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Hastings -</title> -<style type="text/css"> - <!-- - body { margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 5%; } - p { text-indent: 1em; - margin-top: .75ex; - font-size: 100%; - text-align: justify; - margin-bottom: .75ex; } - p.subhead {text-align: center; - margin-top: 2ex; - font-weight: bold; } - p.foot {margin-top: 2ex; - font-weight: bold; - font-size: 90%; } - p.chap { margin-top: 4ex; - margin-bottom: 1ex; - font-weight: bold; } - p.indent { margin-left: 5%} - p.cite {margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 5%; } - p.citehead {margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 5%; font-weight: bold; text-align: center; } - h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { text-align: center; } - hr { width: 50%; } - hr.full { width: 100%; } - center { padding: 0.8em;} - // --> -</style> -</head> -<body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Dollar Hen, by Milo M. Hastings - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: The Dollar Hen - -Author: Milo M. Hastings - -Release Date: August 22, 2004 [EBook #13254] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DOLLAR HEN *** - - - - -Produced by Roger Taft, grandson of Milo Hastings, -Jim Tinsley, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team. - - - -[Transcriber's Note: This printing had more than its share of typographical -errors. Obvious typos, like "tim" for "time", have been corrected.] - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<div style="height: 8em;"><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br></div> - -<h1> - THE DOLLAR HEN -</h1> -<center><b> - BY -</b></center> -<h2> - MILO M. HASTINGS -</h2> -<center><b> - FORMERLY POULTRYMAN AT<br> - KANSAS EXPERIMENT STATION;<br> - LATER IN CHARGE OF THE COMMERCIAL<br> - POULTRY INVESTIGATION<br> - OF THE UNITED STATES<br> - DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE<br> -</b></center> -<center> -<img src="images/hengraphic.png" alt="Dollar Hen Graphic."> -</center> -<center> - SYRACUSE -</center> -<center> - NATIONAL POULTRY MAGAZINE -</center> -<center> - 1911 -</center> -<center> - COPYRIGHT, 1911, -</center> -<center> - BY -</center> -<center> - NATIONAL POULTRY PUBLISHING COMPANY -</center> - - - - -<hr> - - -<a name="2H_4_0001"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> - -<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> - -<h2> - WHY THIS BOOK WAS WRITTEN -</h2> -<p> -Twenty-five years ago there were in print hundreds of complete -treatises on human diseases and the practice of medicine. -Notwithstanding the size of the book-shelves or the high standing of -the authorities, one might have read the entire medical library of -that day and still have remained in ignorance of the fact that -out-door life is a better cure for consumption than the contents of -a drug store. The medical professor of 1885 may have gone -prematurely to his grave because of ignorance of facts which are -to-day the property of every intelligent man. -</p> -<p> -There are to-day on the book-shelves of agricultural colleges and -public libraries, scores of complete works on "Poultry" and hundreds -of minor writings on various phases of the industry. Let the -would-be poultryman master this entire collection of literature and -he is still in ignorance of facts and principles, a knowledge of -which in better developed industries would be considered prime -necessities for carrying on the business. -</p> -<p> -As a concrete illustration of the above statement, I want to point -to a young man, intelligent, enterprising, industrious, and a -graduate of the best known agricultural college poultry course in -the country. This lad invested some $18,000 of his own and his -friends' money in a poultry plant. The plant was built and the -business conducted in accordance with the plans and principles of -the recognized poultry authorities. To-day the young man is bravely -facing the proposition of working on a salary in another business, -to pay back the debts of honor resulting from his attempt to apply -in practice the teaching of our agricultural colleges and our -poultry bookshelves. -</p> -<p> -The experience just related did not prove disastrous from some -single item of ignorance or oversight; the difficulty was that the -cost of growing and marketing the product amounted to more than the -receipts from its sale. This poultry farm, like the surgeon's -operation, "was successful, but the patient died." -</p> -<p> -The writer's belief in the reality of the situation as above -portrayed warrants him in publishing the present volume. Whether his -criticism of poultry literature is founded on fact or fancy may, -five years after the copyright date of this book, be told by any -unbiased observer. -</p> -<p> -I have written this book for the purpose of assisting in placing the -poultry business on a sound scientific and economic basis. The book -does not pretend to be a complete encyclopedia of information -concerning poultry, but treats only of those phases of poultry -production and marketing upon which the financial success of the -business depends. -</p> -<p> -The reader who is looking for information concerning fancy breeds, -poultry shows, patent processes, patent foods, or patent methods, -will be disappointed, for the object of this book is to help the -poultryman to make money, not to spend it. -</p> -<a name="2H_4_0002"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> - -<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> - -<h2> -HOW TO READ THIS BOOK -</h2> -<p> -Unless the reader has picked up this volume out of idle curiosity, -he will be one of the following individuals: -</p> -<p> -1. A farmer or would-be farmer, who is interested in poultry -production as a portion of the work of general farming. -</p> -<p> -2. A poultryman or would-be poultryman, who wishes to make a -business of producing poultry or eggs for sale as a food product or -as breeding stock. -</p> -<p> -3. A person interested in poultry as a diversion and who enjoys -losing a dollar on his chickens almost as well as earning one. -</p> -<p> -4. A man interested in poultry in the capacity of an editor, teacher -or some one engaged as a manufacturer or dealer in merchandise the -sale of which is dependent upon the welfare of the poultry industry. -</p> -<p> -To the reader of the fourth class I have no suggestions to make save -such as he will find in the suggestions made to others. -</p> -<p> -To the reader of the third class I wish to say that if you are a -shoe salesman, who has spent your evenings in a Brooklyn flat, -drawing up plans for a poultry plant, I have only to apologize for -any interference that this book may cause with your highly -fascinating amusement. -</p> -<p> -To the poultryman already in the business, or to the man who is -planning to engage in the business for reasons equivalent to those -which would justify his entering other occupations of the -semi-technical class, such as dairying, fruit growing or the -manufacture of washing machines, I wish to say it is for you that -"The Dollar Hen" is primarily written. -</p> -<p> -This book does not assume you to be a graduate of a technical -school, but it does bring up discussions and use methods of -illustration that may be unfamiliar to many readers. That such -matter is introduced is because the subject requires it; and if it -is confusing to the student he will do better to master it than to -dodge it. Especially would I call your attention to the diagrams -used in illustrating various statistics. Such diagrams are -technically called "curves." They may at first seem mere crooked -lines, if so I suggest that you get a series of figures in which you -are interested, such as the daily egg yields of your own flock or -your monthly food bills, and "plot" a few curves of your own. After -you catch on you will be surprised at the greater ease with which -the true meaning of a series of figures can be recognized when this -graphic method is used. -</p> -<p> -I wish to call the farmer's attention to the fact that poultry -keeping as an adjunct to general farming, especially to general -farming in the Mississippi Valley, is quite a different proposition -from poultry production as a regular business. Poultry keeping as a -part of farm life and farm enterprise is a thing well worth while in -any section of the United States, whereas poultry keeping, a -separate occupation, requires special location and special -conditions to make it profitable. I would suggest the farmer first -read Chapter XVI, which is devoted to his special conditions. Later -he may read the remainder of the book, but should again consult the -part on farm poultry production before attempting to apply the more -complicated methods to his own needs. -</p> -<p> -Chapter XVI, while written primarily for the farmer, is, because of -the simplicity of its directions, the best general guide for the -beginner in poultry keeping wherever he may be. -</p> -<p> -To the reader in general, I want to say, that the table of contents, -a part of the book which most people never read, is in this volume -so placed and so arranged that it cannot well be avoided. Read it -before you begin the rest of the book, and use it then and -thereafter in guiding you toward the facts that you at the time -particularly want to know. Many people in starting to read a book -find something in the first chapter which does not interest them and -cast aside the work, often missing just the information they are -seeking. The conspicuous arrangement of the contents is for the -purpose of preventing such an occurrence in this case. -</p> - -<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> - -<h2> -WHAT IS IN THIS VOLUME -</h2> - - -<p class="chap"> -<a href="#chapI">CHAPTER I</a> -<p> -IS THERE MONEY IN THE POULTRY BUSINESS?<br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>A Big Business; Growing Bigger</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Less Ham and More Eggs</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Who Gets the Hen Money?</span><br> -</p> - - -<p class="chap"> -<a href="#chapII">CHAPTER II</a> -<p> -WHAT BRANCH OF THE POULTRY BUSINESS?<br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Various Poultry Products</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>The Duck Business</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Squabs Have Been Overdone</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Turkeys not Adapted to Commercial Growing</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Guinea Growing a New Venture</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Geese, the Fame of Watertown</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>The Ill-omened Broiler Business</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>South Shore Roasters</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Too Much Competition in Fancy Poultry</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Egg Farming the Most Certain and Profitable</span><br> -</p> - - -<p class="chap"> -<a href="#chapIII">CHAPTER III</a> -<p> -THE POULTRY PRODUCING COMMUNITY<br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Established Poultry Communities</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Developing Poultry Communities</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Will Co-operation Work?</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Co-operative Egg Marketing in Denmark</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Corporation or Co-operation</span><br> -</p> - - -<p class="chap"> -<a href="#chapIV">CHAPTER IV</a> -<p> -WHERE TO LOCATE<br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Some Poultry Geography</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Chicken Climate</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Suitable Soil</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Marketing—Transportation</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Availability of Water</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>A Few Statistics</span><br> -</p> - - -<p class="chap"> -<a href="#chapV">CHAPTER V</a> -<p> -THE DOLLAR HEN FARM<br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>The Plan of Housing</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>The Feeding System</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Water Systems</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Out-door Accommodations</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Equipment for Chick Rearing</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Twenty-five Acre Poultry Farms</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Five Acre Poultry Farms</span><br> -</p> - - -<p class="chap"> -<a href="#chapVI">CHAPTER VI</a> -<p> -INCUBATION<br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Fertility of Eggs</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>The Wisdom of the Egyptians</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Principles of Incubation</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Moisture and Evaporation</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Ventilation—Carbon Dioxide</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Turning Eggs</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Cooling Eggs</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Searching for the "Open Sesame" of Incubation</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>The Box Type of Incubator in Actual Use</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>The Future of Incubation</span><br> -</p> - - -<p class="chap"> -<a href="#chapVII">CHAPTER VII</a> -<p> -FEEDING<br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Conventional Food Chemistry</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>How the Hen Unbalances Balanced Rations</span><br> -</p> - - -<p class="chap"> -<a href="#chapVIII">CHAPTER VIII</a> -<p> -DISEASES<br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Don't Doctor Chickens</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>The Causes of Poultry Diseases</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Chicken Cholera</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Roup</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Chicken-pox, Gapes, Limber-neck</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Lice and Mites</span><br> -</p> - - -<p class="chap"> -<a href="#chapIX">CHAPTER IX</a> -<p> -POULTRY FLESH AND POULTRY FATTENING<br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Crate Fattening</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Caponizing</span><br> -</p> - - -<p class="chap"> -<a href="#chapX">CHAPTER X</a> -<p> -MARKETING POULTRY CARCASSES<br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Farm Grown Chickens</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>The Special Poultry Plant</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Suggestions From Other Countries</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Cold Storage of Poultry</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Drawn or Undrawn Fowls</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Poultry Inspection</span><br> -</p> - - -<p class="chap"> -<a href="#chapXI">CHAPTER XI</a> -<p> -QUALITY IN EGGS<br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Grading Eggs</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>How Eggs are Spoiled</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Egg Size Table</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>The Loss Due to Carelessness</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Requisites of Producing High Grade Eggs</span><br> -</p> - - -<p class="chap"> -<a href="#chapXII">CHAPTER XII</a> -<p> -HOW EGGS ARE MARKETED<br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>The Country Merchant</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>The Huckster</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>The Produce Buyer</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>The City Distribution of Eggs</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Cold Storage of Eggs</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Preserving Eggs Out of Cold Storage</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Improved Methods of Marketing Farm-Grown Eggs</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>The High Grade Egg Business</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Buying Eggs by Weight</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>The Retailing of Eggs by the Producer</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>The Price of Eggs</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>N.Y. Mercantile Exchange, Official Quotations</span><br> -</p> - - -<p class="chap"> -<a href="#chapXIII">CHAPTER XIII</a> -<p> -BREEDS OF CHICKENS<br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Breed Tests</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>The Hen's Ancestors</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>What Breed?</span><br> -</p> - - -<p class="chap"> -<a href="#chapXIV">CHAPTER XIV</a> -<p> -PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC BREEDING<br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Breeding as an Art</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Scientific Theories of Breeding</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Breeding for Egg Production</span><br> -</p> - - -<p class="chap"> -<a href="#chapXV">CHAPTER XV</a> -<p> -EXPERIMENT STATION WORK<br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>The Stations Leading in Poultry Work</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>The Story of the "Big Coon"</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Important Experimental Results at the Illinois Station</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Experimental Bias</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>The Egg Breeding Work at the Maine Station</span><br> -</p> - - -<p class="chap"> -<a href="#chapXVI">CHAPTER XVI</a> -<p> -POULTRY ON THE GENERAL FARM<br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Best Breeds for the Farm</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Keep Only Workers</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Hatching Chicks with Hens</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Incubators on the Farm</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Rearing Chicks</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Feeding Laying Hens</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Cleanliness</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Farm Chicken Houses</span><br> -</p> - -<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> - -<h1> -THE DOLLAR HEN -</h1> -<a name="2HCH0002"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> - -<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> - -<h2> -<a name="chapI"> -CHAPTER I -</a> -</h2> -<h3> -IS THERE MONEY IN THE POULTRY BUSINESS? -</h3> -<p> -The chicken business is big. No one knows how big it is and no one -can find out. The reason it is hard to find out is because so many -people are engaged in it and because the chicken crop is sold, not -once a year, but a hundred times a year. -</p> -<p> -Statistics are guesses. True statistics are the sum of little -guesses, but often figures published as statistics are big guesses -by a guesser who is big enough to have his guess accepted. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -A Big Business; Growing Bigger -</p> -<p> -The only real statistics for the poultry crop of the United States -are those of the Federal Census. At this writing these statistics -are nine years old and somewhat out of date. The value of poultry -and eggs in 1899, according to the census figures, was $291,000,000. -Is this too big or too little? I don't know. If the reader wishes to -know let him imagine the census enumerator asking a farmer the value -of the poultry and eggs which he has produced the previous year. -Would the farmer's guess be too big or too small? -</p> -<p> -From these census figures as a base, estimates have been made for -later years. The Secretary of Agriculture, or, speaking more -accurately, a clerk in the Statistical Bureau of the Department of -Agriculture, says the poultry and egg crop for 1907 was over -$600,000,000. -</p> -<p> -The best two sources of information known to the writer by which -this estimate may be checked are the receipts of the New York market -and the annual "Value of Poultry and Eggs Sold," as given by the -Kansas State Board of Agriculture. -</p> -<a name="image-0001"><!--IMG--></a> -<center> -<img src="images/hen014.png" alt="Plate I. Page 14. Graph - is There Money in Poultry?"> -</center> -<!--IMAGE END--> -<p> -In plate I the top curve a-a gives the average spring price of -Western first eggs in the New York market. The curve b-b gives the -annual receipts of eggs at New York in millions of cases. Now, since -value equals quantity multiplied by price, and since the quantity -and values of poultry are closely correlated to those of eggs, the -product of these two figures is a fair means of showing the rate of -increase in the value of the poultry crop. Starting with the census -value of $291,000,000 for the year 1899, we thus find that by 1907 -the amount is very close to $700,000,000. This is represented by the -lower line. -</p> -<p> -The value of the poultry and eggs sold in Kansas have increased as -follows: -</p> -<table align="center" width="30%" summary="value of poultry and eggs in Kansas"> -<tr><td align="right">Year</td> <td align="right">Value</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">1903</td> <td align="right">$ 6,498,856</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">1904</td> <td align="right">7,551,871</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">1905</td> <td align="right">8,541,153</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">1906</td> <td align="right">9,085,896</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">1907</td> <td align="right">10,300,082</td></tr> -</table> -<p> -The dotted line e-e represents the increase in the national poultry -and egg crop estimated from the Kansas figures. Evidently the -estimate given in Secretary Wilson's report was not excessive. -</p> -<p> -Now, I want to call the reader's attention to some relations about -which there can be no doubt and which are even more significant. The -straight line c-c in Plate 1 represents the rate of increase of -population in this country. The line b-b represents the rate of -increase in egg receipts at New York. As the country data backs up -the New York figures, the conclusion is inevitable that the -production of poultry and eggs is increasing much more rapidly than -is our population. -</p> -<p> -"Over-production," I hear the pessimist cry, but unfortunately for -Friend Pessimist, we have a gauge on the over-production idea that -lays all fears to rest. When the supply of any commodity increases -faster than the demand, we have over-production and falling prices. -Vice-versa, under-production is shown by a rising price. That prices -of poultry and eggs have risen and risen rapidly, has already been -shown. -</p> -<p> -"But prices of all products have risen," says one. Very true, but by -statistics with which I will not burden the reader, I find that -prices of poultry products have risen more rapidly than the average -rise in values of all commodities. This shows that poultry products -are really more in demand and more valuable, not apparently so. -Moreover, the rise in the price of poultry products has been much -more pronounced than the average rise in the price of all food -products, which proves the growing demand for poultry and eggs to be -a real growing demand, not a turning to poultry products because of -the high price of other foods, as is sometimes stated. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Less Ham and More Eggs. -</p> -<p> -Certainly we, as a nation, are rapidly becoming eaters of hens and -of hen fruit. Reasons are not hard to find. Poultry and eggs are the -most palatable, most wholesome, most convenient of foods. Our -demands for the products of the poultry yard grows because we are -learning to like them, and because our prosperity has grown and we -can afford them. -</p> -<p> -Another reason that the consumption of eggs is growing is because -the condition in which they reach the consumer is improving. The -writer may say some pretty hard things in this work about the -condition of poultry and eggs as they are now marketed, but any -old-timer in the business will tell you stories of things as they -used to be that will easily explain why our fathers ate more ham and -less eggs. -</p> -<p> -Yet another reason why the per capita consumption of hens as -measured in pounds or dollars increases, is that the hen herself has -increased in size; whereas John when he was Johnnie ate a two-ounce -drumstick, now Johnnie eats an analogous piece that weighs three -ounces. Perhaps, also, we have a growing respect for the law of -Moses, or may be vegetarians who think that eggs grow on egg plants -are becoming more numerous. -</p> -<p> -Our consumption of pork per capita has, in the last half century, -diminished by half, our consumption of beef has remained stationary, -but our consumption of poultry and eggs has doubled itself, we know -not how many times, for a half century ago the ancestor of the -industrious hen of this age serenely scratched up grandmother's -geraniums and was unmolested by the statisticians. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Who Gets the Hen Money? -</p> -<p> -Seven hundred millions of dollars is a lot of money. Who gets it? -There are no Rockefellers or Armours in the hen business. It is the -people's business. Why? Because the nature of the business is such -that it cannot be centralized. Land and intelligent labor, prompted -by the spirit of ownership, is necessary to succeed in the hen -business. Land the captains of industry have not monopolized, and -labor imbued with the spirit of ownership they cannot monopolize. -The chicken business is, in dollars, one of the biggest industries -in the country. In numbers of those engaged in it, the chicken -business is the biggest industry in the world—I bar none. Why is -this true? Primarily because the hen is a natural part of the -equipment of every farm and of many village homes as well. It is -these millions of small flocks that count up in dollars and men and -give such an immense aggregate. -</p> -<p> -More than ninety-eight per cent. of the poultry and eggs of the -country are produced on the general farm. The remaining one or two -per cent. are produced on farms or plants where chicken culture is -the cash crop or chief business of the farmer. It is this business, -relatively small, though actually a matter of millions, that is -commonly spoken of as the poultry business, and about which our -chief interest centers. A farmer can disregard all knowledge and all -progress and still keep chickens, but the man who has no other means -of a livelihood must produce chicken products efficiently, or fail -altogether—hence the greater interest in this portion of the -industry. -</p> -<p> -The poultry business as a business to occupy a man's time and earn -him a livelihood, is a thing of recent origin and was little heard -of before 1890. Since that time it has undergone a somewhat painful, -though steady growth. Many people have lost money in the business -and have given it up in disgust, but on a whole the business has -progressed wonderfully, and now shows features of development that -are clearly beyond the experimental stage and are undoubtedly here -to stay. -</p> -<p> -The suggestion has been made by those who have failed or have seen -others fail in the poultry business, that success was impossible -because of the destructive competition of the farmer, whose expense -of production is small. Herein lies a great truth and a great error. -The farmer's cost of production is small, much smaller than that on -most of the book-made poultry farms—but the inference that the -poultryman's cost of production cannot be lowered below that of the -farmer is a different statement. -</p> -<p> -The farm of our grandfather was a very diversified institution. It -contained in miniature a woolen mill, a packing house, a cheese -factory, perhaps a shoe factory and a blacksmith shop. One by one -these industries have been withdrawn from general farm-life, and -established as independent businesses. Likewise our dairy farms, our -fruit farms, and our market gardens have been segregated from the -general farm. This simply means that manufacturing cloth, or cheese, -or producing milk, or tomatoes can be done at less cost in separate -establishments than upon a general farm. -</p> -<p> -The general farm will always grow poultry for home consumption, and -will always have some surplus to sell. With the surplus, the -poultryman must compete. His only hope of successful competition is -production at lower cost. Can this be done? It is being done, and -the numbers of people who are doing it are increasing, but they -spend little money at poultry shows, or with the advertisers of -poultry papers, and hence are little heard of in the poultry world. -</p> -<p> -The people whose names and faces are in the poultry papers are -frequently there only while their money lasts. They write long -articles and show pictures of many houses and yards to prove that -there is money in the poultry business, but if one should keep their -names and put the question to them five years hence, a great many -could say, "Yes, there is money in the poultry business; mine is in -it." -</p> -<p> -Such people and such plants do not get the cost of production down -below the farmer's level. Between these two classes of poultry -plants, the writer hopes in this work to show the distinction. -</p> -<a name="2HCH0003"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> - -<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> - -<h2> -<a name="chapII"> -CHAPTER II -</a> -</h2> -<h3> -WHAT BRANCH OF THE POULTRY BUSINESS? -</h3> -<p> -The chicken business is especially prone to failure from a disregard -of the common essential relation of cost and selling price necessary -to the success of any business. That this should be more true of the -poultry business than of any other undertakings is to be explained -by the facts that as a business, it is new, that many of those who -engage in it are inexperienced, but most particularly because -practically all the literature published on the subject has been -written by or written in the interest of those who had something to -sell to the poultryman. As a result the figures of production are -generally given higher than the facts warrant. The investor, be he -ever so shrewd a man, builds upon these promises and when he finds -his production lower, is caught with an excessive investment and a -complicated system on his hands, which make all profits impossible -and which cannot readily be adapted to the new conditions. -</p> -<p> -Estimates of poultry profits are quite common, but there are few -published figures showing the results that are actually obtained -under practical working conditions. In this volume I will try to -give the facts of what is being and can be actually accomplished. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Various Poultry Products. -</p> -<p> -In considering the poultry industry we must first get some idea of -the various articles produced for sale. -</p> -<p> -It is common knowledge that the large meat packer can undersell the -small packer because the by-products, such as bristles, which are -wasted by the local killer, are a source of income to the large -packer. Now, this does not infer that the small packer is shiftless -and neglects to save his bristles, but that on the scale on which he -operates it would cost him more to save the bristles than he could -realize on them. -</p> -<p> -So it is with poultry farming. For illustration: A visionary writer -in a leading poultry paper, not long ago, advised poultrymen to -store eggs. In reality this would be the height of folly, unless the -poultryman had his own retail store. In the first place profit on -cold storage eggs, when all expenses are paid, will not average a -half a cent a dozen; in the second place, the small lot would be -relatively troublesome and expensive to handle, and in the third -place, small lots of cold storage eggs are looked upon with -suspicion and do not find ready sale. So we see that cold storage -eggs are not a suitable product for the small poultryman to handle. -</p> -<p> -A second illustration of an ill-chosen combination might be taken in -the case of a duck farmer who attempts to produce broilers. The -principal difficulty of the duck business is that of getting -sufficient intelligent labor in the rush season. The chief expense -of investment is for incubators and brooder houses. If the duck -farmer now tries to add broilers, he will find that the labor comes -at the same time of the year, that the chief equipment required is -that which is already crowded by the duck business, and that of the -men who have succeeded moderately well in caring for ducks will fail -altogether with the young chicks, which do not thrive under the same -machine-like methods. -</p> -<p> -On the other hand, let us take the example of an egg farm man who -has resolved to combine his attention wholly to the production of -market eggs. He succeeds well in his work and is visited by the -poultry editors. His picture, the picture of his chickens and of his -chicken houses, are printed in the poultry papers. For a reasonable -sum invested in advertising and in exhibition at the shows, this man -could now double his income by going into the breeding stock -business. To refuse to spread out in this case would certainly be -foolish. -</p> -<p> -The following classification of the sales products of the poultry -industry is given as a basis for farther consideration. -</p> -<center> -CHICKENS. -</center> -<p> -For food purposes: -</p> -<p class="indent"> -Eggs. -</p> -<p class="indent"> -Hens, after laying has been finished. -</p> -<p class="indent"> -Cockerels, necessarily hatched in hatching pullets for layers. -(Sold as squab broilers, regular broilers, springs, -roasters or capons.) -</p> -<p class="indent"> -Both sexes as squab broilers, broilers or roasters. -</p> -<p> -For stock purposes: -</p> -<p class="indent"> -Eggs for hatching. -</p> -<p class="indent"> -Day-old chicks. -</p> -<p class="indent"> -Mature fowls. -</p> -<center> -DUCKS. -</center> -<p> -For table—green or spring ducks. -</p> -<p class="indent"> - By-products, old ducks and duck feathers. -</p> -<p> -For breeding-stock. -</> -<center> -GEESE. -</center> -<center> -Food, Feathers, Breeders. -</center> -<center> -TURKEYS. -</center> -<center> -Food, Breeders. -</center> -<center> -PIGEONS. -</center> -<center> -Squabs, Breeding Stock. -</center> -<center> -GUINEAS. -</center> -<center> -Broilers, Mature Fowls. -</center> -<p> -I will now discuss these products more in detail. Poultry, other -than chickens, I do not care to discuss at length, because it is not -for the purpose of the book, and because the demand for other kinds -of poultry is limited and the chance for the growth of the business -small. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -The Duck Business. -</p> -<p> -The duck business is the most highly commercialized at the present -time of any branch of the poultry business. The duck is the oldest -domestic bird and was hatched by artificial incubation in China, -when our ancestors were gnawing raw bones in the caves of Europe. -The duck is the most domestic of birds and will thrive under more -machine-like methods and without that touch of nature and of the -owner's kindly interest so necessary to the welfare of the fowls of -the gallinaceous order. The green duck business is about twenty -years old and has become an established business in every sense of -the word. The largest plants now produce about one hundred thousand -ducks per annum. The profits at present are not large even for the -most successful plants, because the demand is limited and the -production has reached such a point that cost of production and -selling price bear a definite relation as in all established -businesses. The green duck business is not an easy one for the -novice because the margin between cost (chiefly food cost) and -selling price is low, and unless the new man can reduce the cost of -production or raise his selling price in some way, he will have no -advantage over the old and successful firms. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Squab Business Overdone. -</p> -<p> -The business of producing pigeon squabs resembles the duck business -in the sense that it has been reduced to a successful system. The -production of squabs has grown until the demand is satisfied and the -price has fallen to just that figure that will continue to bring in -a sufficient number of squabs from the plants which are already -established, or which continue to be established by those who do not -stop to investigate the relation between the cost of production and -the prevailing prices. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Turkeys Not a Commercial Success. -</p> -<p> -In the case of turkeys, we find exactly opposite conditions. The -price of turkeys has risen with the price of chickens and eggs, -until one would think that there would be great money in the -business, and there is, for the motherly farm wife who has the knack -of bringing the little turks through the danger of delicate -babyhood. But just as the duck is more domesticated than the -chicken, so the turkey, which yet closely resembles its wild -ancestor, is less domestic and has as yet failed to surrender to the -ways of commercial reasoning, the chief factor of which is -artificial brooding. -</p> -<p> -The presence of a disease called blackhead has done vast injury to -the turkey industry in the northeastern section of the country. In -the South the industry has been booming. Especially in Tennessee and -Texas, I found great local pride in the turkey crop. I certainly -would advise any farm wife, in sections where blackhead does not -prevail, to try her hand at turkey raising. As to her advisability -of continuance in the business, the number of turkeys at the end of -the season will be the best judge. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Guinea Growing a New Venture. -</p> -<p> -The guinea growing business is the newest of the poultry industries. -In fact, it may be said of guineas, as of our grandmother's -tomatoes, "Folks had them around without knowing they were of any -use." The new use for guineas is as a substitute for game. Guinea -broilers make quail-on-toast and older ones are good for grouse, -prairie chicken or pheasant. The retail price in the large cities -runs as high as $1.50 to $2.00 a pair. It will probably not pay to -raise them unless one is sure of receiving as much as 50 cents each. -As for the rearing of guineas, they may be considered on a parallel -case with turkeys, if anything they are even more difficult to raise -in large quantities. I would also advise this additional precaution: -Look up the market in the locality before attempting guinea rearing. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Geese—the Fame of Watertown. -</p> -<p> -As for the goose business, the writer must admit that he doesn't -know much about it. In fact, the most of my knowledge concerning -this business was acquired by a visit to Watertown, Wis., which is -the center of the noodled goose industry -</p> -<p> -The Watertown geese are fed by hand every two hours day and night. -They sell to the Hebrew trade at as much per pound as the goose -weighs, and have brought as high as $14.00 apiece. All of this is -interesting, but I hold that the reader who is willing to take -instruction will do better to be guided toward those branches of the -poultry industry for the products of which there is a great and -increasing demand. So we will leave the goose and guinea business to -the venturesome spirits and consider the various branches of the -chicken industry. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -The Ill-omened Broiler Business. -</p> -<p> -The broiler business stands to-day as the ill-omened valley in the -poultry landscape. As a rule broiler production has not and probably -will not pay. I know of a few exceptions—about enough to prove the -rule. -</p> -<p> -Most poultry writers, when they make the statement that broilers do -not pay, insert the phrase "As an exclusive business" after the word -broilers. This is merely a ruse to take the rough edge off an -unpleasant statement, for it certainly hurts the poultry editor to -admit that a much exploited branch of the industry is a failure. -Nevertheless it is a failure and the more frankly we admit the fact, -the less good capital and good brains will be wasted in the attempt -to produce at a profit something which is, and probably always will -be, produced at a loss. -</p> -<p> -The reason the broiler is produced at a loss is that 95 per cent. of -the broilers produced are a by-product of egg, fancy and general -poultry production, and as such their selling price is not -determined by the cost of production, or the supply determined by -the demand. That the broiler business received the boom that it did, -is due to plain ignorance of the cost of production, or to the -appreciation that the ability to rear young chicks could find a more -profitable outlet than in broiler production. Let us take an -analogous case. Suppose a city man should discover the fact that -there was a demand for dried casein from skim milk. With pencil and -paper he could easily figure profits in the business. If this -dreamer would attempt to keep cows for the production of casein and -throw away his butter fat, we would have an analogous case to the -broiler raiser who does not keep his pullets for egg production. -</p> -<p> -The young cockerel, like skim milk, is a by-product and may pay over -the cost of feeding, or some other specific item, but that he does -not pay the whole cost, including wages for the manager is proven by -two facts: First, every large broiler plant yet started has either -failed flatly or shifted its main line to other things; second, egg -farmers would be only too glad to buy pullets at the price for which -they sell the cockerels—a confession that it costs more to produce -broilers than they will bring. -</p> -<p> -The conception of the broiler business when it was boomed twenty -years ago was to produce broilers in early spring, when other folks -had none. It was, like the early watermelon, or the early strawberry -business—to make its profits in extreme prices. -</p> -<p> -This idea received several severe blows from the hands of modern -progress. One is the development of poultry fattening and crate -feeding in this country. This has resulted in supplying the consumer -with choice chicken-flesh that can be produced more economically -than broilers. Formerly it was a case of eating old hen—rooster, -age unknown, or broilers—now we have capon, roaster, crate-fattened -chickens and green ducks, all rivals for the place formerly occupied -exclusively by the broiler. -</p> -<p> -Again, the improvement of shipping and dressing facilities, the -universal introduction of the refrigerator car and the introduction -into the central west of the American breeds, has flooded the -eastern market with a large amount of spring chickens—by-products -of the egg business on the farm—which are almost equal in quality -to the down-eastern product. -</p> -<p> -The most prominent reason of the lessened profit in broilers is the -development of the cold storage industry. Cold storage destroys the -element of season, and allows only that margin of profit that the -consumer is willing to pay for a fresh killed broiler from a Jersey -broiler plant, as compared with last summer's product from the Iowa -farms. From a summer copy of Farm Poultry, I quote the Boston -market: -</p> -<table align="center" width="70%" summary="Cold storage vs fresh"> -<tr><td colspan="3">Fresh killed Northern and Eastern:</td></tr> -<tr><td> </td><td>Fowls, choice</td><td align="right">15c</td></tr> -<tr><td> </td><td>Broilers, choice to fancy</td><td align="right">23-25c</td></tr> -<tr><td>Western, ice packed:</td></tr> -<tr><td> </td><td>Fowls, choice</td><td align="right"> 14c</td></tr> -<tr><td> </td><td>Broilers, choice</td><td align="right"> 20-22c</td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="3">Western frozen:</td></tr> -<tr><td> </td><td>Fowls, choice</td><td align="right"> 14c</td></tr> -<tr><td> </td><td>Broilers, choice</td><td align="right"> 18-20c</td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="3">Eggs:</td></tr> -<tr><td> </td><td>Nearly fancy</td><td align="right"> 26c</td></tr> -<tr><td> </td><td>Western choice</td><td align="right"> 17-1/2--18-1/2c</td></tr> -</table> -<p> -To complete our comparison I turn to the previous winter and find -that the best storage eggs are quoted at 19c, when the best fresh -are selling at 35c. This was a poor storage season and a quotation -of 22c and 25c would perhaps be a fairer comparative figure. We find -the per cent. of premium on the local product to be: -</p> -<table align="center" width="70%" summary="% premium"> -<tr><td>Fowls, local over fresh western</td> <td align="right">7 per cent.</td></tr> -<tr><td>Fowls, local over frozen western</td> <td align="right">7 per cent.</td></tr> -<tr><td>Broilers, local over fresh western</td> <td align="right">14 per cent.</td></tr> -<tr><td>Broilers, local over frozen western</td> <td align="right">26 per cent.</td></tr> -<tr><td>Eggs, local over fresh western</td> <td align="right">30 per cent.</td></tr> -<tr><td>Eggs, local over storage western</td> <td align="right">37 per cent.</td></tr> -</table> -<p> -I consider these general facts concerning the failure of broiler -production, and the logical explanations given, as far more -convincing than any figures I could give concerning the detailed -cost of production. Nor am I capable of giving as accurate figures -as I can in the case of poultry keeping for egg production, for I -have had neither the desire nor the opportunity to look them up. The -following suggestive analysis I submit for the purpose of pointing -out why the cost of production is too great to allow a profit. We -may consider the chick marketing as May, the weight as 1-1/4, and -the price as 35 cents a pound, or, putting it roundly a price of 50 -cents a bird. -</p> -<p> -Now, May broilers mean February eggs. If the reader will refer to -the tables of hatchability and mortality he will see that for our -northern states this is one of the worst seasons for hatching. A -hatchability of 40 per cent. times a liveability of 50 per cent. -gives a net liveability of 20 per cent. Now, anyone with the ability -to produce high grade eggs at that time a year, could get about 40c -a dozen for them, which raises the egg cost per broiler to about 17 -cents. The feed cost per broiler is small, usually estimated at 12 -cents, and this makes a cost of 29 cents. Now, let us allow a cent -for expense of selling charges and forget all about investment, fuel -and incidentals, we have left a margin of 20 cents. -</p> -<p> -Before going farther let us look at the labor bill. Suppose it is a -one-man plant. Suppose the owner sets a value on his services of -$1,200 per annum. That is pretty good, but few men who set a lower -value on their services will have accumulated enough capital to go -into the business. At 20 cents each it will take 6,000 broilers to -make $1,200. That will take 30,000 eggs and at three settings will -require 40 240-egg incubators, which, of a good make, will cost -$1,260. To spread the hatching out over a longer period is to run -into cheap prices on the one hand, or a still impossible egg season -on the other. It will take upwards of a hundred brooders to house -the chicks. -</p> -<p> -There is no use of going farther till we have solved these -difficulties. First we have more work than one man can do; second, -we require a number of hatchable eggs that cannot be bought in -winter without a campaign of advertising and canvassing for them, -that would make them cost double our previous figure. To produce -them oneself would require a flock of 2,500 hens. When a man gets to -that point in the business he is out of the broiler business and an -egg farmer, and will do the same thing, hatch the chicks when eggs -are cheap and fertile, selling his surplus cockerels for 25 cents -each and permit the storage man to freeze them until the following -spring to compete with the broiler man's expensively produced goods. -</p> -<p> -The effort at early broiler production was a natural result of the -combination of the idea of artificial incubation with our -grandmother's pride in having the first setting hen. But in the -present age the man who attempts it is rowing against the current of -economical production, for the cheaply produced broiler can be -stored until the season of scarcity, with but slight loss in -quality. To produce broilers in the season of scarcity, necessitates -the consumption of a product (eggs) which cannot be so successfully -stored, with a lesser quantity of that same product in its season of -plenty. We will give the production of broilers no further attention -save as a by-product of egg production. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -South Shore Roaster. -</p> -<p> -The production of South Shore soft roasters in a local section of -Massachusetts, offers a successful contrast with the broiler -business and is, so far as the writer knows, the only case in the -United States where pullets are profitably diverted from egg -production. The process of roaster production is essentially as -follows: -</p> -<p> -The incubators are set in the fall or early winter, and the chicks -reared in brooder houses. As soon as the tender age is past, the -chickens are put in simple colony houses where, with hopper fed -corn, beef scrap and rye on the range, they grow throughout the -winter and spring. They are sold from May 1st to July 1st and bring -such prices that the cockerels are caponized yet not sold as capons, -showing them to be the highest priced chicken flesh in the market -save small broilers. Now, the income of roasters is two to five -times as much per head as that of broilers. The added expense is -only a matter of feed, which bears about the same ratio to weight as -with broilers. The great advantage of the roaster business over that -of the broiler business comes in the following points: -</p> -<p> -1st: The initial expense of eggs, incubation and brooding are -distributed over a much larger final valuation. -</p> -<p> -2nd: The incubation period, while perhaps in as difficult a -season, can be distributed over a longer period of time. -</p> -<p> -With 8 pound roasters at 30 cents, we have an expense account about -as follows: cost of production to broiler stage, 30 cents as -previously given. An additional food cost of 10 cents per pound of -chicken flesh would still leave a margin of $1.40, so, for an income -of $1,200, only about 860 birds need be raised, a proposition not -beyond the capacity of one man to handle. -</p> -<p> -Allowing a spread of five hatching periods, the number of eggs -required at once would be one-twelfth that demanded by the broiler -farm. As it is, the roaster grower finds trouble in getting good -eggs and is obliged to pay 50 cents a dozen for them, but his want -is within the region of possibility. -</p> -<p> -The South Shore roaster district is an example of an industry built -up by specialization and co-operation. But in this sense I do not -mean co-operation in production, but that the product is handled by -a few dealers and has become well known so that the brand sells -readily at an advanced price. To a beginner in the South Shore -district, the numerous successes and failures around him cannot help -but be of great benefit. The South Shore roaster district of -Massachusetts is the best example of specialized community -production of poultry flesh that we have in the United States. It is -only rivaled by the districts in the south of England and in France. -</p> -<p> -In Chapter III the writer takes up fully the community production of -eggs. The reason I have gone into this matter in regard to eggs -rather than roasters, is because the egg production is much the -greater industry, and, whereas the soft roaster is at a premium only -in a few Boston shops, high grade eggs are universally recognized -and in demand. Many of the economies, especially concerning -incubation, would apply equally well in both communities. I expect -to see the time when chicken flesh shall be produced with these more -advanced methods in many "South Shore" communities. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Too Much Competition in Fancy Poultry. -</p> -<p> -The various types of chicken farming are classified by what is made -the leading sales product. This will depend wholly upon what is done -with the female chicks that are hatched. If they are sold as -broilers it is a broiler plant; if as roasters, it is a roaster -plant; if as stock, it is a fancy or breeding stock business, but if -kept for laying the proposition is an egg farm, and all other -products are by-products. These by-products are to be carefully -considered, and sold at the greatest possible price, but their -production is incidental to the production of the main crop. -</p> -<p> -Of the fancy poultry business as a main issue it must be said that -it is certainly a poor policy to start out to make a living doing -what hundreds of other people are only too glad to spend money in -doing. Just as a homeless girl in a great city is beaten out in the -struggle for existence by competition with girls who have good -homes, and are working for chocolate money, so the man starting out -as a poultry fancier is certainly working at great odds in -competition with the professional men, farmers and poultry raisers -whose income from fancy stock is meant to buy Christmas presents and -not to pay grocery bills. -</p> -<p> -To enter the fancy poultry business, one should take up poultry -breeding in a small way, while working at another occupation, or he -may take up commercial poultry production, learn to produce stock in -large quantities and at a low productive cost, after which any -breeding stock business he may secure will be added profit. The -fancier will find the cost of production as given for commercial -purposes very instructive, but if he operates in a small way he -should expect to find his productive costs increased unless he -chooses to count his own labor as of little or no value. That every -chicken fancier also has in a small way commercial products to sell, -goes without saying. These, indeed, together with his sales of -high-priced stock, may pull him through with a total profit, even -though his production cost is great, but every fancier should take a -pride in making the sales at commercial rates pay for their cost of -production. -</p> -<p> -If the reader has received the impression from the present -discussion that fancy poultry breeding always proves unprofitable, -he certainly has failed to get the key-note of the situation. There -are numbers of fancy poultry breeders making incomes of several -thousand dollars per year, but these are old breeders and well-known -men. -</p> -<p> -There is another type of poultry fancier who is more commercial in -his methods, but whose work lacks the personal enthusiasm and -artistic touch of the regular fancier. I refer to the band wagon -style of breeder who gets out a general catalog in which are -pictured acres of poultry yards with fences as straight as the -draughtsman's rule can make them. Such men do a big business. They -may carry a part or all of the breeding stock on a central poultry -plant and farm out the eggs, contracting to buy back the stock in -the fall, or the poultry farm may be a myth and the manager may -simply sell the product of the neighboring farmers who raise it -under contract. -</p> -<p> -The system is naturally disliked by the higher class fanciers, but -the writer must confess that any system which gets improved stock -distributed among the farmers is worthy of praise. These types of -poultry farms have been more largely carried on in the West than in -the East, owing to the fact that true fanciers are thicker in the -East. There is undoubtedly still plenty of room for band wagon -poultry plants in the West and especially in the South. -</p> -<p> -As adjuncts of this business may be mentioned the sale of a line of -poultry supplies and the handling of other pet stock, such as dogs -or Shetland ponies. In this case the advantage of such additions -depends upon the fact that the greatest cost is that of advertising, -and, if anything that will be associated in the buyer's mind with -the main article be added to the catalog, it will result in -additional sales at a low rate of advertising cost. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Egg Farming the Most Certain and Profitable. -</p> -<p> -We have now discussed all the branches of the poultry business save -that of egg production, and the result of our review indicates that -most of these fields are either of limited opportunities or that -they present obstacles in the very nature of the work that prevent -their being conducted on a large scale. -</p> -<p> -Egg production is undoubtedly the most promising and profitable -branch of the poultry industries. The chief reason that this is true -is to be found in the fact that the most difficult feature in -chicken growing is the rearing of young stock through the brooding -period. Now, as the eggs laid by a hen are worth several times the -value of her carcass, it stands to reason that once we succeed in -rearing pullets, egg farming must be the most profitable business to -engage in. -</p> -<p> -For each hen that passes through a laying period there is -her own carcass, and at least one cockerel, that are necessarily -produced and that must be marketed. Now, the pullet is worth more -for egg producing than can be realized for her as a broiler or -roaster, and her extra worth may be considered as counter-balancing -the price at which cockerels must be sold. -</p> -<p> -The egg crop represents about two-thirds of the value of all poultry -products, and the demand for the high grade goods has never been -satisfied. Egg farming cannot easily be overdone, whereas any other -type of poultry production must compete with the cockerels and hens -that are a by-product of egg farming. -</p> -<p> -Egg farming by no means relieves one from the difficulties of -incubation and growing young stock, but it does throw these -difficult parts of the business at the natural season of the year -and results in a distribution of work throughout a longer period of -time. -</p> -<p> -In the remainder of the volume we will consider the poultryman as an -egg farmer. We will also, unless otherwise stated, assume that he is -a White Leghorn egg farmer, who is hatching by artificial -incubation. Such reference to the marketing of poultry flesh or to -other breeds will be made only in comparison of this type of the -business or in relation to the production or handling of farm-grown -poultry. -</p> -<a name="2HCH0004"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> - -<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> - -<h2> -<a name="chapIII"> -CHAPTER III -</a> -</h2> -<h3> -THE POULTRY PRODUCING COMMUNITY -</h3> -<p> -The builder of air castles in Poultrydom invariably starts out with -a resumé of the specialization of the world's work and the wonderful -advances in the economy of production of the large corporate -organization, compared with the individual producer. -</p> -<p> -The lone blacksmith hammering out a horseshoe nail is contrasted -with the mills of the American Steel Company. The fond dreamer looks -upon the steel trust, the oil trust, the department store, the -packing house, the chain groceries, the theatrical trust, and the -colossal enterprises that dominate every field of industry save -agriculture. Here, then, lies the neglected opportunity for the -industrial dreamer to hop over the fence, awaken the sleeping -farmer, and fill his own purse with the wealth to be made by -applying modern business methods to agriculture. -</p> -<p> -The knowing smile—the farmer may be asleep and he may not be. -Suppose that he is, does the fond dreamer dream that he is the first -man from the industrial kingdom of great things to look with hungry -eyes at the rich field of agricultural opportunity, basking in last -century's sun? Alas, fond dreamer, your name is legion. Every farmer -who has sent a son to college has known you and the Hon. William -Jennings Bryan has met you, called you an agriculturist and defined -you as a man who makes his money in town and spends it in the -country. -</p> -<p> -But the dreamer is right in his first premise—great economies in -production are the result of specialization and combination. Why not -then in agriculture? I'll tell you why. There is a touch of nature -in the living thing that calls for a closer interest on the part of -the laborer than the industrial system of the mine and factory can -give. -</p> -<p> -Why is combined and specialized production more economical? It may -be because it gets more efficient work out of labor, it may be that -larger operations make feasible the employment of more efficient -methods and machinery. The cost of production may be lowered, by -either or both of these means, or it may be lowered by an increased -efficiency in machinery, even with a decreased efficiency in labor. -</p> -<p> -Combination and specialization so commonly cut down expenses because -of large operations and the use of better tools, that we may take -this saving for granted. When it comes to labor there is a different -story. The negro working with boss and gang, or the machine-tender -in the factory work as well or better for large than for small -concerns, but the labor of a poultry plant is different. It is made -up of a great many different operations well scattered in space and -time. For the most part it is simple labor, but it is essential that -it be performed with reasonable concern for the welfare of the -business. -</p> -<p> -In other industries, as with men working at a bench, the presence of -a foreman keeps them busy and their work may be daily inspected. To -have foremen in poultry work would require as many foremen as -laborers, and even then they would be as useless, for when the last -round of the brooders is made at night a foreman standing three feet -away could not know whether the laborer who had placed his hand in -the brooder had found all well or all wrong. -</p> -<p> -It is useless to carry the argument farther. The labor bill is one -of the biggest items of expense in poultry production. With a system -where the efficiency of the labor decreases with the size of the -business, large industrial enterprises are impossible. Such savings -as will be made in buying supplies, selling, etc., will be wasted in -the reduced efficiency of labor. -</p> -<p> -The bulk of labor in poultry work must be self-reliant labor and the -only test for such efficiency is number of chicks reared and the -weight of the egg basket. Even this will not be a complete test -unless from the income be subtracted the feed bills. -</p> -<p> -A system of renting or working on shares that will gain the -advantages of centralization without losing the individual interest -of the laborer, will go a long way toward making the poultry -business one wherein large capital and large brains can find a place -to work. I expect to see in the future some such system evolved. In -fact we have to-day a profit-sharing plan between owner and foreman -on many of our best plants. To extend such to each laborer requires -more system and better superintendence, but it is feasible and must -come. But, better still is it for the worker to own the stock. Best -yet if he owns both stock and land, leaving to larger capital only -such phases of the business as involve great saving when done on a -wholesale basis. -</p> -<p> -Just as the manufacturer of farm machinery, the packing of meat and -the manufacture of butter have successfully been taken out of the -control of the individual farmer and placed under corporate or -co-operative organization, so the writer expects to see certain -portions of the process of poultry production removed from the hands -of the farmer and controlled by more specialized and expert labor. -Far from meaning the lessening of the earning power of the farmer, -every one of such steps means larger production and more profits. -The ideal of agricultural economics is to give the farmer the -smallest possible proportion of the work of agricultural production -in order that the most may be produced and the farmer's share along -with the others may be largest. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Established Poultry Communities. -</p> -<p> -In a previous chapter we spoke of the South Shore roaster district -of Massachusetts. Here is a community where, in lots of from a dozen -to four or five thousand, are annually produced seventy-five or one -hundred thousand market fowls of one particular type. While this -business was not built up by the efforts of a corporation or -individual who planned definitely the entire project, yet we find a -central influence at work in the person of the firm of Curtis Bros., -who for years have bought the majority of South Shore roasters, and -who have done a great deal to advertise the product and encourage -their neighbors to a larger and more uniform production. -</p> -<p> -At Little Compton, R. I., is a very similar parallel of the South -Shore district in the shape of egg farms. Here we find within a -radius of two miles about one hundred thousand Rhode Island Red hens -owned in flocks of two thousand or less. The methods used throughout -the community are all alike and are simple in the extreme. There are -no incubators, no brooders, no poultry houses, no long houses, no -dropping boards to be scraped every morning, nothing in fact, but -board-walled, board-roofed, colony houses, scattered over the grass -fields and similar though smaller fields covered with coops for hens -and chicks. Feeding is equally simple; a mash of meat, vegetables -and ground grain mixed once a day and hauled around in a one-horse -cart and hoppers of whole corn exposed in the houses. The houses are -cleaned twice a year. Little Compton is, indeed, a community where -all the rules of the poultry books are regularly violated, and yet a -larger number of successful egg farms can be seen from the church -spire at Little Compton Corners than most poultry writers have ever -seen or read about. Strange it is, as Josh Billings puts it, that -"some folks know things that ain't so." -</p> -<p> -An illustration published in a recent issue of the World's Work -tells a remarkable story. A pile of egg shells as big as a straw -stack certainly indicates "something doing" in the chicken business, -and it is a very proud monument to Mr. Byce who, some twenty odd -years ago, established an incubator factory at the town of Petaluma. -Petaluma is in Sonoma County, California, forty miles north of San -Francisco. In the census year of 1899, Sonoma County produced more -eggs than any other county in the United States. To-day there are in -the Petaluma region close to one million hens. -</p> -<p> -Like the Little Compton district, Petaluma is a one-breed community, -White Leghorns being the breed used. The individual flocks range -larger than at Little Compton, chiefly because the milder climate, -smaller breed, and establishment of the central hatchery enables one -man to take care of more birds. -</p> -<p> -When I asked Mr. Byce for a list of the people in his neighborhood -keeping over one thousand hens, he replied by sending me a list of -twenty-two men who keep from 8,000 down to 2,500 each, and said that -to give those keeping from one to two thousand, would practically be -to take a census of the county. The methods of housing and feeding -used are simple and inexpensive like those at Little Compton. -</p> -<p> -The chief reason why Petaluma shows a more advanced development in -the poultry community than the eastern poultry growing localities, -is to be found in the climatic advantages which favor incubation -(see Chapter on Incubation) and the consequent development of the -central hatchery. Outside of this, the location is not especially -favorable. The temperature is milder in the winter than in the East, -but the Petaluma winter is one of continual rain which develops roup -to a greater extent than we have it in the East. The prices received -for high grade eggs in San Francisco is in the winter about equal to -the top prices in New York. In the spring and summer New York will -give more for fancy goods. The cost of corn on the Pacific Coast is -about 40 cents a hundred more than on the Atlantic Coast. Wheat, -however, is cheaper than in the East, but not cheap enough to -substitute for the more staple grain. -</p> -<p> -The eggs from the Petaluma region are at present marketed largely -through a co-operative marketing association. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Developing Poultry Communities. -</p> -<p> -I have shown why the large individual poultry farms with hired labor -have not proven profitable fields for the investment of capital. -Again, I have shown that in a few localities where the business was -incidentally started, communities of independent poultry farmers -have grown up which are very successful, and that there is no -apparent reason why similar communities elsewhere, if intelligently -located, could not do as well or better. -</p> -<p> -This looks like an excellent field for corporate enterprise. -Certainly there is no more reason why the poultry community cannot -be as successfully promoted as an irrigation project, or a cheese -factory, or a trucking community. In such a community there are many -functions that can be better performed by a capitalized body managed -by experts than by individual poultrymen acting alone. -</p> -<p> -These functions are: -</p> -<p> -First, the selection of a location and the purchase of the land in -large quantities. -</p> -<p> -Second, laying out this land into suitable individual holdings, with -regard to economy of water supply and the collection of the product. -</p> -<p> -Third, the partial or complete equipment of these farms at less -expense and in a more suitable manner than could or would be done by -the individual holders. -</p> -<p> -Fourth, the sale or rent of these places to poultrymen at a -reasonable profit on the investment, but at a rate which will still -be below the cost at which the individual could have acquired the -land. Fifth, the selection of the stock that would not only be -better adapted to the enterprise than that which would be acquired -by the individual farmer, but would possess the uniformity necessary -to the maintenance of a standard grade in the product. -</p> -<p> -Sixth, the centralized hatching of the chicks by which means chicks -can be more cheaply hatched and better hatched than by the imperfect -methods available to the small poultryman. -</p> -<p> -Seventh, the purchase of all outside supplies with the usual savings -involved in large purchases. -</p> -<p> -Eighth, a teaming system of delivering such supplies. -</p> -<p> -Ninth, a general protection against thieves and predatory animals by -an organized war on all "varments." -</p> -<p> -Tenth, maintenance of the best methods in feeding and care by the -employment of skilled advisers, or the operation of demonstration -farms under the direction of the central management. -</p> -<p> -Eleventh, the enforced daily gathering of all eggs and their -lodgment that same evening in a clean, dry cooler, with a -thermometer hovering around 29 degrees Fahrenheit. -</p> -<p> -Twelfth, the strict enforcement of penalties against the man who -attempts to sell bad eggs. -</p> -<p> -Thirteenth, the prompt dispatch of the product to its final market. -</p> -<p> -Fourteenth, the final sale of the eggs with opportunities for fancy -prices made possible by an absolutely guaranteed product in -quantities sufficient to permit of a regular supply and of -advertising the product. -</p> -<p> -Fifteenth, the conduction of breeding operations along any desired -line, with the opportunity of combining the principle of great -numbers for selection with the comparison of all progeny from -ancestry, a method that will bring results a hundred times more -quickly than the efforts of the small breeder. -</p> -<p> -Sixteenth, the advantage of the sale of breeding stock to be -acquired from the free publicity which is showered on all unique -industrial enterprises. -</p> -<p> -In these sixteen functions there is ample opportunity for capital, -backed by ability in organization, to reap an ample reward. Is it a -dream? In a sense yes, but a dream made possible by the observation -of the actual results achieved in similar lines, and of the present -tendency in the poultry producing world. -</p> -<p> -Why has not this thing been done before? Because no one knew enough -to do it. Why did not the wonderful trucking regions develop earlier -in the South, and why does it still take northern settlers, backed -by railroad advertising, to develop the wonderful modern industries -which enables every city dweller in the North to have strawberries -in February and fresh vegetables any day in the year? -</p> -<p> -Why did the California fruit trade develop? Did anyone suppose forty -years ago that the unsettled valley around Pasadena would ever -produce one thousand dollars per acre in one year? These orange -groves, too valuable for agricultural purposes to be used as town -sites, were precarious experiments until the trans-continental -refrigerator car and the California Fruit Growers' Exchange paved -the way and put each day in every eastern and northern city just the -quantity of oranges that the people could consume at a profitable -price. -</p> -<p> -Mr. Harwood, in the World's Work for May, 1908, after describing the -"City of a Million Hens," raises the question, "If in Petaluma, why -not anywhere?" I would like to answer that question by saying that -while anywhere is a little broad, the reason the industry has not -developed elsewhere has been because of the diversion of interested -capital towards impractical large individual poultry plants, manned -by hired labor. Another reason has been the lack of the technical -knowledge necessary to construct and operate efficient hatcheries. -</p> -<p> -The poultryman has been a disciple of the poultry papers and poultry -fanciers of the day. The poultry papers and poultry literature has -generally been supported by poultry fanciers and manufacturers of -incubators, patent nests and portable houses. The good folks have -vied with one another in complicating the business. They have built -steam-piped houses, with padded walls and miniature railways with -which daily to haul away the droppings. A few famous fanciers -selling eggs at $10.00 per setting have made such business pay, but -alas for the luckless investor in what the visiting poultry editor -would style a "handsomely equipped modern poultry plant." -</p> -<p> -A few years ago a Government poultry expert paid a visit to -Petaluma. He came back and reported, "It is a great disappointment, -the methods are very crude." The case is most pathetic. Here was a -man employed by the people to teach them how to make poultry pay. -His carfare is paid across the continent that he might visit the -only community in the United States where at that time any -considerable number of people were making their living from poultry, -and because he did not find lightning rods on the poultry houses, he -came back with the look of Naamen who, when he was requested by -Elisha to bathe seven times in the river Jordan, replied, "It is -very crude." -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Will Co-operation Work? -</p> -<p> -That magic thing, "Co-operation," while utterly lacking in the -Utopian qualities with which the word artist paints it, is a -decidedly bigger factor in American affairs than the average man -realizes. -</p> -<p> -The chief difficulty with co-operation is that the manager, if not -incompetent, has an excellent opportunity to be a grafter. In Europe -co-operation in agricultural and mercantile enterprise is older and -better developed than in this country. Perhaps the Europeans are -less inclined to be grafters, but a more likely explanation is that -the members of such associations as these have learned how to -prevent and detect graft, just as our business men have learned to -avoid losses from the dishonesty of employes. That this is the true -explanation is substantiated by the fact that when co-operation once -becomes established in this country, it succeeds even better than in -Europe. -</p> -<p> -When the creameries were started in the West several years ago, -there was much complaint of swindlers, fake stock companies, and -co-operative ventures in which the manager absconded with the butter -money. To-day more than half of the American creameries are -co-operative and the number is constantly increasing. They are -efficient and successful in every way, and to-day make the finest of -butter and pay the highest prices to the farmer for his cream. But -their way was first paved and the business developed by successful -private concerns. -</p> -<p> -Co-operation is entirely feasible and successful where the people -behind the movement have enough interest in the enterprise and good -enough business sense to run the proposition as efficiently as -similar private enterprises are run. The idea that co-operation must -always result in a big saving is a misconception. Employes will not -work any harder for an association than for a private employer, -sometimes not as hard. Certainly no employee will work as hard for an -association as he will for himself. -</p> -<p> -Why people should expect to buy out the grocery store and hire the -grocer to run it and save money for themselves, is a thing I could -never understand. But if there is some great waste that co-operation -will prevent, as where seven milk wagons drive every morning over -the same route, or where the market of perishable crops is glutted -one day and starved the next, centralization, corporate or -co-operate, will pay. -</p> -<p> -I know of no better way to impress the reader with American -co-operation in actual practice than to quote from a brief account -of the California Fruit Growers' Exchange. -</p> -<p> -The Exchange was founded upon the theory that every member is -entitled to furnish his pro rata of the fruit for shipment through -his association, and every association to its pro rata to the -various markets of the country. This theory reduced to practice -gives every grower his fair share, and the average price of all -markets throughout the season. -</p> -<p> -Another cardinal provision of the plan was that all fruit should be -marketed on a level basis of actual cost, with all books and -accounts open for inspection at the pleasure of the members. These -broad principles of full co-operation constitute the basis of the -Exchange movement. -</p> -<p> -The Exchange system is simple, but quite democratic. The local -association consists of a number of growers contiguously situated, -who unite themselves for the purpose of preparing their fruit for -market on a co-operative basis. They establish their own brands, -make such rules as they may agree upon for grading, packing and -pooling their fruit. Usually these associations own thoroughly -equipped packing houses. -</p> -<p> -All members are given a like privilege to pick and deliver fruit to -the packing house, where it is weighed in and properly receipted -for. Every grower's fruit is separated into different grades, -according to quality, and usually thereafter it goes into the common -pool, and in due course takes its percentage of the returns -according to grade. -</p> -<p> -Any given brand is the exclusive property of the Local Association -using it, and the fruit under this brand is always packed in the -same locality, and therefore of uniform quality. This is of great -advantage in marketing, as the trade soon learns that the pack is -reliable. -</p> -<p> -There are more than eighty associations, covering every citrus fruit -district in California, and packing nearly two hundred reliable and -guaranteed brands of oranges and lemons. -</p> -<p> -The several local Exchanges designate one man each from their -membership as their representative, and he is elected a director of -the California Fruit Growers' Exchange. By this method the -policy-making and governing power of the organization remains in the -hands of the local Exchanges. -</p> -<p> -From top to bottom the organization is planned, dominated and in -general detail controlled absolutely by fruit growers, and for the -common good of all members. No corporation nor individual reaps from -it either dividends or private gain. -</p> -<p> -So far we have dealt almost exclusively with the organization of the -Exchange, its co-operative aspects, and general policy at home. -Equally important is its organization in the markets. -</p> -<p> -Seeking to free itself from the shifting influence of speculative -trading, by taking the business out of the hands of middlemen at -home, the Exchange found it quite as important to maintain the -control of its own affairs in the markets. -</p> -<p> -For this purpose the Exchange established a system of exclusive -agencies in all the principal cities of the country, employing as -agents active, capable young men of experience in the fruit -business. Most of these agents are salaried, and have no other -business of any kind to engage their attention, and none of the -Exchange representatives handle any other citrus fruits. These -agents sell to smaller cities contiguous to their headquarters, or -in the territory covered by their districts. -</p> -<p> -Over all these agencies are two general or traveling agents, with -authority to supervise and check up the various offices. These -general agents maintain in their offices at Chicago and Omaha, a -complete bureau of information, through which all agents receive -every day detailed information as to sales of Exchange fruit in -other markets the previous day. Possessing this data, the selling -agent cannot be taken advantage of as to prices. If any agent finds -his market sluggish, and is unable to sell at the average prices -prevailing elsewhere, he promptly advises the head office in Los -Angeles, and sufficient fruit is diverted from his market to relieve -it and restore prices to normal level. -</p> -<p> -Through these agencies of its own the Exchange is able to get and -transmit to its members the most trustworthy information regarding -market conditions, visible supplies, etc. This system affords a -maximum of good service at a minimum cost. The volume of the -business is so large that a most thorough equipment is maintained at -much less cost to growers than any other selling agency can offer. -</p> -<p> -The annual business of the California Fruit Growers' Exchange -amounts to over ten million dollars, and the Exchange handles over -half the citrus fruit output of the State. Yet there are people who -say co-operation in America will not work. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Co-operative Egg Marketing in Denmark. -</p> -<p> -I have discussed at length the work of the California Fruit Growers' -Exchange, as the best example in the United States of the -co-operative marketing of farm produce. We have thus far but little -co-operative work in the marketing of poultry products. Canada has a -few examples, but it is to European countries that we must go for a -full demonstration of the principle of co-operation when applied to -the products of the hen. In England and in Ireland co-operative -efforts in the growing, fattening, and marketing of poultry and eggs -are quite common. It is to Denmark, however, that we must go to find -the most wholesale example of this truly modern type of business -effort. -</p> -<p> -The Danes are co-operators in the fullest sense. They have -co-operative creameries and co-operative packing houses. The Danish -Egg Export Society is an organization, the plan and work of which is -very much like that of the California Fruit Growers' Exchange. -</p> -<p> -The local branch of the association buys the eggs of the farmer, -paying for them by weight. Collectors are hired to gather them at -frequent and regular intervals, and are paid In accordance with the -amount of their collections, but must stand the loss of breakage. -Each individual poultryman's eggs are kept separate until they reach -a centralizing station. There are a number of these central stations -at which the eggs are carefully crated and packed for shipment to -England. -</p> -<p> -The individual farmer is fined or taxed for all bad eggs found in -his lot. This fine is deducted from his receipts and he has nothing -to do but to submit to it or get out of the association. The latter -he cannot afford to do because the association has its established -brands and can pay him more for his eggs than he could secure by -attempting to market them himself. As a result of this strict system -of making the producer responsible for weight and quality of the -eggs the Danish eggs have become the largest and finest in the -world. -</p> -<p> -Although the writer firmly believes in the co-operative marketing of -farm produce, and considers that the success already secured in this -work is conclusive evidence of the practicability and desirability -of co-operation, it would not be fair to infer that co-operation has -entirely driven out private or corporate enterprise. Just as a -goodly per cent. of the citrus fruit of California is still handled -by private dealers, so in Denmark we find that nearly one-half of -the eggs sent to England are handled by private companies. Let it be -noted, however, that these companies maintain a system of buying on -merit which enforces high quality that is not to be found where -private buyers are without the spur of co-operative competition. -Before co-operation entered the orange regions of California, the -fruit was poorly packed and handled and the markets at times so -glutted, that shipments of fruit sometimes failed to pay the -freight, and this was actually charged back to the unfortunate -grower. Co-operation has done away with this waste. In like manner -the great loss from decomposed eggs and half hatched chicks is -unknown to the egg trade of Denmark. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Corporation or Co-operation? -</p> -<p> -The community of farmers producing a large quantity of a single kind -of product is the coming form of agricultural enterprise. Will this -community be promoted by corporation or by co-operation? -</p> -<p> -Arthur Brisbane says, "As individual control of the Government has -been superceded by collective control, so individual control of -industries will be followed by collective control. That is the -natural order." -</p> -<p> -Brisbane is right. The individual, or the corporation, which is an -individual using other men's money, foreruns co-operation, because -the individual knows exactly what he wants to do and the big group -of individuals does not know what they want or how to do it until -individuals have, by concrete successes, shown them. -</p> -<p> -When the creameries were started, co-operative creameries were -unsuccessful and could not compete with privately owned creameries. -The farmers have now become too wise to be "easy-marks" to the fake -creamery promoters or to trust their butter sales to a comparative -stranger and co-operation is a success. -</p> -<p> -Poultry communities cannot be made out of whole cloth by the -co-operative plan. Private corporations will be necessary to launch -these enterprises. When they have reached the stage of development -now to be seen in Little Compton and Petaluma they are ready for -co-operation. -</p> -<p> -I have emphasized the point that the private corporation is the -natural forerunner in this matter in order to discourage premature -or over-ambitious efforts at co-operation. Whenever a community of -poultrymen or, for that matter, a community of growers of any -perishable form of products, who are already successful in the -producing end, wish to take up co-operation and will see that men -are selected to manage it who will use the same precautions to guard -against incompetency or graft that they, as individuals, would use -in their own business, there is excellent chance of success. -</p> -<p> -Go slow. Do not expect to get rich quick by "cutting out the -middleman's enormous profits," for the middleman's profits are not -enormous, and if you see that your co-operation is not paying, give -it up and confess to yourselves that you do not know as much about -the business as your private competitors. -</p> -<a name="2HCH0005"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> - -<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> - -<h2> -<a name="chapIV"> -CHAPTER IV -</a> -</h2> -<h3> -WHERE TO LOCATE -</h3> -<p> -That poultry should be kept on every farm to supply the farmer's own -table does not permit of argument. When it comes to production for -market, I believe there are some sections where it costs more to -produce and market poultry and eggs than is received for the product -when sold. For illustration: On a farm which is twenty miles from -town and where grain cannot be profitably grown, the cost of teaming -grain from the railroad station and of sending the eggs to market as -frequently as is necessary to have a wholesome product, would -certainly eat up all possible profits. -</p> -<p> -The farmer thus located would find a more profitable use for his -time in some industry where the raw material is near at hand and the -product needs less frequent marketing. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Some Poultry Geography. -</p> -<p> -When we are discussing poultry on the general farm, the problem of -location is not to be taken into consideration, save to the extent -that there are a few localities where food cost is so high or -marketing facilities so poor as to make even the usual farm surplus -unprofitable. -</p> -<p> -The map on page 45 shows the intensity of egg production and also -indicates the location of the more important localities where -poultry plants have succeeded. The map on page 47 shows the quality -of eggs coming from various sections, which indicates pretty closely -the general development of the poultry industry. These indications, -however, are of little value in locating a poultry plant, for they -refer to the poultry product on the general farm, and are a matter -of the number and general intelligence of farmers, rather that a -sign of the suitability of the locality for the poultry industry. -</p> -<p> -For purposes of discussion, I have divided the United States into -seven sections as shown by the dotted lines on the second map. -</p> -<a name="image-0002"><!--IMG--></a> -<center> -<img src="images/hen045.png" width="90%" alt="Plate II. Page 45. Map: Intensity of Egg Production in the United States "> -</center> -<!--IMAGE END--> - -<p> -Section 1 is the North Woods and too cold and remote for -the poultry business. -</p> -<p> -Section 2 includes the great West, of which an adequate discussion -is out of the question. Of course, the great majority of this area -is too remote from markets for poultry production. The locations -around the big cities in this section are excellent for poultry -farming, as they are so far removed from the great farm region that -their bulk of imported eggs are of necessity somewhat stale. -California is good chicken country. The Puget Sound country is -rather too damp. In the interior western regions the chicken -business has not done well, chiefly because the atmosphere is too -dry for the methods of artificial incubation attempted. -</p> -<p> -Section 3 is the great granary of the world. It is also the home of -three-fourths of the country's poultry crop. It is a region of corn, -cattle and hogs. Such a country will produce poultry in a very -inexpensive manner. But it is not the region for special poultry -farms. In the northern portion of this tract, we find a heavy -housing expense and much winter labor necessary. It is a region of -high priced lands and labor, and low prices for poultry products. -</p> -<p> -Even the large cities in this region offer little in the way of -demand for high grade poultry products. This is because they are so -abundantly surrounded with farms that all produce is moderately -fresh and plentiful. There are no successful poultry farms in this -section west of the Mississippi. It is the natural location of -extensive rather than intensive branches of agriculture. The only -type of commercial poultry farming that could succeed in any portion -of this section would be a large community of producers who could -ship their products out regularly in carload lots. Such development -could only take place in the southern portion of this region, for -the housing expense is too great for the north. At best the distance -from market is a disadvantage, for the rate on eggs just about -equals the rate on the quantity of grain necessary to produce them. -The added time of shipment is something of a drawback, though in -refrigerator cars this is not serious. After the establishment of -poultry communities becomes more common, the Oklahoma and Texas -region will become available for this purpose, but they must be -established in full swing at the start, for a few isolated -poultrymen have no chance at all in this section, for they cannot -sell their product to advantage. -</p> -<p> -Section 4. This region, extending from the Ozarks to Eastern -Tennessee, is one of the very best poultry sections. The climate is -such that green food is available winter and summer, and the expense -of housing and winter labor is reasonable. This section is still in -the corn growing region. The question is almost always one of -All poultry farms in this section must grow their own grain or buy -it of their immediate neighbors. It will not pay to ship grain into -this region. -</p> - -<a name="image-0003"><!--IMG--></a> -<center> -<img src="images/hen047.png" width="90%" alt="Plate III. Page 47. Map: Intensity of egg production in the United States"> -</center> -<!--IMAGE END--> - - -<p> -When near shipping facilities, individual poultry farms in Section 4 -have a good chance of success, especially east of the Mississippi. -This is the most favorable region in the country for the -establishment of poultry communities that are to grow their own -grain. Such poultry farms will not be expected to confine their -attention as exclusively to the business as those in the section -where it is profitable to import the grain. -</p> -<p> -Section 5 is the non-grain growing region of the South. It at -present produces little poultry. The climate is all right for the -purpose, but the freight rates on grain from the West are high and -likewise the freight service and freight rates to the final market -are excessive. Under these conditions poultry farming will not pay -except in a few localities as in Florida, where there is a high -class local market due to the popular resorts. If grain could be -profitably grown in this section the same type of poultry farming -that prevails in Section 4 would be advisable. Now, grain can be -grown in the cotton belt of the South, and many Yankee farmers are -making good money doing it. But when grown it is liable to be worth -more to feed mules than to feed chickens. -</p> -<p> -Section 6 is the "Down East" section of dense population. The land -for the most part is rocky, wooded and hilly. The climate and nature -of the soil are against the economical production of poultry, but -the grain can be profitably fed, and as the markets are the best in -the country, commercial poultry farming has gained quite a foothold. -If a man is already located in this section and wishes to go into -the poultry business I would by all means say, "Go ahead," but I -would not advise an outsider looking for a location to come here, -for the next section has several advantages. -</p> -<p> -Section 7 is the best poultry farming district in the United States, -either for the individual poultry plant or for the community of -poultry growers. The reasons for this are: -</p> -<p> -First: The soil is of a sandy nature and excellent land for poultry -farming can be had at a low price. -</p> -<p> -Second: The climate is much more favorable than farther north or -farther inland. -</p> -<p> -Third: Grain rates from the West are very reasonable. -</p> -<p> -Fourth: The best market in the country—New York City—is within -easy shipping distance. -</p> -<p> -The type of poultry farming here to be recommended, like that of -Section 6, is one in which imported grain is fed. The fertility of -this grain, going back on the light soil, is used to grow the green -food required by the hens, and, in addition, may be used in a -rotation system for growing truck. It will not pay to grow any -quantity of grain. Section 7, because of its advantages over Section -6 in climate and the availability of large tracts of suitable land, -is a much better location for the poultry community. Over Section 4, -which is the second best region for this purpose, it has the -advantage of nearness to markets. The climatic advantage of Sections -4 and 7 are about on a par. The chief distinction is the matter of -growing grain or importing it. If you are to grow your grain, using -poultry as a means of marketing it, Section 4 is the best locality. -If you are to buy grain, Section 7 is the place. -</p> -<p> -The boundaries of Section 7 are not arbitrary and should be noted -carefully. The line runs from Mattawan, New Jersey, across to the -main line of the Pennsylvania and down this to Washington. To the -north and west of this, the soils are heavy clays which are wet, -cold, slushy and easily befouled. Likewise, the line on the south is -distinctly marked by the Norfolk and Western Railway and is a matter -of freight rates on grain. Norfolk gets a rate of sixteen and a half -cents from Chicago; a couple of hundred miles south, the rate is -about twice as much. Cheaper grain rates would of course extend this -belt on down the coast where the climate is even more favorable. