading is taken. Here the sense of hearing is
+brought into play. This is also the case when the electric contact is
+used. This is so arranged that the instant of touching of the point of
+screw, _a_, completes the electric circuit, in which an electromagnet of
+short thick wire is placed. At the moment of contact, or perhaps a little
+before contact, the bell rings, and the turning of the screw must be
+instantly stopped. Here are several elements that must be remembered.
+First, it takes time to set the bell ringing, time for the sound to pass
+to the ear, time for the sensation to be carried to the brain, time for
+the brain to send word to the hand to cease turning the screw, and, if you
+please, it takes time for the hand to stop. You may say, of what use are
+such refinements? I may reply, what use is there in trying to do anything
+the very best it can be done? If our investigation of nature's profound
+mysteries can be partially solved with good instrumental means, what is
+the result if we have better ones placed in our hands, and what, we ask,
+if the _best_ are given to the physicist? We have only to compare the
+telescope of Galileo, the prism of Newton, the pile of Volta, and what was
+done with them, to the marvelous work of the telescope, spectroscope, and
+dynamo of to-day. But I must proceed. It will be recognized that in
+working with the spherometer, only the points in actual contact can be
+measured at one time, for you may see by Fig. 6 that the four points, _a a
+a a_, may all be normal to a true plane, and yet errors of depression, as
+at _e_, or elevation, as at _b_, exist between them, so that the
+instrument must be used over every available part of the surface if it is
+to be tested rigorously. As to how exact this method is I cannot say from
+actual experience, as in my work I have had recourse to other methods that
+I shall describe. I have already quoted you the words of Prof. Harkness.
+Dr. Hastings, whose practical as well as theoretical knowledge is of the
+most critical character, tells me that he considers it quite easy to
+measure to 1/80000 of an inch with the ordinary form of instrument. Here
+is a very fine spherometer that Dr. Hastings works with from time to time,
+and which he calls his standard spherometer. It is delicately made, its
+screw being 50 to the inch, or more exactly 0.01998 inch, or within
+2/100000 of being 1/50 of an inch pitch. The principal screw has a point
+which is itself an independent screw, that was put in to investigate the
+errors of the main screw, but it was found that the error of this screw
+was not as much as the 0.00001 of an inch. The head is divided into two
+hundred parts, and by estimation can be read to 1/100000 of an inch. Its
+constants are known, and it may be understood that it would not do to
+handle it very roughly. I could dwell here longer on this fascinating
+subject, but must haste. I may add that if this spherometer is placed on a
+plate of glass and exact contact obtained, and then removed, and the hand
+held over the plate without touching it, the difference in the temperature
+of the glass and that of the hand would be sufficient to distort the
+surface enough to be readily recognized by the spherometer when replaced.
+Any one desiring to investigate this subject further will find it fully
+discussed in that splendid series of papers by Dr. Alfred Mayer on the
+minute measurements of modern science published in SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN
+SUPPLEMENTS, to which I was indebted years ago for most valuable
+information, as well as to most encouraging words from Prof. Thurston,
+whom you all so well and favorably know. I now invite your attention to
+the method for testing the flat surfaces on which Prof. Rowland rules the
+beautiful diffraction gratings now so well known over the scientific
+world, as also other plane surfaces for heliostats, etc., etc. I am now
+approaching the border land of what may be called the abstruse in science,
+in which I humbly acknowledge it would take a vast volume to contain all I
+don't know; yet I hope to make plain to you this most beautiful and
+accurate method, and for fear I may forget to give due credit, I will say
+that I am indebted to Dr. Hastings for it, with whom it was an original
+discovery, though he told me he afterward found it had been in use by
+Steinheil, the celebrated optician of Munich. The principle was discovered
+by the immortal Newton, and it shows how much can be made of the ordinary
+phenomena seen in our every-day life when placed in the hands of the
+investigator. We have all seen the beautiful play of colors on the soap
+bubble, or when the drop of oil spreads over the surface of the water.
+Place a lens of long curvature on a piece of plane polished glass, and,
+looking at it obliquely, a black central spot is seen with rings of
+various width and color surrounding it. If the lens is a true curve, and
+the glass beneath it a true plane, these rings of color will be perfectly
+concentric and arranged in regular decreasing intervals. This apparatus is
+known as Newton's color glass, because he not only measured the phenomena,
+but established the laws of the appearances presented. I will now endeavor
+to explain the general principle by which this phenomenon is utilized in
+the testing of plane surfaces. Suppose that we place on the lower plate,
+lenses of constantly increasing curvature until that curvature becomes
+nil, or in other words a true plane. The rings of color will constantly
+increase in width as the curvature of the lens increases, until at last
+one color alone is seen over the whole surface, provided, however, the
+same angle of observation be maintained, and provided further that the
+film of air between the glasses is of absolutely the same relative
+thickness throughout. I say the film of air, for I presume that it would
+be utterly impossible to exclude particles of dust so that absolute
+contact could take place. Early physicists maintained that absolute
+molecular contact was impossible, and that the central separation of the
+glasses in Newton's experiment was 1/250,000 of an inch, but Sir Wm.
+Thomson has shown that the separation is caused by shreds or particles of
+dust. However, if this separation is equal throughout, we have the
+phenomena as described; but if the dust particles are thicker under one
+side than the other, our phenomena will change to broad parallel bands as
+in Fig. 8, the broader the bands the nearer the absolute parallelism of
+the plates. In Fig. 7 let _a_ and _b_ represent the two plates we are
+testing. Rays of white light, _c_, falling upon the upper surface of plate
+_a_, are partially reflected off in the direction of rays _d_, but as
+these rays do not concern us now, I have not sketched them. Part of the
+light passes on through the upper plate, where it is bent out of its
+course somewhat, and, falling upon the _lower_ surface of the upper plate,
+some of this light is again reflected toward the eye at _d_. As some of
+the light passes through the upper plate, and, passing through the film of
+air between the plates, falling on the upper surface of the _lower_ one,
+this in turn is reflected; but as the light that falls on this surface has
+had to traverse the film of air _twice_, it is retarded by a certain
+number of half or whole wave-lengths, and the beautiful phenomena of
+interference take place, some of the colors of white light being
+obliterated, while others come to the eye. When the position of the eye
+changes, the color is seen to change. I have not time to dwell further on
+this part of my subject, which is discussed in most advanced works on
+physics, and especially well described in Dr. Eugene Lommel's work on "The
+Nature of Light." I remarked that if the two surfaces were perfectly
+_plane_, there would be one color seen, or else colors of the first or
+second order would arrange themselves in broad parallel bands, but this
+would also take place in plates of slight curvature, for the requirement
+is, as I said, a film of air of equal thickness throughout. You can see at
+once that this condition could be obtained in a perfect convex surface
+fitting a perfect concave of the same radius. Fortunately we have a check
+to guard against this error. To produce a perfect plane, _three surfaces
+must_ be worked together, unless we have a true plane to commence with;
+but to make this true plane by this method we _must_ work three together,
+and if each one comes up to the demands of this most rigorous test, we may
+rest assured that we have attained a degree of accuracy almost beyond
+human conception. Let me illustrate. Suppose we have plates 1, 2, and 3,
+Fig. 11. Suppose 1 and 2 to be accurately convex and 3 accurately concave,
+of the same radius. Now it is evident that 3 will exactly fit 1 and 2, and
+that 1 and 2 will separately fit No. 3, _but_ when 1 and 2 are placed
+together, they will only touch in the center, and there is no possible
+way to make three plates coincide when they are alternately tested upon
+one another than to make _perfect planes_ out of them. As it is difficult
+to see the colors well on metal surfaces, a one-colored light is used,
+such as the sodium flame, which gives to the eye in our test, dark and
+bright bands instead of colored ones. When these plates are worked and
+tested upon one another until they all present the same appearance, one
+may be reserved for a test plate for future use. Here is a small test
+plate made by the celebrated Steinheil, and here two made by myself, and I
+may be pardoned in saying that I was much gratified to find the
+coincidence so nearly perfect that the limiting error is much less than
+0.00001 of an inch. My assistant, with but a few months' experience, has
+made quite as accurate plates. It is necessary of course to have a glass
+plate to test the metal plates, as the upper plate _must_ be transparent.
+So far we have been dealing with perfect surfaces. Let us now see what
+shall occur in surfaces that are not plane. Suppose we now have our
+perfect test plate, and it is laid on a plate that has a compound error,
+say depressed at center and edge and high between these points. If this
+error is regular, the central bands arrange themselves as in Fig. 9. You
+may now ask, how are we to know what sort of surface we have? A ready
+solution is at hand. The bands _always travel in the direction of the
+thickest film of air_, hence on lowering the eye, if the convex edge of
+the bands travel in the direction of the arrow, we are absolutely certain
+that that part of the surface being tested is convex, while if, as in the
+central part of the bands, the concave edges advance, we know that part is
+hollow or too low. Furthermore, any small error will be rigorously
+detected, with astonishing clearness, and one of the grandest qualities of
+this test is the absence of "personal equation;" for, given a perfect test
+plate, _it won't lie_, neither will it exaggerate. I say, won't lie, but I
+must guard this by saying that the plates must coincide absolutely in
+temperature, and the touch of the finger, the heat of the hand, or any
+disturbance whatever will vitiate the results of this lovely process; but
+more of that at a future time. If our surface is plane to within a short
+distance of the edge, and is there overcorrected, or convex, the test
+shows it, as in Fig. 10. If the whole surface is regularly convex, then
+concentric rings of a breadth determined by the approach to a perfect
+plane are seen. If concave, a similar phenomenon is exhibited, except in
+the case of the convex, the broader rings are near the center, while in
+the concave they are nearer the edge. In lowering the eye while observing
+the plates, the rings of the convex plate will advance outward, those of
+the concave inward. It may be asked by the mechanician, Can this method be
+used for testing our surface plates? I answer that I have found the
+scraped surface of iron bright enough to test by sodium light. My
+assistant in the machine work scraped three 8 inch plates that were tested
+by this method and found to be very excellent, though it must be evident
+that a single cut of the scraper would change the spot over which it
+passed so much as to entirely change the appearance there, but I found I
+could use the test to get the general outline of the surface under process
+of correction. These iron plates, I would say, are simply used for
+preliminary formation of polishers. I may have something to say on the
+question of surface plates in the future, as I have made some interesting
+studies on the subject. I must now bring this paper to a close, although I
+had intended including some interesting studies of curved surfaces. There
+is, however, matter enough in that subject of itself, especially when we
+connect it with the idiosyncrasies of the material we have to deal with, a
+vital part of the subject that I have not touched upon in the present
+paper. You may now inquire, How critical is this "color test"? To answer
+this I fear I shall trench upon forbidden grounds, but I call to my help
+the words of one of our best American physicists, and I quote from a
+letter in which he says by combined calculation and experiment I have
+found the limiting error for white light to be 1/50000000 of an inch, and
+for Na or sodium light about fifty times greater, or less than 1/800000 of
+an inch. Dr. Alfred Mayer estimated and demonstrated by actual experiment
+that the smallest black spot on a white ground visible to the naked eye is
+about 1/800 of an inch at the distance of normal vision, namely, 10
+inches, and that a line, which of course has the element of extension,
+1/5000 of an inch in thickness could be seen. In our delicate "color test"
+we may decrease the diameter of our black spot a thousand times and still
+its perception is possible by the aid of our monochromatic light, and we
+may diminish our line ten thousand times, yet find it just perceivable on
+the border land of our test by white light. Do not presume I am so foolish
+as to even think that the human hand, directed by the human brain, can
+ever work the material at his command to such a high standard of
+exactness. No; from the very nature of the material we have to work with,
+we are forbidden even to hope for such an achievement; and could it be
+possible that, through some stroke of good fortune, we could attain this
+high ideal, it would be but for a moment, as from the very nature of our
+environment it would be but an ignis fatuus. There is, however, to the
+earnest mind a delight in having a high model of excellence, for as our
+model is so will our work approximate; and although we may go on
+approximating _our_ ideal forever, we can never hope to reach that which
+has been set for us by the great Master Workman.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+[JOURNAL OF GAS LIGHTING.]
+
+PHOTOMETRICAL STANDARDS.