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Chicken Climate. -</p> -<p> -Climate is a big figure in the cost of poultry production. Every day -that water is frozen in winter means increased labor and decreased -egg yield. Mild winters means cheap houses, cheap labor, cheap feed -(a large proportion of green food), an earlier chick season, which, -together with the mild weather and green feed, mean a large -proportion of the egg yield at the season when eggs are high in -price. -</p> -<p> -The American poultry editor wastes a great deal of ink explaining -why the Australian egg records of 175 eggs per hen, cannot be so, -because in this country, the hens at the Maine station only averaged -125. The Maine Experiment Station lies buried in a snow drift for -about five months of the year. The Australian station has a winter -climate equal to that of New Orleans. The Australian records do not -go below thirty eggs per day per hundred hens at any time during the -year. Our New York and New England records run down anywhere from -one to ten eggs per day per hundred hens. The following table will -show the effect of the climate upon the distribution of the egg -yield throughout the year. The records at New York are from a large -number of hens of several different flocks and probably represent a -normal distribution of the egg yield for that section. The Kansas -and Arkansas lists are taken from the record of small flocks and are -not very reliable. The fourth column gives the Australian records -with the months transferred on account of being in the southern -hemisphere. The last column gives the railroad shipments from a -division of the N.C. & St. L. railroad in Western Tennessee: -</p> -<p> -<br> -Column Headings:<br> -NY—Central New York per hen per day<br> -KS—Kansas Ex. Station per hen per day<br> -AR—Arkansas Ex. Station per hen per day<br> -AU—Australian Laying Contest per hen per day<br> -NH—Shipments from New Hampshire egg farm<br> -TN—Shipments from Western Tennessee<br> -</p> -<table align="center" width="50%" summary="comparative shipments"> -<tr><td> </td> <td align="right">NY</td> <td align="right">KS</td> <td align="right">AR</td> <td align="right">AU</td> <td align="right">NH</td> <td align="right">TN</td></tr> -<tr><td>January</td> <td align="right">.21</td> <td align="right">.25</td> <td align="right">.32</td> <td align="right">.51</td> <td align="right">26</td> <td align="right">1509</td></tr> -<tr><td>February</td> <td align="right">.26</td> <td align="right">.22</td> <td align="right">.30</td> <td align="right">.66</td> <td align="right">41</td> <td align="right">1520</td></tr> -<tr><td>March</td> <td align="right">.43</td> <td align="right">.60</td> <td align="right">.62</td> <td align="right">.67</td> <td align="right">66</td> <td align="right">2407</td></tr> -<tr><td>April</td> <td align="right">.56</td> <td align="right">.52</td> <td align="right">.38</td> <td align="right">.61</td> <td align="right">83</td> <td align="right">1775</td></tr> -<tr><td>May</td> <td align="right">.59</td> <td align="right">.57</td> <td align="right">.44</td> <td align="right">.53</td> <td align="right">81</td> <td align="right">1650</td></tr> -<tr><td>June</td> <td align="right">.50</td> <td align="right">.46</td> <td align="right">.42</td> <td align="right">.45</td> <td align="right">61</td> <td align="right">1131</td></tr> -<tr><td>July</td> <td align="right">.44</td> <td align="right">.43</td> <td align="right">.34</td> <td align="right">.43</td> <td align="right">58</td> <td align="right">878</td></tr> -<tr><td>August</td> <td align="right">.37</td> <td align="right">.32</td> <td align="right">.38</td> <td align="right">.41</td> <td align="right">54</td> <td align="right">422</td></tr> -<tr><td>September</td> <td align="right">.26</td> <td align="right">.28</td> <td align="right">.29</td> <td align="right">.29</td> <td align="right">24</td> <td align="right">100</td></tr> -<tr><td>October</td> <td align="right">.17</td> <td align="right">.13</td> <td align="right">.22</td> <td align="right">.31</td> <td align="right">3</td> <td align="right">541</td></tr> -<tr><td>November</td> <td align="right">.08</td> <td align="right">.06</td> <td align="right">.18</td> <td align="right">.31</td> <td align="right">2</td> <td align="right">703</td></tr> -<tr><td>December</td> <td align="right">.14</td> <td align="right">.25</td> <td align="right">.15</td> <td align="right">.40</td> <td align="right">11</td> <td align="right">1150</td></tr> -</table> -<p> -An equable climate the year round is the best for the chicken -business. The California coast is fairly equable in temperature, but -its winter rains and summer drouth are against it. The Atlantic -coast south of New York is fairly good, probably the best the -country affords. The most southern portions will be rather too hot -in summer, which will result in a small August and September egg -yield. Probably the region around Norfolk is, all considered, the -best poultry climate the country affords. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Suitable Soil. -</p> -<p> -Soil is important in poultry farming; in fact it is very important, -and many failures can be traced to soil mistakes. Rocky and -uncultivated lands must not be chosen. To locate on any soil which -will not utilize the droppings for the production of green food, is -to introduce a loss sufficient to turn success into failure. -</p> -<p> -The ideal soil for poultry is a soil too sandy to produce ordinary -farm crops successfully, and hence an inexpensive soil; but because -land too sandy to be used for heavy farming is best for poultry, -this does not mean that any cheap soil will do. A heavy wet clay -soil worth $150 an acre for dairying is worth nothing for poultry. -Pure sand is likewise worthless and nothing can be more pitiable -than to see poultry confined in yards of wind swept sand, without a -spear of anything green within half a mile. -</p> -<p> -The soils that are valuable for early truck are equally valuable for -poultry. Sand with a little loam, or very fine sand, if a few green -crops are turned under to provide humus, are ideal poultry soils. -The Norfolk fine Sand and Norfolk Sandy Loam of the U.S. soil -survey, are types of such soil. -</p> -<p> -These soils absorb the droppings readily and are never covered with -standing water. The winter snows do not stay on them. Crops will -keep greener on them in winter than on clay soils three hundred -miles farther south. -</p> -<p> -The disadvantage of such soils is that they lose their fertility by -leaching. The same principles that will cause the droppings to -disappear from the top of the ground will likewise cause them to be -washed down beyond the depths of plant roots. This loss must be -guarded against by not going to the extreme in selecting a light -soil and may be largely overcome by schemes of running the poultry -right among growing crops or by quick rotations. -</p> -<p> -Land sloping to the southward is commonly advised for the purpose of -getting the same advantages as are to be had in a sandy soil. In -practice the slope of the land cannot be given great prominence, -although, other things being equal, one should certainly not -disregard this point. In heavy lands it is necessary to raise the -floors and grade up around the houses. The quickly drained soil does -away with this expense. -</p> -<p> -Timber on the land is a disadvantage. Poultry farming in the woods -has not been made a success. It's the same proposition of the -droppings going to waste. I know a man who bought a timbered tract -because it was cheap and who scraped up the droppings to sell by the -barrel to his neighbor, who used them to fertilize his cabbage patch -and in turn sold the poultryman cabbages to feed his hens, at 5 -cents a head. Of course, this man failed, as does practically every -man who attempts to scrape dropping boards and carry poultry manure -around in baskets, instead of using it where it falls. -</p> -<p> -There is little to be said in favor of uncleared land for the -poultry business, but there is something that can be said in favor -of the poultry business for uncleared land. A man who buys a -timbered land for trucking can get no income whatever the first -year, but the poultryman can begin his operations in the woods, -clearing the land while he is raising a crop of chickens on it. The -coops may be placed in the cleared streak and most of the droppings -utilized. In fact, the plan of a streak of timber alongside the -houses is not bad for a permanent arrangement—the birds certainly -enjoy the shade. But the shade of growing crops is the most -profitable kind for poultry. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Marketing—Transportation. -</p> -<p> -The possibilities of working up a local trade of high grade eggs at -fancy prices varies greatly with the locality. Large cities and -wealthy people are essentials. Other than this the principal -distinctions are that regions where a general surplus of eggs are -produced offer little chance for a fancy trade. Where the great bulk -of eggs are imported fancy trade is more feasible. St. Louis is the -smallest western city that supports anything like a fancy trade in -eggs and there it is only on a small scale. Minneapolis, Omaha, -etc., would not pay 3 cents premium for the best eggs produced, but -cities of the same size east of the Appalachians and especially in -New England, will pay a good premium. The Far West or the mountain -districts will pay up better than the Mississippi Valley. The South -will pay a little better than the upper Mississippi Valley, but has -few cities of sufficient size to make such markets abundant. The -Southerner has little regard for quality in produce and the most -aristocratic people consume eggs regularly that the wife of a -Connecticut factory hand wouldn't have in the house. The egg farmer -who expects to sell locally had best not locate south of Washington -or west of Pittsburg, unless he goes to the Pacific Coast. -</p> -<p> -Where marketing is not done by wagon the subject of railroad -transportation is practically identical with the question of -marketing. It is the cost in freight service and freight rates that -count. The proposition of transportation, especially for the grain -buying poultry farm, catches us coming and going and both must be -considered. -</p> -<p> -A poultry farm in Section 7 will buy one hundred pounds of feed per -year per hen and market one-third of a case of eggs. On this basis -the grain rate from Chicago or St. Louis and the egg rate to New -York must be balanced against each other. Don't take these things -for granted. Look them up. -</p> -<p> -Jamesburg and Freehold, two New Jersey towns ten miles apart and -equi-distant and with equal freight rates from New York, might seem -to the uninitiated as equally well situated to poultry farming. We -will suppose two men bought forty-acre farms of equal quality and -equi-distant from the railroad stations at these two towns. Suppose, -further, they each kept five thousand hens. Jamesburg is on a -Philadelphia-New York line of the Pennsylvania and its Chicago grain -rate is the same as that of New York, namely: 19-1/2 cents per -hundred. Freehold is on a branch line; its rate is 24-1/2 cents. In -a year the difference amounts to $250. Figured at six per cent. -interest, the land at Jamesburg is worth just about one hundred -dollars an acre more than that at Freehold. -</p> -<p> -Lumber rates or local lumber prices should also be taken into -consideration. Whether one plans to ship his product out by express -or freight will, of course, be an important consideration in -deciding the location. -</p> -<p> -As a general thing, the individual poultry farmer will, for shipping -his product, use express east of Buffalo and north of Norfolk. The -poultry community could use freight in these same regions and get as -good or better service than by express. -</p> -<p> -The location in relation to the railroad station is equally -important to the freight rate. Besides heavy hauling frequent trips -will be necessary in marketing eggs. These on the larger farms will -be daily or at least semi-weekly. On the heavy hauling alone, at 25 -cents per ton mile, distance from the railroad will figure up 1-1/4 -cents per hen which, on the basis of the previous illustration, -would make a difference of twenty-five dollars per acre for every -mile of distance from the station. One of the most successful -poultry farms I know is right along the railroad and has an elevator -which handles the grain from the cars and later dumps it into the -feed wagons without its ever being touched by hand. The labor saving -in this counts up rapidly. -</p> -<p> -The poultry community can have its own elevator and the grain can be -sold to the farmer to be delivered directly into the hoppers in his -field with but a single loading into a wagon. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Availability of Water. -</p> -<p> -One more point to be considered in location is water. -</p> -<p> -The labor of watering poultry by carrying water in buckets is -tremendous and not to be considered on any up-to-date poultry plant. -Watering must be accomplished by some artificial piping system or -from spring-fed brooks. The more length of flowing streams on a -piece of land, provided the adjacent ground is dry, the more value -the property has for poultry. Two spring-fed brooks crossing a -forty-acre tract so as to give a half mile of running water, or a -full mile of houses, would water five thousand hens without labor. -This would mean an annual saving of at least one man's time as -against hand watering, or a matter of a thousand dollars or more in -the cost of installation of a watering system. -</p> -<p> -If running water cannot be had the next best thing is to get land -with water near the surface which may be tapped with sand points. If -one must go deep for water a large flow is essential so that one -power pump may easily supply sufficient water for the plant. -</p> -<p> -The land should lay in a gentle slope so that water may be run over -the entire surface by gravity. Hilly lands are a nuisance in poultry -keeping and raise the expense at every turn. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -A Few Statistics. -</p> -<p> -The following table does not bear directly upon the poultry-man's -choice of a location, but is inserted here because of its general -interest in showing the poultry development of the country. -</p> -<p> -It will be noted that the egg production per hen is very low in the -Southern States. This may seem at variance with my previous -statements. The poor poultry keeping of the South is a fault of the -industrial conditions, not of the climate. Chickens on the Southern -farm simply live around the premises as do rats or English sparrows. -No grain is grown; there are no feed lots to run to, no measures are -taken to keep down vermin, and no protection is provided from wind -and rain. In the North chickens could not exist with such treatment. -</p> -<p> -The figures given showing the relation between the poultry and total -agricultural wealth is the best way that can be found to express -statistically the importance of poultry keeping in relation to the -general business of farming. These figures should not be confused -with the distribution of the actual volume of poultry products. -Iowa, the greatest poultry producing state, shows only a moderate -proportion of poultry to all farm wealth, but this is because more -agricultural wealth is produced in Iowa than in all the "Down East" -states. -</p> -<p> -Table showing the development of the poultry industry in the various -states, according to the returns of the census of 1900: -</p> -<table align="center" width="50%" summary="poultry by state"> -<tr><td>States</td> <td>No. of eggs per capita</td> <td>Percentage of farm wealth earned by poultry</td> <td>No. of eggs per hen</td> <td>Farm value of eggs per dozen </td></tr> -<tr><td>Alabama</td> <td>124</td> <td>4.9</td> <td>48</td> <td>9.7 cents</td></tr> -<tr><td>Arizona</td> <td>80</td> <td>4.5</td> <td>60</td> <td>19.9</td></tr> -<tr><td>Arkansas</td> <td>235</td> <td>6.8</td> <td>58</td> <td>9.1</td></tr> -<tr><td>California</td> <td>197</td> <td>5.4</td> <td>74</td> <td>15.8</td></tr> -<tr><td>Colorado</td> <td>127</td> <td>5.4</td> <td>71</td> <td>15.0</td></tr> -<tr><td>Connecticut</td> <td>105</td> <td>11.3</td> <td>89</td> <td>19.1</td></tr> -<tr><td>Delaware</td> <td>231</td> <td>14.7</td> <td>68</td> <td>13.7</td></tr> -<tr><td>Florida</td> <td>96</td> <td>8.2</td> <td>46</td> <td>13.1</td></tr> -<tr><td>Georgia</td> <td>156</td> <td>4.4</td> <td>41</td> <td>10.4</td></tr> -<tr><td>Idaho</td> <td>213</td> <td>5.0</td> <td>67</td> <td>16.2</td></tr> -<tr><td>Illinois</td> <td>215</td> <td>3.7</td> <td>62</td> <td>10.3</td></tr> -<tr><td>Indiana</td> <td>338</td> <td>10.0</td> <td>77</td> <td>10.5</td></tr> -<tr><td>Iowa</td> <td>536</td> <td>7.4</td> <td>64</td> <td>10.1</td></tr> -<tr><td>Kansas</td> <td>597</td> <td>8.2</td> <td>73</td> <td>9.9</td></tr> -<tr><td>Kentucky</td> <td>198</td> <td>8.3</td> <td>62</td> <td>9.8</td></tr> -<tr><td>Louisiana</td> <td>111</td> <td>4.0</td> <td>40</td> <td>10.0</td></tr> -<tr><td>Maine</td> <td>233</td> <td>11.0</td> <td>100</td> <td>15.3</td></tr> -<tr><td>Maryland</td> <td>126</td> <td>10.4</td> <td>71</td> <td>12.6</td></tr> -<tr><td>Massachusetts</td> <td>56</td> <td>11.7</td> <td>96</td> <td>19.9</td></tr> -<tr><td>Michigan</td> <td>270</td> <td>9.7</td> <td>82</td> <td>11.2</td></tr> -<tr><td>Minnesota</td> <td>296</td> <td>5.8</td> <td>67</td> <td>10.5</td></tr> -<tr><td>Mississippi</td> <td>144</td> <td>4.7</td> <td>43</td> <td>9.9</td></tr> -<tr><td>Missouri</td> <td>291</td> <td>11.6</td> <td>68</td> <td>9.8</td></tr> -<tr><td>Montana</td> <td>148</td> <td>4.3</td> <td>67</td> <td>21.0</td></tr> -<tr><td>Nebraska</td> <td>463</td> <td>6.1</td> <td>66</td> <td>9.9</td></tr> -<tr><td>Nevada</td> <td>68</td> <td>3.7</td> <td>71</td> <td>20.8</td></tr> -<tr><td>New Hampshire</td> <td>238</td> <td>11.5</td> <td>96</td> <td>17.3</td></tr> -<tr><td>New Jersey</td> <td>76</td> <td>12.0</td> <td>72</td> <td>16.2</td></tr> -<tr><td>New Mexico</td> <td>45</td> <td>2.7</td> <td>65</td> <td>18.7</td></tr> -<tr><td>New York</td> <td>102</td> <td>7.1</td> <td>83</td> <td>13.9</td></tr> -<tr><td>North Carolina</td> <td>112</td> <td>5.7</td> <td>55</td> <td>10.2</td></tr> -<tr><td>North Dakota</td> <td>249</td> <td>2.6</td> <td>64</td> <td>10.5</td></tr> -<tr><td>Ohio</td> <td>265</td> <td>9.6</td> <td>77</td> <td>11.2</td></tr> -<tr><td>Oklahoma</td> <td>315</td> <td>6.4</td> <td>60</td> <td>9.3</td></tr> -<tr><td>Oregon</td> <td>224</td> <td>6.2</td> <td>72</td> <td>15.1</td></tr> -<tr><td>Pennsylvania</td> <td>112</td> <td>10.8</td> <td>75</td> <td>13.5</td></tr> -<tr><td>Rhode Island</td> <td>90</td> <td>19.7</td> <td>77</td> <td>20.4</td></tr> -<tr><td>South Carolina</td> <td>80</td> <td>4.0</td> <td>41</td> <td>10.3</td></tr> -<tr><td>South Dakota</td> <td>502</td> <td>5.2</td> <td>68</td> <td>10.0</td></tr> -<tr><td>Tennessee</td> <td>189</td> <td>8.4</td> <td>61</td> <td>9.8</td></tr> -<tr><td>Texas</td> <td>228</td> <td>4.8</td> <td>52</td> <td>8.0</td></tr> -<tr><td>Utah</td> <td>146</td> <td>5.1</td> <td>76</td> <td>12.5</td></tr> -<tr><td>Vermont</td> <td>219</td> <td>7.5</td> <td>94</td> <td>15.3</td></tr> -<tr><td>Virginia</td> <td>165</td> <td>8.9</td> <td>67</td> <td>11.1</td></tr> -<tr><td>Washington</td> <td>171</td> <td>7.1</td> <td>74</td> <td>16.8</td></tr> -<tr><td>West Virginia</td> <td>216</td> <td>10.2</td> <td>74</td> <td>10.9</td></tr> -<tr><td>Wisconsin</td> <td>268</td> <td>7.1</td> <td>68</td> <td>10.5</td></tr> -<tr><td>Wyoming</td> <td>121</td> <td>2.4</td> <td>79</td> <td>17.4</td></tr> -<tr><td>Entire U.S.</td> <td>205</td> <td>7.4</td> <td>65</td> <td>11.1</td></tr> -</table> -<a name="2HCH0006"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> - -<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> - -<h2> -<a name="chapV"> -CHAPTER V -</a> -</h2> -<h3> -THE DOLLAR HEN FARM -</h3> -<p> -As has already been emphasized, the way to get money out of the -chicken business is not to put so much in. -</p> -<p> -Land, however, well suited to the purpose, should not be begrudged, -for interest at six per cent. will afford a very considerable extra -investment in land well suited to the business if it in any way cuts -down the cost of operation. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -The Plan of Housing. -</p> -<p> -The houses are the next consideration. On most poultry farms they -are the chief items of expense. I know of a poultry farm near New -York City where the house cost $12.00 per hen. The owner built this -farm with a view of making money. People also buy stock in Nevada -gold mines with a view of making money. I know another poultry farm -owned by a man named Tillinghast at Vernon, Connecticut, where the -houses cost thirty cents per hen. Mr. Tillinghast gets more eggs per -hen than the New York man. Incidentally, he is sending his son to -Yale, and he has no other visible means of support except his -chicken farm. -</p> -<p> -For the region of light soils and the localities which I have -recommended for poultry farming, the following style of poultry -house should be used: -</p> -<p> -No floors, single boarded walls, a roof of matched cypress lumber or -of cheap pine covered with tarred paper. This house is to have no -windows and no door. The roosts are in the back end; the front end -is open or partly open; feed hoppers and nests are in the front end. -The feed hoppers may be made in the walls, made loose to set in the -house, or made to shed water and placed outside the house. All -watering is to be done outside the houses; likewise any feeding -beyond that done in hoppers. -</p> -<p> -The exact style of the house I leave to the reader's own plan. Were -I recommending complex houses costing several dollars per hen, this -certainly would be leaving the reader in the dark woods. With houses -of the kind described it is hard to go far amiss. The simplest form -is a double pitched roof, the ridge-pole standing about seven feet -high, and the walls about four. The house is made eight by sixteen, -and one end—not the side—left open. For the house that man is to -enter, this form cannot be improved upon. -</p> -<p> -The only other points are to construct it on a couple of 4x4 runners -so that it can be dragged about by a team. Cypress, or other -decay-proof wood should be used for these mud-sills. The framing -should be light and as little of it used as is consistent with -firmness. If the whole house costs more than twenty-five dollars -there is something wrong in its planning. -</p> -<p> -This house should accommodate seventy-five or eighty hens. -</p> -<p> -For smaller operations, especially for horseless, or intensive -farming, a low, light house may be used, which the attendant never -enters. A portion of the roof lifts up to fill feed-hoppers, gather -eggs or spray. These small houses may be made light enough to be -moved short distances by a pry-pole, the team being required only -when they are moved to a new field. -</p> -<p> -Not one particle of poultry manure is to be removed from either -style of house. Instead, the houses are removed from the manure, -which is then scattered on the neighboring ground with a fork, or, -if desired to be used on a field in which poultry may not run, it -may be loaded upon a wagon together with some of the underlaying -soil. -</p> -<p> -There have been books and books written on poultry houses, but what -I have just given is sufficient poultry-house knowledge for the -Dollar Hen man. If he hasn't enough intelligence to put this into -practice, he has no business in the hen business. Additional -book-knowledge of hen-houses is useless; it may be harmful. -</p> -<p> -If you are sure that you are fool-proof, you may get Dr. Feather or -Reverend Earlobe's "Book of Poultry House Plans." It will be a good -text-book for the children's drawing lessons. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -The Feeding System. -</p> -<p> -Oyster shells, beef scraps, corn, and one other kind of grain, -together with an abundance of pasturage or green feed, is the sum -and substance of feeding hens on the Dollar Hen Farm. -</p> -<p> -The dry feeds are placed in hoppers. They are built to protect the -feeds from the weather. The neck must be sufficiently large to -prevent clogging, and the hopper so protected by slats in front that -the hen cannot toss the feed out by a side jerk of her head. These -hoppers may be built any size desired. The grain compartments -should, of course, be made larger than the others. Weekly filling is -good, but where a team is not owned, it would be better to have the -hoppers larger so that feed purchased, say, once a month, could be -delivered directly into the hoppers. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Water Systems. -</p> -<p> -The best water system is a spring-fed brook. -</p> -<p> -The man proposing to establish an individual poultry plant, and who -after reading this book goes and buys a tract of land where an -artificial water system is necessary, would catch Mississippi -drift-wood on shares. But there are plenty of such people in the -world. A man once stood all day on London Bridge hawking gold -sovereigns at a shilling a-piece and did not make a sale. -</p> -<p> -Next to natural streams are the made streams. This is the logical -watering method of the community of poultry farmers. These -artificial streams are to be made by conducting the water of natural -streams back of the land to be watered, as in irrigation. It is the -problem of irrigation over again. Indeed, where trucking is combined -with poultry-growing, fowl watering should be combined with -irrigation. -</p> -<p> -It may be necessary to dam the stream to get head, sufficient supply -or both. In sandy soils, ditches leak, and board flumes must be -substituted. The larger ones are made of the boards at right angles -and tapered so that one end of one trough rests in the upper end of -the next lower section. The smaller, or lateral troughs may be made -V-shaped. -</p> -<p> -The cost of the smaller sized flume is three cents a foot. Iron pipe -costs twelve cents a foot. -</p> -<p> -The greater the slope of the ground the smaller may be the troughs, -but on ground where the slopes are great, more expense will be -necessary in stilting the flumes to maintain the level, and the -harder it will be to find a large section that can be brought under -the ditch. -</p> -<p> -Fluming water for poultry is, like irrigation, a community project. -The greatest dominating people of history have their origin in arid -countries. It was co-operate or starve, and they learned -co-operation and conquered the earth. If a man interferes with the -flume, or takes more than his share of the water, put him out. We -are in the hen, not the hog business. -</p> -<p> -Community water systems, where water must be pumped and piped in -iron pipe, is of course a more expensive undertaking. It will only -pay where water is too deep for individuals to drive sand points on -their own property. There is certainly little reason to consider an -expensive method when there are abundant localities where simple -plans may be used. -</p> -<p> -On sand lands, with water near the surface, each farmer may drive -sand points and pump his water by hand. In this case running water -is not possible, but the pipes or flumes may be arranged so that -fresh pumping flushes all the drinking places and also leaves them -full of standing water. The simplest way to arrange this will be by -wooden surface troughs as used in the fluming scheme. The only -difference is that an occasional section is made deeper so that it -will retain water. -</p> -<p> -A more permanent arrangement may be made by using a line of -three-fourths inch pipe. At each watering place the pipe is brought -to the surface so that the water flows into a galvanized pan with -sloping sides. This pan has an overflow through a short section of -smaller tubing soldered to the side of the pan. The pipe line is -parallel with the fence line, the pans supply both fields. By this -arrangement the entire plant may be watered in a few minutes. The -overflow tubes are on one side. Using these tubes as a pivot the -pans may be swung out from under the fence with the foot and cleaned -with an old broom. Where the ground water is deep a wind mill and -storage tank would be desirable. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Outdoor Accommodations. -</p> -<p> -The hen house is a place for roosting, laying and a protection for -the feed. The hen is to live out doors. -</p> -<p> -On the most successful New England poultry farms, warm houses for -hens have been given up. Hens fare better out of doors in Virginia -than they do in New England, but make more profit out of doors -anywhere than they will shut up in houses. If your climate will not -permit your hen to live out doors get out of the climate or get out -of the hen business. -</p> -<p> -There is, however, a vast difference in the kind of out-of-doors. -The running stream with its fringe of trees, brush and rank growing -grass, forms daylight quarters for the hen par excellence. Rank -growing crops, fodder piled against the fences, a board fence on the -north side of the lot, or little sheds made by propping a platform -against a stake, will all help. A place out of the wind for the hens -to dust and sun and be sociable is what is wanted, and what must be -provided, preferably by Nature, if not by Nature then by the -poultryman. -</p> -<p> -The hens are to be kept as much as possible out of the houses, in -sheltered places among the crops or brush. They should not herd -together in a few places but should be separated in little clumps -well scattered over the land. These hiding places for the hens must, -of course, not be too secluded or eggs will be lost. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Equipment for Chick Rearing. -</p> -<p> -Just as the long houses for hens have been weighed and found -wanting, so larger brooder houses, with one exception, have never -been established on what may be called a successful basis. By -establishment on a successful basis, I mean established so that they -could be used by larger numbers of people in rearing market -chickens. There are plenty of large brooder houses in use, just as -there are plenty of yarded poultry plants, but many intelligent, -industrious people have tried both systems only to find that the -cost of production exceeds the selling price. This makes us prone to -believe that some of those who claim to be succeeding may differ -from the crowd in that they had more capital to begin with and hence -last longer. -</p> -<p> -The one exception I make to this is that of the South Shore Roaster -District of Massachusetts. Here steam-pipe brooder houses are used -quite extensively. The logical reason that pipe brooder houses have -found use in the winter chicken business and not in rearing pullets -is that of season and profits. When chicks are to be hatched in the -dead of winter the steam-heated brooder house is a necessity. In -this limited use it is all right, where the profits per chick are -great enough to stand the expense and losses. -</p> -<p> -For the rearing of the great bulk of spring chicks the methods that -have proven profitable are as follows: -</p> -<p> -First: Rearing with hens as practiced at Little Compton. For -suggestions on this see the chapter entitled "Poultry on the General -Farm." -</p> -<p> -Second: Rearing with lamp brooder. Many large book-built poultry -plants have been equipped with steam, or, more properly, hot water -heated brooder houses, only to have a practical manager see that -they did not work, tear out the piping and fill the house with rows -of common lamp brooders. The advantage claimed for the lamp brooder -is that they can be regulated separately for each flock. As a matter -of fact, the same regulation for each flock of chicks could be -secured with a proper type of hot water heaters and one of the most -practical poultry farms in the country is now installing such a -system. -</p> -<p> -A brooder system where hot air under the pressure of a blower or -centrifugal fan would seem ideal. So far the efforts made along -these lines have been clumsy and unnecessarily expensive. If the -continuous house is ever made practical, I believe it will be along -this line, but at present I advise sticking to the methods that are -known to be successful. -</p> -<p> -Individual lamp brooders in colony houses are perhaps the most -generally successful means of rearing chicks on northern poultry -farms. They are troublesome and somewhat expensive, but with -properly hatched chickens are more successful than hen rearing. In -buying such a brooder the chief points to be observed are: A good -lamp, a heating device giving off the heat from a central drum, and -an arrangement which facilitates easy cleaning. The brooder should -be large, having not less than nine square feet of floor space. The -work demanded of a brooder is not as exacting as with an incubator. -The heat and circulation of air may vary a little without harm, but -they must not fail altogether. The greatest trouble with brooders in -operation is the uncertainty of the lamp. The brooder-lamp should -have sufficient oil capacity and a large wick. Brooder-lamps are -often exposed to the wind, and, if cheaply constructed or poorly -enclosed, the result will be a chilled brood of chicks, or perhaps a -fire. -</p> -<p> -The chief thing sought in the internal arrangements of a brooder is -a provision to keep the chicks from piling up and smothering each -other as they crowd toward the source of heat. This can be -accomplished by having the warmest part of the brooder in the center -rather than at the side or corner. If the heat comes from above and -a considerable portion of the brooder be heated to the same -temperature, no crowding will take place. -</p> -<p> -The temperature given for running brooders vary with the machine and -the position of the thermometer. The one reliable guide for -temperature is the action of the chicks. If they are cold they will -crowd toward the source of heat; if too warm they will wander -uneasily about; but if the temperature is right, each chick will -sleep stretched out on the floor. The cold chicken does not sleep at -all, but puts in its time fighting its way toward the source of -heat. In an improperly constructed or improperly run brooder the -chicks go through a varying process of chilling, sweating and -struggling when they should be sleeping, and the result is puny -chicks that dwindle and die. -</p> -<p> -The arrangement of the brooder for the sleeping accommodations of -the chicks is important, but this is not the only thing to be -considered in a brooder. The brooder used in the early season, and -especially the outdoor brooder, must have ample space provided for -the daytime accommodation of the chick. In the colony house brooder -such space will, of course, be the floor of the house. -</p> -<p> -When operating on a large scale it will not pay to buy complete -brooders. The lamps and hovers can be purchased separately and -installed in colony houses which do both for brooders and later for -houses for growing young stock. The universal hover sold by the -Prairie State Incubator people is about as perfect a lamp hover as -can be made. -</p> -<p> -The cold brooder, or Philo box, as it has been popularly called, is -the chief item in a system of poultry keeping that has been widely -advertised. The principle of the Philo box is that of holding the -air warmed by the chick down close to them by a sagging piece of -cloth. The cloth checks most of the radiating heat, but is not so -tight as to smother the chick. This limits the space of air to be -warmed by the chicks to such a degree that the body warmth is used -to the greatest advantage. That chickens can be raised in these -fire-less brooders, is not in question, for that has been abundantly -proven, but most poultrymen believe that it will pay better, -especially in the North, to give the little fellows a few weeks' -warmth. -</p> -<p> -Curtis Bros. at Ransomville, N.Y., who raise some twenty thousand -chicks per year, have adopted the following system: The chicks are -kept under hovers heated by hot water pipes for one week, or until -they learn to hover. Then they are put in Philo boxes for a week in -the same building but away from the pipes. The third week the Philo -boxes are placed in a large, unheated room. After that they go to a -large Philo box in a colony house. -</p> -<p> -To make a Philo house of the Curtis pattern, take a box 5 in. deep -and 18 in. to 24 in. square. Cut a hole in one side for a chick -door, run a strip of screen around the inside of the box to round -the corners. Now take a second similar box. Tack a piece of cloth -rather loosely across its open face. Bore a few augur holes in the -sides of either box. Invert box No. 2 upon box No. 1. This we will -call a Curtis box. It costs about fifteen cents and should -accommodate fifty to seventy-five chicks. -</p> -<p> -A universal hover in a colony coop or colony house, for which a -Curtis box is substituted, as early in the game as the weather -permits, is the method I advise for rearing young chicks. The lamp -problem we still have with us, but it is one that cannot be easily -solved. Large vessels or tanks of water which are regularly warmed -by injection of steam from a movable boiler, offers a possible way -out of the difficulty. On a plant large enough to keep one man -continually at this work, this plan might be an improvement over -filling lamps, but for the smaller plant it is lamps, or go south. -</p> -<p> -Rearing young chicks is the hardest part of the poultry business. -There is a lot of work about it that cannot be gotten rid of. Little -chicks must be kept comfortable and their water and feed for the -first few days must needs be given largely by hand. They are to be -early led to drink from the regular water vessels and eat from the -hoppers, but this takes time and patience. -</p> -<p> -The feeding of chicks I will discuss in the chapter on "Poultry on -the General Farm," and as the same methods apply in both cases, I -will refer the reader to that section. -</p> -<p> -After chicks get three or four weeks old their care is the simplest -part of the poultry farm work and consists chiefly of filling feed -hoppers and protecting them from vermin and thieves. -</p> -<p> -Board floor colony houses are used as a protection against rats and -this danger necessitates the protection of the opening by netting -and the closing of the doors at night. -</p> -<p> -Cockerels must be gotten out of the flocks and sold at an early age. -Those that are to be kept for sale or use as breeding birds should -be early separated from the pullets. Coops for growing chickens, -especially Leghorns, cannot be put among trees, as the birds will -learn to roost in the trees, causing no end of trouble to get them -broken of the habit. -</p> -<p> -All pullets save a few culls should be saved for laying. They are to -be kept two years. They should lay sixty-five to seventy per cent as -many eggs the second year as the first. They are sold the third -summer to make room for the growing stock. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Twenty-five Acre Poultry Farms. -</p> -<p> -This section will be devoted to a general discussion of the type of -poultry farms best suited to Section 4 and the southerly portions of -Section 7 as discussed in the previous chapter. -</p> -<p> -We will discuss this type of farm with this assumption: That they -are to be developed in large numbers by co-operative or corporate -effort. This does not infer that they cannot be developed by -individual effort, and nine-tenths of the operations will remain the -same in the latter case. -</p> -<p> -Suppose a large tract of land adjacent to railroad facilities has -been found. The land in the original survey should be divided into -long, relatively narrow strips, lying at right angles to the slope -of the land. The farmstead should occupy the highest end of the -strip. For a twenty-five acre or one-man poultry farm these strips -should be about forty rods in width. The object of this survey is to -permit the water being run by gravity to the entire farm. -</p> -<p> -The first thing is the farmstead, including such orchard and garden -as are desired. This stretches across the entire front end of the -place. The remainder of the strip is fenced in with chicken fence. -The farm is also divided into two narrow fields by a fence down the -center of the strip. This fence, at frequent intervals, has -removable panels. -</p> -<p> -The year's season we will begin late in the fall. All layers are in -field No. 1 pasturing on rape, top turnips or other fall crops. In -lot No. 2 is growing wheat or rye. As the green feed gets short in -the first lot the hens are let into lot No. 2. Sometime in March the -houses that have been brought up close to the gaps are drawn through -into the wheat field. The feed hoppers are also gradually moved and -the hens find themselves confined in lot No. 2 without any serious -disturbance. -</p> -<p> -Lot No. 1 is broken up as soon as weather permits and planted in -oats, corn, Kaffir corn and perhaps a few sunflowers. The oats form -a little strip near the coops and watering places and the Kaffir -corn is on the far side. As soon as corn planting is over the farmer -begins to receive his chickens from the hatchery. The brooders are -now placed in the corn field. The object of the corn is not green -food but for a shade and a grain crop. -</p> -<p> -The chicks are summered in the corn field and the hens in the wheat -or rye. Whether the latter will head up will depend upon the number -of the flock. It will be best to work the houses across to the far -side and let that portion near the middle fence head up. As the old -grain gets too tough for green food strips of ground should be -broken up and sown in oats. The grain that matures will not be cut, -but the hens will be allowed to thresh it out. The straw may be cut -with mower or scythe for use as nesting material. -</p> -<p> -Sometime in June or early in July a little rape vetch or cow-peas is -drilled in between the rows of corn as on the far side from the -chicken coops. During July or about the first of August, after all -cockerels have been sold, the gates are opened and the pullets are -allowed to associate with the hens. After this acquaintance ripens -into friendship the hen houses are worked back into the pullet lots. -Surplus hens are sold off or new houses inserted as the case may be -until there is room for the pullets in the houses. Each coop is -worked up alongside a house and after most of the pullets have taken -to the houses the coops are removed. The vacant lot is now broken up -and sown in a mixture of fall green crops. -</p> -<p> -The flock is kept in the corn field until the corn is ripe. The -Kaffir corn and sunflowers are knocked down where they stand and are -threshed by the hens. As soon as the corn crop is ripe the houses -are run back and the corn cut up or husked and the wheat planted in -the corn field. -</p> -<p> -The next year the lots are transposed, the young stock being grown -in the lot that had the hens the previous year. -</p> -<p> -If the ground is inclined to be at all damp when the fields are -broken up the plowing is done in narrow lands so as to form a -succession of ridges, on which are placed the coops or houses. The -directions of these ridges will be determined by the lay of the -land—the object being neither to dam up water or to encourage -washing. The location of the ridges are alternated by seasons, so -that the droppings from the houses are well distributed throughout -the soil. -</p> -<p> -This system with the particular crops found that do best in the -locality, give us an ideal method of poultry husbandry. We have kept -hens and young stock supplied with green food the year round; we -have utilized every particle of manure without one bit of labor. We -have a rotation of crops. We have the benefits to the ground of -several green crops turned under. We have raised one grain crop per -year on most of the ground. We have no labor in feeding and watering -except the keeping of the grain, beef and grit hoppers filled, and -the water system in order. -</p> -<p> -The number of fowls that may be kept per acre will be determined by -the richness of the soil. The chief object of the entire scheme is -to provide abundant green pasture at all times and to allow the -production of a reasonable amount of grain. With one hundred hens -per acre on the entire tract, and with houses containing eighty hens -each, it will be necessary to set the houses ninety-five feet apart. -This will give the flock a tract of 95 by 330 feet in which to -pasture. -</p> -<p> -The above estimate with a little land allowed for house, garden, -orchard and a little cow and team pasture, will permit the keeping -of two thousand hens on a twenty-five acre farm. In regions where -grain is to be raised most farmers would want more land. They may -also wish to own a few extra cows, hogs, etc., or to alternate the -entire poultry operations with some crop that will, on such highly -fertilized land, give a good cash profit. Forty acres is a good size -for such uses. -</p> -<p> -The cost of land when purchased in large tracts in Virginia is very -small, but the cost of clearing is often much more than that of the -land. Twenty-five to fifty dollars an acre should secure such a -tract of land and put it in shape for poultry farming. -</p> -<p> -The cost of the farm home, etc., will, of course vary altogether -with the taste of the occupant. If they are constructed by a central -company, from five hundred to a thousand dollars should cover the -amount. -</p> -<p> -The cost of poultry buildings and equipment used on the farm will -depend largely on the efficiency of the labor of construction. If -constructed in large numbers by a central company, the cost would be -reduced, but the company would expect to make a profit on their -work. -</p> -<p> -A plot laid out for two thousand hens will require in material: 250 -rods of fence with 6-ft. netting which should cost about fifty cents -a rod. My estimate of this fence put up would be $150. If the -neighboring field contained no other poultry, a portion of this -fence might be done away with, although its protection against dogs -and strangers may be worth while. Of course, if poultry fields of -different owners lay adjoining, the fence must be used, but the cost -will be reduced one-half. -</p> -<p> -The next most expensive piece of equipment will be a line of about -eighty rods of 3/4 in. gas pipe and about fifty elbows and -twenty-five galvanized iron pans. The cost of installation will -depend largely on how deep it is necessary to go to get below the -frost line. One hundred and seventy-five dollars should cover cost -of material and by the use of a plow the line ought to be put in for -twenty-five dollars. -</p> -<p> -The source of water, and the cost of getting a head, will -necessarily vary with the location. The installation of a wind mill -and tank to hold supply for several days, or of a small gasoline -engine, would cost in the neighborhood of one hundred dollars, but -it is a luxury that may be dispensed with if the well is not too -deep. -</p> -<p> -The houses for the hens, of which there are twenty-five, are -constructed in accordance with some of the plans previously -discussed. The cost should be about twenty-five cents per hen. -</p> -<p> -At least twice as many brooders as colony coops will be needed as -there are hen houses, but of the lamps and hovers not over -twenty-five will be required, as the chicks soon outgrow the need of -this aid. -</p> -<p> -This makes a list of equipment required for the keeping of two -thousand layers and their replenishing: -</p> -<table align="center" width="50%" summary="equipment required"> -<tr><td>25 acres of farm land, at $50 per acre</td> <td align="right">$1250.00</td></tr> -<tr><td>250 rods of fence</td> <td align="right">150.00</td></tr> -<tr><td>One farmstead</td> <td align="right">1000.00</td></tr> -<tr><td>One team, plow and farm implements</td> <td align="right">300.00</td></tr> -<tr><td>One watering system</td> <td align="right">300.00</td></tr> -<tr><td>25 hen houses, at $20</td> <td align="right">500.00</td></tr> -<tr><td>50 colony coops, at $2.50</td> <td align="right">150.00</td></tr> -<tr><td>25 lamps and hovers, at $5</td> <td align="right">125.00</td></tr> -<tr><td> </td> <td align="right">------</td></tr> -<tr><td> </td> <td align="right">$3775.00</td></tr> -</table> -<p> -[Transcriber's note: "50 colony coops, at $2.50" is $125.00, not -$150. The total should therefore be $3750 rather than $3775. This -was, presumably, a printing error, because the correct total is -used in the further calculations below.] -</p> -<p> -This is a good, liberal capitalization. The business can be started -with much less. Figured interest at 6 per cent. we have $225.00 per -year. -</p> -<p> -The upkeep of the plant will be about 15 per cent. on the capital, -not counting land. This equals $375, which, added to interest, gives -an annual overhead expense of $600, which is our first item to be -set against gross receipts. -</p> -<p> -The cost of operation will involve cost of chicks at hatchery, -purchased feed, seed for ground, and feed for team. -</p> -<p> -The price of chicks at the Petaluma hatcheries is from six to eight -cents each. We expect to raise enough pullets to make up for the -accidental losses, and to renew bulk of the flock each year. The -number required will, of course, depend upon the loss. This loss -will be much less when the chicks are obtained from a modern -moisture controlled hatchery, than from the box type incubator. I -think a 33 per cent. loss is a liberal estimate, but as I am -treading on unproven ground, I will make that loss 40 per cent., -which is on a par with old style methods. To replace 1,000 hens, -this will require 3,500 chicks at a cost of about two hundred and -fifty dollars. -</p> -<p> -Green pasturage throughout the year will materially cut down the -cost of feed. The corn consumed out of the hoppers will be about one -bushel per hen. The beef scrap will also be less than with yarded -fowls, perhaps twenty-five cents per hen. Now, of the corn we will -raise on the land, at least ten acres. This should yield us five -hundred bushels. This leaves fifteen hundred bushels of corn to be -purchased. At the present high rates, this will cost $1,000 which, -added to beef scrap cost, makes an outside feed cost of $1,500. The -seed cost of rye, rape, cow-peas, etc., will amount to about $50 per -annum. For expense of production we have: -</p> -<table align="center" width="50%" summary="cost per annum"> -<tr><td>Interest and upkeep of plant</td> <td align="right">$600.00</td></tr> -<tr><td>Chicks</td> <td align="right">250.00</td></tr> -<tr><td>Purchased corn</td> <td align="right">1000.00</td></tr> -<tr><td>Beef scrap and grit</td> <td align="right">500.00</td></tr> -<tr><td>Seed</td> <td align="right">50.00</td></tr> -<tr><td>Team feed</td> <td align="right">100.00</td></tr> -<tr><td> </td> <td align="right">-------</td></tr> -<tr><td> </td> <td align="right">$2,500.00</td></tr> -</table> -<p> -This figures out the cost of production at a little more than a -dollar per hen. The income from the place should be about as -follows: Eleven hundred cockerels sold as squab broilers at 40 cents -each, $440.00; four hundred and seventy-five old hens at 30 cents, -$140.00. -</p> -<p> -The receipts from egg yield are, of course, impossible of very -accurate calculation, for it is here that the personal element that -determines success or failure enters. The Arkansas per-hen-day -figures (see last chapter), multiplied by the average quotation for -extras in the New York market, will be as fair as any, and certainly -cannot be considered a high estimate, as it is only 113 eggs per hen -per year. -</p> -<table align="center" width="50%" summary="egg prices"> -<tr><td> </td> <td align="right">Eggs per hen day</td> <td align="right">Price per doz Extras in New York</td> <td align="right">Income for month from 2000 layers</td></tr> -<tr><td>January</td> <td align="right">.32</td> <td align="right">$ .30</td> <td align="right">$494.00</td></tr> -<tr><td>February</td> <td align="right">.30</td> <td align="right">.29</td> <td align="right">404.00</td></tr> -<tr><td>March</td> <td align="right">.62</td> <td align="right">.22</td> <td align="right">700.00</td></tr> -<tr><td>April</td> <td align="right">.38</td> <td align="right">.19</td> <td align="right">350.00</td></tr> -<tr><td>May</td> <td align="right">.44</td> <td align="right">.19</td> <td align="right">429.00</td></tr> -<tr><td>June</td> <td align="right">.42</td> <td align="right">.18</td> <td align="right">377.00</td></tr> -<tr><td>July</td> <td align="right">.34</td> <td align="right">.21</td> <td align="right">367.00</td></tr> -<tr><td>August</td> <td align="right">.38</td> <td align="right">.22</td> <td align="right">429.00</td></tr> -<tr><td>September</td> <td align="right">.21</td> <td align="right">.25</td> <td align="right">262.00</td></tr> -<tr><td>October</td> <td align="right">.22</td> <td align="right">.28</td> <td align="right">316.00</td></tr> -<tr><td>November</td> <td align="right">.18</td> <td align="right">.33</td> <td align="right">267.00</td></tr> -<tr><td>December</td> <td align="right">.15</td> <td align="right">.32</td> <td align="right">246.00</td></tr> -<tr><td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td align="right">------</td></tr> -<tr><td>Total</td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td align="right">$4,641.00</td></tr> -</table> -<p> -The total income as figured will be $5,221. From this subtract the -cost of production, and we have still nearly $3,000, which is to be -combined item of wages and profit. We have entered no labor bill -because this is to be a one-man farm, and with the assistance of the -public hatchery and co-operative marketing association, which will -send a wagon right to a man's door to gather the eggs, it is -entirely feasible for one man to attend to two thousand hens. In the -rush spring season other members of the family will have to turn out -and help, or a man may be hired to attend the plowing and rougher -work. -</p> -<p> -This is a good handsome income, and yet the above price of the man's -labor—it is only about one dollar per hen, which has always been -the estimated profit of successful poultry keeping. As a matter of -fact, this profit is seldom reached under the old system of poultry -keeping, not because the above gross income cannot be reached, but -because the expenses are greater. Under the present methods, with -the exception of the rearing of the young chicks, one man can easily -take care of three thousand hens. Indeed, practically the only work -in their care is cultivating the ground and hauling around and -dumping into hoppers, about two loads of feed per week. -</p> -<p> -But, young chicks must be reared, and this is more laborious. For -this reason I advise going into some other industry on a part of the -land, which will not require attention in the young chick season. -One of the best things for this purpose is the cultivation of cane -fruits as blackberries, raspberries and dewberries. The work of -caring for these can be made to fall wholly without the young chick -season. Peaches and grapes for a slower profit can be added, but -spraying and cultivation of these is more liable to take spring -labor. All these fruits have the advantage of doing well in the same -kind of soil recommended for chickens. Young chickens may be grown -around such berry crops and removed to permanent quarters before the -berries ripen. Strawberries would be a very poor crop because their -labor falls in the chick season. -</p> -<p> -Another plan, and perhaps a better one, is to have about three -fields, and rotate in such a manner that a marketable crop may be -always kept growing in the third field. Any crop may be selected, -the chief labor of which falls between July and the following March. -Late cabbage and potatoes, or celery, will do if the ground is -suitable for these crops. Kale and spinach are staple fall crops. -Fall lettuce could also be grown. If the market is glutted on such -crops, they can be fed out at home. Whenever a field is vacant, have -some crop growing on it, if only for purposes of green manuring. -Never let sandy ground lie fallow. -</p> -<p> -A modification of the above plans suited to heavier ground, is to -seed down the entire farm to grass. It is then divided into three -fields and provided with three sets of colony houses. Coops are -entirely dispensed with, and cheap indoor brooders are used in the -permanent houses. The pullets stay in these same houses in the same -field until the moulting season of the third year, or until they are -two and a half years old. One field will always be vacant during the -fall and winter season which time may be utilized for fresh seeding. -</p> -<p> -The difficulty of maintaining a sod will necessitate somewhat -heavier soil than by the previous plan. The houses should be moved -around occasionally, as the grass kills out in the locality. This -plan is a lazy man's way, taking the least labor of any method of -poultry keeping known. It is adapted to the cheaper ground in the -region farthest from market. On the Atlantic seaboard, the more -enterprising man will use the third field for rotation, and sell -some of the fertility of the western grain in the form of a truck -crop. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Five Acre Poultry Farms. -</p> -<p> -Can a living for a family be made from a five acre poultry farm? -Yes; by individual effort, where the marketing opportunities are -good; by corporate or co-operate effort, any place where the -fundamental conditions are right. -</p> -<p> -This type of poultry farm is well suited for development near our -large cities, where the cry of "back to the land" has filled with -new hope the discouraged dweller in flat and tenement. No greater -chance for humanitarian work, and at the same time no greater -business opportunity, is open to-day than that of the promotion of -colonies of small poultry and truck farms where the parent colony -not only sells the land, but helps the settler to establish himself -in the business and to successfully market the product. The natural -location for such projects is in the sandy soils of New Jersey, -Delaware, Maryland and Virginia. -</p> -<p> -We have already discussed the twenty-five acre farm, representing -the largest probable unit for such an enterprise. We will now -discuss the five acre farm which represents the smallest probable -unit. -</p> -<p> -On the five-acre farm a considerable difference of methods will be -necessary. In the first place, it is to be a horseless farm. All -hauling and plowing must be attended to by the central company, or -the same results could be obtained by a team owned in common by a -small group, say of six farmers, each of whom is to use the team one -day of the week. -</p> -<p> -A single isolated farmer in a community of farms or market -gardeners, could hire a team by the day as he needed it. I do not -recommend this scheme, however, but would suggest that the single -individual get a larger plot of ground, at least ten acres, and a -team of his own. In the co-operative community the five-acre -teamless farm is entirely feasible. -</p> -<p> -The tract should be surveyed about twice as long as wide, which, for -five acres, makes it 20 by 40 rods, or 330 by 660 feet. Measure off -a strip one hundred feet back from the road. Fence the remainder of -the tract. Now run a partition fence down the center until we have -come to within twelve rods of the back side. Here run a cross fence. -This gives us three yards of about one and one-half acres each. The -gates are arranged so that one passes through the three yards in a -single trip. -</p> -<p> -Where the middle partition fence adjoins the front fence, a well is -driven. A water line is run down the partition fence to the rear -yard. -</p> -<p> -The plot around the house is set in permanent crops, such as -berries, fruit trees, asparagus, rhubarb, etc. Of the other three -yards, at least one is kept in growing marketable crops. Every inch -is cultivated, and crops of the leafy nature, as lettuce, cabbage, -kale and spinach, are chiefly grown, as they utilize the rich -nitrogenous poultry manure to the best advantage, and the waste -portions, or worthless crops, are utilized for the poultry. The -method of supplying the fowls with green food is entirely by -soiling. This means to grow the food in an adjoining lot and throw -it over the fence. The above mentioned crops are all good for the -purpose. Rape, which is not grown for human food, is also excellent. -</p> -<p> -Kale is one of the very best crops for soiling purposes. It is -planted in the fall and fed by pulling off the lower leaves during -the winter. In the spring the hardened stalks stand at a -considerable height and the field may be used for growing young -chicks, giving shade, and at the same time producing abundant green -feed, without any immediate labor, which means a great saving in the -busy season. -</p> -<p> -A set of panels or netting stretched on light frames is provided. -They are of sufficient number to set along the longest side of one -of the fields. A strip along the fence, four or five feet wide, can -be planted to sunflowers, corn, rape, kale, or other rank growing -crop and the panels leaned against the fence to protect the young -plants from the hens. In this way the fence rows can be kept -provided with the shade of growing crops, which relieves the -otherwise serious fault of this plan of poultry farming, in that the -hens would be required to live in absolutely barren and sunburned -lots, for we propose to keep five or six hundred hens on one and a -half acres of ground, and no green things could get a start without -protection. -</p> -<p> -Rotate the houses from field to field as often as the crops allow. -Never permit hens to run in one bare field for more than six months -at a time. Always keep every inch of ground not in use by the -chickens, luxuriant in something green. If you have a crop of -vegetables which are about matured, drill rape or crimson clover -between the rows; by the time the crop is harvested and the hens are -to be moved in, such crops will have made a good growth. The hens -will kill it out but it will be a "profitable killing." -</p> -<p> -By this system of intensive combination of trucking and poultry -farming, we have a combination which for small capital and small -lands cannot be beaten. The hens should yield better than a dollar -profit per head on this plan; the one and a half acres automatically -fertilized and intensely cultivated, growing two or three crops a -year, should easily double the income. -</p> -<p> -Twelve hundred dollars a year is a conservative estimate for the net -income from such a plant, and the original investment, exclusive of -residence, will not be over one thousand dollars. -</p> -<a name="2HCH0007"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> - -<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> - -<h2> -<a name="chapVI"> -CHAPTER VI -</a> -</h2> -<h3> -INCUBATION -</h3> -<p> -The differences in the process of reproduction in birds and mammals -is frequently misunderstood. The laying of the bird's egg is not -analogous to the birth of young in mammals. -</p> -<p> -The female, whether bird or beast, forms a true egg which must be -fertilized by the male sperm cell before the offspring can develop. -In the mammal, if fertilization does not occur, the egg which is -inconspicuous, passes out of the body and is lost. If fertilized, it -passes into the womb where the young develops through the embryonic -stages, being supplied with nourishment and oxygen directly by the -mother. -</p> -<p> -In the bird, the egg, fertilized or unfertilized, passes out of the -body and, being of conspicuous size, is readily observed. The size -of the egg is due to the supply of food material which is comparable -with that supplied to the mammalian young during its stay in the -mother's womb. -</p> -<p> -The reptiles lay eggs that are left to develop outside of the body -of the mother, subject to the vicissitudes of the environment. The -young of the bird, being warm blooded, cannot develop without more -uniform temperature than weather conditions ordinarily supply. This -heat is supplied by the instinctive brooding habit of the mother -bird. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Fertility of Eggs -</p> -<p> -In a state of nature the number of eggs laid by wild fowl are only -as many as can be covered by the female. These are laid in the -spring of the year, and one copulation of the male bird is -sufficient to fertilize the entire clutch. Under domestication, the -hen lays quite indefinitely, and is served by the male at frequent -intervals. The fertilizing power of the male bird extends over a -period of about 15 days. -</p> -<p> -For most of my readers, it will be unnecessary to state that the -male has no influence upon the other offspring than those which he -actually fertilizes within this period. The belief in the influence -of the first male upon the later hatches by another male is simply a -superstition. -</p> -<p> -The domestic chicken is decidedly polygamous. The common rule is one -male to 12 or 15 hens. I have had equally good results, however, -with one male to 20 hens. In the Little Compton and South Shore -districts, one male is used for thirty or even forty hens. -</p> -<p> -By infertile eggs is meant eggs in which the sperm cell has never -united with the ovum. Such eggs may occur in a flock from the -absence of the male, from his disinclination or physical inability -to serve the hens, from the weakness or lack of vitality in the -sperm cells, from his neglect of a particular hen, from -lifelessness, or lack of vitality in the ovule, or from chance -misses, by which some eggs fail to be reached by the sperm cells. -</p> -<p> -In practice, lack of sexual inclination in a vigorous looking -rooster is very rare indeed. The more likely explanation is that he -neglects some hens, or that the eggs are fertilized, but the germs -die before incubation begins, or in the early stages of that -process. The former trouble may be avoided by having a relay of -roosters and shutting each one up part of the time. The latter -difficulty will be diminished by setting the egg as fresh as -possible, meanwhile storing them in a cool place. The other factors -to be considered in getting fertile eggs, are so nearly synonymous -with the problems of health and vitality in laying stock generally, -that to discuss it here would be but a repetition of ideas. -</p> -<p> -In connection with the discussion of fertile eggs, I want to point -out the fact that the whole subject of fertility as distinct from -hatchability, is somewhat meaningless. The facts of the case are, -that whatever factors in the care of the stock will get a large -percentage fertile eggs, will also give hatchable eggs and vice -versa. This is to be explained by the fact that most of the -unfertile eggs tested out during incubation, are in reality dead -germs in which death has occurred before the chick became visible to -the naked eye. Such deaths should usually be ascribed to poor -parentage, but may be caused by wrong storage or incubation. -Likewise, it would not be just to credit all deaths after chicks -became visible to wrong incubation, although the most of the blame -probably belongs there. -</p> -<p> -Likewise, with brooder chicks, we must divide the credit of their -livability in an arbitrary fashion between parentage, incubation, -and care after hatching. -</p> -<p> -By the hatchability of eggs, we then mean the percentage of eggs set -that hatch chicks able to walk and eat. By the livability of chicks, -we mean the percentage of chicks hatched that live to the age of -four weeks, after which they are subject to no greater death rate -than adult chickens. By the livability of eggs, we mean the product -of these two factors, i.e.: the percentage of chicks at four weeks -of age based upon the total number of eggs set. -</p> -<p> -As before mentioned, the fertility of eggs bears fairly definite -relation to the hatchability, so likewise the hatchability bears a -relation to the livability of chicks. When poor hatches occur -because of weak germs, as because of faulty incubation, this same -injury to the chick's organism is carried over and causes a larger -death among the hatched chicks. -</p> -<p> -Moreover, the relation between the two is not the same with all -classes of hatches, but as hatches get poorer the mortality among -the chicks increases at an accelerating rate. The following table -gives a rough approximation of these ratios: -</p> -<table align="center" width="50%" summary="mortality of chicks"> -<tr><td align="right">Per cent. of Hatchability.</td> <td align="right">Per cent. of chick Livability.</td> <td align="right">Per cent. of egg Livability.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">100</td> <td align="right">100</td> <td align="right">100</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">90</td> <td align="right">95</td> <td align="right">85</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">80</td> <td align="right">88</td> <td align="right">70</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">70</td> <td align="right">84</td> <td align="right">50</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">60</td> <td align="right">72</td> <td align="right">43</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">50</td> <td align="right">55</td> <td align="right">27</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">40</td> <td align="right">40</td> <td align="right">16</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">30</td> <td align="right">24</td> <td align="right">7</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">20</td> <td align="right">10</td> <td align="right">2</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">10</td> <td align="right"> 2</td> <td align="right">1</td></tr> -</table> -<p> -These figures are based on incubator data. Eggs set under hens -usually give a hatchability of 50 per cent. to 65 per cent., and -livability of 70 per cent. to 80 per cent. The reason for the -greater livability is that the real hatchability of the eggs is 70 -per cent. to 75 per cent., and is reduced by mechanical breakage. -The hatchability of eggs varies with the season. This variation is -commonly ascribed to nature, it being stated that springtime is the -natural breeding season, and therefore eggs are of greater -fertility. -</p> -<p> -While there may be a little foundation for this idea, the chief -cause is to be found in the manner of artificial incubation, as will -be discussed in a later section of this chapter. The following table -is given as the seasonable hatchability for northern states. This is -based on May hatch of 50 per cent: -</p> -<table align="center" width="50%" summary="hatchability by month"> -<tr><td>January</td> <td align="right">38</td></tr> -<tr><td>February</td> <td align="right">42</td></tr> -<tr><td>March</td> <td align="right">47</td></tr> -<tr><td>April</td> <td align="right">49</td></tr> -<tr><td>May</td> <td align="right">50</td></tr> -<tr><td>June</td> <td align="right">46</td></tr> -<tr><td>July</td> <td align="right">40</td></tr> -<tr><td>August</td> <td align="right">40</td></tr> -<tr><td>September</td> <td align="right">42</td></tr> -<tr><td>October</td> <td align="right">43</td></tr> -<tr><td>November</td> <td align="right">40</td></tr> -<tr><td>December</td> <td align="right">35</td></tr> -</table> -<p> -Most people have an exaggerated idea of the hen's success as a -hatcher. I have a number of records of hen hatching with large -numbers of eggs set, and they are all between 55 per cent. and 60 -per cent. The reasons the hen does not hatch better are as follows: -</p> -<p> -First: Actual infertile eggs—usually, running about 10 per cent. in -the best season of the year. -</p> -<p> -Second: Mechanical breakage. -</p> -<p> -Third: Eggs accidentally getting chilled by rolled to one side of -the nests, or by the sick, lousy or crazy hens leaving the nests or -standing up on the eggs. -</p> -<p> -Fourth: Eggs getting damp from wet nests, dung or broken eggs; thus -causing bacterial infection and decay. -</p> -<p> -The last three causes are not present in artificial incubation. From -my observation they cause a loss of 15 per cent. of the eggs that -fail to hatch, when hens are managed in large numbers. This would -properly credit our hens with hatches running from 70 per cent. to -75 per cent., which, for reasons later explained, is not equal to -hatches under the best known conditions of artificial incubation. -</p> -<p> -The assumption that the hen is a perfect hatcher, even barring -accidents and the inherited imperfection of the egg, is not, I -think, in harmony with our general conception of nature. Not only -are eggs under the hens subject to unfavorable weather conditions, -but the hen, to satisfy her whims or hunger, frequently remains too -long away from the eggs, allowing them to become chilled. -</p> -<p> -For directions of how to manage setting hens, consult the Chapter on -"Poultry on the General Farm." -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -The Wisdom of the Egyptians. -</p> -<p> -Up to the present there have been just three types of artificial -incubation that have proven successful enough to warrant our -attention. These are: -</p> -<p> -First, the modern wooden-box-kerosene-lamp incubator which is seen -at its best development in the United States. -</p> -<p> -Second, the Egyptian incubator of ancient origin, which is a large -clay oven holding thousands of eggs and warmed by smouldering fires -of straw. -</p> -<p> -Third, the Chinese incubator, much on the principle of the Egyptian -hatchery, but run in the room of an ordinary house, heated with -charcoal braziers and used only for duck eggs. -</p> -<p> -I have no accurate information on the results of the Chinese method, -and as it is not used for hen eggs, we will confine our attention to -the first two processes only. -</p> -<p> -I do not care to go into detail in discussing makes of box -incubators, but I will mention briefly the chief points in the -development of our present machines. -</p> -<p> -The first difficulties were in getting lamps, regulators, etc., that -would give a uniform temperature. This now has been worked out to a -point where, with any good incubator and an experienced operator, -the temperature of the egg chamber is readily kept within the -desired range. -</p> -<p> -These are two principal types of box incubators now in use. In the -earliest of these, the eggs were heated by radiation from a tank of -hot water. These machines depended for ventilation or, what is much -more important, evaporation, upon chance air currents passing in and -out of augur holes in the ends or bottom of the machine. -</p> -<p> -The second, or more modern type, warms the eggs by a current of air -which passes around a lamp flue where, being made lighter by the -expansion due to heat, the air rises, creating a draft that forces -it into the egg chamber. There it is caused to spread by muslin or -felt diaphragms so that no perceptible current of air strikes the -eggs. This type is the most popular type of small incubator on the -market. Its advantage will be more readily seen after the discussion -of the principles of incubation. -</p> -<p> -Hazy tales of Egyptian incubators have gone the rounds of poultry -papers these many years. More recently some accurate accounts from -American travelers and European investigators have come to light, -and as a result, the average poultry editor is kept busy trying to -explain how such wonderful results can be obtained "in opposition to -the well-known laws of incubation." -</p> -<p> -The facts about Egyptian incubators are as follows: They have a -capacity of 50 to 100 thousand eggs, and are built as a single large -room, partly underground and made of clay reinforced with straw. The -walls are two or three feet thick. Inside, the main rooms are little -clay domes with two floors. -</p> -<p> -The hatching season begins the middle of January and lasts three -months. A couple of weeks before the hatching begins, the fireproof -house is filled with straw which is set afire, thoroughly warming -the hatchery. The ashes are then taken out and little fires built in -pots are set around the outside of the big room. The little clay -rooms with the double floors are now filled with eggs. That is, one -is filled at a time, the idea being to have fresh eggs entering and -chicks moving out in a regular order, so as not to cause radical -changes in the temperature of the hatchery. -</p> -<p> -No thermometer is used, but the operator has a very highly -cultivated sense of temperature, such as is possessed by a cheese -maker or dynamite dryer. About the twelfth day the eggs are moved to -the upper part of the little interior rooms where they are further -removed from the heated floor. The eggs are turned and tested out -much as in this country. They are never cooled and the room is full -of the fumes and smoke of burning straw. The ventilation provided is -incidental. -</p> -<p> -This is about the whole story save for results. The incubator men -pay back three chicks for four eggs, and take their profits by -selling the extra chicks that are hatched above the 75 per cent. -This statement is in itself so astonishing and yet convincing, that -to add that the hatch runs between 85 per cent. and 90 per cent. of -all eggs set, and that the incubators of the Nile Delta hatch about -75,000,000 chicks a year seems almost superfluous. As for the -explanation of the results of the Egyptian incubators compared with -the American kerosene lamp type, I think it can best be brought -about by a consideration in detail of the scientific principles of -incubators. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Principles of Incubation. -</p> -<p> -HEAT.—To keep animal life, once started, alive and growing, we -need: First, a suitable surrounding temperature. Second, a fairly -constant proportion of water in the body substance. Third, oxygen. -Fourth, food. -</p> -<p> -Now, a fertile egg is a living young animal and as such its wants -should be considered. We may at once dispose of the food problem of -the unhatched chick, by saying that the food is the contents of the -egg at the time of laying, and as far as incubation is concerned, is -beyond our control. -</p> -<p> -In consideration of external temperature in its relation to life, we -should note: (A) the optimum temperature; (B) the range of -temperature consistent with general good health; (C) the range at -which death occurs. Just to show the principle at stake, and without -looking up authorities, I will state these temperatures for a number -of animals. Of course you can dispute the accuracy of these figures, -but they will serve to illustrate our purpose: -</p> -<table align="center" summary="comparative temperatures"> - -<tr><td> </td><td align="right">External Optimum Point</td> <td align="right">External Healthful Range</td> <td align="right">External Fatal Range</td> <td align="right">Internal Optimum Point</td> <td align="right">Internal Fatal Range </td></tr> - -<tr><td>Man</td> <td align="right">70</td> <td align="right">0 to 100</td> <td align="right">50 to 140</td> <td align="right">98</td> <td align="right">90 to 106</td></tr> - -<tr><td>Dog</td> <td align="right">60</td> <td align="right">70 to 140</td> <td align="right">70 to 140</td> <td align="right">101</td> <td align="right">95 to 110</td></tr> - -<tr><td>Monkey</td> <td align="right">90</td> <td align="right">30 to 140</td> <td align="right">30 to 140</td> <td align="right">101</td> <td align="right">95 to 108</td></tr> - -<tr><td>Horse</td> <td align="right">80</td> <td align="right">20 to 120</td> <td align="right">20 to 120</td> <td align="right">99</td> <td align="right">95 to 105</td></tr> - -<tr><td>Fowl</td> <td align="right">80</td> <td align="right">20 to 140</td> <td align="right">20 to 140</td> <td align="right">107</td> <td align="right">100 to 115</td></tr> - -<tr><td>Newly hatched chick</td> <td align="right">90</td> <td align="right">70 to 100</td> <td align="right">40 to 120</td> <td align="right">108</td> <td align="right"> 100 to 115</td></tr> - -<tr><td>Fertile egg at start of incubation</td> <td align="right">103</td> <td align="right">32 to 110</td> <td align="right">31 to 125</td> <td align="right">103</td> <td align="right"> 31 to 125</td></tr> - -<tr><td>Egg incubated three days</td> <td align="right">103</td> <td align="right">98 to 105</td> <td align="right">80 to 118</td> <td align="right">103</td> <td align="right"> 95 to 118</td></tr> - -<tr><td>Egg incubated eighteen days</td> <td align="right">103</td> <td align="right">75 to 105</td> <td align="right">50 to 118</td> <td align="right">106</td> <td align="right"> 98 to 116</td></tr> -</table> -<p> -This table shows, among other things, that we are considering in the -chick not a new proposition to which the laws of general animal life -do not apply, but merely a young animal during the process of growth -to a point where its internal mechanism for heat control, has power -to maintain the body temperature through a greater range of external -temperature change. -</p> -<p> -In the cooling process that occurs after laying the living cells of -the egg become dormant, and like a hibernating animal, the actual -internal temperature can be subjected to a much greater range than -when the animal is active. After incubation begins and cell activity -returns, and especially after blood forms and circulation commences, -the temperature of the chick becomes subject to about the same -internal range as with other warm blooded animals. -</p> -<p> -In the case of fully formed animals, the internal temperature is -regulated by a double process. If the external temperature be -lowered, more food substance is combined with oxygen to keep up the -warmth of the body, while, if the external temperature be raised, -the body temperature is kept low by the cooling effects of -evaporation. This occurs in mammals chiefly by sweating. Birds do -not sweat, but the same effect is brought about by increased -breathing. Now, the chick gradually develops the heat producing -function during incubation, until towards the close of the period it -can take care of itself fairly well in case of lowered external -temperature. The power to cool the body by breathing is not, -however, granted to the unhatched chick, and for this reason the -incubating egg cannot stand excess of heat as well as lack of it. -</p> -<p> -The practical points to be remembered from the above are: -</p> -<p> -First: Before incubation begins, eggs may be subjected to any -temperature that will not physically or chemically injure the -substance. -</p> -<p> -Second: During the first few days of the hatch, eggs have no -appreciable power of heat formation and the external temperature for -any considerable period of time can safely vary only within the -range of temperature at which the physiological process may be -carried on. -</p> -<p> -Third: As the chick develops it needs less careful guarding against -cooling, and must still be guarded against over-heating. -</p> -<p> -Fourth: It should be remembered, however, that eggs are very poor -conductors of heat, and if the temperature change is not great -several hours of exposure are required to bring the egg to the new -temperature. -</p> -<p> -Temperature is the most readily observed feature about natural -incubation and its control was consequently the first and chief -effort of the early incubator inventors. -</p> -<p> -A great deal of experimental work has been done to determine the -degree of temperature for eggs during incubation. The temperature of -the hen's blood is about 105 to 107 degrees F. The eggs are not -warmed quite to this temperature, the amount by which they fail to -reach the temperature of the hen's body depending, of course, upon -the surrounding temperature. 103 degrees F. is the temperature that -has been generally agreed upon by incubator manufacturers. Some of -these advise running 102 degrees the first week, 103 degrees the -second, 104 degrees the third. As a matter of fact it is very -difficult to determine the actual temperature of the egg in the box -incubator. This is because the source of heat is above the eggs and -the air temperature changes rapidly as the thermometer is raised or -lowered through the egg chamber. The advice to place the bulb of the -thermometer against the live egg is very good, but in practice quite -variable results will be found on different eggs and different parts -of the machine. -</p> -<p> -With incubators of the same make, and in all appearances identical, -quite marked variation in hatching capacity has been observed in -individual machines. Careful experimentation will usually show this -to be a matter of the way the thermometer is hung in relation to the -heating surfaces and to the eggs. Ovi-thermometers, which consists -of a thermometer enclosed in the celluloid imitation of an egg, are -now in the market and are perhaps as safe as anything that can be -used. -</p> -<p> -As was indicated in the previous section greater care in temperature -of the egg is necessary in the first half of the hatch. The -temperature of 102 degrees F. as above given is, in the writer's -opinion, too low for this portion of the hatch. An actual -temperature of 104 degrees at the top of the eggs will, as has been -shown by careful experimental work, give better hatches than the -lower temperature. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Moisture and Evaporation. -</p> -<p> -The subject of the water content of the egg and its relation to -life, is the least understood of poultry problems. -</p> -<p> -The whole study of the water content of the egg during incubation -hangs on the amount of evaporation. Now, the rates of evaporation -from any moist object is determined by two factors: vapor pressure -and the rate of movement of the air past the object. As incubation -is always carried on at the same temperature, the evaporating power -of the air is directly proportioned to the difference in the vapor -pressure of water at that temperature, and the vapor pressure of the -air as it enters the machine. Thus, in order to know the evaporative -power of the air, we have only to determine the vapor pressure of -the air and to remember that the rate of evaporation is in -proportion to this pressure, i.e.: when the vapor pressure is high -the evaporation will be slow and the eggs remain too wet, and when -the vapor pressure is low the eggs will be excessively dried out. -</p> -<p> -The reader is probably more familiar with the term relative humidity -than the term vapor pressure, but as the actual significance of -relative humidity is changed at every change in outside temperature, -the use of this term for expressing the evaporating power of the air -has led to no end of confusion. -</p> -<p> -The influence of air currents on evaporation is to increase it -directly proportional with the rate of air movement. Thus, 10 cubic -feet of air per hour passing through an egg chamber would remove -twice as much moisture as would 5 cubic feet. -</p> -<p> -If the percentage of water in any living body be changed a -relatively small amount, serious disturbances of the physiological -processes and ultimately death will result. The mature animal can, -by drinking, take considerable excess of water without danger, for -the surplus will be speedily removed by perspiration and by the -secretion from the kidneys. But the percentage of water in the -actual tissues of the body can vary only within a narrow range of -not more than three or four per cent. The chick in the shell is not -provided with means of increasing its water content by drinking or -diminishing it by excretion, but the fresh egg is provided with more -moisture than the hatched chick will require, and the surplus is -gradually lost by evaporation. This places the water content of the -chick's body at the mercies of the evaporating power of the air that -surrounds the egg during incubation. -</p> -<p> -To assume that these risks of uncertain rates of evaporation is -desirable, is as absurd as to assume that the risks of rainfall are -desirable for plant life. As the plants of a certain climate have -become adapted to the amount of soil moisture which the climate is -likely to provide, so the egg has by natural selection been formed -with about as much excess of water as will be lost in an average -season under the natural conditions of incubation. Plant life -suffers in drought or flood, and likewise bird life suffers in -seasons of abnormal evaporative conditions. This view is -substantiated by the fact that the eggs of water fowl which are in -nature incubated in damper places, have a lower water content than -the eggs of land birds. -</p> -<p> -The per cent. of water contained in the contents of fresh eggs is -about 74 per cent., or about 65.5 per cent. based on the weight, -shell included. Unfortunately no investigations have been made -concerning the per cent. of water present in the newly hatched -chick. -</p> -<p> -Upon the subject of the loss of water for the whole period of -incubation, valuable data has been collected at the Utah, Oregon and -Ontario Experiment Stations. -</p> -<p> -In these tests we find that as a rule the evaporation of eggs under -hens is less than in incubators. With both hens and incubators, the -rate of evaporation is greatest at the Utah Station, which one would -naturally expect from the climate. The eggs under hens at the -Ontario Station averaged about 12 per cent. loss in weight, and -those at the Utah Station about 15 per cent. At both stations, -incubators without moisture ran several per cent. higher evaporation -than eggs under hens. The conclusions at all stations were that the -addition of moisture to incubators was a material aid to good -hatches of livable chicks. -</p> -<p> -At Ontario the average evaporation ran from as low as 7 per cent. At -Utah it reached as high as 24 per cent. Now as the entire loss of -weight is loss of water, the solid contents remaining the same, and -as the original per cent. of water contained in the egg (shell -included) is only 65.5, the chicks of the two lots with the same -amount of solid substance would contain water in the proportion of -58.5 to 41.5. Based on the weight of the chick, this would make a -difference of water content of over 25 per cent. -</p> -<p> -That human beings or other animals could not exist with such -differences in the chemical composition of the body, is at once -apparent. In fact I do not believe that the chick can live under -such remarkable circumstances. As I have picked the extreme cases in -the series given, it is possible that these extremes were -experimental errors, and as in the Utah data, no information is -given as what happened to the chicks, I have no proof that they did -live. But from the large number of hatches that were recorded below -9 per cent. and above 15 per cent., giving a variation of the actual -water content in the chick's body of about 10 per cent., it is -evident that chicks do hatch under remarkable physiological -difficulties. One explanation that suggests itself is, that as there -is considerable variation in evaporation of individual eggs due to -the amount of shell porosity, and the chicks that hatch in either -case may be the ones whose individual variations threw them nearer -the normal. -</p> -<p> -By a further study from the Ontario data of the relation of the -evaporation to the results in livable chicks, it can be readily -observed that all good hatches have evaporation centering around the -12 per cent. moisture loss, and that all lots with evaporations -above 15 per cent. hatch out extremely poor. -</p> -<p> -The general averages of the machines supplied with some form of -moisture was 35 per cent. of all eggs set, in chicks alive at four -weeks of age, while the machines ran dry gave only 20 per cent. of -live chicks at a similar period. -</p> -<p> -Now, I wish to call attention to a further point in connection with -evaporation. If the final measure of the loss of weight by -evaporation were the only criterion of correct conditions of -moisture in the chick's body, the hatches that show 12 per cent., or -whatever the correct amount of evaporation may be, should be -decidedly superior to those on either side. That they are better, -has already been shown. But they are far from what they should be. -An explanation is not hard to find. The correct content of moisture -is not the only essential to the chick's well being at the moments -of hatching, but during the whole period of incubation. Under our -present system of incubation, the chick is immediately subject to -the changing evaporation of American weather conditions. The data -for that fact, picked at random, will be of interest. The following -table gives the vapor pressure at Buffalo, N. Y., for twenty -consecutive days in April: -</p> -<table align="center" width="30%" summary="vapor pressure"> -<tr><td>April 1</td> <td align="right">170</td></tr> -<tr><td>April 2</td> <td align="right">130</td></tr> -<tr><td>April 3</td> <td align="right">95</td></tr> -<tr><td>April 4</td> <td align="right">103</td></tr> -<tr><td>April 5</td> <td align="right">110</td></tr> -<tr><td>April 6</td> <td align="right">106</td></tr> -<tr><td>April 7</td> <td align="right">154</td></tr> -<tr><td>April 8</td> <td align="right">183</td></tr> -<tr><td>April 9</td> <td align="right">245</td></tr> -<tr><td>April 10</td> <td align="right">311</td></tr> -<tr><td>April 11</td> <td align="right">342</td></tr> -<tr><td>April 12</td> <td align="right">286</td></tr> -<tr><td>April 13</td> <td align="right">219</td></tr> -<tr><td>April 14</td> <td align="right">248</td></tr> -<tr><td>April 15</td> <td align="right">217</td></tr> -<tr><td>April 16</td> <td align="right">193</td></tr> -<tr><td>April 17</td> <td align="right">241</td></tr> -<tr><td>April 18</td> <td align="right">306</td></tr> -<tr><td>April 19</td> <td align="right">261</td></tr> -<tr><td>April 20</td> <td align="right">204</td></tr> -</table> -<p> -Supposing a hatch to be started at the beginning of the above -period, by the end of the first week, with the excessive -evaporation, due to a low vapor pressure, the eggs would all be -several per cent. below the normal water content; the fact that the -next week was warm and rainy, and the vapor pressure rose until the -loss was entirely counterbalanced, would not repair the injury, even -though the eggs showed at the end of incubation exactly the correct -amount of shrinkage. A man might thirst in the desert for a week, -then, coming to a hole of water fall in and drown, but we would -hardly accept the report of a normal water content found at the -post-mortem examination as evidence that his death was not connected -with the moisture problem. -</p> -<p> -The change of evaporation, due to weather conditions, is, under -hens, less marked than in incubators. This is because there are no -drafts under the hen, and because the hen's moist body and the moist -earth, if she sets on the ground, are separate sources of moisture -which the changing humidity of the atmosphere does not affect. Among -about forty hens set at different times at the Utah Station and the -loss of moisture of which was determined at three equal periods of -six days each, the greatest irregularity I found was as follows: 1st -period, 5.81 per cent; 2d period, 3.86 per cent; 3d period, 6.15 per -cent. Compare this with a similar incubator record at the same -station in which the loss for the three periods was 5.63, 9.18 and -2.15. -</p> -<p> -I think the reader is now in position to appreciate the almost -unsurmountable difficulties in the proper control of evaporation -with the common small incubator in our climate. It is little wonder -that one of our best incubator manufacturers, after studying the -proposition for some time, threw over the whole moisture -proposition, and put out a machine in which drafts of air were -slowed down by felt diaphragms and the use of moisture was strictly -forbidden. -</p> -<p> -The moisture problem to the small incubator operator presents itself -as follows: If left to the mercies of chance and the weather, the -too great or too little evaporation from his eggs will yield hatches -that will prove unprofitable. In order to regulate this evaporation, -he must know and be able to control both vapor pressure and the -currents of air that strike the eggs. Now he does not know the -amount of vapor pressure and has no way of finding it out. The -so-called humidity gauges on the market are practically worthless, -and even were the readings on relative humidity accurately -determined, they would be wholly confusing, for their effect of the -same relative humidity on the evaporation will vary widely with -variations of the out-of-door temperature. -</p> -<p> -If the operator knows or guesses that the humidity is too low, he -can increase it by adding water to the room, or the egg chamber, but -he cannot tell when he has too much, nor can he reduce the vapor -pressure of the air on rainy days when nature gives him too much -water. As to air currents he is little better off—he has no way to -tell accurately as to the behavior of air in the egg chamber and -changes in temperature of the heater or if the outside air will -throw these currents all off, since they depend upon the draft -principle. -</p> -<p> -Taking it all in all, the man with the small incubator had better -follow the manufacturer's directions and trust to luck. -</p> -<p> -The writer has long been of the conviction that a plan which would -keep the rate of evaporation within as narrow bounds as we now keep -the temperature, would not only solve the problem of artificial -incubation, but improve on nature and increase not only the numbers -but the vitality or livability of the chicks. With a view of -studying further the relations between the conditions of atmospheric -vapor pressure, and the success of artificial incubation, I have -investigated climatic reports and hatching records in the various -sections of the world. -</p> -<p> -The following are averages of the monthly vapor pressures at four -points in which we are interested: -</p> -<table align="center" width="50%" summary="vapor pressures"> - -<tr><td>Month</td> <td align="right">Buffalo, N.Y.</td> <td align="right">St. Louis, Mo.</td> <td align="right">San Francisco.</td> <td align="right">Cairo, Egypt</td></tr> -<tr><td>January</td> <td align="right">87</td> <td align="right">98</td> <td align="right">311</td> <td align="right">279</td></tr> -<tr><td>February</td> <td align="right">81</td> <td align="right">94</td> <td align="right">310</td> <td align="right">288</td></tr> -<tr><td>March</td> <td align="right">138</td> <td align="right">224</td> <td align="right">337</td> <td align="right">287</td></tr> -<tr><td>April</td> <td align="right">171</td> <td align="right">283</td> <td align="right">332</td> <td align="right">311</td></tr> -<tr><td>May</td> <td align="right">301</td> <td align="right">423</td> <td align="right">317</td> <td align="right">328</td></tr> -<tr><td>June</td> <td align="right">466</td> <td align="right">550</td> <td align="right">345</td> <td align="right">365</td></tr> -<tr><td>July</td> <td align="right">546</td> <td align="right">599</td> <td align="right">374</td> <td align="right">413</td></tr> -<tr><td>August</td> <td align="right">496</td> <td align="right">627</td> <td align="right">382</td> <td align="right">435</td></tr> -<tr><td>September</td> <td align="right">429</td> <td align="right">506</td> <td align="right">389</td> <td align="right">372</td></tr> -<tr><td>October</td> <td align="right">285</td> <td align="right">327</td> <td align="right">342</td> <td align="right">365</td></tr> -<tr><td>November</td> <td align="right">271</td> <td align="right">225</td> <td align="right">285</td> <td align="right">321</td></tr> -<tr><td>December</td> <td align="right">143</td> <td align="right">133</td> <td align="right">243</td> <td align="right">397</td></tr> -</table> -<p> -A study of the extent of daily variations is also of interest. As a -general thing they are less extreme in localities when the seasonal -variations are also less. In Cairo, however, which has a seasonal -variation greater than San Francisco, the daily variations during -the hatching season are much less than in California. This is due to -a constant wind from sea to land, and an absolute absence of -rainfall, conditions for which Egypt is noted. -</p> -<p> -Nearness to a coast does not mean uniform vapor pressure, for with -wind alternating from sea to land, it means just the opposite. -</p> -<p> -As will be readily seen the months in spring which give the best -hatches, occupy a medium place in the humidity scale. The fact that -both hens and machines succeed best in this period, is to me very -suggestive of the possibility that with an incubator absolutely -controlling evaporation, much of the seasonal variation in the -hatchability would disappear. -</p> -<p> -The uniform humidity of the California coast is shown in the above -table. This is not inconsistent with the excellent results obtained -at Petaluma. -</p> -<p> -The Egyptian hatcher in his long experience has learned just about -how much airholes and smudge fire are necessary to get results. With -these kept constant and the atmosphere constant, we have more nearly -perfect conditions of incubation than are to be found anywhere else -in the world, and I do not except the natural methods. The climatic -conditions of Egypt cannot be equaled in any other climate, but as -will be shown in the last section of this chapter, their effect can -be duplicated readily enough by modern science and engineering. -</p> -<p> -Mr. Edward Brown, who was sent over here by the English Government -to investigate our poultry industry, was greatly surprised at our -poor results in artificial incubation. Compared with our -acknowledged records of less than 50 per cent. hatches, he quotes -the results obtained in hatching 18,000 eggs at an English -experiment station as 62 per cent. I have not obtained any data of -English humidity, but it is undoubtedly more uniform than the -eastern United States. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Ventilation—Carbon Dioxide. -</p> -<p> -The last of the four life requisites we have to consider is that of -oxygen. The chick in the shell, like a fish, breathes oxygen which -is dissolved in a liquid. A special breathing organ is developed for -the chick during its embryonic stages and floats in the white and -absorbs the oxygen and gives off carbon dioxide. The amount of this -breathing that occurs in the chick is at first insignificant, but -increases with development. At no time, however, is it anywhere -equal to that of the hatched chicks, for the physiological function -to be maintained by the unhatched chicks requires little energy and -little oxidation. -</p> -<p> -Upon the subject of ventilation in general, a great misunderstanding -exists. Be it far from me to say anything that will cause either my -readers or his chickens to sleep less in the fresh air, yet for the -love of truth and for the simplification of the problem of -incubation, the real facts about ventilation must be given. -</p> -<p> -In breathing, oxygen is absorbed and carbon dioxide and water vapor -are given off. It is popularly held that abundance of fresh air is -necessary to supply the oxygen for breathing and that carbon dioxide -is a poison. Both are mistakes. The amount of oxygen normally in the -air is about 20 per cent. Of carbon dioxide there is normally three -hundredths of one per cent. During breathing these gasses are -exchanged in about equal volume. A doubling or tripling of carbon -dioxide was formerly thought to be "very dangerous." Now, if the -carbon dioxide were increased 100 times, we would have only three -per cent., and have seventeen per cent. of oxygen remaining. This -oxygen would still be of sufficient pressure to readily pass into -the blood. We might breathe a little faster to make up for the -lessened oxygen pressure. In fact such a condition of the air would -not be unlike the effects of higher altitudes. -</p> -<p> -Some investigations recently conducted at the U.S. Experiment -Station for human nutrition, have shown the utter misconception of -the old idea of ventilation. The respiratory calorimeter is an -air-tight compartment in which men are confined for a week or more -at a time while studies are being made concerning heat and energy -yielded by food products. It being inconvenient to analyze such an -immense volume of air as would be necessary to keep the room -freshened according to conventional ventilation standards, -experiments were made to see how vitiated the air could be made -without causing ill effects to the subject. -</p> -<p> -This led to a remarkable series of experiments in which it was -repeatedly demonstrated that a man could live and work for a week at -a time without experiencing any ill effects whatever in an -atmosphere of his own breath containing as high as 1.86 per cent. of -carbon dioxide, or, in other words, the air had its impurity -increased 62 times. This agrees with what every chemist and -physiologist has long known, and that is that carbon dioxide is not -poisonous, but is a harmless dilutant just as nitrogen. This does -not mean that a man or animal may not die of suffocation, but that -these are smothered, as they are drowned, by a real absence of -oxygen, not poisoned by a fraction of 1 per cent. of carbon dioxide. -</p> -<p> -In the same series of experiments, search was made for the -mysterious poisons of the breath which many who had learned of the -actual harmlessness of carbon dioxide alleged to be the cause of the -ill effects attributed to foul air. Without discussion, I will say -that the investigators failed to find such poisons, but concluded -that the sense of suffocation in an unventilated room is due not to -carbon dioxide or other "poisonous" respiratory products, but is -wholly due to warmth, water vapor, and the unpleasant odors given -off by the body. -</p> -<p> -The subject of ventilation has always been a bone of contention in -incubator discussions. With its little understood real importance, -as shown in the previous section, and the greatly exaggerated -popular notions of the importance of oxygen and imagined poisonous -qualities of carbon dioxide, the confusion in the subject should -cause little wonder. -</p> -<p> -A few years ago some one with an investigating mind decided to see -if incubators were properly ventilated, and proceeded to make carbon -dioxide determinations of the air under a hen and in an incubator. -The air under the hen was found to contain the most of the obnoxious -gas. Now, this information was disconcerting, for the hen had always -been considered the source of all incubator wisdom. Clearly the -perfection of the hen or the conception of pure air must be -sacrificed. Chemistry here came to the rescue, and said that carbon -dioxide mixed with water, formed an acid and acid would dissolve the -lime of an egg shell. Evidently the hen was sacrificing her own -health by breathing impure air in order to soften up the shells a -little so the chicks could get out. Since it could have been -demonstrated in a few hours in any laboratory, that carbon dioxide -in the quantities involved, has no perceptible effect upon egg -shells, it is with some apology that I mention that quite a deal of -good brains has been spent upon the subject by two experiment -stations. The data accumulated, of course, fails to prove the -theory, but it is interesting as further evidence of the -needlessness in the old fear of insufficient ventilation. -</p> -<p> -At the Ontario Station, the average amounts of carbon dioxide under -a large number of hens was .32 of one per cent., or about ten times -that of fresh air, or one-sixth of that which the man breathed so -happily in the respiratory calorimeter. With incubators, every -conceivable scheme was tried to change the amount of carbon dioxide. -In some, sour milk was placed which, in fermenting, gives off the -gas in question. Others were supplied with buttermilk, presumably to -familiarize the chickens with this article so they would recognize -it in the fattening rations. In other machines, lamp fumes were run -in, and to still others, pure carbon dioxide was supplied. The -percentage of the gas present varied in the machines from .06 to .58 -of one per cent. The results, of course, vary as any run of hatches -would. The detailed discussion of the hatches and their relation to -the amount of carbon dioxide as given in Bulletin 160 of the Ontario -Station, would be unfortunately confusing to the novice, but would -make amusing reading for the old poultryman. Speaking of a -comparison of two hatches, the writer, on page 53 of the bulletin -says, "The increase in vitality of chicks from the combination of -the carbon dioxide and moisture over moisture only, amounting, as it -does, to 4.5 per cent. of the eggs set, seems directly due to the -higher carbon dioxide content." I cannot refrain from suggesting -that if my reader has two incubators, he might set up a Chinese -prayer machine in front of one and see if he cannot in like manner -demonstrate the efficacy of Heavenly supplications in the hatching -of chickens. -</p> -<p> -The practical bearing of the subject of ventilation in the small -incubator is almost wholly one of evaporation. The majority of such -machines are probably too much ventilated. In a large and properly -constructed hatchery, such as is discussed in the last section of -this chapter, the entire composition of the air, as well as its -movement, is entirely under control. Nothing has yet been brought to -light that indicates any particular attention need be given to the -composition of such air save in regard to its moisture content, but -as the control of this factor renders it necessary that the air be -in a closed circuit, and not open to all out-doors, it will be very -easy to subject the air to further changes such as the increasing -oxygen, if such can be demonstrated to be desirable. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Turning Eggs. -</p> -<p> -The subject of turning eggs is another source of rather meaningless -controversy. Of course, the hen moves her eggs around and in doing -so turns them. Doubtless the reader, were he setting on a pile of -door knobs as big as his head, would do the same thing. As proof -that eggs need turning, we are referred to the fact that yolks stick -to the shell if the eggs are not turned. I have candled thousands of -eggs and have yet to see a yolk stuck to the shell unless the egg -contained foreign organism or was several months old. However, I -have seen hundreds of blood rings stuck to the shell. Whether the -chick died because the blood rings stuck or whether the blood rings -stuck because the chicken died I know not, but I have a strong -presumption that the latter explanation is correct, for I see no -reason if the live blood ring was in the habit of sticking to the -shell, why this would not occur in a few hours as well as in a few -days. -</p> -<p> -In the year 1901 I saw plenty of chicks hatched out in Kansas in egg -cases, kitchen cupboards and other places where regular turning was -entirely overlooked. -</p> -<p> -Mr. J.P. Collins, head of the Produce Department of Swift & Co., -says that he was one time cruelly deserted in a Pullman smoker for -telling the same story. The statement is true, however, in spite of -Mr. Collins' unpleasant experience. Texas egg dealers frequently -find hatched chickens in cases of eggs. -</p> -<p> -Upon the subject of turning eggs the writer will admit that he is -doing what poultry writers as a class do on a great many occasions, -i.e.: expressing an opinion rather than giving the proven facts. In -incubation practice it is highly desirable to change the position of -eggs so that unevenness in temperature and evaporation will be -balanced. When doing this it is easier to turn the eggs than not to -turn them, and for this reason the writer has never gone to the -trouble of thoroughly investigating the matter. But it has been -abundantly proven that any particular pains in egg turning is a -waste of time. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Cooling Eggs. -</p> -<p> -The belief in the necessity of cooling eggs undoubtedly arose from -the effort to follow closely and blindly in the footsteps of the -hen. With this idea in mind the fact that the hen cooled her eggs -occasionally led us to discover a theory which proved such cooling -to be necessary. A more reasonable theory is that the hen cools the -eggs from necessity, not from choice. In some species of birds the -male relieves the female while the latter goes foraging. -</p> -<p> -But there is no need to argue the question. Eggs will hatch if -cooled according to custom, but that they will hatch as well or -better without the cooling is abundantly proven by the results in -Egyptian incubators where no cooling whatever is practiced. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Searching for the "Open Sesame" of Incubation. -</p> -<p> -The experiment station workers have, the last few years, gone a -hunting for the weak spot in artificial incubation. Some reference -to this work has already been made in the sections on moisture and -ventilation. Before leaving the subject I want to refer to two more -efforts to find this key to the mystery of incubation and in the one -case at least correct an erroneous impression that has been given -out. -</p> -<p> -At the Ontario Station a patent disinfectant wash called "Zenoleum" -was incidentally used to deodorize incubators. Now, for some reason, -perhaps due to the belief that white diarrhoea was caused by a germ -in the egg, this idea of washing with Zenoleum was conceived to be a -possible solution of the incubator problem. In the numerous -experiments at that station in 1907 Zenoleum applied to the machine -in various ways was combined with various other incipient panaceas -and at the end of the season the results of the various combinations -were duly tabulated. The machine with buttermilk and Zenoleum headed -the list for livable chicks. -</p> -<p> -For reasons explained in the chapter on "Experiment Station Work," -the idea of contrasting the results of one hatch with one sort with -the average results of many hatches of another sort is very poor -science. Feeling that the Station men would hardly be guilty of -expressing as they did in favor of such a method without better -reason, I very carefully went over the results and compared all -machines using Zenoleum with all machines without it. The results in -favor of Zenoleum were less marked but still perceptible. I was -somewhat puzzled, as I could see no rational explanation of the -relation between disinfecting incubator walls and the hatchability -of the chick in its germ-proof cage. Finally I hit upon the scheme -of arranging the hatches by dates and the explanation became at once -apparent. The hatching experiments had extended from March to July, -but the Zenoleum hatches were grouped in April and early in May, -when, as one would expect from weather conditions, all hatches were -running good. After allowing for this error Zenoleum appeared as -harmless and meaningless as would the Attar of Roses. -</p> -<p> -The second link after the missing link of incubation to which I wish -to call your attention also occurred at the Ontario Station. The -latter case, however, is happier in that no unwarranted conclusions -were drawn and that an interesting bit of scientific knowledge was -added to the world's store. The conception to be tested was an -offshoot from the carbon dioxide theory. You will remember at the -Utah Station the idea was that carbon dioxide was to dissolve the -shell so the chick could break out easier. -</p> -<p> -At the Guelph Station the conception was that the carbon dioxide -might dissolve the lime of the shell for the chick to use in "makin' -hisself." As an egg could not be analyzed fresh and then hatched, a -number were analyzed from the same hens and others from those hens -were then incubated with the various amounts of carbon dioxide, -buttermilk, Zenoleum, and other factors. The lime content of the -contents of the fresh egg averaged about .04 grams. At hatching time -the lime in the chick's body averaged about .20 grams and was always -several times as great as the maximum of the eggs. -</p> -<p> -Clearly calcium phosphate of the chick's bones is made by the -digestion of the calcium carbonate from the shell and its -combination with the phosphorus of the yolk. Certainly a remarkable -and hitherto unexplained fact. The amount of lime required is not -great enough, however, to materially weaken the shell, but, of -course, the process is vital to the chick as bones are quite -essential to his welfare, but it is an "inside affair" of which the -three-tenths of one per cent of carbon dioxide incidentally present -under the hen is entirely irrelevant. -</p> -<p> -A further observation made by the investigator is that the chicks -which obtained the lowest amount of lime were abnormally weak. As -long as we are powerless to aid the chick in digesting lime this -fact, like the other, belongs in the field of pure, rather than -applied science. I think that we are safe in saying that the -weakness caused the shortage of lime rather than vice versa; if the -writer remembers runts in other animals are usually a little short -of bone material. -</p> -<p> -The chemist of the station is to be given special credit for not -jumping at conclusions. In the summary of this work he states: -"There is apparently no connection between the amount of lime -absorbed by the chick and the amount of carbon dioxide present -during incubation." -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -The Box Type of Incubator In Actual Use. -</p> -<p> -Although the fact is not so advertised and frequently not recognized -even by the makers, the success of existing incubators is directly -proportional to the extent with which they control evaporation. In -order to show this I have only to call attention briefly to two or -three of the most successful types of incubators on the market. -</p> -<p> -Let me first repeat that evaporation increases with increased air -currents and with decreased vapor pressure. Now, the vapor pressure -undergoes all manner of changes with the passing of storm centers -and the changes of prevailing winds. But there is a general tendency -for vapor pressure to increase with increase in outside temperature. -Now, the movement of air in all common incubators depends upon the -draft principle and the greater the difference in machine -temperature and outside temperature the greater will be this draft. -Thus, we have two factors combining to cause variation in the rate -of evaporation. The tendency for the rate of airflow to vary is -diminished when a cellar is used for an incubator room, but the -cellar does not materially remedy the climatic variation in vapor -pressure. -</p> -<p> -The general tendency of incubators as ordinarily constructed, is to -dry out the eggs too rapidly. With a view of counteracting this, -water is placed in pans in the egg room. A surface of water exposed -to quiet air does not evaporate as fast as one might think, as is -easily shown by the fact that air above rivers, lakes and even seas -is frequently far from the saturation point. The result of the -moisture pan with a given current of air is that the vapor pressure -is increased a definite amount, but by no means is it regulated or -made uniform. Inasmuch as too much shrinking is the most prevalent -fault in box incubators, the use of moisture is on the whole -beneficial, but in hot, murky weather, with less circulation and -higher outside vapor pressure, the moisture is overdone and the -operator condemns the system. -</p> -<p> -The subject not being clearly understood and no means being -available for vapor pressure determinations, the system results in -confusion and disputes. When the felt diaphragm machine was brought -into the market it was advertised as a no-moisture machine. The -result of the diaphragm is that of choking off air movement and -consequently reducing evaporation. This gives exactly the same -results as the use of moisture, but the machine is easier to operate -and seemed to do away with the vexatious moisture problem which, -together perhaps, with some fancied resemblance of felt diaphragms -to hen feathers, has resulted in the widespread use of this type of -machine. -</p> -<p> -The latest effort along the lines of reducing evaporation is the -sand tray machine that followed in the wake of the Ontario -investigation. This device simply gives a greater evaporating -surface to the water and hence a greater addition to the vapor -pressure. The results in practice I had given me by a man who last -year hatched sixty-five thousand chicks and as many more ducklings. -</p> -<p> -He said: "The sand tray early in the season gave the best hatches -and most vigorous chicks we had, but later on things got too wet and -the chickens drowned." No nicer demonstration of science in practice -could be desired. -</p> -<p> -In the present-day incubator of either type we are wholly at the -mercy of sudden climatic changes of vapor pressure. For the slower -changes from season to season some control by greater and less -amounts of supplied moisture, or by ventilator slides is available, -but little understood and seldom practiced. -</p> -<p> -It will certainly be of interest to my readers to know the actual -hatches obtained with the prevailing type of box incubator. By -actual hatches we mean the per cent. of live chicks taken out of the -machine to the per cent. of eggs put in. The ordinary published -hatches, based on one per cent. of fertile hatches, are a delusion -and a snare. When eggs are tested out many dead germs come out with -them and the separation of microscopic dead germs from the infertile -egg is, of course, impossible. Such padded and show hatching records -do not interest us. -</p> -<p> -Where incubators are run on top of the ground I have found the -results to be poor and to improve, the bigger and deeper and damper -and warmer and less ventilated the cellar is made. The reason for -this is plain. In such a cellar the vapor pressure of the air is not -only greater but is less influenced by the shifting vapor pressure -of the outside air. In a good cellar the operator, though his -knowledge of the factors with which he deals is grievously -deficient, learns, through long and costly experience, about what -addition of moisture or about what rate of ventilation will give him -the best results. In the room more subject to outside influences, -the conditions are so constantly changing that uniformity of -practice never gives uniform results, and hence the operator is -without guidance, either intelligent or blind, and the results are -wholly a product of chance. -</p> -<p> -As proof of my contention I may give results of a series of full -season hatches for 1908, each involving several thousand eggs. -</p> -<p> -First, a state experiment station, the name of which I do not care -to publish. Incubators kept in a cement basement which has flues in -which fires were built to secure "ample ventilation." This caused a -strong draft of cold, dry air, making the worst possible condition -for incubation. The hatch for the season averaged 25 per cent. and -was explained by lack of vitality in the stock. -</p> -<p> -Second, Ontario Agricultural College. A room above ground, moisture -used in most machines and various other efforts being made to -improve the hatches by a staff of half a dozen scientists. Results: -Hatch 48 per cent.—incubator manufacturers call the experimenters -names and say they are ignorant and prejudiced. -</p> -<p> -Third, Cornell University: dry ventilated basement representing -typical conditions of common incubator practice of the country. -Results: Hatch 52 per cent., results when given out commonly based -on fertile eggs and every one generally pleased. -</p> -<p> -Fourth: One of the most successful poultrymen in New York State, who -has, without knowing why, hit upon the plan of using a no-moisture -type of incubator in a basement which is heated with steam pipes, -which maintains temperature at 70 degrees and has a cement floor -which is kept covered with water. Results: Hatch 59 per cent. -</p> -<p> -Fifth: As a fifth in such a series I might mention again the -Egyptian machine with the uniform vapor pressure of the climate and -the three chicks exchanged for four eggs. -</p> -<p> -While an official in the United States Department of Agriculture, I -gathered data from original records of private plants covering the -incubation of several hundred thousand eggs. Such information was -furnished me in confidence as a public official and as a private -citizen I have no right to publish that which would mean financial -profit or loss to those concerned. -</p> -<p> -Of records where there were ten thousand or more eggs involved, the -lowest I found was 44 per cent. and the highest, that mentioned as -the fourth case above, or 59 per cent. The great majority of these -records hung very closely around the 50 per cent. mark. -</p> -<p> -The following is a fair sample of such data. It is the record -of hatching hen eggs for the first six months of 1908, at one -of the largest poultry plants in America: -</p> -<table align="center" width="50%" summary="hatching success rates"> -<tr><td>Month</td> <td align="right">Eggs Set</td> <td align="right">Chicks Hatched</td> <td align="right">Per Cent. Hatched</td></tr> -<tr><td>January</td> <td align="right">4,213</td> <td align="right">1,585</td> <td align="right">37 2-3</td></tr> -<tr><td>February</td> <td align="right">6,275</td> <td align="right">2,339</td> <td align="right">33 3-4</td></tr> -<tr><td>March</td> <td align="right">17,990</td> <td align="right">6,993</td> <td align="right">38 1-3</td></tr> -<tr><td>April</td> <td align="right">18,819</td> <td align="right">10,265</td> <td align="right">54 1-2</td></tr> -<tr><td>May</td> <td align="right">24,458</td> <td align="right">14,438</td> <td align="right">59</td></tr> -<tr><td>June</td> <td align="right">13,100</td> <td align="right">6,614</td> <td align="right">55</td></tr> -<tr><td> </td> <td align="right">------</td> <td align="right">------</td> <td align="right">------</td></tr> -<tr><td>Total</td> <td align="right">84,855</td> <td align="right">42,234</td> <td align="right">50 p.c.</td></tr> -</table> -<p class="subhead"> -The Future Method of Incubation. -</p> -<p> -The idea of the mammoth incubator which would hatch eggs by the -hundred thousand and a minimum of expense is the dream of the -American incubator inventor. We have long had available such methods -of insulation and regulating the supply of heat as would point to -the practicability of such a dream. -</p> -<p> -The past efforts in this direction have fallen down for the -following simple reason: All eggs were placed in a single big room -with a view of the man's entering the room to take care of them. -Contact with cold walls, the opening of doors, the hatching of -chicks or introduction of fresh eggs set up air currents, the hot -air rising and the cold air settling until great differences in -temperature would be found in the room. No systematic regulation of -evaporation was contemplated, as the principles at stake or the -means of such regulation were unknown. -</p> -<p> -The attempt just referred to was made several years ago by one of -the most successful of incubator manufacturers and because of his -failure other inventors were inclined to steer clear of the -proposition. Meanwhile the need of such an incubator has grown -enormously. At the time that above effort was made no duck ranch -existed whose annual production ran over thirty or forty thousand -ducklings, whereas we now have several in the one hundred thousand -class. -</p> -<p> -Much more remarkable has been the growth of the day-old chick -business. The discovery that newly hatched chicks could be -successfully shipped hundreds of miles with less loss than shipping -eggs for hatching, has resulted in a few years' time in the growth -of hatcheries of considerable size where chicks are hatched by means -of common incubators. Still another opportunity for the use of large -hatcheries has been by the growth of poultry communities. There are -other communities besides those mentioned in this book which would -amply support public hatcheries. If half the poultry growers of -Lancaster County, Pa., were to be prevailed upon to patronize a -public hatchery, the county would support between fifteen and twenty -100,000 egg incubators. Any of the numerous trolley centers in -Indiana, Ohio and Southern Michigan would likewise be profitable -locations for the establishment of public hatcheries. -</p> -<p> -The demand for the incubator of large capacity has, within the last -year or so, brought two or three "mammoth" incubators into the -market. The devices I now refer to consist of a row of box -incubators which, instead of being heated by single lamps, are -heated by continuous hot water pipes. This scheme effects a -considerable saving in fuel cost and labor, but the bulkiness of -construction and the woeful lack of evaporation control are still to -be dealt with. -</p> -<p> -The writer now wishes briefly to describe the plan of construction -and operation of a new type of hatchery, the success of which has -recently been made feasible by inventions and technical knowledge -hitherto unavailable. The plan of the hatchery is on that of a cold -storage plant as far as insulation and general construction go. The -eggs are kept in bulk in special cases which are turned as a whole -and may rest on either of four sides. At hatching time the eggs are -spread out in trays in a special hatching room, which is only large -enough to accommodate chicks to the amount of one-sixth of the -incubator capacity, for twice a week deliverings, or one-third if -weekly deliveries are desired. -</p> -<p> -There are no pipes or other sources of heat in the egg chambers. All -temperature regulation is by means of air heated (or cooled as the -case may be) outside of the egg rooms and forced into the egg rooms -by a motor driven cone fan, maintaining a steady current of air, the -rate of movement of which may be varied at will. The air movement -maintained will always be sufficiently brisk, however, to prevent an -unevenness of temperature in different parts of the room. -</p> -<p> -So simple is this that the reader will doubtless wonder why it was -not developed earlier. The reason is that air subject to the -climatic influences will, with any forced draft sufficient to -equalize temperature, result in a fatal rate of evaporation. -Sprinkling the air has not generally been thought practical because -of the notion that air must not be used in the egg chamber but once, -which involved quite a waste of heat necessary in warming a large -bulk of air and evaporating sufficient water. Moreover, no means -has, in the past, been available for making a sufficiently accurate -measurement of the evaporating power of the air. -</p> -<p> -The hair hygrometers commonly sold to incubator operators are known -by scientists to be absolutely unreliable. The range between the wet -and dry bulb thermometers was found in the Ontario experiments to -give readings with and without fanning that varied 15 to 20 per -cent. in relative humidity which, at the temperature of an egg -chamber, would amount to a variation of three to four hundred of -vapor pressure units, which, with the forced draught plan, would -ruin a hatch of eggs in a few hours. The sling psychrometer as used -by the U.S. Weather Bureau should, in the hands of an expert, give -results making possible measurements accurate to two or three per -cent. of relative humidity or forty to sixty units of vapor -pressure. In contrast with these blundering instruments we now have -available an instrument with which the writer has frequently -determined vapor pressure accurately to within a range of two or -three vapor pressure units and the instrument is capable of being -constructed for even finer work. -</p> -<p> -As it is only by means of air with the moisture content absolutely -controlled that the use of a large room becomes possible, we can now -see why this type of hatching remained so long undeveloped. By means -of such vapor pressure control the large egg chamber is not only -feasible but the rate of evaporation at once becomes subject to the -control of the operator and we achieve a perfection in artificial -incubation hitherto unattained. -</p> -<p> -The means by which the air moisture is regulated is similar to that -used in up-to-date cold storage plants where the air is made moist -by sprinkling and dried with deliquescent salts. The regulation of -vapor pressure, like that of temperature, may be by electrically -moved dampers which switch a greater or less proportion of the -incoming current to the sprinkler or dryer as the case may be. The -ordinary incubator thermostat gives the necessary impulse for the -control of the temperature dampers, while the instrument above -referred to is used for the vapor pressure control. -</p> -<p> -As the entire air circuit is closed, the chemical composition of the -air may also be regulated at will. This results in a reduction of -the quantity of heat required to a minimum; in fact, with the -incubator in full swing, the air will, at times, need cooling rather -than warming. -</p> -<p> -The question of the cost of incubation by this method, or of profit -of such a hatchery operated for the public is almost wholly one of -the size of operations. Where sufficient eggs may be obtained and -sufficient demand exists for the chicks to make it profitable to -operate, the additional cost of hatching extra chicks will be -insignificant compared with the present system. -</p> -<p> -The Egyptian poultryman gives four eggs for three chicks, but the -American poultryman would be willing to give four eggs for one -chick, as is shown by the fact that he sells eggs for from 1 to 3 -cents apiece and buys day-old chicks for ten to fifteen cents. A -plant with a seasonable capacity of 100,000 eggs has a basis to work -upon something as follows: -</p> -<p> -With a fifty per cent. hatch and chicks at 10 cents each there would -be a gross income of $5,000 annually. From this we must subtract for -eggs at 2 cents each, $2,000. Salary for operator $1,000, wages for -helper $300. Fuel, supplies and repairs $500. Cost of delivery and -sales of chicks $200. This leaves a residue of $1,000, which would -pay a 20 per cent. interest on the necessary investment of $5,000. -Personally, I think this is about the minimum unit of hatching that -would prove worth while as independent institutions. -</p> -<p> -Any increase in the percentage of the hatch would, of course, reduce -the unit of size necessary for profitable operation. Upon a single -poultry plant as a duck farm the cost of operation would be -materially reduced, as the operator himself would take the place of -the intelligent manager and the cost of gathering eggs and the -delivery of the product would be eliminated. -</p> -<p> -The most profitable method of hatchery operation undoubtedly will be -upon a plan analogous to what, in creamery operation, is called -centralization. The success of this scheme depends upon the fact -that transportation and agencies at country stores are relatively -less important items of expense than plant construction and high -salaries for skilled labor. A hatchery with a million capacity can -be built and run at not more than twice the cost of one -hundred-thousand plant and better men can be kept in charge of it. A -portion of the saving will of course be expended in maintaining a -system of buying eggs and selling chicks. -</p> -<p> -The material advantage of operating a hatchery in connection with a -high-class egg handling and poultry packing establishment, or as one -feature of a poultry community, is at once apparent, for the system -of collecting the market produce will be utilized for gathering eggs -and distributing chicks, each business helping the other. -</p> -<p> -The public hatchery also gives an excellent opportunity for the -introduction of good stock among farmers who would be too shiftless -to acquire it by ordinary methods. -</p> -<a name="2HCH0008"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> - -<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> - -<h2> -<a name="chapVII"> -CHAPTER VII -</a> -</h2> -<h3> -FEEDING -</h3> -<p> -The old adage that a little knowledge is a dangerous thing is -nowhere better illustrated than in the scientific phases of poultry -feeding. The attempted application of the common theoretical feeding -standards to poultry has caused not only a great waste of time but -has also resulted in expenditures for high-priced feeds when cheaper -feeds would have given as good or better results. -</p> -<p> -The so-called science of food chemistry is really a rough -approximation of things about which the actual facts are unknown. -Such knowledge bears the same relation to accurate science as the -maps of America drawn by the early explorers do to a modern atlas. -Like these early efforts of geography the present science of food -chemistry is all right if we realize its incompleteness. In -practice, the poultryman, after a general glance at the "map," will -find a more reliable guide in simpler things. -</p> -<p> -I am writing this book for the poultryman, not the professor, and -because I state that the particular kind of science wherein the -professor has taken the most pains to teach the poultryman is -comparatively useless, I fear it may arouse a mistrust of the value -of science as a whole. I know of no way to prevent this except to -point out the distinction between scientific facts and guesses -couched in scientific language. -</p> -<p> -When a scientist states that a hen cannot lay egg shells containing -calcium without having calcium in her food, that is a fact, and it -works out in practice, for calcium is an element, and the hen cannot -create elementary substances. When the same scientist, finding that -an egg contains protein, says that wheat is a better egg food than -corn because it has the largest amount of protein, that is a guess -and does not work in practice because protein is not a definite -substance, but the name of a group of substances of which the -scientist does not know the composition, and which may or may not be -of equal use to the hen in the formation of eggs. -</p> -<p> -All substances of which the world is made are composed of elements -which cannot be changed. When these elements are combined they form -definite substances with definite proportions entirely independent -of the original elements. The pure diamond is carbon. Gasoline is -carbon and hydrogen. Several hundred other things are also carbon -and hydrogen. Sugar is carbon combined with hydrogen and oxygen. -These three elements make several thousand different substances, -including fats, alcohol and formaldehyde. Hydrocyanic acid is carbon -combined with hydrogen and nitrogen, and is the most deadly poison -known. -</p> -<p> -The failure of food science is partly because we do not know the -composition of many of the substances of food and partly because -these substances are changed in the animal body in a manner which we -do not understand and cannot control. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Conventional Food Chemistry -</p> -<p> -The conventional analysis of feeding stuff divides the food -substances in water, carbohydrates, fat, protein and ash. The amount -of water in the body is all-important, but, with the exception of -eggs during incubation, I confess I prefer to rely upon the -chicken's judgment as to the amount required. -</p> -<p> -The carbohydrate group contains starch, sugar, cellulose and a -number of other things. Carbohydrates constitute two-thirds to -three-fourths of all common rations and nine-tenths of that amount -is starch. The proposition of how much carbohydrates the hen eats is -chiefly determined by the quantity of grain she consumes. -</p> -<p> -Of fats there are many kinds of which the composition is definitely -known. The amount of fats the hen eats is unimportant because she -makes starch into fat. The protein or nitrogen containing substances -of the diet is the group of food substances over which most of the -theories are expounded. The hen can make egg fat from corn starch or -cabbage leaves because they contain the same elements. She cannot -make egg white from starch or fat because the element of nitrogen -which is in the egg white is lacking in the starch and fats. -</p> -<p> -The substances that have nitrogen in them are called protein. They -are very complex and difficult to analyze. In digestion these -proteins are all torn to pieces and built up into other kinds of -protein. Just as in tearing down an old house, only a portion of the -material can be used in a new house, so it is with protein and -laboratory analysis cannot tell us how much of the old house can be -utilized in building the new one. -</p> -<p> -In practice the whole subject simmers down to the proposition of -finding out by direct experiment whether the hen will do the work -best on this or that food, irregardless of its nitrogen content as -determined in the laboratory. -</p> -<p> -The results of many experiments and much experience has shown that -lean meat protein will make egg protein and chicken flesh protein -and that vegetable protein pound for pound is not its equal. I know -of no results that have proven that the high priced vegetable foods -such as linseed meal, gluten feed, etc., have proven a more valuable -chicken food than the cheapest grains. -</p> -<p> -With cows and pigeons this is not the case, but the hen is not a -vegetarian by nature and high priced vegetable protein doesn't seem -to be in her line. Of the three standard grains there is some -indication of the value of the proteids for chickens and of the -following ranks, 1st oats, 2d corn, 3d wheat. -</p> -<p> -The false conceptions of the value of wheat proteids has been -specially the cause of much waste of money. Digestive trials and -direct experiments both show that, as chicken foods, wheat is worth -less, pound for pound, than corn and yet, though much higher in -price, it is still used not only as a variety grain, but by many -poultrymen as the chief article of diet. Wheat contains only 3 per -cent. more proteid than corn. The man who substitutes wheat at one -and one-half cents a pound for corn worth one cent a pound pays 17 -cents a pound for his added protein. In beef scrap he could get the -protein for 5 cents a pound and have a very superior article -besides. -</p> -<p> -Milk as a source of protein ranks between the vegetable proteids and -those of meat. It is preferably fed clabbered. The dried casein -recently put on the market is a valuable food but is not worth as -much as meat food and will not be extensively utilized until the -demand for meat scrap forces up the price to a point where the -casein can be sold more cheaply. Meat scrap, to be relished by the -chickens, must not be a fine meal, but should consist of particles -the size of wheat kernels or larger. The fine scrap gives the -manufacturer a chance to utilize dried blood and tankage which is -cheaper in quality and price than particles of real meat. -</p> -<p> -The last and least understood of the groups of food substances is -mineral substance or ash. Now, the chemist determines mineral -substance by burning the food and analyzing the residue. In the -intense heat numerous chemical changes take place and the substances -that come out of the furnace are entirely different from those -contained in the fresh food. -</p> -<p> -The lay reader will probably ask why the chemist does not analyze -the substances of the fresh material. The answer is that he doesn't -know how. Progress is made every year but the whole subject is yet -too much clouded in obscurity to be of any practical application. At -present the feeding of mineral substance, like the feeding of -protein, can best be learned by experimenting directly with the -foods rather than by attempting to go by their chemical composition. -</p> -<p> -In practice it is found that green feed supplies something which -grain lacks, presumably mineral salts. Moreover we know that such -food fed fresh is superior to the same substance dried. This may be -because of chemical changes that occur in curing or simply because -of greater palatability. -</p> -<p> -The other chief source of mineral matter is meat preparations with -or without ground bone. Recent experiments at Rhode Island have -attempted to show the relative value of the mineral constituents of -meat by adding bone ash to vegetable proteids, as linseed and gluten -meal. The results clearly indicate that mineral matter of animal -origin greatly improves the value of the vegetable diet, but that -the latter is still sadly deficient. Of course the burning process -used in preparing the bone ash may have destroyed some of the -valuable qualities of the mineral salts. Practically, we do not care -whether the value of animal meal be due to protein, mineral salts or -both. -</p> -<p> -In time the world will become so thickly populated that we cannot -afford to rear cattle and condemn a portion of the carcass to go -through another life cycle before human consumption. By that time -the necessary food salts will doubtless be known and we will be able -to medicate our corn and alfalfa and do away with the beef scrap. -The poultrymen will do well, however, not to count on the chemistry -of the future, for the chemist that makes the "tissue salts" for the -hen may manufacture human food with Niagara power and fresh eggs -will come in tin cans. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -How the Hen Unbalances Balanced Rations. -</p> -<p> -Let the poultryman who figures the nutritious ratio of chicken feed -try this simple experiment. Place before a half dozen newly hatched -chicks a feed of one of the commercial chick feeds. When they have -had their fill, sacrifice these innocents on the altar of science -and open their crops. He will find that one chick has eaten almost -exclusively of millet seed, another has preferred cracked corn, -another has filled up heavily on bits of beef scrap and mica crystal -grit, while a fourth fancied oats and granulated bone. In short the -chick has, in three minutes, unbalanced the balanced ration that it -took a week to figure out. This experiment can be varied by placing -hens in individual coops and setting before each weighed portions of -every food in the poultryman supply man's catalogue. -</p> -<p> -There is only one kind of feeding that will balance rations and that -is to feed exclusively on wet mash. This is successfully done in the -duck business, but the duck is a Chinese animal and his ways are not -the ways of the more fastidious hen. -</p> -<p> -In dairy work the individual preferences of the cows are given -attention and their whimsy catered to by the herdsman. I know of -nothing that makes a man more feel his kinship to the beast than to -hear a good dairyman talk of the personalities and preferences of -his feminine co-operators. -</p> -<p> -With commercial chicken work, humanly guided individual feedings is -out of the question, though, if used, it might hasten the coming of -the two-egg-per-day hen. Individual feeding with the hen as sole -judge as to what she shall eat, which means each food in separate -hoppers and free range, is the best system of chicken feeding yet -evolved. -</p> -<p> -The duty of the poultryman is to supply the food, giving enough -variety to permit of the hens having a fair selection. In practice -this means that every hen must have access to water, grit -(preferably oyster shell), one kind of grain, one kind of meat, and -one kind of green food. In practice it will pay to add granulated -bone for growing stock. One or two extra grains for variety and as -many green foods as conveniences will permit to increase -palatability—hence increase the amount of food consumed, for a -heavy food consumption is necessary for egg production. -</p> -<p> -As corn is the cheapest food known, let it be the bread at the -boarding house and other grains the rotating series of hash, beans -and bacon. The grain hopper may have two divisions. The corn never -changes but the other should have a change of grain occasionally. -The extent of the use made of the various grains will be determined -by their price per pound. -</p> -<p> -The proportions of food of the various classes that will be consumed -is about as follows: -</p> -<p> -Of 100 lbs. of dry matter: 8 to 12 lbs. meat; 66 to 75 lbs. grain; -15 to 25 lbs. green food. -</p> -<p> -The profits of the business will be increased by supplying the green -food in such tempting forms as to increase the amount consumed and -cut down the use of grains. -</p> -<p> -The methods we have been describing in which various dry unground -grains, beef scrap and oyster shell, each in a separate compartment, -are exposed before the hen at all times, together with the abundant -use of green food, either as pasture or a soiling crop, is the -method of feeding assumed throughout this book. -</p> -<p> -The hopper feeding of so-called dry mash or ground grain mixture has -been quite a fad in the last few years. The tendency of the hens to -waste such food has occasioned considerable trouble. They are -picking it over for their favorite foods and trying to avoid -disagreeable foods. This difficulty is relieved when the food be -separated into its various components and the hen offered each -separately. As a matter of fact, there is no occasion for feeding -ground feed except in fattening rations and here the wet mash is -desirable. -</p> -<p> -The use of the products of wheat milling has been the chief excuse -for such practices, but unless these get considerably lower in price -per pound than corn they may be left off the bill-of-fare to -advantage. The great use made of these products in poultry feeding -was chiefly a result of the attempted application of the balanced -ration idea, but as has already been shown the efforts to raise the -protein ratio with grain foods is generally false economy. -</p> -<p> -The old-fashioned wet mash which the writer does not recommend -because of the labor involved, is, nevertheless, a fairly profitable -method of poultry feeding. It is used in the Little Compton district -of Rhode Island and was also used in the famous Australian egg -laying contests elsewhere described. Personally I would prefer -feeding ground grain wet, especially wheat bran and middlings, to -feeding it dry. -</p> -<p> -The scattering of grain in litter so generally recommended in -poultry literature is all right and proper, but is rather out of -place in commercial poultry farming. It is used on the large poultry -plants with the yards and long houses, but is not used on colony -farms or in any of the poultry growing communities. I should -recommend littered houses for Section 6 and the northern half of -Section 3 (see Chapter IV), but with warmer soils and climate where -the snow does not lie on the ground it would add a labor expense -that would very seriously handicap the business. -</p> -<p> -The systems of poultry feeding that are commonly advertised are -based either on some patent nostrum or a recommendation of green -food in novel form, such as sprouted oats. The joke about poultry -feed at 10 cents a bushel, absurd though it may seem, has caught -lots of dollars. To take a bushel of oats worth 50 cents, add water, -let them sprout and have five bushels costing 10 cents, is certainly -a wonderful achievement in wealth getting. The only reason a man -couldn't run a soup kitchen on the same principle is that he can't -do a soup business by mail. Sprouted oats are a good green food, -however, though somewhat laborious to prepare. I should certainly -recommend them if for any reason the regular green food supply -should run out. -</p> -<p> -The points already mentioned are about all the practical suggestions -that the science of animal nutrition has to offer the poultryman. -The discussion of feeding from its technical viewpoint is -sufficiently covered in the chapter on "Farm Poultry" and the -discussion of the management and economics of various types of -poultry production. -</p> -<a name="2HCH0009"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> - -<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> - -<h2> -<a name="chapVIII"> -CHAPTER VIII -</a> -</h2> -<h3> -DISEASES -</h3> -<p> -For the study of the classification and description of the numerous -ailments by which individual fowls pass to their untimely end, I -recommend any of the numerous books written upon the subject. Some -of these works are more accurate than others, but that I consider -immaterial. The study of these diseases is good for the poultryman, -it gives his mind exercise. When a boy in high school I studied -Latin for the same purpose. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Don't Doctor Chickens. -</p> -<p> -For the cure of all poultry diseases when they have passed a point -when the fowl does not eat or for other reasons recovery is -improbable, I recommend a blow on the head—the hatchet spills the -blood which is unwise. -</p> -<p> -The usual formula of "burn or bury deeply" is somewhat troublesome, -unless you have a furnace running. A covered pit is more convenient -if far enough removed from the house that the odor is not -prohibitive. A post with a tally card may be planted near by. This -part of the poultry farm may be marked "Exhibit A," and shown first -to the visitor during the busy season. If he is one of those -prospective pleasure and profit poultrymen who propose to disregard -all facts of biology and economics of production, you may save -yourself the trouble of showing him the rest of the plant. -Unfortunately, this scheme is not open to the poultryman who has -breeding stock for sale. -</p> -<p> -I have frequently had the question put to me in the smoker of a -Pullman car, "Do not epidemic diseases make the poultry business -precarious?" Such questions came from farm-raised men, but not from -poultry farmers. Poultrymen should figure a certain loss of birds -just as insurance companies figure on the human death rate, but to -all practical intents and purposes the epidemic disease has been -banished from the poultry farms and seldom if ever enters the -records in answer to the question, "Why do poultry farms fail?" -</p> -<p> -Some of my readers may take exception to me either in regard to roup -or white diarrhoea. Roup is a disease of the wrong system and -careless management. White diarrhoea, so-called, is a matter of -wrong incubation. -</p> -<p> -The high mortality of young chicks, though not an epidemic disease, -shares with excessive cost of production, very much of the -responsibility for poultry farm failures. At the present writing the -poultry editors of the country are having much discussion over the -conclusion of Dr. Morse of the Bureau of Animal Industry to the -effect that white diarrhoea is caused by an intestinal parasite -similar to the germ that causes human dysentery. Dr. Morse's -opportunities for investigation have been somewhat limited and as -the intestines of any animal are always swarming with various -organisms, it will take very conclusive evidence to prove that the -doctor is right. Practically the naming of the germs that attend the -funeral is not particularly important for the reason that it has -been thoroughly demonstrated that with good parentage, good -incubation and good brooder conditions, white diarrhoea is unknown. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -The Causes of Poultry Diseases. -</p> -<p> -Poultry ailments are assignable to one of the three following -causes, or a combination of these: First, hereditary or inborn -weakness; second, unfavorable conditions of food, surroundings, -etc.; third, bacteria or animal parasites. -</p> -<p> -A great many chickens die while yet within the shell, or during the -growing process, there being no assignable reason save that of -inherited weakness. To this class of troubles the only remedy is to -breed from better stock. It is as much the trait of some birds to -produce infertile eggs or chicks of low vitality as it is for others -to produce vigorous offspring. -</p> -<p> -The second class of ailments needs no discussion save that accorded -it under the general discussions of the method of conducting the -business. -</p> -<p> -The third class of ailments includes the contagious diseases. It is -now believed that most common diseases are caused by microscopic -germs known as bacteria. These germs in some manner gain entrance to -the body of an animal, and, growing within the tissues, give off -poisonous substances known as toxins, which produce the symptoms of -the disease. The ability to withstand disease germs varies with the -particular animal and the kind of disease. As a general rule it may -be stated that disease germs cannot live in the body of a perfectly -vigorous and healthy animal. It is only when the vitality is at a -low ebb, owing to unfavorable conditions or inherited weakness, that -disease germs enter the body and produce disease. -</p> -<p> -The bacteria which cause disease, like other living organisms, may -be killed by poisoning. Such poisons are known as disinfectants. If -it were possible to kill the bacteria within the animal, the curing -of disease would be a simple matter, but unfortunately the common -chemical poisons that kill germs kill the animal also. The only -thing that can be relied upon to kill disease germs within the -animal, is a counter-poison developed by the animal itself and known -as anti-toxin. Such anti-toxins can be produced artificially and are -used to combat certain diseases, as diphtheria and small-pox in -human beings and blackleg in cattle. Such methods of combating -poultry diseases have not been developed, and due to the small value -of an individual fowl would probably not be commercially useful even -if successful from a scientific standpoint. The only available -method of fighting contagious diseases of poultry is to destroy the -disease germs before they enter the fowls and to remove the causes -which make the fowl susceptible to the disease. -</p> -<p> -Contagious diseases of poultry may be grouped into two general -classes: First, those highly contagious; second, those contracted -only by fowls that are in a weakened condition. To the first class -belong the severe epidemics, of which chicken-cholera is the most -destructive. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Chicken-Cholera. -</p> -<p> -The European fowl-cholera has only been rarely identified in this -country. Other diseases similar in symptoms and effect are confused -with this. As the treatment should be similar the identification of -the diseases is not essential. -</p> -<p> -Yellow or greenish-colored droppings, listless attitude, refusal of -food and great thirst are the more readily observed symptoms. The -disease runs a rapid course, death resulting in about three days. -The death rate is very high. The disease is spread by droppings and -dead birds, and through feed and water. To stamp out the disease -kill or burn or bury all sick chickens, and disinfect the premises -frequently and thoroughly. A spray made of one-half gallon carbolic -acid, one-half gallon of phenol and twenty gallons of water may be -used. Corrosive sublimate, 1 part in 5000 parts of water, should be -used as drinking water. This is not to cure sick birds, but to -prevent the disease from spreading by means of the drinking vessels. -Food should be given in troughs arranged so that the chickens cannot -infect the food with the feet. All this work must be done -thoroughly, and even then considerable loss can be expected before -the disease is stamped out. If cholera has a good start in a flock -of chickens it will often be better to dispose of the entire flock -than to combat the disease. Fortunately cholera epidemics are rare -and in many localities have never been known. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Roup. -</p> -<p> -This disease is a representative of that class of diseases which, -while being caused by bacteria, can be considered more of a disease -of conditions than of contagion. Roup may be caused by a number of -different bacteria which are commonly found in the air and soil. -When chickens catch cold these germs find lodgment in the nasal -passages and roup ensues. The first symptoms of roup are those of an -ordinary cold, but as the disease progresses a cheesy secretion -appears in the head and throat. A wheezing or rattling sound is -often produced by the breathing. The face and eyes swell, and in -severe cases the chicken becomes blind. The most certain way of -identifying roup is a characteristic sickening odor. The disease may -last a week or a year. Birds occasionally recover, but are generally -useless after having had roup. -</p> -<p> -Sick birds should be removed and destroyed, but the time usually -spent in doctoring sick birds and disinfecting houses can in this -case be better employed in finding and remedying the cause of the -disease. Such causes may be looked for as dampness, exposure to cold -winds, or to a sudden change in temperature as is experienced by -chickens roosting in a tight house. Fall and winter are the seasons -of roup, while it is poorly housed and poorly fed flocks that most -commonly suffer from this disease. Flocks that have become -thoroughly roupy should be disposed of and more vigorous birds -secured. The open front house has proved to be the most practical -scheme for the reduction of this disease. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Chicken-Pox, Gapes, Limber Neck. -</p> -<p> -Chicken-pox or sore-head is a disease peculiar to the South. It -attacks growing chickens late in the summer. Southern poultrymen who -give reasonable attention to their stock, find that, while this -disease is a source of some annoyance, the losses are not severe and -that it may be readily controlled. In the first place, the animal -epidemic of pox can be practically avoided by bringing the chicks -out early in the season. If the disease does develop in the flock, -the birds are taken from the coops at night and their heads dipped -in a proper strength of one of the coal tar disinfectants. Such -treatment once a week has generally been effective. This disease is -an exception to the general rule that disinfectants which kill germs -also kill the chicken. The explanation is that chicken-pox is an -external disease. -</p> -<p> -Gapes is given in every poultry book as one of the prominent poultry -diseases, but are not common in the Northern and Western States. -Gapes are caused by a parasitic worm in the windpipe. Growing chicks -are affected. The remedy is to move the chicks to fresh ground and -cultivate the old. -</p> -<p> -Limber neck is not a disease, but is the result of the fowl's eating -maggots from dead carcasses. It can be prevented by not allowing -dead carcasses to remain where the chickens will find them. No -practical cure is known. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Lice and Mites. -</p> -<p> -The parasites referred to as chicken-lice include many different -species, but in habit they may be classed as body-lice and -roost-mites. The first, or true bird-lice, live on the body of the -chicken and eat the feathers and skin. The roost-mite is similar to -a spider and differs in habits from the body-louse in that it sucks -the blood of the chicken and does not remain on the body of the fowl -except at night. -</p> -<p> -Body-lice are to be found upon almost all chickens, as well as on -many other kinds of birds. Their presence in small numbers on -matured fowls is not a serious matter. When body-lice are abundant -on sitting hens they go from the hen to the newly hatched chickens, -and may cause the death of the chicks. The successful methods of -destroying body-lice are three in number: First, dust or earth -wallows in which the active hens will get rid of lice. Such dust -baths should be especially provided for yarded chickens and during -the winter. Dry earth can be stored for this purpose. Sitting hens -should have access to dust baths. Second: The second method by which -body-lice may be destroyed is the use of insect powder. The -pyrethrum powder is considered the best for this purpose, but is -expensive and difficult to procure in the pure state. Tobacco dust -is also used. Insect powder is applied by holding the hen by the -feet and working the dust thoroughly into the feathers, especially -the fluff. The use of insect powder should be confined to sitting -hens and fancy stock, as the cost and labor of applying is too great -for use upon the common chicken. The third method is suitable for -young chickens, and consists of applying some oil and grease on the -head and under the wings. Do not grease the chick all over. With -vigorous chickens and correct management the natural dust bath is -all that is needed to combat the lice. -</p> -<p> -The roost-mite is probably the cause of more loss to farm poultry -raisers than any other pest or disease. The great difficulty in -destroying mites on many farms is that chickens are allowed to roost -in too many places. If the chicken-house proper is the only building -infected with mites the difficulty of destroying them is not great. -Plainness in the interior furnishings of the chicken-house is also a -great advantage when it comes to fighting mites. The mites in the -daytime are to be found lodged in the cracks near the roosting-place -of the chickens. -</p> -<p> -Mites can be killed with various liquids, the best in point of -cheapness is boiling water. Give the chicken-house a thorough -cleaning and scald by throwing dippers of hot water in all places -where the mites can find lodgment. Hot water destroys the eggs as -well as the mites. Whitewash is a good remedy, as it buries both -mites and eggs beneath a coating of lime from which they cannot -emerge. Pure kerosene or a solution of carbolic acid in kerosene, at -the rate of a pint of acid to a gallon of oil, is an effective -lice-paint. Another substance much used for destroying insects or -similar pests is carbon bisulphide. This is a liquid which -evaporates readily, the vapor destroying the insects or mites. -Carbon bisulphide or other fumigating agents are not effective in -the average chicken-house because the house cannot be tightly -closed. The liquid lice-killers on the market are very effective. -They are usually composed of the remedies just mentioned, or of -something of similar properties. -</p> -<a name="2HCH0010"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> - -<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> - -<h2> -<a name="chapIX"> -CHAPTER IX -</a> -</h2> -<h3> -POULTRY FLESH AND POULTRY FATTENING -</h3> -<p> -The poultry flesh which is used for food may be grouped into three -divisions. -</p> -<p> -First: Poultry carcasses grown especially for market. -</p> -<p> -Second: Poultry carcasses consisting of hens and young male birds -that are sold from the general farms where the pullets are kept for -egg production. -</p> -<p> -Third: The cockerels and old hens sold as a by-product from egg -farms. -</p> -<p> -The third class hardly needs our consideration in the present -chapter. This stock, usually Leghorns, like Jersey veal, is to be -disposed of at whatever price the market offers. -</p> -<p> -The cockerel will, if growing nicely, be fairly plump and the hens, -if on hopper rations of corn and beef scrap, will be about as fat as -they can be profitably made, and to waste further effort upon them -would not pay. Leghorn cockerels and hens are a wholesome enough -meat, but will never command fancy prices nor warrant extra pains. -</p> -<p> -In class two we find the great mass of the poultry flesh of the -country. This stock consisting chiefly, as it does, of Plymouth -Rocks and Wyandottes, is well worth some extra pains toward -increasing its quantity and quality. -</p> -<p> -Within the last ten or fifteen years several changes have been -brought about in the general methods of handling farm poultry. -Formerly it was thought desirable to market all stock not kept as -layers while in the broiler stage of from 1-1/2 to 2 pounds. Since -the introduction of the custom of holding fall broilers over in cold -storage, the price has fallen until it is now more profitable to -market the surplus cockerels from the farm at three or four months -of age. At this period the flesh has cost less per pound to produce -than at either an earlier or later stage. For such purposes only the -well fleshed type of American breeds has been found desirable. The -Leghorns and similar breeds are too small and become staggy too -soon. -</p> -<p> -Contrary to a common belief and to the custom in the poultry books -of classifying the Asiatics as meat breeds, the Brahmas and Cochins -are among the very poorest fowls that can be used for farm -production of poultry meat. At the age spoken of these breeds are -lanky and unsightly and not wanted by poultry packers. -</p> -<p> -Consecutively with and perhaps responsible for change of sentiment -that demands that broilers be allowed to grow into four pound -chickens, we find the development of the crate fattening industry. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Crate-Fattening. -</p> -<p> -The introduction of crate-fattening into the Central West occurred -about 1900. The credit of this introduction belongs to the large -meat packing firms. At the present time the business is not confined -to the meat packers, but is shared by independent plants throughout -the country. -</p> -<p> -The plants of the West range from a few hundred to as high as 20,000 -capacity. They are constructed for convenience and a saving of -labor, and in this respect are decidedly in advance of the European -establishments where fattening has been long practiced. -</p> -<p> -The room used for fattening is well built and sanitary. A good -system of ventilation is essential, as murky, damp air breeds colds -and roup. The coops are built back to back, and two or more coops in -height. Each coop is high and wide enough to comfortably accommodate -the chickens, and long enough to contain from five to twelve -chickens. The chickens stand on slats, beneath which are -dropping-boards that may be drawn out for cleaning. The -dropping-boards and feeding-troughs are often made of metal. Strict -cleanliness is enforced. No droppings or feed are allowed to -accumulate and decompose. -</p> -<p> -As is a general rule in meat production, young animals give much -better returns for food consumed than do mature individuals. With -the young chicken the weight is added as flesh, while the hen has a -tendency, which increases with age, to turn the same food into -useless fat. For this reason the general practice is to fatten only -the best of the young chickens. The head feeder at a large and -successful poultry plant gave the following information on the -selection of birds for the fattening-crates: -</p> -<p> -"The younger the stock the more profitable the gain. All specimens -showing the slightest indication of disease are discarded. The -Plymouth Rock is the favorite breed, and the Wyandotte is second. -Leghorns are comparatively fat when received, and, while they do -well under feed and 'yellow up' nicely, they do not gain as much as -the American breeds. Black chickens are not fed at all. Brahmas and -Cochins are not considered good feeders at the age when they are -commonly sold. Chickens in fair flesh at the start make better gains -than those that are extremely lean or very fat. But, contrary to -what the amateur might assume, the moderately fat chicken will -continue to make fair gains, while the very lean chicken seldom -returns a profit." -</p> -<p> -The idea has been somewhat prevalent that there is some guarded -secret about the rations used in crate-fattening. This is a mistaken -notion. The rations used contain no new or wonderful constituent, -and although individual feeders may have their own formulas, the -general composition of the feed is common knowledge. The feed most -commonly used consists of finely ground grain, mixed to a batter -with buttermilk or sour skim-milk. The favorite grain for the -purpose is oats finely ground and the hulls removed. Oats may be -used as the sole grain, and is the only grain recommended as -suitable to be fed alone. Corn is used, but not by itself. Shorts, -ground barley or ground buckwheat are sometimes used. Beans, peas, -linseed and gluten meals may be used in small quantities. When milk -products are obtainable they are a great aid to successful -fattening. Tallow is often used in small quantities toward the -finish of the feeding period. The assumption is that it causes the -deposit of fat-globules throughout the muscular tissues, thus adding -to the quality of the meat. The following simple rations show that -there is nothing complex about the crate-fed chicken's bill of fare: -</p> -<p> -No. 1.—Ground oats, 2 parts; ground barley, 1 part; ground corn, 1 -part; mixed with skim-milk. -</p> -<p> -No. 2.—Ground corn, 4 parts; ground peas, 1 part; ground oats, 1 -part; meat-meal, 1 part; mixed with water. -</p> -<p> -A ration used by some fatters with great success is composed of -simply oatmeal and buttermilk. -</p> -<p> -The feed is given as a soft batter and is left in the troughs for -about thirty minutes, when the residue is removed. Chickens are -generally fed three times per day. Water may or may not be given, -according to the weather and the amount of liquid used in the food. -</p> -<p> -The chicken that has been crate-fattened has practically the same -amount of skeleton and offal as the unfattened specimen, but carries -one or two pounds more of edible meat upon its carcass. Not only is -the weight of the chicken and amount of edible meat increased, but -the quality of the meat is greatly improved, consisting of juicy, -tender flesh. For this reason the crate-feeding process is often -spoken of as fleshing rather than as fattening. -</p> -<p> -The enforced idleness causes the muscular tissue to become tender -and filled with stored nutriment. The fatness of a young chicken, -crate-fed on buttermilk and oatmeal, is a radically different thing -from the fatness of an old hen that has been ranging around the -corn-crib. -</p> -<p> -The crate-fattening industry while deserving credit for great -improvement in the quality of chicken flesh in the regions where it -has been introduced, cannot on the whole be considered a great -success. It is commonly reported that some of the firms instrumental -in its introduction lost money on the deal. The crate-fattening -plant has come to stay in the communities where careful methods of -poultry raising are practiced, and where the stock is of the best, -but when a plant is located in a newly settled region where the -poultry stock is small and feed scarce, the venture is pretty apt to -prove a fiasco. -</p> -<p> -While poultryman at the Kansas Experiment Station, the writer made a -large number of individual weighings of fowls in the crates of one -of the large fattening plants of the state. -</p> -<p> -These weighings pointed out very clearly why the expected profits -had not been realized. The birds selected for weighing were all -fine, uniform looking Barred Rock Cockerels. At the end of the first -week they were found to still appear much the same, but when handled -a difference was easily noticed. By the end of the second week a few -birds had died and many others were in a bad way. The individual -changes of weight ran from 2-1/2 pounds gain to 3/4 pound loss, and -many of the lighter birds were of very poor appearance. It is simply -a matter of forced feeding being a process that makes trouble with -the health of the chicken if all is not just right. -</p> -<p> -It is probable that in the future more fattening will be done on the -farm, or by the farmer operating in a small way among his neighbors. -The reason for this is that the saving of labor in the large plant -is hardly as great as the added loss from the shrinkage of the birds -due to the excitement of shipping and crowding, and the introduction -of disease by the mingling of chickens from so many different -sources. -</p> -<p> -The Canadians especially have encouraged fattening on the farm. The -following is a hand-bill gotten out by an enterprising Canadian -dealer for distribution among the farmers of his locality: -</p> -<hr> -<p class="citehead"> -HOW TO FATTEN CHICKENS FOR THE EXPORT TRADE. -</p> -<p class="cite"> -To fatten birds for the export trade, it is necessary -to have proper coops to put them in. These should be -two feet long, twenty inches high and twenty inches -deep, the top, bottom and front made of slats. This -size will hold four birds, but the cheapest plan is to -build the coops ten feet long and divide them into five -sections. -</p> -<p class="citehead"> -What to feed. -</p> -<p class="cite"> -Oats chopped fine, the coarse hulls sifted out, two -parts; ground buckwheat, one part; mix with skim-milk -to a good soft batter, and feed three times a day. -Or, black barley and oats, two parts oats to one part -barley. Give clean drinking water twice a day, grit -twice a week, and charcoal once a week. During the -first week the birds are in the coops they should be -fed sparingly—only about one-half of what they will -eat. After that gradually increase the amount until -you find out just how much they will eat up clean -each time. Never leave any food in the troughs, as -it will sour and cause trouble. Mix the food always -one feed ahead. Birds fed in this way will be ready -for the export trade in from four to five weeks. -Chickens make the best gain put in the coop weighing -three to four pounds. -</p> -<p class="citehead"> -We Supply the Coops. -</p> -<p class="cite"> -We have on hand a number of coops for fattening -chicks, which we will loan to any person, "free of -charge", who will sign an agreement to bring all -chicks fattened in them to us. Every farmer should -have at least one of these coops, as this is the only -way to fatten chicks properly. In this way you can -get the highest market price. We can handle any -quantity of chicks properly fatted.<br> -<span style='margin-left: 12em;'>ARMSTRONG BROS.</span> -</p> -<hr> -<p> -The farmer who does not think it worth while to construct -fattening-crates for his own crop of chickens, may get very fair -results by simply enclosing the chickens in some vacant shed. To -these may feed a ration of two-thirds corn meal and one-third -shorts, or some of the more complicated rations used at the -fattening plants may be fed. -</p> -<p> -In the East, poultry fattening on the general farm is not dissimilar -from the practices in the Central West, but we find a larger use of -cramming machines, caponizing, and the growing of chickens for meat -as an industry independent of keeping hens for egg production. -</p> -<p> -The cramming machine is a device by means of which food in a -semi-liquid state is pumped into the bird's crop, through a tube -inserted in the mouth. This means of feeding is much more used in -Europe than in this country. It requires good stock and careful -workmen. The method will probably slowly gain ground in this -country. The feed used in cramming is similar to that used in -ordinary crate feeding, except that it is mixed as a thin batter. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Caponizing. -</p> -<p> -Caponizing is the castration of male chickens. Capons hold the same -place in the poultry market as do steers in the beef market. -</p> -<p> -Caponizing is practiced to quite an extent in France, and to a less -degree in England and the United States. -</p> -<p> -Much the larger part of the industry is confined to that portion of -the United States east of Philadelphia, though increasing numbers of -capons are being raised in the North Central States. During the -winter months capon is regularly quoted in the markets of the larger -eastern cities. Massachusetts and New Jersey are the great centers -for the growing of capons, while Boston, New York, and Philadelphia -are the great markets. In many eastern markets the prices paid for -dressed capons range from 20 to 30 cents a pound. The highest prices -usually prevail from January to May, and the larger the birds the -more they bring a pound. -</p> -<p> -The purpose of caponizing is not, as is sometimes stated, to -increase the size of the chicken, but to improve the quality of the -meat. The capon fattens more readily and economically than other -birds. As they do not interfere with or worry one another, large -flocks may be kept together. -</p> -<p> -The breeds suitable for caponizing are the Asiatics and Americans. -Brahmas will produce, with proper care and sufficient time, the -largest and finest capons. On the ordinary farm, where capons would -be allowed to run loose, Plymouth Rocks would prove more profitable. -Plymouth Rocks, Brahmas, Langshans, Wyandottes, Indian Games, may -all be used for capons. Leghorns are not to be considered for this -purpose. -</p> -<p> -Capons should be operated upon when they are about ten weeks or -three months old and weigh about two pounds. -</p> -<p> -The operation of caponizing is performed by cutting in between the -last two ribs. Both testicles may be removed from one side or both -sides may be opened. The cockerel should be starved for twenty-four -hours in order to empty the intestines. Asiatics are more difficult -to operate on than Americans, the testicles being larger and less -firm. There is always some danger of causing death by tearing blood -vessels, but the per cent. of loss with an experienced operator is -very small. Loss by inflammation is still more rare. The testicle of -a bird is not as highly developed as in a mammal, and if the organ -is broken and a small fragment remains attached it will produce -birds known as slips. Some growers advise looking over the capons -and puncturing the wind puffs that gather beneath the skin. This, -however, is not necessary. -</p> -<p> -A good set of tools is indispensable and can be purchased for from -$2 to $3. As a complete set of instructions is furnished with each -set it is unnecessary to go into details here. The beginner should, -however, operate on several dead cockerels before attempting to -operate on a live one. -</p> -<p> -After caponizing the bird should be given plenty of soft feed and -water. The capon begins to eat almost immediately after the -operation is performed, and no one would suppose that a radical -change had taken place in his nature. -</p> -<p> -The feeding of capons differs little from the feeding of other -growing chickens. Corn, wheat, barley and Kaffir-corn would be -suitable grain, while beef-scrap would be necessary to produce the -best growth. -</p> -<p> -About three weeks before marketing place the capons in small yards -and feed them three or four times a day, giving plenty of corn and -other feed, or fatten them in one of the ways indicated in the -section on fattening poultry. Corn meal and ground oats, equal parts -by weight, moistened with water or milk, make a good mash for -fattening capons. -</p> -<p> -In dressing capons leave the head and hackle feathers, the feathers -on the wings to the second joint, the tail feathers, including those -a little way up the back, and the feathers on the legs halfway up to -the thigh. These feathers serve to distinguish capons from other -fowls in the market. Do not cut the head off, for this is also a -distinguishing feature of the capon, on account of the undeveloped -comb and wattles. -</p> -<p> -The price received for capons is greater than any other kind of -poultry meat except early broilers. There may be trouble in some -localities in getting dealers to recognize capons as such and pay an -advanced price. -</p> -<p> -On several farms in Massachusetts, 500 to 1,000 capons are raised -annually, and on one farm 5,000 cockerels are held for caponizing. -The industry is growing rapidly year by year and the supply does not -equal the demand. -</p> -<p> -It is to be expected that the amount of caponizing done in the West -will gradually increase. Those wishing to try the growing of capons -will do well to secure an experienced operator. Good men at this -work receive five cents per bird. Poor operators are dear at any -price, as they produce a large number of worthless slips. -</p> -<a name="2HCH0011"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> - -<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> - -<h2> -<a name="chapX"> -CHAPTER X -</a> -</h2> -<h3> -MARKETING POULTRY CARCASSES -</h3> -<p> -In the marketing of poultry carcasses as in other phases of the -industry, we really have two systems to discuss. The one is used for -the marketing of the product of the farm of the Central West, and -the other the product of the poultryman or eastern farmer, who is -near a large market and who will be repaid for taking special pains -in preparing his poultry for market. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Farm-Grown Chickens. -</p> -<p> -At the present time almost the entire poultry crop of the Central -West is sold from the farm as live poultry. This farm stock is -purchased by produce buyers or general merchants and shipped to the -nearest county seat or other important town, where there are usually -one or more poultry-killing establishments. These establishments may -vary from a simple shed, where the chickens are picked and packed in -barrels, to the more modern poultry-packing establishment, with its -accommodations for fattening, dressing, packing, freezing, and -storing. -</p> -<p> -The poultry-buying stations may be branches of the larger packing -establishments, branch houses of large produce firms, or small firms -operating independently and selling in the open market. -</p> -<p> -The chickens as purchased are grouped into the following classes: -Springs, hens, old roosters and (at certain seasons) young roosters -or staggy cockerels. Early in the season small springs are quoted as -broilers, while capons form a separate item where such are grown. -</p> -<p> -Chickens are starved before killing, for the purpose of emptying the -crop, and, to some degree, the intestines. If this is not done the -carcass presents an unsightly appearance and spoils more readily in -storage. -</p> -<p> -The method of picking is not always the same, even in the same -plant. Scalding is frequently used for local trade, in the summer -season, or with cheap-grade stuff. The greater portion of the stock -is picked dry. The pickers are generally paid so much per bird. In -some plants men do the roughing while girls are employed as pinners. -Pickers work either with the chickens suspended by a cord or -fastened upon a bench adopted to this purpose. The killing is done -by bleeding and sticking. The last thrust reaches the brain and -paralyzes the bird. The manner of making these cuts must be learned -by practical instruction. The feathers are saved, and amount to a -considerable item. White feathers are worth more than others. The -head and feet are left on the chicken and the entrails are not -removed. -</p> -<p> -The bird, after being chilled in ice-water or in the cooling room, -is ready for grading and packing. This, from the producer's -standpoint, is the most interesting stage in the process, for it is -here that the quality of the stock is to be observed. The grading is -made on three considerations: (1) The general division of cocks, -springs, hens and capons is kept separate from the killing-room; (2) -the grading for quality; (3) the assortment according to size. -</p> -<p> -The grading for quality depends on the general shape of the chicken, -the plumpness or covering of meat, the neatness of picking, the -color of skin and legs, and the appearance of the feet and head, -which latter points indicate the age and condition of health. The -culls consist of deformed and scrawny chickens. The seconds are poor -in flesh, or they may be, in the case of hens, unsightly from -overfatness. They are packed in barrels and go to the cheapest -trade. Those carcasses slightly bruised or torn in dressing also go -in this class. Although a preference is generally stated for -yellow-skinned poultry, the white-skinned birds, if equal in other -points, are not underranked in this score. The skin color that is -decidedly objectionable is the purplish tinge, which is a sign of -diseased stock. Black pin-feathers and dark-colored legs are a -source of objection. Especially is this true with young birds which -show the pin-feathers. Feathered legs are slightly more -objectionable than smooth legs. Small combs and the absence of spurs -give better appearance to the carcass. -</p> -<p> -The following is the nomenclature and corresponding weights of the -farm marketed chickens. In each class there will be seconds and -culls. The seconds of each group are kept separate, but not graded -so strictly or perhaps not graded at all for size. The culls are -packed in barrels and all kinds of chickens from fryers to old -roosters here sojourn together until they reach their final -destination, as potted chicken or chicken soup. -</p> -<p> -Broilers—Packed in two weights. 1st: Less than two pounds; 2d: -between 2 and 2-1/2 pounds. -</p> -<p> -Chickens—Packed in three weights. 1st: between 2-1/2 and 3 pounds; -2d: between 3 and 3-1/2 pounds; 3d: between 3-1/2 and 4 pounds. -</p> -<p> -Roasters—Packed in two weights. 1st: between 4 and 5 pounds; 2d: -above 5 pounds. -</p> -<p> -Stag Roosters—Cockerels, showing spurs and hard blue meat, packed -in two weights. 1st: under 4 pounds; 2d: above 4 pounds. -</p> -<p> -Fowls, are hens. They are packed in three sizes. 1st: under 3-1/4 -pounds; 2d: between 3-1/4 and 4-1/2 pounds; 3d: over 4-1/2 pounds. -</p> -<p> -Old Roosters—Packed in barrels. One grade only. -</p> -<p> -After packing, chickens may be shipped to market immediately, or -they may be frozen and stored in the local plant. Shipments of any -importance are made in refrigerator cars. -</p> -<p> -The poultry that is shipped to the final market alive is gradually -diminishing in quantity, as poultry killing plants are built up -throughout the country. The live poultry shipments are chiefly made -in the Live Poultry Transportation Cars. The following figures give -the number of such cars that moved out of the States named in a -recent year: -</p> -<table align="center" width="50%" summary="number of cars by state"> -<tr><td>Iowa</td> <td align="right">645</td></tr> -<tr><td>Missouri</td> <td align="right">630</td></tr> -<tr><td>Illinois</td> <td align="right">624</td></tr> -<tr><td>Kentucky</td> <td align="right">472</td></tr> -<tr><td>Nebraska</td> <td align="right">395</td></tr> -<tr><td>Kansas</td> <td align="right">370</td></tr> -<tr><td>Minnesota</td> <td align="right">174</td></tr> -<tr><td>Ohio</td> <td align="right">173</td></tr> -<tr><td>Tennessee</td> <td align="right">169</td></tr> -<tr><td>Michigan</td> <td align="right">165</td></tr> -<tr><td>S. Dakota</td> <td align="right">103</td></tr> -<tr><td>Oklahoma</td> <td align="right">101</td></tr> -<tr><td>Indiana</td> <td align="right">100</td></tr> -<tr><td>Wisconsin</td> <td align="right">93</td></tr> -<tr><td>Texas</td> <td align="right">91</td></tr> -<tr><td>Arkansas</td> <td align="right">47</td></tr> -</table> -<p> -The most of this live poultry goes to New York and other eastern -cities and is consumed largely by the Hebrew trade. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -The Special Poultry Plant. -</p> -<p> -The special egg farmer of the East should sell his poultry alive to -the regular dealer. The exception to this advice may be taken in the -case of squab broilers for which some local dealers will not pay as -fancy a price as may be obtained by dressing and shipping to the -hotel trade. -</p> -<p> -The grower of roasters and capons will probably want to market his -own product. As to whether it will pay him to do so will depend upon -whether his dealer will pay what the quality of the goods really -demands. The dealer can afford to do this all right, if he will -hustle around and find an outlet for the particular grade of goods, -for he is in position to kill and dress the fowls more economically -than the producer. -</p> -<p> -I have never been able to study out why the average writer upon -agricultural subjects is always advising the farmer to attempt to do -difficult work for which special firms already exist. In the case of -fattening just referred to, there is reason why the farmer may be -able to do the work more successfully than the special -establishment, but why any one should urge the farmer to turn the -woodshed into a temporary poultry packing establishment I can hardly -see. If the farmer has nothing to do he had better get a job at the -poultry killing house where they have ice water and barrels in which -to put the feathers. -</p> -<p> -I do not think it worth while in this book for me to attempt to -describe in detail the various methods of killing and packing -poultry for the various retail markets. The grower who contemplates -killing his own stuff had better spend a day visiting the produce -houses and market stalls and inquire which methods are locally in -demand. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Suggestions from Other Countries. -</p> -<p> -In European countries generally, and especially in France and -England, great pains is taken in the production of market poultry. -Each farmer and each neighborhood become known in the market for the -quality of their poultry, and the prices they receive vary -accordingly. In these countries more poultry is fattened and dressed -by the growers than in the United States where we have greater -specialization of labor. -</p> -<p> -In countries that have an export trade different systems have -originated. In Denmark and Ireland co-operative societies are -organized to handle perishable farm products. These, however, deal -more with eggs than with poultry. In portions of England the -fattening is done by private fatteners. The country being thickly -settled, the chickens are collected directly from the farms by -wagons making regular trips. This allows the rejection of the poor -and immature specimens, whereas a premium may be paid on better -stock. -</p> -<p> -The greatest fault of poultry buying as conducted in this country is -the evil of a uniform price. After chickens are dressed the -difference of quality is readily discerned, and the price varies -from fancy quotations to almost nothing for culls. The packer pays a -given rate per pound for live hens or for spring chickens. The price -is paid alike for the best poultry received or for the scrawniest -chickens that can be coaxed to stand up and be weighed. The prices -paid is the average worth of all chickens purchased at that market. -All farmers who market an article better than the average are unjust -losers, while those who sell inferior stock receive unearned -profits. The producer of good stock receives pay for the extra -quantity of his chickens, but for the extra quality no recognition -whatever is given. To the deserving producer, if quality was -recognized, it would result in a greatly increased stimulation of -the production of good poultry. Any packer, if questioned, will -state that he would be willing to grade chickens and pay for them -according to quality, but that he does not do so because his -competitor would pay a uniform price and drive him out of business. -The man who receives an increased price would say little of it, -while the man who sells poor chickens, if he failed to receive the -full amount to which he is accustomed, would think himself unjustly -treated and use his influence against the dealer. A recognition of -quality in buying is for the interest of both the farmer and the -poultry dealer, and a mutual effort on the part of those interested -to put in practice this reform would result in a great improvement -of the poultry industry. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Cold Storage of Poultry. -</p> -<p> -The growth of the cold storage of poultry has been phenomenal. -Poultry is packed in thin boxes that will readily lose their heat -and these are stacked in a freezer with a temperature near the zero -point. The temperature used for holding poultry are anywhere from 0 -degree up to 20 degrees. Poultry is held for periods of one to six -weeks at temperature above the freezing point. -</p> -<p> -Frozen poultry will keep almost indefinitely save for the drying -out, which is due to the fact that evaporation will proceed slowly -even from a frozen body. The time frozen poultry is stored varies -from a few weeks to eight or ten months. -</p> -<p> -The usual rule is that any crop is highest in price when it first -comes on the market and cheapest just after the point of its -greatest production. Thus, broilers are high in May and cheap in -September. In such cases the goods are carried from the season of -plenty to the following season of scarcity. This period is always -less than a year. The idea circulated by wild writers, that cold -storage poultry was kept several years is an economic impossibility. -The interest on the investment alone would make the holding of -storage goods into the second season of plenty, quite unprofitable, -but when the costs of storage, insurance and shrinkage are to be -paid, storing poultry for more than one season becomes absurd. The -fowl that has been once frozen cannot be made to look "fresh killed" -again. For that reason packers like to get a monopoly on a -particular market so that the two classes of goods will not have to -compete side by side. The quality of the frozen fowl when served is -very fair, practically as good as and some say better than the fresh -killed. -</p> -<p> -Cold storage poultry is best thawed out by being placed over night -in a tank of water. Poultry prejudice prevents the practice of -retailing the goods frozen, though this method would be highly -desirable. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Drawn or Undrawn Fowls. -</p> -<p> -Within the last two or three years there has been a great hue and -cry about the marketing of poultry without drawing the entrails. -</p> -<p> -The objection to the custom rests upon the general prejudice to -allowing the entrails of animals to remain in the carcass. If a -little thought is given the subject, however, it is seen that human -prejudice is very inconsistent in such matters. We draw beef and -mutton carcasses, to be sure, but fish and game are stored undrawn, -and as for oysters and lobsters we not only store them undrawn but -we eat them so. -</p> -<p> -The facts about the undrawn poultry proposition are as follows: The -intestines of the fowl at death contain numerous species of -bacteria, whereas the flesh is quite free from germs. If the carcass -is not drawn, but immediately frozen hard, the bacteria remain -inactive and no essential change occurs. If the carcass is stored -without freezing, or remains for even a short time at a high -temperature, the bacteria will begin to grow through the intestinal -walls and contaminate the flesh. -</p> -<p> -Now, if the fowl is drawn, the unprotected flesh is exposed to -bacterial contamination, which results in decomposition more rapidly -than through the intestinal walls. The opening of the carcass also -allows a greater drying out and shrinkage. -</p> -<p> -If poultry carcasses were split wide open as with beef or mutton, -drawing might not prove as satisfactory as the present method, but -since this is not desirable, and since ordinary laborers will break -the intestines and spill their contents over the flesh, and -otherwise mutilate the fowl, all those who have had actual -experience in the matter agree that drawing poultry is unpractical -and undesirable. -</p> -<p> -As far as danger of disease or ptomaine poison is concerned, chances -between the two methods seem to offer little choice. -</p> -<p> -The Bureau of Chemistry of the U.S. Department of Agriculture has -conducted a series of experiments along the line of poultry storage. -So far as the results have been published, nothing very striking has -been learned. From what has been published, the writer is of the -opinion that the somewhat mysterious changes that were observed in -the cold storage poultry were mostly a matter of drying out of the -carcass. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Poultry Inspection. -</p> -<p> -The enthusiastic members of the medical profession, and others whose -knowledge of practical affairs is somewhat limited, occasionally -come forth with the idea of an inspection of poultry carcasses -similar to the Federal inspection of the heavier meats. -</p> -<p> -The reasons that are supposed to warrant the Federal meat inspection -are precaution against disease and the idea of enforcing a -cleanliness in the handling of food behind the consumer's back, -which he would insist upon were he the preparer of his own food -products. -</p> -<p> -No doubt there is well established evidence that some diseases, such -as the dread trichinosis, are acquired by the consumption of -diseased meat. As far as it is at present known there are no -diseases acquired from the consumption of diseased poultry flesh, -but, as we do not know as much about the bacteria that infests -poultry as we do of that of larger animals, there is no positive -proof that such transmission of disease could not occur. Thorough -cooking kills all disease germs, and poultry is seldom, if ever, -eaten without such preparation. -</p> -<p> -The idea of protecting people from uncleanly methods of handling -their foods, concerning which they cannot themselves know, is -somewhat of a sentimental proposition. In practice it amounts to -nothing, save as the popular conception of this protection increases -the demand for the product which is marked "U.S. Inspected and -Passed." -</p> -<p> -It may be interesting to some of the reformers of 1906 to know that -the meat inspection bill then forced upon Congress by a clamoring -public was desired by the packers themselves. Because Congress would -not listen to the packers, and the Department of Agriculture, the -Chief Executive very kindly indulged in a little conversation with a -few reporters, the results of which gave Congress the needed -inspiration. -</p> -<p> -It cost the Government three million dollars to tell the people that -their meats are packed in a cleanly manner. If the people want this, -it is all well and good. The tax it places upon the price of meat is -less than half of one per cent. -</p> -<p> -A similar inspection of the killing and packing of poultry would -involve a very much higher rate of taxation, because of the fact -that poultry products are packed in small establishments scattered -throughout the entire country. -</p> -<p> -One reason that the meat packers wanted the United States -Inspection, is because it puts out of business the little fellow to -whom the Government cannot afford to grant inspection. A few of the -very largest poultry packers would like to see poultry inspection -for the same reason, but with the business so thoroughly scattered -as to render Government inspection so expensive as to be quite -impracticable, any such bill would certainly be killed in a -congressional committee. -</p> -<p> -Any practical means to bring about the cleanly handling, and to -prevent the consumption of diseased poultry, should certainly be -encouraged. This can be done by the education of the consumer. -Poultry carcasses should be marketed with head and feet attached and -the entrails undrawn. By this precaution the consumer may tell -whether the fowl he is buying is male or female, young or old, -healthy or diseased. All cold storage poultry should be frozen and -should be sold to the consumer in a frozen condition. -</p> -<p> -I am not in favor of the detailed regulation of business by law, but -I do believe that the legal enforcement of these last precautions -would be a good thing. -</p> -<a name="2HCH0012"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> - -<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> - -<h2> -<a name="chapXI"> -CHAPTER XI -</a> -</h2> -<h3> -QUALITY IN EGGS [*] -</h3> - -<p class="foot"> -<u>*</u> [Much of the matter in this and the following chapter is -taken from the writer's report of the egg trade of the United -States, published as Circular 140 of the Bureau of Annual Industry -of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. In the present volume, -however, I have inserted some additional matters which policy -forbade that I discuss in a Federal document.] -</p> -<p> -Because of the readiness with which eggs spoil, the term "fresh" has -become synonymous with the idea of desirable quality in eggs. As a -matter of fact the actual age of an egg is quite subordinate to -other factors which affect the quality. -</p> -<p> -An egg forty-eight hours old that has lain in a wheat shock during a -warm July rain, would probably be swarming with bacteria and be -absolutely unfit for food. Another egg stored eight months in a -first-class cold storage room would be perfectly wholesome. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Grading Eggs. -</p> -<p> -Eggs are among the most difficult of food products to grade, because -each egg must be considered separately and because the actual -substance of the egg cannot be examined without destroying the egg. -From external appearance, eggs can be selected for size, color, -cleanliness of shell and freedom from cracks. This is the common -method of grading in early spring when the eggs are uniformly of -good quality. -</p> -<p> -Later in the season the egg candle is used. In the technical sense -any kind of a light may be used as an egg candle. A sixteen candle -power electric lamp is the most desirable. The light is enclosed in -a dark box, and the eggs are held against openings about the size of -a half dollar. The candler holds the egg large end upward, and gives -it a quick turn in order to view all sides, and to cause the -contents to whirl within the shell. To the expert this process -reveals the actual condition of the egg to an extent that the novice -can hardly realize. The art of egg candling cannot be readily taught -by worded description. One who wishes to learn egg candling had best -go to an adept in the art, or he may begin unaided and by breaking -many eggs learn the essential points. -</p> -<p> -Eggs when laid vary considerably in size, but otherwise are a very -uniform product. The purpose of the egg in nature requires that this -be the case, because the contents of the egg must be so proportioned -as to form the chick without surplus or waste, and this demands a -very constant chemical composition. -</p> -<p> -For food purposes all fresh eggs are practically equal. The tint of -the yolk varies a little, being a brighter yellow when green food -has been supplied the hens. Occasionally, when hens eat unusual -quantities of green food, the yolk show a greenish brown tint, and -appear dark to the candler. Such eggs are called grass eggs; they -are perfectly wholesome. -</p> -<p> -An opinion exists among egg men that the white of the spring egg is -of finer quality and will stand up better than summer eggs. This is -true enough of commercial eggs, but the difference is chiefly, if -not entirely, due to external factors that act upon the egg after it -is laid. -</p> -<p> -There are some other peculiarities that may exist in eggs at the -time of laying, such as a blood clot enclosed with the contents of -the egg, a broken yolk or perhaps bacterial contamination. "Tape -worms," so-called by egg candlers, are detached portions of the -membrane lining of the egg. "Liver spots" or "meat spots" are -detached folds from the walls of the oviduct. Such abnormalities are -rare and not worth worrying about. -</p> -<p> -The shells of eggs vary in shape, color and firmness. These -variations are more a matter of breed and individual idiosyncrasy -than of care or feed. -</p> -<p> -The strength of egg shells is important because of the loss from -breakage. The distinction between weak and firm shelled eggs is not -one, however, which can be readily remedied. Nothing more can be -advised in this regard than to feed a ration containing plenty of -mineral matter and to discard hens that lay noticeably weak shelled -or irregularly shaped eggs. -</p> -<p> -Preference in the color of eggs shells is a hobby, and one well -worth catering to. As is commonly stated, Boston and surrounding -towns want brown eggs, while New York and San Francisco demand white -eggs. These trade fancies take their origin in the circumstances of -there being large henneries in the respective localities producing -the particular class of eggs. If the eggs from such farms are the -best in the market and were uniformly of a particular shade, that -mark of distinction, like the trade name on a popular article, would -naturally become a selling point. Only the select trade consider the -color in buying. -</p> -<p> -Eggs of all Mediterranean breeds are white. Those of Asiatics are -brown. Those of the American breeds are usually brown, but not of so -uniform a tint. -</p> -<p> -The size of eggs is chiefly controlled by the breed or by selection -of layers of large eggs. In a number of experiments published by -various experiment stations, slight differences in the sizes of the -eggs have been noted with varying rations and environment, but this -cannot be attributed to anything more specific than the general -development and vigor of the fowls. Pullets, at the beginning of the -laying period, lay an egg decidedly smaller than those produced at a -later stage in life. -</p> -<p> -The egg size table below gives the size of representative -classes of eggs. These figures must not be applied too rigidly, as -the eggs of all breeds and all localities vary. They are given as -approximate averages of the eggs one might reasonably expect to find -in the class mentioned. -</p> -<table align="center" summary="egg sizes"> -<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"><b>EGG SIZE TABLE.</b></td></tr> - -<tr><td>GEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION</td> <td>BREED CLASSIFICATIONS</td> <td>Net Wt. Per 30 Dozen Case</td> <td>Weight Ounces Per Dozen</td> <td>Relative Values Per Dozen</td></tr> - -<tr><td>Southern Iowa's "Two ounce eggs"</td> <td>Purebred flocks of American varieties of "egg farm Leghorns."</td> <td>45 lbs.</td> <td>24</td> <td>25c.</td></tr> - -<tr><td>Poorest flocks of Southern Dunghills</td> <td>Games and Hamburgs.</td> <td>36 lbs.</td> <td>19 1-5</td> <td>20c.</td></tr> - -<tr><td>Average Tennessee or Texas eggs.</td> <td>Poorest strains of Leghorns.</td> <td>43 lbs.</td> <td>21 1-3</td> <td>22 1-3c.</td></tr> - -<tr><td>Average for the United States as represented by Kansas, Minnesota and Southern Illinois.</td> <td>The mixed barnyard fowl of the western farm, largely of Plymouth Rock origin.</td> <td>40 lbs.</td> <td>23</td> <td>23 9-10c.</td></tr> - -<tr><td>Average size of eggs produced in Denmark.</td> <td>American Brahmas and Minorcas.</td> <td>48 lbs.</td> <td>25 3-5</td> <td>26 2-3c.</td></tr> - -<tr><td>Selected brands of Danish eggs.</td> <td>Equaled by several pens of Leghorns in the Australian laying contest.</td> <td>54 lbs.</td> <td>28 4-5</td> <td>30c.</td></tr> - - -</table> - -<p class="subhead"> -How Eggs Are Spoiled. -</p> -<p> -Dirty eggs are grouped roughly in three classes: (A) Plain dirties, -those to which soil or dung adheres; (B) stained eggs, those caused -by contact with damp straw or other material which discolors the -shell (plain dirties when washed usually show this appearance); (C) -smeared eggs, those covered with the contents of broken eggs. -</p> -<p> -For the first two classes of dirty eggs the producer is to blame. -The third class originates all along the route from the nest to -consumer. The percentage of dirty eggs varies with the season and -weather conditions, being noticeably increased during rainy weather. -In grading, about five per cent. of farm grown eggs are thrown out -as dirties. These dirties are sold at a loss of at least twenty per -cent. -</p> -<p> -The common trade name for cracked eggs is checks. Blind checks are -those in which the break in the shell is not readily observable. -They are detected with the aid of the candle, or by sounding, which -consists of clicking the eggs together. Dents are checks in which -the egg shell is pushed in without rupturing the membrane. Leakers -have lost part of the contents and are not only an entire loss -themselves, but produce smeared eggs. -</p> -<p> -The loss from breakage varies considerably with the amount of -handling in the process of marketing. A western produce house, -collecting from grocers by local freight will record from four to -seven per cent. of checks. With properly handled eggs the loss -through breakage should not run over one or two per cent. -</p> -<p> -Eggs in which the chick has begun to develop are spoken of as -"heated" eggs. Infertile eggs cannot heat because the germ has not -been fertilized and can make no growth. That such infertile eggs -cannot spoil is, however, a mistaken notion, for they are subjected -to all the other factors by which -</p> -<p> -eggs may be spoiled. The sale of eggs tested out of the incubators -has been encouraged by the dissemination of the knowledge that -infertile eggs are not changed by incubation. Eggs thrown out of an -incubator will be shrunken and weakened, and some of them may -contain dead germs and the remains of chicks that have died after -starting to develop. Such eggs may be sold for what they are, but -should never be mixed with other eggs or sold as fresh. When -carefully candled they should be worth ten or twelve cents a dozen. -</p> -<p> -Fertile eggs, at the time of laying, cannot be told from infertile -eggs, as the germ of the chick is microscopic in size. If the egg is -immediately cooled and held at a temperature below 70 degrees, the -germ will not develop. At a temperature of 103 degrees, the -development of the chick proceeds most rapidly. At this temperature -the development is about as follows: -</p> -<p> -Twelve hours incubation: When broken in a saucer, the germ spot, -visible upon all eggs, seems somewhat enlarged. Looked at with a -candle such an egg cannot be distinguished from a fresh egg. -</p> -<p> -Twenty-four hours: The germ spot mottled and about the size of a -dime. This egg, if not too dark shelled, can readily be detected -with the candle, the germ spot causing the yolk to appear -considerably darker than the yolk of a fresh egg. Such an egg is -called a heavy egg or a floater. -</p> -<p> -Forty-eight hours: By this time the opaque white membrane, which -surrounds the germ, has spread well over the top of the yolk, and -the egg is quite dark or heavy before the light. Blood appears at -about this period, but is difficult of detection by the candler, -unless the germ dies and the blood ring sticks to the membrane of -the egg. -</p> -<p> -Three days: The blood ring is the prominent feature and is as large -as a nickel. The yolk behind the membrane has become watery. -</p> -<p> -Four days: The body of the chick becomes readily visible, and -prominent radiating blood vessels are seen. The yolk is half covered -with a water containing membrane. -</p> -<p> -These stages develop as given, occurring at a temperature of 103 -degrees. As the temperature is lowered the rate of chick development -is retarded, but at any temperature above 70, this development will -proceed far enough to cause serious injury to the quality of the -eggs. -</p> -<p> -For commercial use eggs may be grouped in regard to heating as -follows: -</p> -<p> -(1) No heat shown. Cannot be told at the candle from fresh eggs. -</p> -<p> -(2) Light floats. First grade that can be separated by candling, -corresponding to about twenty-four hours of incubation. These are -not objectionable to the average housewife. -</p> -<p> -(3) Heavy floats. This group has no distinction from the former, -except an exaggeration of the same feature. These eggs are -objectionable to the fastidious housewife, because of the appearing -of the white and scummy looking allantois on the yolk. -</p> -<p> -(4) Blood rings. Eggs in which blood has developed, extending to the -period when the chick becomes visible. (5) Chicks visible to the -candle. -</p> -<p> -The loss due to heated eggs is enormous; probably greater than that -caused by any other source of loss to the egg trade. The loss varies -with the season of the year, and the climate. In New England heat -loss is to be considered as in the same class as loss from dirties -and checks. In Texas the egg business from the 15th of June until -cool weather in the fall is practically dead. People stop eating -eggs at home and shipping out of the State nets the producer such -small returns by the time the loss is allowed that, at the prices -offered, it hardly pays the farmer to gather the eggs. In the season -of 1901 hatched chickens were commonly found in cases of market -eggs, throughout the trans-Mississippi region, and eggs did well to -net the shippers three cents per dozen. -</p> -<p> -Damage to eggs by heating and consequent financial loss is -inexcusable. In the first place, market eggs have no business being -fertilized, but whether they are or not they should be kept in a -place sufficiently cool to prevent all germ growth. -</p> -<p> -The egg shell is porous so that the developing chick may obtain air. -This exposes the moist contents of the egg to the drying influence -of the atmosphere. Evaporation from eggs takes place constantly. It -is increased by warm temperatures, dry air and currents of air -striking the egg. -</p> -<p> -When the egg is formed within the hen the contents fill the shell -completely. As the egg cools the contents shrink, and the two layers -of membrane separate in the large end of the egg, causing the -appearance of the bubble or air cell. Evaporation of water from the -egg further shrinks the contents and increases the size of the air -cell. The size of the air cell is commonly taken as a guide to the -age of the egg. But when we consider that with the same relative -humidity on a hot July day, evaporation would take place about ten -times as fast as on a frosty November morning, and that differences -in humidity and air currents equally great occur between localities, -we see that the age of an egg, judged by this method, means simply -the extent of evaporation, and proves nothing at all about the -actual age. -</p> -<p> -Even as a measure of evaporation, the size of the air cell may be -deceptive, for when an egg with an air cell of considerable size is -roughly handled, the air cell breaks down the side of the egg, and -gives the air cell the appearance of being larger than it really is. -Still rougher handling of shrunken eggs may cause the rupture of the -inner membrane, allowing the air to escape into the contents of the -egg. This causes a so-called watery or frothy egg. The quality is in -no wise injured by the mechanical mishap, but eggs so ruptured are -usually discriminated against by candlers. -</p> -<p> -In this connection it might be well to speak further of the subject -of "white strength," by which is meant the stiffness or viscosity of -the egg white. The white of an egg is a limpid, clear liquid, but in -the egg of good quality that portion immediately surrounding the -yolk appears to be in a semi-solid mass. The cause of this -appearance is the presence of an invisible network of fibrous -material. By age and mechanical disturbance this network is -gradually broken down and the liquid white separates out. Such a -weak and watery white is usually associated with shrunken eggs. -These eggs will not stand up well or whip into a firm froth and are -thrown in lower grades. -</p> -<p> -The weakness of the yolk membranes also increases with age, and is -objectionable because the breakage of the yolk is unsightly and -spoils the egg for poaching. -</p> -<p> -The shrunken egg is most abundant in the fall, when the rising -prices tempt the farmer and grocery man to hold the eggs. This -holding is so prevalent, in fact, that from August to December full -fresh eggs are the exception rather than the rule. -</p> -<p> -While we have called attention to evaporation as the most pronounced -fault of fall eggs, losses from other causes are greatly increased -by the holding process. -</p> -<p> -If the eggs are held in a warm place, heat and shrinkage will case -the greatest damage; if held in a cellar, rot, mold, and bad odors -will cause the chief loss. -</p> -<p> -The loss due to shrunken eggs is not understood nor appreciated by -those outside the trade. Such ignorance is due to the fact that the -shrunken is not so repulsive as the rotten or heated egg. But the -inferiority of the shrunken egg is so well appreciated by the -consumer that high class dealers find it impossible to use them -without ruining their trade. The result is that shrunken eggs are -constantly being sent into the cheaper channels, with the result -that all lower grades of eggs are more depreciated in the fall of -the year than at any other time. -</p> -<p> -In the classes of spoiled eggs, of which we have thus far spoken, -the proverbial rotten egg has not been considered. The term "rot" in -the egg trade is used to apply to any egg absolutely unfit for food -purposes. But I prefer to confine the term "rotten egg" to the egg -which contains a growth of bacteria. -</p> -<p> -The normal egg when laid is germ free. But the egg shell is not germ -proof. The pores in the egg shell proper are large enough to admit -all forms of bacteria, but the membrane inside the shell is germ -proof as long as it remains dry. When this membrane becomes moist so -that bacteria may grow in it, these germs of decay quickly grow -through it and contaminate the contents of the egg. -</p> -<p> -Heat favors the growth of bacteria in eggs and sufficient cold -prevents it, but as bacteria cannot enter without moisture on the -surface of the egg we can consider dampness as the cause of rotten -eggs. Moisture on the shell may come from an external wetting, from -the "sweating" of eggs coming out of cold storage, or by the -prevention of evaporation to such an extent that the external -moisture of the egg thoroughly soaks the membrane. The latter -happens in damp cellars, and when eggs are covered with some -impervious material. -</p> -<p> -Rotten eggs may be of different kinds, according to the species of -germ that causes the decomposition. The specific kinds of egg -rotting bacteria have not been worked out, but the following three -groups of bacterially infected eggs are readily distinguishable in -the practical work of egg candling. -</p> -<p> -(1) Black rots. It is probable that many different species of -bacteria cause this form of rotten eggs. The prominent feature is -the formation of hydrogen sulphide gas, which blackens the contents -of the egg, gives the characteristic rotten egg smell and sometimes -causes the equally well known explosion. -</p> -<p> -(2) Sour eggs or white rots. These eggs have a characteristic sour -smell. The contents become watery, the yolk and the whites mix and -the whole egg is offensive to both eye and nose. -</p> -<p> -(3) The spot rot. In this the bacterial growth has not contaminated -the whole egg, but has remained near the point of entrance. Such -eggs are readily picked out with the candle, and when broken open -show lumpy adhesions on the inside of the shell. These lumps are of -various colors and appearances. It is probable that these spots are -caused as much by mold as by bacteria, but for practical purposes -the distinction is immaterial. -</p> -<p> -In practice it is impossible to separate rotten from heated eggs for -the reason that in the typical nest of spoiled eggs found around the -farm, both causes have been at work. Dead chicks will not -necessarily cause the eggs to decay, but many such eggs do become -contaminated by bacteria before they reach the candler, and hence, -as a physician would say, show complications. -</p> -<p> -The loss of eggs that are actually rotten is not as great as one -might imagine. Perhaps one or two per cent. of the country's egg -crop actually rot, but the expenses of the candling necessitated, -and the lowering of value of eggs that contain even a few rotten -specimens are severe losses. -</p> -<p> -Moldy or musty eggs are caused by accidentally wet cases or damp -cellars and ice houses. The moldy egg is most frequently a spot rot. -In the musty egg proper the meat is free from foreign organisms, but -has been tainted by the odor of mold growth upon the shell or -packing materials. -</p> -<p> -The absorption of odors is the most baffling of all causes of bad -eggs. Here the candler, so expert in other points, is usually -helpless. Eggs, by storage in old musty cellars, or in rooms, with -lemons, onions and cheese, may become so badly flavored as to be -seriously objected to by a fancy trade, and yet there is no means of -detecting the trouble without destroying the egg. Such eggs occur -most frequently among the held stock of the fall season. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -The Loss Due to Carelessness. -</p> -<p> -The egg crop of the country, more than ninety-five per cent. of -which originates on the general farm, is subject to immense waste -due to ignorant and careless handling. The great mass of eggs for -sale in our large cities possess to a greater or less degree the -faults we have discussed. -</p> -<p> -Some idea of the loss due to the present shiftless method of -handling eggs, may be obtained by a comparison of the actual average -prices received for all eggs sold in New York City, and the -wholesale prices quoted by a prominent New York firm dealing in high -grade goods. The contrasted price for the year 1907 are as follows: -</p> -<table align="center" width="50%" summary="price of eggs"> -<tr><td> </td> <td align="right">Prices at which total goods moved.</td> <td> </td> <td align="right">Wholesale prices for strictly fresh eggs.</td></tr> -<tr><td>January</td> <td align="right">25.8</td> <td>January</td> <td align="right">42.</td></tr> -<tr><td>February</td> <td align="right">24.5</td> <td>February</td> <td align="right">40.</td></tr> -<tr><td>March</td> <td align="right">19.3</td> <td>March</td> <td align="right">32.</td></tr> -<tr><td>April</td> <td align="right">16.9</td> <td>April</td> <td align="right">30.</td></tr> -<tr><td>May</td> <td align="right">16.6</td> <td>May</td> <td align="right">31.</td></tr> -<tr><td>June</td> <td align="right">15.5</td> <td>June</td> <td align="right">32.</td></tr> -<tr><td>July</td> <td align="right">15.6</td> <td>July</td> <td align="right">35.</td></tr> -<tr><td>August</td> <td align="right">17.7</td> <td>August</td> <td align="right">38.</td></tr> -<tr><td>September</td> <td align="right">20.7</td> <td>September</td> <td align="right">40.</td></tr> -<tr><td>October</td> <td align="right">21.4</td> <td>October</td> <td align="right">42.</td></tr> -<tr><td>November</td> <td align="right">26.0</td> <td>November</td> <td align="right">45.</td></tr> -<tr><td>December</td> <td align="right">27.7</td> <td>December</td> <td align="right">48.</td></tr> -</table> -<p> -The total values figured by multiplying these prices by the -New York receipts, are as follows: -</p> -<table align="center" width="50%" summary="price of eggs"> -<tr><td>Amount actually received </td> <td align="right"> $23,832,000</td></tr> -<tr><td>Values at quotations for strictly fresh </td> <td align="right"> 44,730,000</td></tr> -</table> -<p> -No one would contend it is possible to bring the entire egg crop of -the country up to the latter value, but the fact that there is a -definite market for eggs of first class quality at almost double the -figures for which the egg crop as a whole is actually sold, is a -point very significant to the ambitious producer of high grade eggs. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Requisites of the Production of High Grade Eggs. -</p> -<p> -(a) Hens that produce a goodly number of eggs, and at the same time -an egg that is moderately large (average two ounces each). Plymouth -Rocks, Wyandottes, Rhode Island Reds, Orpingtons, Leghorns, Minorcas -are the varieties which will do this. -</p> -<p> -(b) Good housing, regular feeding and watering, and above all clean, -dry nests. -</p> -<p> -(c) Daily gathering of eggs, when the temperature is above 80 -degrees, gathering twice a day. -</p> -<p> -(d) The confining of all broody hens as soon as discovered. -</p> -<p> -(e) The rejection as doubtful of all eggs found in a nest which was -not visited the previous day. (Such eggs should be used at home -where each may be broken separately). -</p> -<p> -(f) The placing as soon as gathered of all summer eggs in the -coolest spot available. -</p> -<p> -(g) The prevention at all times of moisture in any form coming in -contact with the egg's shell. -</p> -<p> -(h) The selling of young cockerels before they begin to annoy the -hens. Also the selling or confining of old male birds from the time -hatching is over until cool weather in fall. -</p> -<p> -(i) The using of cracked and dirty, as well as small eggs, at home. -Such eggs if consumed when fresh are perfectly wholesome, but when -marketed are discriminated against and are likely to become an -entire loss. -</p> -<p> -(j) Keeping eggs away from musty cellars or bad odors. -</p> -<p> -(k) Keeping the egg as cool and dry as possible while en route to -market. -</p> -<p> -(l) The marketing of all eggs at least once per week and oftener, -when facilities permit. -</p> -<p> -(m) The use of strong, clean cases or cartons and good fillers. -</p> -<a name="2HCH0013"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> - -<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> - -<h2> -<a name="chapXII"> -CHAPTER XII -</a> -</h2> -<h3> -HOW EGGS ARE MARKETED -</h3> -<p> -The methods by which the larger number of American eggs pass from -the producer to consumer is as follows: -</p> -<p> -The eggs are gathered by the farmer with varying regularity and are -brought perhaps on the average of once a week, to the local village -merchant. -</p> -<p> -This merchant receives weekly quotations from a number of -surrounding egg dealers and at intervals of from two days to two -weeks, ships to such a dealer, by local freight. The dealer buys the -eggs case count, that is, he pays for them by the case regardless of -quality. He then repacks the eggs in new cases and, with the -exception of a period in the early spring, candles them. -</p> -<p> -This dealer, in turn, receives quotations from city egg houses and -sells to them by wire. He usually ships in carload lots. The city -receiver may also be a jobber who sells to grocers, or he may sell -the car outright to a jobbing house. The jobber re-candles the eggs, -sorting them into a number of grades, which are sold to various -classes of trade. The last link in the chain is the housewife, who -by 'phone or personal call, asks for "a dozen nice fresh eggs." -</p> -<p> -This most frequently repeated story of the American egg applies -particularly in the case of eggs produced west of the Mississippi -and marketed in the very large cities of the East. -</p> -<p> -We will now discuss the various steps of the egg trade, pointing out -the reason for the existence of the present methods and their -influence upon quality and consequent value. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -The Country Merchant. -</p> -<p> -The country merchant is the logical business link between the farmer -and the outside world and usually continues to act as the farmers' -buyer and seller until the commodity dealt in becomes of such -importance as to demand more specialized form of marketing. Eggs -being a perishable crop continuously produced, must be marketed at -frequent intervals, and the trips to the general store, necessary to -supply the household needs, offers the only convenient opportunity -for such marketing. -</p> -<p> -The merchant buys eggs because by doing so he can control his -selling trade. -</p> -<p> -The farmer trades where he sells his eggs, because it is convenient -to do both errands at one place, and also because he wishes to avoid -affronting the merchant by breaking the established custom of -trading out the amount. -</p> -<p> -For these reasons the merchant knows that to buy eggs means to sell -goods, and he therefore bids for eggs. His competitors across the -street, and in other towns, also bid for eggs. The effect to the -merchant of lowering the price of his goods or raising the price of -eggs is financially the same. In either case it is the matter of -cutting the prices under the spur of competition. Now, the articles -on which the merchant make his chief profits from the farmers' trade -are dry goods and notions. Such articles are not standardized, but -vary in a manner quite impossible of estimation by the -unsophisticated. On the other hand, eggs are quoted by the dozen, -and all that run may read. -</p> -<p> -Suppose, for illustration, two merchants in the same town are each -doing a business with a twenty per cent. profit, and are buying eggs -at ten cents and selling for eleven, the cent advance being -sufficient to pay for their labor, incidental loss, and a small -profit. Now one merchant concludes to play for more trade. If he -marks his goods down he would gain some trade, but many people would -fear his goods were cheap. But if he puts up a placard, "Eleven -Cents Paid For Eggs," the farmers will throng his store and never -question the quality of his goods. This move having been successful, -his rival across the street quietly stocks up with a cheaper line of -dry goods, and some fine morning puts out a card, "Twelve Cents For -Eggs." The farm wagons this week will be hitched on the other side -of the street. -</p> -<p> -The rate of business at ten per cent. being insufficient to maintain -two men in the town, a mutual understanding is gradually brought -about by which the prices of goods sold are worked back to the basis -of twenty per cent. gross profit, but the false price of eggs will -serve to draw the trade from neighboring towns and is therefore -maintained. -</p> -<p> -As a matter of fact the price paid to farmers for eggs by the -general stores of the Mississippi Valley is frequently one to two -cents above the price at which the storekeeper sells the product. -Allowing the cost of handling, we have a condition prevailing in -which the merchant is handling eggs at from five to ten per cent. -loss, and it stands to reason that he is making up the loss by -adding that per cent. to his profits on his goods. Some of the -effects of this system are: -</p> -<p> -1—The inflated prices of merchandise is an injustice to the -townspeople and to farmers not selling produce, in fact it amounts -to a taxation of these people for the benefit of the egg producers. -2—The inflated prices of merchant's wares work to his disadvantage -in competition with mail order or out-of-town trade. 3—The farmer -who exchanges eggs for dry goods is not being paid more for his -eggs, save as the tax on the townspeople contributes a little to -that end, but is in the main merely swapping more dollars. 4—The -use of eggs as a drawing card for trade works in favor of inferior -produce, and the loss to the farmer through the lowering of prices -thus caused, is much greater than his gain through the forced -contributions of his neighbors. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -The Huckster. -</p> -<p> -The huckster or peddling wagon which gathers eggs and other produce -directly from the farm, prevail east and south of a line drawn from -Galveston to Chicago through Texarkana, Ark., Springfield, Mo., and -St. Louis. North and west of this line the huckster is almost -unknown. -</p> -<p> -The huckster wagons may be of the following types: -</p> -<p> -1—An extension of the local grocery store, trading merchandise for -eggs. 2—An independent traveling peddler. 3—A cash dealer who buys -his load, and hauls it to the nearest city where he peddles the -produce from house to house or sells it to city grocers. 4—A -representative of the local produce buyer. 5—A fifth style of egg -wagon does not visit the farm at all, but is a system of rural -freight service run by a produce buyer for the purpose of collecting -the eggs from country stores. -</p> -<p> -As far as the quality of product and advantage to the farmer is -concerned, the fourth style of huckster is preferable. This style -exists chiefly in Indiana and Michigan, and the better settled -regions of Kentucky and Tennessee. The writer found hucksters in -southern Michigan working on a profit of one-half a cent per dozen, -while in the mountains of Tennessee he found a huckster paying ten -cents for eggs that were worth eighteen cents in Chattanooga, and -twenty-three cents in New York. -</p> -<p> -The huckster scheme of gathering eggs would seemingly be a means of -obtaining good eggs because of the advantage of regularity of -collection, but in reality it does not always work out that way. -While it must be admitted that in the isolated regions of the Middle -and Southern States the presence of the huckster is the only factor -that makes egg selling possible, it is also true that the peddling -huckster of those regions usually disregards the first principles of -handling perishable products. He makes a week's trip in sun and rain -with his load of produce, with the result that the quality of his -summer eggs is about as low as can be found. -</p> -<p> -In the more densely populated region with a twice or thrice a week, -or even daily service, the huckster egg becomes the finest farm -grown egg in the market. -</p> -<p> -The second step in the usual scheme of egg marketing is the sale of -eggs collected by the small storekeeper to the produce man or -shipper. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -The Produce Buyer. -</p> -<p> -Throughout the Mississippi Valley there are wholesale produce houses -at all important railroad junctions. A typical house will ship the -produce of one to three counties. These houses, once a week or -oftener, send out postal card quotations. These quotations read so -much per case, and are usually case count, with a reservation, -however, of the privilege to reject or charge loss on goods that are -utterly bad. Each grocery receives quotations from one to a dozen -such houses, and perhaps also from commission firms in the nearest -city. The highest of these quotations gets the shipment. -</p> -<p> -The buyer repacks the eggs and usually candles them, the strictness -of the grading depending upon the intended destination. The loss in -candling is generally kept account of, but is seldom charged back to -the shipper. The egg man wants volume of business, and if he -antagonizes a shipper by charging up his loss, the usual result will -be the loss of trade. So the buyer estimates his probable loss and -lowers his price enough to cover it. -</p> -<p> -By loss off, or "rots out," is meant the subtraction of the bad eggs -from the number to be paid for. Buying on a candled or graded basis, -usually not only means rots cut, but that a variation of the price -is made for two or more grades of merchantable eggs. -</p> -<p> -Much discussion prevails among the western egg buyers as to whether -eggs should be bought loss off or case count. Loss off buying seems -to be more desirable and just, but in practice is fraught with -difficulties. -</p> -<p> -If the loss off buyer feels he is losing business, he may instruct -his candler to grade more closely, which means he will pay less. -Whether done with honest or dishonest intention, the buyer thus sets -the price to be paid after he has the goods in his own hands, and -this is an obviously difficult commercial system. -</p> -<p> -Where the buyer in one case changes the grading basis to protect -himself, there are probably ten cases where the eggs really deserve -the loss charged; but the tenth chance gives the seller an -opportunity to nurse his loss with the belief that he has been -robbed by the buyer. Such an uncertain feeling is disagreeable, and -the results are that where one or two competing egg dealers buys -loss off, and the other case count, the case count man will get most -of the business. -</p> -<p> -The case count method being the path of least resistance, the loss -off system can only succeed where there is some factor that -overcomes the disinclination of a shipper to let the other man set -the price. This factor may be: 1st—An exceptional reputation of a -particular firm for honesty and fair dealing. 2d—Exceptional -opportunities for selling fancy goods, enabling the loss off buyer -to pay much higher rates for good stuff. 3d—A condition that -prevails in the South in the summer, where the losses are so heavy -that the dealers will not take the risk involved in case count -buying. 4th—Some sort of a monopoly. -</p> -<p> -A monopoly for enforcing the loss off system of buying has been -brought about in some sections of the West by agreement among egg -dealers. In such cases the usual experience has been that some one -would get anxious for more business, and begin quoting case count, -the result being that he would get the business of the disgruntled -shippers in his section. When one buyer begins quoting case count, -the remainder rapidly follow suit and case count buying is quickly -re-established. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -The City Distribution of Eggs. -</p> -<p> -In name, city egg dealers are usually commission houses, but in -practice the majority of large lots of eggs are now bought by -telegraph and the prices definitely known before shipment. -</p> -<p> -In the larger cities eggs are dealt in by a produce board of trade. -Such exchanges frequently have rules of grading and an official -inspector. This gives stability to egg dealing and largely solves -the problem of uncertainty as to quality, so annoying to the country -buyer. In the city even, where official grading is not resorted to, -personal inspection of the lot by the buyer is practical, and one -may know what he is getting. -</p> -<p> -In many cases, especially in smaller cities, the receiver is the -jobber and sells to the grocers. In larger cities the receiver sells -to a firm who makes a business of selling them to groceries, -restaurants, etc. -</p> -<p> -The jobber grades the eggs as the trade demands. In a western city -this may mean two grades—good and bad; in New York, it may mean -seven or eight grades, and the finer of these ones being packed in -sealed cartons, perhaps each egg stamped with the dealer's brand. -</p> -<p> -The city retailer of eggs include grocers, dairies, butcher shops, -soda fountains, hotels, restaurants and bakeries. The soda fountain -trade and the first-class hotel are among the high bidder for -strictly first-class eggs. Many such institutions in eastern cities -are supplied directly from large poultry farms. The figures at which -such eggs are purchased are frequently at a given premium above the -market quotation, or a year round contract price for a given number -of eggs per week. This premium over common farm eggs may range from -one or two cents in western cities, to five to twenty cents in New -York and Boston. An advance of ten cents over the quotation for -extras or a year round contract price of thirty-five cents per -dozen, might be considered typical of such arrangements in New York -City. -</p> -<p> -Some of the larger chain grocers in New York City are in the market -for strictly fresh eggs and have even installed buying departments -in charge of expert egg men. -</p> -<p> -The great bulk of eggs move through the channels of the small -restaurant, bakery and grocery. In the small cities of the Central -West the grocer handles eggs at a margin of one to three cents. In -the South and farther West the margin is two to seven cents, the -retail price always being in the even nickel. In the large eastern -city there exists the custom unknown in the West of having two or -more grades of eggs for sale in the same store. All eggs offered for -sale are claimed by the salesman to be "strictly fresh" or the -"best," and yet these eggs may vary if it be April from fifteen -cents to forty cents, or if in December from thirty cents to -seventy-five cents per dozen. The New York grocers' profit is from -two to five cents on cheap eggs, but runs higher on high grade eggs, -frequently reach twenty cents a dozen and sometimes going as high as -forty cents for very fancy stock. -</p> -<p> -City retailing is by far the most expensive item in the marketing of -eggs. As an illustration of the profits of the various handlers of -eggs might be as follows: -</p> -<table align="center" width="50%" summary="breakdown of price"> -<tr><td>Paid the farmer in Iowa</td> <td align="right">$.15</td></tr> -<tr><td>Profit of country store</td> <td align="right">.00</td></tr> -<tr><td>Gross profit of shipper</td> <td align="right">.00-3/4</td></tr> -<tr><td>Freight to New York</td> <td align="right">.01-1/2</td></tr> -<tr><td>Gross profit of receiver</td> <td align="right">.00-1/2</td></tr> -<tr><td>Gross profit of jobber</td> <td align="right">.01-1/2</td></tr> -<tr><td>Loss from candling</td> <td align="right">.01-1/2</td></tr> -<tr><td>Gross profit of retailer</td> <td align="right">.04-1/2</td></tr> -<tr><td> </td> <td align="right">-------</td></tr> -<tr><td>Cost to consumer</td> <td align="right">$.25</td></tr> -</table> -<p> -The cheapest grade of eggs sold are taken by bakeries and for -cooking purposes at restaurants. When cooked with other food an egg -may have its flavor so covered up that a very repulsive specimen may -be used. Measures have been frequently taken by city boards of -health to stop the sale of spot rots and other low grade eggs. The -great difficulty with such regulations is that they are difficult of -enforcement because no line of demarcation can be drawn as in the -case of adulterated or preserved products. -</p> -<p> -That embryo chicks and bacterially contaminated eggs are consumed by -the million cannot be doubted, but the individual examination of -each egg sold would be the only way in which the food inspectors can -prevent their use. The egg from the well-kept flock whose subsequent -handling has been conducted with intelligence and dispatch is the -only egg whose "purity" is assured with or without law. The -encouragement of such production and such handling is the proper -sphere of governmental regulations in regard to this product. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Cold Storage of Eggs. -</p> -<p> -The supply of eggs ranges from month to month, the heavy season of -production centering about April and the lightest run being in -November. The cold storage men begin storing eggs in March or April -and continue to store heavily until June, after which time the -quality deteriorates and does not keep well in storage. This storage -stock begins to move out in September and should be cleaned up by -December. Great loss may result if storage eggs are held too long. -</p> -<p> -The effect of the storage business is to even up the prices for the -year. The reduction of the exceedingly high winter prices is -unfortunate for those who are skilled enough to produce many eggs at -that season of the year, but on a whole the storage business adds to -the wealth-producing powers of the hen, for it serves to increase -the annual consumption of eggs and prevents eggs from becoming a -drug on the market during the season of heavy production. -</p> -<p> -March and April eggs are, in spite of a long period of storage, the -best quality of storage stock. This is accounted for by the fact -that owing to cooler weather and rising price eggs leave the farm in -the best condition at this season of the year. -</p> -<p> -Because eggs are spoiled by hard freezing, they must be kept at a -higher temperature than meat and butter. Temperatures of from 29 -degrees to 30 degrees F. are used in cold storage of eggs. At such -temperatures the eggs, if kept in moist air, become moldy or musty. -To prevent this mustiness the air in a first class storage room is -kept moderately dry. This shrinks the eggs, though much more slowly -than would occur without storage. -</p> -<p> -The growth of bacteria in cold storage is practically prevented, but -if bacteria are in the eggs when stored they will lie dormant and -begin activity when the eggs are warmed up. -</p> -<p> -Of the cold storage egg as a whole we can say it is a wholesome food -product, though somewhat inferior in flavor and strength of white to -a fresh egg. The cold storage egg can be very nearly duplicated in -appearance and quality by allowing eggs to stand for a week or two -in a dry room. Cold storage eggs, when in case lots, can be told by -the candler because of the uniform shrinkage, the presence of mold -on cracked eggs and perhaps the occasional presence of certain kinds -of spot rots peculiar to storage stock, but the absolute detection -of a single cold storage egg, so far as the writer knows, is -impossible. -</p> -<p> -It may be further said that with the present prevailing custom of -holding eggs without storage facilities for the fall rise of price, -eggs placed in cold storage in April are frequently superior to the -current fall and early winter receipts. Cold storage eggs are -generally sold wholesale as cold storage goods, but are retailed as -"eggs." The fall eggs offered to the consumer cover every imaginable -variation in quality and the poorest ones sold may be a cold storage -product, or they may not be. -</p> -<p> -The Bureau of Chemistry of the United States Department of -Agriculture has recently announced the finding of certain crystals -in the yolks of cold storage eggs that are not present in the fresh -stock. This finding of a laboratory method of detecting cold storage -stock was at first taken to be a great discovery. Further -investigation, however, indicates that the crystal mentioned forms -as the egg ages and that the rate of formation varies with the -individual eggs and probably also with the temperature, so that -while crystals may indicate an aged egg, the discovery only means -that the microscopist in the laboratory can now do in a half hour -what any egg candler in his booth can do in ten seconds. -</p> -<p> -At the present writing (February, 1909) there has been much talk of -laws against the sale of cold storage eggs as fresh. The Federal -Pure Food Commission, under the general law against misbranding, -have made one such prosecution. Many States have agitated such laws -but little or nothing has been done. I find that the idea of such a -law is quite popular, especially with poultrymen. Contrary to -popular opinion, the cold storage men and larger egg dealers are not -opposed to the law. The people that are hit are the small dealers -and especially the city grocers. These fellows buy the eggs at -wholesale storage prices and sell them at retail prices for fresh, -thus making excessive profits but cutting down the amount of the -sales. This lessens the demand for storage stock and lowers the -wholesale price. This is the reason the wholesaler and warehouse man -are in favor of the law. -</p> -<p> -We may all grant that the opportunity given the small dealers to -grab quick gains and in so doing hurt the trade ought to be -abolished. But how are we to do it? "Have State and Federal branding -of the cases as they go into or come out of storage," says one--an -excellent plan, to be sure by which the grocers could buy one case -of fresh, eggs and a back room full of storage goods and do Elijah's -flour barrel trick to perfection. -</p> -<p> -Clearly government inspection and stamping of each egg is the only -method that would be effective and the consideration of what this -means turns the whole matter into a joke. The official inspection -now maintained by the boards of trade of the larger cities may be -extended and the producers, dealers and consuming public may be -educated to appreciate quality in eggs, as they have been in dairy -products. City and State laws may also be made which will taboo the -sale of spot eggs or eggs that will float on water. Meanwhile, a -great opportunity is open for the man who has high grade eggs for -sale, whether he be producer or tradesman. -</p> -<p> -Many eggs that would not do for ordinary storage are preserved by -direct freezing. These eggs are broken and carefully sorted and -placed in large cans and then frozen. Such a product is disposed of -to bakers, confectioners and others desiring eggs in large -quantities. Another method of preserving eggs is by evaporation. -Evaporated or dried egg is, weight considered, about the most -nourishing food product known. The chief value of such an article -lies in provisioning inaccessible regions. There is no reason, -however, why this product should not become a common article of diet -during the season of high prices of eggs. Dried eggs can be eaten as -custards, omelets, or similar dishes. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Preserving Eggs Out of Cold Storage. -</p> -<p> -Occasional articles have been printed in agricultural papers calling -attention to the fact that the cold storage men were reaping vast -profits which rightfully belonged to the farmer. Such writers advise -the farmer to send his own eggs to the storage house or to preserve -them by other means. -</p> -<p> -As a matter of fact the business of storing eggs has not of late -years been particularly profitable, there being severe losses during -several seasons; Even were the profit of egg storing many times -greater than they are the above advice would still be unwise, for -the storing, removing and selling of a small quantity of eggs would -eat up all possible profit. -</p> -<p> -The only reliable methods of preserving eggs outside of cold storage -are as follows: -</p> -<p> -Liming: Make a saturated solution of lime, to which salt may be -added, let it settle, dip off the clear liquid, put the eggs in -while fresh, keep them submerged in the liquid and keep the liquid -as cold as the available location will permit. -</p> -<p> -Water glass: This is exactly the same as liming except that the -solution used is made by mixing ten per cent. of liquid water glass -or sodium silicate with water. -</p> -<p> -Liming eggs was formerly more popular than it is to-day. There are -still two large liming plants in this country and several in Canada. -In Europe both lime and water glass are used on a more extensive -scale. -</p> -<p> -All limed or water glassed eggs can be told at a glance by an -experienced candler. They pop open when boiled. When properly -preserved they are as well or better flavored than storage stock, -but the farmer or poultryman will make frequent mistakes and thus -throw lots of positively bad eggs on the market. These eggs must be -sold at a low price themselves, and by their presence cast suspicion -on all eggs, thus tending to suppress the price paid to the -producers. The farmers' efforts to preserve eggs has in this way -acted as a boomerang, and have in the long run caused more loss than -gain to the producers. -</p> -<p> -For the poultryman with his own special outlet for high grade goods, -the use of pickling or cold storage is generally not to be -considered for fear of hurting his trade. Any scheme that would help -to overcome the difficulty of getting sufficient fresh eggs to -supply such customers in the season of scarcity would be of great -advantage. The proposition of pickling a limited number of eggs and -selling them for "cooking" purposes, explaining just what they are, -ought to offer something of a solution, although, to the writer's -knowledge, it has not been done. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Improved Methods of Marketing Farm-Grown Eggs. -</p> -<p> -The loss to the farmers of this country from the careless handling -of eggs is something enormous. No great or sudden change in this -state of affairs can be brought about, but a few points on how this -loss may be averted will not be out of order. -</p> -<p> -Numerous efforts have recently been made in western states to -prevent the sale of bad eggs by law. Minnesota began this work by -arresting several farmers and dealers. The parties invariably -pleaded guilty. A number of other States followed the example of -Minnesota in challenging the sale of rotten eggs, but few -prosecutions were made. -</p> -<p> -Such laws mean well enough, but the only efficient means of -enforcing them would be to have food inspectors who are trained as -practical candlers. -</p> -<p> -The present usefulness of the laws is in calling the attention of -the farmer to the mistake that he may be carelessly committing, and -in placing over him a fear of possible disgrace in case of arrest -and prosecution. -</p> -<p> -The weakness of the law is the difficulty of its enforcement because -of the number of violations, and the difficulty of drawing distinct -lines in regard to which eggs are to be considered unlawful. -</p> -<p> -Education of the farmer as to the situation is, of course, the -surest means of preventing the loss, but the education of ten -millions of farmers is easier to suggest than to execute. The most -effective plan of education would be the introduction of a method of -buying eggs similar to the one in vogue in Denmark, in which every -producer is paid strictly in accordance with the quality of his -eggs. -</p> -<p> -With our complicated system involving five to six dealers between -the producer and the consumer, such a system is well nigh -impossible. With the introduction of co-operative buying or the -community system of production, paying for quality becomes entirely -possible. -</p> -<p> -For enterprising farming communities, the following plans offer a -cure for the evil of general store buying that take good and bad -alike and causes the worthy farmer to suffer for the carelessness -and dishonesty of his neighbor. -</p> -<p> -First: The encouragement of the cash buying of produce, and, if -possible, the candling of all eggs with proper deduction for loss. -</p> -<p> -Second: The buying of eggs by co-operative creameries. The greatest -difficulty in this has been the opposition of the merchants, who -through numerous ways available in a small town, may retaliate and -injure the creamery patronage to an extent greater than the newly -installed egg business will repay. -</p> -<p> -Third: The agreement of the merchants to turn all egg buying over to -a single produce buyer. This has been successfully done in a few -instances, but there are not many towns in which those interested -will stick to such an agreement. The worst fault with this plan is -that the moment the egg buyer is given a monopoly he is tempted to -lower the farmer's prices for the purpose of increasing his own -profits. -</p> -<p> -Fourth: A modification of the above scheme is the case in which the -produce buyer is on a salary and in the employment of the merchants. -This scheme has been successfully carried into effect in some -Nebraska towns. It may be the ultimate solution of the egg buying in -the West. It eliminates the temptation of the buyer to use his -privilege of monopoly to fatten his own pocket-book. The weakness of -the plan is that a salaried man's efficiency in the close bargaining -necessary to sell the goods is inferior to that of the man trading -for himself. Other difficulties are: Getting a group of merchants -who will live up to such an agreement; the farmers object to driving -to two places; the competition of other towns; the merchants' -realization that, the farmer with cash in his pocket or a check good -at all stores, is not as certain a trader as one standing, egg -basket on arm, before the counter; and last, and most convincing, -the merchant's further realization that any fine Saturday morning, -with eggs selling at fifteen cents at the produce house, he may -stick out a card "Sixteen Cents Paid for Eggs" and make more money -in one day than his competitors did all week. -</p> -<p> -Fifth: Co-operative egg buying by the farmers themselves. This has -been discussed in a previous chapter. It is all right in localities -where the business is big enough to warrant it and the farmers are -intelligent and enthusiastic to back it up and stick to it. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -The High Grade Egg Business. -</p> -<p> -There are many excellent opportunities for men of moderate capital -and ability in the high grade egg trade. The produce business on its -present line, either at the country end or at the city end, is as -open as any well-known form of business enterprise can be. The -chances of success for a man new to the trade will be better, -however, if he can find a niche in the business where he may crowd -in and establish himself before the old firms realize what is up. -The proposition of buying high grade eggs from producers and selling -direct to consumers is a proposition of this kind. -</p> -<p> -The little game of existence is chiefly one of apeing our betters -and strutting before the lesser members of the flock. The large -cities are full of people in search of some way to display their -superior wealth, taste and exclusiveness. If an ingenious dealer -takes a dozen eggs from common candled stock, places them in a blue -lined box and labels them "Exquisite Ovarian Deposital," he can sell -quite a few of them at a long price, but the game has its limits. -Now, let this man secure a truly high grade article from reliable -producers, teach his customers the points that actually distinguish -his eggs from common stock, and he can get not only the sucker trade -above referred to but a more satisfactory and permanent trade from -that class of people who are willing to pay for genuine superiority -but whose ears have not quite grown through their hats. -</p> -<p> -An express messenger running out of St. Louis became interested in -the egg trade. He arranged with a few country friends to ship him -their eggs. These he candled in his house cellar and began selling -them to a limited trade in the wealthy section of the city. At first -he delivered the eggs himself. This was in the World's Fair year of -1904. In 1908 he did a $100,000 worth of business and his type of -business shows a much better percentage of profit than that of the -ordinary type of dealer. -</p> -<p> -In Chicago, one of the large dairy companies established an egg -department and placed a young man in charge of it. The eggs in this -case are not bought of farmers but are secured from country produce -buyers whom the Chicago company have encouraged to educate their -farmers to bring in a high grade of goods. These people buy their -eggs in Tennessee in the winter and in Minnesota in the summer, thus -getting the best eggs the year round. They sell by wagon on regular -routes. The business is growing nicely and pays good profits. -</p> -<p> -Other similar concerns are operating in Chicago and other large -cities. They are not numerous, however, and there is room for more. -The reason the business has not been overdone is chiefly because of -the difficulty of getting sufficiently really high grade eggs in the -season of scarcity. Southern winter eggs are destined to relieve -this situation more and more. -</p> -<p> -Another great difficulty with a plan that attempts to buy eggs -directly from the producer is that premium offered on the goods -tempts the farmer to go out and buy up eggs from his neighbors. This -brings disastrous results in the quality of the goods and the farmer -must be dropped from the list. In order to make a success, a system -of buying directly from producers must be based upon a grading -scheme that will pay for the actual quality of the eggs. No fear -then need be exercised as to whether the farmer sells his own eggs -or those of his neighbor. -</p> -<p> -The following extract from Farmer's Bulletin 128 of the U.S. -Department of Agriculture has been used as advertising "dope" in the -sale of high grade eggs: -</p> -<p> -"Under certain conditions eggs may be the cause of illness by -communicating some bacterial disease or some parasite. It is -possible for an egg to become infected with micro-organisms, either -before it is laid or after. The shell is porous, and offers no -greater resistance to micro-organisms which cause disease than it -does to those which cause the egg to spoil or rot. When the infected -egg is eaten raw the microorganisms, if present, are communicated to -man and may cause disease. If an egg remains in a dirty nest, -defiled with the micro-organisms which cause typhoid fever, carried -there on the hen's feet or feathers, it is not strange if some of -these bacteria occasionally penetrate the shell and the egg thus -becomes a possible source of infection. Perhaps one of the most -common troubles due to bacterial infection of eggs is the more or -less serious illness sometimes caused by eating those which are -'stale.' This often resembles ptomaine poisoning, which is caused, -not by micro-organisms themselves, but by the poisonous products -which they elaborate from materials on which they grow. -</p> -<p> -"In view of this possibility, it is best to keep eggs as clean as -possible and thus endeavor to prevent infection. Clean -poultry-houses, poultry-runs and nests are important, and eggs -should always be stored and marketed under sanitary conditions. The -subject of handling food in a cleanly manner is given entirely too -little attention." -</p> -<p> -The reprint upon the succeeding pages will give some idea of the -advertising literature used in selling high grade eggs. This is a -copy of a hand-bill inserted in the egg boxes of a prominent Chicago -dealer: -</p> -<hr> -<p class="citehead"> -MOORE'S BREAKFAST EGGS -</p> -<p class="cite"> -are guaranteed to be perfect in quality when you receive them -and to remain so until all eaten up. If for any reason they -are not satisfactory return the Eggs to your dealer and get -your money back. -</p> -<p class="cite"> -(Signature.) -</p> -<p class="citehead"> -WE URGE YOU -</p> -<p class="cite"> -to assist us in our endeavor to furnish you at all times with -the finest Eggs by being careful to -</p> -<p class="citehead"> -KEEP THEM DRY -</p> -<p class="cite"> -A damp "filler" will in 24 hours make the finest fresh Eggs -taste like old Cold Storage Eggs. -</p> -<p class="cite"> -The flavor of an Egg cannot be detected even by the powerful -electric lights used to inspect every Egg in this package, -so it might be possible for a "strong" Egg to get by our inspectors, -but in the past the cause of nearly every complaint -has been traced to the consumer's ice box or pantry window -sill. -</p> -<p class="citehead"> -REMEMBER -</p> -<p class="cite"> -Eggs are 25c-40c per doz. retail only when fine Eggs are -scarce. Ordinarily we can get a sufficient supply from the -farmers bringing milk daily to the creameries where we make -Delicia Pure Cream Butter, but in times of scarcity we often -have to go as far as Oklahoma, Arkansas or Tennessee to find -the best Eggs. These are not equal to our creamery Eggs but -are the freshest and best to be had and are vastly superior to -the old Cold Storage Eggs that flood the market at such times. -</p> -<p class="citehead"> -Be Sure This Seal is Unbroken When You Get the Eggs -</p> -<p class="citehead"> -W. S. MOORE & CO.,<br> -Chicago Office—131 South Water Street. -</p> -<hr> -<p class="subhead"> -Buying Eggs By Weight. -</p> -<p> -Whenever an improved method of buying is installed, eggs should be -bought of the producer by weight. As far as selling to the consumer -is concerned, the present scheme is more feasible; this scheme is to -grade according to the size and other qualities, and sell by the -dozen, the price per dozen varying according to the grade. -</p> -<p> -Buying by weight simplifies the problem of grading. It will, in -addition, only be necessary to have a fine of so much for eggs that -are wrong in quality. For rotten or heated eggs should be deducted -an amount considerably in excess of their value, for their presence -is a source of danger to the reputation of the brand. Shrunken eggs -are hard to classify. In order that this may be done fairly and -uniformly the specific gravity or brine test should be used. All -eggs that float in a given salt brine of, say, 1.05 specific gravity -should be fined. Two or more grades can be made in this fashion if -desired. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -The Retailing of Eggs by the Producer. -</p> -<p> -In poultry papers the poultryman has been commonly advised to get -near a large city and retail his own eggs at a fancy price. This -sounds all right on paper but in practice it works out differently. -A man cannot be in two places or do two things at the same time. The -poultryman's time is valuable on his plant, and the question is -whether he can handle city sales as well as a man who made it his -business. If the poultryman tries to retail his own goods he will be -working on too small a scale to advertise his goods or to make -deliveries economically. The man making a specialty of the city end -can sell ten to a hundred times as much produce as one poultryman -can produce. -</p> -<p> -With a group of poultry farmers working co-operatively, or a large -corporation having contracts with producers, the producing and -selling end can be brought under the same management advantageously. -The isolated poultryman, unless he find a market at his very door, -will do better to permit at least one middleman to slip in between -himself and the consumer. But there is no reason why he should not -know this middleman personally and insist upon a method of buying -that will pay him upon the merits of his goods. -</p> -<p> -Consigning eggs or any other produce to commission men, without a -definite understanding, will always be, as it always has been, a -source of dissatisfaction and loss. There is a great opportunity -here for the man who can organize a system that shall do away with -commission houses, other intermediate steps, and form the single -step from producer to consumer. Some people say that farmers cannot -be dealt with in this manner. Such people would probably have said -as much about general merchandising before the days of the mail -order houses. -</p> -<p> -It is all a matter of efficient organization. A system of business -fitted to deal in carload lots will, of course, fail when dealing -with half cases. It is more difficult to deal in little things than -in big ones because the margin is closer, but it can and will be -done. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -The Price of Eggs. -</p> -<p> -We will consider the price of all eggs from the quotation of Western -firsts in the New York market. The reason for this is evident. Every -egg raised east of Colorado is in line for shipment to New York. If -other towns get eggs they must pay sufficiently to keep them from -going to New York. -</p> -<p> -In pricing eggs we have first to consider the price of Western -firsts in New York and secondly the quality relation of the -particular grade to Western firsts and the consequent relation in -price. -</p> -<p> -The price of eggs varies with the price of other commodities as the -periods of prosperity and adversity follow one another through the -years. -</p> -<p> -As is well known, all prices in the '90's passed through a period of -depression. For eggs this reached a base in 1897. Since then there -has been a gradual climb till this realized a high point in 1904, -remained high till 1907. In the spring of 1908 egg prices dropped -again, but the fall prices of 1908 were exceptionally high. As this -work goes to press (May, 1909) eggs are going into storage at the -highest May price on record. -</p> -<p> -The prices of eggs also vary independently of other commodities -because of a gradual changing relation between production and -consumption. As stated in the first chapter the prices of poultry -products have shown a general rise when compared with other -articles. This has been most marked since 1900. As for the future we -cannot prophesy save to say that there is nothing in sight to lead -us to believe that we will not go still higher in egg prices. -</p> -<p> -A third variation in the price of eggs is the one caused by the -seasonal relation of production and consumption. This change is from -year to year fairly constant. Its normal may be seen in the -scientifically smoothed curve in plate IV. This curve is based upon -the New York prices for the last eighteen years. -</p> -<p> -In addition to these broader influences there are disturbing -tendencies that cause the market to fluctuate back and forth across -the line where the more general influences would place it. -</p> -<p> -Of those general factors, weather is the most important. Storms, -rain and cold in the egg producing region decrease the lay, lower -supplies and raise the price. This is due both to the fact that -laying is cut down and that the country roads become impassable and -the farmers do not bring the eggs to town. As long as there are -storage eggs in the warehouses weather conditions are not so -effective, but when these are gone, which is usually about the first -of the year, the egg market becomes highly sensitive to all weather -changes. Suppose late in February storms and snows force up the -price of eggs. This is followed by a warm spell which starts the -March lay. The roads, meanwhile, are in a quagmire from melting -snows. When they do dry up eggs come to town by the wagon loads. A -drop of ten cents or more may occur on such occasions within a day -or two's time. This is known as the spring drop and for one to get -caught with eggs on hand means heavy losses. -</p> -<p> -When once eggs have suffered this drop to the spring level or the -storage price for the season, the prices for April, May and June -will remain fairly steady. About the last week in June the summer -climb begins. This goes on very steadily with local variation of -about the same as those of the spring months. The storage eggs begin -to come out in August and at first sell about the same as fresh. As -the season advances the fresh product continues to rise in price. -The storage egg -price will remain fairly uniform. By November the season of high -prices is reached. If storage eggs are still plentiful and the -weather is mild sudden variations in price may occur. These are -caused by a fear that the storage eggs will not all be consumed -before spring. If an oversupply of eggs have been stored a warm -spell in winter will make a heavy drop in the market, but if storage -eggs are scarce the sudden variations will be up-shots due to cold -waves. From November until spring egg prices are a creature of the -weather maps and sudden jumps from 5 to 10 cents may occur at any -time. -</p> -<a name="image-0004"><!--IMG--></a> -<center> -<img src="images/hen159.png" alt="Plate IV. Page 159. Graphs of egg prices and volume of egg sales as they vary throughout the year."> -</center> -<!--IMAGE END--> - -<p> -The price curve of 1908, which is represented by the dotted line in -plate IV will illustrate these general principles. In the lower -portion of plate IV is given the curves for the New York receipts. -The heavy line represents the smoothed or normal curve, deduced from -eighteen years' statistics and calculated for the year 1908. The -dotted line shows the actual receipts of 1908. A comparison week by -week of the receipts and price will show the detailed workings of -the law of supply and demand. -</p> -<p> -Aside from the weather there are other factors that perceptibly -affect the receipts and price of eggs. A high price of meat will -increase farm and village consumption of eggs and cut down the -receipts that reach the city. Abundance of fruit in the city market -will cut down the demand for eggs. A cold, wet spring will increase -the mortality of chicks and cause a decreased egg yield the -following season, due to a scarcity of pullets. Scarcity and high -price of feed will cut down the egg yield. High price of hens is -said by some to cut down the egg yield, but I think this is -doubtful, as the impulse to sell off the hens is counteracted by the -desire to "keep 'em and raise more." -</p> -<p> -The following are the quotations taken from the New York -Price-Current for November 14, 1908: -</p> -<p> -State, Pennsylvania and nearby fresh eggs continue in very small -supply and of more or less irregular quality, a good many being -mixed with held eggs—sometimes with pickled stock. The few new laid -lots received direct from henneries command extreme -prices—sometimes working out in a small way above any figures that -could fairly be quoted as a wholesale value. We quote: Selected -white, fancy, 48@50c.; do., fair to choice, 35@46c.; do., lower -grades, 26@32c.; brown and mixed, fancy, 38@40c.; do., fair to -choice, 30@36c; do., lower grades, 25@28c. -</p> -<table align="center" width="70%" summary="price of eggs on the N.Y. Mercantile Exchange"> -<tr><td colspan="3" align="center">N.Y. Mercantile Exchange Official Quotations.</td></tr> -<tr><td>Fresh gathered, extras, per dozen</td> <td> </td> <td align="right">@37</td></tr> -<tr><td>Fresh gathered, firsts</td> <td align="right">32</td> <td align="right">@33</td></tr> -<tr><td>Fresh gathered, seconds</td> <td align="right">29</td> <td align="right">@31</td></tr> -<tr><td>Fresh gathered, thirds</td> <td align="right">25</td> <td align="right">@28</td></tr> -<tr><td>Dirties, No. 1</td> <td align="right">21</td> <td align="right">@22</td></tr> -<tr><td>Dirties, No. 2</td> <td align="right">18</td> <td align="right">@20</td></tr> -<tr><td>Dirties, inferior</td> <td align="right">12</td> <td align="right">@17</td></tr> -<tr><td>Checks, fresh gathered, fair to prime</td> <td align="right">18</td> <td align="right">@20</td></tr> -<tr><td>Checks, inferior</td> <td align="right">12</td> <td align="right">@16</td></tr> -<tr><td>Refrigerator, firsts, charges paid for season</td> <td align="right">24</td> <td align="right">@24-1/2</td></tr> -<tr><td>Refrigerator, firsts, on dock</td> <td align="right">23</td> <td align="right">@23-1/2</td></tr> -<tr><td>Refrigerator, seconds, charges paid for season</td> <td align="right">22-1/2</td> <td align="right">@23-1/2</td></tr> -<tr><td>Refrigerator, seconds, on dock</td> <td align="right">21-1/2</td> <td align="right">@22-1/2</td></tr> -<tr><td>Refrigerator, thirds</td> <td align="right">20</td> <td align="right">@21</td></tr> -<tr><td>Limed, firsts</td> <td align="right">22-1/2</td> <td align="right">@23</td></tr> -<tr><td>Limed, seconds</td> <td align="right">21</td> <td align="right">@22</td></tr> -</table> -<p> -The writer was in the New York market at the time and saw many cases -of White Leghorn eggs sell wholesale at as high as 55 cents. These -were commonly retailed at 5 cents each. There were a good many -brands retailing at 65 cents and one of the largest high class -groceries was selling for 70 cents. This is practically double the -official quotations and three times that of cold storage stock. -</p> -<p> -The above prices represent a fair sample of the fall prices of 1908. -It should be noted that the 1908 fall prices were relatively -somewhat better than the rest of the season. -</p> -<p> -The time of high prices is also the time of the greatest variation -in the price of the different grades. In the springtime all eggs are -fairly fresh and good, and the fanciest eggs bring wholesale only -two or three cents above quotations. There are a few retailers who -hold the spring prices to their customers up above the general -market. One New York firm that does a large high class egg business -never lets their price at any season go below 40 cents. This, of -course, means big profits and sales only to those who, when they are -satisfied, never bother about price. -</p> -<p> -In the fall any man who has fresh eggs can sell them at very near -the highest price, but in the spring only a small per cent. can go -at fancy prices and the great majority of even the high grade eggs -must go at very ordinary prices. In the summer months there is not -so much demand in the cities, as the wealthy are not there to buy. -The coast and mountain resorts are then good markets for fancy -produce. -</p> -<a name="2HCH0014"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> - -<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> - -<h2> -<a name="chapXIII"> -CHAPTER XIII -</a> -</h2> -<h3> -BREEDS OF CHICKENS -</h3> -<p> -I do not place much dependence on the results of breed tests. -Indeed, I consider the almost universal use of the Barred Rock in -the most productive farm poultry regions in the United States, and -the equal predominance of S.C. White Leghorns on the egg farms of -New York and California, as far more conclusive than any possible -breed tests. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Breed Tests. -</p> -<p> -In Australia there has been conducted a series of breed tests so -remarkable and extensive that the writer considers them well worth -quoting. The Hawkesbury Agricultural College tests extend over a -period of five years, the pens entered were of six birds each, and -the time one year. The results were as follows: -</p> -<table align="center" width="50%" summary="pen yields"> -<tr><td> </td> <td align="right">No. of Pens Competing</td> <td align="right">Yield of Highest Pen</td> <td align="right">Average Yield of All Pens</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">1903 </td> <td align="right">70</td> <td align="right">218</td> <td align="right">163</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">1904 </td> <td align="right">100</td> <td align="right">204</td> <td align="right">152</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">1905 </td> <td align="right">100</td> <td align="right">235</td> <td align="right">162</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">1906 </td> <td align="right">100</td> <td align="right">247</td> <td align="right">177</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">1907 </td> <td align="right">60</td> <td align="right">245</td> <td align="right">173</td></tr> -</table> -<p> -The winners and losers for five years were as follows: -</p> -<table align="center" width="50%" summary="pen winners and losers"> -<tr><td> </td> <td>Winning Pen</td> <td>Losing Pen</td></tr> - -<tr><td>1903</td> <td>Silver Wyandotte</td> <td>Silver Wyandotte</td></tr> -<tr><td>1904</td> <td>Silver Wyandotte</td> <td>Partridge Wyandotte</td></tr> -<tr><td>1905</td> <td>S.C.W. Leghorns</td> <td>S.C.W. Leghorns</td></tr> -<tr><td>1906</td> <td>Black Langshans</td> <td>Golden Wyandotte</td></tr> -<tr><td>1907</td> <td>S.C.W. Leghorns</td> <td>S.C.B. Leghorns</td></tr> -</table> -<p> -As a matter of fact, the winning pen means little for breed -comparison. This is shown by the winning and losing pens frequently -being of the same breed. -</p> -<p> -The average for hens of one breed for the whole five years is more -enlightening. For the three most popular Australian breeds, these -grand averages are: -</p> -<table align="center" width="50%" summary="pen yields"> -<tr><td> </td> <td align="right">Average No. Hens</td> <td align="right">Av. Egg Yield</td> <td align="right">Wt. Eggs. Oz. Per Doz.</td></tr> -<tr><td>S.C.W. Leghorns</td> <td align="right">564</td> <td align="right">175.5</td> <td align="right">26.4</td></tr> -<tr><td>Black Orpingtons</td> <td align="right">522</td> <td align="right">166.6</td> <td align="right">26.1</td></tr> -<tr><td>Silver Wyandottes</td> <td align="right">474</td> <td align="right">161.1</td> <td align="right">24.9</td></tr> -</table> -<p> -These figures are undoubtedly the most trustworthy breed comparisons -that have ever been obtained. When we go into the other breeds, -however, with smaller numbers entered, the results show chance -variation and become untrustworthy, for illustration: R.C. Brown -Leghorns, with 42 birds entered, have an average of 176.4. This does -not signify that the R.C. Browns are better than the S.S. Whites, -for if the Whites were divided by chance into a dozen lots of -similar size, some would undoubtedly have surpassed the R.C. Browns. -As further proof, take the case of the R.C.W. Leghorns with 36 birds -entered and an egg yield of 166.9. Both breeds are probably a little -poorer layers than S.C. Whites, but luck was with the R.C. Browns -and against the R.C. Whites. For a discussion of this principle of -the worth of averages from different sized flocks see Chapter XV. -</p> -<p> -All Leghorns in the tests with 846 birds entered, averaged 170.3 -eggs each. All of the general purpose breeds (Rocks, Wyandottes, -Reds and Orpingtons), with 1416 birds entered, averaged 160.2. The -comparison between the Leghorns and the general purpose fowls as -classes is undoubtedly a fair one. A study of the relations between -the leading breeds in these groups and the general average of these -groups is worth while. It bears out the writer's statement that the -best fowls of a group or breed are to be found in the popular -variety of that breed. The Australian poultryman, wanting utility -only, would do wise to choose out of the three great Australian -breeds here mentioned. The S.C.W. Leghorn is the only one of the -three breeds to which the advice would apply in America. Barred -Rocks and perhaps White Wyandottes, would here represent the other -types. -</p> -<p> -There is one more point in the Australian records worthy of especial -mention. The winning pen in 1906 were Black Langshans and, what -seems still more remarkable, were daughters of birds purchased from -the original home of Langshans in North China. Other pens of -Langshans in the test failed to make remarkable records, but this -pen of Chinese stock, with a record of 246 5-6* eggs per hen for the -first year and 414 1-2* eggs per hen for two years, is the world's -record layers beyond all quibble. This record is held by a breed and -a region in which we would not expect to find great layers. -</p> -<p> -This holding of the record by a breed hitherto not considered a -laying type, would be comparable to a tenderfoot bagging the pots in -an Arizona gambling den. If the latter incident should occur and be -heralded in the papers it would be no proof that it would pay -another Eastern youth to rush out to Arizona. It is probable that -the man who, on the strength of this single record, stocks an egg -farm with imported Chinese Langshans, will fare as the second -tenderfoot. -</p> -<p> -The year following the Langshan winning, the first eleven winning -pens were all S.C.W. Leghorns. This is also remarkable—much more -remarkable in fact than the Langshans record. It is like a royal -flush in a poker game. Standing alone, this would be very suggestive -evidence of the eminence of the breed. Standing as it does, with the -combined evidence of years and numbers, it gives the S.C.W. Leghorn -hen the same reputation in Australia as she has in America and -Denmark—that of being the greatest egg machine ever created. -</p> -<p> -Isolated evidence is misleading. Accumulated evidence is convincing. -The difference between the scientist and the enthusiast is that the -former knows the difference between these two classes of evidence. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -The Hen's Ancestors. -</p> -<p> -To one who is unfamiliar with the different types of chickens found -in a poultry showroom, it seems incredible that these varieties -should have descended from one parent source. It was, however, held -by Darwin that all domestic chickens were sprung from a single -species of Indian jungle fowl. Other scientists have since disputed -Darwin's conclusion, but it does not seem to the writer that the -origin of domestic fowls from more than one wild variety makes the -changes that have taken place under domestication any less -remarkable. -</p> -<p> -The buff, white and dominique colors, unheard of in wild species, -frizzles with their feathers all awry, the Polish with their -deformed skulls and the sooty fowls whose skin and bones are black, -are some of the remarkable characters that have sprung up and been -preserved under domestication. The varieties of domestic fowl form -one of the most profound exhibits of man's control over the laws of -inheritance. What makes these wonders all the more inexplicable is -that these profound changes were accomplished in an age when a -scientific study of breeding was a thing unheard of. -</p> -<p> -The wild chicken whom Darwin credits as the parent of the modern -gallinaceous menagerie, is smaller than modern fowls and is colored -in a manner similar to the Black-breasted Game. The habits of this -bird are like those of the quail and prairie-chicken, both of which -belong to the same zoological family. -</p> -<p> -From its natural home in India the chicken spread east and west. -Chinese poultry culture is ancient. In China, as well as in India, -the chief care seems to have been to breed very large fowls, and -from these countries all the large, heavily feathered and feather -legged chickens of the modern world have come. -</p> -<p> -Poultry is also known to have been bred in the early Babylonian and -Egyptian periods. Here, however, the progress was in a different -line from that of China. Artificial incubation was early developed, -and the selection was for birds that produced eggs continually, -rather than for those that laid fewer eggs and brooded in the -natural manner. -</p> -<p> -The Egyptian type of chicken spread to the countries bordering on -the Mediterranean, and from Southern Europe our non-sitting breeds -of fowls have been imported. Throughout the countries of Northern -Europe minor differences were developed. The French chickens were -selected for the quality of the meat, while in Poland the peculiar -top-knotted breed is supposed to have been formed. -</p> -<p> -The English Dorking is one of the oldest of European breeds and is -possessed of five toes. Five-toed fowls were reported in Rome and -exist to-day in Turkey and Japan. The Dorkings may be descended -directly from the Roman fowls, or various strains of five-toed fowls -may have arisen independently from the preservation of sports. -</p> -<p> -The chief point to be noted in all European poultry is that it -differs from Asiatic poultry in being smaller, lighter feathered, -quicker maturing, of greater egg-producing capacity, less disposed -to become broody, and more active than the Asiatic fowl. -</p> -<p> -The early American hens were of European origin, but of no fixed -breeds. About 1840 Italian chickens began to be imported. These, -with stock from Spain, have been bred for fixed types of form and -color, and constitute our Mediterranean or non-sitting breeds of the -present day. Soon after the importation of Italian chickens a chance -importation was made from Southeastern Asia. These Asiatic chickens -were quite different from anything yet seen, and further -importations followed. -</p> -<p> -Poultry-breeding soon became the fashion. The first poultry show was -held in Boston in the early '50's. The Asiatic fowls imported were -gray or yellowish-red in color, and were variously known as the -Brahmapootras, Cochin-Chinas and Shanghais. With the rapid -development of poultry-breeding there came a desire to produce new -varieties. Every conceivable form of cross-breeding was resorted to. -The great majority of breeds and varieties as they exist to-day are -the results of crosses followed by a few years of selection for the -desired form and color. Many of our common breeds still give us -occasional individuals that resemble some of the types from which -the breed was formed. The exact history of the formation of the -American or mixed breeds is in dispute, but it is certain that they -have been formed from a complex mixing of blood from both European -and Asiatic sources. -</p> -<p> -The English have recently furnished the world with a very popular -breed which was originated by the same methods. I refer to the -Orpingtons. -</p> -<p> -The ever growing multiplicity of varieties of chicken is in reality -only casually related to the business of the poultryman whose object -is the production of human food. -</p> -<p> -Breeding as an art or vocation, is a source of endless pleasure to -man, and as such, is as worthy of encouragement as is painting, -music, or the collection of the bones of prehistoric animals. -Breeding as an art has produced many forms of chickens that are -entirely worthless as food producers, but this same group of poultry -breeders, tempered to be sure by the demands of commercialism, have -produced other breeds that are certainly superior for the various -commercial purposes to the unselected fowls of the old-fashioned -farm-yard. -</p> -<p> -The mongrel chicken is a production of chance. Its ancestry -represents everything available in the barn-yard of the -neighborhood, and its offspring will be equally varied. In the pure -breeds there has been a rigid selection practiced that gives uniform -appearance. The size and shape requirements of the standard, -although not based on the market demands, come much nearer producing -an ideal carcass than does chance breeding. Ability to mature for -the fall shows is a decidedly practical quality that the fancier -breeds into his chickens. Moreover, poultry-breeders, while still -keeping standard points in mind, have also made improvements in the -lay and meat-producing qualities of their chickens. Considering -these facts it is an erroneous idea to think that mongrel chickens -offer any advantage over pure bred stock. -</p> -<p> -In the broader sense we may regard as pure-bred those animals that -reproduce their shape, color, habits, or other distinctive qualities -with uniformity. In order that we may get offspring like the parent -and like each other we must have animals whose ancestors for many -generations back have been of one type. The more generations of such -uniformity, the more certain it will be that the young will possess -similar quality. -</p> -<p> -One strain of chickens may be selected for uniform color of -feathers, another for a certain size and shape, another for laying -large eggs of a certain color, and yet another strain for being -producers of many eggs. Each of these strains might be well-bred in -these particular traits, but would be mongrels when the other -considerations were taken into account. -</p> -<p> -This explains to us why the family or strains is frequently more -important than the breed. In fact, the whole series of breed -classification is arbitrary. This is especially true of the American -or mixed breeds. Humorously turned fanciers at the poultry show -frequently have much sport trying to get other fanciers to tell -White or Buff Rocks from Wyandottes, when the heads are hidden. From -the dressed carcasses with feet and head removed, the finest set of -poultry judges in the world would be hopelessly lost in a collection -of Rocks, Wyandottes, Reds and Orpingtons and, I dare say, one could -run in a few Langshans and Minorcas if it were not for their black -pin feathers. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -What Breed. -</p> -<p> -The writer has great admiration for breeding as an art. He would -rather be the originator of a breed of green chickens with six toes, -than to have been the author of "Afraid to Go Home in the Dark." But -I do want the novice who reads this book to be spared some of the -mental throes usually indulged in over the selection of a breed. -</p> -<p> -So-called meat breeds, that is, the big feather legged Asiatics save -on a few capon and roaster plants in New England, are really -useless. They have given size to American chickens as a class, and -in that have served a useful purpose, but standing alone they cannot -compete with lighter, quick growing breeds. -</p> -<p> -For commercial consideration there are really but two types: The egg -breeds of Mediterranean origin and the general purpose breeds or -growers, including the Rocks, Wyandottes and Rhode Island Reds. The -difference between the layers on the one hand and the growers on the -other, is quite important. Which should be used depends on the -location and plan of operations, as has already been discussed. -</p> -<p> -The choice of variety within the group is a matter of taste and -chance of sales of fancy stock. This one principle can, however, be -laid down: The more popular the breed, the more choice there will be -in selecting strains and individuals. Pea Comb Plymouth Rocks and -Duckwing Leghorns should not be considered because of their rarity. -Of the growers, their popularity and claims are close enough to make -the particular choice unimportant. For commercial consideration, the -writer would as soon invest his money in a flock of Barred Rock, -White Wyandottes or Rhode Island Reds. Among layers the S. C. White -has achieved such a lead that the majority of good laying strains -are in this breed and to choose any other would be to place a -handicap on oneself. For a description of breeds, the reader should -secure an Illustrated American Standard of Perfection, or some of -the books published by poultry fanciers and judges. To take up the -matter here would merely be using my space for imparting knowledge -which can be better secured elsewhere. -</p> -<p> -The relative popularity of breeds at the poultry shows is nicely -shown by the following list. This data was compiled by adding the -numbers of each breed exhibited at 124 different poultry shows in -the season of 1907. A detailed report of the total entries of each -breed is as follows: Plymouth Rocks, 14,514; Wyandottes, 12,320; -Leghorns, 8,740; Rhode Island Reds, 5,812; Orpingtons, 2,857; -Langshans, 2,153; Minorcas, 1,709; Cochin Bantams, 1,590; Games, -1,277; Brahmas, 1,181; Cochins, 1,010; Hamburgs, 758; Game Bantams, -637; Polish, 618; Houdans, 538; Indians, 538; Anconas, 464; Sebright -Bantams, 423; Andalusians, 117; Japanese Bantams, 115; Dorkings, -105; Brahma Bantams, 104; Buckeyes, 95; Silkies, 85; Spanish, 83; -Redcaps, 71; Sumatras, 41; Polish Bantams, 37; Sultans, 18; Malays, -12; Frizzles, 7; Le Fleche, 7; Dominiques, 5; Booted Bantams, 4; -Malay Bantams, 3; Crevecoeure, 3. -</p> -<a name="2HCH0015"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> - -<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> - -<h2> -<a name="chapXIV"> -CHAPTER XIV -</a> -</h2> -<h3> -PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC BREEDING -</h3> -<p> -Science has been defined as the "know how" and art as the "do how." -The man who works by art depends upon an unconscious judgment which -is inborn or is acquired by long practice. The man who works by -science may also have this artistic taste, but he tests its dicta by -comparison with known facts and principles. The scientist not only -looks before he leaps, but measures the distance and knows exactly -where he is going to land. -</p> -<p> -Breeding has for centuries been an art, but the science of breeding -is so new as to seem a mass of contradictions to all except those -familiar with the maze of mathematics and biology by which the -barn-yard facts must find their ultimate explanation. The science of -breeding may in the future bring about that which would now seem -miraculous, but it is the ancient art of breeding that is and will -for years continue to be the means by which the poultry fancier will -achieve his results. -</p> -<p> -In a volume the chief aim of which is to place the poultry industry, -which is now conducted as an art, in the realm of technical science, -it might seem proper to devote considerable space to the subject of -breeding, That I shall not do so, is for the reason that while -theoretically I recognize the important part that breeding plays in -all animal production, for the practical proposition of producing -poultry products at the lowest possible cost, a knowledge of the -technical science of breeding is unessential and may, by diverting -the poultryman's time to unprofitable efforts, prove an actual -handicap. -</p> -<p> -For the show room breeder the new science of breeding is too -undeveloped to be of immediate service, or I had better say, the -show room requisites are too complicated for theoretical breeding to -promise results. For the commercial poultryman, I shall review what -has been accomplished and state briefly the theories upon which -contemplated work is based. -</p> -<p> -The objects striven after in poultry breeding are: 1st: To create -new varieties which shall have improved practical points or shall -attract attention as curiosities. 2d: To approach the ideals -accepted by fanciers for established breeds, and hence win in -competition. 3d: To change some particular feature or habit as, to -increase egg production or reduce the size of bantams. 4th: To -improve several points at once as, eggs and size in general purpose -fowls. This classification is really unnecessary, as the most -specialized breeding involves consideration of many points. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Breeding as an Art. -</p> -<p> -The method by which breeds and varieties of the show room specimens -have been developed is essentially as follows: The wonderfully -different varieties of fowl from every quarter of the earth are -brought together. Crossing is then resorted to, with the result that -birds of all forms and colors are produced. The breeder then selects -specimens that most nearly conform to the type or ideal in his mind. -</p> -<p> -Suppose a man wished to produce Barred Leghorns, with a fifth toe. -He would secure Barred Rocks, White Leghorns and White or Gray -Dorkings. Then he would cross in every conceivable fashion. -</p> -<p> -Perhaps he might have trouble getting the white color to disappear. -In that case Buff Leghorns which are a newer breed might be tried -and found more pliable material. By such methods the breeder would in -three or four generations of crossing get a crude type of what he -desired. Henceforth it would be a matter of patience and -selection. Five to twenty years is the time usually taken to produce -new breeds of fancy poultry that will breed true to type. In this -style of breeding the principles at stake are simple. The first is -to secure the variations wanted; second, to breed from the most -desirable of these specimens. -</p> -<p> -The same methods of selection that establish a breed are used to -maintain it, or to establish strains. In ordinary breeding there are -two other principles that are sometimes called into play. One is -prepotency, the other is inbreeding. By prepotent we mean having -unusual power to transmit characters to offspring. Suppose a breeder -has five yards headed by five cock birds. The male in yard two he -does not consider quite as fine as the bird in yard one, but in the -fall he finds the offspring of bird from two much better than the -offspring from yard one. The breeder should keep the prepotent sire -and his offspring rather than the more perfect male, who fails to -stamp his traits upon his get. -</p> -<p> -Normally a child has two parents, four grandparents, and eight -great-grandparents. Now, when cousins marry, the great-grandparents -of the offspring are reduced to six. The mating of brother and -sister cuts the grandparents to two, and the great-grandparents to -four. Mating of parent and offspring makes a parent and grandparent -identical and likewise eliminates ancestry. Inbreeding means the -reduction of the number of branches in the ancestral tree, and this -means the reduction of the number of chances to get variation, be -they good or bad. -</p> -<p> -Inbreeding simply intensifies whatever is there. It does not -necessarily destroy the vitality, but if close inbreeding is -practiced long enough, sooner or later some little existing weakness -or peculiarity would become intensified and may prove fatal to the -strain. For illustration, suppose we began inbreeding brother and -sister with a view of keeping it up indefinitely. Now, in the -original blood, a tendency for the predominance of one sex over the -other undoubtedly exists and would be intensified until there would -come a generation all of one sex, which, of course, terminates our -experiment. -</p> -<p> -Inbreeding has always been tabooed by the people generally. -Meanwhile the clever stock breeders have combined inbreeding with -selection and have won the show prizes and sold the people "new -blood" at fancy prices. -</p> -<p> -Unintelligent inbreeding as practiced on many a farm, results in run -down stock, not so much from inbreeding as from lack of selection. -Out-crossing or mixing in of new blood is better than hit-or-miss -inbreeding. Intelligent inbreeding is better still. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Scientific Theories of Breeding. -</p> -<p> -The main tenet of Darwin's theory of racial inheritance or -evolution, was that changes in animal life, wild or domestic, were -brought about by the addition of very slight, perhaps imperceptible, -variations. He argued that the giraffe with the longest neck could -browse on higher leaves in time of drought and hence left offspring -with slightly longer necks than the previous generation. -</p> -<p> -Upon this theory the ordinary breeding by selection is based. In -case of breeding for show room, the breeder's eye, or the judge's -score card, is the tape with which to measure the length of the -giraffe's neck. This principle can be applied equally well, even -better, to characteristics where accurate measurement may be used. -</p> -<p> -The last forty years of scientific progress has established firmly -the general theories of Darwin, but they have also resulted in our -questioning his idea that all great changes are due to the sum of -small variations. Many instances have been suggested in which the -theory of gradual changes could not explain the facts. -</p> -<p> -The theory of mutation, of which Hugo de Vries, of Holland, is the -chief expounder, does not antagonize Darwin, but simply gives more -weight in the process of evolution to the factor of sudden changes -commonly called sports. Let us illustrate: In the giraffe of our -former forest, one might appear whose neck was not longer because of -slightly longer vertebrae, but who possessed an extra vertebrae. -This would be a mutation. In other words, a mutation is a marked -variation that may be inherited. We now believe that polled cattle, -five-toed Dorkings, top-knotted Houdans, frizzles and black skinned -chickens arose through mutations. -</p> -<p> -Burbank's Methods—The wonderful Burbank with his thornless cactus, -his stoneless plum, and his white blackberry, is simply a searcher -after mutations. His success is not because he uses any secret -methods, but because of the size of his operations. He produces his -specimens by the millions, and in these millions looks, and often -looks in vain for the lonely sport that is to father a new race. -Burbank has, with plants, many advantages of which the animal -breeder is deprived. He can produce his specimens in greater number, -he can more easily find out the desirable character, and in many -plants he has not the uncertain element of double parentage to -contend with, while with others he is still more fortunate, as he -can produce them by seed, stimulate variation until the desired -mutation is found and can then reproduce the desired variation with -certainty by the use of cuttings. This latter is not true -inheritance with its inevitable variation, but the indefinite -prolongation of the life of one individual. In this sense there is -only one seedless orange tree in the world. -</p> -<p> -The Centgenitor System—Prof. Hays in breeding wheat at Minnesota, -first used in this country a system of breeding which is essentially -as follows: A large variety of individual seeds are selected. These -are planted separately and the amount and character of the yield -observed. The offspring of one seed is kept separate for several -generations, or until the character of the tribe is thoroughly -established. The advantage of this plan of breeding is in that the -selection is not made by comparing individuals, but by comparing the -offspring of individuals. Thus, we necessarily select the only trait -really worth while; that is prepotency or the ability to beget -desirable qualities. -</p> -<p> -The application of this centgenitor system necessitates inbreeding; -it also necessitates large operations. Of the former, breeders have -generally been afraid; of the latter they have lacked opportunity. -But the centgenitor system, combined with Burbank's principle of -large opportunity of selection, is, in the writer's belief, the -method by which the 200-egg hen will be ultimately established in -America. -</p> -<p> -Much of the recent stimulus to the study of the Science of Breeding -was occasioned by the discovery of Mendel's Law. Briefly, the law -states that when two pure traits or characters are crossed, one -dominates in the first generation of offspring—the other remaining -hidden or recessive. Of the second generation, one-half the -individuals are still mixed, bearing the dominant characteristic -externally and the other hidden; one-fourth are pure dominants and -one-fourth are pure recessives. In future generations the mixed or -hybrid individuals again give birth to mixed and pure types -apportioned as before, thus continuing until all offspring become -ultimately pure. For illustration: If rose and single comb chickens -are crossed, rose combs are dominant. The first generation will all -have rose combs. The second generation will have one-fourth single -combs that will breed true, one-fourth rose combs that will breed -rose combs only, and one-half that again will give all three types. -</p> -<p> -Mendel's Law works all right in cases where pure unit -characteristics are to be found. For the great practical problems in -inheritance, Mendel's law is utterly hopeless. The trouble is that -the chief things with which we are concerned are not unit -characteristics but are combinations of countless characteristics -which cannot be seen or known, hence cannot be picked out. Thus the -tendency to revert to pure types is foiled by the constant -recrossing of these types. -</p> -<p> -Mendel's law is a scientific curiosity like the aeroplane. It may -some day be more than a curiosity, but both have tremendous odds to -overcome before they supplant our present methods. -</p> -<p> -Prof. C.B. Davenport, of the Carnegie Institute, is working on -experimental poultry breeding in its purely scientific sense. His -conclusions have been much criticised by poultry fanciers. The truth -of the matter is that the fancier fails to appreciate the spirit of -pure science. The scientist, enthused to find his white fowl -re-occur after a generation of black ones, is wholly undisturbed by -the fact that the white ones, if exhibited, might be taken for a -Silver Spangled Hamburg. -</p> -<p> -Mendel's law as yet offers little to the fancier and less to the -commercial poultryman. Its study is all right in its place, but its -place is not on the poultry plant whose profits are to buy the baby -a new dress. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Breeding for Egg Production. -</p> -<p> -Attempts to improve the egg-producing qualities of the hen date from -the domestication of the hen, but it has only been within the last -few years that rapid progress has been possible in this work. The -inability to determine the good layers has been the difficulty. -</p> -<p> -The great majority of people make no selection of hens from which to -hatch their stock. The eggs of the whole flock are kept together and -when eggs are desired for hatching they are selected from a general -basket. It has been assumed, and is shown by trap-nest records, that -eggs thus selected in the spring of the year are from the poorer, -rather than from the better layers. This is because hens that have -not been laying during the winter will lay very heavily during the -spring season. Many breeders have attempted to pick out the good -layers by the appearance of the hens. Before the advent of the -trap-nest the "egg type" of hen was believed to be a positive -indication of a good layer. The "egg type" hen had slender neck, -small head, long, deep body of a wedge shape. Various "systems" -founded on these or other "signs" have been sold for fancy prices to -people who were easily separated from their money. Trap-nest records -show such systems to be on a par with the lunar guidance in -agricultural operations. -</p> -<p> -I might remark here that the determination of sex by the shape of -the egg or similar methods, is in a like category. Science finds no -proof of such theories. -</p> -<p> -A few methods of selecting the layers have been suggested which, -while far from absolute, are of some significance and are well worth -noting. The hen that sits upon the roost while other hens are out -foraging, is probably a drone. The excessively fat or the -excessively lean hens are not likely to be layers. It would -naturally be supposed that the active laying hen would be the last -one to go to roost at night. At the Kansas Experiment Station, the -writer made observations upon the order in which the hens went to -roost, and the above assumption was found in the majority of cases -to be correct. -</p> -<p> -A still better scheme of selecting layers is the practice of picking -out the thrifty, quickly maturing pullets when they first begin to -lay in the fall season. At the Maine Experiment Station, such a -selection gave a flock of layers which averaged about one hundred -and eighty eggs, when the remainder of the flock yielded only one -hundred and forty. -</p> -<p> -Trap-nests devised to catch the hen that lays the egg are numerous -in the market. A trap-nest to be successful, must not only catch the -hen that lays, but must prevent the entrance of the other hens. -</p> -<p> -The more trap-nests that are provided, the less often they will -require attention, but the more often the nests are attended the -better for the comfort of the hens. -</p> -<p> -The use of trap-nests is expensive and cannot be recommended for the -poultryman who must make every hour of time put on his chickens -yield him an immediate income. Fanciers and Experiment Stations can -well afford to use trap-nests and must, indeed, use them both for -breeding for egg production, and also for determining the hen that -laid the egg when full pedigrees are desired in other breeding work. -</p> -<p> -A scheme that has sometimes been used in the place of trap-nests, is -a system of small compartments, in each of which one hen is kept. -Such a scheme does not seem feasible on a large scale, but for -breeders wishing to keep the records of a small number of hens, it -is all right. Because of its cost, this system is wholly out of the -question, except for a man following breeding as a hobby and who -cannot devote himself during the day to the care of trap-nests. -</p> -<p> -Having determined the best layers, it remains to breed from these -and from their descendants. The tests of pullets hatched from hens -are better signs of the hen's value as a breeder than is her own -record. It has been surmised that a hen which lays heavily will not -lay eggs containing vigorous germs. So far as the writer's -experience has gone, the laying of infertile eggs is a family or -individual trait not particularly related to the number of eggs -laid. -</p> -<p> -When we have bred from the best layers and have raised our average -egg yielder to a higher level, the question arises as to whether the -strain will permanently maintain the high yield or drop back to the -former rate of production. Theory says that it will not drop back. -As a matter of fact it will not do so, for the heavier production -will be more trying on the hen's constitution, and naturally -selection will gradually cause the egg record to dwindle. Hence the -necessity of continued selection or the infusion of new blood from -other selected strains. -</p> -<p> -Whatever may be the change desired in a strain of chickens, -specimens showing the trait to be selected should be used as -breeders. Those characteristics readily visible to the eye have long -been the subjects of the breeder's efforts. But traits not directly -visible can likewise be changed by breeding. The number of eggs, -size and color of eggs, rapid growth, ready fattening powers, -quality of meat and general characteristics, are all matters of -inheritance, and if proper means are taken to select the desirable -individuals all such characteristics can be changed at the will of -the breeder. -</p> -<p> -It is a fact, however, often overlooked, that the more traits for -which one selects, the slower will be progress. For illustration: If -in breeding for egg production, one-half the good layers are -discarded for lack of fancy points, the progress will be just half -as rapid. -</p> -<p> -A discussion of the work in breeding for egg production at the Maine -Experiment Station is taken up in the next chapter. -</p> -<a name="2HCH0016"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> - -<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> - -<h2> -<a name="chapXV"> -CHAPTER XV -</a> -</h2> -<h3> -EXPERIMENT STATION WORK -</h3> -<p> -Our entire scheme of agricultural education and experimentation is -new. The poultry work at experiment stations is very new. Ten years -will about cover everything worthy of a permanent record in the -poultry experiment station files. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Stations Leading in Poultry Work. -</p> -<p> -Among the earliest stations to begin poultry work in this country -were Rhode Island, Massachusetts, Connecticut and Maine. Rhode -Island conducted the first school of poultry culture. The two -stations of New York State were also early in the work, and Cornell -now has the leading school of poultry culture in this country. -</p> -<p> -West Virginia has always maintained a considerable poultry plant. -Outside of the states east of the Appalachians, the first poultry -work to be heard of was that of Prof. Dryden at the Experiment -Station of Utah. Prof. Dryden's work was of a demonstrative nature. -His early bulletins were forceful and well illustrated, and did much -to call attention to poultry work. -</p> -<p> -In all this early work the great Mississippi Valley, where -four-fifths of the nation's poultry is produced, entirely ignored -the hen. The writer began his work with poultry at the Kansas -Station in 1902, but his chickens were housed in a discarded hog -house, and no funds being available, little was accomplished. In the -last three or four years these experiment stations are rapidly -falling into line and a number of poultry bulletins have recently -been issued from these younger schools. -</p> -<p> -A few of the early landmarks in experiment station work was as -follows: -</p> -<p> -The Utah Station clearly found that hens laid about 65 per cent. as -many eggs in the second as in the first year, and that to keep hens -for egg production beyond the second year, was unprofitable. -</p> -<p> -Massachusetts proved that corn was a better food for layers than -wheat, and that the prejudice against it was founded on a misapplied -theory. -</p> -<p> -The New York Station at Geneva demonstrated that poultry generally, -and ducks in particular, are not vegetarians, and must have meat to -thrive and that vegetable protein will not make good the deficiency. -</p> -<p> -The Maine Station was chiefly instrumental in introducing -trap-nests, curtain front houses and dry feeding. The breeding work -at Maine will be discussed at length in the last section of this -chapter. -</p> -<p> -The United States Department of Agriculture did not take up poultry -work until 1906. The publications issued by the department before -that time were written by outsiders and printed by the Government. -</p> -<p> -The following is the list of the addresses of the experiment -stations who have taken a leading interest in poultry work. It is -not worth while giving a list of poultry bulletins, as many of them -are out of print and can only be consulted in a library. -</p> -<p class="indent"> -<br> -Maine—Orono. <br> -Mass.—Amherst. <br> -Conn.—Storrs. <br> -Rhode Is.—Kingston. <br> -New York—Ithaca. <br> -New York—Geneva. <br> -Maryland—College Park. <br> -West. Va.—Morgantown.<br> -Iowa—Ames. <br> -Kansas—Manhattan. <br> -Utah—Logan. <br> -Calif.—Berkeley. <br> -Oregon—Corvalis. <br> -U.S. Gov.—Washington, D.C. <br> -Ontario—Guelph (Canada). <br> -</p> -<p> -Many foreign governments have us out-distanced in the encouragement -of the poultry industry. Our Canadian neighbors have done much more -practical work in getting out among the farmers and improving the -stock and methods along commercial lines. As a result the Canadians -have built up a nice British trade with which we have thus far not -been able to compete. The work by the Ontario Station on the subject -of incubation is discussed in the Chapter on Incubation. -</p> -<p> -Australia, like Canada, has given much practical assistance in -marketing the poultry products, the government maintaining packing -stations, where the poultry is packed for export. The Australian -laying contests are quoted in the present volume. They outclass -anything else in the world along that line. -</p> -<p> -In England, Ireland and especially in Denmark, the government, or -societies encouraged by the Government, have done a great deal to -develop the poultry industry. Depots for marketing and grading are -maintained and the stock of the farmers is improved by fowls from -the government breeding farms. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -The Story of the "Big Coon." -</p> -<p> -With apologies to Joel Chandler Harris, I will tell a little story. -</p> -<p> -Uncle Remus was telling the little boy about the "big coon." It -seems that the "big coon" had been seen on numerous occasions, but -all efforts at his capture had failed. One night they saw the "big -coon" up in the 'simmon tree, in the middle of the ten-acre lot. All -hands and the dogs were summoned. To be sure of bagging the game, -the tree was cut down. The dogs rushed in but there was no coon. -</p> -<p> -"But, Uncle Remus," said the little boy, "I thought you said you saw -the big coon in the tree." -</p> -<p> -"Laws, chile," replied Uncle Remus, "doesn't youse know dat it am -mighty easy for folks to see something dat ain't dar, when dey are -lookin' fer it?" -</p> -<p> -When scientific experimenters entered the poultry field about -fifteen years ago, they found it swarming with old ladies' notions. -For everything a reason was given, but these reasons were derived -from the kind of dreams where that which pleases the human mind is -seized upon and search is made to find ideas to back it, not because -it is true, but because it "listens good" to the dreamer. The first -duty of the scientist was to banish these will-o'-the-wisp ideas -that lead to no practical results. -</p> -<p> -For illustration Round eggs were supposed to hatch pullets and long -ones cockerels. Eggs will not hatch if it thunders. Shipped eggs -must be allowed to rest before hatching, the drug store was the -universal source of relief when the chickens became sick, and red -pepper and patent foods were the egg foods par excellence. These -things, thanks to the scientist, are no longer believed or regarded -by well read poultrymen, and instead his attention has been turned -to matters having a more happy relation to his bank account. -</p> -<p> -In clearing away the useless popular notions, the scientists -themselves have not been free from their influence, especially when -they seemed to agree with accepted scientific theory. Many, indeed, -are the 'coons in poultry science that have been seen because they -were being looked for. -</p> -<p> -As a partial explanation it should be said that men available for -scientific poultry work are very scarce. Poultry keepers schooled in -the University of the Poultry Yard have no conception of scientific -methods, and would explain experimental results by a theory that -would fail to fit elsewhere. The available scientists on the other -hand are seldom poultrymen. -</p> -<p> -Among the first men to take up animal husbandry work of all kinds, -were the veterinarians. For years the only poultry publications put -out by the U.S. Government were by veterinarians. These dust covered -volumes with their five color plates of the fifty-seven varieties of -tapeworms, still rest on the shelves of public libraries, a monument -to the time when the practical poultryman knew only things that -weren't so, and the scientific poultryman knew only things that were -useless. -</p> -<p> -The first general law that all experimenters should know and the -ignorance of which has caused and still causes the waste of the -major portion of experimental brains and money, we will call the -"Law of Chance." Let the reader who is not familiar with such things -take two pennies and toss them upon the table. They are both heads -up. He tosses them again, one comes heads, the other tails. The -third time repeats the second. The fourth both come tails. The law -of chance says this is correct. Heads should appear 25 per cent., -tails 25 per cent., and mixed 50 per cent. of the time. Now let the -reader try this in a lot of twelve tosses. Does it prove the law? -Try it again. Are all lots alike? Now pitch a hundred times, then -pitch pennies all day. By night the law will be so near proven that -the experimenter will be willing to concede its validity. -</p> -<p> -Now suppose the lots of twelve tosses, each were lots of twelve -hens, one Plymouth Rocks, the other Wyandottes, or one fed corn and -the other wheat. The law of chance clearly proves that the larger -number of unites, the nearer the theoretical truths will be the -experimental results. Note, however, that small lots may by chance -be as near the truth as large lots. -</p> -<p> -In practice two grave errors are made: First, conclusions are drawn -from small lots compared with each other; second, conclusions are -drawn from large lots compared with small lots. In the first case -both may be off; in the latter case the small one may be off. -Examples of the first error are to be found in the scores of -contradicting breed and feed tests, that were published in the early -days of poultry research. The second error is exemplified in the -Ontario experiments in incubation, to which reference has already -been made. -</p> -<p> -Here is a further example of this error. From the fifth egg laying -competition at the Hawkesbury Agricultural College in Australia, I -copy the following: -</p> -<table align="center" width="70%" summary="egg laying competition yields"> -<tr><td align="right">No. of Hens.</td> <td>Variety.</td> <td align="right">Ave. Egg Yield.</td></tr> - -<tr><td align="right">6</td> <td>Cuckoo Leghorn</td> <td align="right">190.16</td></tr> - -<tr><td align="right">30</td> <td>S.C. Brown Leghorn</td> <td align="right">177.00</td></tr> - -<tr><td align="right">138</td> <td>S.C. White Leghorn</td> <td align="right">174.93</td></tr> - -<tr><td align="right">12</td> <td>R.C. Brown Leghorn</td> <td align="right">173.50</td></tr> - -<tr><td align="right">12</td> <td>R.C. White Leghorn</td> <td align="right">172.66</td></tr> - -<tr><td align="right">18</td> <td>Buff Leghorn</td> <td align="right">160.55</td></tr> - -<tr><td align="right">6</td> <td>Black Leghorn</td> <td align="right">138.33</td></tr> -</table> -<p> -The ranking of Cuckoo Leghorns as first is a chance happening due to -the small number; likewise the Black Leghorns had a streak of bad -luck and received lowest place. To one not familiar with such work, -the real significance of the table is that the S.C.W. Leghorns did -the best work. A totaling of all other varieties gives 84 fowls with -an average egg production of 170.5, which bears out the conclusion. -As these birds were all kept in pens of six, we would expect to find -the highest single pen to be White Leghorns, because, when compared -with all other Leghorns, they have both the highest average and the -greatest number. This accords with the fact that as the highest -single pen is found to be White Leghorns with an egg yield of 239 -eggs. -</p> -<p> -The above illustrates another important phase of the laws of chance, -which says that not only is the average likely to be nearer the -theoretical average sought when the number is increased, but that -the individual extremes will be more removed. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Important Experimental Results at the Illinois Station. -</p> -<p> -From an Illinois Experiment Station report, the following is quoted: -</p> -<p> -"The stock used was Barred Plymouth Rock pullets. These pullets were -a very uniform Barred Rock stock that had been bred as an individual -strain for many years. They were practically the same age, and -except for the factors mentioned were treated as uniformly as -possible. -</p> -<table align="center" width="70%" summary="diet yields"> -<tr><td colspan="3">First Year's Results.</td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">No. Hens.</td> <td>Diet.</td> <td align="right">Ave. Egg Yield.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">10</td> <td>Nitrogenous Diet</td> <td align="right">132.9</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">10</td> <td>Carbonaceous Diet</td> <td align="right">128.4</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">10</td> <td>Wet Wash</td> <td align="right">155.8</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">10</td> <td>Dry Wash</td> <td align="right">111.4</td></tr> -</table> -<p> -"The results of the first test are somewhat surprising for it is -generally believed that the nitrogenous diet is best for laying -hens. The difference indicated in the first year's results was so -light that it was decided to repeat the experiment the second year. -</p> -<p> -"As the wet wash is clearly proven to be superior, these hens were -used the second year to compare meat meal with fresh cut bone. -</p> -<table align="center" width="70%" summary="diet yields"> -<tr><td colspan="3">Second Year's Result.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">No. Hens.</td> <td>Diet.</td> <td align="right">Ave. Egg Yield.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">10</td> <td>Nitrogenous</td> <td align="right">142.2</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">10</td> <td>Carbonaceous</td> <td align="right">134.5</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">10</td> <td>Meat Meal</td> <td align="right">102.2</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">10</td> <td>Green Cut Bone</td> <td align="right">128.9</td></tr> -</table> -<p> -"The results of the second year clearly indicate the great -superiority of green cut bone as compared with the dry unpalatable -meat meal. The comparison of a highly nitrogenous ration with that -of a ration consisting largely of corn, while showing the advantages -of the nitrogenous rations, does not show the contrast expected. -</p> -<p> -"Some visiting poultrymen expressed the opinion that corn is a -better poultry food than commonly supposed. Considering this fact -and the great fundamental importance of the question at issue, it -was decided to repeat the experiment a third year, and feed a large -number of birds on each ration. -</p> -<table align="center" width="70%" summary="diet yields"> -<tr><td align="right">No. Hens.</td> <td>Diet.</td> <td align="right">Ave. Egg Yield.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">100</td> <td>Nitrogenous</td> <td align="right">126.9</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">100</td> <td>Carbonaceous</td> <td align="right">127.2</td></tr> -</table> -<p> -I will leave the last without comment, for the whole thing is a -hoax. The Illinois Experiment Station has never owned a chicken. -These "Illinois" experiments were planned and executed in a few -minutes of the writer's spare time. The basis of the experiments was -a pack of cards containing the individual records of the Maine -Experiment Station hens, shuffling the cards and averaging the -desired number of records as they come in the pack, made the -distinction between the various diets. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Experimental Bias -</p> -<p> -Pet ideas consciously or unconsciously mold practice. A bias toward -an idea may show itself in the planning and conducting of an -experiment, or it may come out in the later interpretation. -</p> -<p> -An illustration of the first kind is found in the early work of the -West Virginia Station (Bulletin 60). With the preconceived notion -that hens should have a nitrogenous diet an experiment was planned -and conducted as follows: -</p> -<p> -One lot of hens was fed corn, potatoes, oats and corn meal. A -contrasted lot reveled in corn, potatoes, hominy feed, oat meal, -corn meal and fresh cut bone. The results were in favor of the -latter ration by a doubled egg yield. -</p> -<p> -To any experienced poultryman the reason is evident. The variety of -the diet and the meat food are what made the showing. -</p> -<p> -About the same time the Massachusetts Station planned a similar -experiment. The bias was the same, but it took a fairer form. The -hens were both given a decent variety of food and some form of meat. -The bulk of the grain was corn in the carbonaceous, and wheat in the -nitrogenous ration. The results were in favor of the corn. This -astonished the experimenter. He tried it again and again tests came -out in favor of corn. At last the old theory was revoked, and the -fallacy of wheat being essential to egg production was exploded. If -by an irony of fate in the shuffling of the hens, the wheat pen had -the first time showed an advantage, the experimenter might have been -satisfied and the waste of feeding high priced feed when a better -and a cheaper is at hand, might have gone on indefinitely. -</p> -<p> -Of bias in the interpretation of results all publications are more -or less saturated. A reading of the Chapter on Incubation will -illustrate this. A common error of this kind is the omission of -facts necessary to fully explain results. Items of costs are -invariably omitted or minimized. Food cost alone is usually -mentioned in figuring experimenting station poultry profits, which -statement will undoubtedly cause a sad smile to creep over the face -of many a "has-been" poultryman. -</p> -<p> -The writer remembers an incident from his college days which -illustrates the point in hand. Let it first be remarked that this -was on the new lands of the trans-Missouri Country, where manure had -no more commercial value than soil, and is freely given to those -who will haul it away. -</p> -<p> -The professor at the blackboard had been figuring up handsome -profits on a type of dairying towards which he wits very partial. -The figures showed a goodly profit, but the biggest expense -item—that of labor—was omitted. One of the students held up his -hand and inquired after the labor bill. -</p> -<p> -"Oh," said the smiling professor, "The manure will pay for the -labor." -</p> -<p> -When the class adjourned, the student remarked: "They say figures -won't lie, but a liar will figure." -</p> -<p> -The third way in which experiments are made worthless is by the -introduction of factors other than the one being tested. This may be -done by chance, and the conductor not realize the presence of the -other factor, or the varying factors may be introduced intentionally -under the belief that they are negligible. Of the first case an -instance may be cited of the placing of two flocks in a house, one -end of which is damper than the other, the accidental introduction -into one flock of a contagious disease, or one flock being thrown -off feed by an excessive feed of greens, etc., etc. These factors -that influence pens of birds greatly add to the error of the law of -chance. In fact it amounts to the same thing on a larger scale. For -this reason not only are many individuals, but many flocks, many -locations, and many years needed to prove the superiority of the -contrasted methods. -</p> -<p> -The criticisms in the following section will amply illustrate the -case of foreign factors being unwisely introduced into an -experiment. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -The Egg Breeding Work at the Maine Station. -</p> -<p> -As is well known the Maine Station was for years considered by all -poultrymen to be doing a great and beneficial work in breeding for -increased egg production. Up until the fall of 1907, the poultrymen -of the country were of the opinion that this work was in every way -successful, and a large number of private breeders had taken up the -use of trap-nests in an effort to build up the egg production of -their fowls. -</p> -<p> -When early in 1908 Bulletin 157 of the Maine Experiment Station was -published, it showed by averages as given in the table on page 202 -that the egg yield at the station was for the entire period on the -decline. In Bulletin 157, the statement was made that "arithmetical -mistakes" and "faulty statistical methods" accounted for the -discrepancies between the former publications and the criticised -data. The further explanation that "the experiment was a success as -an experiment," etc., only appeared to the public mind as a graceful -way of explaining what was, to the practical man, an utter failure -of the entire work. -</p> -<p> -The unfortunate death of Professor Gowell, together with the fact -that he had equipped a private poultry farm with station stock, -added to the confusion, and the result of the bulletin was the -precipitation of a general "pow-wow" in which the poultry editors -were about equally divided between those who were casting -insinuations upon the personnel of the station, and those who -decried the whole effort toward improving the egg yield. -</p> -<p> -After going over the publications of Professor Gowell, visiting the -station and meeting the present force, I came to the following -conclusions regarding the matter: -</p> -<p> -Professor Gowell's work is open to severe criticism. Errors have -been made in conducting the work at Maine which have made it -possible for a mathematical biologist to take the data and seemingly -prove that selection, as practiced by Professor Gowell, actually -resulted in lowering inherent egg capacity of the strain of Plymouth -Rock hens under experimentation. Had Professor Gowell's successor -been a practical poultryman, it is my candid opinion that the public -would have been given a radically different explanation of the -results. -</p> -<p> -Professor Gowell is the author of the following statement: "The -small chicken grower is earnestly urged to use an incubator for -hatching." This opinion is not in accord with that of the majority -of breeders and the more progressive experiment station workers. The -opinion has been expressed by Professor Graham and others, that the -particular results at the Maine Station may have been due to the -decrease of vitality caused by continued artificial hatching. This -view may be wholly without foundation. Nevertheless, as the common -type of incubator is under heavy criticism, and it is pretty well -proven that chicks so hatched have not the vitality of naturally -hatched chicks, surely a series of breeding experiments would carry -more weight if the replenishing of the flock had been accomplished -by natural means. -</p> -<p> -For the first few years of the breeding work the house used was the -old-fashioned double walled and warmed pattern. The last few years -of this work were conducted in curtain front houses. That the cool -house is an improvement over the warm house is generally conceded, -but there are many poultrymen who are still of the opinion that the -warm house will give a larger egg yield, though at a greater expense -and less profit. -</p> -<p> -In the early years of the work the method of feeding was also a -time-honored one, and included a warm mash. About the middle of the -experimental period Professor Gowell brought out the system of -feeding dry mash from hoppers. This custom became a great fad and -Professor Gowell and Director Woods have preached it far and wide. -Perhaps it is an improvement, but it is to-day much more popular -with novices than with established egg farms. Many old line -poultrymen have tried dry mash only to go back to wet mash, by which -method the hens can be induced to eat more which is conducive to -high egg yields. Whether these changes in housing and feeding have -been improvements as claimed by those who introduced them, or -whether their popularity may be explained in part at least by the -psychology of fads, is a point in question, but certainly the -marring of a breeding experiment by introducing radical changes in -the factors of production is at best unfortunate. -</p> -<p> -A much more serious criticism than any of the foregoing is to be -found in a change of the size of flocks and amount of floor space -per fowl. I have gone over carefully the published records of -Professor Gowell, and the review of Dr. Pearl, and the following -table represents, as near as I can determine, these factors for the -series of years. In the year 1903 I find no clear statement as to -the manner in which the birds were housed, and I may be in error in -this case. Otherwise the table gives the facts. -</p> -<table align="center" width="70%" summary="yields by flock size"> -<tr><td align="right">Year</td> <td align="right">Hens in Flock</td> <td align="right">Per Hen</td> <td align="right">Egg Yield</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">1900</td> <td align="right">20</td> <td align="right">8. sq. ft.</td> <td align="right">136.36</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">1901</td> <td align="right">20</td> <td align="right">8. sq. ft.</td> <td align="right">143.44</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">1902</td> <td align="right">20</td> <td align="right">8. sq. ft.</td> <td align="right">155.58</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">1903</td> <td align="right">20</td> <td align="right">8. sq. ft.</td> <td align="right">135.42</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">1904</td> <td align="right">50</td> <td align="right">4.4 sq. ft.</td> <td align="right">117.90</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">1905</td> <td align="right">50</td> <td align="right">4.4 sq. ft.</td> <td align="right">134.07</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">1906</td> <td align="right">50</td> <td align="right">4.4 sq. ft.</td> <td align="right">140.14</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">1907</td> <td align="right">50</td> <td align="right">4.4 sq. ft.</td> <td align="right">113.24</td></tr> -</table> -<p> -Certainly this oversight is a serious one, and one especially -remarkable considering the fact that the comparison of different -size flocks formed a prominent part of the Maine Station work during -the last three years of the breeding test. The results of the work -at the Maine Station on testing flock size, conducted without -relation to the breeding work, gave the following results: -</p> -<table align="center" width="50%" summary="yields by flock size"> -<tr><td align="right">No. of Hens</td> <td align="right">Sq. ft. per Hen</td> <td align="right">Egg Yield</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">150</td> <td align="right">3.2</td> <td align="right">111.68</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">100</td> <td align="right">4.8</td> <td align="right">123.21</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">50</td> <td align="right">4.8</td> <td align="right">129.69</td></tr> -</table> -<p> -No comparisons of 50 and 20 bird flocks in the same year are -available, but by extending the comparisons of the 50, 100 and 150 -flocks into the 20 flock size, we can get some idea of the error -that has been here introduced. The result of the Australian egg -laying contest in which the flocks were composed of six hens, shows -a yield of about one and one-half times as heavy as the Maine -records, which certainly seems to substantiate the ideas here -brought out. -</p> -<p> -It is a well established fact in poultry circles that many men who -succeed with a few hundred hens, fail when the number is increased -to as many thousands. When the breeding experiments under discussion -were started, Professor Gowell had under his supervision about three -hundred hens. When the work was closed the experiment station plant -had been increased to four or five times its capacity, and Professor -Gowell had a large private poultry plant of his own in addition. -</p> -<p> -It is interesting to note in this connection that the last four -years of the records are explained by Professor Gowell as being low, -due to various "accidents" (?) It is unreasonable to suppose the -true explanation of these "accidents" would be found in connection -with the increased responsibility and size of the plant. -</p> -<p> -The breeding stock sent out by Professor Gowell has given general -satisfaction, and was found by Professor Graham of the Ontario -Station, as well as by a number of private individuals, to be of -superior laying quality to that of the average Barred Rock. -</p> -<p> -Clearly there is only one way to prove whether Professor Gowell's -work has been a wasted effort, and that is for flocks of his strain -to be tested at other experiment stations against birds of -miscellaneous origin. -</p> -<p> -That much has been lost to the poultrymen of the country by the -recent upheaval at the Maine Station, I believe to be the case, but -that does not mean that the men now in charge will not in the future -be of great value to the poultry interests. They are, however, in -the class of pure scientists rather than applied scientists, but if -let alone they will dig out something sooner or later which they or -others can apply to the benefit of the industry. -</p> -<p> -Upon the whole, I think that the present case of the trap-nest -method of increasing egg production stands very much as it is has -always stood, being a commendable thing for small breeders who could -afford the time, but not practical in a large way, except at -experiment stations. On a large commercial scale the system of -selecting sires by the collective work of his first year's offspring -would probably get the quickest results. -</p> -<p> -The best use of the funds of the people in the promotion of -agricultural industries is in the permanent endorsement on the one -hand of a few high grade research stations where the deeper theories -may be worked out, and on the other the teaching of such good -principles and practices as are already known. -</p> -<p> -The greatest opportunity for Government effort lies in the -development demonstration farm work in poultry Just as it is doing -with the corn and cotton in the South. -</p> -<a name="2HCH0017"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> - -<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> - -<h2> -<a name="chapXVI"> -CHAPTER XVI -</a> -</h2> -<h3> -POULTRY ON THE GENERAL FARM -</h3> -<p> -This chapter will be devoted to specific directions for the -profitable keeping of chickens on the typical American farm. By -typical American farm I mean the farm west of Ohio, north of -Tennessee and east of Colorado. Farms outside this section present -different problems. In the region mentioned about three-quarters of -the American poultry and egg crop is produced, and in this section -poultry keeping is more profitable when conducted as a part of -general farm operations than as an exclusive business. -</p> -<p> -There is no reason why a farmer should not be a poultry fancier if -he desires, but in that case his special interest in his chickens -would throw him out of the class we are at present considering. -Likewise, I do not doubt that in many instances where the farmer or -members of his family took special interest in poultry work, it -would be profitable to increase the size of operations beyond those -herein advised, using incubators and keeping Leghorns. Of these -exceptions the farmer himself must judge. The rules I lay down are -for those farmers who wish to keep chickens for profit, but do not -care to devote any larger share of their time and study to them than -they do to the cows, hogs, orchard or garden. -</p> -<p> -The advice herein given in this chapter will differ from much of the -advice given to farmers by poultry writers. The average poultry -editor is afraid to give specific advice concerning breeds, -incubators, etc., because he fears to offend his advertisers. The -reader, left to judge for himself, is liable to pick out some fancy -impractical variety or method. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Best Breeds for the Farm. -</p> -<p> -Keep only one variety of chickens. Do not bother with other -varieties of poultry unless it is turkeys. Whether it will pay to -raise turkeys will depend upon your success with the little turks, -and on the freedom of the community from the disease called -Black-head. -</p> -<p> -The kind of chicken you should keep should be picked from the three -following breeds: Barred Plymouth Rock, White Wyandotte, Rhode -Island Reds. If you go outside of these three breeds be sure you -have a very good reason for doing so. -</p> -<p> -Then get a start with a new breed, buy at least four sittings of -eggs in a single season, paying not over $2.00 per sitting. Keep all -the pullets and a half dozen of the best cockerels. The next spring -pen these pullets up with the best cockerels, and use none but eggs -from this pen for hatching. That fall sell all of the young -cockerels and all the old scrub hens. The second spring the two old -roosters from the original purchased eggs are used with the general -flock. From this time on the entire flock is pure bred and should -remain so. -</p> -<p> -Each year when the chicks are about six or eight weeks old pick out -the largest, most vigorous male chick from each brood. Mark these by -clipping the web of the foot or putting on leg bands. From those so -marked the breeding cockerels for the next season are later -selected. When you pick the good cockerels pick out all runty -looking pullets and cut off the last joint of the hind toe. These -runts are later to be eaten or sold. The more surplus chicks raised, -the more strictly can the selection be made. -</p> -<p> -This system of picking the best cockerel from each brood and -discarding the poorest pullets is the most practical method known of -building up a vigorous, quick growing and early laying strain. -</p> -<p> -When we allow the entire flock of many different ages to grow up -before the selection is made it is impossible to select -intelligently. -</p> -<p> -Every third or fourth year an extra cock bird may be purchased -provided you are sure you are getting a specimen from a better flock -than your own. Swapping roosters or eggs every year is poor policy. -If your neighbor has better stock than you, get his blood pure and -sell off your own, but do not keep a barnyard full of scrubs who can -trace their ancestry to every flock in the neighborhood. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Keep Only Workers. -</p> -<p> -On many farms few eggs are gathered from October to January. This is -a season when eggs bring the best prices. To secure eggs at this -season, the first requisite is that the pullets be hatched between -the first of March and the middle of May, or, in the case of -Leghorns, between the first of April and the first of June. Pullets -hatched later than these dates are a source of expense during the -fall and early winter. On the other hand, it is an unnecessary waste -of effort to hatch pullets before the dates mentioned, because, if -hatched too early, they will molt in the fall and stop laying the -same as old hens. -</p> -<p> -Pullets must be well fed and cared for if expected to develop in the -time allowed. As they begin to show signs of maturity they should be -gotten into permanent quarters. If allowed to begin laying while -roosting in coops or in trees they will be liable to quit when -changed to new quarters. If possible the coops should be gradually -moved toward the hen-house and the pullets gotten into quarters -without excitement or confinement. The poultry-house should have an -ample circulation of fresh air. Young stock that have been roosting -in open coops are liable to catch cold if confined in tight houses. -</p> -<p> -A common mistake is to allow a large troop of young roosters to -overrun the premises in the early fall. Not only is money lost in -the decrease in price that can be obtained for these cockerels, but -the pullets are greatly annoyed, to the detriment of the egg yield. -</p> -<p> -Any chicken that is not paying for its food in growth or in egg -production is a source of loss. As soon as the hatching season is -over old roosters should be sent to market. Through June and August -egg production is not very profitable, and a thorough culling of the -hens should be made. Market all hens two years or more of age. Send -with these all the yearling hens that appear fat and lazy. By the -time the young pullets are ready to be moved into quarters—the -latter part of August—these hens should be reduced to about -one-half the original number. Some time during September a final -culling of the old stock should be made. Those that have not yet -begun to molt should be sold, as they will not be laying again -before the warm days of the following February. This system of -culling will leave the best portion of the yearling hens, which, -together with the early-hatched pullets, will make a profitable -flock of layers. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Hatching Chicks With Hens -</p> -<p> -The eggs for hatching should be stored in a cool, dry location at a -temperature between forty and seventy degrees Fahrenheit. A good -rule is not to set eggs over two weeks old. -</p> -<p> -The two chief losses with sitting-hens are due to lice and -interference of other hens. The practice of setting hens in the -chicken-house makes both these difficulties more troublesome. Almost -all farms will have some outbuilding situated apart from the regular -chicken-house that can be used for sitting-hens. The most convenient -arrangement will be to use boxes, and have these open at the top. -They may be placed in rows and a plank somewhat narrower than the -boxes used as a cover. The nests should be made by throwing a shovel -of earth into the box and then shaping a nest of clean straw. Make -the nest roomy enough so that as the hen steps into the nest the -eggs will spread apart readily and not be broken. When a hen shows -signs of broodiness remove her to the sitting-room. This should be -done in the evening, so that the hen becomes accustomed to her -position by daylight. Place the hen upon the nest-eggs and confine -her to the nest. If all is well the next evening give her a full -setting of eggs. -</p> -<p> -A practical method to arrange for sitting-hens is to build the nests -out of doors, allowing each hen a little yard, so that she may have -liberty to leave her nest as she chooses. These nests may be built -by using twelve-inch boards set on edge, so as to form a series of -small runways about one by six feet. In one end are built the nests, -which are covered by a broad board, while the remainder of the -arrangement is covered with lath or netting. The food, grit and -water should be placed at the opposite end of the runway. Care -should be taken to locate these nests on well-drained ground. -Arrangements should be made to close the front of the nest during -hatching so that the chicks will not drop out. A contrivance of this -kind furnishes a very convenient method of handling sitting-hens, -and if no separate building is available would be the best method to -use. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Incubators on the Farm. -</p> -<p> -My candid advice to the farmer who is in doubt as whether to buy an -incubator or not, is to let it alone. If the farmer reads the -chapter on artificial incubation, he will see that he is dealing -with a very complex problem, and one in which his chances of success -are not very great. -</p> -<p> -In order to learn the facts concerning incubators on the farms the -writer made a special investigation on the subject while poultryman -at the Kansas Experiment Station. Replies received from 111 Kansas -farmers, report 21 as having tried incubators. Of these, 6 reported -the incubators as being an improvement over hatching with hens; 10 -reported the incubator as being successful, but not better than -hens, while the remaining 5 declared the incubator to be a failure. -The results of this inquiry, and of personal visits to farms, led -the writer to believe that about one-tenth of the farmers of Kansas -had tried incubators, and that about as many failed as succeeded -with artificial hatching. -</p> -<p> -The argument for the incubator on the farm is certainly not one of -better hatching, but there is an argument, and a good one for the -farm incubator. The argument is this: Hens will not set early enough -and in sufficient quantities to get out as large a number of chicks -as the farmer may desire. Now, each hen will not hatch over 10 -chicks, but is capable of caring for at least 30. Here the incubator -comes into good use, for the farmer can set a half dozen hens along -with the incubator, and give all the chicks to the hens. This is the -method I recommend where an incubator is to be used. The development -of the public hatchery would supply these other 20 chicks more -economically and more certainly than the farm incubator, but until -that institution becomes established the more ambitious farm poultry -raisers are justified in trying an incubator. -</p> -<p> -The best known incubators in the market are the Cyphers, the Model -and the Prairie State. Cheaper machines are liable to do poor work. -The following points may help the farmer in deciding whether or not -to buy an incubator and in picking out a good machine. -</p> -<p> -The person to run the incubator is the first condition of its -success. A good incubator requires attention twice a day. One person -should give this attention, and must give it regularly and -carefully. The farmer's wife or some younger member of the family -can often give more time and interest to this work than can the -farmer. The likelihood of a person's success with artificial -hatchers can best be determined by himself. -</p> -<p> -The best location for an incubator is a moderately damp cellar. The -next choice would be a room in the house away from the fire or from -windows. Drafts of air blowing on the machine are especially to be -avoided. Not only do they affect the temperature directly, but cause -the lamp to burn irregularly, and this may result in fire. -</p> -<p> -The objects in view in building an incubator are: (1) To keep the -eggs at a proper temperature (103 degrees on a level with the top of -the eggs). (2) To cause the evaporation of moisture from the eggs at -a normal rate. (3) To prevent the eggs from resting too long in one -position. -</p> -<p> -The case of the incubator should be built double, or triple-walled, -to withstand variation in the outside temperature. The doors should -fit neatly and be made of double glass. The lamp should be made of -the best material, and the wick of sufficient width that the -temperature may be maintained with a low blaze. The most -satisfactory place for the lamp is at the end of the machine, -outside the case. -</p> -<p> -Regulators composed of two metals, such as aluminum and steel, are -best. Wafers filled with ether or similar liquid are more sensitive -but weaker in action. Hard-rubber bars are frequently used. -</p> -<p> -The most practical system of controlling evaporation is a system of -forced ventilation, in which the air is heated around the lamp-flue -and passes through the egg-chamber at a rate determined by -ventilators in the bottom of the machine. With the outside air cold -and dry only slight current is required, but as the outer air -becomes warmer or damper more circulation is needed. -</p> -<p> -Turning the egg is not the work that many imagine it to be. It is -not necessary that the egg be turned with absolute precision and -regularity. An elaborate device for this work is useless. The trays -will need frequently to be removed and turned around or shifted, and -the eggs can be turned at this time by lifting out a few on one side -of the tray and rolling the others over. -</p> -<p> -Two other points to be considered in the incubator are: A suitable -nursery or place for the newly hatched chick, and a good -thermometer. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Rearing Chicks. -</p> -<p> -If it is very early in the spring, and the ground is damp, it is -best to put the hen and her brood in some building. During the most -of the season the best thing is an outdoor coop. The first -consideration in making a chicken-coop is to see that it is -rain-proof and rat-tight. The next thing to look for is that the -coop is not air-tight. Let the front be of rat-tight netting or -heavy screen. The same general plan may be used for small coops for -hens, or for larger coops to be used as colony-houses for growing -chickens. The essentials are: A movable floor raided on cleats, a -sliding front covered with rat-tight netting, and a hood over the -front to keep the rain from beating in. If used late in the fall or -early in the spring a piece of cloth should be tacked on the sliding -front. -</p> -<p> -The chicken-coops should not be bunched up, but scattered out over -as much ground as is convenient. Neither should they remain long in -one spot, but should be shifted a few feet each day. At first water -should be provided at each coop, but as the chickens grow older they -may be required to come to a few central water pans. -</p> -<p> -As before suggested, rearing chicks with hens is the only suitable -method for general farm practice. The brooder on the farm is an -expensive nuisance. -</p> -<p> -For brooder raised chicks it is necessary to provide means for the -little chick to exercise. But in the season when the great majority -of farm chicks are raised they may be placed out of doors from the -start and the trouble will now be to keep them from getting too much -exercise, i.e.: to keep the hens from chasing around with them -especially in the wet grass. This is properly prevented by keeping -the brood coops in plowed ground, and keeping the hens confined by a -slatted door, until the chicks are strong enough to follow her -readily. -</p> -<p> -The chick should not be fed until 48 to 72 hours old. It may then be -started on the same kind of food as is to form its diet in after -life. The hard boiled egg and bread and milk diets are wholly -unnecessary and are only a waste of time. -</p> -<p> -I recommend the same system of chick feeding for the general farm as -is used on commercial plants, and I especially insist that it will -pay the farmer to provide meat food of some sort for his growing -chicks. The amount eaten will not be large, nor need the farmer fear -that supplying the chicks with meat food will prevent their -consuming all the bugs and worms that come their way. -</p> -<p> -Besides comfortable quarters, the chick to thrive, must have: -Exercise, water, grit, a variety of grain food, green or succulent -food, and meat food. -</p> -<p> -Water should be provided in shallow dishes. This can best be -arranged by having a dish with an inverted can or bottle which -allows only a little water to stand in the drinking basin. -</p> -<p> -Chicks running at large on gravelly ground need no provision for -grit. Chicks on board floors or clay soils must be provided with -either coarse sand or chick grit, such as is sold for the purpose. -</p> -<p> -Grain is the principal, and, too often, the only food of the chick. -The common farm way of feeding grain to young chickens is to mix -corn-meal and water and feed in a trough or on the ground. There is -no particular advantage in this way of feeding, and there are -several disadvantages. The feed is all in a bunch, and the weaker -chicks are crowded out, while if wet feed is thrown on the ground or -in a dirty trough the chicks must swallow the adhering filth, and if -any food is left over it quickly sours and becomes a menace to -health. Some people mix dough with sour milk and soda and bake this -into a bread. The better way is to feed all of the grain in a -natural dry condition. -</p> -<p> -There are foods in the market known as chick foods. The commercial -foods contain various grains and seeds, together with meat and grit. -Their use renders chick feeding quite a simple matter, it being -necessary to supply in addition only water and green foods. For -those who wish to prepare their own chick foods the following -suggestions are given: -</p> -<p> -Oatmeal is probably the best grain food for chicks. Oats cannot be -suitably prepared, however, in a common feed-mill. The hulled oats -are what is wanted. They can be purchased as the common rolled oats, -or sometimes as cut or pin-head oatmeal. The latter form would be -preferred, but either of these is an excellent chick feed. Oats in -these forms are expensive and should be purchased in bulk, not in -packages. If too expensive, oats should be used only for a few days, -when they may be replaced by cheaper grains. Cracked corn is the -best and cheapest chick food. Flaxseed could be used in small -quantities. Kaffir-corn, wheat, cow-peas—in fact any wholesome -grain—may be used, the more variety the better. Farmers possessing -feed-mills have no excuse for feeding chicks exclusively on one kind -of grain. If there is no way of grinding corn on the farm, oatmeal, -millet seed and corn chop can be purchased. At about one week of age -whole Kaffir-corn, and, a little later whole wheat, can be used to -replace the more expensive feeds. -</p> -<p> -Green or bulky food of some kind is necessary to the healthy growth -of young chickens. Chickens fed in litter from clover or alfalfa -will pick up many bits of leaves. This answers the purpose fairly -well, but it is advisable to feed some leafy vegetable, as kale or -lettuce. The chicks should be gotten on some growing green crop as -soon as possible. -</p> -<p> -Chickens are not by nature vegetarians. They require some meat to -thrive. It has been proven in several experiments that young -chickens with an allowance of meat foods make much better growth -than chickens with a vegetable diet, even when the chemical -constituents and the variety of the two rations are practically the -same. -</p> -<p> -Very few farmers feed any meat whatever. They rely on insects to -supply the deficiency. This would be all right if the insects were -plentiful and lasted throughout the year, but as conditions are it -will pay the farmer to supplement this source of food with the -commercial meat foods. -</p> -<p> -Fresh bone, cut by bone-cutters, is an excellent source of the meat -and mineral matter needed by growing chicks. If one is handy to a -butcher shop that will agree to furnish fresh bones at little or no -cost, it will pay to get a bone-mill, but the cost of the mill and -labor of grinding are considerable items, and unless the supply of -bones is reliable and convenient this source of meat foods is not to -be depended upon. -</p> -<p> -The best way to feed beef-scrap is to keep a supply in the hopper so -the chickens may help themselves. In case meat food is given, -bone-meal, fed in small quantities, will form a valuable addition to -their ration. Infertile eggs from incubators, as well as by-products -of the dairy, can be used to help out in the animal-food portion of -the ration. Chickens may be given all the milk they will drink. It -is generally recommended that this be given clabbered. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Feeding Laying Hens. -</p> -<p> -The food requirements of a laying hen are very like those of a -growing chicken. One addition to the list is, however, required for -egg production, which is lime, of which the shell of the egg is -formed. In the summer-time hens on the range will find sufficient -lime to supply their needs. In the winter-time they should be -supplied with more lime than the food contains. Crushed oyster shell -answers the purpose admirably. -</p> -<p> -A supply of green food is one of the requisites of successful winter -feeding. Every farmer should see that a patch of rye, crimson -clover, or some other winter green crop is grown near his -chicken-house. Vegetables and refuse from the kitchen help out in -this matter, but seldom furnish a sufficient supply. Vegetables may -be grown for this purpose. Mangels and sugar-beets are excellent. -Cabbage, potatoes and turnips answer the purpose fairly well. -Mangels are fed by splitting in halves and sticking to nails driven -in the wall. -</p> -<p> -Clover and alfalfa are excellent chicken feeds and should be used in -regions where winter crops will not keep green. The leaves that -shatter off in the mow are the choicest portion for chicken feeding, -and may be fed by scalding with hot water and mixing in a mash. Hens -will eat good green alfalfa if fed dry in a box. -</p> -<p> -The feeding of sprouted oats should be practiced when no other green -food is available. Oats may be prepared for this purpose by -thoroughly soaking in warm water and being kept in a warm, damp -place for a few days. Feed when the sprouts are a couple of inches -long. -</p> -<p> -Almost all grains are suitable foods for hens. Corn, on account of -its cheapness and general distribution, is the best. The general -prejudice against corn feeding should be directed rather against -feeding one grain alone without the other forms of food. If hens are -supplied with green foods, with mineral matter, some form of meat -food, and are forced to take sufficient amount of exercise, the -danger from overfatness, due to the feeding of a reasonable amount -of corn, need not be feared. -</p> -<p> -As has already been emphasized, the variety of food given is more -essential than the kind. Do not feed one grain all the time. The -more variety fed the better. Corn and Kaffir-corn, being cheap -grains, will form the major portion of the ration, but, even if much -higher in price, it will pay to add a portion of such grain as -wheat, barley, oats or buckwheat. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Cleanliness. -</p> -<p> -The advice commonly given in poultry papers would require one to -exercise nearly as much pains in the cleaning of a chicken house as -in the cleaning of a kitchen. Such advice may be suitable for the -city poultry fanciers, but it is out of place when given to the -farmer. Poultry raising, the same as other farm work, must pay for -the labor put into it, and this will not be the case if attempt is -made to follow all the suggestions of the theoretical poultry -writer. -</p> -<p> -The ease with which the premises may be kept reasonably free from -litter and filth is largely a matter of convenient arrangement. The -handiest plan from this view-point is the colony system. In this the -houses are moved to new locations when the ground becomes soiled. If -the chicken-house is a stationary structure it should be built away -from other buildings, scrap-piles, fence corners, etc., so that the -ground can be frequently freshened by plowing and sowing in oats, -rye or rape. The ground should be well sloped, so that the water -draining from the surface may wash away much of the filth that on -level ground would accumulate. -</p> -<p> -Cleanliness indoors can be simplified by proper arrangement. First, -the house must be dry. Poultry droppings, when dry, are not a source -of danger if kept out of the feed. They should be removed often -enough to prevent foul odors. Drinking vessels should be rinsed out -when refilled and not allowed to accumulate a coat of slime. If a -mash is fed, feed-boards should be scraped off and dried in the sun. -Sunshine is a cheap and efficient disinfectant. -</p> -<p> -The advice on the control of lice and the method of handling sick -chickens that has been given in the main section of the book, will -apply as well on the farm as on the commercial poultry plant. -Certainly the farmer's time is too valuable to fool with the details -of poultry therapeutics. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Farm Chicken Houses. -</p> -<p> -The following notes on poultry houses apply to Iowa and Nebraska, -where the winters are severe, and similar climates. Farther south -and east the farmer should use the same style of houses as -recommended for egg farms. A chicken house just high enough for a -man to walk erectly and a floor space of about 3 square feet per hen -is advisable. This requires a house 12 by 24 for 100 hens, or 10 by -16 for 50. -</p> -<p> -Lands sloping to south or southeast, and that which dries quickly -after a rain, will prove the most suitable for chickens. A gumbo -patch should not be selected as a location for poultry. Hogs and -hens should not occupy the same quarters, in fact, should be some -distance apart, especially if heavy breeds of chickens are kept. -Hens should be removed from the garden, but may be near an orchard. -Chicken-houses should be separated from tool-houses, stables, and -other outbuildings. -</p> -<p> -Grading for chicken-houses is not commonly practiced, but this is -the easiest means of preventing dampness in the house and is -necessary in heavy soils. The ground-level may be raised with a plow -and scraper, or the foundation of the house may be built and filled -with dirt. -</p> -<p> -A stone foundation is best, but where stone is expensive may be -replaced by cedar, hemlock or Osage orange posts, deeply set in the -ground. Small houses can be built on runners as described for colony -houses for an egg farm. -</p> -<p> -Floors are commonly constructed of earth, boards or cement. Cement -floors are perfectly sanitary and easy to keep clean. The objections -to their common use is the first cost of good cement floors. Cheaply -constructed floors will not last. Board floors are very common and -are preferred by many poultrymen, but if close to the ground they -harbor rats, while if open underneath they make the house cold. -Covering wet ground by a board floor does not remedy the fault of -dampness nearly so effectually as would a similar expenditure spent -in raising the floor and surrounding ground by grading. All things -considered, the dirt floor is the most suitable. This should be made -by filling in above the outside ground-level. The drainage will be -facilitated if the first layer of this floor be of cinders, small -rocks or other coarse material. Above this layer should be placed a -layer of clay, wet and packed hard, so the hens cannot scratch it -up, or a different plan may be used and the floor constructed of a -sandy or loamy soil of which the top layer can be renewed each year. -</p> -<p> -The walls of a chicken-house must first of all be wind-tight. This -may be attained in several ways. Upright boards with cracks battened -is the cheapest method. Various kinds of lap-siding give similar -results. The single-board wall may be greatly improved by lining -with building-paper. This should be put on between the studding and -siding. Lath should also be used to prevent the paper bagging out -from the wall. The double-board wall is the best where a warm house -is desired. -</p> -<p> -It should be made by siding up outside the studding with cheap -lumber. On this is placed a layer of roofing paper and over it the -ordinary siding. The windows of a chicken-house should furnish -sufficient light that the hens may find grain in the litter on -cloudy days. Too much glass in a poultry house makes the house cold -at night, and it is a needless expenditure. -</p> -<p> -The subject of roofing farm buildings may be summarized in this -advice: Use patent roofing if you know of a variety that will last; -if not, use shingles. Shingle roofs require a steeper pitch than do -roofs of prepared roofing. A shingle roof can be made much warmer by -using tightly laid sheathing covered with building-paper. Especial -care should be taken that the joints at the eaves of the house are -tightly fitted. -</p> -<p> -The object of ventilating a chicken-house is to supply a reasonable -amount of fresh air, and, equally important, to keep the house dry. -Ventilation should not be by cracks or open cupolas. Direct drafts -of air are injurious, and ventilation by such means is always the -greatest when the least needed. -</p> -<p> -Schemes of ventilation by a system of pipes are expensive and -unnecessary. The latest, best and cheapest plan for providing -ventilation is the curtain front house for the north, and the open -front house for the more southerly sections. The curtain front house -is giving way to the open front with a somewhat smaller opening in -sections, as far north as Connecticut. -</p> -<p> -Make all roosts on the same level. The ladder arrangement is a -nuisance and offers no advantage. Arrange the roosts so that they -may be readily removed for cleaning. Do not fill the chicken-house -full of roosts. Put in only enough to accommodate the hens, and let -these be on one side of the house. The floor under the roosts should -be separated from the feeding floor by a board set on edge. -</p> -<p> -For laying flocks the nests must be clean, secluded and plentiful. -Boxes under the roost-platform will answer, but a better plan is to -have the nest upon a shelf along a side wall so arranged as to allow -the hen to enter from the rear side. Nests should be constructed so -that all parts are accessible to a white-wash brush. The less -contrivances in a chicken-house, the better. -</p> -<p> -The farmer can get along very well without any chicken-yard at all. -It will, however, prove a very convenient arrangement if a small -yard is attached to the chicken-house. The house should be arranged -to open either into the yard or out into the range. This yard may be -used for fattening chickens or confining cockerels, or perhaps to -enclose the flock during the ripening of a favorite tomato or berry -crop. -</p> -<center> -<b>THE END.</b> -</center> - - -<div style="height: 6em;"><br><br><br><br><br><br></div> - -<center> -<img src="images/hencover.jpg" alt="Cover."> -</center> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Dollar Hen, by Milo M. 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Hastings - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: The Dollar Hen - -Author: Milo M. Hastings - -Release Date: August 22, 2004 [EBook #13254] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DOLLAR HEN *** - - - - -Produced by Roger Taft, grandson of Milo Hastings, -Jim Tinsley, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team. - - - -[Transcriber's Note: This printing had more than its share of typographical -errors. Obvious typos, like "tim" for "time", have been corrected.] - - - - - - -THE DOLLAR HEN - -BY - -MILO M. HASTINGS - -FORMERLY POULTRYMAN AT -KANSAS EXPERIMENT STATION; -LATER IN CHARGE OF THE COMMERCIAL -POULTRY INVESTIGATION -OF THE UNITED STATES -DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE - -SYRACUSE - -NATIONAL POULTRY MAGAZINE - -1911 - -COPYRIGHT, 1911, - -BY - -NATIONAL POULTRY PUBLISHING COMPANY - - - - - -WHY THIS BOOK WAS WRITTEN - -Twenty-five years ago there were in print hundreds of complete -treatises on human diseases and the practice of medicine. -Notwithstanding the size of the book-shelves or the high standing of -the authorities, one might have read the entire medical library of -that day and still have remained in ignorance of the fact that -out-door life is a better cure for consumption than the contents of -a drug store. The medical professor of 1885 may have gone -prematurely to his grave because of ignorance of facts which are -to-day the property of every intelligent man. - -There are to-day on the book-shelves of agricultural colleges and -public libraries, scores of complete works on "Poultry" and hundreds -of minor writings on various phases of the industry. Let the -would-be poultryman master this entire collection of literature and -he is still in ignorance of facts and principles, a knowledge of -which in better developed industries would be considered prime -necessities for carrying on the business. - -As a concrete illustration of the above statement, I want to point -to a young man, intelligent, enterprising, industrious, and a -graduate of the best known agricultural college poultry course in -the country. This lad invested some $18,000 of his own and his -friends' money in a poultry plant. The plant was built and the -business conducted in accordance with the plans and principles of -the recognized poultry authorities. To-day the young man is bravely -facing the proposition of working on a salary in another business, -to pay back the debts of honor resulting from his attempt to apply -in practice the teaching of our agricultural colleges and our -poultry bookshelves. - -The experience just related did not prove disastrous from some -single item of ignorance or oversight; the difficulty was that the -cost of growing and marketing the product amounted to more than the -receipts from its sale. This poultry farm, like the surgeon's -operation, "was successful, but the patient died." - -The writer's belief in the reality of the situation as above -portrayed warrants him in publishing the present volume. Whether his -criticism of poultry literature is founded on fact or fancy may, -five years after the copyright date of this book, be told by any -unbiased observer. - -I have written this book for the purpose of assisting in placing the -poultry business on a sound scientific and economic basis. The book -does not pretend to be a complete encyclopedia of information -concerning poultry, but treats only of those phases of poultry -production and marketing upon which the financial success of the -business depends. - -The reader who is looking for information concerning fancy breeds, -poultry shows, patent processes, patent foods, or patent methods, -will be disappointed, for the object of this book is to help the -poultryman to make money, not to spend it. - - - - - -HOW TO READ THIS BOOK - -Unless the reader has picked up this volume out of idle curiosity, -he will be one of the following individuals: - -1. A farmer or would-be farmer, who is interested in poultry -production as a portion of the work of general farming. - -2. A poultryman or would-be poultryman, who wishes to make a -business of producing poultry or eggs for sale as a food product or -as breeding stock. - -3. A person interested in poultry as a diversion and who enjoys -losing a dollar on his chickens almost as well as earning one. - -4. A man interested in poultry in the capacity of an editor, teacher -or some one engaged as a manufacturer or dealer in merchandise the -sale of which is dependent upon the welfare of the poultry industry. - -To the reader of the fourth class I have no suggestions to make save -such as he will find in the suggestions made to others. - -To the reader of the third class I wish to say that if you are a -shoe salesman, who has spent your evenings in a Brooklyn flat, -drawing up plans for a poultry plant, I have only to apologize for -any interference that this book may cause with your highly -fascinating amusement. - -To the poultryman already in the business, or to the man who is -planning to engage in the business for reasons equivalent to those -which would justify his entering other occupations of the -semi-technical class, such as dairying, fruit growing or the -manufacture of washing machines, I wish to say it is for you that -"The Dollar Hen" is primarily written. - -This book does not assume you to be a graduate of a technical -school, but it does bring up discussions and use methods of -illustration that may be unfamiliar to many readers. That such -matter is introduced is because the subject requires it; and if it -is confusing to the student he will do better to master it than to -dodge it. Especially would I call your attention to the diagrams -used in illustrating various statistics. Such diagrams are -technically called "curves." They may at first seem mere crooked -lines, if so I suggest that you get a series of figures in which you -are interested, such as the daily egg yields of your own flock or -your monthly food bills, and "plot" a few curves of your own. After -you catch on you will be surprised at the greater ease with which -the true meaning of a series of figures can be recognized when this -graphic method is used. - -I wish to call the farmer's attention to the fact that poultry -keeping as an adjunct to general farming, especially to general -farming in the Mississippi Valley, is quite a different proposition -from poultry production as a regular business. Poultry keeping as a -part of farm life and farm enterprise is a thing well worth while in -any section of the United States, whereas poultry keeping, a -separate occupation, requires special location and special -conditions to make it profitable. I would suggest the farmer first -read Chapter XVI, which is devoted to his special conditions. Later -he may read the remainder of the book, but should again consult the -part on farm poultry production before attempting to apply the more -complicated methods to his own needs. - -Chapter XVI, while written primarily for the farmer, is, because of -the simplicity of its directions, the best general guide for the -beginner in poultry keeping wherever he may be. - -To the reader in general, I want to say, that the table of contents, -a part of the book which most people never read, is in this volume -so placed and so arranged that it cannot well be avoided. Read it -before you begin the rest of the book, and use it then and -thereafter in guiding you toward the facts that you at the time -particularly want to know. Many people in starting to read a book -find something in the first chapter which does not interest them and -cast aside the work, often missing just the information they are -seeking. The conspicuous arrangement of the contents is for the -purpose of preventing such an occurrence in this case. - - - - - - WHAT IS IN THIS VOLUME - - - CHAPTER I - - IS THERE MONEY IN THE POULTRY BUSINESS? - A Big Business; Growing Bigger - Less Ham and More Eggs - Who Gets the Hen Money? - - - CHAPTER II - - WHAT BRANCH OF THE POULTRY BUSINESS? - Various Poultry Products - The Duck Business - Squabs Have Been Overdone - Turkeys not Adapted to Commercial Growing - Guinea Growing a New Venture - Geese, the Fame of Watertown - The Ill-omened Broiler Business - South Shore Roasters - Too Much Competition in Fancy Poultry - Egg Farming the Most Certain and Profitable - - - CHAPTER III - - THE POULTRY PRODUCING COMMUNITY - Established Poultry Communities - Developing Poultry Communities - Will Co-operation Work? - Co-operative Egg Marketing in Denmark - Corporation or Co-operation - - - CHAPTER IV - - WHERE TO LOCATE - Some Poultry Geography - Chicken Climate - Suitable Soil - Marketing--Transportation - Availability of Water - A Few Statistics - - - CHAPTER V - - THE DOLLAR HEN FARM - The Plan of Housing - The Feeding System - Water Systems - Out-door Accommodations - Equipment for Chick Rearing - Twenty-five Acre Poultry Farms - Five Acre Poultry Farms - - - CHAPTER VI - - INCUBATION - Fertility of Eggs - The Wisdom of the Egyptians - Principles of Incubation - Moisture and Evaporation - Ventilation--Carbon Dioxide - Turning Eggs - Cooling Eggs - Searching for the "Open Sesame" of Incubation - The Box Type of Incubator in Actual Use - The Future of Incubation - - - CHAPTER VII - - FEEDING - Conventional Food Chemistry - How the Hen Unbalances Balanced Rations - - - CHAPTER VIII - - DISEASES - Don't Doctor Chickens - The Causes of Poultry Diseases - Chicken Cholera - Roup - Chicken-pox, Gapes, Limber-neck - Lice and Mites - - - CHAPTER IX - - POULTRY FLESH AND POULTRY FATTENING - Crate Fattening - Caponizing - - - CHAPTER X - - MARKETING POULTRY CARCASSES - Farm Grown Chickens - The Special Poultry Plant - Suggestions From Other Countries - Cold Storage of Poultry - Drawn or Undrawn Fowls - Poultry Inspection - - - CHAPTER XI - - QUALITY IN EGGS - Grading Eggs - How Eggs are Spoiled - Egg Size Table - The Loss Due to Carelessness - Requisites of Producing High Grade Eggs - - - CHAPTER XII - - HOW EGGS ARE MARKETED - The Country Merchant - The Huckster - The Produce Buyer - The City Distribution of Eggs - Cold Storage of Eggs - Preserving Eggs Out of Cold Storage - Improved Methods of Marketing Farm-Grown Eggs - The High Grade Egg Business - Buying Eggs by Weight - The Retailing of Eggs by the Producer - The Price of Eggs - N.Y. Mercantile Exchange, Official Quotations - - - CHAPTER XIII - - BREEDS OF CHICKENS - Breed Tests - The Hen's Ancestors - What Breed? - - - CHAPTER XIV - - PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC BREEDING - Breeding as an Art - Scientific Theories of Breeding - Breeding for Egg Production - - - CHAPTER XV - - EXPERIMENT STATION WORK - The Stations Leading in Poultry Work - The Story of the "Big Coon" - Important Experimental Results at the Illinois Station - Experimental Bias - The Egg Breeding Work at the Maine Station - - - CHAPTER XVI - - POULTRY ON THE GENERAL FARM - Best Breeds for the Farm - Keep Only Workers - Hatching Chicks with Hens - Incubators on the Farm - Rearing Chicks - Feeding Laying Hens - Cleanliness - Farm Chicken Houses - - - -THE DOLLAR HEN - - - - -CHAPTER I - -IS THERE MONEY IN THE POULTRY BUSINESS? - - -The chicken business is big. No one knows how big it is and no one -can find out. The reason it is hard to find out is because so many -people are engaged in it and because the chicken crop is sold, not -once a year, but a hundred times a year. - -Statistics are guesses. True statistics are the sum of little -guesses, but often figures published as statistics are big guesses -by a guesser who is big enough to have his guess accepted. - - -A Big Business; Growing Bigger - -The only real statistics for the poultry crop of the United States -are those of the Federal Census. At this writing these statistics -are nine years old and somewhat out of date. The value of poultry -and eggs in 1899, according to the census figures, was $291,000,000. -Is this too big or too little? I don't know. If the reader wishes to -know let him imagine the census enumerator asking a farmer the value -of the poultry and eggs which he has produced the previous year. -Would the farmer's guess be too big or too small? - -From these census figures as a base, estimates have been made for -later years. The Secretary of Agriculture, or, speaking more -accurately, a clerk in the Statistical Bureau of the Department of -Agriculture, says the poultry and egg crop for 1907 was over -$600,000,000. - -The best two sources of information known to the writer by which -this estimate may be checked are the receipts of the New York market -and the annual "Value of Poultry and Eggs Sold," as given by the -Kansas State Board of Agriculture. - -[Illustration: Plate I. Page 14. Graph - Is There Money in Poultry?] - -In plate I the top curve a-a gives the average spring price of -Western first eggs in the New York market. The curve b-b gives the -annual receipts of eggs at New York in millions of cases. Now, since -value equals quantity multiplied by price, and since the quantity -and values of poultry are closely correlated to those of eggs, the -product of these two figures is a fair means of showing the rate of -increase in the value of the poultry crop. Starting with the census -value of $291,000,000 for the year 1899, we thus find that by 1907 -the amount is very close to $700,000,000. This is represented by the -lower line. - -The value of the poultry and eggs sold in Kansas have increased as -follows: - - - Year Value - - 1903 $ 6,498,856 - 1904 7,551,871 - 1905 8,541,153 - 1906 9,085,896 - 1907 10,300,082 - - -The dotted line e-e represents the increase in the national poultry -and egg crop estimated from the Kansas figures. Evidently the -estimate given in Secretary Wilson's report was not excessive. - -Now, I want to call the reader's attention to some relations about -which there can be no doubt and which are even more significant. The -straight line c-c in Plate 1 represents the rate of increase of -population in this country. The line b-b represents the rate of -increase in egg receipts at New York. As the country data backs up -the New York figures, the conclusion is inevitable that the -production of poultry and eggs is increasing much more rapidly than -is our population. - -"Over-production," I hear the pessimist cry, but unfortunately for -Friend Pessimist, we have a gauge on the over-production idea that -lays all fears to rest. When the supply of any commodity increases -faster than the demand, we have over-production and falling prices. -Vice-versa, under-production is shown by a rising price. That prices -of poultry and eggs have risen and risen rapidly, has already been -shown. - -"But prices of all products have risen," says one. Very true, but by -statistics with which I will not burden the reader, I find that -prices of poultry products have risen more rapidly than the average -rise in values of all commodities. This shows that poultry products -are really more in demand and more valuable, not apparently so. -Moreover, the rise in the price of poultry products has been much -more pronounced than the average rise in the price of all food -products, which proves the growing demand for poultry and eggs to be -a real growing demand, not a turning to poultry products because of -the high price of other foods, as is sometimes stated. - - -Less Ham and More Eggs. - -Certainly we, as a nation, are rapidly becoming eaters of hens and -of hen fruit. Reasons are not hard to find. Poultry and eggs are the -most palatable, most wholesome, most convenient of foods. Our -demands for the products of the poultry yard grows because we are -learning to like them, and because our prosperity has grown and we -can afford them. - -Another reason that the consumption of eggs is growing is because -the condition in which they reach the consumer is improving. The -writer may say some pretty hard things in this work about the -condition of poultry and eggs as they are now marketed, but any -old-timer in the business will tell you stories of things as they -used to be that will easily explain why our fathers ate more ham and -less eggs. - -Yet another reason why the per capita consumption of hens as -measured in pounds or dollars increases, is that the hen herself has -increased in size; whereas John when he was Johnnie ate a two-ounce -drumstick, now Johnnie eats an analogous piece that weighs three -ounces. Perhaps, also, we have a growing respect for the law of -Moses, or may be vegetarians who think that eggs grow on egg plants -are becoming more numerous. - -Our consumption of pork per capita has, in the last half century, -diminished by half, our consumption of beef has remained stationary, -but our consumption of poultry and eggs has doubled itself, we know -not how many times, for a half century ago the ancestor of the -industrious hen of this age serenely scratched up grandmother's -geraniums and was unmolested by the statisticians. - - -Who Gets the Hen Money? - -Seven hundred millions of dollars is a lot of money. Who gets it? -There are no Rockefellers or Armours in the hen business. It is the -people's business. Why? Because the nature of the business is such -that it cannot be centralized. Land and intelligent labor, prompted -by the spirit of ownership, is necessary to succeed in the hen -business. Land the captains of industry have not monopolized, and -labor imbued with the spirit of ownership they cannot monopolize. -The chicken business is, in dollars, one of the biggest industries -in the country. In numbers of those engaged in it, the chicken -business is the biggest industry in the world--I bar none. Why is -this true? Primarily because the hen is a natural part of the -equipment of every farm and of many village homes as well. It is -these millions of small flocks that count up in dollars and men and -give such an immense aggregate. - -More than ninety-eight per cent. of the poultry and eggs of the -country are produced on the general farm. The remaining one or two -per cent. are produced on farms or plants where chicken culture is -the cash crop or chief business of the farmer. It is this business, -relatively small, though actually a matter of millions, that is -commonly spoken of as the poultry business, and about which our -chief interest centers. A farmer can disregard all knowledge and all -progress and still keep chickens, but the man who has no other means -of a livelihood must produce chicken products efficiently, or fail -altogether--hence the greater interest in this portion of the -industry. - -The poultry business as a business to occupy a man's time and earn -him a livelihood, is a thing of recent origin and was little heard -of before 1890. Since that time it has undergone a somewhat painful, -though steady growth. Many people have lost money in the business -and have given it up in disgust, but on a whole the business has -progressed wonderfully, and now shows features of development that -are clearly beyond the experimental stage and are undoubtedly here -to stay. - -The suggestion has been made by those who have failed or have seen -others fail in the poultry business, that success was impossible -because of the destructive competition of the farmer, whose expense -of production is small. Herein lies a great truth and a great error. -The farmer's cost of production is small, much smaller than that on -most of the book-made poultry farms--but the inference that the -poultryman's cost of production cannot be lowered below that of the -farmer is a different statement. - -The farm of our grandfather was a very diversified institution. It -contained in miniature a woolen mill, a packing house, a cheese -factory, perhaps a shoe factory and a blacksmith shop. One by one -these industries have been withdrawn from general farm-life, and -established as independent businesses. Likewise our dairy farms, our -fruit farms, and our market gardens have been segregated from the -general farm. This simply means that manufacturing cloth, or cheese, -or producing milk, or tomatoes can be done at less cost in separate -establishments than upon a general farm. - -The general farm will always grow poultry for home consumption, and -will always have some surplus to sell. With the surplus, the -poultryman must compete. His only hope of successful competition is -production at lower cost. Can this be done? It is being done, and -the numbers of people who are doing it are increasing, but they -spend little money at poultry shows, or with the advertisers of -poultry papers, and hence are little heard of in the poultry world. - -The people whose names and faces are in the poultry papers are -frequently there only while their money lasts. They write long -articles and show pictures of many houses and yards to prove that -there is money in the poultry business, but if one should keep their -names and put the question to them five years hence, a great many -could say, "Yes, there is money in the poultry business; mine is in -it." - -Such people and such plants do not get the cost of production down -below the farmer's level. Between these two classes of poultry -plants, the writer hopes in this work to show the distinction. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -WHAT BRANCH OF THE POULTRY BUSINESS? - - -The chicken business is especially prone to failure from a disregard -of the common essential relation of cost and selling price necessary -to the success of any business. That this should be more true of the -poultry business than of any other undertakings is to be explained -by the facts that as a business, it is new, that many of those who -engage in it are inexperienced, but most particularly because -practically all the literature published on the subject has been -written by or written in the interest of those who had something to -sell to the poultryman. As a result the figures of production are -generally given higher than the facts warrant. The investor, be he -ever so shrewd a man, builds upon these promises and when he finds -his production lower, is caught with an excessive investment and a -complicated system on his hands, which make all profits impossible -and which cannot readily be adapted to the new conditions. - -Estimates of poultry profits are quite common, but there are few -published figures showing the results that are actually obtained -under practical working conditions. In this volume I will try to -give the facts of what is being and can be actually accomplished. - - -Various Poultry Products. - -In considering the poultry industry we must first get some idea of -the various articles produced for sale. - -It is common knowledge that the large meat packer can undersell the -small packer because the by-products, such as bristles, which are -wasted by the local killer, are a source of income to the large -packer. Now, this does not infer that the small packer is shiftless -and neglects to save his bristles, but that on the scale on which he -operates it would cost him more to save the bristles than he could -realize on them. - -So it is with poultry farming. For illustration: A visionary writer -in a leading poultry paper, not long ago, advised poultrymen to -store eggs. In reality this would be the height of folly, unless the -poultryman had his own retail store. In the first place profit on -cold storage eggs, when all expenses are paid, will not average a -half a cent a dozen; in the second place, the small lot would be -relatively troublesome and expensive to handle, and in the third -place, small lots of cold storage eggs are looked upon with -suspicion and do not find ready sale. So we see that cold storage -eggs are not a suitable product for the small poultryman to handle. - -A second illustration of an ill-chosen combination might be taken in -the case of a duck farmer who attempts to produce broilers. The -principal difficulty of the duck business is that of getting -sufficient intelligent labor in the rush season. The chief expense -of investment is for incubators and brooder houses. If the duck -farmer now tries to add broilers, he will find that the labor comes -at the same time of the year, that the chief equipment required is -that which is already crowded by the duck business, and that of the -men who have succeeded moderately well in caring for ducks will fail -altogether with the young chicks, which do not thrive under the same -machine-like methods. - -On the other hand, let us take the example of an egg farm man who -has resolved to combine his attention wholly to the production of -market eggs. He succeeds well in his work and is visited by the -poultry editors. His picture, the picture of his chickens and of his -chicken houses, are printed in the poultry papers. For a reasonable -sum invested in advertising and in exhibition at the shows, this man -could now double his income by going into the breeding stock -business. To refuse to spread out in this case would certainly be -foolish. - -The following classification of the sales products of the poultry -industry is given as a basis for farther consideration. - - - CHICKENS. - -For food purposes: - - Eggs. - Hens, after laying has been finished. - Cockerels, necessarily hatched in hatching pullets for layers. - (Sold as squab broilers, regular broilers, springs, - roasters or capons.) - Both sexes as squab broilers, broilers or roasters. - -For stock purposes: - Eggs for hatching. - Day-old chicks. - Mature fowls. - - - DUCKS. - -For table--green or spring ducks. - By-products, old ducks and duck feathers. - -For breeding-stock. - - - GEESE. - - Food, Feathers, Breeders. - - - TURKEYS. - - Food, Breeders. - - - PIGEONS. - - Squabs, Breeding Stock. - - - GUINEAS. - - Broilers, Mature Fowls. - - -I will now discuss these products more in detail. Poultry, other -than chickens, I do not care to discuss at length, because it is not -for the purpose of the book, and because the demand for other kinds -of poultry is limited and the chance for the growth of the business -small. - - -The Duck Business. - -The duck business is the most highly commercialized at the present -time of any branch of the poultry business. The duck is the oldest -domestic bird and was hatched by artificial incubation in China, -when our ancestors were gnawing raw bones in the caves of Europe. -The duck is the most domestic of birds and will thrive under more -machine-like methods and without that touch of nature and of the -owner's kindly interest so necessary to the welfare of the fowls of -the gallinaceous order. The green duck business is about twenty -years old and has become an established business in every sense of -the word. The largest plants now produce about one hundred thousand -ducks per annum. The profits at present are not large even for the -most successful plants, because the demand is limited and the -production has reached such a point that cost of production and -selling price bear a definite relation as in all established -businesses. The green duck business is not an easy one for the -novice because the margin between cost (chiefly food cost) and -selling price is low, and unless the new man can reduce the cost of -production or raise his selling price in some way, he will have no -advantage over the old and successful firms. - - -Squab Business Overdone. - -The business of producing pigeon squabs resembles the duck business -in the sense that it has been reduced to a successful system. The -production of squabs has grown until the demand is satisfied and the -price has fallen to just that figure that will continue to bring in -a sufficient number of squabs from the plants which are already -established, or which continue to be established by those who do not -stop to investigate the relation between the cost of production and -the prevailing prices. - - -Turkeys Not a Commercial Success. - -In the case of turkeys, we find exactly opposite conditions. The -price of turkeys has risen with the price of chickens and eggs, -until one would think that there would be great money in the -business, and there is, for the motherly farm wife who has the knack -of bringing the little turks through the danger of delicate -babyhood. But just as the duck is more domesticated than the -chicken, so the turkey, which yet closely resembles its wild -ancestor, is less domestic and has as yet failed to surrender to the -ways of commercial reasoning, the chief factor of which is -artificial brooding. - -The presence of a disease called blackhead has done vast injury to -the turkey industry in the northeastern section of the country. In -the South the industry has been booming. Especially in Tennessee and -Texas, I found great local pride in the turkey crop. I certainly -would advise any farm wife, in sections where blackhead does not -prevail, to try her hand at turkey raising. As to her advisability -of continuance in the business, the number of turkeys at the end of -the season will be the best judge. - - -Guinea Growing a New Venture. - -The guinea growing business is the newest of the poultry industries. -In fact, it may be said of guineas, as of our grandmother's -tomatoes, "Folks had them around without knowing they were of any -use." The new use for guineas is as a substitute for game. Guinea -broilers make quail-on-toast and older ones are good for grouse, -prairie chicken or pheasant. The retail price in the large cities -runs as high as $1.50 to $2.00 a pair. It will probably not pay to -raise them unless one is sure of receiving as much as 50 cents each. -As for the rearing of guineas, they may be considered on a parallel -case with turkeys, if anything they are even more difficult to raise -in large quantities. I would also advise this additional precaution: -Look up the market in the locality before attempting guinea rearing. - - -Geese--the Fame of Watertown. - -As for the goose business, the writer must admit that he doesn't -know much about it. In fact, the most of my knowledge concerning -this business was acquired by a visit to Watertown, Wis., which is -the center of the noodled goose industry - -The Watertown geese are fed by hand every two hours day and night. -They sell to the Hebrew trade at as much per pound as the goose -weighs, and have brought as high as $14.00 apiece. All of this is -interesting, but I hold that the reader who is willing to take -instruction will do better to be guided toward those branches of the -poultry industry for the products of which there is a great and -increasing demand. So we will leave the goose and guinea business to -the venturesome spirits and consider the various branches of the -chicken industry. - - -The Ill-omened Broiler Business. - -The broiler business stands to-day as the ill-omened valley in the -poultry landscape. As a rule broiler production has not and probably -will not pay. I know of a few exceptions--about enough to prove the -rule. - -Most poultry writers, when they make the statement that broilers do -not pay, insert the phrase "As an exclusive business" after the word -broilers. This is merely a ruse to take the rough edge off an -unpleasant statement, for it certainly hurts the poultry editor to -admit that a much exploited branch of the industry is a failure. -Nevertheless it is a failure and the more frankly we admit the fact, -the less good capital and good brains will be wasted in the attempt -to produce at a profit something which is, and probably always will -be, produced at a loss. - -The reason the broiler is produced at a loss is that 95 per cent. of -the broilers produced are a by-product of egg, fancy and general -poultry production, and as such their selling price is not -determined by the cost of production, or the supply determined by -the demand. That the broiler business received the boom that it did, -is due to plain ignorance of the cost of production, or to the -appreciation that the ability to rear young chicks could find a more -profitable outlet than in broiler production. Let us take an -analogous case. Suppose a city man should discover the fact that -there was a demand for dried casein from skim milk. With pencil and -paper he could easily figure profits in the business. If this -dreamer would attempt to keep cows for the production of casein and -throw away his butter fat, we would have an analogous case to the -broiler raiser who does not keep his pullets for egg production. - -The young cockerel, like skim milk, is a by-product and may pay over -the cost of feeding, or some other specific item, but that he does -not pay the whole cost, including wages for the manager is proven by -two facts: First, every large broiler plant yet started has either -failed flatly or shifted its main line to other things; second, egg -farmers would be only too glad to buy pullets at the price for which -they sell the cockerels--a confession that it costs more to produce -broilers than they will bring. - -The conception of the broiler business when it was boomed twenty -years ago was to produce broilers in early spring, when other folks -had none. It was, like the early watermelon, or the early strawberry -business--to make its profits in extreme prices. - -This idea received several severe blows from the hands of modern -progress. One is the development of poultry fattening and crate -feeding in this country. This has resulted in supplying the consumer -with choice chicken-flesh that can be produced more economically -than broilers. Formerly it was a case of eating old hen--rooster, -age unknown, or broilers--now we have capon, roaster, crate-fattened -chickens and green ducks, all rivals for the place formerly occupied -exclusively by the broiler. - -Again, the improvement of shipping and dressing facilities, the -universal introduction of the refrigerator car and the introduction -into the central west of the American breeds, has flooded the -eastern market with a large amount of spring chickens--by-products -of the egg business on the farm--which are almost equal in quality -to the down-eastern product. - -The most prominent reason of the lessened profit in broilers is the -development of the cold storage industry. Cold storage destroys the -element of season, and allows only that margin of profit that the -consumer is willing to pay for a fresh killed broiler from a Jersey -broiler plant, as compared with last summer's product from the Iowa -farms. From a summer copy of Farm Poultry, I quote the Boston -market: - - Fresh killed Northern and Eastern: - Fowls, choice 15c - Broilers, choice to fancy 23-25c - Western, ice packed: - Fowls, choice 14c - Broilers, choice 20-22c - - Western frozen: - Fowls, choice................. 14c - Broilers, choice..............18-20c - Eggs: - Nearly fancy.................. 26c - Western choice........17-1/2-18-1/2c - -To complete our comparison I turn to the previous winter and find -that the best storage eggs are quoted at 19c, when the best fresh -are selling at 35c. This was a poor storage season and a quotation -of 22c and 25c would perhaps be a fairer comparative figure. We find -the per cent, of premium on the local product to be: - - Fowls, local over fresh western........... 7 per cent. - Fowls, local over frozen western.......... 7 per cent. - Broilers, local over fresh western........14 per cent. - Broilers, local over frozen western.......26 per cent. - Eggs, local over fresh western............30 per cent. - Eggs, local over storage western..........37 per cent. - -I consider these general facts concerning the failure of broiler -production, and the logical explanations given, as far more -convincing than any figures I could give concerning the detailed -cost of production. Nor am I capable of giving as accurate figures -as I can in the case of poultry keeping for egg production, for I -have had neither the desire nor the opportunity to look them up. The -following suggestive analysis I submit for the purpose of pointing -out why the cost of production is too great to allow a profit. We -may consider the chick marketing as May, the weight as 1-1/4, and -the price as 35 cents a pound, or, putting it roundly a price of 50 -cents a bird. - -Now, May broilers mean February eggs. If the reader will refer to -the tables of hatchability and mortality he will see that for our -northern states this is one of the worst seasons for hatching. A -hatchability of 40 per cent, times a liveability of 50 per cent, -gives a net liveability of 20 per cent. Now, anyone with the ability -to produce high grade eggs at that time a year, could get about 40c -a dozen for them, which raises the egg cost per broiler to about 17 -cents. The feed cost per broiler is small, usually estimated at 12 -cents, and this makes a cost of 29 cents. Now, let us allow a cent -for expense of selling charges and forget all about investment, fuel -and incidentals, we have left a margin of 20 cents. - -Before going farther let us look at the labor bill. Suppose it is a -one-man plant. Suppose the owner sets a value on his services of -$1,200 per annum. That is pretty good, but few men who set a lower -value on their services will have accumulated enough capital to go -into the business. At 20 cents each it will take 6,000 broilers to -make $1,200. That will take 30,000 eggs and at three settings will -require 40 240-egg incubators, which, of a good make, will cost -$1,260. To spread the hatching out over a longer period is to run -into cheap prices on the one hand, or a still impossible egg season -on the other. It will take upwards of a hundred brooders to house -the chicks. - -There is no use of going farther till we have solved these -difficulties. First we have more work than one man can do; second, -we require a number of hatchable eggs that cannot be bought in -winter without a campaign of advertising and canvassing for them, -that would make them cost double our previous figure. To produce -them oneself would require a flock of 2,500 hens. When a man gets to -that point in the business he is out of the broiler business and an -egg farmer, and will do the same thing, hatch the chicks when eggs -are cheap and fertile, selling his surplus cockerels for 25 cents -each and permit the storage man to freeze them until the following -spring to compete with the broiler man's expensively produced goods. - -The effort at early broiler production was a natural result of the -combination of the idea of artificial incubation with our -grandmother's pride in having the first setting hen. But in the -present age the man who attempts it is rowing against the current of -economical production, for the cheaply produced broiler can be -stored until the season of scarcity, with but slight loss in -quality. To produce broilers in the season of scarcity, necessitates -the consumption of a product (eggs) which cannot be so successfully -stored, with a lesser quantity of that same product in its season of -plenty. We will give the production of broilers no further attention -save as a by-product of egg production. - - -South Shore Roaster. - -The production of South Shore soft roasters in a local section of -Massachusetts, offers a successful contrast with the broiler -business and is, so far as the writer knows, the only case in the -United States where pullets are profitably diverted from egg -production. The process of roaster production is essentially as -follows: - -The incubators are set in the fall or early winter, and the chicks -reared in brooder houses. As soon as the tender age is past, the -chickens are put in simple colony houses where, with hopper fed -corn, beef scrap and rye on the range, they grow throughout the -winter and spring. They are sold from May 1st to July 1st and bring -such prices that the cockerels are caponized yet not sold as capons, -showing them to be the highest priced chicken flesh in the market -save small broilers. Now, the income of roasters is two to five -times as much per head as that of broilers. The added expense is -only a matter of feed, which bears about the same ratio to weight as -with broilers. The great advantage of the roaster business over that -of the broiler business comes in the following points: - -1st: The initial expense of eggs, incubation and brooding are -distributed over a much larger final valuation. - -2nd: The incubation period, while perhaps in as difficult a -season, can be distributed over a longer period of time. - -With 8 pound roasters at 30 cents, we have an expense account about -as follows: cost of production to broiler stage, 30 cents as -previously given. An additional food cost of 10 cents per pound of -chicken flesh would still leave a margin of $1.40, so, for an income -of $1,200, only about 860 birds need be raised, a proposition not -beyond the capacity of one man to handle. - -Allowing a spread of five hatching periods, the number of eggs -required at once would be one-twelfth that demanded by the broiler -farm. As it is, the roaster grower finds trouble in getting good -eggs and is obliged to pay 50 cents a dozen for them, but his want -is within the region of possibility. - -The South Shore roaster district is an example of an industry built -up by specialization and co-operation. But in this sense I do not -mean co-operation in production, but that the product is handled by -a few dealers and has become well known so that the brand sells -readily at an advanced price. To a beginner in the South Shore -district, the numerous successes and failures around him cannot help -but be of great benefit. The South Shore roaster district of -Massachusetts is the best example of specialized community -production of poultry flesh that we have in the United States. It is -only rivaled by the districts in the south of England and in France. - -In Chapter III the writer takes up fully the community production of -eggs. The reason I have gone into this matter in regard to eggs -rather than roasters, is because the egg production is much the -greater industry, and, whereas the soft roaster is at a premium only -in a few Boston shops, high grade eggs are universally recognized -and in demand. Many of the economies, especially concerning -incubation, would apply equally well in both communities. I expect -to see the time when chicken flesh shall be produced with these more -advanced methods in many "South Shore" communities. - - -Too Much Competition in Fancy Poultry. - -The various types of chicken farming are classified by what is made -the leading sales product. This will depend wholly upon what is done -with the female chicks that are hatched. If they are sold as -broilers it is a broiler plant; if as roasters, it is a roaster -plant; if as stock, it is a fancy or breeding stock business, but if -kept for laying the proposition is an egg farm, and all other -products are by-products. These by-products are to be carefully -considered, and sold at the greatest possible price, but their -production is incidental to the production of the main crop. - -Of the fancy poultry business as a main issue it must be said that -it is certainly a poor policy to start out to make a living doing -what hundreds of other people are only too glad to spend money in -doing. Just as a homeless girl in a great city is beaten out in the -struggle for existence by competition with girls who have good -homes, and are working for chocolate money, so the man starting out -as a poultry fancier is certainly working at great odds in -competition with the professional men, farmers and poultry raisers -whose income from fancy stock is meant to buy Christmas presents and -not to pay grocery bills. - -To enter the fancy poultry business, one should take up poultry -breeding in a small way, while working at another occupation, or he -may take up commercial poultry production, learn to produce stock in -large quantities and at a low productive cost, after which any -breeding stock business he may secure will be added profit. The -fancier will find the cost of production as given for commercial -purposes very instructive, but if he operates in a small way he -should expect to find his productive costs increased unless he -chooses to count his own labor as of little or no value. That every -chicken fancier also has in a small way commercial products to sell, -goes without saying. These, indeed, together with his sales of -high-priced stock, may pull him through with a total profit, even -though his production cost is great, but every fancier should take a -pride in making the sales at commercial rates pay for their cost of -production. - -If the reader has received the impression from the present -discussion that fancy poultry breeding always proves unprofitable, -he certainly has failed to get the key-note of the situation. There -are numbers of fancy poultry breeders making incomes of several -thousand dollars per year, but these are old breeders and well-known -men. - -There is another type of poultry fancier who is more commercial in -his methods, but whose work lacks the personal enthusiasm and -artistic touch of the regular fancier. I refer to the band wagon -style of breeder who gets out a general catalog in which are -pictured acres of poultry yards with fences as straight as the -draughtsman's rule can make them. Such men do a big business. They -may carry a part or all of the breeding stock on a central poultry -plant and farm out the eggs, contracting to buy back the stock in -the fall, or the poultry farm may be a myth and the manager may -simply sell the product of the neighboring farmers who raise it -under contract. - -The system is naturally disliked by the higher class fanciers, but -the writer must confess that any system which gets improved stock -distributed among the farmers is worthy of praise. These types of -poultry farms have been more largely carried on in the West than in -the East, owing to the fact that true fanciers are thicker in the -East. There is undoubtedly still plenty of room for band wagon -poultry plants in the West and especially in the South. - -As adjuncts of this business may be mentioned the sale of a line of -poultry supplies and the handling of other pet stock, such as dogs -or Shetland ponies. In this case the advantage of such additions -depends upon the fact that the greatest cost is that of advertising, -and, if anything that will be associated in the buyer's mind with -the main article be added to the catalog, it will result in -additional sales at a low rate of advertising cost. - - -Egg Farming the Most Certain and Profitable. - -We have now discussed all the branches of the poultry business save -that of egg production, and the result of our review indicates that -most of these fields are either of limited opportunities or that -they present obstacles in the very nature of the work that prevent -their being conducted on a large scale. - -Egg production is undoubtedly the most promising and profitable -branch of the poultry industries. The chief reason that this is true -is to be found in the fact that the most difficult feature in -chicken growing is the rearing of young stock through the brooding -period. Now, as the eggs laid by a hen are worth several times the -value of her carcass, it stands to reason that once we succeed in -rearing pullets, egg farming must be the most profitable business to -engage in. - -For each hen that passes through a laying period there is her own -carcass, and at least one cockerel, that are necessarily produced -and that must be marketed. Now, the pullet is worth more for egg -producing than can be realized for her as a broiler or roaster, and -her extra worth may be considered as counter-balancing the price at -which cockerels must be sold. - -The egg crop represents about two-thirds of the value of all poultry -products, and the demand for the high grade goods has never been -satisfied. Egg farming cannot easily be overdone, whereas any other -type of poultry production must compete with the cockerels and hens -that are a by-product of egg farming. - -Egg farming by no means relieves one from the difficulties of -incubation and growing young stock, but it does throw these -difficult parts of the business at the natural season of the year -and results in a distribution of work throughout a longer period of -time. - -In the remainder of the volume we will consider the poultryman as an -egg farmer. We will also, unless otherwise stated, assume that he is -a White Leghorn egg farmer, who is hatching by artificial -incubation. Such reference to the marketing of poultry flesh or to -other breeds will be made only in comparison of this type of the -business or in relation to the production or handling of farm-grown -poultry. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -THE POULTRY PRODUCING COMMUNITY - - -The builder of air castles in Poultrydom invariably starts out with -a resumé of the specialization of the world's work and the wonderful -advances in the economy of production of the large corporate -organization, compared with the individual producer. - -The lone blacksmith hammering out a horseshoe nail is contrasted -with the mills of the American Steel Company. The fond dreamer looks -upon the steel trust, the oil trust, the department store, the -packing house, the chain groceries, the theatrical trust, and the -colossal enterprises that dominate every field of industry save -agriculture. Here, then, lies the neglected opportunity for the -industrial dreamer to hop over the fence, awaken the sleeping -farmer, and fill his own purse with the wealth to be made by -applying modern business methods to agriculture. - -The knowing smile--the farmer may be asleep and he may not be. -Suppose that he is, does the fond dreamer dream that he is the first -man from the industrial kingdom of great things to look with hungry -eyes at the rich field of agricultural opportunity, basking in last -century's sun? Alas, fond dreamer, your name is legion. Every farmer -who has sent a son to college has known you and the Hon. William -Jennings Bryan has met you, called you an agriculturist and defined -you as a man who makes his money in town and spends it in the -country. - -But the dreamer is right in his first premise--great economies in -production are the result of specialization and combination. Why not -then in agriculture? I'll tell you why. There is a touch of nature -in the living thing that calls for a closer interest on the part of -the laborer than the industrial system of the mine and factory can -give. - -Why is combined and specialized production more economical? It may -be because it gets more efficient work out of labor, it may be that -larger operations make feasible the employment of more efficient -methods and machinery. The cost of production may be lowered, by -either or both of these means, or it may be lowered by an increased -efficiency in machinery, even with a decreased efficiency in labor. - -Combination and specialization so commonly cut down expenses because -of large operations and the use of better tools, that we may take -this saving for granted. When it comes to labor there is a different -story. The negro working with boss and gang, or the machine-tender -in the factory work as well or better for large than for small -concerns, but the labor of a poultry plant is different. It is made -up of a great many different operations well scattered in space and -time. For the most part it is simple labor, but it is essential that -it be performed with reasonable concern for the welfare of the -business. - -In other industries, as with men working at a bench, the presence of -a foreman keeps them busy and their work may be daily inspected. To -have foremen in poultry work would require as many foremen as -laborers, and even then they would be as useless, for when the last -round of the brooders is made at night a foreman standing three feet -away could not know whether the laborer who had placed his hand in -the brooder had found all well or all wrong. - -It is useless to carry the argument farther. The labor bill is one -of the biggest items of expense in poultry production. With a system -where the efficiency of the labor decreases with the size of the -business, large industrial enterprises are impossible. Such savings -as will be made in buying supplies, selling, etc., will be wasted in -the reduced efficiency of labor. - -The bulk of labor in poultry work must be self-reliant labor and the -only test for such efficiency is number of chicks reared and the -weight of the egg basket. Even this will not be a complete test -unless from the income be subtracted the feed bills. - -A system of renting or working on shares that will gain the -advantages of centralization without losing the individual interest -of the laborer, will go a long way toward making the poultry -business one wherein large capital and large brains can find a place -to work. I expect to see in the future some such system evolved. In -fact we have to-day a profit-sharing plan between owner and foreman -on many of our best plants. To extend such to each laborer requires -more system and better superintendence, but it is feasible and must -come. But, better still is it for the worker to own the stock. Best -yet if he owns both stock and land, leaving to larger capital only -such phases of the business as involve great saving when done on a -wholesale basis. - -Just as the manufacturer of farm machinery, the packing of meat and -the manufacture of butter have successfully been taken out of the -control of the individual farmer and placed under corporate or -co-operative organization, so the writer expects to see certain -portions of the process of poultry production removed from the hands -of the farmer and controlled by more specialized and expert labor. -Far from meaning the lessening of the earning power of the farmer, -every one of such steps means larger production and more profits. -The ideal of agricultural economics is to give the farmer the -smallest possible proportion of the work of agricultural production -in order that the most may be produced and the farmer's share along -with the others may be largest. - - -Established Poultry Communities. - -In a previous chapter we spoke of the South Shore roaster district -of Massachusetts. Here is a community where, in lots of from a dozen -to four or five thousand, are annually produced seventy-five or one -hundred thousand market fowls of one particular type. While this -business was not built up by the efforts of a corporation or -individual who planned definitely the entire project, yet we find a -central influence at work in the person of the firm of Curtis Bros., -who for years have bought the majority of South Shore roasters, and -who have done a great deal to advertise the product and encourage -their neighbors to a larger and more uniform production. - -At Little Compton, R. I., is a very similar parallel of the South -Shore district in the shape of egg farms. Here we find within a -radius of two miles about one hundred thousand Rhode Island Red hens -owned in flocks of two thousand or less. The methods used throughout -the community are all alike and are simple in the extreme. There are -no incubators, no brooders, no poultry houses, no long houses, no -dropping boards to be scraped every morning, nothing in fact, but -board-walled, board-roofed, colony houses, scattered over the grass -fields and similar though smaller fields covered with coops for hens -and chicks. Feeding is equally simple; a mash of meat, vegetables -and ground grain mixed once a day and hauled around in a one-horse -cart and hoppers of whole corn exposed in the houses. The houses are -cleaned twice a year. Little Compton is, indeed, a community where -all the rules of the poultry books are regularly violated, and yet a -larger number of successful egg farms can be seen from the church -spire at Little Compton Corners than most poultry writers have ever -seen or read about. Strange it is, as Josh Billings puts it, that -"some folks know things that ain't so." - -An illustration published in a recent issue of the World's Work -tells a remarkable story. A pile of egg shells as big as a straw -stack certainly indicates "something doing" in the chicken business, -and it is a very proud monument to Mr. Byce who, some twenty odd -years ago, established an incubator factory at the town of Petaluma. -Petaluma is in Sonoma County, California, forty miles north of San -Francisco. In the census year of 1899, Sonoma County produced more -eggs than any other county in the United States. To-day there are in -the Petaluma region close to one million hens. - -Like the Little Compton district, Petaluma is a one-breed community, -White Leghorns being the breed used. The individual flocks range -larger than at Little Compton, chiefly because the milder climate, -smaller breed, and establishment of the central hatchery enables one -man to take care of more birds. - -When I asked Mr. Byce for a list of the people in his neighborhood -keeping over one thousand hens, he replied by sending me a list of -twenty-two men who keep from 8,000 down to 2,500 each, and said that -to give those keeping from one to two thousand, would practically be -to take a census of the county. The methods of housing and feeding -used are simple and inexpensive like those at Little Compton. - -The chief reason why Petaluma shows a more advanced development in -the poultry community than the eastern poultry growing localities, -is to be found in the climatic advantages which favor incubation -(see Chapter on Incubation) and the consequent development of the -central hatchery. Outside of this, the location is not especially -favorable. The temperature is milder in the winter than in the East, -but the Petaluma winter is one of continual rain which develops roup -to a greater extent than we have it in the East. The prices received -for high grade eggs in San Francisco is in the winter about equal to -the top prices in New York. In the spring and summer New York will -give more for fancy goods. The cost of corn on the Pacific Coast is -about 40 cents a hundred more than on the Atlantic Coast. Wheat, -however, is cheaper than in the East, but not cheap enough to -substitute for the more staple grain. - -The eggs from the Petaluma region are at present marketed largely -through a co-operative marketing association. - - -Developing Poultry Communities. - -I have shown why the large individual poultry farms with hired labor -have not proven profitable fields for the investment of capital. -Again, I have shown that in a few localities where the business was -incidentally started, communities of independent poultry farmers -have grown up which are very successful, and that there is no -apparent reason why similar communities elsewhere, if intelligently -located, could not do as well or better. - -This looks like an excellent field for corporate enterprise. -Certainly there is no more reason why the poultry community cannot -be as successfully promoted as an irrigation project, or a cheese -factory, or a trucking community. In such a community there are many -functions that can be better performed by a capitalized body managed -by experts than by individual poultrymen acting alone. - -These functions are: - -First, the selection of a location and the purchase of the land in -large quantities. - -Second, laying out this land into suitable individual holdings, with -regard to economy of water supply and the collection of the product. - -Third, the partial or complete equipment of these farms at less -expense and in a more suitable manner than could or would be done by -the individual holders. - -Fourth, the sale or rent of these places to poultrymen at a -reasonable profit on the investment, but at a rate which will still -be below the cost at which the individual could have acquired the -land. Fifth, the selection of the stock that would not only be -better adapted to the enterprise than that which would be acquired -by the individual farmer, but would possess the uniformity necessary -to the maintenance of a standard grade in the product. - -Sixth, the centralized hatching of the chicks by which means chicks -can be more cheaply hatched and better hatched than by the imperfect -methods available to the small poultryman. - -Seventh, the purchase of all outside supplies with the usual savings -involved in large purchases. - -Eighth, a teaming system of delivering such supplies. - -Ninth, a general protection against thieves and predatory animals by -an organized war on all "varments." - -Tenth, maintenance of the best methods in feeding and care by the -employment of skilled advisers, or the operation of demonstration -farms under the direction of the central management. - -Eleventh, the enforced daily gathering of all eggs and their -lodgment that same evening in a clean, dry cooler, with a -thermometer hovering around 29 degrees Fahrenheit. - -Twelfth, the strict enforcement of penalties against the man who -attempts to sell bad eggs. - -Thirteenth, the prompt dispatch of the product to its final market. - -Fourteenth, the final sale of the eggs with opportunities for fancy -prices made possible by an absolutely guaranteed product in -quantities sufficient to permit of a regular supply and of -advertising the product. - -Fifteenth, the conduction of breeding operations along any desired -line, with the opportunity of combining the principle of great -numbers for selection with the comparison of all progeny from -ancestry, a method that will bring results a hundred times more -quickly than the efforts of the small breeder. - -Sixteenth, the advantage of the sale of breeding stock to be -acquired from the free publicity which is showered on all unique -industrial enterprises. - -In these sixteen functions there is ample opportunity for capital, -backed by ability in organization, to reap an ample reward. Is it a -dream? In a sense yes, but a dream made possible by the observation -of the actual results achieved in similar lines, and of the present -tendency in the poultry producing world. - -Why has not this thing been done before? Because no one knew enough -to do it. Why did not the wonderful trucking regions develop earlier -in the South, and why does it still take northern settlers, backed -by railroad advertising, to develop the wonderful modern industries -which enables every city dweller in the North to have strawberries -in February and fresh vegetables any day in the year? - -Why did the California fruit trade develop? Did anyone suppose forty -years ago that the unsettled valley around Pasadena would ever -produce one thousand dollars per acre in one year? These orange -groves, too valuable for agricultural purposes to be used as town -sites, were precarious experiments until the trans-continental -refrigerator car and the California Fruit Growers' Exchange paved -the way and put each day in every eastern and northern city just the -quantity of oranges that the people could consume at a profitable -price. - -Mr. Harwood, in the World's Work for May, 1908, after describing the -"City of a Million Hens," raises the question, "If in Petaluma, why -not anywhere?" I would like to answer that question by saying that -while anywhere is a little broad, the reason the industry has not -developed elsewhere has been because of the diversion of interested -capital towards impractical large individual poultry plants, manned -by hired labor. Another reason has been the lack of the technical -knowledge necessary to construct and operate efficient hatcheries. - -The poultryman has been a disciple of the poultry papers and poultry -fanciers of the day. The poultry papers and poultry literature has -generally been supported by poultry fanciers and manufacturers of -incubators, patent nests and portable houses. The good folks have -vied with one another in complicating the business. They have built -steam-piped houses, with padded walls and miniature railways with -which daily to haul away the droppings. A few famous fanciers -selling eggs at $10.00 per setting have made such business pay, but -alas for the luckless investor in what the visiting poultry editor -would style a "handsomely equipped modern poultry plant." - -A few years ago a Government poultry expert paid a visit to -Petaluma. He came back and reported, "It is a great disappointment, -the methods are very crude." The case is most pathetic. Here was a -man employed by the people to teach them how to make poultry pay. -His carfare is paid across the continent that he might visit the -only community in the United States where at that time any -considerable number of people were making their living from poultry, -and because he did not find lightning rods on the poultry houses, he -came back with the look of Naamen who, when he was requested by -Elisha to bathe seven times in the river Jordan, replied, "It is -very crude." - - -Will Co-operation Work? - - -That magic thing, "Co-operation," while utterly lacking in the -Utopian qualities with which the word artist paints it, is a -decidedly bigger factor in American affairs than the average man -realizes. - -The chief difficulty with co-operation is that the manager, if not -incompetent, has an excellent opportunity to be a grafter. In Europe -co-operation in agricultural and mercantile enterprise is older and -better developed than in this country. Perhaps the Europeans are -less inclined to be grafters, but a more likely explanation is that -the members of such associations as these have learned how to -prevent and detect graft, just as our business men have learned to -avoid losses from the dishonesty of employes. That this is the true -explanation is substantiated by the fact that when co-operation once -becomes established in this country, it succeeds even better than in -Europe. - -When the creameries were started in the West several years ago, -there was much complaint of swindlers, fake stock companies, and -co-operative ventures in which the manager absconded with the butter -money. To-day more than half of the American creameries are -co-operative and the number is constantly increasing. They are -efficient and successful in every way, and to-day make the finest of -butter and pay the highest prices to the farmer for his cream. But -their way was first paved and the business developed by successful -private concerns. - -Co-operation is entirely feasible and successful where the people -behind the movement have enough interest in the enterprise and good -enough business sense to run the proposition as efficiently as -similar private enterprises are run. The idea that co-operation must -always result in a big saving is a misconception. Employes will not -work any harder for an association than for a private employer, -sometimes not as hard. Certainly no employee will work as hard for an -association as he will for himself. - -Why people should expect to buy out the grocery store and hire the -grocer to run it and save money for themselves, is a thing I could -never understand. But if there is some great waste that co-operation -will prevent, as where seven milk wagons drive every morning over -the same route, or where the market of perishable crops is glutted -one day and starved the next, centralization, corporate or -co-operate, will pay. - -I know of no better way to impress the reader with American -co-operation in actual practice than to quote from a brief account -of the California Fruit Growers' Exchange. - -The Exchange was founded upon the theory that every member is -entitled to furnish his pro rata of the fruit for shipment through -his association, and every association to its pro rata to the -various markets of the country. This theory reduced to practice -gives every grower his fair share, and the average price of all -markets throughout the season. - -Another cardinal provision of the plan was that all fruit should be -marketed on a level basis of actual cost, with all books and -accounts open for inspection at the pleasure of the members. These -broad principles of full co-operation constitute the basis of the -Exchange movement. - -The Exchange system is simple, but quite democratic. The local -association consists of a number of growers contiguously situated, -who unite themselves for the purpose of preparing their fruit for -market on a co-operative basis. They establish their own brands, -make such rules as they may agree upon for grading, packing and -pooling their fruit. Usually these associations own thoroughly -equipped packing houses. - -All members are given a like privilege to pick and deliver fruit to -the packing house, where it is weighed in and properly receipted -for. Every grower's fruit is separated into different grades, -according to quality, and usually thereafter it goes into the common -pool, and in due course takes its percentage of the returns -according to grade. - -Any given brand is the exclusive property of the Local Association -using it, and the fruit under this brand is always packed in the -same locality, and therefore of uniform quality. This is of great -advantage in marketing, as the trade soon learns that the pack is -reliable. - -There are more than eighty associations, covering every citrus fruit -district in California, and packing nearly two hundred reliable and -guaranteed brands of oranges and lemons. - -The several local Exchanges designate one man each from their -membership as their representative, and he is elected a director of -the California Fruit Growers' Exchange. By this method the -policy-making and governing power of the organization remains in the -hands of the local Exchanges. - -From top to bottom the organization is planned, dominated and in -general detail controlled absolutely by fruit growers, and for the -common good of all members. No corporation nor individual reaps from -it either dividends or private gain. - -So far we have dealt almost exclusively with the organization of the -Exchange, its co-operative aspects, and general policy at home. -Equally important is its organization in the markets. - -Seeking to free itself from the shifting influence of speculative -trading, by taking the business out of the hands of middlemen at -home, the Exchange found it quite as important to maintain the -control of its own affairs in the markets. - -For this purpose the Exchange established a system of exclusive -agencies in all the principal cities of the country, employing as -agents active, capable young men of experience in the fruit -business. Most of these agents are salaried, and have no other -business of any kind to engage their attention, and none of the -Exchange representatives handle any other citrus fruits. These -agents sell to smaller cities contiguous to their headquarters, or -in the territory covered by their districts. - -Over all these agencies are two general or traveling agents, with -authority to supervise and check up the various offices. These -general agents maintain in their offices at Chicago and Omaha, a -complete bureau of information, through which all agents receive -every day detailed information as to sales of Exchange fruit in -other markets the previous day. Possessing this data, the selling -agent cannot be taken advantage of as to prices. If any agent finds -his market sluggish, and is unable to sell at the average prices -prevailing elsewhere, he promptly advises the head office in Los -Angeles, and sufficient fruit is diverted from his market to relieve -it and restore prices to normal level. - -Through these agencies of its own the Exchange is able to get and -transmit to its members the most trustworthy information regarding -market conditions, visible supplies, etc. This system affords a -maximum of good service at a minimum cost. The volume of the -business is so large that a most thorough equipment is maintained at -much less cost to growers than any other selling agency can offer. - -The annual business of the California Fruit Growers' Exchange -amounts to over ten million dollars, and the Exchange handles over -half the citrus fruit output of the State. Yet there are people who -say co-operation in America will not work. - - -Co-operative Egg Marketing in Denmark. - -I have discussed at length the work of the California Fruit Growers' -Exchange, as the best example in the United States of the -co-operative marketing of farm produce. We have thus far but little -co-operative work in the marketing of poultry products. Canada has a -few examples, but it is to European countries that we must go for a -full demonstration of the principle of co-operation when applied to -the products of the hen. In England and in Ireland co-operative -efforts in the growing, fattening, and marketing of poultry and eggs -are quite common. It is to Denmark, however, that we must go to find -the most wholesale example of this truly modern type of business -effort. - -The Danes are co-operators in the fullest sense. They have -co-operative creameries and co-operative packing houses. The Danish -Egg Export Society is an organization, the plan and work of which is -very much like that of the California Fruit Growers' Exchange. - -The local branch of the association buys the eggs of the farmer, -paying for them by weight. Collectors are hired to gather them at -frequent and regular intervals, and are paid In accordance with the -amount of their collections, but must stand the loss of breakage. -Each individual poultryman's eggs are kept separate until they reach -a centralizing station. There are a number of these central stations -at which the eggs are carefully crated and packed for shipment to -England. - -The individual farmer is fined or taxed for all bad eggs found in -his lot. This fine is deducted from his receipts and he has nothing -to do but to submit to it or get out of the association. The latter -he cannot afford to do because the association has its established -brands and can pay him more for his eggs than he could secure by -attempting to market them himself. As a result of this strict system -of making the producer responsible for weight and quality of the -eggs the Danish eggs have become the largest and finest in the -world. - -Although the writer firmly believes in the co-operative marketing of -farm produce, and considers that the success already secured in this -work is conclusive evidence of the practicability and desirability -of co-operation, it would not be fair to infer that co-operation has -entirely driven out private or corporate enterprise. Just as a -goodly per cent. of the citrus fruit of California is still handled -by private dealers, so in Denmark we find that nearly one-half of -the eggs sent to England are handled by private companies. Let it be -noted, however, that these companies maintain a system of buying on -merit which enforces high quality that is not to be found where -private buyers are without the spur of co-operative competition. -Before co-operation entered the orange regions of California, the -fruit was poorly packed and handled and the markets at times so -glutted, that shipments of fruit sometimes failed to pay the -freight, and this was actually charged back to the unfortunate -grower. Co-operation has done away with this waste. In like manner -the great loss from decomposed eggs and half hatched chicks is -unknown to the egg trade of Denmark. - - -Corporation or Co-operation? - -The community of farmers producing a large quantity of a single kind -of product is the coming form of agricultural enterprise. Will this -community be promoted by corporation or by co-operation? - -Arthur Brisbane says, "As individual control of the Government has -been superceded by collective control, so individual control of -industries will be followed by collective control. That is the -natural order." - -Brisbane is right. The individual, or the corporation, which is an -individual using other men's money, foreruns co-operation, because -the individual knows exactly what he wants to do and the big group -of individuals does not know what they want or how to do it until -individuals have, by concrete successes, shown them. - -When the creameries were started, co-operative creameries were -unsuccessful and could not compete with privately owned creameries. -The farmers have now become too wise to be "easy-marks" to the fake -creamery promoters or to trust their butter sales to a comparative -stranger and co-operation is a success. - -Poultry communities cannot be made out of whole cloth by the -co-operative plan. Private corporations will be necessary to launch -these enterprises. When they have reached the stage of development -now to be seen in Little Compton and Petaluma they are ready for -co-operation. - -I have emphasized the point that the private corporation is the -natural forerunner in this matter in order to discourage premature -or over-ambitious efforts at co-operation. Whenever a community of -poultrymen or, for that matter, a community of growers of any -perishable form of products, who are already successful in the -producing end, wish to take up co-operation and will see that men -are selected to manage it who will use the same precautions to guard -against incompetency or graft that they, as individuals, would use -in their own business, there is excellent chance of success. - -Go slow. Do not expect to get rich quick by "cutting out the -middleman's enormous profits," for the middleman's profits are not -enormous, and if you see that your co-operation is not paying, give -it up and confess to yourselves that you do not know as much about -the business as your private competitors. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -WHERE TO LOCATE - - -That poultry should be kept on every farm to supply the farmer's own -table does not permit of argument. When it comes to production for -market, I believe there are some sections where it costs more to -produce and market poultry and eggs than is received for the product -when sold. For illustration: On a farm which is twenty miles from -town and where grain cannot be profitably grown, the cost of teaming -grain from the railroad station and of sending the eggs to market as -frequently as is necessary to have a wholesome product, would -certainly eat up all possible profits. - -The farmer thus located would find a more profitable use for his -time in some industry where the raw material is near at hand and the -product needs less frequent marketing. - - -Some Poultry Geography. - -When we are discussing poultry on the general farm, the problem of -location is not to be taken into consideration, save to the extent -that there are a few localities where food cost is so high or -marketing facilities so poor as to make even the usual farm surplus -unprofitable. - -The map on page 45 shows the intensity of egg production and also -indicates the location of the more important localities where -poultry plants have succeeded. The map on page 47 shows the quality -of eggs coming from various sections, which indicates pretty closely -the general development of the poultry industry. These indications, -however, are of little value in locating a poultry plant, for they -refer to the poultry product on the general farm, and are a matter -of the number and general intelligence of farmers, rather that a -sign of the suitability of the locality for the poultry industry. - -For purposes of discussion, I have divided the United States into -seven sections as shown by the dotted lines on the second map. - -[Illustration: Plate II. Page 45. Map: -Intensity of egg production in the United States] - -Section 1 is the North Woods and too cold and remote for -the poultry business. - -Section 2 includes the great West, of which an adequate discussion -is out of the question. Of course, the great majority of this area -is too remote from markets for poultry production. The locations -around the big cities in this section are excellent for poultry -farming, as they are so far removed from the great farm region that -their bulk of imported eggs are of necessity somewhat stale. -California is good chicken country. The Puget Sound country is -rather too damp. In the interior western regions the chicken -business has not done well, chiefly because the atmosphere is too -dry for the methods of artificial incubation attempted. - -Section 3 is the great granary of the world. It is also the home of -three-fourths of the country's poultry crop. It is a region of corn, -cattle and hogs. Such a country will produce poultry in a very -inexpensive manner. But it is not the region for special poultry -farms. In the northern portion of this tract, we find a heavy -housing expense and much winter labor necessary. It is a region of -high priced lands and labor, and low prices for poultry products. - -Even the large cities in this region offer little in the way of -demand for high grade poultry products. This is because they are so -abundantly surrounded with farms that all produce is moderately -fresh and plentiful. There are no successful poultry farms in this -section west of the Mississippi. It is the natural location of -extensive rather than intensive branches of agriculture. The only -type of commercial poultry farming that could succeed in any portion -of this section would be a large community of producers who could -ship their products out regularly in carload lots. Such development -could only take place in the southern portion of this region, for -the housing expense is too great for the north. At best the distance -from market is a disadvantage, for the rate on eggs just about -equals the rate on the quantity of grain necessary to produce them. -The added time of shipment is something of a drawback, though in -refrigerator cars this is not serious. After the establishment of -poultry communities becomes more common, the Oklahoma and Texas -region will become available for this purpose, but they must be -established in full swing at the start, for a few isolated -poultrymen have no chance at all in this section, for they cannot -sell their product to advantage. - -Section 4. This region, extending from the Ozarks to Eastern -Tennessee, is one of the very best poultry sections. The climate is -such that green food is available winter and summer, and the expense -of housing and winter labor is reasonable. This section is still in -the corn growing region. The question is almost always one of -railroad facilities to get the product out. All poultry farms in -this section must grow their own grain or buy it of their immediate -neighbors. It will not pay to ship grain into this region. - -[Illustration: Plate III. Page 47. Map: -Intensity of egg production in the United States] - -When near shipping facilities, individual poultry farms in Section 4 -have a good chance of success, especially east of the Mississippi. -This is the most favorable region in the country for the -establishment of poultry communities that are to grow their own -grain. Such poultry farms will not be expected to confine their -attention as exclusively to the business as those in the section -where it is profitable to import the grain. - -Section 5 is the non-grain growing region of the South. It at -present produces little poultry. The climate is all right for the -purpose, but the freight rates on grain from the West are high and -likewise the freight service and freight rates to the final market -are excessive. Under these conditions poultry farming will not pay -except in a few localities as in Florida, where there is a high -class local market due to the popular resorts. If grain could be -profitably grown in this section the same type of poultry farming -that prevails in Section 4 would be advisable. Now, grain can be -grown in the cotton belt of the South, and many Yankee farmers are -making good money doing it. But when grown it is liable to be worth -more to feed mules than to feed chickens. - -Section 6 is the "Down East" section of dense population. The land -for the most part is rocky, wooded and hilly. The climate and nature -of the soil are against the economical production of poultry, but -the grain can be profitably fed, and as the markets are the best in -the country, commercial poultry farming has gained quite a foothold. -If a man is already located in this section and wishes to go into -the poultry business I would by all means say, "Go ahead," but I -would not advise an outsider looking for a location to come here, -for the next section has several advantages. - -Section 7 is the best poultry farming district in the United States, -either for the individual poultry plant or for the community of -poultry growers. The reasons for this are: - -First: The soil is of a sandy nature and excellent land for poultry -farming can be had at a low price. - -Second: The climate is much more favorable than farther north or -farther inland. - -Third: Grain rates from the West are very reasonable. - -Fourth: The best market in the country--New York City--is within -easy shipping distance. - -The type of poultry farming here to be recommended, like that of -Section 6, is one in which imported grain is fed. The fertility of -this grain, going back on the light soil, is used to grow the green -food required by the hens, and, in addition, may be used in a -rotation system for growing truck. It will not pay to grow any -quantity of grain. Section 7, because of its advantages over Section -6 in climate and the availability of large tracts of suitable land, -is a much better location for the poultry community. Over Section 4, -which is the second best region for this purpose, it has the -advantage of nearness to markets. The climatic advantage of Sections -4 and 7 are about on a par. The chief distinction is the matter of -growing grain or importing it. If you are to grow your grain, using -poultry as a means of marketing it, Section 4 is the best locality. -If you are to buy grain, Section 7 is the place. - -The boundaries of Section 7 are not arbitrary and should be noted -carefully. The line runs from Mattawan, New Jersey, across to the -main line of the Pennsylvania and down this to Washington. To the -north and west of this, the soils are heavy clays which are wet, -cold, slushy and easily befouled. Likewise, the line on the south is -distinctly marked by the Norfolk and Western Railway and is a matter -of freight rates on grain. Norfolk gets a rate of sixteen and a half -cents from Chicago; a couple of hundred miles south, the rate is -about twice as much. Cheaper grain rates would of course extend this -belt on down the coast where the climate is even more favorable. - - -Chicken Climate. - - -Climate is a big figure in the cost of poultry production. Every day -that water is frozen in winter means increased labor and decreased -egg yield. Mild winters means cheap houses, cheap labor, cheap feed -(a large proportion of green food), an earlier chick season, which, -together with the mild weather and green feed, mean a large -proportion of the egg yield at the season when eggs are high in -price. - -The American poultry editor wastes a great deal of ink explaining -why the Australian egg records of 175 eggs per hen, cannot be so, -because in this country, the hens at the Maine station only averaged -125. The Maine Experiment Station lies buried in a snow drift for -about five months of the year. The Australian station has a winter -climate equal to that of New Orleans. The Australian records do not -go below thirty eggs per day per hundred hens at any time during the -year. Our New York and New England records run down anywhere from -one to ten eggs per day per hundred hens. The following table will -show the effect of the climate upon the distribution of the egg -yield throughout the year. The records at New York are from a large -number of hens of several different flocks and probably represent a -normal distribution of the egg yield for that section. The Kansas -and Arkansas lists are taken from the record of small flocks and are -not very reliable. The fourth column gives the Australian records -with the months transferred on account of being in the southern -hemisphere. The last column gives the railroad shipments from a -division of the N.C. & St. L. railroad in Western Tennessee: - - - Column Headings: - NY--Central New York per hen per day - KS--Kansas Ex. Station per hen per day - AR--Arkansas Ex. Station per hen per day - AU--Australian Laying Contest per hen per day - NH--Shipments from New Hampshire egg farm - TN--Shipments from Western Tennessee - - NY KS AR AU NH TN - January .21 .25 .32 .51 26 1509 - February .26 .22 .30 .66 41 1520 - March .43 .60 .62 .67 66 2407 - April .56 .52 .38 .61 83 1775 - May .59 .57 .44 .53 81 1650 - June .50 .46 .42 .45 61 1131 - July .44 .43 .34 .43 58 878 - August .37 .32 .38 .41 54 422 - September .26 .28 .29 .29 24 100 - October .17 .13 .22 .31 3 541 - November .08 .06 .18 .31 2 703 - December .14 .25 .15 .40 11 1150 - -An equable climate the year round is the best for the chicken -business. The California coast is fairly equable in temperature, but -its winter rains and summer drouth are against it. The Atlantic -coast south of New York is fairly good, probably the best the -country affords. The most southern portions will be rather too hot -in summer, which will result in a small August and September egg -yield. Probably the region around Norfolk is, all considered, the -best poultry climate the country affords. - - -Suitable Soil. - -Soil is important in poultry farming; in fact it is very important, -and many failures can be traced to soil mistakes. Rocky and -uncultivated lands must not be chosen. To locate on any soil which -will not utilize the droppings for the production of green food, is -to introduce a loss sufficient to turn success into failure. - -The ideal soil for poultry is a soil too sandy to produce ordinary -farm crops successfully, and hence an inexpensive soil; but because -land too sandy to be used for heavy farming is best for poultry, -this does not mean that any cheap soil will do. A heavy wet clay -soil worth $150 an acre for dairying is worth nothing for poultry. -Pure sand is likewise worthless and nothing can be more pitiable -than to see poultry confined in yards of wind swept sand, without a -spear of anything green within half a mile. - -The soils that are valuable for early truck are equally valuable for -poultry. Sand with a little loam, or very fine sand, if a few green -crops are turned under to provide humus, are ideal poultry soils. -The Norfolk fine Sand and Norfolk Sandy Loam of the U.S. soil -survey, are types of such soil. - -These soils absorb the droppings readily and are never covered with -standing water. The winter snows do not stay on them. Crops will -keep greener on them in winter than on clay soils three hundred -miles farther south. - -The disadvantage of such soils is that they lose their fertility by -leaching. The same principles that will cause the droppings to -disappear from the top of the ground will likewise cause them to be -washed down beyond the depths of plant roots. This loss must be -guarded against by not going to the extreme in selecting a light -soil and may be largely overcome by schemes of running the poultry -right among growing crops or by quick rotations. - -Land sloping to the southward is commonly advised for the purpose of -getting the same advantages as are to be had in a sandy soil. In -practice the slope of the land cannot be given great prominence, -although, other things being equal, one should certainly not -disregard this point. In heavy lands it is necessary to raise the -floors and grade up around the houses. The quickly drained soil does -away with this expense. - -Timber on the land is a disadvantage. Poultry farming in the woods -has not been made a success. It's the same proposition of the -droppings going to waste. I know a man who bought a timbered tract -because it was cheap and who scraped up the droppings to sell by the -barrel to his neighbor, who used them to fertilize his cabbage patch -and in turn sold the poultryman cabbages to feed his hens, at 5 -cents a head. Of course, this man failed, as does practically every -man who attempts to scrape dropping boards and carry poultry manure -around in baskets, instead of using it where it falls. - -There is little to be said in favor of uncleared land for the -poultry business, but there is something that can be said in favor -of the poultry business for uncleared land. A man who buys a -timbered land for trucking can get no income whatever the first -year, but the poultryman can begin his operations in the woods, -clearing the land while he is raising a crop of chickens on it. The -coops may be placed in the cleared streak and most of the droppings -utilized. In fact, the plan of a streak of timber alongside the -houses is not bad for a permanent arrangement--the birds certainly -enjoy the shade. But the shade of growing crops is the most -profitable kind for poultry. - - -Marketing--Transportation. - -The possibilities of working up a local trade of high grade eggs at -fancy prices varies greatly with the locality. Large cities and -wealthy people are essentials. Other than this the principal -distinctions are that regions where a general surplus of eggs are -produced offer little chance for a fancy trade. Where the great bulk -of eggs are imported fancy trade is more feasible. St. Louis is the -smallest western city that supports anything like a fancy trade in -eggs and there it is only on a small scale. Minneapolis, Omaha, -etc., would not pay 3 cents premium for the best eggs produced, but -cities of the same size east of the Appalachians and especially in -New England, will pay a good premium. The Far West or the mountain -districts will pay up better than the Mississippi Valley. The South -will pay a little better than the upper Mississippi Valley, but has -few cities of sufficient size to make such markets abundant. The -Southerner has little regard for quality in produce and the most -aristocratic people consume eggs regularly that the wife of a -Connecticut factory hand wouldn't have in the house. The egg farmer -who expects to sell locally had best not locate south of Washington -or west of Pittsburg, unless he goes to the Pacific Coast. - -Where marketing is not done by wagon the subject of railroad -transportation is practically identical with the question of -marketing. It is the cost in freight service and freight rates that -count. The proposition of transportation, especially for the grain -buying poultry farm, catches us coming and going and both must be -considered. - -A poultry farm in Section 7 will buy one hundred pounds of feed per -year per hen and market one-third of a case of eggs. On this basis -the grain rate from Chicago or St. Louis and the egg rate to New -York must be balanced against each other. Don't take these things -for granted. Look them up. - -Jamesburg and Freehold, two New Jersey towns ten miles apart and -equi-distant and with equal freight rates from New York, might seem -to the uninitiated as equally well situated to poultry farming. We -will suppose two men bought forty-acre farms of equal quality and -equi-distant from the railroad stations at these two towns. Suppose, -further, they each kept five thousand hens. Jamesburg is on a -Philadelphia-New York line of the Pennsylvania and its Chicago grain -rate is the same as that of New York, namely: 19-1/2 cents per -hundred. Freehold is on a branch line; its rate is 24-1/2 cents. In -a year the difference amounts to $250. Figured at six per cent. -interest, the land at Jamesburg is worth just about one hundred -dollars an acre more than that at Freehold. - -Lumber rates or local lumber prices should also be taken into -consideration. Whether one plans to ship his product out by express -or freight will, of course, be an important consideration in -deciding the location. - -As a general thing, the individual poultry farmer will, for shipping -his product, use express east of Buffalo and north of Norfolk. The -poultry community could use freight in these same regions and get as -good or better service than by express. - -The location in relation to the railroad station is equally -important to the freight rate. Besides heavy hauling frequent trips -will be necessary in marketing eggs. These on the larger farms will -be daily or at least semi-weekly. On the heavy hauling alone, at 25 -cents per ton mile, distance from the railroad will figure up 1-1/4 -cents per hen which, on the basis of the previous illustration, -would make a difference of twenty-five dollars per acre for every -mile of distance from the station. One of the most successful -poultry farms I know is right along the railroad and has an elevator -which handles the grain from the cars and later dumps it into the -feed wagons without its ever being touched by hand. The labor saving -in this counts up rapidly. - -The poultry community can have its own elevator and the grain can be -sold to the farmer to be delivered directly into the hoppers in his -field with but a single loading into a wagon. - - -Availability of Water. - -One more point to be considered in location is water. - -The labor of watering poultry by carrying water in buckets is -tremendous and not to be considered on any up-to-date poultry plant. -Watering must be accomplished by some artificial piping system or -from spring-fed brooks. The more length of flowing streams on a -piece of land, provided the adjacent ground is dry, the more value -the property has for poultry. Two spring-fed brooks crossing a -forty-acre tract so as to give a half mile of running water, or a -full mile of houses, would water five thousand hens without labor. -This would mean an annual saving of at least one man's time as -against hand watering, or a matter of a thousand dollars or more in -the cost of installation of a watering system. - -If running water cannot be had the next best thing is to get land -with water near the surface which may be tapped with sand points. If -one must go deep for water a large flow is essential so that one -power pump may easily supply sufficient water for the plant. - -The land should lay in a gentle slope so that water may be run over -the entire surface by gravity. Hilly lands are a nuisance in poultry -keeping and raise the expense at every turn. - - -A Few Statistics. - -The following table does not bear directly upon the poultry-man's -choice of a location, but is inserted here because of its general -interest in showing the poultry development of the country. - -It will be noted that the egg production per hen is very low in the -Southern States. This may seem at variance with my previous -statements. The poor poultry keeping of the South is a fault of the -industrial conditions, not of the climate. Chickens on the Southern -farm simply live around the premises as do rats or English sparrows. -No grain is grown; there are no feed lots to run to, no measures are -taken to keep down vermin, and no protection is provided from wind -and rain. In the North chickens could not exist with such treatment. - -The figures given showing the relation between the poultry and total -agricultural wealth is the best way that can be found to express -statistically the importance of poultry keeping in relation to the -general business of farming. These figures should not be confused -with the distribution of the actual volume of poultry products. -Iowa, the greatest poultry producing state, shows only a moderate -proportion of poultry to all farm wealth, but this is because more -agricultural wealth is produced in Iowa than in all the "Down East" -states. - -Table showing the development of the poultry industry in the various -states, according to the returns of the census of 1900: - - - No. of Percentage of No. of Farm value - eggs per farm wealth eggs of eggs per - capita earned by per hen dozen -States poultry - - - -Alabama 124 4.9 48 9.7 cents -Arizona 80 4.5 60 19.9 -Arkansas 235 6.8 58 9.1 -California 197 5.4 74 15.8 -Colorado 127 5.4 71 15.0 -Connecticut 105 11.3 89 19.1 -Delaware 231 14.7 68 13.7 -Florida 96 8.2 46 13.1 -Georgia 156 4.4 41 10.4 -Idaho 213 5.0 67 16.2 -Indiana 338 10.0 77 10.5 -Iowa 536 7.4 64 10.1 -Illinois 215 3.7 62 10.3 -Kansas 597 8.2 73 9.9 -Kentucky 198 8.3 62 9.8 -Louisiana 111 4.0 40 10.0 -Maine 233 11.0 100 15.3 -Maryland 126 10.4 71 12.6 -Massachusetts 56 11.7 96 19.9 -Michigan 270 9.7 82 11.2 -Minnesota 296 5.8 67 10.5 -Mississippi 144 4.7 43 9.9 -Missouri 291 11.6 68 9.8 -Montana 148 4.3 67 21.0 -Nebraska 463 6.1 66 9.9 -Nevada 68 3.7 71 20.8 -New Hampshire 238 11.5 96 17.3 -New Jersey 76 12.0 72 16.2 -New Mexico 45 2.7 65 18.7 -New York 102 7.1 83 13.9 -North Carolina 112 5.7 55 10.2 -North Dakota 249 2.6 64 10.5 -Ohio 265 9.6 77 11.2 -Oklahoma 315 6.4 60 9.3 -Oregon 224 6.2 72 15.1 -Pennsylvania 112 10.8 75 13.5 -Rhode Island 90 19.7 77 20.4 -South Carolina 80 4.0 41 10.3 -South Dakota 502 5.2 68 10.0 -Tennessee 189 8.4 61 9.8 -Texas 228 4.8 52 8.0 -Utah 146 5.1 76 12.5 -Vermont 219 7.5 94 15.3 -Virginia 165 8.9 67 11.1 -Washington 171 7.1 74 16.8 -West Virginia 216 10.2 74 10.9 -Wisconsin 268 7.1 68 10.5 -Wyoming 121 2.4 79 17.4 -Entire U.S. 205 7.4 65 11.1 - - - - -CHAPTER V - -THE DOLLAR HEN FARM - -As has already been emphasized, the way to get money out of the -chicken business is not to put so much in. - -Land, however, well suited to the purpose, should not be begrudged, -for interest at six per cent, will afford a very considerable extra -investment in land well suited to the business if it in any way cuts -down the cost of operation. - - -The Plan of Housing. - -The houses are the next consideration. On most poultry farms they -are the chief items of expense. I know of a poultry farm near New -York City where the house cost $12.00 per hen. The owner built this -farm with a view of making money. People also buy stock in Nevada -gold mines with a view of making money. I know another poultry farm -owned by a man named Tillinghast at Vernon, Connecticut, where the -houses cost thirty cents per hen. Mr. Tillinghast gets more eggs per -hen than the New York man. Incidentally, he is sending his son to -Yale, and he has no other visible means of support except his -chicken farm. - -For the region of light soils and the localities which I have -recommended for poultry farming, the following style of poultry -house should be used: - -No floors, single boarded walls, a roof of matched cypress lumber or -of cheap pine covered with tarred paper. This house is to have no -windows and no door. The roosts are in the back end; the front end -is open or partly open; feed hoppers and nests are in the front end. -The feed hoppers may be made in the walls, made loose to set in the -house, or made to shed water and placed outside the house. All -watering is to be done outside the houses; likewise any feeding -beyond that done in hoppers. - -The exact style of the house I leave to the reader's own plan. Were -I recommending complex houses costing several dollars per hen, this -certainly would be leaving the reader in the dark woods. With houses -of the kind described it is hard to go far amiss. The simplest form -is a double pitched roof, the ridge-pole standing about seven feet -high, and the walls about four. The house is made eight by sixteen, -and one end--not the side--left open. For the house that man is to -enter, this form cannot be improved upon. - -The only other points are to construct it on a couple of 4x4 runners -so that it can be dragged about by a team. Cypress, or other -decay-proof wood should be used for these mud-sills. The framing -should be light and as little of it used as is consistent with -firmness. If the whole house costs more than twenty-five dollars -there is something wrong in its planning. - -This house should accommodate seventy-five or eighty hens. - -For smaller operations, especially for horseless, or intensive -farming, a low, light house may be used, which the attendant never -enters. A portion of the roof lifts up to fill feed-hoppers, gather -eggs or spray. These small houses may be made light enough to be -moved short distances by a pry-pole, the team being required only -when they are moved to a new field. - -Not one particle of poultry manure is to be removed from either -style of house. Instead, the houses are removed from the manure, -which is then scattered on the neighboring ground with a fork, or, -if desired to be used on a field in which poultry may not run, it -may be loaded upon a wagon together with some of the underlaying -soil. - -There have been books and books written on poultry houses, but what -I have just given is sufficient poultry-house knowledge for the -Dollar Hen man. If he hasn't enough intelligence to put this into -practice, he has no business in the hen business. Additional -book-knowledge of hen-houses is useless; it may be harmful. - -If you are sure that you are fool-proof, you may get Dr. Feather or -Reverend Earlobe's "Book of Poultry House Plans." It will be a good -text-book for the children's drawing lessons. - - -The Feeding System. - -Oyster shells, beef scraps, corn, and one other kind of grain, -together with an abundance of pasturage or green feed, is the sum -and substance of feeding hens on the Dollar Hen Farm. - -The dry feeds are placed in hoppers. They are built to protect the -feeds from the weather. The neck must be sufficiently large to -prevent clogging, and the hopper so protected by slats in front that -the hen cannot toss the feed out by a side jerk of her head. These -hoppers may be built any size desired. The grain compartments -should, of course, be made larger than the others. Weekly filling is -good, but where a team is not owned, it would be better to have the -hoppers larger so that feed purchased, say, once a month, could be -delivered directly into the hoppers. - - -Water Systems. - -The best water system is a spring-fed brook. - -The man proposing to establish an individual poultry plant, and who -after reading this book goes and buys a tract of land where an -artificial water system is necessary, would catch Mississippi -drift-wood on shares. But there are plenty of such people in the -world. A man once stood all day on London Bridge hawking gold -sovereigns at a shilling a-piece and did not make a sale. - -Next to natural streams are the made streams. This is the logical -watering method of the community of poultry farmers. These -artificial streams are to be made by conducting the water of natural -streams back of the land to be watered, as in irrigation. It is the -problem of irrigation over again. Indeed, where trucking is combined -with poultry-growing, fowl watering should be combined with -irrigation. - -It may be necessary to dam the stream to get head, sufficient supply -or both. In sandy soils, ditches leak, and board flumes must be -substituted. The larger ones are made of the boards at right angles -and tapered so that one end of one trough rests in the upper end of -the next lower section. The smaller, or lateral troughs may be made -V-shaped. - -The cost of the smaller sized flume is three cents a foot. Iron pipe -costs twelve cents a foot. - -The greater the slope of the ground the smaller may be the troughs, -but on ground where the slopes are great, more expense will be -necessary in stilting the flumes to maintain the level, and the -harder it will be to find a large section that can be brought under -the ditch. - -Fluming water for poultry is, like irrigation, a community project. -The greatest dominating people of history have their origin in arid -countries. It was co-operate or starve, and they learned -co-operation and conquered the earth. If a man interferes with the -flume, or takes more than his share of the water, put him out. We -are in the hen, not the hog business. - -Community water systems, where water must be pumped and piped in -iron pipe, is of course a more expensive undertaking. It will only -pay where water is too deep for individuals to drive sand points on -their own property. There is certainly little reason to consider an -expensive method when there are abundant localities where simple -plans may be used. - -On sand lands, with water near the surface, each farmer may drive -sand points and pump his water by hand. In this case running water -is not possible, but the pipes or flumes may be arranged so that -fresh pumping flushes all the drinking places and also leaves them -full of standing water. The simplest way to arrange this will be by -wooden surface troughs as used in the fluming scheme. The only -difference is that an occasional section is made deeper so that it -will retain water. - -A more permanent arrangement may be made by using a line of -three-fourths inch pipe. At each watering place the pipe is brought -to the surface so that the water flows into a galvanized pan with -sloping sides. This pan has an overflow through a short section of -smaller tubing soldered to the side of the pan. The pipe line is -parallel with the fence line, the pans supply both fields. By this -arrangement the entire plant may be watered in a few minutes. The -overflow tubes are on one side. Using these tubes as a pivot the -pans may be swung out from under the fence with the foot and cleaned -with an old broom. Where the ground water is deep a wind mill and -storage tank would be desirable. - - -Outdoor Accommodations. - -The hen house is a place for roosting, laying and a protection for -the feed. The hen is to live out doors. - -On the most successful New England poultry farms, warm houses for -hens have been given up. Hens fare better out of doors in Virginia -than they do in New England, but make more profit out of doors -anywhere than they will shut up in houses. If your climate will not -permit your hen to live out doors get out of the climate or get out -of the hen business. - -There is, however, a vast difference in the kind of out-of-doors. -The running stream with its fringe of trees, brush and rank growing -grass, forms daylight quarters for the hen par excellence. Rank -growing crops, fodder piled against the fences, a board fence on the -north side of the lot, or little sheds made by propping a platform -against a stake, will all help. A place out of the wind for the hens -to dust and sun and be sociable is what is wanted, and what must be -provided, preferably by Nature, if not by Nature then by the -poultryman. - -The hens are to be kept as much as possible out of the houses, in -sheltered places among the crops or brush. They should not herd -together in a few places but should be separated in little clumps -well scattered over the land. These hiding places for the hens must, -of course, not be too secluded or eggs will be lost. - - -Equipment for Chick Rearing. - -Just as the long houses for hens have been weighed and found -wanting, so larger brooder houses, with one exception, have never -been established on what may be called a successful basis. By -establishment on a successful basis, I mean established so that they -could be used by larger numbers of people in rearing market -chickens. There are plenty of large brooder houses in use, just as -there are plenty of yarded poultry plants, but many intelligent, -industrious people have tried both systems only to find that the -cost of production exceeds the selling price. This makes us prone to -believe that some of those who claim to be succeeding may differ -from the crowd in that they had more capital to begin with and hence -last longer. - -The one exception I make to this is that of the South Shore Roaster -District of Massachusetts. Here steam-pipe brooder houses are used -quite extensively. The logical reason that pipe brooder houses have -found use in the winter chicken business and not in rearing pullets -is that of season and profits. When chicks are to be hatched in the -dead of winter the steam-heated brooder house is a necessity. In -this limited use it is all right, where the profits per chick are -great enough to stand the expense and losses. - -For the rearing of the great bulk of spring chicks the methods that -have proven profitable are as follows: - -First: Rearing with hens as practiced at Little Compton. For -suggestions on this see the chapter entitled "Poultry on the General -Farm." - -Second: Rearing with lamp brooder. Many large book-built poultry -plants have been equipped with steam, or, more properly, hot water -heated brooder houses, only to have a practical manager see that -they did not work, tear out the piping and fill the house with rows -of common lamp brooders. The advantage claimed for the lamp brooder -is that they can be regulated separately for each flock. As a matter -of fact, the same regulation for each flock of chicks could be -secured with a proper type of hot water heaters and one of the most -practical poultry farms in the country is now installing such a -system. - -A brooder system where hot air under the pressure of a blower or -centrifugal fan would seem ideal. So far the efforts made along -these lines have been clumsy and unnecessarily expensive. If the -continuous house is ever made practical, I believe it will be along -this line, but at present I advise sticking to the methods that are -known to be successful. - -Individual lamp brooders in colony houses are perhaps the most -generally successful means of rearing chicks on northern poultry -farms. They are troublesome and somewhat expensive, but with -properly hatched chickens are more successful than hen rearing. In -buying such a brooder the chief points to be observed are: A good -lamp, a heating device giving off the heat from a central drum, and -an arrangement which facilitates easy cleaning. The brooder should -be large, having not less than nine square feet of floor space. The -work demanded of a brooder is not as exacting as with an incubator. -The heat and circulation of air may vary a little without harm, but -they must not fail altogether. The greatest trouble with brooders in -operation is the uncertainty of the lamp. The brooder-lamp should -have sufficient oil capacity and a large wick. Brooder-lamps are -often exposed to the wind, and, if cheaply constructed or poorly -enclosed, the result will be a chilled brood of chicks, or perhaps a -fire. - -The chief thing sought in the internal arrangements of a brooder is -a provision to keep the chicks from piling up and smothering each -other as they crowd toward the source of heat. This can be -accomplished by having the warmest part of the brooder in the center -rather than at the side or corner. If the heat comes from above and -a considerable portion of the brooder be heated to the same -temperature, no crowding will take place. - -The temperature given for running brooders vary with the machine and -the position of the thermometer. The one reliable guide for -temperature is the action of the chicks. If they are cold they will -crowd toward the source of heat; if too warm they will wander -uneasily about; but if the temperature is right, each chick will -sleep stretched out on the floor. The cold chicken does not sleep at -all, but puts in its time fighting its way toward the source of -heat. In an improperly constructed or improperly run brooder the -chicks go through a varying process of chilling, sweating and -struggling when they should be sleeping, and the result is puny -chicks that dwindle and die. - -The arrangement of the brooder for the sleeping accommodations of -the chicks is important, but this is not the only thing to be -considered in a brooder. The brooder used in the early season, and -especially the outdoor brooder, must have ample space provided for -the daytime accommodation of the chick. In the colony house brooder -such space will, of course, be the floor of the house. - -When operating on a large scale it will not pay to buy complete -brooders. The lamps and hovers can be purchased separately and -installed in colony houses which do both for brooders and later for -houses for growing young stock. The universal hover sold by the -Prairie State Incubator people is about as perfect a lamp hover as -can be made. - -The cold brooder, or Philo box, as it has been popularly called, is -the chief item in a system of poultry keeping that has been widely -advertised. The principle of the Philo box is that of holding the -air warmed by the chick down close to them by a sagging piece of -cloth. The cloth checks most of the radiating heat, but is not so -tight as to smother the chick. This limits the space of air to be -warmed by the chicks to such a degree that the body warmth is used -to the greatest advantage. That chickens can be raised in these -fire-less brooders, is not in question, for that has been abundantly -proven, but most poultrymen believe that it will pay better, -especially in the North, to give the little fellows a few weeks' -warmth. - -Curtis Bros. at Ransomville, N.Y., who raise some twenty thousand -chicks per year, have adopted the following system: The chicks are -kept under hovers heated by hot water pipes for one week, or until -they learn to hover. Then they are put in Philo boxes for a week in -the same building but away from the pipes. The third week the Philo -boxes are placed in a large, unheated room. After that they go to a -large Philo box in a colony house. - -To make a Philo house of the Curtis pattern, take a box 5 in. deep -and 18 in. to 24 in. square. Cut a hole in one side for a chick -door, run a strip of screen around the inside of the box to round -the corners. Now take a second similar box. Tack a piece of cloth -rather loosely across its open face. Bore a few augur holes in the -sides of either box. Invert box No. 2 upon box No. 1. This we will -call a Curtis box. It costs about fifteen cents and should -accommodate fifty to seventy-five chicks. - -A universal hover in a colony coop or colony house, for which a -Curtis box is substituted, as early in the game as the weather -permits, is the method I advise for rearing young chicks. The lamp -problem we still have with us, but it is one that cannot be easily -solved. Large vessels or tanks of water which are regularly warmed -by injection of steam from a movable boiler, offers a possible way -out of the difficulty. On a plant large enough to keep one man -continually at this work, this plan might be an improvement over -filling lamps, but for the smaller plant it is lamps, or go south. - -Rearing young chicks is the hardest part of the poultry business. -There is a lot of work about it that cannot be gotten rid of. Little -chicks must be kept comfortable and their water and feed for the -first few days must needs be given largely by hand. They are to be -early led to drink from the regular water vessels and eat from the -hoppers, but this takes time and patience. - -The feeding of chicks I will discuss in the chapter on "Poultry on -the General Farm," and as the same methods apply in both cases, I -will refer the reader to that section. - -After chicks get three or four weeks old their care is the simplest -part of the poultry farm work and consists chiefly of filling feed -hoppers and protecting them from vermin and thieves. - -Board floor colony houses are used as a protection against rats and -this danger necessitates the protection of the opening by netting -and the closing of the doors at night. - -Cockerels must be gotten out of the flocks and sold at an early age. -Those that are to be kept for sale or use as breeding birds should -be early separated from the pullets. Coops for growing chickens, -especially Leghorns, cannot be put among trees, as the birds will -learn to roost in the trees, causing no end of trouble to get them -broken of the habit. - -All pullets save a few culls should be saved for laying. They are to -be kept two years. They should lay sixty-five to seventy per cent as -many eggs the second year as the first. They are sold the third -summer to make room for the growing stock. - - -Twenty-five Acre Poultry Farms. - -This section will be devoted to a general discussion of the type of -poultry farms best suited to Section 4 and the southerly portions of -Section 7 as discussed in the previous chapter. - -We will discuss this type of farm with this assumption: That they -are to be developed in large numbers by co-operative or corporate -effort. This does not infer that they cannot be developed by -individual effort, and nine-tenths of the operations will remain the -same in the latter case. - -Suppose a large tract of land adjacent to railroad facilities has -been found. The land in the original survey should be divided into -long, relatively narrow strips, lying at right angles to the slope -of the land. The farmstead should occupy the highest end of the -strip. For a twenty-five acre or one-man poultry farm these strips -should be about forty rods in width. The object of this survey is to -permit the water being run by gravity to the entire farm. - -The first thing is the farmstead, including such orchard and garden -as are desired. This stretches across the entire front end of the -place. The remainder of the strip is fenced in with chicken fence. -The farm is also divided into two narrow fields by a fence down the -center of the strip. This fence, at frequent intervals, has -removable panels. - -The year's season we will begin late in the fall. All layers are in -field No. 1 pasturing on rape, top turnips or other fall crops. In -lot No. 2 is growing wheat or rye. As the green feed gets short in -the first lot the hens are let into lot No. 2. Sometime in March the -houses that have been brought up close to the gaps are drawn through -into the wheat field. The feed hoppers are also gradually moved and -the hens find themselves confined in lot No. 2 without any serious -disturbance. - -Lot No. 1 is broken up as soon as weather permits and planted in -oats, corn, Kaffir corn and