+
+
+In carrying out a series of photometrical experiments lately, I found that
+it was a matter of considerable difficulty to keep the flames of the
+standard candles always at their proper distance from the light to be
+measured, because the wick was continually changing its position (of
+course carrying the flame with it), and thus practically lengthening or
+shortening the scale of the photometer, according as the flame was carried
+nearer to or farther from the light at the other end of the scale. In
+order, therefore, to obtain a correct idea of the extent to which this
+variation of the position of the wick might influence the readings of the
+photometer scale, I took a continuous number of photographs of the flame
+of a candle while it was burning in a room quite free from draught; no
+other person being in it during the experiment except a photographer, who
+placed sensitive dry plates in a firmly fixed camera, and changed them
+after an exposure of 30 seconds. In doing this he was careful to keep
+close to the camera, and disturb the air of the room as little as
+possible. In front of the candle a plumb-line was suspended, and remained
+immovable over its center during the whole operation. The candle was
+allowed to get itself into a normal state of burning, and then the wick
+was aligned, as shown in the photographs Nos. 1 and 2, after which it was
+left to itself.
+
+[Illustration: VARIATION IN PHOTOMETRICAL STANDARDS.]
+
+With these photographs (represented in the cuts) I beg to hand you
+full-sized drawings of the scales of a 100 inch Evans and a 60 inch
+Letheby photometer, in order to give your readers an opportunity of
+estimating for themselves the effect which such variations from the true
+distance between the standard light and that to be measured, as shown in
+this series of photographs, must exercise on photometrical observations
+made by the aid of either of the instruments named.
+
+W. SUGG.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+BLEACHING OR DYEING-YARNS AND GOODS IN VACUO.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Many attempts have been made to facilitate the penetration of textile
+fabrics by the dyeing and bleaching solutions, with which they require to
+be treated, by carrying out the treatment in vacuo, _i.e._, in such
+apparatus as shall allow of the air being withdrawn. The apparatus shown
+in the annexed engraving--Austrian Pat. Jan. 15, 1884--although not
+essentially different from those already in use, embodies, the _Journal of
+the Society of Chemical Industry_ says, some important improvements in
+detail. It consists of a drum A, the sides of which are constructed of
+stout netting, carried on a vertical axis working through a stuffing-box,
+which is fitted in the bottom of the outer or containing vessel or keir B.
+The air can be exhausted from B by means of an air pump. A contains a
+central division P, also constructed of netting, into which is inserted
+the extremity of the tube R, after being twice bent at a right angle. P is
+also in direct connection with the efflux tube E, E and R serving to
+convey the dye or bleach solutions to and from the reservoir C. The
+combination of the rotary motion communicated to A, which contains the
+goods to be dyed or bleached, with the very thorough penetration and
+circulation of the liquids effected by means of the vacuum established in
+B, is found to be eminently favorable to the rapidity and evenness of the
+dye or bleach.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ON THE MOULDING OF PORCELAIN.
+
+By CHAS. LAUTH.
+
+
+The operation of moulding presents numerous advantages over other methods
+of shaping porcelain, for by this process we avoid irregularities of form,
+twisting, and visible seams, and can manufacture thin pieces, as well as
+pieces of large dimensions, of a purity of form that it is impossible to
+obtain otherwise.
+
+The method of moulding small objects has been described with sufficient
+detail in technical works, but such is not the case with regard to large
+ones, and for this reason it will be of interest to quote some practical
+observations from a note that has been sent me by Mr. Constantine Renard,
+who, for several years, has had the superintendence of the moulding rooms
+of the Sevres works.
+
+The process of moulding consists in pouring porcelain paste, thinned with
+water, into very dry plaster moulds. This mixture gradually hardens
+against the porous sides with which it is in contact, and, when the
+thickness of the hardened layer is judged sufficient, the mould is emptied
+by inverting it. The excess of the liquid paste is thus eliminated, while
+the thicker parts remain adherent to the plaster. Shortly afterward, the
+absorption of the water continuing, the paste so shrinks in drying as to
+allow the object to detach itself from the mould. As may be seen, nothing
+is simpler when it concerns pieces of small dimensions; but the same is
+not the case when we have to mould a large one. In this case we cannot get
+rid of the liquid paste by turning the mould upside down, because of the
+latter's size, and, on another hand, it is necessary to take special
+precautions against the subsidence of the paste. Recourse is therefore had
+to another method. In the first place, an aperture is formed in the lower
+part of the mould through which the liquid may flow at the desired moment.
+Afterward, in order to prevent the solidified but still slightly soft
+paste from settling under its own weight at this moment, it is supported
+by directing a current of compressed air into the mould, or, through
+atmospheric pressure, by forming a vacuum in the metallic jacket in which
+the mould is inclosed.
+
+The history and description of these processes have been several times
+given, and I shall therefore not dwell upon them, but shall at once
+proceed to make known the new points that Mr. Renard has communicated to
+me.
+
+The first point to which it is well to direct the manufacturer's attention
+is the preparation of the plaster moulds. When it concerns an object of
+large dimensions, of a vase a yard in height, for example, the moulder is
+obliged to cut the form or core horizontally into three parts, each of
+which is moulded separately. To this effect, it is placed upon a core
+frame and surrounded with a cylinder of sheet zinc. The workman pours the
+plaster into the space between the latter and the core, and, while doing
+so, must stir the mass very rapidly with a stick, so that at the moment
+the plaster sets, it shall be as homogeneous as possible. In spite of such
+precautions, it is impossible to prevent the densest parts of the plaster
+from depositing first, through the action of gravity. These will naturally
+precipitate upon the table or upon the slanting sides of the core, and the
+mould will therefore present great inequalities as regards porosity. Since
+this defect exists in each of the pieces that have been prepared in
+succession, it will be seen that when they come to be superposed for the
+moulding of the piece, the mould as a whole will be formed of zones of
+different porosities, which will absorb water from the paste unequally.
+Farther along we shall see the inconveniences that result from this, and
+the manner of avoiding them.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1]
+
+The mould, when finished, is dried in a stove. Under such circumstances it
+often happens that there forms upon the surface of the plaster a hard
+crust which, although it is of no importance as regards the outside of the
+mould, is prejudicial to the interior because it considerably diminishes
+its absorbing power. This trouble may be avoided by coating the surfaces
+that it is necessary to preserve with clear liquid paste; but Mr. Renard
+advises that the mould be closed hermetically, so that the interior shall
+be kept from contact with warm air. In this way it is possible to prevent
+the plaster from hardening, as a result of too quick a desiccation. I now
+come to the operation of moulding. In the very first place, it is
+necessary to examine whether it is well to adopt the arrangement by
+pressure of air or by vacuum. The form of the objects will determine the
+choice. A very open piece, like a bowl, must be moulded by vacuum, on
+account of the difficulty of holding the closing disk in place if it be of
+very large dimensions. The same is the case with large vases of wood form.
+On the contrary, an elongated piece tapering from above is more easily
+moulded by pressure of the air, as are also ovoid vessels 16 to 20 inches
+in height. In any case it must not be forgotten that the operation by
+vacuum should be preferred every time the form of the objects is adapted
+to it, because this process permits of following and directing the drying,
+while with pressure it is impossible to see anything when once the
+apparatus is closed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+_Moulding by Pressure of the Air._--The plaster mould having been put in
+place upon the mould board, and the liquid paste having been long and
+thoroughly stirred in order to make it homogeneous, and get rid of the air
+bubbles, we open the cock that puts the paste reservoir in communication
+with the lower part of the mould, care having been taken beforehand to
+pour a few pints of water into the bottom of the mould. The paste in
+ascending pushes this water ahead of it, and this slightly wets the
+plaster and makes the paste rise regularly. When the mould is entirely
+filled, the paste is still allowed to flow until it slightly exceeds the
+upper level, and, spreading out over the entire thickness of the plaster,
+forms a sort of thick flange. The absorption of the liquid begins almost
+immediately, and, consequently, the level lowers. A new quantity of paste
+is introduced, and we continue thus, in regulating its flow so as to keep
+the mould always full. This operation is prolonged until the layer is
+judged to be sufficiently thick, this depending upon the dimensions, form,
+or construction of the vessel. The operation may take from one to five
+hours.
+
+The desired thickness having been obtained, it becomes a question of
+allowing the paste to descend and at the same time to support the piece by
+air pressure. The flange spoken of above is quickly cut, and the paste is
+made to rise again for the last time, in order to form a new flange, but
+one that this time will be extremely thin; then a perforated disk designed
+for forming the top joint, and acting as a conduit for the air, is placed
+upon the mould. This disk is fastened down with a screw press, and when
+the apparatus is thus arranged the eduction cock is opened, and the air
+pump maneuvered.
+
+If the flange did not exist, the air would enter between the mould and the
+piece at the first strokes of the piston, and the piece would be
+inevitably broken. Its object, then, is to form a hermetical joint,
+although it must at the same time present but a slight resistance, since,
+as soon as the liquid paste has flowed out, the piece begins to shrink,
+and it is necessary that at the first movement downward it shall be able
+to disengage itself, since it would otherwise crack.
+
+As soon as the piece begins to detach itself from the mould the air enters
+the apparatus, and the pressure gauge connected with the air pump begins
+to lower. It is then necessary, without a moment's loss of time, to remove
+the screw press, the disk, and the upper part of the mould itself, in
+order to facilitate as much as possible the contraction of the piece.
+Finally, an hour or an hour and a half later, it is necessary to remove
+the lower part of the mould, this being done in supporting the entire
+affair by the middle. The piece and what remains of the mould are, in
+reality, suspended in the air. All these preparations are designed to
+prevent cracking.
+
+_Moulding by Vacuum._--The operation by vacuum follows the same phases as
+those just described. It is well, in order to have a very even surface,
+not to form a vacuum until about three hours after the paste has been made
+to ascend. Without such a precaution the imperfections in the mould will
+be shown on the surface of the object by undulations that are
+irremediable.
+
+The first flange or vein must be preserved, and it is cut off at the
+moment the piece is detached.
+
+Moulding by vacuum, aside from the advantages noted above, permits of
+giving the pieces a greater thickness than is obtained in the pressure
+process. According to Mr. Renard, when it is desired to exceed one inch at
+the base of the piece (the maximum thickness usually obtained), the
+operation is as follows: The piece is moulded normally, and it is
+supported by a vacuum; but, at the moment at which, under ordinary
+circumstances, it would be detached, the paste is made to ascend a second
+time, when the first layer (already thick and dry) acts as a sort of
+supplementary mould, and permits of increasing the thickness by about 2/5
+of an inch. The piece is held, as at first, by vacuum, and the paste is
+introduced again until the desired thickness is obtained.
+
+Whatever be the care taken, accidents are frequent in both processes. They
+are due, in general, to the irregular contraction of the pieces, caused by
+a want of homogeneousness in the plaster of the moulds. In fact, as the
+absorption of the water does not proceed regularly over the entire surface
+of the piece, zones of dry paste are found in contact with others that are
+still soft, and hence the formation of folds, and finally the cracking and
+breaking of the piece. The joints of the moulds are also a cause of
+frequent loss, on account of the marks that they leave, and that injure
+the beauty of the form as well as the purity of the profile.
+
+Mr. Renard has devised a remedy for all such inconveniences. He takes
+unglazed muslin, cuts it into strips, and, before beginning operations,
+fixes it with a little liquid paste to the interior of the mould. This
+light fabric in no wise prevents the absorption of the water, and so the
+operation goes on as usual; but, at the moment of contraction, the piece
+of porcelain being, so to speak, supported by the muslin, comes put of the
+mould more easily and with extreme regularity. Under such circumstances
+all trace of the joint disappears, the imperfections in the mould are
+unattended with danger, and the largest pieces are moulded with entire
+safety. In a word, we have here a very important improvement in the
+process of moulding. The use of muslin is to be recommended, not only in
+the manufacture of vases, but also in the difficult preparation of large
+porcelain plates. It is likewise advantageous in the moulding of certain
+pieces of sculpture that are not very delicate, and, finally, it is very
+useful when we have to do with a damaged mould, which, instead of being
+repaired with plaster, can be fixed with well ground wet sand covered with
+a strip of muslin.
+
+_Drying of the Moulded Pieces._--When the moulded pieces become of a
+proper consistency in the mould, they are exposed to the air and then
+taken to the drying room. But, as with plaster, the surface of the paste
+dries very quickly, and this inconvenience (which amounts to nothing in
+pieces that are to be polished) is very great in pieces that carry
+ornaments in relief, since the finishing of these is much more difficult,
+the hardened paste works badly, and frequently flakes off. In order to
+remedy this inconvenience, it suffices to dust the places to be preserved
+with powdered dry paste.--_Revue Industrielle._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PHOTO-TRICYCLE APPARATUS.
+
+
+[Illustration: A PHOTO-TRICYCLE APPARATUS.]
+
+This consists of a portable folding camera, with screw focusing
+arrangement, swing back, and an adapter frame placed in the position of
+the focus screen, allowing the dark slide to be inserted so as to give the
+horizontal or vertical position to the dry plate when in the camera. To
+the front and base-board a brass swiveled side bar, made collapsible by
+means of a center slot, is attached by hinges, and this renders the camera
+rigid when open or secure when closed. The base-board is supported on a
+brass plate within which is inserted a ball-and-socket (or universal joint
+in a new form), permitting the camera to be tilted to any necessary angle,
+and fixed in such position at will. The whole apparatus is mounted upon a
+brass telescopic draw-stand, which, by means of clamps, is attached to the
+steering handle or other convenient part of the tricycle, preferably the
+form made by Messrs. Rudge & Co., of Coventry, represented in the
+cut.--_Photo. News._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A PHOTO PRINTING LIGHT.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+A printing frame is placed in the carrier, and exposed to the light of a
+gas burner kept at a fixed distance, behind which is a spherical
+reflector. The same frame may be used for other purposes.-_Photographic
+News._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A NEW ACTINOMETER.
+
+
+A selenium actinometer has been described in the _Comptes Rendus_ in a
+communication from M. Morize, of Rio de Janeiro. The instrument is used to
+measure the actinic power of sunlight when the sun is at various
+altitudes; but the same principle is applicable to other light sources.
+The sensitive part of the apparatus consists of a cylinder formed of 38
+disks of copper, isolated from each other by as many disks of mica. The
+latter being of smaller diameter than the copper disks, the annular spaces
+between the two are filled with selenium, by the simple process of rubbing
+a stick of this substance over the edges, and afterward gently warming.
+The selenium then presents a grayish appearance, and is ready for use.
+Connection is made by conductors, on opposite sides, with the odd and even
+numbers of the disks, which diminishes the resistance of the selenium. The
+cylinder thus formed is insulated by glass supports in the inside of a
+vacuum tube, for the purpose of preserving it from the disturbing
+influence of dark rays. The whole is placed upon a stand, and shielded
+from reflected light, but fully exposed to that which is to be measured
+for actinic intensity. If now a constant current of electricity is passed
+through the apparatus, as indicated by a galvanometer, the variations of
+the latter will show the effect produced upon the selenium. A scale must
+be prepared, with the zero point at the greatest possible resistance of
+the selenium, which corresponds with absolute darkness. The greatest
+effect of the light would be to annul the resistance of the selenium.
+Consequently, the cylinder must be withdrawn from the circuit to represent
+this effect; and the maximum deviation of the galvanometer is then to be
+observed, and marked 100. By dividing the range of the galvanometer thus
+obtained into 100 equal parts, the requisite actinometric scale will be
+established. In practice, the Clamond battery is used to supply the
+constant current required.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ASTRONOMICAL PHOTOGRAPHY.
+
+
+During the last few years, or rather decades of years, it has become
+rather a trite saying that to advance far in any branch of physical
+research a fair proficiency in no inconsiderable number of the sister
+sciences is an absolute necessity. But if this is true in general, none, I
+think, will question the assertion that a proficient in any of the
+physical sciences must be fairly conversant with photography as a science,
+or at least as an art. If we take for example a science which has of late
+years made rapid strides both in Europe and America, the science of
+astronomy, we shall not have far to go to find convincing proof that a
+great portion of the best work that is being done by its votaries is
+effected by the aid of photography. One eminent astronomer has quite
+lately gone so far as to declare that we no longer require observers of
+the heavens, but that their place can be better supplied by the gelatine
+plate of the photographer; and his words have been echoed by others not
+less able than himself. "Abolish the observer, and substitute the
+sensitive plate," is a sensational form of expressing the revolution in
+observational astronomy that is taking place under our eyes; but, although
+it suggests a vast amount of truth, it might leave upon the mind an
+exaggerated impression inimical to the best interests of science.
+
+The award of the highest distinction in astronomy, the gold medal of the
+Royal Astronomical Society, two years in succession, to those who have
+been most successful in celestial photography is no doubtful sign of the
+great value attached to such work. Last year it was Mr. Common who
+received the highest testimony of the merit due to his splendid
+photographs of the nebula of Orion; and this year Dr. Huggins, who has
+drawn much attention to celestial photography, by his successful attempts
+to picture the solar corona in full daylight, has received a similar
+acknowledgment of his labors in photographing the spectra of stars and
+comets and nebulae.
+
+An adequate idea of the progress astronomy is now making by aid of
+photography can only be formed by a comprehensive view of all that is
+being at present attempted; but a rapid glance at some of the work may
+prepare the way for a more thorough investigation. A few years since, the
+astronomers who had advanced their science by aid of photography were few
+in number, and their results are soon enumerated. Some good pictures of
+the solar corona taken during solar eclipses, a series or two of sun-spot
+photographs, and a very limited number of successful attempts made upon
+the moon, and planets, and star clusters, were all the fruits of their
+labors. But now each month we learn of some new and efficient laborer in
+this field, which gives promise of so rich a harvest.
+
+Each day the sun is photographed at Greenwich, at South Kensington, in
+India, and at the Physical Observatory of Potsdam, and thus a sure record
+is obtained of all the spots upon its surface, which may serve for the
+study of the periodicity of its changes, and for their probable connection
+with the important phenomena of terrestrial magnetism and meteorology. In
+France the splendid sun-pictures obtained by Dr. Janssen at the Physical
+Observatory of Meudon have thrown into the shade all other attempts at a
+photographic study of the most delicate features of the solar surface.
+
+Dr. Huggins has shown that it is possible to obtain a daily photographic
+record of the solar prominences, and only lately he has secured results
+that justified a special expedition to the Alps to photograph the sun's
+corona, and he has now moved the Admiralty to grant a subsidy to Dr. Gill,
+the government astronomer at the Cape, by aid of which Mr. Woods can carry
+on the experiments that were so encouraging last summer in Switzerland.
+
+We may, then, reasonably hope to obtain before long a daily picture of the
+sun and a photographic record of its prominences, and even of a certain
+portion of the solar corona; but the precious moments of each solar
+eclipse will always be invaluable for picturing those wondrous details in
+the corona that are now shown us by photography, and which can be obtained
+by photography alone.
+
+Again, how very much is to be learnt in solar physics from the marvelous
+photographs of the sun's spectrum exhibited last summer by Professor
+Rowland; photographs that show as many as one hundred and fifty lines
+between H and K, and which he is still laboring to improve! The extension,
+too, of the visible solar spectrum into the ultra-violet by Corun,
+Mascart, and others, adds much to our knowledge of the sun; while the
+photographs of Abney in the ultrared increase our information in a
+direction less expected and certainly less easy of attainment. Both these
+extensions we find most ably utilized in the recent discussion of the very
+interesting photographs of the spectra of the prominences and of the
+corona taken during the total eclipse of May 18, 1882; and the
+photographic results of this eclipse afford ample proof that we can not
+only obtain pictures of the corona by photography that it would be
+impossible otherwise to procure, but also that in a few seconds
+information concerning the nature of the solar atmosphere may be furnished
+by photography that it would otherwise take centuries to accumulate, even
+under the most favorable circumstances.
+
+The advantages to be gained by accurate photographs of the moon and
+planets, that will permit great enlargements, are too obvious to call for
+lengthened notice in such a rapid sketch as the present; for it is
+principally in the observation of details that the eye cannot grasp with
+the required delicacy, or with sufficient rapidity, that photography is so
+essential for rapid and sure progress.
+
+Like the sketches of a solar eclipse, the drawings that are made of
+comets, and still more of nebulae, even by the most accomplished artists,
+are all, to say the least, open to doubt in their delicate details. And
+the truth of this is so obvious, that it is the expressed opinion of an
+able astronomer that a single photograph of the nebula of Orion, taken by
+Mr. Common, would be of more value to posterity than the collective
+drawings of this interesting object so carefully made by Rosse, Bond,
+Secchi, and so many others.
+
+Another most important branch of astronomy, that is receiving very great
+attention at present, is the mapping of the starry heavens; and herein
+photography will perhaps do its best work for the astronomer. The trial
+star map by the brothers Henry, of a portion of the Milky Way, which they
+felt unable to observe satisfactorily by the ordinary methods, is so near
+absolute perfection that it alone proves the immense superiority of the
+photographic method in the formation of star maps. Fortunately this
+subject, which is as vast as it is fundamental, is being taken up
+vigorously. The Henries are producing a special lens for the work; Mr.
+Grubb is constructing a special Cassgrain reflector for Mr. Roberts of
+Maghull; and the Admiralty have instructed Mr. Woods to make this part of
+his work at the Cape Observatory, under the able direction of Dr. Gill.
+Besides star maps, clusters, too, and special portions of the heavens are
+being photographed by the Rev. T.E. Espin, of West Kirby; and such
+pictures will be of the greatest value, not only in fixing the position at
+a given date, but also aiding in the determination of magnitude, color,
+variability, proper motion, and even of the orbits of double and multiple
+stars, and the possible discovery of new planets and telescopic comets.
+
+Such are some of the many branches of astronomy that are receiving the
+most valuable aid at present from photography; but the very value of the
+gift that is bestowed should make exaggeration an impossibility.
+Photography can well afford to be generous, but it must first be just, in
+its estimate of the work that has still to be done in astronomy
+independently of its aid; and although the older science points with just
+pride to what is being done for her by her younger sister, still she must
+not forget that now, as in the future, she must depend largely for her
+progress, not only on the skill of the photographer and the mathematician,
+but also on the trained eye and ear and hand of her own indefatigable
+observers.--_S.J. Perry, S.J., F.R.S., in Br. Jour. of Photography._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ELECTRICITY AS A PREVENTIVE OF SCALE IN BOILERS.
+
+
+The mineral sediment that generally sticks to the sides of steam boilers,
+and the presence of which is fraught with the utmost danger, resulting in
+many instances in great injury to life and property, besides eating away
+the substance of the iron plate, was referred to in a paper lately read by
+M. Jeannolle before the Paris Academy of Sciences, in which the author
+described a new method for keeping boilers clean. This method is as
+follows:
+
+The inside of a steam boiler is placed, by means of piles of a certain
+power, in reciprocal communication, the current passing at one end through
+positive, and at the other through negative, wires. In incrusted steam
+boilers, at a temperature ranging from 212 deg. to 300 deg. Fahr., and a pressure
+of from 30 to 90 lb. to the square inch, the current thus engendered
+decomposes the accumulated salts, and precipitates them, from which they
+may easily be removed, either by means of a special siphon or by means of
+some other mechanical process. When boilers are free from fur, and where
+it is intended to keep them free from such, a continuous current may be
+set up, by means of which the sedimentary salts may be decomposed, and a
+precipitate produced in a pulverized form, which can be removed with equal
+facility.
+
+From a series of minute experiments made by M. Jeannolle, it appears that
+in order to render the various actions of electricity, perfect, it is
+necessary to coat either with red lead or with pulverized iron, or with
+any other conductor of electricity, an operation which must be repeated
+whenever the boiler is emptied with a view to cleaning out. The above
+system Is being advantageously applied in Calais for removing the
+incrustations of boilers. The two poles of a battery of ten to twelve
+Bunsen elements are applied to the ends of the boilers, and after thirty
+to forty hours the deposits fall from the sides to the bottom. When a
+boiler has been thus cleared, the formation of new deposits may be
+prevented by applying a much less energetic current under the same
+conditions.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ALPHABET DESIGNED BY GODFREY SYKES.
+
+
+[Illustration: SUGGESTIONS IN DECORATIVE ART.--ALPHABET DESIGNED BY
+GODFREY SYKES.]
+
+Among the many designs which have been issued by the South Kensington
+Museum authorities is the alphabet which we have illustrated here to-day.
+The letters appear frequently among the decorations of the museum
+buildings, especially in the refreshment rooms and the Ceramic gallery,
+where long inscriptions in glazed terra cotta form ornamental friezes. The
+alphabet has also been engraved to several sizes, and is used for the
+initial letters in the various official books and art publications
+relating to the museum, which are published by the Science and Art
+Department.--_Building News._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+OLD WROUGHT IRON GATE.
+
+
+[Illustration: OLD WROUGHT IRON GATE]
+
+This gate forms the entrance to Scraptoft Hall, a building of the
+eighteenth century, now the seat of Captain Barclay, and which stands at
+about five miles from Leicester, England.--_The Architect._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+BRIEF SANITARY MATTERS IN CONNECTION WITH ISOLATED COUNTRY HOUSES.[4]
+
+[Footnote 4: Read before the Boston Society of Civil Engineers, April 1884
+_Journal A. of E. Societies_.]
+
+By E.W. BOWDITCH, C.E.
+
+
+I am unable to tell you what is generally considered the best practice,
+for I am not sure there are any definitely established rules; therefore I
+can only explain _my_ ways of doing such work, which, though I try to make
+as complete and at the same time as simple as possible, I know to be far
+from perfect.
+
+Plumbing and drainage work has grown up unconsciously with my landscape
+gardening, and not finding any texts or practice that seemed wholly
+satisfactory, I have been forced to devise new arrangements from time to
+time, according to the requirements of the case in hand.
+
+To give all the details of house plumbing this evening, or any _one_
+evening, would be impossible, for lack of time, and not worth while even
+if there was time, as much of it would prove matter of little or no
+interest. I will confine my remarks, therefore, to certain elements of the
+work where my practice differs, I believe, essentially from that of most
+engineers, and where perhaps my experience, if of no assistance to other
+members of the Society, may excite their friendly criticism in such a way
+as to help me.
+
+There are two kinds of country places that I am liable to be called upon
+to prescribe for:
+
+_First._ A new place where nothing has been arranged.
+
+_Second._ An old place where the occupants have been troubled either by
+their outside arrangements or by fixtures or pipes within.
+
+Under the first head let us suppose a small tract of perhaps two acres of
+land in some inland town, where the family intends to live but six months
+in the year, though they are liable to reside there the whole twelve.
+
+There are no sewers and no public water. The soil is a stiff, retentive
+clay, rather wet in spring. The desire is expressed to have plumbing and
+drainage that shall be as inexpensive as possible, but that shall be
+entirely safe.
+
+In considering the arrangements inside the house, I find myself in the
+same predicament as the French surgeon, a specialist upon setting the
+bones of the arm, who, when a patient was brought him with his right arm
+broke, expressed his sorrow at being unable to be of assistance, as his
+specialty was the left arm.
+
+I have endeavored to post myself thoroughly upon house plumbing, but
+confess to only knowing partially about the wastes; the supplies I do not
+feel competent to pass upon.
+
+One class of annoyance caused by plumbing, perhaps the principal one, is
+due to the soil pipe or some of its fittings.
+
+Second quality of iron, poor hanging, insufficient calking, careless
+mechanics, putty, cement, rag, or paper joints--all these and a dozen
+other things are liable to be sources of trouble. Subordinate wastes are
+apt to be annoying, occasionally, too, to a less extent.
+
+The mechanical work can always be superintended, and within certain limits
+may be made secure and tight; not so easy, however, with the materials.
+
+There is seldom a valid excuse for ever making waste pipes, within a
+building, of anything but metal.
+
+Earthen tile is frequently used; also, to a limited extent, brick, stone,
+and wood; twice I have found canvas--all these, however, are inferior, and
+should never be accepted or specified. The writer believes that at the
+present time, hereabouts, lead and iron are more used for wastes than any
+other materials, and are found the most satisfactory on the whole.
+
+One or two arrangements, relative to the wastes, I have made use of that
+are not, so far as known, in general use, and that may not be the best,
+though they have served me many good turns, and I have not succeeded in
+devising any better.
+
+Soil pipe, as it is usually put in, is apt to be of cast iron, four inches
+in diameter, and is known in the market as "heavy" or "extra heavy." For
+some years the tar-coated or black enameled pipe has been the favorite, as
+being the more reliable, the writer in common with others making use of
+the same freely, until one day a cracked elbow, tar coated, was detected.
+Since that time plain, untarred pipe has been specified, and subjected to
+the so-called kerosene test, which consists of swabbing out each pipe with
+kerosene or oil and then allowing it to stand for a few hours. A moment's
+thought will convince any one that when a pipe is asphalted or tar coated
+it is very difficult to detect either sand holes or small cracks, and the
+difficulty of proper calking is increased, as lead does not cling so well
+to the tar as to plain iron.
+
+At present, the kerosene test, so far as the writer is concerned, is a
+misnomer, because raw linseed oil is used exclusively as giving more
+satisfactory results, and being less troublesome to apply.
+
+I have here a length of the ordinary "heavy 4" commercial soil pipe,
+plain, and selected at random. Yesterday noon I had it oiled at my office,
+in order to be ready for to-night, and you see, by the chalk marks I have
+made, just where the leaks were and their area. I may say here that a
+sound pipe of this caliber and standard weight is the exception rather
+than the rule, and it was selected for this experiment merely to try and
+show the reaction a little better than the heavier pipe might.
+
+Experiments of this nature I have carried along for the past two years,
+and I am glad to say that, since I began, the quality of the soil pipe
+furnished by the dealers for my work seems appreciably better than at
+first. Whether the poorer pipe is still made and sold to other customers I
+have no means of knowing; probably it is, however.
+
+A large quantity of the pipe is now being tested at my suggestion by the
+Superintendent of Construction of the Johns Hopkins Hospital, at
+Baltimore. I have not yet heard the results from him, but doubtless they
+will be interesting. A brief summary of the results may be of some
+interest.
+
+The different makers of soil pipe generally used by plumbers hereabouts
+are:
+
+Mott & Company, Abendroth, Blakslee, Dighton, Phillips & Weeden, and
+Bartlett, Hayward & Co.
+
+On 4" extra heavy pipe my results have been as follows:
+
+Percentage passed as good, single hub.  60 per ct. to 70 per ct.
+Percentage passed as good, double.      20 per ct. to 80 per ct.
+Percentage passed special castings,
+   including Y's and T's.               60 per ct.
+
+5" pipe extra heavy:
+
+Percentage passed as good, single hub.  25 per ct. to 35 per ct.
+Percentage passed as good, double.      No record.
+Percentage special castings,
+including Y's and T's.                  60 per ct.
+
+It has been stated to me by dealers that the tar coating does away with
+the necessity of any such test as the oil; while I am not prepared to
+acknowledge or deny the statement, it is well known that much poor pipe is
+tar-coated and sold in the market as good, and when coated it is almost
+impossible to detect any but _very_ defective work.
+
+The price customers are obliged to pay for soil pipe, either "heavy" or
+"extra heavy," is very high indeed, even taking off the discounts, and
+amounts (as I figure it) to $70 per long ton for 4" pipe. The present rate
+for the best water pipe of the same caliber is about $38 (now $29) per
+long ton, and the additional charge for soil pipe should guarantee the
+very best iron in the market, though it appears to be rarely furnished.
+
+It is asserted that all soil pipe is tested to a 50-pound water pressure.
+I beg leave to question the absolute truth of this, unless it be
+acknowledged that pipe is sold indiscriminately, whether it bears the test
+or not, for more than once I have found a single length of soil pipe (5
+feet) that could not bear the pressure of a column of water of its own
+height without leaking.
+
+Having obtained a satisfactory lot of soil pipe and fittings, the next
+trouble comes with the lead calking. Unfortunately, it is frequently found
+that very shallow joints are made instead of deep ones, and hard lead used
+instead of soft. My rule is, soft lead, two runnings and two calkings. By
+soft lead I mean pig lead, and by hard lead I mean old pipe and scrap lead
+that may have been melted a dozen times. Incidentally it may be remarked
+that it is quite difficult to calk a tight joint on the heavy pipe; the
+process will crack the hub.
+
+The fixtures used in a house are of minor importance--there are dozens of
+good patterns of every class. If they are carefully put in, and provided
+with suitable traps placed just as close to the fixture as possible, the
+result will usually be satisfactory.
+
+Very few instances occur where traps are placed as close to the fixtures
+they serve as they might be, and yet a very short length of untrapped
+pipe, when fouled, will sometimes smell dreadfully. A set bowl with trap
+two feet away may become in time a great nuisance if not properly used. A
+case in point where the fixture was used both as a bowl and a urinal was
+in a few months exceedingly offensive--a fact largely (though not wholly)
+due to its double service.
+
+I have never met two sanitarians who agreed upon the same water-closets,
+bowls, faucets, traps, etc.
+
+Of course, the soil pipe will be carried, of full size, through the roof,
+and sufficiently high to clear all windows.
+
+Avoid multiplicity of fixtures or pipes; cut off all fixtures not used at
+least twice a week, lest their traps dry out; have all plumbing as simple
+as possible, and try and get it all located so that outside air can be got
+directly into all closets and bath-rooms. As far as possible, set your
+fixtures in glass rather than tiles or wood. Carry the lower end of the
+main drain at least five feet beyond the cellar walls of the building, of
+cast iron.
+
+Let us now look at the outside work. The main drain (carrying everything
+except the kitchen and pantry sinks) goes through a ventilated running
+trap. An indirect fresh air inlet is provided on the house side of the
+trap (example), to prevent annoyance from puffing or pumping, or, better
+still, a pipe corresponding to the soil pipe is carried up on the outside
+of the house.
+
+The running trap ventilator should be of the same diameter as the main
+drain (4 inch), and serve as a main drain vent also. Carry this pipe on
+the outside of the house as high as the top of the chimney.
+
+A grease-trap should be provided for the kitchen and pantry sinks.
+Formerly my custom was to put in brick receptacles; it is now to put in
+Portland cement traps (Henderson pattern), though perhaps I may succeed in
+devising a cast-iron one that will answer better. The brick ones were
+occasionally heaved by the frost, and cracked; the Portland cement ones
+answer better, and when thoroughly painted with red lead do not soak an
+appreciable quantity of sewage to be offensive, but are too high priced
+($28 each). I have made one or two patterns for cast-iron ones, but none
+as yet that I feel satisfied with.
+
+Beyond the running trap an Akron pipe should convey the sewage to a tank
+or cesspool.
+
+Our supposable case is the second most difficult to take care of. The
+worst would be ledge. We have to contend with, however, hard, wet,
+impervious clay.
+
+The best way undoubtedly is to underdrain the land, and then to distribute
+the sewage on the principle of intermittent downward filtration. This is
+rather expensive, and a customer is rarely willing to pay the bills for
+the same. I should always advise it as the best; but where not allowed to
+do so, I have had fair success with shallow French drains connecting with
+the tank or cesspool.
+
+Siphon tanks, such as are advised by many sanitarians, that were used
+first in this country, I believe, by Mr. Waring, I have not been very
+successful with. Obstructions get into the siphon and stop it up, or it
+gets choked with grease. I prefer a tight tank, provided with a tell-tale,
+and that is to be opened either by a valve operated by hand, or that is
+arranged with a standing overflow like a bath tub, and that can be raised
+and secured by a hook.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+SANITARY COOKING.[5]
+
+[Footnote 5: Read before the Indiana State Sanitary Society, Seymour,
+March 13, 1884.--_The Sanitarian._]
+
+By VIRGINIA L. OPPENHEIMER, M.D., Seymour, Ind.
+
+
+    "We may live without poetry, music, and art,
+    We may live without conscience, and live without heart,
+    We may live without friends,
+    We may live without books,
+    But civilized man cannot live without cooks.
+
+    "We may live without books--
+    What is knowledge but grieving?
+    We may live without hope--
+    What is hope but deceiving?
+    We may live without love--what is passion but pining?
+    But where is the man that can live without dining?"
+
+Thus saith the poet, and forthwith turns the world over into the hands of
+the cook. And into what better hands could you fall? To you, my fat,
+jolly, four-meals-a-day friend, Mr. Gourmand, but more especially to
+_you_, my somber, lean, dyspeptic, two-meals-a-day friend, Mr. Grumbler,
+the cook is indeed a valuable friend. The cook wields a scepter that is
+only second in power to that of love; and even love has become soured
+through the evil instrumentality of the good-looking or bad-cooking cook.
+This is no jest, it is a very sad fact.
+
+Now, the question arises, how can the cook preserve the health of her
+patrons, maintain happiness in the family, and yet not throw the gourmands
+into bankruptcy? Very simple, I assure you.
+
+1. You must have _the_ cook. I mean by this, that not every one can occupy
+that important office. The greatest consideration in the qualities of a
+cook is, does she like the work? No one can fulfill the duties of any
+noteworthy office unless he labors at them with vim and willingness.
+
+2. You must have good articles of food originally.
+
+3. As our honest Iago said, "You must have change."
+
+When one arrives at adult age, he should have learned by experience what
+articles of food _do_, and what articles of food do _not_, agree with him,
+and to shun the latter, no matter how daintily served or how tempting the
+circumstances. The man who knows that _pates de foie gras_, or the livers
+of abnormally fattened geese, disagree with him, and still eats them, is
+not to be pitied when all the horrors of dyspepsia overtake him.
+
+The cooking of any article of food has evidently much, very much, to do
+with its digestibility. It is not the purpose of this paper to teach
+cooking, but merely to give some general hints as to the best as well as
+the simplest methods of preparing staple articles of food. The same
+articles of food can and should be prepared differently on each day of the
+week. Changes of diet are too likely to be underestimated. By constant
+change the digestive organs in the average person are prevented from
+having that repulsion of food which, to a greater or less extent, is
+likely to result from a sameness of diet continued for a long time.
+
+We often hear from our scientific men that this or that article of food is
+excellent for muscle, another for brain, another for bone, etc., etc. Now,
+stubborn facts are like stone walls, against which theories often butt out
+their beauty and their power. It is well known to almost every one
+nowadays that _well-cooked_ food, whether it be potatoes, meat and bread,
+fish, or anything else worthy the name of food, will well maintain,
+indefinitely, either the philosopher or the hodcarrier.
+
+Many of you know, and all of you ought to know, that the principal
+ingredients of nearly all our foods are starch and albumen. Starch is the
+principal nutritive ingredient of vegetables and breadstuffs. Albumen is
+the principal ingredient of meats, eggs, milk, and other animal
+derivatives.
+
+Starch never enters the system as starch, but must first be converted into
+sugar either in the body or out of it. The process of this transformation
+of starch into sugar is beautifully exemplified in certain plants, such as
+the beet, the so-called sugar cane, and other growths. The young plant is,
+to a great extent, composed of starch; as the plant grows older, a
+substance is produced which is called _diastase_. Through the influence of
+this _diastase_ the starch is converted into a peculiar non-crystallizable
+substance called _dextrine_, and as the plant matures, this dextrine is
+transformed into crystallizable sugar.
+
+"Dextrine is a substance that can be produced from starch by the action of
+dilute acids, alkalies, and malt extract, and by roasting it at a
+temperature between 284 deg. and 330 deg. F., till it is of a light brown color,
+and has the odor of overbaked bread."
+
+A simple form of dextrine may be found in the brown crust of bread--that
+sweetish substance that gives the crust its agreeable flavor. Pure
+dextrine is an insipid, odorless, yellowish-white, translucent substance,
+which dissolves in water almost as readily as sugar. As stated above, it
+is easily converted into _dextrose_, or _glucose_, as it is usually named.
+
+This _glucose_ is often sold under the name of sugar, and is the same
+against which so many of the newspapers waged such a war a year or two
+ago. These critics were evidently, for the most part, persons who knew
+little about the subject. Glucose, if free from sulphuric acid or other
+chemicals, is as harmless as any other form of sugar. Most of our candies
+contain more or less of it, and are in every way as satisfactory as when
+manufactured wholly from other sugars.
+
+It is, therefore, self-evident that, as sugar is a necessary article of
+food, the process which aids the transformation of our starchy foods must
+necessarily aid digestion. Do not understand me to say by this that, if
+all our starchy foods were converted into sugar, their digestion would
+thereby be completed. As I stated a moment ago, this sweet food, if taken
+into the stomach day after day, would soon cause that particular organ to
+rebel against this sameness of diet. In order the more clearly to
+illustrate this point, I will briefly show you how some of the every-day
+articles of food can be each day differently prepared, and thus be
+rendered more palatable, and, as a consequence, more digestible; for it is
+a demonstrated fact that savory foods are far more easily digested than
+the same foods unsavored.
+
+The art of serving and arranging dishes for the table is an accomplishment
+in itself. It is very reasonable that all things that go to make up beauty
+and harmony at the dinner table should add their full quota to the
+appetite, and, I was about to say, "to the digestion;" but will qualify
+the statement by saying, to the digestion if the appetite be not porcine.
+
+Our commonest article of food is the _potato_. Let us see how
+potatoes--which contain only twenty per cent. of starch, as against
+eighty-eight per cent. in rice, and sixty-six per cent. in wheat
+flour--can be prepared as just mentioned. We will look for a moment at the
+manner in which they are usually served by the average cook:
+
+1, boiled with their jackets on; 2, roasted in the embers; 3, roasted with
+meat; 4, fried; 5, mashed; 6, salad.
+
+1. Potatoes boiled in their jackets are excellent if properly prepared.
+But there's the rub. The trouble is, they are too often allowed to boil
+slowly and too long, and thus become water-soaked, soggy, and solid, and
+proportionately indigestible. They should be put over a brisk fire, and
+kept at a brisk boil till done; then drain off the water, sprinkle a
+little salt over them, and return to the fire a moment to dry thoroughly,
+when you will find them bursting with their white, mealy contents.
+
+2. Roasted potatoes are general favorites, and very digestible. A more
+agreeable flavor is imparted to them if roasted in hot embers (wood fire),
+care being used to keep them covered with the hot embers.
+
+3. Fried potatoes, as they are very generally served, are almost as
+digestible as rocks, but not so tempting in all their grease-dripping
+beauty as the latter. Many of you have doubtless seen the potatoes neatly
+sliced and dumped into a frying pan full of hot lard, where they were
+permitted to sink or float, and soak and sob for about a half hour or
+more. When served, they presented the picturesque spectacle of miniature
+potato islands floating at liberty in a sea of yellow grease. Now, if any
+of you can relish and digest such a mess as that, I would advise you to
+leave this clime, and eat tallow candles with the Esquimaux.
+
+If you are fond of fried potatoes, cook them in this way:
+
+Take what boiled potatoes are left from breakfast or dinner; when cold,
+remove the jackets, and cut into thin slices, season with salt, pepper,
+and a little Cayenne; have ready a hot frying pan, with enough meat
+drippings or sweet lard to cover the bottom; put in the potatoes and fry a
+rich brown, stirring constantly with a knife to prevent burning. Serve
+very hot.
+
+4. Mashed potatoes will be discussed further on.
+
+5. Potato salads are appetizing and piquant, because they are usually made
+up with strong condiments, onions, etc. They are, therefore, not very
+digestible in themselves. Nevertheless, they are so palatable that we
+cannot easily dispense with them; but, after eating them, if you expect to
+have inward peace, either split wood, walk eight and a half miles, or take
+some other light exercise.
+
+More palatable, and proportionately digestible, are the following methods
+of cooking this useful vegetable:
+
+1, Saratoga potatoes; 2, a la maitre d'hotel; 3, potato croquettes; 4,
+potatoes and cream; 5, a la Lyonnaise.
+
+1. For _Saratogas_, pare and slice your potatoes as thin as possible,
+dropping them into cold water in which is dissolved a tiny piece of alum
+to make them crisp. Let them remain in the water for an hour or longer.
+Drain, and wipe perfectly dry with a tea towel. Have ready a quantity of
+boiling lard. Drop them in, and fry a delicate brown. Drain all grease
+from them, sprinkle with salt, and serve. Here, in the crisp slices, you
+will have the much desired dextrine. Or, in other words, your potato is
+already half digested. Eat three or four potatoes prepared thus, and you
+feel no inconvenience; but how would you feel did you devour three soggy,
+water-soaked _boiled_ potatoes?
+
+2. For _a la maitre d'hotel_, pare the potatoes, cut into pieces half an
+inch wide, and the length of the potato; drop into cold water until wanted
+(an hour or so); then drain, and fry in boiling lard. Just as they begin
+to brown take them out with a skimmer; let them slightly cool; then put
+back, and fry a rich brown. This makes them puff up, and very attractive.
+
+3. For _croquettes_, take finely mashed potatoes, and mix with salt,
+pepper, and butter, and sweet milk or cream enough to moisten thoroughly.
+Mix with this one well-beaten egg, and form into small balls, taking care
+to have them smooth. Have ready one plate with a beaten egg upon it, and
+another with cracker crumbs. Dip each ball into the egg, and then into the
+crumbs, and brown nicely. Lay the croquettes on brown paper first, to get
+rid of any superfluous grease, then serve on a napkin.
+
+4. _Potatoes and cream_ are prepared by mincing cold boiled potatoes fine,
+putting them in a spider with a little melted butter in it, and letting
+them fry slightly, keeping them well covered. Add a very small piece of
+fresh butter, season with pepper and salt, and pour over them cream or
+rich milk. Let them boil up once, and serve. This is a very nice dish, and
+may be safely taken into delicate stomachs.
+
+5. _A la Lyonnaise_ is prepared as follows: Take five cold potatoes, one
+onion, butter, salt, and pepper. Slice the onion finely, and fry it in
+butter until it begins to take color; add the sliced potatoes, salt and
+pepper to taste, and keep shaking the saucepan until they are somewhat
+browned. Serve hot.
+
+A few random remarks about the preparation of albuminous foods. If the
+albumen in food is hardened by prolonged cooking, it is rendered _less_
+instead of more digestible. Therefore, the so-called _well-cooked_ meats
+are really _badly-cooked_ meats. Meats should be only half done, or rare.
+To do this properly, it is necessary to cook with a quick fire. Steaks
+should be broiled, not fried. I am in accord with a well-known orator, who
+said, recently, that "the person who fries a steak should be arrested for
+cruelty to humanity." Some few meats should always be well cooked before
+eating.[6]
+
+[Footnote 6: These are the exceptions. Pork, on account of the prevalence
+of disease in hogs, should be well done.]
+
+The same law holds good with eggs as with meats. A hard-boiled egg is only
+fit for the stomach of an ostrich; it was never intended by nature to
+adorn the human stomach. There are very many ways of preparing eggs--by
+frying, baking, poaching, shirring, etc. I will only describe briefly a
+few simple methods of making omelets.
+
+In making this elegant dish, never use more than three eggs to an
+_omelet_. Plain omelet: Separate the whites and yolks; add a teaspoonful
+of water to the whites, and beat to a stiff froth; add to the yolks a
+teaspoonful of water, and beat until light; then season with salt, and
+about two tablespoonfuls of cream or rich milk. Have your spider very hot;
+turn your whites and yolks together, and stir lightly to mix them; place a
+bit of butter in the spider, and immediately pour in your eggs. When set
+(which takes from ten to twenty seconds, and be careful that it does not
+brown too much), fold together in a half moon, remove it, sprinkle with
+powdered sugar, and serve on a hot plate. It should be eaten immediately.
+
+Fruit omelets are made by placing preserved fruits or jellies between the
+folds. Baked omelets are prepared as above, with the addition of placing
+in the oven and allowing to brown slightly.
+
+French omelet is prepared in this way: Take a half cup of boiling milk
+with a half teaspoonful of butter melted in it; pour this over one-half
+cup of bread crumbs (light bread); add salt, pepper, and the yolks of
+three eggs beaten very light; mix thoroughly; and lastly, add the whites
+whipped to a stiff froth. Stir lightly, and fry in butter. When nearly
+done, fold together in a half moon, and serve immediately.
+
+And thus we might continue _ad infinitum_, but, as was stated before, it
+is not my object to instruct you in special cooking, but to illustrate in
+this manner how much easier it is, to both the cook and your stomachs, to
+prepare healthful dishes than to do the reverse.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TIME REQUIRED TO DIGEST DIFFERENT FOODS.
+
+
+_The Monitor de la Salud_ contains in a recent number the results of some
+experiments lately made by E. Jessen on the time required for the
+digestion of certain kinds of food. The stomach of the person on whom the
+experiments were made was emptied by means of a pump; 100 grammes, equal
+to 1,544 grains, or about 2-2/3 ounces, of meat, finely chopped and mixed
+with three times the quantity of water, were introduced. The experiment
+was considered ended when the matter, on removal by the pump, was found to
+contain no muscular fibre.
+
+It will be remembered that the gramme weighs nearly 15-1/2 grains, and the
+cubic centigramme is equal to 1 gramme. The 2-2/3 ounces of meat were
+therefore mixed with nearly eight ounces of water, before being introduced
+into the stomach.
+
+The results were as follows:
+
+  Beef, raw, and finely chopped.  2  hours.
+    "   half cooked.              21/2   "
+    "   well cooked.              3    "
+    "   slightly roasted.         3    "
+    "   well roasted.             4    "
+  Mutton, raw.                    2    "
+  Veal.                           21/2   "
+  Pork.                           3    "
+
+The digestibility of milk was examined in the same way. The quantity used
+was regulated so that the nitrogen should be the same as in the 100
+grammes of beef.
+
+  602 cubic centimeters, nearly sixteen ounces,
+      of cow's milk, not boiled, required.        31/2 hours
+  602 cubic centimeters, boiled.                  4    "
+  602   "       "        sour.                    31/2   "
+  675   "       "        skimmed.                 31/2   "
+  656   "       "        goat's milk, not boiled. 31/2   "
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE ORGANIZATION AND PLAN OF THE UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.[7]
+
+[Footnote 7: Communicated to the National Academy of Sciences at the
+October meeting in 1884.]
+
+By J.W. POWELL.
+
+
+A Scientific institution or bureau operating under government authority
+can be controlled by statute and by superior administrative authority but
+to a limited extent. These operations are practically carried on by
+specialists, and they can be controlled only in their financial operations
+and in the general purposes for which investigations are made. Their
+methods of investigation are their own--originate with themselves, and are
+carried out by themselves. But in relation to the scientific operations of
+such a government institution, there is an unofficial authority which,
+though not immediately felt, ultimately steps in to approve or condemn,
+viz., the body of scientific men of the country; and though their
+authority is not exercised antecedently and at every stage of the work,
+yet it is so potent that no national scientific institution can grow and
+prosper without their approval, but must sooner or later fall and perish
+unless sustained by their strong influence.
+
+As director of the Geological Survey, I deeply realize that I owe
+allegiance to the scientific men of the country, and for this reason I
+desire to present to the National Academy of Sciences the organization and
+plan of operations of the Survey.
+
+
+A TOPOGRAPHIC MAP OF THE UNITED STATUS.
+
+Sound geologic research is based on geography. Without a good topographic
+map geology cannot even be thoroughly studied, and the publication of the
+results of geologic investigation is very imperfect without a good map;
+but with a good map thorough investigation and simple, intelligible
+publication become possible. Impelled by these considerations, the Survey
+is making a topographic map of the United States. The geographic basis of
+this map is a trigonometric survey by which datum points are established
+throughout the country; that is, base-lines are measured and a
+triangulation extended therefrom. This trigonometric work is executed on a
+scale only sufficiently refined for map-making purposes, and will not be
+directly useful for geodetic purposes in determining the figure of the
+earth. The hypsometric work is based upon the railroad levels of the
+country. Throughout the greater part of the country, there is a system of
+railroad lines, constituting a net-work. The levels or profiles of these
+roads have been established with reasonable accuracy, and as they cross
+each other at a multiplicity of points, a system of checks is afforded, so
+that the railroad surface of the country can be determined therefrom with
+all the accuracy necessary for the most refined and elaborate topographic
+maps. From such a hypsometric basis the reliefs for the whole country are
+determined, by running lines of levels, by trigonometric construction, and
+in mountainous regions by barometric observation.
+
+The primary triangulation having been made, the topography is executed by
+a variety of methods, adapted to the peculiar conditions found in various
+portions of the country. To a large extent the plane-table is used. In the
+hands of the topographers of the Geological Survey, the plane-table is not
+simply a portable draughting table for the field; it is practically an
+instrument of triangulation, and all minor positions of the details of
+topography are determined through its use by trigonometric construction.
+
+The scale on which the map is made is variable. In some portions of the
+prairie region, and in the region of the great plains, the topography and
+the geology alike are simple, and maps on a comparatively small scale are
+sufficient for practical purposes. For these districts it is proposed to
+construct the sheets of the map on a scale of 1-250,000, or about four
+miles to the inch. In the mountain regions of the West the geology is more
+complex, and the topography more intricate; but to a large extent these
+regions are uninhabited, and to a more limited extent uninhabitable. It
+would therefore not be wise to make a topographic or geologic survey of
+the country on an excessively elaborate plan. Over much of this area the
+sheets of the map will also be constructed on a scale of 1-250,000, but in
+special districts that scale will be increased to 1-125,000, and in the
+case of important mining districts charts will be constructed on a much
+larger scale. In the eastern portion of the United States two scales are
+adopted. In the less densely populated country a scale of 1-125,000 is
+used; in the more densely populated regions a scale of 1-62,500 is
+adopted, or about one mile to the inch. But throughout the country a few
+special districts of great importance, because of complex geologic
+structure, dense population, or other condition, will require charts on
+still larger scales. The area of the United States, exclusive of Alaska,
+is about three million square miles, and a map of the United States,
+constructed on the plan set forth above, will require not less than 2,600
+sheets. It may ultimately prove to require more than that, from the fact
+that the areas to be surveyed on the larger scale have not been fully
+determined. Besides the number of sheets in the general map of the United
+States, there will be several hundred special maps on large scales, as
+above described.
+
+Such is a brief outline of the plan so far as it has been developed at the
+present time. In this connection it should be stated that the map of the
+United States can be completed, with the present organization of the
+Geological Survey, in about 24 years; but it is greatly to be desired that
+the time for its completion may be materially diminished by increasing the
+topographic force of the Geological Survey. We ought to have a good
+topographic map of the United States by the year 1900. About one-fifth of
+the whole area of the United States, exclusive of Alaska, has been
+completed on the above plan. This includes all geographic work done in the
+United States under the auspices of the General Government and under the
+auspices of State Governments. The map herewith shows those areas that
+have been surveyed by various organizations on such a scale and in such a
+manner that the work has been accepted as sufficient for the purposes of
+the Survey.
+
+Much other work has been done, but not with sufficient refinement and
+accuracy to be of present value, though such work subserved its purpose in
+its time. An examination of the map will show that the triangulation of
+the various organizations is already largely in advance of the topography.
+The map of the United States will be a great atlas divided into sheets as
+above indicated. In all of those areas where the survey is on a scale of
+1-250,000, a page of the atlas will present an area of one degree in
+longitude and one degree in latitude. Where the scale is 1-125,000, a page
+of the atlas-sheet will represent one-fourth of a degree. Where the scale
+is 1-62,500, the atlas-sheet will represent one-sixteenth of a degree. The
+degree sheet will be designated by two numbers--one representing latitude,
+the other longitude. Where the sheets represent fractional degrees, they
+will be labeled with the same numbers, with the addition of the
+description of the proper fractional part.
+
+The organization, as at present established, executing this work, is as
+follows: First, an astronomic and computing division, the officers of
+which are engaged in determining the geographic coordinates of certain
+primary points. Second, a triangulation corps engaged in extending a
+system of triangulation over various portions of the country from measured
+base-lines. Third, a topographic corps, organized into twenty-seven
+parties, scattered over various portions of the United States. Such, in
+brief outline, is the plan for the map of the United States, and the
+organization by which it is to be made. Mr. Henry Gannett is the Chief
+Geographer.
+
+
+PALEONTOLOGY.
+
+Before giving the outline of the plan for the general geologic survey, it
+will be better to explain the accessory plans and organizations. There are
+in the Survey, as at present organized, the following paleontologic
+laboratories:
+
+1. A laboratory of vertebrate paleontology for formations other than the
+Quaternary. In connection with this laboratory there is a corps of
+paleontologists. Professor O.C. Marsh is in charge.
+
+2. There is a laboratory of invertebrate paleontology of Quaternary age,
+with a corps of paleontologists, Mr. Wm. H. Dall being in charge.
+
+3. There is a laboratory of invertebrate paleontology of Cenozoic and
+Mesozoic age, with a corps of paleontologists. Dr. C.A. White is in
+charge.
+
+4. There is a laboratory of invertebrate paleontology of Paleozoic age,
+with a corps of paleontologists. Mr. C.D. Walcott is in charge.
+
+5. There is a laboratory of fossil botany, with a corps of paleobotanists,
+Mr. Lester F. Ward being in charge.
+
+The paleontologists and paleobotanists connected with the laboratories
+above described, study and discuss in reports the fossils collected by the
+general geologists in the field. They also supplement the work of the
+field geologists by making special collections in important districts and
+at critical horizons; but the paleontologists are not held responsible for
+areal and structural geology on the one hand, and the geologists are not
+held responsible for paleontology on the other hand. In addition to the
+large number of paleontologists on the regular work of the Geological
+Survey, as above described, several paleontologists are engaged from time
+to time to make special studies.
+
+
+CHEMISTRY.
+
+There is a chemic laboratory attached to the Survey, with a large corps of
+chemists engaged in a great variety of researches relating to the
+constitution of waters, minerals, ores, and rocks. A part of the work of
+this corps is to study the methods of metamorphism and the paragenesis of
+minerals, and in this connection the chemists do work in the field; but to
+a large extent they are occupied with the study of the materials collected
+by the field geologists. Professor F.W. Clarke is in charge of this
+department.
+
+
+PHYSICAL RESEARCHES.
+
+There is a physical laboratory in the Survey, with a small corps of men
+engaged in certain physical researches of prime importance to geologic
+philosophy. These researches are experimental, and relate to the effect of
+temperatures, pressures, etc., on rocks. This laboratory is under the
+charge of the chief chemist.
+
+
+LITHOLOGY.
+
+There is a lithologic laboratory in the Survey, with a large corps of
+lithologists engaged in the microscopic study of rocks. These lithologists
+are field geologists, who examine the collections made by themselves.
+
+
+STATISTICS.
+
+There is in the Survey a division of mining statistics, with a large corps
+of men engaged in statistic work, the results of which are published in an
+annual report entitled "Mineral Resources." Mr. Albert Williams, Jr., is
+the Chief Statistician of the Survey.
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+There is in the Survey a division organized for the purpose of preparing
+illustrations for paleontologic and geologic reports. Mr. W.H. Holmes is
+in charge of this division. Illustrations will not hereafter be used for
+embellishment, but will be strictly confined to the illustration of the
+text and the presentation of such facts as can be best exhibited by
+figures and diagrams. All illustrations will, as far as possible, be
+produced by relief methods, such as wood-engraving, photo-engraving, etc.
+As large numbers of the reports of the Survey are published, this plan is
+demanded for economic reasons; but there is another consideration believed
+to be of still greater importance; illustrations made on stone cannot be
+used after the first edition, as they deteriorate somewhat by time, and it
+is customary to use the same lithographic stone for various purposes from
+time to time. The illustrations made for the reports of the Survey, if on
+relief-plates that can be cheaply electrotyped, can be used again when
+needed. This is especially desirable in paleontology, where previously
+published figures can be introduced for comparative purposes. There are
+two methods of studying the extinct life of the globe. Fossils are indices
+of geological formations, and must be grouped by formations to subserve
+the purpose of geologists. Fossils also have their biologic relations, and
+should be studied and arranged in biologic groups. Under the plan adopted
+by the Survey, the illustrations can be used over and over again for such
+purposes when needed, as reproduction can be made at the small cost of
+electrotyping. These same illustrations can be used by the public at large
+in scientific periodicals, text-books, etc. All the illustrations made by
+the Geological Survey are held for the public to be used in this manner.
+
+
+LIBRARY.
+
+The library of the Survey now contains more than 25,000 volumes, and is
+rapidly growing by means of exchanges. It is found necessary to purchase
+but few books. The librarian, Mr. C.C. Darwin, has a corps of assistants
+engaged in bibliographic work. It is proposed to prepare a catalogue of
+American and foreign publications upon American geology, which is to be a
+general authors' catalogue. In addition to this, it is proposed to publish
+bibliographies proper of special subjects constituting integral parts of
+the science of geology.
+
+
+PUBLICATIONS.
+
+The publications of the Survey are in three series: Annual Reports,
+Bulletins, and Monographs. The Annual Report constitutes a part of the
+Report of the Secretary of the Interior for each year, but is a distinct
+volume. This contains a brief summary of the purposes, plans, and
+operations of the Survey, prepared by the Director, and short
+administrative reports from the chiefs of divisions, the whole followed by
+scientific papers. These papers are selected as being those of most
+general interest, the object being to make the Annual Report a somewhat
+popular account of the doings of the Survey, that it may be widely read by
+the intelligent people of the country. Of this 5,650 copies are published
+as a part of the Secretary's report, and are distributed by the Secretary
+of the Interior, Senators, and Members of the House of Representatives;
+and an extra edition is annually ordered of 15,000 copies, distributed by
+the Survey and members of the Senate and House of Representatives. Four
+annual reports have been published; the fifth is now in the hands of the
+printer.
+
+The Bulletins of the Survey are short papers, and through them somewhat
+speedy publication is attained. Each bulletin is devoted to some specific
+topic, in order that the material ultimately published in the bulletins
+can be classified in any manner desired by scientific men. Nine bulletins
+have been published, and seven are in press. The bulletins already
+published vary in size from 5 to 325 pages each; they are sold at the cost
+of press-work and paper, and vary in price from five to twenty cents each;
+4,900 copies of each bulletin are published; 1,900 are distributed by
+Congress, 3,000 are held for sale and exchange by the Geological Survey.
+
+The Monographs of the Survey are quarto volumes. By this method of
+publication the more important and elaborate papers are given to the
+public. Six monographs, with two atlases, have been issued; five
+monographs, with two atlases, are in press; 1,900 copies of each monograph
+are distributed by Congress; 3,000 are held for sale and exchange by the
+Survey at the cost of press-work, paper, and binding. They vary in price
+from $1.05 to $11.
+
+The chiefs of divisions supervise the publications that originate in their
+several corps. The general editorial supervision is exercised by the Chief
+Clerk of the Survey, Mr. James C. Pilling.
+
+
+GENERAL GEOLOGY.
+
+In organizing the general geologic work, it became necessary, first, to
+consider what had already been done in various portions of the United
+States; and for this purpose the compilation of a general geologic map of
+the United States was begun, together with a Thesaurus of American
+formations. In addition to this the bibliographic work previously
+described was initiated, so that the literature relating to American
+geology should be readily accessible to the workers in the Survey. At this
+point it became necessary to consider the best methods of apportioning the
+work; that is, the best methods of dividing the geologic work into parts
+to be assigned to the different corps of observers. A strictly geographic
+apportionment was not deemed wise, from the fact that an unscientific
+division of labor would result, and the same classes of problems would to
+a large extent be relegated to the several corps operating in field and in
+the laboratory. It was thought best to divide the work, as far as
+possible, by subject-matter rather than by territorial areas; yet to some
+extent the two methods of division will coincide. There are in the Survey
+at present:
+
+First, a division of glacial geology, and Prof. T.C. Chamberlin, formerly
+State Geologist of Wisconsin is at its head, with a strong corps of
+assistants. There is an important field for which definite provision has
+not yet been made, namely, the study of the loess that constitutes the
+bluff formations of the Mississippi River and its tributaries. But as this
+loess proves to be intimately associated with the glacial formations of
+the same region, it is probable that it will eventually be relegated to
+the glacial division. Perhaps the division may eventually grow to such an
+extent that its field of operations will include the whole Quaternary
+geology.
+
+Second, a division of volcanic geology is organized, and Capt. Clarence E.
+Dutton, of the Ordnance Corps of the Army, is placed in charge, also with
+a strong corps of assistants.
+
+Third and fourth, two divisions have been organized to prosecute work on
+the archaean rocks, embracing within their field not only all rocks of
+archaean age, but all metamorphic crystalline schists, of whatever age they
+may be found. The first division has for its chief Prof. Raphael Pumpelly,
+assisted by a corps of geologists, and the field of his work is the
+crystalline schists of the Appalachian region, or eastern portion of the
+United States, extending from northern New England to Georgia. He will
+also include in his studies certain paleozoic formations which are
+immediately connected with the crystalline schists and involved in their
+orographic structure.
+
+The second division for the study of this class of rocks is in charge of
+Prof. Roland D. Irving, with a corps of geologists, and his field of
+operation is in the Lake Superior region. It is not proposed at present to
+undertake the study of the crystalline schists of the Rocky Mountain
+region.
+
+Fifth, another division has been organized for the study of the areal,
+structural, and historical geology of the Appalachian region, extending
+from the Atlantic, westward, to the zone which separates the mountain
+region from the great valley of the Mississippi. Mr. G.K. Gilbert has
+charge of this work, and has a large corps of assistants.
+
+Sixth, it seemed desirable, partly for scientific reasons and partly for
+administrative reasons, that a thorough topographic and geologic survey
+should be made of the Yellowstone Park, and Mr. Arnold Hague is in charge
+of the work, with a corps of assistants. When it is completed, his field
+will be expanded so as to include a large part of the Rocky Mountain
+region, but the extent of the field is not yet determined.
+
+It will thus be seen that the general geologic work relating to those
+areas where the terranes are composed of fossiliferous formations is very
+imperfectly and incompletely organized. The reason for this is twofold:
+First, the work cannot be performed very successfully until the maps are
+made; second, the Geological Survey is necessarily diverting much of its
+force to the construction of maps, and cannot with present appropriations
+expand the geologic corps so as to extend systematic work in the field
+over the entire country.
+
+
+ECONOMIC GEOLOGY.
+
+Under the organic law of the Geological Survey, investigations in economic
+geology are restricted to those States and Territories in which there are
+public lands; the extension of the work into the eastern portion of the
+United States included only that part relating to general geology. Two
+mining divisions are organized. One, in charge of Mr. George F. Becker,
+with headquarters at San Francisco, California, is at the present time
+engaged in the study of the quicksilver districts of California. The
+other, under charge of Mr. S.F. Emmons, with headquarters at Denver,
+Colorado, is engaged in studying various mining districts in that State,
+including silver, gold, iron, and coal areas. Each division has a corps of
+assistants. The lignite coals of the upper Missouri, also, are under
+investigation by Mr. Bailey Willis, with a corps of assistants.
+
+
+EMPLOYES.
+
+The employes on the Geological Survey at the close of September, 1884,
+were as follows:
+
+Appointed by the President, by and with the advice and consent of the
+Senate (Director), 1.
+
+Appointed by the Secretary of the Interior, on the recommendation of the
+Director of the Survey, 134.
+
+Employed by the chiefs of parties in the field, 148.
+
+
+APPOINTMENTS.
+
+Three classes of appointments are made on the Survey. The statute provides
+that "the scientific employes of the Geological Survey shall be selected
+by the Director, subject to the approval of the Secretary of the Interior,
+exclusively for their qualifications as professional experts." The
+provisions of this statute apply to all those cases where scientific men
+are employed who have established a reputation, and in asking for their
+appointment the Director specifically states his reasons, setting forth
+the work in which the person is to be employed, together with his
+qualifications, especially enumerating and characterizing his published
+works. On such recommendations appointments are invariably made. Young men
+who have not established a reputation in scientific research are selected
+through the agency of the Civil Service Commission on special examination,
+the papers for which are prepared in the Geological Survey. About one-half
+of the employes, however, are temporary, being engaged for services
+lasting for a few days or a few months only, largely in the field, and
+coming under two classes: Skilled laborers and common laborers. Such
+persons are employed by the Director or by the heads of divisions, and are
+discharged from the service when no longer needed. It will be seen that
+the Director is responsible for the selection of the employes, directly
+for those whom he recommends for appointment, and indirectly for those
+selected by the Civil Service Commission, as he permanently retains in the
+work. If, then, improper persons are employed, it is wholly the Director's
+fault.
+
+The appropriations made for the Geological Survey for the fiscal year
+ending June 30, 1885, aggregate the sum of $504,040. This sum does not
+include the amount appropriated for ethnologic researches--$40,000. Nor
+are the expenses for engraving and printing paid for from the above
+appropriations, but from appropriations made for the work under the
+direction of the public printer. It is estimated that the amount needed
+for engraving and printing for the same fiscal year will exceed $200,000.
+
+
+THE RELATION OF THE GOVERNMENT SURVEY TO STATE SURVEYS.
+
+The United States Geological Survey is on friendly relations with the
+various State Surveys. Between the Government Survey and the State Survey
+of New York, there is direct co-operation. The State Survey of
+Pennsylvania has rendered valuable assistance to the Government Survey,
+and negotiations have been entered into for closer relations and more
+thorough co-operation. The State Surveys of North Carolina, Kentucky, and
+Alabama are also co-operating with the Government Survey, and the director
+of the Government Survey is doing all within his power to revive State
+Surveys. The field for geologic research in the United States is of great
+magnitude, and the best results can be accomplished only by the labors of
+many scientific men engaged for a long term of years. For this reason it
+is believed that surveys should be established in all of the States and
+Territories. There is work enough for all, and the establishment of local
+surveys would greatly assist the general work prosecuted under the
+auspices of the government, and prevent it from falling into perfunctory
+channels. Its vigor and health will doubtless be promoted by all thorough
+local research.
+
+It may be of interest to scientific men to know that the Director finds
+that in presenting the general results, interests, and needs of the Survey
+to Congress, and to Committees of Congress, a thorough appreciation of the
+value of scientific research is shown by the statesmen of the country.
+Questions relating to immediately economic values are asked, as they
+should be; but questions relating to sound administration, wise methods of
+investigation, and important scientific results are vigorously urged, and
+the principle is recognized that all sound scientific research conduces to
+the welfare of the people, not only by increasing knowledge, but
+ultimately by affecting all the industries of the people.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+[THE GARDEN.]
+
+THE SUNFLOWERS.
+
+
+[Illustration: FLOWER OF HELIANTHUS ARGOPHYLLUS.]
+
+The genus Helianthus is almost entirely North-American, and for the
+distinction and limitation of its species we are indebted to the labor of
+Dr. Asa Gray, now universally recognized as the highest authority on North
+American plants. In the recently published second part of his "Synoptical
+Flora of North America" he has described thirty-nine species, six of which
+are annual. The synonyms and cross-naming adopted by previous authors have
+led to much confusion, which probably will not now be altogether cleared
+up, for Dr. Gray warns us that the characters of some of the species are
+variable, especially in cultivation. It may be added that some at least of
+the species readily form hybrids. There is always more or less difficulty
+with a variable genus in making garden plants fit wild specific types, but
+in the following notes I have described no kinds which I have not myself
+cultivated, selecting the best forms and giving them the names assigned
+severally by Dr. Gray to the species to which our garden plants seem to
+come nearest.
+
+[Illustration: HELIANTHUS ARGOPHYLLUS, SHOWING HABIT OF GROWTH.]
+
+_Helianthus multiflorus_, or, according to Asa Gray, speaking botanically,
+H. decapetalus hort. var. multiflorus, is mentioned first, because it is
+the subject of the colored illustration. The name multiflorus is
+established by long usage, and perhaps was originally given in contrast to
+the few-flowered habit of H. annuus, for the type of the species is more
+floriferous than the variety of which Asa Gray says that it is "known only
+in cultivation from early times, must have been derived from
+decapetalus," a statement which gardeners would hardly have accepted on
+less indisputable authority, as they will all think the habit and
+appearance of the two plants widely different. The variety multiflorus has
+several forms; the commonest form is double, the disk being filled with
+ligules much shorter than those of the ray flowers, after the form of many
+daisy-like composites. In this double form the day flowers are often
+wanting. It is common also on old plants in poor soils to see double and
+single flowers from the same root. In the single forms the size of the
+flowers varies, the difference being due to cultivation as often as to
+kind. I have obtained by far the finest flowers by the following
+treatment: In early spring, when the young shoots are about an inch high,
+cut some off, each with a portion of young root, and plant them singly in
+deep rich soil, and a sheltered but not shaded situation. By August each
+will have made a large bush, branching out from one stalk at the base,
+with from thirty to forty flowers open at a time, each 5 inches across.
+The same plants if well dressed produce good flowers the second season,
+but after that the stalks become crowded, and the flowers degenerate. The
+same treatment suits most of the perennial sunflowers. The following kinds
+are mentioned in the order in which they occur in Asa Gray's book:
+
+[Illustration: HELIANTHUS MULTIFLORUS, SHOWING HABIT OF GROWTH.]
+
+
+ANNUALS.
+
+_H. argophyllus_ (white-leaved, not argyrophyllus, silver-leaved, as
+written in some catalogues).--An annual with woolly leaves, neater and
+less coarse than H. annuus, with which it is said soon to degenerate in
+gardens if grown together with it.
+
+_H. annuus._--The well known sunflower in endless varieties, one of the
+most elegant having pale lemon-colored flowers; these, too, liable to pass
+into the common type if grown in the same garden.
+
+[Illustration: HELIANTHUS ORGYALIS, SHOWING HABIT OF GROWTH IN
+AUTUMN.]
+
+_H. debilis var. cucumerifolius._--I have never seen the typical species,
+but the variety was introduced a few years ago by Mr. W. Thompson, of
+Ipswich, from whose seed I have grown it. It becomes 4 feet or 5 feet
+high, with irregularly toothed deltoid leaves and spotted stalks, making a
+widely branched bush and bearing well-shaped golden flowers more than 3
+inches across, with black disks. It crosses with any perennial sunflower
+that grows near it, simulating their flowers in an annual form. I had a
+very fine cross with it and H. annuus, but the flowers of this produced no
+good seed.
+
+[Illustration: JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE (HELIANTHUS TUBEROSUS).]
+
+
+PERENNIALS.
+
+_H. orgyalis_ (the fathom-high sunflower).--The name is far within the
+true measure, which is often 9 feet or 10 feet. A very distinct species,
+increasing very slowly at the root and throwing all its growing efforts
+upward. The long linear ribbon leaves, often exceeding a foot, spreading
+in wavy masses round the tall stem, which has a palm-like tuft of them at
+the summit, are a more ornamental feature than the flowers, which are
+moderate in size and come late in the axils of the upper leaves.
+
+[Illustration: HELIANTHUS ANNUUS GLOBULUS FISTULOSUS.]
+
+_H. angustifolius._--A neat and elegant species, which I first raised from
+seed sent by Mr. W. Thompson, of Ipswich. It has a very branching habit
+quite from the base like a well-grown bush of the common wallflower. The
+flowers are abundant, about 21/2 inches across, with a black disk. The
+plant, though a true herb, never comes up in my garden with more than one
+stalk each year.
+
+[Illustration: HELIANTHUS RIGIDUS (SYN. HARPALIUM RIGIDUM).]
+
+_H. rigidus_ is well known as the best of the perennial sunflowers, and
+has many synonyms, the commonest Harpalium rigidum. It need not be
+described, but one or two things about it may be noted. The shoots, which
+come up a yard or more from last year's stalk, may be transplanted as soon
+as they appear without injury to the flowering, but if put back to the old
+center, the soil, which should be deep and light, ought to be enriched.
+The species is variable, and improved forms may be expected, as it
+produces seed in England. The number of ray flowers is often very large. I
+have one form which has several rows of them, nearly hiding the disk. A
+variety is figured in _Botanical Magazine_, tab. 2,668, under the name of
+H. atro-rubens. Another comes in the same series, tab. 2,020, as H.
+diffusus. Other synonyms are H. missuricus and H. missouriensis. Its
+native range extends across North America in longitude, and covers many
+degrees of latitude. It likes a dry soil. In wet soil and wet seasons the
+flower-stalk is apt to wither in the middle, and the bud falls over and
+perishes prematurely.
+
+[Illustration: COMMON SUNFLOWER (H. ANNUUS) SHOWING HABIT OF GROWTH.]
+
+_H. Laetiflorus._--Under this name we grow in England a tall,
+much-branched, late flowering kind, with smooth and very stout and stiff
+stalks, sometimes black, sometimes green. It increases at the base of the
+stalks; it makes close growth, and shows little disposition to run at the
+root. The flowers are rather small, not more than 9 inches across, but so
+durable and so well displayed by the numerous spreading branches as to
+make the plant very useful for late decoration. I own that I cannot
+identify this plant with the laetiflorus of Asa Gray, which he tells us
+resembles tall forms of H. rigidus, with rough stalks, and bears flowers
+with numerous rays 11/2 inches long.
+
+[Illustration: FLOWER OF HELIANTHUS ANNUUS.]
+
+_H. occidentalis._--Recently introduced by Mr. W. Thompson, of Ipswich,
+who gave me the plant two years ago. It is a neat species, growing about 2
+feet high, well branched, and producing at the end of July abundance of
+flowers about 2 inches across. The lower leaves are small and broad, with
+long stalks, ovate in form.
+
+[Illustration: HELIANTHUS MULTIFLORUS FL-PL.]
+
+_H. mollis_, so called from the soft white down with which the leaves are
+covered, grows about 4 feet high. Leaves large, ovate, and sessile; growth
+of the plant upright, with hardly any branches; flowers pale yellow, about
+3 inches across, not very ornamental. Cultivated at Kew, whence I had it.
+
+_H. giganteus_ grows 10 feet high; stem much branched and disposed to
+curve. Flowers about 21/2 inches across, produced abundantly in August; rays
+narrow and pointed, cupped, with the ends turning outward; leaves
+lanceolate and sessile; rootstock creeping, forming tuberous thickenings
+at the base of the stems, which Asa Gray tells us were "the Indian potato
+of the Assiniboine tribe," mentioned by Douglas, who called the plant H.
+tuberosus.
+
+[Illustration: FULL SIZED FLOWER OF HELIANTHUS MULTIFLORUS.]
+
+_H. maximiliani._--Half the height of the last, which it resembles, but
+the stem is stouter, the leaves larger, as are also the flowers, which are
+produced later. It is not so floriferous and ornamental as the last.
+
+_H. laevigatus._--Smooth stalked, very distinct, does not spread at the
+roots, which are composed of finer fibers than those of most of the genus;
+stalks slender and black, growing closely together, branched near the
+summit, 5 feet high; leaves narrowly lanceolate and acute; flowers
+plentiful and about 2 inches across; rays few, and disk small.
+
+We are warned that the following species are "difficult of extrication,"
+either confluent or mixed by intercrossing.
+
+_H. doronicoides._--I place this the third in merit among perennial
+sunflowers, H. rigidus and H. multiflorus being first and second. It is 6
+feet or 7 feet high, upright in growth, with many stalks. Flowers 31/2
+inches across, produced from the end of July to the end of September,
+bright golden yellow; leaves large, ovate, tapering from the middle to
+both ends; stalk leaves sessile and nearly connate, that is, clasping the
+stalk by their opposite base. The plant spreads rapidly by running
+rootstocks, and ripens seed in abundance. Figured as H. pubescens in
+_Botanical Magazine_, tab. 2,778.
+
+_H. divaricatus_ resembles the last, but is inferior, being a smaller
+plant in all parts, especially in the flowers, which come out a month
+later. The cauline leaves are stalked and diverge widely, which habit
+gives its name to the plant. A casual observer would hardly notice the
+difference between this species and the last, but when grown together the
+superiority of doronicoides as a garden plant is at once evident.
+
+_H. strumosus._--Fully 6 feet high; growth upright; rootstock less
+spreading than the last two; leaves on very short stalks, broadest at the
+base, ovate tapering by a long narrow point; flower disk narrow, but rays
+large and orange-yellow; flowers showy, 3 inches across; they come out
+late in August. I had this plant from Kew. The shape of the leaves would
+have led me rather to refer it to H. trachelifolius, a closely allied
+species.
+
+_H. decapetalus._--Five feet high; flowers from end of July; makes a dense
+forest of weak, slender stalks, much branched at the top; spreads fast;
+leaves serrate, oblong-ovate, rather large; flowers abundant, pale yellow,
+about 2 inches across; rays nearly always more than ten, in spite of the
+name.
+
+_H. tuberosus._--The well-known Jerusalem artichoke; not a plant grown for
+ornament, being too coarse and late in flowering, but several things in
+its history may be mentioned, as Dr. Asa Gray has spent labor and study
+over it. It is believed to have been cultivated by the natives before the
+discovery of America, and the edible tubers are thought to be a
+development of cultivation. Forms of it without tuberous roots are found
+wild, but whether indigenous to the place or degenerate from cultivation
+was for long uncertain. Several species of Helianthus have a tendency to
+produce similar fleshy tubers at the top of the roots. Dr. Gray used to
+refer the origin of this species to H. doronicoides, but it is now
+believed by him to be a distinct species, though one of which it is
+difficult to identify with certainty the typical form.
+
+I omitted to say that the word Helianthus is Greek for sunflower. After
+several years' careful observation, I believe the notion that the flowers
+keep their face to the sun is quite a delusion.
+
+Edge Hall. C. WOLLEY DOD.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+A QUICK FILTER.--The _Druggists Circular_ recommends chamois skin, free
+from thin places; cut it of the desired size; wash it in a weak solution
+of sal soda, or any alkali, to remove the grease, and rinse thoroughly in
+cold water before using.
+
+Tinctures, elixirs, sirups, and even mucilages are filtered rapidly. A
+pint of the thickest sirup will run through in four or five minutes. By
+washing thoroughly after each time of using, it will last a long time.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+LYE'S FUCHSIAS.
+
+
+The group of fuchsias shown in our engraving represents a collection of
+nine specimens raised and exhibited by that well known cultivator, Mr.
+James Lye, of Clyffe Hall Gardens, Market Lavington, at an exhibition held
+in Bath in September last, and which received the first prize in the
+premier class for that number of plants. For many years past Mr. Lye has
+exhibited fuchsias at exhibitions held at Bath, Trowbridge, Devizes,
+Calne, Chippenham, and elsewhere; on all occasions staging specimens of a
+high order of merit; but the plants appearing in our illustration were
+universally regarded as the best he had ever placed in an exhibition tent.
+So much were the committee of the Bath show pleased with the specimens
+that they engaged the services of a photographer to make a picture of them
+on the spot; but after being two hours making the attempt, no satisfactory
+result occurred. After the plants were taken back to Clyffe Hall, they
+were photographed as seen in the illustration. Some idea of their height
+and dimensions can be realized by a comparison with the stature of Mr.
+Lye, who is standing by his plants, and who is of average height. It
+should be mentioned that previous to being photographed they had traveled
+by road from Market Lavington to Bath and back, a distance of 52 miles, in
+addition to having been exhibited two days. They returned to their home
+apparently little the worse for wear, which immunity from harm is no doubt
+owing to the admirable system of tying adopted by Mr. Lye. It is sometimes
+said that the act of trying in the flowering shoots in this manner gives
+the plants a somewhat severely formal appearance, but there is an
+abundance of healthy foliage and a wonderful profusion of finely developed
+flowers, showing the most careful and painstaking cultivation. It is only
+those who are privileged to see these unrivaled plants who can appreciate
+them at their proper worth.
+
+It has been stated already that the varieties figured are all of Mr. Lye's
+own raising, which facts attests to the value of his seedlings, many of
+which he has produced. Four of these are dark varieties, viz., Bountiful,
+Charming, Elegance, and the Hon. Mrs. Hay--the latter one of the oldest,
+but one of the freest, and scarcely without an equal for its great freedom
+of bloom. The remaining five are light varieties, viz., Lye's Favorite,
+Harriet Lye, Star of Wilts, Pink Perfection, and Beauty of the West.
+
+[Illustration: MR. LYE'S FUSCHIAS.]
+
+The specimens figured average from two to five years of age. It is really
+marvelous what Mr. Lye can do with a fuchsia in two years; and lest it
+might be supposed that he has plenty of glass accommodation, and can keep
+his plants under glass continuously, it is due to him it should be stated
+that he is very deficient in house accommodation, having but two small
+houses, in one of which (an old house) he winters his plants and brings
+them on until he can place them with safety in the open air in early
+summer. His method of treating the specimens as set forth in his own words
+may prove helpful to some of our readers: "After the plants have done
+flowering, say about the third week in October, I cut them back into the
+shape best fitted to form symmetrical specimens, and keep them dry for a
+week or ten days, to check the bleeding of sap which follows; after that I
+give a little water just to start them into growth, so as to make shoots
+about three-quarters of an inch in length, in order to keep the old wood
+active and living. I keep them in a cold house, and give but very little
+water until the first or second week in February, when I shake the old
+soil from the roots, and re-pot them into a fresh compost made up of three
+parts good loam, one part well decomposed manure, and one part leaf-mould
+and peat, with a good bit of silver or sea sand to keep it open. In order
+to make large specimens, they are shifted as soon as the pots are filled
+with roots. About the first week in June I place them out of doors on a
+border somewhat sheltered, and syringe the plants freely every day during
+hot weather to keep the foliage clean and healthy. I top them back till
+about seven or eight weeks before I want to show them, according to the
+requirements of the variety, as some of them require it to be done more
+freely than others. I give them liquid manure, using what I get from the
+cows, which with some soot is put into a tub, and allowed to stand a week
+or ten days before using, and I give them a good dose once a week as they
+show signs of flowering."
+
+In order to preserve his plants from the effects of hail and very heavy
+rains, a rough framework is erected, and over this is stretched some
+floral shading, which can be readily removed when required; it also serves
+the purpose of shading the plants from the sun in very hot and scorching
+weather.
+
+During his career as an exhibitor of fuchsias Mr. Lye has taken nearly one
+hundred first prizes--a measure of success which fully justifies the
+bestowal of the title of being the Champion Fuchsia Grower of his
+day.--_R.D. in The Gardeners' Chronicle_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
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