perhaps a few sunflowers. The oats form -a little strip near the coops and watering places and the Kaffir -corn is on the far side. As soon as corn planting is over the farmer -begins to receive his chickens from the hatchery. The brooders are -now placed in the corn field. The object of the corn is not green -food but for a shade and a grain crop. - -The chicks are summered in the corn field and the hens in the wheat -or rye. Whether the latter will head up will depend upon the number -of the flock. It will be best to work the houses across to the far -side and let that portion near the middle fence head up. As the old -grain gets too tough for green food strips of ground should be -broken up and sown in oats. The grain that matures will not be cut, -but the hens will be allowed to thresh it out. The straw may be cut -with mower or scythe for use as nesting material. - -Sometime in June or early in July a little rape vetch or cow-peas is -drilled in between the rows of corn as on the far side from the -chicken coops. During July or about the first of August, after all -cockerels have been sold, the gates are opened and the pullets are -allowed to associate with the hens. After this acquaintance ripens -into friendship the hen houses are worked back into the pullet lots. -Surplus hens are sold off or new houses inserted as the case may be -until there is room for the pullets in the houses. Each coop is -worked up alongside a house and after most of the pullets have taken -to the houses the coops are removed. The vacant lot is now broken up -and sown in a mixture of fall green crops. - -The flock is kept in the corn field until the corn is ripe. The -Kaffir corn and sunflowers are knocked down where they stand and are -threshed by the hens. As soon as the corn crop is ripe the houses -are run back and the corn cut up or husked and the wheat planted in -the corn field. - -The next year the lots are transposed, the young stock being grown -in the lot that had the hens the previous year. - -If the ground is inclined to be at all damp when the fields are -broken up the plowing is done in narrow lands so as to form a -succession of ridges, on which are placed the coops or houses. The -directions of these ridges will be determined by the lay of the -land--the object being neither to dam up water or to encourage -washing. The location of the ridges are alternated by seasons, so -that the droppings from the houses are well distributed throughout -the soil. - -This system with the particular crops found that do best in the -locality, give us an ideal method of poultry husbandry. We have kept -hens and young stock supplied with green food the year round; we -have utilized every particle of manure without one bit of labor. We -have a rotation of crops. We have the benefits to the ground of -several green crops turned under. We have raised one grain crop per -year on most of the ground. We have no labor in feeding and watering -except the keeping of the grain, beef and grit hoppers filled, and -the water system in order. - -The number of fowls that may be kept per acre will be determined by -the richness of the soil. The chief object of the entire scheme is -to provide abundant green pasture at all times and to allow the -production of a reasonable amount of grain. With one hundred hens -per acre on the entire tract, and with houses containing eighty hens -each, it will be necessary to set the houses ninety-five feet apart. -This will give the flock a tract of 95 by 330 feet in which to -pasture. - -The above estimate with a little land allowed for house, garden, -orchard and a little cow and team pasture, will permit the keeping -of two thousand hens on a twenty-five acre farm. In regions where -grain is to be raised most farmers would want more land. They may -also wish to own a few extra cows, hogs, etc., or to alternate the -entire poultry operations with some crop that will, on such highly -fertilized land, give a good cash profit. Forty acres is a good size -for such uses. - -The cost of land when purchased in large tracts in Virginia is very -small, but the cost of clearing is often much more than that of the -land. Twenty-five to fifty dollars an acre should secure such a -tract of land and put it in shape for poultry farming. - -The cost of the farm home, etc., will, of course vary altogether -with the taste of the occupant. If they are constructed by a central -company, from five hundred to a thousand dollars should cover the -amount. - -The cost of poultry buildings and equipment used on the farm will -depend largely on the efficiency of the labor of construction. If -constructed in large numbers by a central company, the cost would be -reduced, but the company would expect to make a profit on their -work. - -A plot laid out for two thousand hens will require in material: 250 -rods of fence with 6-ft. netting which should cost about fifty cents -a rod. My estimate of this fence put up would be $150. If the -neighboring field contained no other poultry, a portion of this -fence might be done away with, although its protection against dogs -and strangers may be worth while. Of course, if poultry fields of -different owners lay adjoining, the fence must be used, but the cost -will be reduced one-half. - -The next most expensive piece of equipment will be a line of about -eighty rods of 3/4 in. gas pipe and about fifty elbows and -twenty-five galvanized iron pans. The cost of installation will -depend largely on how deep it is necessary to go to get below the -frost line. One hundred and seventy-five dollars should cover cost -of material and by the use of a plow the line ought to be put in for -twenty-five dollars. - -The source of water, and the cost of getting a head, will -necessarily vary with the location. The installation of a wind mill -and tank to hold supply for several days, or of a small gasoline -engine, would cost in the neighborhood of one hundred dollars, but -it is a luxury that may be dispensed with if the well is not too -deep. - -The houses for the hens, of which there are twenty-five, are -constructed in accordance with some of the plans previously -discussed. The cost should be about twenty-five cents per hen. - -At least twice as many brooders as colony coops will be needed as -there are hen houses, but of the lamps and hovers not over -twenty-five will be required, as the chicks soon outgrow the need of -this aid. - -This makes a list of equipment required for the keeping of two -thousand layers and their replenishing: - - 25 acres of farm land, at $50 per acre $1250.00 - 250 rods of fence 150.00 - One farmstead 1000.00 - One team, plow and farm implements 300.00 - One watering system 300.00 - 25 hen houses, at $20 500.00 - 50 colony coops, at $2.50 150.00 - 25 lamps and hovers, at $5 125.00 - -------- - $3775.00 - -[Transcriber's note: "50 colony coops, at $2.50" is $125.00, not -$150. The total should therefore be $3750 rather than $3775. This -was, presumably, a printing error, because the correct total is -used in the further calculations below.] - -This is a good, liberal capitalization. The business can be started -with much less. Figured interest at 6 per cent. we have $225.00 per -year. - -The upkeep of the plant will be about 15 per cent. on the capital, -not counting land. This equals $375, which, added to interest, gives -an annual overhead expense of $600, which is our first item to be -set against gross receipts. - -The cost of operation will involve cost of chicks at hatchery, -purchased feed, seed for ground, and feed for team. - -The price of chicks at the Petaluma hatcheries is from six to eight -cents each. We expect to raise enough pullets to make up for the -accidental losses, and to renew bulk of the flock each year. The -number required will, of course, depend upon the loss. This loss -will be much less when the chicks are obtained from a modern -moisture controlled hatchery, than from the box type incubator. I -think a 33 per cent. loss is a liberal estimate, but as I am -treading on unproven ground, I will make that loss 40 per cent., -which is on a par with old style methods. To replace 1,000 hens, -this will require 3,500 chicks at a cost of about two hundred and -fifty dollars. - -Green pasturage throughout the year will materially cut down the -cost of feed. The corn consumed out of the hoppers will be about one -bushel per hen. The beef scrap will also be less than with yarded -fowls, perhaps twenty-five cents per hen. Now, of the corn we will -raise on the land, at least ten acres. This should yield us five -hundred bushels. This leaves fifteen hundred bushels of corn to be -purchased. At the present high rates, this will cost $1,000 which, -added to beef scrap cost, makes an outside feed cost of $1,500. The -seed cost of rye, rape, cow-peas, etc., will amount to about $50 per -annum. For expense of production we have: - - Interest and upkeep of plant $600.00 - Chicks 250.00 - Purchased corn 1000.00 - Beef scrap and grit 500.00 - Seed 50.00 - Team feed 100.00 - --------- - $2,500.00 - -This figures out the cost of production at a little more than a -dollar per hen. The income from the place should be about as -follows: Eleven hundred cockerels sold as squab broilers at 40 cents -each, $440.00; four hundred and seventy-five old hens at 30 cents, -$140.00. - -The receipts from egg yield are, of course, impossible of very -accurate calculation, for it is here that the personal element that -determines success or failure enters. The Arkansas per-hen-day -figures (see last chapter), multiplied by the average quotation for -extras in the New York market, will be as fair as any, and certainly -cannot be considered a high estimate, as it is only 113 eggs per hen -per year. - - Price per doz Income for - Eggs per Extras month from - hen day in New York 2000 layers - --------------------------------------------- - January .32 $ .30 $494.00 - February .30 .29 404.00 - March .62 .22 700.00 - April .38 .19 350.00 - May .44 .19 429.00 - June .42 .18 377.00 - July .34 .21 367.00 - August .38 .22 429.00 - September .21 .25 262.00 - October .22 .28 316.00 - November .18 .33 267.00 - December .15 .32 246.00 - --------- - Total $4,641.00 - -The total income as figured will be $5,221. From this subtract the -cost of production, and we have still nearly $3,000, which is to be -combined item of wages and profit. We have entered no labor bill -because this is to be a one-man farm, and with the assistance of the -public hatchery and co-operative marketing association, which will -send a wagon right to a man's door to gather the eggs, it is -entirely feasible for one man to attend to two thousand hens. In the -rush spring season other members of the family will have to turn out -and help, or a man may be hired to attend the plowing and rougher -work. - -This is a good handsome income, and yet the above price of the man's -labor--it is only about one dollar per hen, which has always been -the estimated profit of successful poultry keeping. As a matter of -fact, this profit is seldom reached under the old system of poultry -keeping, not because the above gross income cannot be reached, but -because the expenses are greater. Under the present methods, with -the exception of the rearing of the young chicks, one man can easily -take care of three thousand hens. Indeed, practically the only work -in their care is cultivating the ground and hauling around and -dumping into hoppers, about two loads of feed per week. - -But, young chicks must be reared, and this is more laborious. For -this reason I advise going into some other industry on a part of the -land, which will not require attention in the young chick season. -One of the best things for this purpose is the cultivation of cane -fruits as blackberries, raspberries and dewberries. The work of -caring for these can be made to fall wholly without the young chick -season. Peaches and grapes for a slower profit can be added, but -spraying and cultivation of these is more liable to take spring -labor. All these fruits have the advantage of doing well in the same -kind of soil recommended for chickens. Young chickens may be grown -around such berry crops and removed to permanent quarters before the -berries ripen. Strawberries would be a very poor crop because their -labor falls in the chick season. - -Another plan, and perhaps a better one, is to have about three -fields, and rotate in such a manner that a marketable crop may be -always kept growing in the third field. Any crop may be selected, -the chief labor of which falls between July and the following March. -Late cabbage and potatoes, or celery, will do if the ground is -suitable for these crops. Kale and spinach are staple fall crops. -Fall lettuce could also be grown. If the market is glutted on such -crops, they can be fed out at home. Whenever a field is vacant, have -some crop growing on it, if only for purposes of green manuring. -Never let sandy ground lie fallow. - -A modification of the above plans suited to heavier ground, is to -seed down the entire farm to grass. It is then divided into three -fields and provided with three sets of colony houses. Coops are -entirely dispensed with, and cheap indoor brooders are used in the -permanent houses. The pullets stay in these same houses in the same -field until the moulting season of the third year, or until they are -two and a half years old. One field will always be vacant during the -fall and winter season which time may be utilized for fresh seeding. - -The difficulty of maintaining a sod will necessitate somewhat -heavier soil than by the previous plan. The houses should be moved -around occasionally, as the grass kills out in the locality. This -plan is a lazy man's way, taking the least labor of any method of -poultry keeping known. It is adapted to the cheaper ground in the -region farthest from market. On the Atlantic seaboard, the more -enterprising man will use the third field for rotation, and sell -some of the fertility of the western grain in the form of a truck -crop. - - -Five Acre Poultry Farms. - -Can a living for a family be made from a five acre poultry farm? -Yes; by individual effort, where the marketing opportunities are -good; by corporate or co-operate effort, any place where the -fundamental conditions are right. - -This type of poultry farm is well suited for development near our -large cities, where the cry of "back to the land" has filled with -new hope the discouraged dweller in flat and tenement. No greater -chance for humanitarian work, and at the same time no greater -business opportunity, is open to-day than that of the promotion of -colonies of small poultry and truck farms where the parent colony -not only sells the land, but helps the settler to establish himself -in the business and to successfully market the product. The natural -location for such projects is in the sandy soils of New Jersey, -Delaware, Maryland and Virginia. - -We have already discussed the twenty-five acre farm, representing -the largest probable unit for such an enterprise. We will now -discuss the five acre farm which represents the smallest probable -unit. - -On the five-acre farm a considerable difference of methods will be -necessary. In the first place, it is to be a horseless farm. All -hauling and plowing must be attended to by the central company, or -the same results could be obtained by a team owned in common by a -small group, say of six farmers, each of whom is to use the team one -day of the week. - -A single isolated farmer in a community of farms or market -gardeners, could hire a team by the day as he needed it. I do not -recommend this scheme, however, but would suggest that the single -individual get a larger plot of ground, at least ten acres, and a -team of his own. In the co-operative community the five-acre -teamless farm is entirely feasible. - -The tract should be surveyed about twice as long as wide, which, for -five acres, makes it 20 by 40 rods, or 330 by 660 feet. Measure off -a strip one hundred feet back from the road. Fence the remainder of -the tract. Now run a partition fence down the center until we have -come to within twelve rods of the back side. Here run a cross fence. -This gives us three yards of about one and one-half acres each. The -gates are arranged so that one passes through the three yards in a -single trip. - -Where the middle partition fence adjoins the front fence, a well is -driven. A water line is run down the partition fence to the rear -yard. - -The plot around the house is set in permanent crops, such as -berries, fruit trees, asparagus, rhubarb, etc. Of the other three -yards, at least one is kept in growing marketable crops. Every inch -is cultivated, and crops of the leafy nature, as lettuce, cabbage, -kale and spinach, are chiefly grown, as they utilize the rich -nitrogenous poultry manure to the best advantage, and the waste -portions, or worthless crops, are utilized for the poultry. The -method of supplying the fowls with green food is entirely by -soiling. This means to grow the food in an adjoining lot and throw -it over the fence. The above mentioned crops are all good for the -purpose. Rape, which is not grown for human food, is also excellent. - -Kale is one of the very best crops for soiling purposes. It is -planted in the fall and fed by pulling off the lower leaves during -the winter. In the spring the hardened stalks stand at a -considerable height and the field may be used for growing young -chicks, giving shade, and at the same time producing abundant green -feed, without any immediate labor, which means a great saving in the -busy season. - -A set of panels or netting stretched on light frames is provided. -They are of sufficient number to set along the longest side of one -of the fields. A strip along the fence, four or five feet wide, can -be planted to sunflowers, corn, rape, kale, or other rank growing -crop and the panels leaned against the fence to protect the young -plants from the hens. In this way the fence rows can be kept -provided with the shade of growing crops, which relieves the -otherwise serious fault of this plan of poultry farming, in that the -hens would be required to live in absolutely barren and sunburned -lots, for we propose to keep five or six hundred hens on one and a -half acres of ground, and no green things could get a start without -protection. - -Rotate the houses from field to field as often as the crops allow. -Never permit hens to run in one bare field for more than six months -at a time. Always keep every inch of ground not in use by the -chickens, luxuriant in something green. If you have a crop of -vegetables which are about matured, drill rape or crimson clover -between the rows; by the time the crop is harvested and the hens are -to be moved in, such crops will have made a good growth. The hens -will kill it out but it will be a "profitable killing." - -By this system of intensive combination of trucking and poultry -farming, we have a combination which for small capital and small -lands cannot be beaten. The hens should yield better than a dollar -profit per head on this plan; the one and a half acres automatically -fertilized and intensely cultivated, growing two or three crops a -year, should easily double the income. - -Twelve hundred dollars a year is a conservative estimate for the net -income from such a plant, and the original investment, exclusive of -residence, will not be over one thousand dollars. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -INCUBATION - - -The differences in the process of reproduction in birds and mammals -is frequently misunderstood. The laying of the bird's egg is not -analogous to the birth of young in mammals. - -The female, whether bird or beast, forms a true egg which must be -fertilized by the male sperm cell before the offspring can develop. -In the mammal, if fertilization does not occur, the egg which is -inconspicuous, passes out of the body and is lost. If fertilized, it -passes into the womb where the young develops through the embryonic -stages, being supplied with nourishment and oxygen directly by the -mother. - -In the bird, the egg, fertilized or unfertilized, passes out of the -body and, being of conspicuous size, is readily observed. The size -of the egg is due to the supply of food material which is comparable -with that supplied to the mammalian young during its stay in the -mother's womb. - -The reptiles lay eggs that are left to develop outside of the body -of the mother, subject to the vicissitudes of the environment. The -young of the bird, being warm blooded, cannot develop without more -uniform temperature than weather conditions ordinarily supply. This -heat is supplied by the instinctive brooding habit of the mother -bird. - - -Fertility of Eggs - -In a state of nature the number of eggs laid by wild fowl are only -as many as can be covered by the female. These are laid in the -spring of the year, and one copulation of the male bird is -sufficient to fertilize the entire clutch. Under domestication, the -hen lays quite indefinitely, and is served by the male at frequent -intervals. The fertilizing power of the male bird extends over a -period of about 15 days. - -For most of my readers, it will be unnecessary to state that the -male has no influence upon the other offspring than those which he -actually fertilizes within this period. The belief in the influence -of the first male upon the later hatches by another male is simply a -superstition. - -The domestic chicken is decidedly polygamous. The common rule is one -male to 12 or 15 hens. I have had equally good results, however, -with one male to 20 hens. In the Little Compton and South Shore -districts, one male is used for thirty or even forty hens. - -By infertile eggs is meant eggs in which the sperm cell has never -united with the ovum. Such eggs may occur in a flock from the -absence of the male, from his disinclination or physical inability -to serve the hens, from the weakness or lack of vitality in the -sperm cells, from his neglect of a particular hen, from -lifelessness, or lack of vitality in the ovule, or from chance -misses, by which some eggs fail to be reached by the sperm cells. - -In practice, lack of sexual inclination in a vigorous looking -rooster is very rare indeed. The more likely explanation is that he -neglects some hens, or that the eggs are fertilized, but the germs -die before incubation begins, or in the early stages of that -process. The former trouble may be avoided by having a relay of -roosters and shutting each one up part of the time. The latter -difficulty will be diminished by setting the egg as fresh as -possible, meanwhile storing them in a cool place. The other factors -to be considered in getting fertile eggs, are so nearly synonymous -with the problems of health and vitality in laying stock generally, -that to discuss it here would be but a repetition of ideas. - -In connection with the discussion of fertile eggs, I want to point -out the fact that the whole subject of fertility as distinct from -hatchability, is somewhat meaningless. The facts of the case are, -that whatever factors in the care of the stock will get a large -percentage fertile eggs, will also give hatchable eggs and vice -versa. This is to be explained by the fact that most of the -unfertile eggs tested out during incubation, are in reality dead -germs in which death has occurred before the chick became visible to -the naked eye. Such deaths should usually be ascribed to poor -parentage, but may be caused by wrong storage or incubation. -Likewise, it would not be just to credit all deaths after chicks -became visible to wrong incubation, although the most of the blame -probably belongs there. - -Likewise, with brooder chicks, we must divide the credit of their -livability in an arbitrary fashion between parentage, incubation, -and care after hatching. - -By the hatchability of eggs, we then mean the percentage of eggs set -that hatch chicks able to walk and eat. By the livability of chicks, -we mean the percentage of chicks hatched that live to the age of -four weeks, after which they are subject to no greater death rate -than adult chickens. By the livability of eggs, we mean the product -of these two factors, i.e.: the percentage of chicks at four weeks -of age based upon the total number of eggs set. - -As before mentioned, the fertility of eggs bears fairly definite -relation to the hatchability, so likewise the hatchability bears a -relation to the livability of chicks. When poor hatches occur -because of weak germs, as because of faulty incubation, this same -injury to the chick's organism is carried over and causes a larger -death among the hatched chicks. - -Moreover, the relation between the two is not the same with all -classes of hatches, but as hatches get poorer the mortality among -the chicks increases at an accelerating rate. The following table -gives a rough approximation of these ratios: - - Per cent. of Per cent. of chick Per cent. of egg - Hatchability. Livability. Livability. - 100 100 100 - 90 95 85 - 80 88 70 - 70 84 50 - 60 72 43 - 50 55 27 - 40 40 16 - 30 24 7 - 20 10 2 - 10 2 1 - -These figures are based on incubator data. Eggs set under hens -usually give a hatchability of 50 per cent. to 65 per cent., and -livability of 70 per cent. to 80 per cent. The reason for the -greater livability is that the real hatchability of the eggs is 70 -per cent. to 75 per cent., and is reduced by mechanical breakage. -The hatchability of eggs varies with the season. This variation is -commonly ascribed to nature, it being stated that springtime is the -natural breeding season, and therefore eggs are of greater -fertility. - -While there may be a little foundation for this idea, the chief -cause is to be found in the manner of artificial incubation, as will -be discussed in a later section of this chapter. The following table -is given as the seasonable hatchability for northern states. This is -based on May hatch of 50 per cent: - - January 38 July 40 - February 42 August 40 - March 47 September 42 - April 49 October 43 - May 50 November 40 - June 46 December 35 - -Most people have an exaggerated idea of the hen's success as a -hatcher. I have a number of records of hen hatching with large -numbers of eggs set, and they are all between 55 per cent. and 60 -per cent. The reasons the hen does not hatch better are as follows: - -First: Actual infertile eggs--usually, running about 10 per cent. in -the best season of the year. - -Second: Mechanical breakage. - -Third: Eggs accidentally getting chilled by rolled to one side of -the nests, or by the sick, lousy or crazy hens leaving the nests or -standing up on the eggs. - -Fourth: Eggs getting damp from wet nests, dung or broken eggs; thus -causing bacterial infection and decay. - -The last three causes are not present in artificial incubation. From -my observation they cause a loss of 15 per cent. of the eggs that -fail to hatch, when hens are managed in large numbers. This would -properly credit our hens with hatches running from 70 per cent. to -75 per cent., which, for reasons later explained, is not equal to -hatches under the best known conditions of artificial incubation. - -The assumption that the hen is a perfect hatcher, even barring -accidents and the inherited imperfection of the egg, is not, I -think, in harmony with our general conception of nature. Not only -are eggs under the hens subject to unfavorable weather conditions, -but the hen, to satisfy her whims or hunger, frequently remains too -long away from the eggs, allowing them to become chilled. - -For directions of how to manage setting hens, consult the Chapter on -"Poultry on the General Farm." - - -The Wisdom of the Egyptians. - -Up to the present there have been just three types of artificial -incubation that have proven successful enough to warrant our -attention. These are: - -First, the modern wooden-box-kerosene-lamp incubator which is seen -at its best development in the United States. - -Second, the Egyptian incubator of ancient origin, which is a large -clay oven holding thousands of eggs and warmed by smouldering fires -of straw. - -Third, the Chinese incubator, much on the principle of the Egyptian -hatchery, but run in the room of an ordinary house, heated with -charcoal braziers and used only for duck eggs. - -I have no accurate information on the results of the Chinese method, -and as it is not used for hen eggs, we will confine our attention to -the first two processes only. - -I do not care to go into detail in discussing makes of box -incubators, but I will mention briefly the chief points in the -development of our present machines. - -The first difficulties were in getting lamps, regulators, etc., that -would give a uniform temperature. This now has been worked out to a -point where, with any good incubator and an experienced operator, -the temperature of the egg chamber is readily kept within the -desired range. - -These are two principal types of box incubators now in use. In the -earliest of these, the eggs were heated by radiation from a tank of -hot water. These machines depended for ventilation or, what is much -more important, evaporation, upon chance air currents passing in and -out of augur holes in the ends or bottom of the machine. - -The second, or more modern type, warms the eggs by a current of air -which passes around a lamp flue where, being made lighter by the -expansion due to heat, the air rises, creating a draft that forces -it into the egg chamber. There it is caused to spread by muslin or -felt diaphragms so that no perceptible current of air strikes the -eggs. This type is the most popular type of small incubator on the -market. Its advantage will be more readily seen after the discussion -of the principles of incubation. - -Hazy tales of Egyptian incubators have gone the rounds of poultry -papers these many years. More recently some accurate accounts from -American travelers and European investigators have come to light, -and as a result, the average poultry editor is kept busy trying to -explain how such wonderful results can be obtained "in opposition to -the well-known laws of incubation." - -The facts about Egyptian incubators are as follows: They have a -capacity of 50 to 100 thousand eggs, and are built as a single large -room, partly underground and made of clay reinforced with straw. The -walls are two or three feet thick. Inside, the main rooms are little -clay domes with two floors. - -The hatching season begins the middle of January and lasts three -months. A couple of weeks before the hatching begins, the fireproof -house is filled with straw which is set afire, thoroughly warming -the hatchery. The ashes are then taken out and little fires built in -pots are set around the outside of the big room. The little clay -rooms with the double floors are now filled with eggs. That is, one -is filled at a time, the idea being to have fresh eggs entering and -chicks moving out in a regular order, so as not to cause radical -changes in the temperature of the hatchery. - -No thermometer is used, but the operator has a very highly -cultivated sense of temperature, such as is possessed by a cheese -maker or dynamite dryer. About the twelfth day the eggs are moved to -the upper part of the little interior rooms where they are further -removed from the heated floor. The eggs are turned and tested out -much as in this country. They are never cooled and the room is full -of the fumes and smoke of burning straw. The ventilation provided is -incidental. - -This is about the whole story save for results. The incubator men -pay back three chicks for four eggs, and take their profits by -selling the extra chicks that are hatched above the 75 per cent. -This statement is in itself so astonishing and yet convincing, that -to add that the hatch runs between 85 per cent. and 90 per cent. of -all eggs set, and that the incubators of the Nile Delta hatch about -75,000,000 chicks a year seems almost superfluous. As for the -explanation of the results of the Egyptian incubators compared with -the American kerosene lamp type, I think it can best be brought -about by a consideration in detail of the scientific principles of -incubators. - - -Principles of Incubation. - -HEAT.--To keep animal life, once started, alive and growing, we -need: First, a suitable surrounding temperature. Second, a fairly -constant proportion of water in the body substance. Third, oxygen. -Fourth, food. - -Now, a fertile egg is a living young animal and as such its wants -should be considered. We may at once dispose of the food problem of -the unhatched chick, by saying that the food is the contents of the -egg at the time of laying, and as far as incubation is concerned, is -beyond our control. - -In consideration of external temperature in its relation to life, we -should note: (A) the optimum temperature; (B) the range of -temperature consistent with general good health; (C) the range at -which death occurs. Just to show the principle at stake, and without -looking up authorities, I will state these temperatures for a number -of animals. Of course you can dispute the accuracy of these figures, -but they will serve to illustrate our purpose: - - - External External External Internal Internal - Optimum Healthful Fatal Optimum Fatal - Point Range Range Point Range - - Man 70 0 to 100 50 to 140 98 90 to 106 - - Dog 60 70 to 140 70 to 140 101 95 to 110 - - Monkey 90 30 to 140 30 to 140 101 95 to 108 - - Horse 80 20 to 120 20 to 120 99 95 to 105 - - Fowl 80 20 to 140 20 to 140 107 100 to 115 - - Newly hatched - chick 90 70 to 100 40 to 120 108 100 to 115 - - Fertile egg - at start of - incubation 103 32 to 110 31 to 125 103 31 to 125 - - Egg incubated - three days 103 98 to 105 80 to 118 103 95 to 118 - - Egg incubated - eighteen days 103 75 to 105 50 to 118 106 98 to 116 - -This table shows, among other things, that we are considering in the -chick not a new proposition to which the laws of general animal life -do not apply, but merely a young animal during the process of growth -to a point where its internal mechanism for heat control, has power -to maintain the body temperature through a greater range of external -temperature change. - -In the cooling process that occurs after laying the living cells of -the egg become dormant, and like a hibernating animal, the actual -internal temperature can be subjected to a much greater range than -when the animal is active. After incubation begins and cell activity -returns, and especially after blood forms and circulation commences, -the temperature of the chick becomes subject to about the same -internal range as with other warm blooded animals. - -In the case of fully formed animals, the internal temperature is -regulated by a double process. If the external temperature be -lowered, more food substance is combined with oxygen to keep up the -warmth of the body, while, if the external temperature be raised, -the body temperature is kept low by the cooling effects of -evaporation. This occurs in mammals chiefly by sweating. Birds do -not sweat, but the same effect is brought about by increased -breathing. Now, the chick gradually develops the heat producing -function during incubation, until towards the close of the period it -can take care of itself fairly well in case of lowered external -temperature. The power to cool the body by breathing is not, -however, granted to the unhatched chick, and for this reason the -incubating egg cannot stand excess of heat as well as lack of it. - -The practical points to be remembered from the above are: - -First: Before incubation begins, eggs may be subjected to any -temperature that will not physically or chemically injure the -substance. - -Second: During the first few days of the hatch, eggs have no -appreciable power of heat formation and the external temperature for -any considerable period of time can safely vary only within the -range of temperature at which the physiological process may be -carried on. - -Third: As the chick develops it needs less careful guarding against -cooling, and must still be guarded against over-heating. - -Fourth: It should be remembered, however, that eggs are very poor -conductors of heat, and if the temperature change is not great -several hours of exposure are required to bring the egg to the new -temperature. - -Temperature is the most readily observed feature about natural -incubation and its control was consequently the first and chief -effort of the early incubator inventors. - -A great deal of experimental work has been done to determine the -degree of temperature for eggs during incubation. The temperature of -the hen's blood is about 105 to 107 degrees F. The eggs are not -warmed quite to this temperature, the amount by which they fail to -reach the temperature of the hen's body depending, of course, upon -the surrounding temperature. 103 degrees F. is the temperature that -has been generally agreed upon by incubator manufacturers. Some of -these advise running 102 degrees the first week, 103 degrees the -second, 104 degrees the third. As a matter of fact it is very -difficult to determine the actual temperature of the egg in the box -incubator. This is because the source of heat is above the eggs and -the air temperature changes rapidly as the thermometer is raised or -lowered through the egg chamber. The advice to place the bulb of the -thermometer against the live egg is very good, but in practice quite -variable results will be found on different eggs and different parts -of the machine. - -With incubators of the same make, and in all appearances identical, -quite marked variation in hatching capacity has been observed in -individual machines. Careful experimentation will usually show this -to be a matter of the way the thermometer is hung in relation to the -heating surfaces and to the eggs. Ovi-thermometers, which consists -of a thermometer enclosed in the celluloid imitation of an egg, are -now in the market and are perhaps as safe as anything that can be -used. - -As was indicated in the previous section greater care in temperature -of the egg is necessary in the first half of the hatch. The -temperature of 102 degrees F. as above given is, in the writer's -opinion, too low for this portion of the hatch. An actual -temperature of 104 degrees at the top of the eggs will, as has been -shown by careful experimental work, give better hatches than the -lower temperature. - - -Moisture and Evaporation. - -The subject of the water content of the egg and its relation to -life, is the least understood of poultry problems. - -The whole study of the water content of the egg during incubation -hangs on the amount of evaporation. Now, the rates of evaporation -from any moist object is determined by two factors: vapor pressure -and the rate of movement of the air past the object. As incubation -is always carried on at the same temperature, the evaporating power -of the air is directly proportioned to the difference in the vapor -pressure of water at that temperature, and the vapor pressure of the -air as it enters the machine. Thus, in order to know the evaporative -power of the air, we have only to determine the vapor pressure of -the air and to remember that the rate of evaporation is in -proportion to this pressure, i.e.: when the vapor pressure is high -the evaporation will be slow and the eggs remain too wet, and when -the vapor pressure is low the eggs will be excessively dried out. - -The reader is probably more familiar with the term relative humidity -than the term vapor pressure, but as the actual significance of -relative humidity is changed at every change in outside temperature, -the use of this term for expressing the evaporating power of the air -has led to no end of confusion. - -The influence of air currents on evaporation is to increase it -directly proportional with the rate of air movement. Thus, 10 cubic -feet of air per hour passing through an egg chamber would remove -twice as much moisture as would 5 cubic feet. - -If the percentage of water in any living body be changed a -relatively small amount, serious disturbances of the physiological -processes and ultimately death will result. The mature animal can, -by drinking, take considerable excess of water without danger, for -the surplus will be speedily removed by perspiration and by the -secretion from the kidneys. But the percentage of water in the -actual tissues of the body can vary only within a narrow range of -not more than three or four per cent. The chick in the shell is not -provided with means of increasing its water content by drinking or -diminishing it by excretion, but the fresh egg is provided with more -moisture than the hatched chick will require, and the surplus is -gradually lost by evaporation. This places the water content of the -chick's body at the mercies of the evaporating power of the air that -surrounds the egg during incubation. - -To assume that these risks of uncertain rates of evaporation is -desirable, is as absurd as to assume that the risks of rainfall are -desirable for plant life. As the plants of a certain climate have -become adapted to the amount of soil moisture which the climate is -likely to provide, so the egg has by natural selection been formed -with about as much excess of water as will be lost in an average -season under the natural conditions of incubation. Plant life -suffers in drought or flood, and likewise bird life suffers in -seasons of abnormal evaporative conditions. This view is -substantiated by the fact that the eggs of water fowl which are in -nature incubated in damper places, have a lower water content than -the eggs of land birds. - -The per cent. of water contained in the contents of fresh eggs is -about 74 per cent., or about 65.5 per cent, based on the weight, -shell included. Unfortunately no investigations have been made -concerning the per cent. of water present in the newly hatched -chick. - -Upon the subject of the loss of water for the whole period of -incubation, valuable data has been collected at the Utah, Oregon and -Ontario Experiment Stations. - -In these tests we find that as a rule the evaporation of eggs under -hens is less than in incubators. With both hens and incubators, the -rate of evaporation is greatest at the Utah Station, which one would -naturally expect from the climate. The eggs under hens at the -Ontario Station averaged about 12 per cent. loss in weight, and -those at the Utah Station about 15 per cent. At both stations, -incubators without moisture ran several per cent. higher evaporation -than eggs under hens. The conclusions at all stations were that the -addition of moisture to incubators was a material aid to good -hatches of livable chicks. - -At Ontario the average evaporation ran from as low as 7 per cent. At -Utah it reached as high as 24 per cent. Now as the entire loss of -weight is loss of water, the solid contents remaining the same, and -as the original per cent, of water contained in the egg (shell -included) is only 65.5, the chicks of the two lots with the same -amount of solid substance would contain water in the proportion of -58.5 to 41.5. Based on the weight of the chick, this would make a -difference of water content of over 25 per cent. - -That human beings or other animals could not exist with such -differences in the chemical composition of the body, is at once -apparent. In fact I do not believe that the chick can live under -such remarkable circumstances. As I have picked the extreme cases in -the series given, it is possible that these extremes were -experimental errors, and as in the Utah data, no information is -given as what happened to the chicks, I have no proof that they did -live. But from the large number of hatches that were recorded below -9 per cent, and above 15 per cent., giving a variation of the actual -water content in the chick's body of about 10 per cent., it is -evident that chicks do hatch under remarkable physiological -difficulties. One explanation that suggests itself is, that as there -is considerable variation in evaporation of individual eggs due to -the amount of shell porosity, and the chicks that hatch in either -case may be the ones whose individual variations threw them nearer -the normal. - -By a further study from the Ontario data of the relation of the -evaporation to the results in livable chicks, it can be readily -observed that all good hatches have evaporation centering around the -12 per cent. moisture loss, and that all lots with evaporations -above 15 per cent. hatch out extremely poor. - -The general averages of the machines supplied with some form of -moisture was 35 per cent. of all eggs set, in chicks alive at four -weeks of age, while the machines ran dry gave only 20 per cent. of -live chicks at a similar period. - -Now, I wish to call attention to a further point in connection with -evaporation. If the final measure of the loss of weight by -evaporation were the only criterion of correct conditions of -moisture in the chick's body, the hatches that show 12 per cent., or -whatever the correct amount of evaporation may be, should be -decidedly superior to those on either side. That they are better, -has already been shown. But they are far from what they should be. -An explanation is not hard to find. The correct content of moisture -is not the only essential to the chick's well being at the moments -of hatching, but during the whole period of incubation. Under our -present system of incubation, the chick is immediately subject to -the changing evaporation of American weather conditions. The data -for that fact, picked at random, will be of interest. The following -table gives the vapor pressure at Buffalo, N. Y., for twenty -consecutive days in April: - -April 1..................170 - 2..................130 - 3...................95 - 4..................103 - 5..................110 - 6..................106 - 7..................154 - 8..................183 - 9..................245 - 10.................311 - 11.................342 - 12.................286 - 13.................219 - 14.................248 - 15.................217 - 16.................193 - 17.................241 - 18.................306 - 19.................261 - 20.................204 - -Supposing a hatch to be started at the beginning of the above -period, by the end of the first week, with the excessive -evaporation, due to a low vapor pressure, the eggs would all be -several per cent. below the normal water content; the fact that the -next week was warm and rainy, and the vapor pressure rose until the -loss was entirely counterbalanced, would not repair the injury, even -though the eggs showed at the end of incubation exactly the correct -amount of shrinkage. A man might thirst in the desert for a week, -then, coming to a hole of water fall in and drown, but we would -hardly accept the report of a normal water content found at the -post-mortem examination as evidence that his death was not connected -with the moisture problem. - -The change of evaporation, due to weather conditions, is, under -hens, less marked than in incubators. This is because there are no -drafts under the hen, and because the hen's moist body and the moist -earth, if she sets on the ground, are separate sources of moisture -which the changing humidity of the atmosphere does not affect. Among -about forty hens set at different times at the Utah Station and the -loss of moisture of which was determined at three equal periods of -six days each, the greatest irregularity I found was as follows: 1st -period, 5.81 per cent; 2d period, 3.86 per cent; 3d period, 6.15 per -cent. Compare this with a similar incubator record at the same -station in which the loss for the three periods was 5.63, 9.18 and -2.15. - -I think the reader is now in position to appreciate the almost -unsurmountable difficulties in the proper control of evaporation -with the common small incubator in our climate. It is little wonder -that one of our best incubator manufacturers, after studying the -proposition for some time, threw over the whole moisture -proposition, and put out a machine in which drafts of air were -slowed down by felt diaphragms and the use of moisture was strictly -forbidden. - -The moisture problem to the small incubator operator presents itself -as follows: If left to the mercies of chance and the weather, the -too great or too little evaporation from his eggs will yield hatches -that will prove unprofitable. In order to regulate this evaporation, -he must know and be able to control both vapor pressure and the -currents of air that strike the eggs. Now he does not know the -amount of vapor pressure and has no way of finding it out. The -so-called humidity gauges on the market are practically worthless, -and even were the readings on relative humidity accurately -determined, they would be wholly confusing, for their effect of the -same relative humidity on the evaporation will vary widely with -variations of the out-of-door temperature. - -If the operator knows or guesses that the humidity is too low, he -can increase it by adding water to the room, or the egg chamber, but -he cannot tell when he has too much, nor can he reduce the vapor -pressure of the air on rainy days when nature gives him too much -water. As to air currents he is little better off--he has no way to -tell accurately as to the behavior of air in the egg chamber and -changes in temperature of the heater or if the outside air will -throw these currents all off, since they depend upon the draft -principle. - -Taking it all in all, the man with the small incubator had better -follow the manufacturer's directions and trust to luck. - -The writer has long been of the conviction that a plan which would -keep the rate of evaporation within as narrow bounds as we now keep -the temperature, would not only solve the problem of artificial -incubation, but improve on nature and increase not only the numbers -but the vitality or livability of the chicks. With a view of -studying further the relations between the conditions of atmospheric -vapor pressure, and the success of artificial incubation, I have -investigated climatic reports and hatching records in the various -sections of the world. - -The following are averages of the monthly vapor pressures at four -points in which we are interested: - - Buffalo, St. Louis, San Fran- Cairo - Month N.Y. Mo. cisco. Egypt - January 87 98 311 279 - February 81 94 310 288 - March 138 224 337 287 - April 171 283 332 311 - May 301 423 317 328 - June 466 550 345 365 - July 546 599 374 413 - August 496 627 382 435 - September 429 506 389 372 - October 285 327 342 365 - November 271 225 285 321 - December 143 133 243 397 - -A study of the extent of daily variations is also of interest. As a -general thing they are less extreme in localities when the seasonal -variations are also less. In Cairo, however, which has a seasonal -variation greater than San Francisco, the daily variations during -the hatching season are much less than in California. This is due to -a constant wind from sea to land, and an absolute absence of -rainfall, conditions for which Egypt is noted. - -Nearness to a coast does not mean uniform vapor pressure, for with -wind alternating from sea to land, it means just the opposite. - -As will be readily seen the months in spring which give the best -hatches, occupy a medium place in the humidity scale. The fact that -both hens and machines succeed best in this period, is to me very -suggestive of the possibility that with an incubator absolutely -controlling evaporation, much of the seasonal variation in the -hatchability would disappear. - -The uniform humidity of the California coast is shown in the above -table. This is not inconsistent with the excellent results obtained -at Petaluma. - -The Egyptian hatcher in his long experience has learned just about -how much airholes and smudge fire are necessary to get results. With -these kept constant and the atmosphere constant, we have more nearly -perfect conditions of incubation than are to be found anywhere else -in the world, and I do not except the natural methods. The climatic -conditions of Egypt cannot be equaled in any other climate, but as -will be shown in the last section of this chapter, their effect can -be duplicated readily enough by modern science and engineering. - -Mr. Edward Brown, who was sent over here by the English Government -to investigate our poultry industry, was greatly surprised at our -poor results in artificial incubation. Compared with our -acknowledged records of less than 50 per cent. hatches, he quotes -the results obtained in hatching 18,000 eggs at an English -experiment station as 62 per cent. I have not obtained any data of -English humidity, but it is undoubtedly more uniform than the -eastern United States. - - -Ventilation--Carbon Dioxide. - -The last of the four life requisites we have to consider is that of -oxygen. The chick in the shell, like a fish, breathes oxygen which -is dissolved in a liquid. A special breathing organ is developed for -the chick during its embryonic stages and floats in the white and -absorbs the oxygen and gives off carbon dioxide. The amount of this -breathing that occurs in the chick is at first insignificant, but -increases with development. At no time, however, is it anywhere -equal to that of the hatched chicks, for the physiological function -to be maintained by the unhatched chicks requires little energy and -little oxidation. - -Upon the subject of ventilation in general, a great misunderstanding -exists. Be it far from me to say anything that will cause either my -readers or his chickens to sleep less in the fresh air, yet for the -love of truth and for the simplification of the problem of -incubation, the real facts about ventilation must be given. - -In breathing, oxygen is absorbed and carbon dioxide and water vapor -are given off. It is popularly held that abundance of fresh air is -necessary to supply the oxygen for breathing and that carbon dioxide -is a poison. Both are mistakes. The amount of oxygen normally in the -air is about 20 per cent. Of carbon dioxide there is normally three -hundredths of one per cent. During breathing these gasses are -exchanged in about equal volume. A doubling or tripling of carbon -dioxide was formerly thought to be "very dangerous." Now, if the -carbon dioxide were increased 100 times, we would have only three -per cent., and have seventeen per cent. of oxygen remaining. This -oxygen would still be of sufficient pressure to readily pass into -the blood. We might breathe a little faster to make up for the -lessened oxygen pressure. In fact such a condition of the air would -not be unlike the effects of higher altitudes. - -Some investigations recently conducted at the U.S. Experiment -Station for human nutrition, have shown the utter misconception of -the old idea of ventilation. The respiratory calorimeter is an -air-tight compartment in which men are confined for a week or more -at a time while studies are being made concerning heat and energy -yielded by food products. It being inconvenient to analyze such an -immense volume of air as would be necessary to keep the room -freshened according to conventional ventilation standards, -experiments were made to see how vitiated the air could be made -without causing ill effects to the subject. - -This led to a remarkable series of experiments in which it was -repeatedly demonstrated that a man could live and work for a week at -a time without experiencing any ill effects whatever in an -atmosphere of his own breath containing as high as 1.86 per cent. of -carbon dioxide, or, in other words, the air had its impurity -increased 62 times. This agrees with what every chemist and -physiologist has long known, and that is that carbon dioxide is not -poisonous, but is a harmless dilutant just as nitrogen. This does -not mean that a man or animal may not die of suffocation, but that -these are smothered, as they are drowned, by a real absence of -oxygen, not poisoned by a fraction of 1 per cent. of carbon dioxide. - -In the same series of experiments, search was made for the -mysterious poisons of the breath which many who had learned of the -actual harmlessness of carbon dioxide alleged to be the cause of the -ill effects attributed to foul air. Without discussion, I will say -that the investigators failed to find such poisons, but concluded -that the sense of suffocation in an unventilated room is due not to -carbon dioxide or other "poisonous" respiratory products, but is -wholly due to warmth, water vapor, and the unpleasant odors given -off by the body. - -The subject of ventilation has always been a bone of contention in -incubator discussions. With its little understood real importance, -as shown in the previous section, and the greatly exaggerated -popular notions of the importance of oxygen and imagined poisonous -qualities of carbon dioxide, the confusion in the subject should -cause little wonder. - -A few years ago some one with an investigating mind decided to see -if incubators were properly ventilated, and proceeded to make carbon -dioxide determinations of the air under a hen and in an incubator. -The air under the hen was found to contain the most of the obnoxious -gas. Now, this information was disconcerting, for the hen had always -been considered the source of all incubator wisdom. Clearly the -perfection of the hen or the conception of pure air must be -sacrificed. Chemistry here came to the rescue, and said that carbon -dioxide mixed with water, formed an acid and acid would dissolve the -lime of an egg shell. Evidently the hen was sacrificing her own -health by breathing impure air in order to soften up the shells a -little so the chicks could get out. Since it could have been -demonstrated in a few hours in any laboratory, that carbon dioxide -in the quantities involved, has no perceptible effect upon egg -shells, it is with some apology that I mention that quite a deal of -good brains has been spent upon the subject by two experiment -stations. The data accumulated, of course, fails to prove the -theory, but it is interesting as further evidence of the -needlessness in the old fear of insufficient ventilation. - -At the Ontario Station, the average amounts of carbon dioxide under -a large number of hens was .32 of one per cent., or about ten times -that of fresh air, or one-sixth of that which the man breathed so -happily in the respiratory calorimeter. With incubators, every -conceivable scheme was tried to change the amount of carbon dioxide. -In some, sour milk was placed which, in fermenting, gives off the -gas in question. Others were supplied with buttermilk, presumably to -familiarize the chickens with this article so they would recognize -it in the fattening rations. In other machines, lamp fumes were run -in, and to still others, pure carbon dioxide was supplied. The -percentage of the gas present varied in the machines from .06 to .58 -of one per cent. The results, of course, vary as any run of hatches -would. The detailed discussion of the hatches and their relation to -the amount of carbon dioxide as given in Bulletin 160 of the Ontario -Station, would be unfortunately confusing to the novice, but would -make amusing reading for the old poultryman. Speaking of a -comparison of two hatches, the writer, on page 53 of the bulletin -says, "The increase in vitality of chicks from the combination of -the carbon dioxide and moisture over moisture only, amounting, as it -does, to 4.5 per cent. of the eggs set, seems directly due to the -higher carbon dioxide content." I cannot refrain from suggesting -that if my reader has two incubators, he might set up a Chinese -prayer machine in front of one and see if he cannot in like manner -demonstrate the efficacy of Heavenly supplications in the hatching -of chickens. - -The practical bearing of the subject of ventilation in the small -incubator is almost wholly one of evaporation. The majority of such -machines are probably too much ventilated. In a large and properly -constructed hatchery, such as is discussed in the last section of -this chapter, the entire composition of the air, as well as its -movement, is entirely under control. Nothing has yet been brought to -light that indicates any particular attention need be given to the -composition of such air save in regard to its moisture content, but -as the control of this factor renders it necessary that the air be -in a closed circuit, and not open to all out-doors, it will be very -easy to subject the air to further changes such as the increasing -oxygen, if such can be demonstrated to be desirable. - - -Turning Eggs. - -The subject of turning eggs is another source of rather meaningless -controversy. Of course, the hen moves her eggs around and in doing -so turns them. Doubtless the reader, were he setting on a pile of -door knobs as big as his head, would do the same thing. As proof -that eggs need turning, we are referred to the fact that yolks stick -to the shell if the eggs are not turned. I have candled thousands of -eggs and have yet to see a yolk stuck to the shell unless the egg -contained foreign organism or was several months old. However, I -have seen hundreds of blood rings stuck to the shell. Whether the -chick died because the blood rings stuck or whether the blood rings -stuck because the chicken died I know not, but I have a strong -presumption that the latter explanation is correct, for I see no -reason if the live blood ring was in the habit of sticking to the -shell, why this would not occur in a few hours as well as in a few -days. - -In the year 1901 I saw plenty of chicks hatched out in Kansas in egg -cases, kitchen cupboards and other places where regular turning was -entirely overlooked. - -Mr. J.P. Collins, head of the Produce Department of Swift & Co., -says that he was one time cruelly deserted in a Pullman smoker for -telling the same story. The statement is true, however, in spite of -Mr. Collins' unpleasant experience. Texas egg dealers frequently -find hatched chickens in cases of eggs. - -Upon the subject of turning eggs the writer will admit that he is -doing what poultry writers as a class do on a great many occasions, -i.e.: expressing an opinion rather than giving the proven facts. In -incubation practice it is highly desirable to change the position of -eggs so that unevenness in temperature and evaporation will be -balanced. When doing this it is easier to turn the eggs than not to -turn them, and for this reason the writer has never gone to the -trouble of thoroughly investigating the matter. But it has been -abundantly proven that any particular pains in egg turning is a -waste of time. - - -Cooling Eggs. - -The belief in the necessity of cooling eggs undoubtedly arose from -the effort to follow closely and blindly in the footsteps of the -hen. With this idea in mind the fact that the hen cooled her eggs -occasionally led us to discover a theory which proved such cooling -to be necessary. A more reasonable theory is that the hen cools the -eggs from necessity, not from choice. In some species of birds the -male relieves the female while the latter goes foraging. - -But there is no need to argue the question. Eggs will hatch if -cooled according to custom, but that they will hatch as well or -better without the cooling is abundantly proven by the results in -Egyptian incubators where no cooling whatever is practiced. - - -Searching for the "Open Sesame" of Incubation. - -The experiment station workers have, the last few years, gone a -hunting for the weak spot in artificial incubation. Some reference -to this work has already been made in the sections on moisture and -ventilation. Before leaving the subject I want to refer to two more -efforts to find this key to the mystery of incubation and in the one -case at least correct an erroneous impression that has been given -out. - -At the Ontario Station a patent disinfectant wash called "Zenoleum" -was incidentally used to deodorize incubators. Now, for some reason, -perhaps due to the belief that white diarrhoea was caused by a germ -in the egg, this idea of washing with Zenoleum was conceived to be a -possible solution of the incubator problem. In the numerous -experiments at that station in 1907 Zenoleum applied to the machine -in various ways was combined with various other incipient panaceas -and at the end of the season the results of the various combinations -were duly tabulated. The machine with buttermilk and Zenoleum headed -the list for livable chicks. - -For reasons explained in the chapter on "Experiment Station Work," -the idea of contrasting the results of one hatch with one sort with -the average results of many hatches of another sort is very poor -science. Feeling that the Station men would hardly be guilty of -expressing as they did in favor of such a method without better -reason, I very carefully went over the results and compared all -machines using Zenoleum with all machines without it. The results in -favor of Zenoleum were less marked but still perceptible. I was -somewhat puzzled, as I could see no rational explanation of the -relation between disinfecting incubator walls and the hatchability -of the chick in its germ-proof cage. Finally I hit upon the scheme -of arranging the hatches by dates and the explanation became at once -apparent. The hatching experiments had extended from March to July, -but the Zenoleum hatches were grouped in April and early in May, -when, as one would expect from weather conditions, all hatches were -running good. After allowing for this error Zenoleum appeared as -harmless and meaningless as would the Attar of Roses. - -The second link after the missing link of incubation to which I wish -to call your attention also occurred at the Ontario Station. The -latter case, however, is happier in that no unwarranted conclusions -were drawn and that an interesting bit of scientific knowledge was -added to the world's store. The conception to be tested was an -offshoot from the carbon dioxide theory. You will remember at the -Utah Station the idea was that carbon dioxide was to dissolve the -shell so the chick could break out easier. - -At the Guelph Station the conception was that the carbon dioxide -might dissolve the lime of the shell for the chick to use in "makin' -hisself." As an egg could not be analyzed fresh and then hatched, a -number were analyzed from the same hens and others from those hens -were then incubated with the various amounts of carbon dioxide, -buttermilk, Zenoleum, and other factors. The lime content of the -contents of the fresh egg averaged about .04 grams. At hatching time -the lime in the chick's body averaged about .20 grams and was always -several times as great as the maximum of the eggs. - -Clearly calcium phosphate of the chick's bones is made by the -digestion of the calcium carbonate from the shell and its -combination with the phosphorus of the yolk. Certainly a remarkable -and hitherto unexplained fact. The amount of lime required is not -great enough, however, to materially weaken the shell, but, of -course, the process is vital to the chick as bones are quite -essential to his welfare, but it is an "inside affair" of which the -three-tenths of one per cent of carbon dioxide incidentally present -under the hen is entirely irrelevant. - -A further observation made by the investigator is that the chicks -which obtained the lowest amount of lime were abnormally weak. As -long as we are powerless to aid the chick in digesting lime this -fact, like the other, belongs in the field of pure, rather than -applied science. I think that we are safe in saying that the -weakness caused the shortage of lime rather than vice versa; if the -writer remembers runts in other animals are usually a little short -of bone material. - -The chemist of the station is to be given special credit for not -jumping at conclusions. In the summary of this work he states: -"There is apparently no connection between the amount of lime -absorbed by the chick and the amount of carbon dioxide present -during incubation." - - -The Box Type of Incubator In Actual Use. - -Although the fact is not so advertised and frequently not recognized -even by the makers, the success of existing incubators is directly -proportional to the extent with which they control evaporation. In -order to show this I have only to call attention briefly to two or -three of the most successful types of incubators on the market. - -Let me first repeat that evaporation increases with increased air -currents and with decreased vapor pressure. Now, the vapor pressure -undergoes all manner of changes with the passing of storm centers -and the changes of prevailing winds. But there is a general tendency -for vapor pressure to increase with increase in outside temperature. -Now, the movement of air in all common incubators depends upon the -draft principle and the greater the difference in machine -temperature and outside temperature the greater will be this draft. -Thus, we have two factors combining to cause variation in the rate -of evaporation. The tendency for the rate of airflow to vary is -diminished when a cellar is used for an incubator room, but the -cellar does not materially remedy the climatic variation in vapor -pressure. - -The general tendency of incubators as ordinarily constructed, is to -dry out the eggs too rapidly. With a view of counteracting this, -water is placed in pans in the egg room. A surface of water exposed -to quiet air does not evaporate as fast as one might think, as is -easily shown by the fact that air above rivers, lakes and even seas -is frequently far from the saturation point. The result of the -moisture pan with a given current of air is that the vapor pressure -is increased a definite amount, but by no means is it regulated or -made uniform. Inasmuch as too much shrinking is the most prevalent -fault in box incubators, the use of moisture is on the whole -beneficial, but in hot, murky weather, with less circulation and -higher outside vapor pressure, the moisture is overdone and the -operator condemns the system. - -The subject not being clearly understood and no means being -available for vapor pressure determinations, the system results in -confusion and disputes. When the felt diaphragm machine was brought -into the market it was advertised as a no-moisture machine. The -result of the diaphragm is that of choking off air movement and -consequently reducing evaporation. This gives exactly the same -results as the use of moisture, but the machine is easier to operate -and seemed to do away with the vexatious moisture problem which, -together perhaps, with some fancied resemblance of felt diaphragms -to hen feathers, has resulted in the widespread use of this type of -machine. - -The latest effort along the lines of reducing evaporation is the -sand tray machine that followed in the wake of the Ontario -investigation. This device simply gives a greater evaporating -surface to the water and hence a greater addition to the vapor -pressure. The results in practice I had given me by a man who last -year hatched sixty-five thousand chicks and as many more ducklings. - -He said: "The sand tray early in the season gave the best hatches -and most vigorous chicks we had, but later on things got too wet and -the chickens drowned." No nicer demonstration of science in practice -could be desired. - -In the present-day incubator of either type we are wholly at the -mercy of sudden climatic changes of vapor pressure. For the slower -changes from season to season some control by greater and less -amounts of supplied moisture, or by ventilator slides is available, -but little understood and seldom practiced. - -It will certainly be of interest to my readers to know the actual -hatches obtained with the prevailing type of box incubator. By -actual hatches we mean the per cent. of live chicks taken out of the -machine to the per cent. of eggs put in. The ordinary published -hatches, based on one per cent. of fertile hatches, are a delusion -and a snare. When eggs are tested out many dead germs come out with -them and the separation of microscopic dead germs from the infertile -egg is, of course, impossible. Such padded and show hatching records -do not interest us. - -Where incubators are run on top of the ground I have found the -results to be poor and to improve, the bigger and deeper and damper -and warmer and less ventilated the cellar is made. The reason for -this is plain. In such a cellar the vapor pressure of the air is not -only greater but is less influenced by the shifting vapor pressure -of the outside air. In a good cellar the operator, though his -knowledge of the factors with which he deals is grievously -deficient, learns, through long and costly experience, about what -addition of moisture or about what rate of ventilation will give him -the best results. In the room more subject to outside influences, -the conditions are so constantly changing that uniformity of -practice never gives uniform results, and hence the operator is -without guidance, either intelligent or blind, and the results are -wholly a product of chance. - -As proof of my contention I may give results of a series of full -season hatches for 1908, each involving several thousand eggs. - -First, a state experiment station, the name of which I do not care -to publish. Incubators kept in a cement basement which has flues in -which fires were built to secure "ample ventilation." This caused a -strong draft of cold, dry air, making the worst possible condition -for incubation. The hatch for the season averaged 25 per cent. and -was explained by lack of vitality in the stock. - -Second, Ontario Agricultural College. A room above ground, moisture -used in most machines and various other efforts being made to -improve the hatches by a staff of half a dozen scientists. Results: -Hatch 48 per cent.--incubator manufacturers call the experimenters -names and say they are ignorant and prejudiced. - -Third, Cornell University: dry ventilated basement representing -typical conditions of common incubator practice of the country. -Results: Hatch 52 per cent., results when given out commonly based -on fertile eggs and every one generally pleased. - -Fourth: One of the most successful poultrymen in New York State, who -has, without knowing why, hit upon the plan of using a no-moisture -type of incubator in a basement which is heated with steam pipes, -which maintains temperature at 70 degrees and has a cement floor -which is kept covered with water. Results: Hatch 59 per cent. - -Fifth: As a fifth in such a series I might mention again the -Egyptian machine with the uniform vapor pressure of the climate and -the three chicks exchanged for four eggs. - -While an official in the United States Department of Agriculture, I -gathered data from original records of private plants covering the -incubation of several hundred thousand eggs. Such information was -furnished me in confidence as a public official and as a private -citizen I have no right to publish that which would mean financial -profit or loss to those concerned. - -Of records where there were ten thousand or more eggs involved, the -lowest I found was 44 per cent. and the highest, that mentioned as -the fourth case above, or 59 per cent. The great majority of these -records hung very closely around the 50 per cent. mark. - -The following is a fair sample of such data. It is the record -of hatching hen eggs for the first six months of 1908, at one -of the largest poultry plants in America: - - Eggs Chicks Per Cent. - Month Set Hatched Hatched - - January 4,213 1,585 37 2-3 - February 6,275 2,339 33 3-4 - March 17,990 6,993 38 1-3 - April 18,819 10,265 54 1-2 - May 24,458 14,438 59 - June 13,100 6,614 55 - ------ ------ ------ - Total 84,855 42,234 50 p.c. - - -The Future Method of Incubation. - -The idea of the mammoth incubator which would hatch eggs by the -hundred thousand and a minimum of expense is the dream of the -American incubator inventor. We have long had available such methods -of insulation and regulating the supply of heat as would point to -the practicability of such a dream. - -The past efforts in this direction have fallen down for the -following simple reason: All eggs were placed in a single big room -with a view of the man's entering the room to take care of them. -Contact with cold walls, the opening of doors, the hatching of -chicks or introduction of fresh eggs set up air currents, the hot -air rising and the cold air settling until great differences in -temperature would be found in the room. No systematic regulation of -evaporation was contemplated, as the principles at stake or the -means of such regulation were unknown. - -The attempt just referred to was made several years ago by one of -the most successful of incubator manufacturers and because of his -failure other inventors were inclined to steer clear of the -proposition. Meanwhile the need of such an incubator has grown -enormously. At the time that above effort was made no duck ranch -existed whose annual production ran over thirty or forty thousand -ducklings, whereas we now have several in the one hundred thousand -class. - -Much more remarkable has been the growth of the day-old chick -business. The discovery that newly hatched chicks could be -successfully shipped hundreds of miles with less loss than shipping -eggs for hatching, has resulted in a few years' time in the growth -of hatcheries of considerable size where chicks are hatched by means -of common incubators. Still another opportunity for the use of large -hatcheries has been by the growth of poultry communities. There are -other communities besides those mentioned in this book which would -amply support public hatcheries. If half the poultry growers of -Lancaster County, Pa., were to be prevailed upon to patronize a -public hatchery, the county would support between fifteen and twenty -100,000 egg incubators. Any of the numerous trolley centers in -Indiana, Ohio and Southern Michigan would likewise be profitable -locations for the establishment of public hatcheries. - -The demand for the incubator of large capacity has, within the last -year or so, brought two or three "mammoth" incubators into the -market. The devices I now refer to consist of a row of box -incubators which, instead of being heated by single lamps, are -heated by continuous hot water pipes. This scheme effects a -considerable saving in fuel cost and labor, but the bulkiness of -construction and the woeful lack of evaporation control are still to -be dealt with. - -The writer now wishes briefly to describe the plan of construction -and operation of a new type of hatchery, the success of which has -recently been made feasible by inventions and technical knowledge -hitherto unavailable. The plan of the hatchery is on that of a cold -storage plant as far as insulation and general construction go. The -eggs are kept in bulk in special cases which are turned as a whole -and may rest on either of four sides. At hatching time the eggs are -spread out in trays in a special hatching room, which is only large -enough to accommodate chicks to the amount of one-sixth of the -incubator capacity, for twice a week deliverings, or one-third if -weekly deliveries are desired. - -There are no pipes or other sources of heat in the egg chambers. All -temperature regulation is by means of air heated (or cooled as the -case may be) outside of the egg rooms and forced into the egg rooms -by a motor driven cone fan, maintaining a steady current of air, the -rate of movement of which may be varied at will. The air movement -maintained will always be sufficiently brisk, however, to prevent an -unevenness of temperature in different parts of the room. - -So simple is this that the reader will doubtless wonder why it was -not developed earlier. The reason is that air subject to the -climatic influences will, with any forced draft sufficient to -equalize temperature, result in a fatal rate of evaporation. -Sprinkling the air has not generally been thought practical because -of the notion that air must not be used in the egg chamber but once, -which involved quite a waste of heat necessary in warming a large -bulk of air and evaporating sufficient water. Moreover, no means -has, in the past, been available for making a sufficiently accurate -measurement of the evaporating power of the air. - -The hair hygrometers commonly sold to incubator operators are known -by scientists to be absolutely unreliable. The range between the wet -and dry bulb thermometers was found in the Ontario experiments to -give readings with and without fanning that varied 15 to 20 per -cent. in relative humidity which, at the temperature of an egg -chamber, would amount to a variation of three to four hundred of -vapor pressure units, which, with the forced draught plan, would -ruin a hatch of eggs in a few hours. The sling psychrometer as used -by the U.S. Weather Bureau should, in the hands of an expert, give -results making possible measurements accurate to two or three per -cent. of relative humidity or forty to sixty units of vapor -pressure. In contrast with these blundering instruments we now have -available an instrument with which the writer has frequently -determined vapor pressure accurately to within a range of two or -three vapor pressure units and the instrument is capable of being -constructed for even finer work. - -As it is only by means of air with the moisture content absolutely -controlled that the use of a large room becomes possible, we can now -see why this type of hatching remained so long undeveloped. By means -of such vapor pressure control the large egg chamber is not only -feasible but the rate of evaporation at once becomes subject to the -control of the operator and we achieve a perfection in artificial -incubation hitherto unattained. - -The means by which the air moisture is regulated is similar to that -used in up-to-date cold storage plants where the air is made moist -by sprinkling and dried with deliquescent salts. The regulation of -vapor pressure, like that of temperature, may be by electrically -moved dampers which switch a greater or less proportion of the -incoming current to the sprinkler or dryer as the case may be. The -ordinary incubator thermostat gives the necessary impulse for the -control of the temperature dampers, while the instrument above -referred to is used for the vapor pressure control. - -As the entire air circuit is closed, the chemical composition of the -air may also be regulated at will. This results in a reduction of -the quantity of heat required to a minimum; in fact, with the -incubator in full swing, the air will, at times, need cooling rather -than warming. - -The question of the cost of incubation by this method, or of profit -of such a hatchery operated for the public is almost wholly one of -the size of operations. Where sufficient eggs may be obtained and -sufficient demand exists for the chicks to make it profitable to -operate, the additional cost of hatching extra chicks will be -insignificant compared with the present system. - -The Egyptian poultryman gives four eggs for three chicks, but the -American poultryman would be willing to give four eggs for one -chick, as is shown by the fact that he sells eggs for from 1 to 3 -cents apiece and buys day-old chicks for ten to fifteen cents. A -plant with a seasonable capacity of 100,000 eggs has a basis to work -upon something as follows: - -With a fifty per cent. hatch and chicks at 10 cents each there would -be a gross income of $5,000 annually. From this we must subtract for -eggs at 2 cents each, $2,000. Salary for operator $1,000, wages for -helper $300. Fuel, supplies and repairs $500. Cost of delivery and -sales of chicks $200. This leaves a residue of $1,000, which would -pay a 20 per cent. interest on the necessary investment of $5,000. -Personally, I think this is about the minimum unit of hatching that -would prove worth while as independent institutions. - -Any increase in the percentage of the hatch would, of course, reduce -the unit of size necessary for profitable operation. Upon a single -poultry plant as a duck farm the cost of operation would be -materially reduced, as the operator himself would take the place of -the intelligent manager and the cost of gathering eggs and the -delivery of the product would be eliminated. - -The most profitable method of hatchery operation undoubtedly will be -upon a plan analogous to what, in creamery operation, is called -centralization. The success of this scheme depends upon the fact -that transportation and agencies at country stores are relatively -less important items of expense than plant construction and high -salaries for skilled labor. A hatchery with a million capacity can -be built and run at not more than twice the cost of one -hundred-thousand plant and better men can be kept in charge of it. A -portion of the saving will of course be expended in maintaining a -system of buying eggs and selling chicks. - -The material advantage of operating a hatchery in connection with a -high-class egg handling and poultry packing establishment, or as one -feature of a poultry community, is at once apparent, for the system -of collecting the market produce will be utilized for gathering eggs -and distributing chicks, each business helping the other. - -The public hatchery also gives an excellent opportunity for the -introduction of good stock among farmers who would be too shiftless -to acquire it by ordinary methods. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -FEEDING - - -The old adage that a little knowledge is a dangerous thing is -nowhere better illustrated than in the scientific phases of poultry -feeding. The attempted application of the common theoretical feeding -standards to poultry has caused not only a great waste of time but -has also resulted in expenditures for high-priced feeds when cheaper -feeds would have given as good or better results. - -The so-called science of food chemistry is really a rough -approximation of things about which the actual facts are unknown. -Such knowledge bears the same relation to accurate science as the -maps of America drawn by the early explorers do to a modern atlas. -Like these early efforts of geography the present science of food -chemistry is all right if we realize its incompleteness. In -practice, the poultryman, after a general glance at the "map," will -find a more reliable guide in simpler things. - -I am writing this book for the poultryman, not the professor, and -because I state that the particular kind of science wherein the -professor has taken the most pains to teach the poultryman is -comparatively useless, I fear it may arouse a mistrust of the value -of science as a whole. I know of no way to prevent this except to -point out the distinction between scientific facts and guesses -couched in scientific language. - -When a scientist states that a hen cannot lay egg shells containing -calcium without having calcium in her food, that is a fact, and it -works out in practice, for calcium is an element, and the hen cannot -create elementary substances. When the same scientist, finding that -an egg contains protein, says that wheat is a better egg food than -corn because it has the largest amount of protein, that is a guess -and does not work in practice because protein is not a definite -substance, but the name of a group of substances of which the -scientist does not know the composition, and which may or may not be -of equal use to the hen in the formation of eggs. - -All substances of which the world is made are composed of elements -which cannot be changed. When these elements are combined they form -definite substances with definite proportions entirely independent -of the original elements. The pure diamond is carbon. Gasoline is -carbon and hydrogen. Several hundred other things are also carbon -and hydrogen. Sugar is carbon combined with hydrogen and oxygen. -These three elements make several thousand different substances, -including fats, alcohol and formaldehyde. Hydrocyanic acid is carbon -combined with hydrogen and nitrogen, and is the most deadly poison -known. - -The failure of food science is partly because we do not know the -composition of many of the substances of food and partly because -these substances are changed in the animal body in a manner which we -do not understand and cannot control. - - -Conventional Food Chemistry - -The conventional analysis of feeding stuff divides the food -substances in water, carbohydrates, fat, protein and ash. The amount -of water in the body is all-important, but, with the exception of -eggs during incubation, I confess I prefer to rely upon the -chicken's judgment as to the amount required. - -The carbohydrate group contains starch, sugar, cellulose and a -number of other things. Carbohydrates constitute two-thirds to -three-fourths of all common rations and nine-tenths of that amount -is starch. The proposition of how much carbohydrates the hen eats is -chiefly determined by the quantity of grain she consumes. - -Of fats there are many kinds of which the composition is definitely -known. The amount of fats the hen eats is unimportant because she -makes starch into fat. The protein or nitrogen containing substances -of the diet is the group of food substances over which most of the -theories are expounded. The hen can make egg fat from corn starch or -cabbage leaves because they contain the same elements. She cannot -make egg white from starch or fat because the element of nitrogen -which is in the egg white is lacking in the starch and fats. - -The substances that have nitrogen in them are called protein. They -are very complex and difficult to analyze. In digestion these -proteins are all torn to pieces and built up into other kinds of -protein. Just as in tearing down an old house, only a portion of the -material can be used in a new house, so it is with protein and -laboratory analysis cannot tell us how much of the old house can be -utilized in building the new one. - -In practice the whole subject simmers down to the proposition of -finding out by direct experiment whether the hen will do the work -best on this or that food, irregardless of its nitrogen content as -determined in the laboratory. - -The results of many experiments and much experience has shown that -lean meat protein will make egg protein and chicken flesh protein -and that vegetable protein pound for pound is not its equal. I know -of no results that have proven that the high priced vegetable foods -such as linseed meal, gluten feed, etc., have proven a more valuable -chicken food than the cheapest grains. - -With cows and pigeons this is not the case, but the hen is not a -vegetarian by nature and high priced vegetable protein doesn't seem -to be in her line. Of the three standard grains there is some -indication of the value of the proteids for chickens and of the -following ranks, 1st oats, 2d corn, 3d wheat. - -The false conceptions of the value of wheat proteids has been -specially the cause of much waste of money. Digestive trials and -direct experiments both show that, as chicken foods, wheat is worth -less, pound for pound, than corn and yet, though much higher in -price, it is still used not only as a variety grain, but by many -poultrymen as the chief article of diet. Wheat contains only 3 per -cent. more proteid than corn. The man who substitutes wheat at one -and one-half cents a pound for corn worth one cent a pound pays 17 -cents a pound for his added protein. In beef scrap he could get the -protein for 5 cents a pound and have a very superior article -besides. - -Milk as a source of protein ranks between the vegetable proteids and -those of meat. It is preferably fed clabbered. The dried casein -recently put on the market is a valuable food but is not worth as -much as meat food and will not be extensively utilized until the -demand for meat scrap forces up the price to a point where the -casein can be sold more cheaply. Meat scrap, to be relished by the -chickens, must not be a fine meal, but should consist of particles -the size of wheat kernels or larger. The fine scrap gives the -manufacturer a chance to utilize dried blood and tankage which is -cheaper in quality and price than particles of real meat. - -The last and least understood of the groups of food substances is -mineral substance or ash. Now, the chemist determines mineral -substance by burning the food and analyzing the residue. In the -intense heat numerous chemical changes take place and the substances -that come out of the furnace are entirely different from those -contained in the fresh food. - -The lay reader will probably ask why the chemist does not analyze -the substances of the fresh material. The answer is that he doesn't -know how. Progress is made every year but the whole subject is yet -too much clouded in obscurity to be of any practical application. At -present the feeding of mineral substance, like the feeding of -protein, can best be learned by experimenting directly with the -foods rather than by attempting to go by their chemical composition. - -In practice it is found that green feed supplies something which -grain lacks, presumably mineral salts. Moreover we know that such -food fed fresh is superior to the same substance dried. This may be -because of chemical changes that occur in curing or simply because -of greater palatability. - -The other chief source of mineral matter is meat preparations with -or without ground bone. Recent experiments at Rhode Island have -attempted to show the relative value of the mineral constituents of -meat by adding bone ash to vegetable proteids, as linseed and gluten -meal. The results clearly indicate that mineral matter of animal -origin greatly improves the value of the vegetable diet, but that -the latter is still sadly deficient. Of course the burning process -used in preparing the bone ash may have destroyed some of the -valuable qualities of the mineral salts. Practically, we do not care -whether the value of animal meal be due to protein, mineral salts or -both. - -In time the world will become so thickly populated that we cannot -afford to rear cattle and condemn a portion of the carcass to go -through another life cycle before human consumption. By that time -the necessary food salts will doubtless be known and we will be able -to medicate our corn and alfalfa and do away with the beef scrap. -The poultrymen will do well, however, not to count on the chemistry -of the future, for the chemist that makes the "tissue salts" for the -hen may manufacture human food with Niagara power and fresh eggs -will come in tin cans. - - -How the Hen Unbalances Balanced Rations. - -Let the poultryman who figures the nutritious ratio of chicken feed -try this simple experiment. Place before a half dozen newly hatched -chicks a feed of one of the commercial chick feeds. When they have -had their fill, sacrifice these innocents on the altar of science -and open their crops. He will find that one chick has eaten almost -exclusively of millet seed, another has preferred cracked corn, -another has filled up heavily on bits of beef scrap and mica crystal -grit, while a fourth fancied oats and granulated bone. In short the -chick has, in three minutes, unbalanced the balanced ration that it -took a week to figure out. This experiment can be varied by placing -hens in individual coops and setting before each weighed portions of -every food in the poultryman supply man's catalogue. - -There is only one kind of feeding that will balance rations and that -is to feed exclusively on wet mash. This is successfully done in the -duck business, but the duck is a Chinese animal and his ways are not -the ways of the more fastidious hen. - -In dairy work the individual preferences of the cows are given -attention and their whimsy catered to by the herdsman. I know of -nothing that makes a man more feel his kinship to the beast than to -hear a good dairyman talk of the personalities and preferences of -his feminine co-operators. - -With commercial chicken work, humanly guided individual feedings is -out of the question, though, if used, it might hasten the coming of -the two-egg-per-day hen. Individual feeding with the hen as sole -judge as to what she shall eat, which means each food in separate -hoppers and free range, is the best system of chicken feeding yet -evolved. - -The duty of the poultryman is to supply the food, giving enough -variety to permit of the hens having a fair selection. In practice -this means that every hen must have access to water, grit -(preferably oyster shell), one kind of grain, one kind of meat, and -one kind of green food. In practice it will pay to add granulated -bone for growing stock. One or two extra grains for variety and as -many green foods as conveniences will permit to increase -palatability--hence increase the amount of food consumed, for a -heavy food consumption is necessary for egg production. - -As corn is the cheapest food known, let it be the bread at the -boarding house and other grains the rotating series of hash, beans -and bacon. The grain hopper may have two divisions. The corn never -changes but the other should have a change of grain occasionally. -The extent of the use made of the various grains will be determined -by their price per pound. - -The proportions of food of the various classes that will be consumed -is about as follows: - -Of 100 lbs. of dry matter: 8 to 12 lbs. meat; 66 to 75 lbs. grain; -15 to 25 lbs. green food. - -The profits of the business will be increased by supplying the green -food in such tempting forms as to increase the amount consumed and -cut down the use of grains. - -The methods we have been describing in which various dry unground -grains, beef scrap and oyster shell, each in a separate compartment, -are exposed before the hen at all times, together with the abundant -use of green food, either as pasture or a soiling crop, is the -method of feeding assumed throughout this book. - -The hopper feeding of so-called dry mash or ground grain mixture has -been quite a fad in the last few years. The tendency of the hens to -waste such food has occasioned considerable trouble. They are -picking it over for their favorite foods and trying to avoid -disagreeable foods. This difficulty is relieved when the food be -separated into its various components and the hen offered each -separately. As a matter of fact, there is no occasion for feeding -ground feed except in fattening rations and here the wet mash is -desirable. - -The use of the products of wheat milling has been the chief excuse -for such practices, but unless these get considerably lower in price -per pound than corn they may be left off the bill-of-fare to -advantage. The great use made of these products in poultry feeding -was chiefly a result of the attempted application of the balanced -ration idea, but as has already been shown the efforts to raise the -protein ratio with grain foods is generally false economy. - -The old-fashioned wet mash which the writer does not recommend -because of the labor involved, is, nevertheless, a fairly profitable -method of poultry feeding. It is used in the Little Compton district -of Rhode Island and was also used in the famous Australian egg -laying contests elsewhere described. Personally I would prefer -feeding ground grain wet, especially wheat bran and middlings, to -feeding it dry. - -The scattering of grain in litter so generally recommended in -poultry literature is all right and proper, but is rather out of -place in commercial poultry farming. It is used on the large poultry -plants with the yards and long houses, but is not used on colony -farms or in any of the poultry growing communities. I should -recommend littered houses for Section 6 and the northern half of -Section 3 (see Chapter IV), but with warmer soils and climate where -the snow does not lie on the ground it would add a labor expense -that would very seriously handicap the business. - -The systems of poultry feeding that are commonly advertised are -based either on some patent nostrum or a recommendation of green -food in novel form, such as sprouted oats. The joke about poultry -feed at 10 cents a bushel, absurd though it may seem, has caught -lots of dollars. To take a bushel of oats worth 50 cents, add water, -let them sprout and have five bushels costing 10 cents, is certainly -a wonderful achievement in wealth getting. The only reason a man -couldn't run a soup kitchen on the same principle is that he can't -do a soup business by mail. Sprouted oats are a good green food, -however, though somewhat laborious to prepare. I should certainly -recommend them if for any reason the regular green food supply -should run out. - -The points already mentioned are about all the practical suggestions -that the science of animal nutrition has to offer the poultryman. -The discussion of feeding from its technical viewpoint is -sufficiently covered in the chapter on "Farm Poultry" and the -discussion of the management and economics of various types of -poultry production. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -DISEASES - - -For the study of the classification and description of the numerous -ailments by which individual fowls pass to their untimely end, I -recommend any of the numerous books written upon the subject. Some -of these works are more accurate than others, but that I consider -immaterial. The study of these diseases is good for the poultryman, -it gives his mind exercise. When a boy in high school I studied -Latin for the same purpose. - - -Don't Doctor Chickens. - -For the cure of all poultry diseases when they have passed a point -when the fowl does not eat or for other reasons recovery is -improbable, I recommend a blow on the head--the hatchet spills the -blood which is unwise. - -The usual formula of "burn or bury deeply" is somewhat troublesome, -unless you have a furnace running. A covered pit is more convenient -if far enough removed from the house that the odor is not -prohibitive. A post with a tally card may be planted near by. This -part of the poultry farm may be marked "Exhibit A," and shown first -to the visitor during the busy season. If he is one of those -prospective pleasure and profit poultrymen who propose to disregard -all facts of biology and economics of production, you may save -yourself the trouble of showing him the rest of the plant. -Unfortunately, this scheme is not open to the poultryman who has -breeding stock for sale. - -I have frequently had the question put to me in the smoker of a -Pullman car, "Do not epidemic diseases make the poultry business -precarious?" Such questions came from farm-raised men, but not from -poultry farmers. Poultrymen should figure a certain loss of birds -just as insurance companies figure on the human death rate, but to -all practical intents and purposes the epidemic disease has been -banished from the poultry farms and seldom if ever enters the -records in answer to the question, "Why do poultry farms fail?" - -Some of my readers may take exception to me either in regard to roup -or white diarrhoea. Roup is a disease of the wrong system and -careless management. White diarrhoea, so-called, is a matter of -wrong incubation. - -The high mortality of young chicks, though not an epidemic disease, -shares with excessive cost of production, very much of the -responsibility for poultry farm failures. At the present writing the -poultry editors of the country are having much discussion over the -conclusion of Dr. Morse of the Bureau of Animal Industry to the -effect that white diarrhoea is caused by an intestinal parasite -similar to the germ that causes human dysentery. Dr. Morse's -opportunities for investigation have been somewhat limited and as -the intestines of any animal are always swarming with various -organisms, it will take very conclusive evidence to prove that the -doctor is right. Practically the naming of the germs that attend the -funeral is not particularly important for the reason that it has -been thoroughly demonstrated that with good parentage, good -incubation and good brooder conditions, white diarrhoea is unknown. - - -The Causes of Poultry Diseases. - -Poultry ailments are assignable to one of the three following -causes, or a combination of these: First, hereditary or inborn -weakness; second, unfavorable conditions of food, surroundings, -etc.; third, bacteria or animal parasites. - -A great many chickens die while yet within the shell, or during the -growing process, there being no assignable reason save that of -inherited weakness. To this class of troubles the only remedy is to -breed from better stock. It is as much the trait of some birds to -produce infertile eggs or chicks of low vitality as it is for others -to produce vigorous offspring. - -The second class of ailments needs no discussion save that accorded -it under the general discussions of the method of conducting the -business. - -The third class of ailments includes the contagious diseases. It is -now believed that most common diseases are caused by microscopic -germs known as bacteria. These germs in some manner gain entrance to -the body of an animal, and, growing within the tissues, give off -poisonous substances known as toxins, which produce the symptoms of -the disease. The ability to withstand disease germs varies with the -particular animal and the kind of disease. As a general rule it may -be stated that disease germs cannot live in the body of a perfectly -vigorous and healthy animal. It is only when the vitality is at a -low ebb, owing to unfavorable conditions or inherited weakness, that -disease germs enter the body and produce disease. - -The bacteria which cause disease, like other living organisms, may -be killed by poisoning. Such poisons are known as disinfectants. If -it were possible to kill the bacteria within the animal, the curing -of disease would be a simple matter, but unfortunately the common -chemical poisons that kill germs kill the animal also. The only -thing that can be relied upon to kill disease germs within the -animal, is a counter-poison developed by the animal itself and known -as anti-toxin. Such anti-toxins can be produced artificially and are -used to combat certain diseases, as diphtheria and small-pox in -human beings and blackleg in cattle. Such methods of combating -poultry diseases have not been developed, and due to the small value -of an individual fowl would probably not be commercially useful even -if successful from a scientific standpoint. The only available -method of fighting contagious diseases of poultry is to destroy the -disease germs before they enter the fowls and to remove the causes -which make the fowl susceptible to the disease. - -Contagious diseases of poultry may be grouped into two general -classes: First, those highly contagious; second, those contracted -only by fowls that are in a weakened condition. To the first class -belong the severe epidemics, of which chicken-cholera is the most -destructive. - - -Chicken-Cholera. - -The European fowl-cholera has only been rarely identified in this -country. Other diseases similar in symptoms and effect are confused -with this. As the treatment should be similar the identification of -the diseases is not essential. - -Yellow or greenish-colored droppings, listless attitude, refusal of -food and great thirst are the more readily observed symptoms. The -disease runs a rapid course, death resulting in about three days. -The death rate is very high. The disease is spread by droppings and -dead birds, and through feed and water. To stamp out the disease -kill or burn or bury all sick chickens, and disinfect the premises -frequently and thoroughly. A spray made of one-half gallon carbolic -acid, one-half gallon of phenol and twenty gallons of water may be -used. Corrosive sublimate, 1 part in 5000 parts of water, should be -used as drinking water. This is not to cure sick birds, but to -prevent the disease from spreading by means of the drinking vessels. -Food should be given in troughs arranged so that the chickens cannot -infect the food with the feet. All this work must be done -thoroughly, and even then considerable loss can be expected before -the disease is stamped out. If cholera has a good start in a flock -of chickens it will often be better to dispose of the entire flock -than to combat the disease. Fortunately cholera epidemics are rare -and in many localities have never been known. - - -Roup. - -This disease is a representative of that class of diseases which, -while being caused by bacteria, can be considered more of a disease -of conditions than of contagion. Roup may be caused by a number of -different bacteria which are commonly found in the air and soil. -When chickens catch cold these germs find lodgment in the nasal -passages and roup ensues. The first symptoms of roup are those of an -ordinary cold, but as the disease progresses a cheesy secretion -appears in the head and throat. A wheezing or rattling sound is -often produced by the breathing. The face and eyes swell, and in -severe cases the chicken becomes blind. The most certain way of -identifying roup is a characteristic sickening odor. The disease may -last a week or a year. Birds occasionally recover, but are generally -useless after having had roup. - -Sick birds should be removed and destroyed, but the time usually -spent in doctoring sick birds and disinfecting houses can in this -case be better employed in finding and remedying the cause of the -disease. Such causes may be looked for as dampness, exposure to cold -winds, or to a sudden change in temperature as is experienced by -chickens roosting in a tight house. Fall and winter are the seasons -of roup, while it is poorly housed and poorly fed flocks that most -commonly suffer from this disease. Flocks that have become -thoroughly roupy should be disposed of and more vigorous birds -secured. The open front house has proved to be the most practical -scheme for the reduction of this disease. - - -Chicken-Pox, Gapes, Limber Neck. - -Chicken-pox or sore-head is a disease peculiar to the South. It -attacks growing chickens late in the summer. Southern poultrymen who -give reasonable attention to their stock, find that, while this -disease is a source of some annoyance, the losses are not severe and -that it may be readily controlled. In the first place, the animal -epidemic of pox can be practically avoided by bringing the chicks -out early in the season. If the disease does develop in the flock, -the birds are taken from the coops at night and their heads dipped -in a proper strength of one of the coal tar disinfectants. Such -treatment once a week has generally been effective. This disease is -an exception to the general rule that disinfectants which kill germs -also kill the chicken. The explanation is that chicken-pox is an -external disease. - -Gapes is given in every poultry book as one of the prominent poultry -diseases, but are not common in the Northern and Western States. -Gapes are caused by a parasitic worm in the windpipe. Growing chicks -are affected. The remedy is to move the chicks to fresh ground and -cultivate the old. - -Limber neck is not a disease, but is the result of the fowl's eating -maggots from dead carcasses. It can be prevented by not allowing -dead carcasses to remain where the chickens will find them. No -practical cure is known. - - -Lice and Mites. - -The parasites referred to as chicken-lice include many different -species, but in habit they may be classed as body-lice and -roost-mites. The first, or true bird-lice, live on the body of the -chicken and eat the feathers and skin. The roost-mite is similar to -a spider and differs in habits from the body-louse in that it sucks -the blood of the chicken and does not remain on the body of the fowl -except at night. - -Body-lice are to be found upon almost all chickens, as well as on -many other kinds of birds. Their presence in small numbers on -matured fowls is not a serious matter. When body-lice are abundant -on sitting hens they go from the hen to the newly hatched chickens, -and may cause the death of the chicks. The successful methods of -destroying body-lice are three in number: First, dust or earth -wallows in which the active hens will get rid of lice. Such dust -baths should be especially provided for yarded chickens and during -the winter. Dry earth can be stored for this purpose. Sitting hens -should have access to dust baths. Second: The second method by which -body-lice may be destroyed is the use of insect powder. The -pyrethrum powder is considered the best for this purpose, but is -expensive and difficult to procure in the pure state. Tobacco dust -is also used. Insect powder is applied by holding the hen by the -feet and working the dust thoroughly into the feathers, especially -the fluff. The use of insect powder should be confined to sitting -hens and fancy stock, as the cost and labor of applying is too great -for use upon the common chicken. The third method is suitable for -young chickens, and consists of applying some oil and grease on the -head and under the wings. Do not grease the chick all over. With -vigorous chickens and correct management the natural dust bath is -all that is needed to combat the lice. - -The roost-mite is probably the cause of more loss to farm poultry -raisers than any other pest or disease. The great difficulty in -destroying mites on many farms is that chickens are allowed to roost -in too many places. If the chicken-house proper is the only building -infected with mites the difficulty of destroying them is not great. -Plainness in the interior furnishings of the chicken-house is also a -great advantage when it comes to fighting mites. The mites in the -daytime are to be found lodged in the cracks near the roosting-place -of the chickens. - -Mites can be killed with various liquids, the best in point of -cheapness is boiling water. Give the chicken-house a thorough -cleaning and scald by throwing dippers of hot water in all places -where the mites can find lodgment. Hot water destroys the eggs as -well as the mites. Whitewash is a good remedy, as it buries both -mites and eggs beneath a coating of lime from which they cannot -emerge. Pure kerosene or a solution of carbolic acid in kerosene, at -the rate of a pint of acid to a gallon of oil, is an effective -lice-paint. Another substance much used for destroying insects or -similar pests is carbon bisulphide. This is a liquid which -evaporates readily, the vapor destroying the insects or mites. -Carbon bisulphide or other fumigating agents are not effective in -the average chicken-house because the house cannot be tightly -closed. The liquid lice-killers on the market are very effective. -They are usually composed of the remedies just mentioned, or of -something of similar properties. - - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -POULTRY FLESH AND POULTRY FATTENING - - -The poultry flesh which is used for food may be grouped into three -divisions. - -First: Poultry carcasses grown especially for market. - -Second: Poultry carcasses consisting of hens and young male birds -that are sold from the general farms where the pullets are kept for -egg production. - -Third: The cockerels and old hens sold as a by-product from egg -farms. - -The third class hardly needs our consideration in the present -chapter. This stock, usually Leghorns, like Jersey veal, is to be -disposed of at whatever price the market offers. - -The cockerel will, if growing nicely, be fairly plump and the hens, -if on hopper rations of corn and beef scrap, will be about as fat as -they can be profitably made, and to waste further effort upon them -would not pay. Leghorn cockerels and hens are a wholesome enough -meat, but will never command fancy prices nor warrant extra pains. - -In class two we find the great mass of the poultry flesh of the -country. This stock consisting chiefly, as it does, of Plymouth -Rocks and Wyandottes, is well worth some extra pains toward -increasing its quantity and quality. - -Within the last ten or fifteen years several changes have been -brought about in the general methods of handling farm poultry. -Formerly it was thought desirable to market all stock not kept as -layers while in the broiler stage of from 1-1/2 to 2 pounds. Since -the introduction of the custom of holding fall broilers over in cold -storage, the price has fallen until it is now more profitable to -market the surplus cockerels from the farm at three or four months -of age. At this period the flesh has cost less per pound to produce -than at either an earlier or later stage. For such purposes only the -well fleshed type of American breeds has been found desirable. The -Leghorns and similar breeds are too small and become staggy too -soon. - -Contrary to a common belief and to the custom in the poultry books -of classifying the Asiatics as meat breeds, the Brahmas and Cochins -are among the very poorest fowls that can be used for farm -production of poultry meat. At the age spoken of these breeds are -lanky and unsightly and not wanted by poultry packers. - -Consecutively with and perhaps responsible for change of sentiment -that demands that broilers be allowed to grow into four pound -chickens, we find the development of the crate fattening industry. - - -Crate-Fattening. - -The introduction of crate-fattening into the Central West occurred -about 1900. The credit of this introduction belongs to the large -meat packing firms. At the present time the business is not confined -to the meat packers, but is shared by independent plants throughout -the country. - -The plants of the West range from a few hundred to as high as 20,000 -capacity. They are constructed for convenience and a saving of -labor, and in this respect are decidedly in advance of the European -establishments where fattening has been long practiced. - -The room used for fattening is well built and sanitary. A good -system of ventilation is essential, as murky, damp air breeds colds -and roup. The coops are built back to back, and two or more coops in -height. Each coop is high and wide enough to comfortably accommodate -the chickens, and long enough to contain from five to twelve -chickens. The chickens stand on slats, beneath which are -dropping-boards that may be drawn out for cleaning. The -dropping-boards and feeding-troughs are often made of metal. Strict -cleanliness is enforced. No droppings or feed are allowed to -accumulate and decompose. - -As is a general rule in meat production, young animals give much -better returns for food consumed than do mature individuals. With -the young chicken the weight is added as flesh, while the hen has a -tendency, which increases with age, to turn the same food into -useless fat. For this reason the general practice is to fatten only -the best of the young chickens. The head feeder at a large and -successful poultry plant gave the following information on the -selection of birds for the fattening-crates: - -"The younger the stock the more profitable the gain. All specimens -showing the slightest indication of disease are discarded. The -Plymouth Rock is the favorite breed, and the Wyandotte is second. -Leghorns are comparatively fat when received, and, while they do -well under feed and 'yellow up' nicely, they do not gain as much as -the American breeds. Black chickens are not fed at all. Brahmas and -Cochins are not considered good feeders at the age when they are -commonly sold. Chickens in fair flesh at the start make better gains -than those that are extremely lean or very fat. But, contrary to -what the amateur might assume, the moderately fat chicken will -continue to make fair gains, while the very lean chicken seldom -returns a profit." - -The idea has been somewhat prevalent that there is some guarded -secret about the rations used in crate-fattening. This is a mistaken -notion. The rations used contain no new or wonderful constituent, -and although individual feeders may have their own formulas, the -general composition of the feed is common knowledge. The feed most -commonly used consists of finely ground grain, mixed to a batter -with buttermilk or sour skim-milk. The favorite grain for the -purpose is oats finely ground and the hulls removed. Oats may be -used as the sole grain, and is the only grain recommended as -suitable to be fed alone. Corn is used, but not by itself. Shorts, -ground barley or ground buckwheat are sometimes used. Beans, peas, -linseed and gluten meals may be used in small quantities. When milk -products are obtainable they are a great aid to successful -fattening. Tallow is often used in small quantities toward the -finish of the feeding period. The assumption is that it causes the -deposit of fat-globules throughout the muscular tissues, thus adding -to the quality of the meat. The following simple rations show that -there is nothing complex about the crate-fed chicken's bill of fare: - -No. 1.--Ground oats, 2 parts; ground barley, 1 part; ground corn, 1 -part; mixed with skim-milk. - -No. 2.--Ground corn, 4 parts; ground peas, 1 part; ground oats, 1 -part; meat-meal, 1 part; mixed with water. - -A ration used by some fatters with great success is composed of -simply oatmeal and buttermilk. - -The feed is given as a soft batter and is left in the troughs for -about thirty minutes, when the residue is removed. Chickens are -generally fed three times per day. Water may or may not be given, -according to the weather and the amount of liquid used in the food. - -The chicken that has been crate-fattened has practically the same -amount of skeleton and offal as the unfattened specimen, but carries -one or two pounds more of edible meat upon its carcass. Not only is -the weight of the chicken and amount of edible meat increased, but -the quality of the meat is greatly improved, consisting of juicy, -tender flesh. For this reason the crate-feeding process is often -spoken of as fleshing rather than as fattening. - -The enforced idleness causes the muscular tissue to become tender -and filled with stored nutriment. The fatness of a young chicken, -crate-fed on buttermilk and oatmeal, is a radically different thing -from the fatness of an old hen that has been ranging around the -corn-crib. - -The crate-fattening industry while deserving credit for great -improvement in the quality of chicken flesh in the regions where it -has been introduced, cannot on the whole be considered a great -success. It is commonly reported that some of the firms instrumental -in its introduction lost money on the deal. The crate-fattening -plant has come to stay in the communities where careful methods of -poultry raising are practiced, and where the stock is of the best, -but when a plant is located in a newly settled region where the -poultry stock is small and feed scarce, the venture is pretty apt to -prove a fiasco. - -While poultryman at the Kansas Experiment Station, the writer made a -large number of individual weighings of fowls in the crates of one -of the large fattening plants of the state. - -These weighings pointed out very clearly why the expected profits -had not been realized. The birds selected for weighing were all -fine, uniform looking Barred Rock Cockerels. At the end of the first -week they were found to still appear much the same, but when handled -a difference was easily noticed. By the end of the second week a few -birds had died and many others were in a bad way. The individual -changes of weight ran from 2-1/2 pounds gain to 3/4 pound loss, and -many of the lighter birds were of very poor appearance. It is simply -a matter of forced feeding being a process that makes trouble with -the health of the chicken if all is not just right. - -It is probable that in the future more fattening will be done on the -farm, or by the farmer operating in a small way among his neighbors. -The reason for this is that the saving of labor in the large plant -is hardly as great as the added loss from the shrinkage of the birds -due to the excitement of shipping and crowding, and the introduction -of disease by the mingling of chickens from so many different -sources. - -The Canadians especially have encouraged fattening on the farm. The -following is a hand-bill gotten out by an enterprising Canadian -dealer for distribution among the farmers of his locality: - - - -HOW TO FATTEN CHICKENS FOR THE EXPORT TRADE. - -To fatten birds for the export trade, it is necessary -to have proper coops to put them in. These should be -two feet long, twenty inches high and twenty inches -deep, the top, bottom and front made of slats. This -size will hold four birds, but the cheapest plan is to -build the coops ten feet long and divide them into five -sections. - -What to feed. - -Oats chopped fine, the coarse hulls sifted out, two -parts; ground buckwheat, one part; mix with skim-milk -to a good soft batter, and feed three times a day. -Or, black barley and oats, two parts oats to one part -barley. Give clean drinking water twice a day, grit -twice a week, and charcoal once a week. During the -first week the birds are in the coops they should be -fed sparingly--only about one-half of what they will -eat. After that gradually increase the amount until -you find out just how much they will eat up clean -each time. Never leave any food in the troughs, as -it will sour and cause trouble. Mix the food always -one feed ahead. Birds fed in this way will be ready -for the export trade in from four to five weeks. -Chickens make the best gain put in the coop weighing -three to four pounds. - -We Supply the Coops. - -We have on hand a number of coops for fattening -chicks, which we will loan to any person, "free of -charge", who will sign an agreement to bring all -chicks fattened in them to us. Every farmer should -have at least one of these coops, as this is the only -way to fatten chicks properly. In this way you can -get the highest market price. We can handle any -quantity of chicks properly fatted. - ARMSTRONG BROS. - - -The farmer who does not think it worth while to construct -fattening-crates for his own crop of chickens, may get very fair -results by simply enclosing the chickens in some vacant shed. To -these may feed a ration of two-thirds corn meal and one-third -shorts, or some of the more complicated rations used at the -fattening plants may be fed. - -In the East, poultry fattening on the general farm is not dissimilar -from the practices in the Central West, but we find a larger use of -cramming machines, caponizing, and the growing of chickens for meat -as an industry independent of keeping hens for egg production. - -The cramming machine is a device by means of which food in a -semi-liquid state is pumped into the bird's crop, through a tube -inserted in the mouth. This means of feeding is much more used in -Europe than in this country. It requires good stock and careful -workmen. The method will probably slowly gain ground in this -country. The feed used in cramming is similar to that used in -ordinary crate feeding, except that it is mixed as a thin batter. - - -Caponizing. - -Caponizing is the castration of male chickens. Capons hold the same -place in the poultry market as do steers in the beef market. - -Caponizing is practiced to quite an extent in France, and to a less -degree in England and the United States. - -Much the larger part of the industry is confined to that portion of -the United States east of Philadelphia, though increasing numbers of -capons are being raised in the North Central States. During the -winter months capon is regularly quoted in the markets of the larger -eastern cities. Massachusetts and New Jersey are the great centers -for the growing of capons, while Boston, New York, and Philadelphia -are the great markets. In many eastern markets the prices paid for -dressed capons range from 20 to 30 cents a pound. The highest prices -usually prevail from January to May, and the larger the birds the -more they bring a pound. - -The purpose of caponizing is not, as is sometimes stated, to -increase the size of the chicken, but to improve the quality of the -meat. The capon fattens more readily and economically than other -birds. As they do not interfere with or worry one another, large -flocks may be kept together. - -The breeds suitable for caponizing are the Asiatics and Americans. -Brahmas will produce, with proper care and sufficient time, the -largest and finest capons. On the ordinary farm, where capons would -be allowed to run loose, Plymouth Rocks would prove more profitable. -Plymouth Rocks, Brahmas, Langshans, Wyandottes, Indian Games, may -all be used for capons. Leghorns are not to be considered for this -purpose. - -Capons should be operated upon when they are about ten weeks or -three months old and weigh about two pounds. - -The operation of caponizing is performed by cutting in between the -last two ribs. Both testicles may be removed from one side or both -sides may be opened. The cockerel should be starved for twenty-four -hours in order to empty the intestines. Asiatics are more difficult -to operate on than Americans, the testicles being larger and less -firm. There is always some danger of causing death by tearing blood -vessels, but the per cent. of loss with an experienced operator is -very small. Loss by inflammation is still more rare. The testicle of -a bird is not as highly developed as in a mammal, and if the organ -is broken and a small fragment remains attached it will produce -birds known as slips. Some growers advise looking over the capons -and puncturing the wind puffs that gather beneath the skin. This, -however, is not necessary. - -A good set of tools is indispensable and can be purchased for from -$2 to $3. As a complete set of instructions is furnished with each -set it is unnecessary to go into details here. The beginner should, -however, operate on several dead cockerels before attempting to -operate on a live one. - -After caponizing the bird should be given plenty of soft feed and -water. The capon begins to eat almost immediately after the -operation is performed, and no one would suppose that a radical -change had taken place in his nature. - -The feeding of capons differs little from the feeding of other -growing chickens. Corn, wheat, barley and Kaffir-corn would be -suitable grain, while beef-scrap would be necessary to produce the -best growth. - -About three weeks before marketing place the capons in small yards -and feed them three or four times a day, giving plenty of corn and -other feed, or fatten them in one of the ways indicated in the -section on fattening poultry. Corn meal and ground oats, equal parts -by weight, moistened with water or milk, make a good mash for -fattening capons. - -In dressing capons leave the head and hackle feathers, the feathers -on the wings to the second joint, the tail feathers, including those -a little way up the back, and the feathers on the legs halfway up to -the thigh. These feathers serve to distinguish capons from other -fowls in the market. Do not cut the head off, for this is also a -distinguishing feature of the capon, on account of the undeveloped -comb and wattles. - -The price received for capons is greater than any other kind of -poultry meat except early broilers. There may be trouble in some -localities in getting dealers to recognize capons as such and pay an -advanced price. - -On several farms in Massachusetts, 500 to 1,000 capons are raised -annually, and on one farm 5,000 cockerels are held for caponizing. -The industry is growing rapidly year by year and the supply does not -equal the demand. - -It is to be expected that the amount of caponizing done in the West -will gradually increase. Those wishing to try the growing of capons -will do well to secure an experienced operator. Good men at this -work receive five cents per bird. Poor operators are dear at any -price, as they produce a large number of worthless slips. - - - - - -CHAPTER X - -MARKETING POULTRY CARCASSES - - -In the marketing of poultry carcasses as in other phases of the -industry, we really have two systems to discuss. The one is used for -the marketing of the product of the farm of the Central West, and -the other the product of the poultryman or eastern farmer, who is -near a large market and who will be repaid for taking special pains -in preparing his poultry for market. - - -Farm-Grown Chickens. - -At the present time almost the entire poultry crop of the Central -West is sold from the farm as live poultry. This farm stock is -purchased by produce buyers or general merchants and shipped to the -nearest county seat or other important town, where there are usually -one or more poultry-killing establishments. These establishments may -vary from a simple shed, where the chickens are picked and packed in -barrels, to the more modern poultry-packing establishment, with its -accommodations for fattening, dressing, packing, freezing, and -storing. - -The poultry-buying stations may be branches of the larger packing -establishments, branch houses of large produce firms, or small firms -operating independently and selling in the open market. - -The chickens as purchased are grouped into the following classes: -Springs, hens, old roosters and (at certain seasons) young roosters -or staggy cockerels. Early in the season small springs are quoted as -broilers, while capons form a separate item where such are grown. - -Chickens are starved before killing, for the purpose of emptying the -crop, and, to some degree, the intestines. If this is not done the -carcass presents an unsightly appearance and spoils more readily in -storage. - -The method of picking is not always the same, even in the same -plant. Scalding is frequently used for local trade, in the summer -season, or with cheap-grade stuff. The greater portion of the stock -is picked dry. The pickers are generally paid so much per bird. In -some plants men do the roughing while girls are employed as pinners. -Pickers work either with the chickens suspended by a cord or -fastened upon a bench adopted to this purpose. The killing is done -by bleeding and sticking. The last thrust reaches the brain and -paralyzes the bird. The manner of making these cuts must be learned -by practical instruction. The feathers are saved, and amount to a -considerable item. White feathers are worth more than others. The -head and feet are left on the chicken and the entrails are not -removed. - -The bird, after being chilled in ice-water or in the cooling room, -is ready for grading and packing. This, from the producer's -standpoint, is the most interesting stage in the process, for it is -here that the quality of the stock is to be observed. The grading is -made on three considerations: (1) The general division of cocks, -springs, hens and capons is kept separate from the killing-room; (2) -the grading for quality; (3) the assortment according to size. - -The grading for quality depends on the general shape of the chicken, -the plumpness or covering of meat, the neatness of picking, the -color of skin and legs, and the appearance of the feet and head, -which latter points indicate the age and condition of health. The -culls consist of deformed and scrawny chickens. The seconds are poor -in flesh, or they may be, in the case of hens, unsightly from -overfatness. They are packed in barrels and go to the cheapest -trade. Those carcasses slightly bruised or torn in dressing also go -in this class. Although a preference is generally stated for -yellow-skinned poultry, the white-skinned birds, if equal in other -points, are not underranked in this score. The skin color that is -decidedly objectionable is the purplish tinge, which is a sign of -diseased stock. Black pin-feathers and dark-colored legs are a -source of objection. Especially is this true with young birds which -show the pin-feathers. Feathered legs are slightly more -objectionable than smooth legs. Small combs and the absence of spurs -give better appearance to the carcass. - -The following is the nomenclature and corresponding weights of the -farm marketed chickens. In each class there will be seconds and -culls. The seconds of each group are kept separate, but not graded -so strictly or perhaps not graded at all for size. The culls are -packed in barrels and all kinds of chickens from fryers to old -roosters here sojourn together until they reach their final -destination, as potted chicken or chicken soup. - -Broilers--Packed in two weights. 1st: Less than two pounds; 2d: -between 2 and 2-1/2 pounds. - -Chickens--Packed in three weights. 1st: between 2-1/2 and 3 pounds; -2d: between 3 and 3-1/2 pounds; 3d: between 3-1/2 and 4 pounds. - -Roasters--Packed in two weights. 1st: between 4 and 5 pounds; 2d: -above 5 pounds. - -Stag Roosters--Cockerels, showing spurs and hard blue meat, packed -in two weights. 1st: under 4 pounds; 2d: above 4 pounds. - -Fowls, are hens. They are packed in three sizes. 1st: under 3-1/4 -pounds; 2d: between 3-1/4 and 4-1/2 pounds; 3d: over 4-1/2 pounds. - -Old Roosters--Packed in barrels. One grade only. - -After packing, chickens may be shipped to market immediately, or -they may be frozen and stored in the local plant. Shipments of any -importance are made in refrigerator cars. - -The poultry that is shipped to the final market alive is gradually -diminishing in quantity, as poultry killing plants are built up -throughout the country. The live poultry shipments are chiefly made -in the Live Poultry Transportation Cars. The following figures give -the number of such cars that moved out of the States named in a -recent year: - - Iowa 645 Tennessee 169 - Missouri 630 Michigan 165 - Illinois 624 S. Dakota 103 - Kentucky 472 Oklahoma 101 - Nebraska 395 Indiana 100 - Kansas 370 Wisconsin 93 - Minnesota 174 Texas 91 - Ohio 173 Arkansas 47 - -The most of this live poultry goes to New York and other eastern -cities and is consumed largely by the Hebrew trade. - - -The Special Poultry Plant. - -The special egg farmer of the East should sell his poultry alive to -the regular dealer. The exception to this advice may be taken in the -case of squab broilers for which some local dealers will not pay as -fancy a price as may be obtained by dressing and shipping to the -hotel trade. - -The grower of roasters and capons will probably want to market his -own product. As to whether it will pay him to do so will depend upon -whether his dealer will pay what the quality of the goods really -demands. The dealer can afford to do this all right, if he will -hustle around and find an outlet for the particular grade of goods, -for he is in position to kill and dress the fowls more economically -than the producer. - -I have never been able to study out why the average writer upon -agricultural subjects is always advising the farmer to attempt to do -difficult work for which special firms already exist. In the case of -fattening just referred to, there is reason why the farmer may be -able to do the work more successfully than the special -establishment, but why any one should urge the farmer to turn the -woodshed into a temporary poultry packing establishment I can hardly -see. If the farmer has nothing to do he had better get a job at the -poultry killing house where they have ice water and barrels in which -to put the feathers. - -I do not think it worth while in this book for me to attempt to -describe in detail the various methods of killing and packing -poultry for the various retail markets. The grower who contemplates -killing his own stuff had better spend a day visiting the produce -houses and market stalls and inquire which methods are locally in -demand. - - -Suggestions from Other Countries. - -In European countries generally, and especially in France and -England, great pains is taken in the production of market poultry. -Each farmer and each neighborhood become known in the market for the -quality of their poultry, and the prices they receive vary -accordingly. In these countries more poultry is fattened and dressed -by the growers than in the United States where we have greater -specialization of labor. - -In countries that have an export trade different systems have -originated. In Denmark and Ireland co-operative societies are -organized to handle perishable farm products. These, however, deal -more with eggs than with poultry. In portions of England the -fattening is done by private fatteners. The country being thickly -settled, the chickens are collected directly from the farms by -wagons making regular trips. This allows the rejection of the poor -and immature specimens, whereas a premium may be paid on better -stock. - -The greatest fault of poultry buying as conducted in this country is -the evil of a uniform price. After chickens are dressed the -difference of quality is readily discerned, and the price varies -from fancy quotations to almost nothing for culls. The packer pays a -given rate per pound for live hens or for spring chickens. The price -is paid alike for the best poultry received or for the scrawniest -chickens that can be coaxed to stand up and be weighed. The prices -paid is the average worth of all chickens purchased at that market. -All farmers who market an article better than the average are unjust -losers, while those who sell inferior stock receive unearned -profits. The producer of good stock receives pay for the extra -quantity of his chickens, but for the extra quality no recognition -whatever is given. To the deserving producer, if quality was -recognized, it would result in a greatly increased stimulation of -the production of good poultry. Any packer, if questioned, will -state that he would be willing to grade chickens and pay for them -according to quality, but that he does not do so because his -competitor would pay a uniform price and drive him out of business. -The man who receives an increased price would say little of it, -while the man who sells poor chickens, if he failed to receive the -full amount to which he is accustomed, would think himself unjustly -treated and use his influence against the dealer. A recognition of -quality in buying is for the interest of both the farmer and the -poultry dealer, and a mutual effort on the part of those interested -to put in practice this reform would result in a great improvement -of the poultry industry. - - -Cold Storage of Poultry. - -The growth of the cold storage of poultry has been phenomenal. -Poultry is packed in thin boxes that will readily lose their heat -and these are stacked in a freezer with a temperature near the zero -point. The temperature used for holding poultry are anywhere from 0 -degree up to 20 degrees. Poultry is held for periods of one to six -weeks at temperature above the freezing point. - -Frozen poultry will keep almost indefinitely save for the drying -out, which is due to the fact that evaporation will proceed slowly -even from a frozen body. The time frozen poultry is stored varies -from a few weeks to eight or ten months. - -The usual rule is that any crop is highest in price when it first -comes on the market and cheapest just after the point of its -greatest production. Thus, broilers are high in May and cheap in -September. In such cases the goods are carried from the season of -plenty to the following season of scarcity. This period is always -less than a year. The idea circulated by wild writers, that cold -storage poultry was kept several years is an economic impossibility. -The interest on the investment alone would make the holding of -storage goods into the second season of plenty, quite unprofitable, -but when the costs of storage, insurance and shrinkage are to be -paid, storing poultry for more than one season becomes absurd. The -fowl that has been once frozen cannot be made to look "fresh killed" -again. For that reason packers like to get a monopoly on a -particular market so that the two classes of goods will not have to -compete side by side. The quality of the frozen fowl when served is -very fair, practically as good as and some say better than the fresh -killed. - -Cold storage poultry is best thawed out by being placed over night -in a tank of water. Poultry prejudice prevents the practice of -retailing the goods frozen, though this method would be highly -desirable. - - -Drawn or Undrawn Fowls. - -Within the last two or three years there has been a great hue and -cry about the marketing of poultry without drawing the entrails. - -The objection to the custom rests upon the general prejudice to -allowing the entrails of animals to remain in the carcass. If a -little thought is given the subject, however, it is seen that human -prejudice is very inconsistent in such matters. We draw beef and -mutton carcasses, to be sure, but fish and game are stored undrawn, -and as for oysters and lobsters we not only store them undrawn but -we eat them so. - -The facts about the undrawn poultry proposition are as follows: The -intestines of the fowl at death contain numerous species of -bacteria, whereas the flesh is quite free from germs. If the carcass -is not drawn, but immediately frozen hard, the bacteria remain -inactive and no essential change occurs. If the carcass is stored -without freezing, or remains for even a short time at a high -temperature, the bacteria will begin to grow through the intestinal -walls and contaminate the flesh. - -Now, if the fowl is drawn, the unprotected flesh is exposed to -bacterial contamination, which results in decomposition more rapidly -than through the intestinal walls. The opening of the carcass also -allows a greater drying out and shrinkage. - -If poultry carcasses were split wide open as with beef or mutton, -drawing might not prove as satisfactory as the present method, but -since this is not desirable, and since ordinary laborers will break -the intestines and spill their contents over the flesh, and -otherwise mutilate the fowl, all those who have had actual -experience in the matter agree that drawing poultry is unpractical -and undesirable. - -As far as danger of disease or ptomaine poison is concerned, chances -between the two methods seem to offer little choice. - -The Bureau of Chemistry of the U.S. Department of Agriculture has -conducted a series of experiments along the line of poultry storage. -So far as the results have been published, nothing very striking has -been learned. From what has been published, the writer is of the -opinion that the somewhat mysterious changes that were observed in -the cold storage poultry were mostly a matter of drying out of the -carcass. - - -Poultry Inspection. - -The enthusiastic members of the medical profession, and others whose -knowledge of practical affairs is somewhat limited, occasionally -come forth with the idea of an inspection of poultry carcasses -similar to the Federal inspection of the heavier meats. - -The reasons that are supposed to warrant the Federal meat inspection -are precaution against disease and the idea of enforcing a -cleanliness in the handling of food behind the consumer's back, -which he would insist upon were he the preparer of his own food -products. - -No doubt there is well established evidence that some diseases, such -as the dread trichinosis, are acquired by the consumption of -diseased meat. As far as it is at present known there are no -diseases acquired from the consumption of diseased poultry flesh, -but, as we do not know as much about the bacteria that infests -poultry as we do of that of larger animals, there is no positive -proof that such transmission of disease could not occur. Thorough -cooking kills all disease germs, and poultry is seldom, if ever, -eaten without such preparation. - -The idea of protecting people from uncleanly methods of handling -their foods, concerning which they cannot themselves know, is -somewhat of a sentimental proposition. In practice it amounts to -nothing, save as the popular conception of this protection increases -the demand for the product which is marked "U.S. Inspected and -Passed." - -It may be interesting to some of the reformers of 1906 to know that -the meat inspection bill then forced upon Congress by a clamoring -public was desired by the packers themselves. Because Congress would -not listen to the packers, and the Department of Agriculture, the -Chief Executive very kindly indulged in a little conversation with a -few reporters, the results of which gave Congress the needed -inspiration. - -It cost the Government three million dollars to tell the people that -their meats are packed in a cleanly manner. If the people want this, -it is all well and good. The tax it places upon the price of meat is -less than half of one per cent. - -A similar inspection of the killing and packing of poultry would -involve a very much higher rate of taxation, because of the fact -that poultry products are packed in small establishments scattered -throughout the entire country. - -One reason that the meat packers wanted the United States -Inspection, is because it puts out of business the little fellow to -whom the Government cannot afford to grant inspection. A few of the -very largest poultry packers would like to see poultry inspection -for the same reason, but with the business so thoroughly scattered -as to render Government inspection so expensive as to be quite -impracticable, any such bill would certainly be killed in a -congressional committee. - -Any practical means to bring about the cleanly handling, and to -prevent the consumption of diseased poultry, should certainly be -encouraged. This can be done by the education of the consumer. -Poultry carcasses should be marketed with head and feet attached and -the entrails undrawn. By this precaution the consumer may tell -whether the fowl he is buying is male or female, young or old, -healthy or diseased. All cold storage poultry should be frozen and -should be sold to the consumer in a frozen condition. - -I am not in favor of the detailed regulation of business by law, but -I do believe that the legal enforcement of these last precautions -would be a good thing. - - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -QUALITY IN EGGS [*] - -[Footnote *: Much of the matter in this and the following chapter is -taken from the writer's report of the egg trade of the United -States, published as Circular 140 of the Bureau of Annual Industry -of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. In the present volume, -however, I have inserted some additional matters which policy -forbade that I discuss in a Federal document.] - - - -Because of the readiness with which eggs spoil, the term "fresh" has -become synonymous with the idea of desirable quality in eggs. As a -matter of fact the actual age of an egg is quite subordinate to -other factors which affect the quality. - -An egg forty-eight hours old that has lain in a wheat shock during a -warm July rain, would probably be swarming with bacteria and be -absolutely unfit for food. Another egg stored eight months in a -first-class cold storage room would be perfectly wholesome. - - -Grading Eggs. - -Eggs are among the most difficult of food products to grade, because -each egg must be considered separately and because the actual -substance of the egg cannot be examined without destroying the egg. -From external appearance, eggs can be selected for size, color, -cleanliness of shell and freedom from cracks. This is the common -method of grading in early spring when the eggs are uniformly of -good quality. - -Later in the season the egg candle is used. In the technical sense -any kind of a light may be used as an egg candle. A sixteen candle -power electric lamp is the most desirable. The light is enclosed in -a dark box, and the eggs are held against openings about the size of -a half dollar. The candler holds the egg large end upward, and gives -it a quick turn in order to view all sides, and to cause the -contents to whirl within the shell. To the expert this process -reveals the actual condition of the egg to an extent that the novice -can hardly realize. The art of egg candling cannot be readily taught -by worded description. One who wishes to learn egg candling had best -go to an adept in the art, or he may begin unaided and by breaking -many eggs learn the essential points. - -Eggs when laid vary considerably in size, but otherwise are a very -uniform product. The purpose of the egg in nature requires that this -be the case, because the contents of the egg must be so proportioned -as to form the chick without surplus or waste, and this demands a -very constant chemical composition. - -For food purposes all fresh eggs are practically equal. The tint of -the yolk varies a little, being a brighter yellow when green food -has been supplied the hens. Occasionally, when hens eat unusual -quantities of green food, the yolk show a greenish brown tint, and -appear dark to the candler. Such eggs are called grass eggs; they -are perfectly wholesome. - -An opinion exists among egg men that the white of the spring egg is -of finer quality and will stand up better than summer eggs. This is -true enough of commercial eggs, but the difference is chiefly, if -not entirely, due to external factors that act upon the egg after it -is laid. - -There are some other peculiarities that may exist in eggs at the -time of laying, such as a blood clot enclosed with the contents of -the egg, a broken yolk or perhaps bacterial contamination. "Tape -worms," so-called by egg candlers, are detached portions of the -membrane lining of the egg. "Liver spots" or "meat spots" are -detached folds from the walls of the oviduct. Such abnormalities are -rare and not worth worrying about. - -The shells of eggs vary in shape, color and firmness. These -variations are more a matter of breed and individual idiosyncrasy -than of care or feed. - -The strength of egg shells is important because of the loss from -breakage. The distinction between weak and firm shelled eggs is not -one, however, which can be readily remedied. Nothing more can be -advised in this regard than to feed a ration containing plenty of -mineral matter and to discard hens that lay noticeably weak shelled -or irregularly shaped eggs. - -Preference in the color of eggs shells is a hobby, and one well -worth catering to. As is commonly stated, Boston and surrounding -towns want brown eggs, while New York and San Francisco demand white -eggs. These trade fancies take their origin in the circumstances of -there being large henneries in the respective localities producing -the particular class of eggs. If the eggs from such farms are the -best in the market and were uniformly of a particular shade, that -mark of distinction, like the trade name on a popular article, would -naturally become a selling point. Only the select trade consider the -color in buying. - -Eggs of all Mediterranean breeds are white. Those of Asiatics are -brown. Those of the American breeds are usually brown, but not of so -uniform a tint. - -The size of eggs is chiefly controlled by the breed or by selection -of layers of large eggs. In a number of experiments published by -various experiment stations, slight differences in the sizes of the -eggs have been noted with varying rations and environment, but this -cannot be attributed to anything more specific than the general -development and vigor of the fowls. Pullets, at the beginning of the -laying period, lay an egg decidedly smaller than those produced at a -later stage in life. - -The egg size table below gives the size of representative -classes of eggs. These figures must not be applied too rigidly, as -the eggs of all breeds and all localities vary. They are given as -approximate averages of the eggs one might reasonably expect to find -in the class mentioned. - - - - EGG SIZE TABLE. - - GEOGRAPHICAL BREED Net Wt. Weight Relative - CLASSIFICATION CLASSIFICATIONS Per 30 Ounces Values - Dozen Per Per - Case Dozen Dozen - - Southern Iowa's Purebred flocks of 45 lbs. 24 25c. - "Two ounce eggs" American varieties of - "egg farm Leghorns." - - Poorest flocks of Games and 36 lbs. 19 1-5 20c. - Southern Dunghills Hamburgs. - - Average Tennessee Poorest strains 40 lbs. 21 1-3 22 1-3c. - or Texas eggs. of Leghorns. - - Average for the The mixed barnyard 43 lbs. 23 23 9-10c. - United States as fowl of the western - represented by farm, largely of - Kansas, Plymouth Rock origin. - Minnesota and - Southern Illinois. - - Average size of eggs American Brahmas 48 lbs. 25 3-5 26 2-3c. - produced in Denmark. and Minorcas. - - Selected brands of Equaled by several 54 lbs. 28 4-5 30c. - Danish eggs. pens of Leghorns in - the Australian laying - contest. - - - -How Eggs Are Spoiled. - -Dirty eggs are grouped roughly in three classes: (A) Plain dirties, -those to which soil or dung adheres; (B) stained eggs, those caused -by contact with damp straw or other material which discolors the -shell (plain dirties when washed usually show this appearance); (C) -smeared eggs, those covered with the contents of broken eggs. - -For the first two classes of dirty eggs the producer is to blame. -The third class originates all along the route from the nest to -consumer. The percentage of dirty eggs varies with the season and -weather conditions, being noticeably increased during rainy weather. -In grading, about five per cent. of farm grown eggs are thrown out -as dirties. These dirties are sold at a loss of at least twenty per -cent. - -The common trade name for cracked eggs is checks. Blind checks are -those in which the break in the shell is not readily observable. -They are detected with the aid of the candle, or by sounding, which -consists of clicking the eggs together. Dents are checks in which -the egg shell is pushed in without rupturing the membrane. Leakers -have lost part of the contents and are not only an entire loss -themselves, but produce smeared eggs. - -The loss from breakage varies considerably with the amount of -handling in the process of marketing. A western produce house, -collecting from grocers by local freight will record from four to -seven per cent. of checks. With properly handled eggs the loss -through breakage should not run over one or two per cent. - -Eggs in which the chick has begun to develop are spoken of as -"heated" eggs. Infertile eggs cannot heat because the germ has not -been fertilized and can make no growth. That such infertile eggs -cannot spoil is, however, a mistaken notion, for they are subjected -to all the other factors by which - -eggs may be spoiled. The sale of eggs tested out of the incubators -has been encouraged by the dissemination of the knowledge that -infertile eggs are not changed by incubation. Eggs thrown out of an -incubator will be shrunken and weakened, and some of them may -contain dead germs and the remains of chicks that have died after -starting to develop. Such eggs may be sold for what they are, but -should never be mixed with other eggs or sold as fresh. When -carefully candled they should be worth ten or twelve cents a dozen. - -Fertile eggs, at the time of laying, cannot be told from infertile -eggs, as the germ of the chick is microscopic in size. If the egg is -immediately cooled and held at a temperature below 70 degrees, the -germ will not develop. At a temperature of 103 degrees, the -development of the chick proceeds most rapidly. At this temperature -the development is about as follows: - -Twelve hours incubation: When broken in a saucer, the germ spot, -visible upon all eggs, seems somewhat enlarged. Looked at with a -candle such an egg cannot be distinguished from a fresh egg. - -Twenty-four hours: The germ spot mottled and about the size of a -dime. This egg, if not too dark shelled, can readily be detected -with the candle, the germ spot causing the yolk to appear -considerably darker than the yolk of a fresh egg. Such an egg is -called a heavy egg or a floater. - -Forty-eight hours: By this time the opaque white membrane, which -surrounds the germ, has spread well over the top of the yolk, and -the egg is quite dark or heavy before the light. Blood appears at -about this period, but is difficult of detection by the candler, -unless the germ dies and the blood ring sticks to the membrane of -the egg. - -Three days: The blood ring is the prominent feature and is as large -as a nickel. The yolk behind the membrane has become watery. - -Four days: The body of the chick becomes readily visible, and -prominent radiating blood vessels are seen. The yolk is half covered -with a water containing membrane. - -These stages develop as given, occurring at a temperature of 103 -degrees. As the temperature is lowered the rate of chick development -is retarded, but at any temperature above 70, this development will -proceed far enough to cause serious injury to the quality of the -eggs. - -For commercial use eggs may be grouped in regard to heating as -follows: - -(1) No heat shown. Cannot be told at the candle from fresh eggs. - -(2) Light floats. First grade that can be separated by candling, -corresponding to about twenty-four hours of incubation. These are -not objectionable to the average housewife. - -(3) Heavy floats. This group has no distinction from the former, -except an exaggeration of the same feature. These eggs are -objectionable to the fastidious housewife, because of the appearing -of the white and scummy looking allantois on the yolk. - -(4) Blood rings. Eggs in which blood has developed, extending to the -period when the chick becomes visible. (5) Chicks visible to the -candle. - -The loss due to heated eggs is enormous; probably greater than that -caused by any other source of loss to the egg trade. The loss varies -with the season of the year, and the climate. In New England heat -loss is to be considered as in the same class as loss from dirties -and checks. In Texas the egg business from the 15th of June until -cool weather in the fall is practically dead. People stop eating -eggs at home and shipping out of the State nets the producer such -small returns by the time the loss is allowed that, at the prices -offered, it hardly pays the farmer to gather the eggs. In the season -of 1901 hatched chickens were commonly found in cases of market -eggs, throughout the trans-Mississippi region, and eggs did well to -net the shippers three cents per dozen. - -Damage to eggs by heating and consequent financial loss is -inexcusable. In the first place, market eggs have no business being -fertilized, but whether they are or not they should be kept in a -place sufficiently cool to prevent all germ growth. - -The egg shell is porous so that the developing chick may obtain air. -This exposes the moist contents of the egg to the drying influence -of the atmosphere. Evaporation from eggs takes place constantly. It -is increased by warm temperatures, dry air and currents of air -striking the egg. - -When the egg is formed within the hen the contents fill the shell -completely. As the egg cools the contents shrink, and the two layers -of membrane separate in the large end of the egg, causing the -appearance of the bubble or air cell. Evaporation of water from the -egg further shrinks the contents and increases the size of the air -cell. The size of the air cell is commonly taken as a guide to the -age of the egg. But when we consider that with the same relative -humidity on a hot July day, evaporation would take place about ten -times as fast as on a frosty November morning, and that differences -in humidity and air currents equally great occur between localities, -we see that the age of an egg, judged by this method, means simply -the extent of evaporation, and proves nothing at all about the -actual age. - -Even as a measure of evaporation, the size of the air cell may be -deceptive, for when an egg with an air cell of considerable size is -roughly handled, the air cell breaks down the side of the egg, and -gives the air cell the appearance of being larger than it really is. -Still rougher handling of shrunken eggs may cause the rupture of the -inner membrane, allowing the air to escape into the contents of the -egg. This causes a so-called watery or frothy egg. The quality is in -no wise injured by the mechanical mishap, but eggs so ruptured are -usually discriminated against by candlers. - -In this connection it might be well to speak further of the subject -of "white strength," by which is meant the stiffness or viscosity of -the egg white. The white of an egg is a limpid, clear liquid, but in -the egg of good quality that portion immediately surrounding the -yolk appears to be in a semi-solid mass. The cause of this -appearance is the presence of an invisible network of fibrous -material. By age and mechanical disturbance this network is -gradually broken down and the liquid white separates out. Such a -weak and watery white is usually associated with shrunken eggs. -These eggs will not stand up well or whip into a firm froth and are -thrown in lower grades. - -The weakness of the yolk membranes also increases with age, and is -objectionable because the breakage of the yolk is unsightly and -spoils the egg for poaching. - -The shrunken egg is most abundant in the fall, when the rising -prices tempt the farmer and grocery man to hold the eggs. This -holding is so prevalent, in fact, that from August to December full -fresh eggs are the exception rather than the rule. - -While we have called attention to evaporation as the most pronounced -fault of fall eggs, losses from other causes are greatly increased -by the holding process. - -If the eggs are held in a warm place, heat and shrinkage will case -the greatest damage; if held in a cellar, rot, mold, and bad odors -will cause the chief loss. - -The loss due to shrunken eggs is not understood nor appreciated by -those outside the trade. Such ignorance is due to the fact that the -shrunken is not so repulsive as the rotten or heated egg. But the -inferiority of the shrunken egg is so well appreciated by the -consumer that high class dealers find it impossible to use them -without ruining their trade. The result is that shrunken eggs are -constantly being sent into the cheaper channels, with the result -that all lower grades of eggs are more depreciated in the fall of -the year than at any other time. - -In the classes of spoiled eggs, of which we have thus far spoken, -the proverbial rotten egg has not been considered. The term "rot" in -the egg trade is used to apply to any egg absolutely unfit for food -purposes. But I prefer to confine the term "rotten egg" to the egg -which contains a growth of bacteria. - -The normal egg when laid is germ free. But the egg shell is not germ -proof. The pores in the egg shell proper are large enough to admit -all forms of bacteria, but the membrane inside the shell is germ -proof as long as it remains dry. When this membrane becomes moist so -that bacteria may grow in it, these germs of decay quickly grow -through it and contaminate the contents of the egg. - -Heat favors the growth of bacteria in eggs and sufficient cold -prevents it, but as bacteria cannot enter without moisture on the -surface of the egg we can consider dampness as the cause of rotten -eggs. Moisture on the shell may come from an external wetting, from -the "sweating" of eggs coming out of cold storage, or by the -prevention of evaporation to such an extent that the external -moisture of the egg thoroughly soaks the membrane. The latter -happens in damp cellars, and when eggs are covered with some -impervious material. - -Rotten eggs may be of different kinds, according to the species of -germ that causes the decomposition. The specific kinds of egg -rotting bacteria have not been worked out, but the following three -groups of bacterially infected eggs are readily distinguishable in -the practical work of egg candling. - -(1) Black rots. It is probable that many different species of -bacteria cause this form of rotten eggs. The prominent feature is -the formation of hydrogen sulphide gas, which blackens the contents -of the egg, gives the characteristic rotten egg smell and sometimes -causes the equally well known explosion. - -(2) Sour eggs or white rots. These eggs have a characteristic sour -smell. The contents become watery, the yolk and the whites mix and -the whole egg is offensive to both eye and nose. - -(3) The spot rot. In this the bacterial growth has not contaminated -the whole egg, but has remained near the point of entrance. Such -eggs are readily picked out with the candle, and when broken open -show lumpy adhesions on the inside of the shell. These lumps are of -various colors and appearances. It is probable that these spots are -caused as much by mold as by bacteria, but for practical purposes -the distinction is immaterial. - -In practice it is impossible to separate rotten from heated eggs for -the reason that in the typical nest of spoiled eggs found around the -farm, both causes have been at work. Dead chicks will not -necessarily cause the eggs to decay, but many such eggs do become -contaminated by bacteria before they reach the candler, and hence, -as a physician would say, show complications. - -The loss of eggs that are actually rotten is not as great as one -might imagine. Perhaps one or two per cent. of the country's egg -crop actually rot, but the expenses of the candling necessitated, -and the lowering of value of eggs that contain even a few rotten -specimens are severe losses. - -Moldy or musty eggs are caused by accidentally wet cases or damp -cellars and ice houses. The moldy egg is most frequently a spot rot. -In the musty egg proper the meat is free from foreign organisms, but -has been tainted by the odor of mold growth upon the shell or -packing materials. - -The absorption of odors is the most baffling of all causes of bad -eggs. Here the candler, so expert in other points, is usually -helpless. Eggs, by storage in old musty cellars, or in rooms, with -lemons, onions and cheese, may become so badly flavored as to be -seriously objected to by a fancy trade, and yet there is no means of -detecting the trouble without destroying the egg. Such eggs occur -most frequently among the held stock of the fall season. - - -The Loss Due to Carelessness. - -The egg crop of the country, more than ninety-five per cent, of -which originates on the general farm, is subject to immense waste -due to ignorant and careless handling. The great mass of eggs for -sale in our large cities possess to a greater or less degree the -faults we have discussed. - -Some idea of the loss due to the present shiftless method of -handling eggs, may be obtained by a comparison of the actual average -prices received for all eggs sold in New York City, and the -wholesale prices quoted by a prominent New York firm dealing in high -grade goods. The contrasted price for the year 1907 are as follows: - - Prices at which total goods Wholesale prices for strictly - moved. fresh eggs. - - January 25.8 January 42. - February 24.5 February 40. - March 19.3 March 32. - April 16.9 April 30. - May 16.6 May 31. - June 15.5 June 32. - July 15.6 July 35. - August 17.7 August 38. - September 20.7 September 40. - October 21.4 October 42. - November 26.0 November 45. - December 27.7 December 48. - -The total values figured by multiplying these prices by the -New York receipts, are as follows: - - Amount actually received $23,832,000 - Values at quotations for strictly fresh 44,730,000 - -No one would contend it is possible to bring the entire egg crop of -the country up to the latter value, but the fact that there is a -definite market for eggs of first class quality at almost double the -figures for which the egg crop as a whole is actually sold, is a -point very significant to the ambitious producer of high grade eggs. - - -Requisites of the Production of High Grade Eggs. - -(a) Hens that produce a goodly number of eggs, and at the same time -an egg that is moderately large (average two ounces each). Plymouth -Rocks, Wyandottes, Rhode Island Reds, Orpingtons, Leghorns, Minorcas -are the varieties which will do this. - -(b) Good housing, regular feeding and watering, and above all clean, -dry nests. - -(c) Daily gathering of eggs, when the temperature is above 80 -degrees, gathering twice a day. - -(d) The confining of all broody hens as soon as discovered. - -(e) The rejection as doubtful of all eggs found in a nest which was -not visited the previous day. (Such eggs should be used at home -where each may be broken separately). - -(f) The placing as soon as gathered of all summer eggs in the -coolest spot available. - -(g) The prevention at all times of moisture in any form coming in -contact with the egg's shell. - -(h) The selling of young cockerels before they begin to annoy the -hens. Also the selling or confining of old male birds from the time -hatching is over until cool weather in fall. - -(i) The using of cracked and dirty, as well as small eggs, at home. -Such eggs if consumed when fresh are perfectly wholesome, but when -marketed are discriminated against and are likely to become an -entire loss. - -(j) Keeping eggs away from musty cellars or bad odors. - -(k) Keeping the egg as cool and dry as possible while en route to -market. - -(l) The marketing of all eggs at least once per week and oftener, -when facilities permit. - -(m) The use of strong, clean cases or cartons and good fillers. - - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -HOW EGGS ARE MARKETED - - -The methods by which the larger number of American eggs pass from -the producer to consumer is as follows: - -The eggs are gathered by the farmer with varying regularity and are -brought perhaps on the average of once a week, to the local village -merchant. - -This merchant receives weekly quotations from a number of -surrounding egg dealers and at intervals of from two days to two -weeks, ships to such a dealer, by local freight. The dealer buys the -eggs case count, that is, he pays for them by the case regardless of -quality. He then repacks the eggs in new cases and, with the -exception of a period in the early spring, candles them. - -This dealer, in turn, receives quotations from city egg houses and -sells to them by wire. He usually ships in carload lots. The city -receiver may also be a jobber who sells to grocers, or he may sell -the car outright to a jobbing house. The jobber re-candles the eggs, -sorting them into a number of grades, which are sold to various -classes of trade. The last link in the chain is the housewife, who -by 'phone or personal call, asks for "a dozen nice fresh eggs." - -This most frequently repeated story of the American egg applies -particularly in the case of eggs produced west of the Mississippi -and marketed in the very large cities of the East. - -We will now discuss the various steps of the egg trade, pointing out -the reason for the existence of the present methods and their -influence upon quality and consequent value. - - -The Country Merchant. - -The country merchant is the logical business link between the farmer -and the outside world and usually continues to act as the farmers' -buyer and seller until the commodity dealt in becomes of such -importance as to demand more specialized form of marketing. Eggs -being a perishable crop continuously produced, must be marketed at -frequent intervals, and the trips to the general store, necessary to -supply the household needs, offers the only convenient opportunity -for such marketing. - -The merchant buys eggs because by doing so he can control his -selling trade. - -The farmer trades where he sells his eggs, because it is convenient -to do both errands at one place, and also because he wishes to avoid -affronting the merchant by breaking the established custom of -trading out the amount. - -For these reasons the merchant knows that to buy eggs means to sell -goods, and he therefore bids for eggs. His competitors across the -street, and in other towns, also bid for eggs. The effect to the -merchant of lowering the price of his goods or raising the price of -eggs is financially the same. In either case it is the matter of -cutting the prices under the spur of competition. Now, the articles -on which the merchant make his chief profits from the farmers' trade -are dry goods and notions. Such articles are not standardized, but -vary in a manner quite impossible of estimation by the -unsophisticated. On the other hand, eggs are quoted by the dozen, -and all that run may read. - -Suppose, for illustration, two merchants in the same town are each -doing a business with a twenty per cent. profit, and are buying eggs -at ten cents and selling for eleven, the cent advance being -sufficient to pay for their labor, incidental loss, and a small -profit. Now one merchant concludes to play for more trade. If he -marks his goods down he would gain some trade, but many people would -fear his goods were cheap. But if he puts up a placard, "Eleven -Cents Paid For Eggs," the farmers will throng his store and never -question the quality of his goods. This move having been successful, -his rival across the street quietly stocks up with a cheaper line of -dry goods, and some fine morning puts out a card, "Twelve Cents For -Eggs." The farm wagons this week will be hitched on the other side -of the street. - -The rate of business at ten per cent, being insufficient to maintain -two men in the town, a mutual understanding is gradually brought -about by which the prices of goods sold are worked back to the basis -of twenty per cent, gross profit, but the false price of eggs will -serve to draw the trade from neighboring towns and is therefore -maintained. - -As a matter of fact the price paid to farmers for eggs by the -general stores of the Mississippi Valley is frequently one to two -cents above the price at which the storekeeper sells the product. -Allowing the cost of handling, we have a condition prevailing in -which the merchant is handling eggs at from five to ten per cent. -loss, and it stands to reason that he is making up the loss by -adding that per cent. to his profits on his goods. Some of the -effects of this system are: - -1--The inflated prices of merchandise is an injustice to the -townspeople and to farmers not selling produce, in fact it amounts -to a taxation of these people for the benefit of the egg producers. -2--The inflated prices of merchant's wares work to his disadvantage -in competition with mail order or out-of-town trade. 3--The farmer -who exchanges eggs for dry goods is not being paid more for his -eggs, save as the tax on the townspeople contributes a little to -that end, but is in the main merely swapping more dollars. 4--The -use of eggs as a drawing card for trade works in favor of inferior -produce, and the loss to the farmer through the lowering of prices -thus caused, is much greater than his gain through the forced -contributions of his neighbors. - - -The Huckster. - -The huckster or peddling wagon which gathers eggs and other produce -directly from the farm, prevail east and south of a line drawn from -Galveston to Chicago through Texarkana, Ark., Springfield, Mo., and -St. Louis. North and west of this line the huckster is almost -unknown. - -The huckster wagons may be of the following types: - -1--An extension of the local grocery store, trading merchandise for -eggs. 2--An independent traveling peddler. 3--A cash dealer who buys -his load, and hauls it to the nearest city where he peddles the -produce from house to house or sells it to city grocers. 4--A -representative of the local produce buyer. 5--A fifth style of egg -wagon does not visit the farm at all, but is a system of rural -freight service run by a produce buyer for the purpose of collecting -the eggs from country stores. - -As far as the quality of product and advantage to the farmer is -concerned, the fourth style of huckster is preferable. This style -exists chiefly in Indiana and Michigan, and the better settled -regions of Kentucky and Tennessee. The writer found hucksters in -southern Michigan working on a profit of one-half a cent per dozen, -while in the mountains of Tennessee he found a huckster paying ten -cents for eggs that were worth eighteen cents in Chattanooga, and -twenty-three cents in New York. - -The huckster scheme of gathering eggs would seemingly be a means of -obtaining good eggs because of the advantage of regularity of -collection, but in reality it does not always work out that way. -While it must be admitted that in the isolated regions of the Middle -and Southern States the presence of the huckster is the only factor -that makes egg selling possible, it is also true that the peddling -huckster of those regions usually disregards the first principles of -handling perishable products. He makes a week's trip in sun and rain -with his load of produce, with the result that the quality of his -summer eggs is about as low as can be found. - -In the more densely populated region with a twice or thrice a week, -or even daily service, the huckster egg becomes the finest farm -grown egg in the market. - -The second step in the usual scheme of egg marketing is the sale of -eggs collected by the small storekeeper to the produce man or -shipper. - - -The Produce Buyer. - -Throughout the Mississippi Valley there are wholesale produce houses -at all important railroad junctions. A typical house will ship the -produce of one to three counties. These houses, once a week or -oftener, send out postal card quotations. These quotations read so -much per case, and are usually case count, with a reservation, -however, of the privilege to reject or charge loss on goods that are -utterly bad. Each grocery receives quotations from one to a dozen -such houses, and perhaps also from commission firms in the nearest -city. The highest of these quotations gets the shipment. - -The buyer repacks the eggs and usually candles them, the strictness -of the grading depending upon the intended destination. The loss in -candling is generally kept account of, but is seldom charged back to -the shipper. The egg man wants volume of business, and if he -antagonizes a shipper by charging up his loss, the usual result will -be the loss of trade. So the buyer estimates his probable loss and -lowers his price enough to cover it. - -By loss off, or "rots out," is meant the subtraction of the bad eggs -from the number to be paid for. Buying on a candled or graded basis, -usually not only means rots cut, but that a variation of the price -is made for two or more grades of merchantable eggs. - -Much discussion prevails among the western egg buyers as to whether -eggs should be bought loss off or case count. Loss off buying seems -to be more desirable and just, but in practice is fraught with -difficulties. - -If the loss off buyer feels he is losing business, he may instruct -his candler to grade more closely, which means he will pay less. -Whether done with honest or dishonest intention, the buyer thus sets -the price to be paid after he has the goods in his own hands, and -this is an obviously difficult commercial system. - -Where the buyer in one case changes the grading basis to protect -himself, there are probably ten cases where the eggs really deserve -the loss charged; but the tenth chance gives the seller an -opportunity to nurse his loss with the belief that he has been -robbed by the buyer. Such an uncertain feeling is disagreeable, and -the results are that where one or two competing egg dealers buys -loss off, and the other case count, the case count man will get most -of the business. - -The case count method being the path of least resistance, the loss -off system can only succeed where there is some factor that -overcomes the disinclination of a shipper to let the other man set -the price. This factor may be: 1st--An exceptional reputation of a -particular firm for honesty and fair dealing. 2d--Exceptional -opportunities for selling fancy goods, enabling the loss off buyer -to pay much higher rates for good stuff. 3d--A condition that -prevails in the South in the summer, where the losses are so heavy -that the dealers will not take the risk involved in case count -buying. 4th--Some sort of a monopoly. - -A monopoly for enforcing the loss off system of buying has been -brought about in some sections of the West by agreement among egg -dealers. In such cases the usual experience has been that some one -would get anxious for more business, and begin quoting case count, -the result being that he would get the business of the disgruntled -shippers in his section. When one buyer begins quoting case count, -the remainder rapidly follow suit and case count buying is quickly -re-established. - - -The City Distribution of Eggs. - -In name, city egg dealers are usually commission houses, but in -practice the majority of large lots of eggs are now bought by -telegraph and the prices definitely known before shipment. - -In the larger cities eggs are dealt in by a produce board of trade. -Such exchanges frequently have rules of grading and an official -inspector. This gives stability to egg dealing and largely solves -the problem of uncertainty as to quality, so annoying to the country -buyer. In the city even, where official grading is not resorted to, -personal inspection of the lot by the buyer is practical, and one -may know what he is getting. - -In many cases, especially in smaller cities, the receiver is the -jobber and sells to the grocers. In larger cities the receiver sells -to a firm who makes a business of selling them to groceries, -restaurants, etc. - -The jobber grades the eggs as the trade demands. In a western city -this may mean two grades--good and bad; in New York, it may mean -seven or eight grades, and the finer of these ones being packed in -sealed cartons, perhaps each egg stamped with the dealer's brand. - -The city retailer of eggs include grocers, dairies, butcher shops, -soda fountains, hotels, restaurants and bakeries. The soda fountain -trade and the first-class hotel are among the high bidder for -strictly first-class eggs. Many such institutions in eastern cities -are supplied directly from large poultry farms. The figures at which -such eggs are purchased are frequently at a given premium above the -market quotation, or a year round contract price for a given number -of eggs per week. This premium over common farm eggs may range from -one or two cents in western cities, to five to twenty cents in New -York and Boston. An advance of ten cents over the quotation for -extras or a year round contract price of thirty-five cents per -dozen, might be considered typical of such arrangements in New York -City. - -Some of the larger chain grocers in New York City are in the market -for strictly fresh eggs and have even installed buying departments -in charge of expert egg men. - -The great bulk of eggs move through the channels of the small -restaurant, bakery and grocery. In the small cities of the Central -West the grocer handles eggs at a margin of one to three cents. In -the South and farther West the margin is two to seven cents, the -retail price always being in the even nickel. In the large eastern -city there exists the custom unknown in the West of having two or -more grades of eggs for sale in the same store. All eggs offered for -sale are claimed by the salesman to be "strictly fresh" or the -"best," and yet these eggs may vary if it be April from fifteen -cents to forty cents, or if in December from thirty cents to -seventy-five cents per dozen. The New York grocers' profit is from -two to five cents on cheap eggs, but runs higher on high grade eggs, -frequently reach twenty cents a dozen and sometimes going as high as -forty cents for very fancy stock. - -City retailing is by far the most expensive item in the marketing of -eggs. As an illustration of the profits of the various handlers of -eggs might be as follows: - - Paid the farmer in Iowa $.15 - Profit of country store .00 - Gross profit of shipper .00-3/4 - Freight to New York .01-1/2 - Gross profit of receiver .00-1/2 - Gross profit of jobber .01-1/2 - Loss from candling .01-1/2 - Gross profit of retailer .04-1/2 - ------- - Cost to consumer $.25 - -The cheapest grade of eggs sold are taken by bakeries and for -cooking purposes at restaurants. When cooked with other food an egg -may have its flavor so covered up that a very repulsive specimen may -be used. Measures have been frequently taken by city boards of -health to stop the sale of spot rots and other low grade eggs. The -great difficulty with such regulations is that they are difficult of -enforcement because no line of demarcation can be drawn as in the -case of adulterated or preserved products. - -That embryo chicks and bacterially contaminated eggs are consumed by -the million cannot be doubted, but the individual examination of -each egg sold would be the only way in which the food inspectors can -prevent their use. The egg from the well-kept flock whose subsequent -handling has been conducted with intelligence and dispatch is the -only egg whose "purity" is assured with or without law. The -encouragement of such production and such handling is the proper -sphere of governmental regulations in regard to this product. - - -Cold Storage of Eggs. - -The supply of eggs ranges from month to month, the heavy season of -production centering about April and the lightest run being in -November. The cold storage men begin storing eggs in March or April -and continue to store heavily until June, after which time the -quality deteriorates and does not keep well in storage. This storage -stock begins to move out in September and should be cleaned up by -December. Great loss may result if storage eggs are held too long. - -The effect of the storage business is to even up the prices for the -year. The reduction of the exceedingly high winter prices is -unfortunate for those who are skilled enough to produce many eggs at -that season of the year, but on a whole the storage business adds to -the wealth-producing powers of the hen, for it serves to increase -the annual consumption of eggs and prevents eggs from becoming a -drug on the market during the season of heavy production. - -March and April eggs are, in spite of a long period of storage, the -best quality of storage stock. This is accounted for by the fact -that owing to cooler weather and rising price eggs leave the farm in -the best condition at this season of the year. - -Because eggs are spoiled by hard freezing, they must be kept at a -higher temperature than meat and butter. Temperatures of from 29 -degrees to 30 degrees F. are used in cold storage of eggs. At such -temperatures the eggs, if kept in moist air, become moldy or musty. -To prevent this mustiness the air in a first class storage room is -kept moderately dry. This shrinks the eggs, though much more slowly -than would occur without storage. - -The growth of bacteria in cold storage is practically prevented, but -if bacteria are in the eggs when stored they will lie dormant and -begin activity when the eggs are warmed up. - -Of the cold storage egg as a whole we can say it is a wholesome food -product, though somewhat inferior in flavor and strength of white to -a fresh egg. The cold storage egg can be very nearly duplicated in -appearance and quality by allowing eggs to stand for a week or two -in a dry room. Cold storage eggs, when in case lots, can be told by -the candler because of the uniform shrinkage, the presence of mold -on cracked eggs and perhaps the occasional presence of certain kinds -of spot rots peculiar to storage stock, but the absolute detection -of a single cold storage egg, so far as the writer knows, is -impossible. - -It may be further said that with the present prevailing custom of -holding eggs without storage facilities for the fall rise of price, -eggs placed in cold storage in April are frequently superior to the -current fall and early winter receipts. Cold storage eggs are -generally sold wholesale as cold storage goods, but are retailed as -"eggs." The fall eggs offered to the consumer cover every imaginable -variation in quality and the poorest ones sold may be a cold storage -product, or they may not be. - -The Bureau of Chemistry of the United States Department of -Agriculture has recently announced the finding of certain crystals -in the yolks of cold storage eggs that are not present in the fresh -stock. This finding of a laboratory method of detecting cold storage -stock was at first taken to be a great discovery. Further -investigation, however, indicates that the crystal mentioned forms -as the egg ages and that the rate of formation varies with the -individual eggs and probably also with the temperature, so that -while crystals may indicate an aged egg, the discovery only means -that the microscopist in the laboratory can now do in a half hour -what any egg candler in his booth can do in ten seconds. - -At the present writing (February, 1909) there has been much talk of -laws against the sale of cold storage eggs as fresh. The Federal -Pure Food Commission, under the general law against misbranding, -have made one such prosecution. Many States have agitated such laws -but little or nothing has been done. I find that the idea of such a -law is quite popular, especially with poultrymen. Contrary to -popular opinion, the cold storage men and larger egg dealers are not -opposed to the law. The people that are hit are the small dealers -and especially the city grocers. These fellows buy the eggs at -wholesale storage prices and sell them at retail prices for fresh, -thus making excessive profits but cutting down the amount of the -sales. This lessens the demand for storage stock and lowers the -wholesale price. This is the reason the wholesaler and warehouse man -are in favor of the law. - -We may all grant that the opportunity given the small dealers to -grab quick gains and in so doing hurt the trade ought to be -abolished. But how are we to do it? "Have State and Federal branding -of the cases as they go into or come out of storage," says one--an -excellent plan, to be sure by which the grocers could buy one case -of fresh, eggs and a back room full of storage goods and do Elijah's -flour barrel trick to perfection. - -Clearly government inspection and stamping of each egg is the only -method that would be effective and the consideration of what this -means turns the whole matter into a joke. The official inspection -now maintained by the boards of trade of the larger cities may be -extended and the producers, dealers and consuming public may be -educated to appreciate quality in eggs, as they have been in dairy -products. City and State laws may also be made which will taboo the -sale of spot eggs or eggs that will float on water. Meanwhile, a -great opportunity is open for the man who has high grade eggs for -sale, whether he be producer or tradesman. - -Many eggs that would not do for ordinary storage are preserved by -direct freezing. These eggs are broken and carefully sorted and -placed in large cans and then frozen. Such a product is disposed of -to bakers, confectioners and others desiring eggs in large -quantities. Another method of preserving eggs is by evaporation. -Evaporated or dried egg is, weight considered, about the most -nourishing food product known. The chief value of such an article -lies in provisioning inaccessible regions. There is no reason, -however, why this product should not become a common article of diet -during the season of high prices of eggs. Dried eggs can be eaten as -custards, omelets, or similar dishes. - - -Preserving Eggs Out of Cold Storage. - -Occasional articles have been printed in agricultural papers calling -attention to the fact that the cold storage men were reaping vast -profits which rightfully belonged to the farmer. Such writers advise -the farmer to send his own eggs to the storage house or to preserve -them by other means. - -As a matter of fact the business of storing eggs has not of late -years been particularly profitable, there being severe losses during -several seasons; Even were the profit of egg storing many times -greater than they are the above advice would still be unwise, for -the storing, removing and selling of a small quantity of eggs would -eat up all possible profit. - -The only reliable methods of preserving eggs outside of cold storage -are as follows: - -Liming: Make a saturated solution of lime, to which salt may be -added, let it settle, dip off the clear liquid, put the eggs in -while fresh, keep them submerged in the liquid and keep the liquid -as cold as the available location will permit. - -Water glass: This is exactly the same as liming except that the -solution used is made by mixing ten per cent. of liquid water glass -or sodium silicate with water. - -Liming eggs was formerly more popular than it is to-day. There are -still two large liming plants in this country and several in Canada. -In Europe both lime and water glass are used on a more extensive -scale. - -All limed or water glassed eggs can be told at a glance by an -experienced candler. They pop open when boiled. When properly -preserved they are as well or better flavored than storage stock, -but the farmer or poultryman will make frequent mistakes and thus -throw lots of positively bad eggs on the market. These eggs must be -sold at a low price themselves, and by their presence cast suspicion -on all eggs, thus tending to suppress the price paid to the -producers. The farmers' efforts to preserve eggs has in this way -acted as a boomerang, and have in the long run caused more loss than -gain to the producers. - -For the poultryman with his own special outlet for high grade goods, -the use of pickling or cold storage is generally not to be -considered for fear of hurting his trade. Any scheme that would help -to overcome the difficulty of getting sufficient fresh eggs to -supply such customers in the season of scarcity would be of great -advantage. The proposition of pickling a limited number of eggs and -selling them for "cooking" purposes, explaining just what they are, -ought to offer something of a solution, although, to the writer's -knowledge, it has not been done. - - -Improved Methods of Marketing Farm-Grown Eggs. - -The loss to the farmers of this country from the careless handling -of eggs is something enormous. No great or sudden change in this -state of affairs can be brought about, but a few points on how this -loss may be averted will not be out of order. - -Numerous efforts have recently been made in western states to -prevent the sale of bad eggs by law. Minnesota began this work by -arresting several farmers and dealers. The parties invariably -pleaded guilty. A number of other States followed the example of -Minnesota in challenging the sale of rotten eggs, but few -prosecutions were made. - -Such laws mean well enough, but the only efficient means of -enforcing them would be to have food inspectors who are trained as -practical candlers. - -The present usefulness of the laws is in calling the attention of -the farmer to the mistake that he may be carelessly committing, and -in placing over him a fear of possible disgrace in case of arrest -and prosecution. - -The weakness of the law is the difficulty of its enforcement because -of the number of violations, and the difficulty of drawing distinct -lines in regard to which eggs are to be considered unlawful. - -Education of the farmer as to the situation is, of course, the -surest means of preventing the loss, but the education of ten -millions of farmers is easier to suggest than to execute. The most -effective plan of education would be the introduction of a method of -buying eggs similar to the one in vogue in Denmark, in which every -producer is paid strictly in accordance with the quality of his -eggs. - -With our complicated system involving five to six dealers between -the producer and the consumer, such a system is well nigh -impossible. With the introduction of co-operative buying or the -community system of production, paying for quality becomes entirely -possible. - -For enterprising farming communities, the following plans offer a -cure for the evil of general store buying that take good and bad -alike and causes the worthy farmer to suffer for the carelessness -and dishonesty of his neighbor. - -First: The encouragement of the cash buying of produce, and, if -possible, the candling of all eggs with proper deduction for loss. - -Second: The buying of eggs by co-operative creameries. The greatest -difficulty in this has been the opposition of the merchants, who -through numerous ways available in a small town, may retaliate and -injure the creamery patronage to an extent greater than the newly -installed egg business will repay. - -Third: The agreement of the merchants to turn all egg buying over to -a single produce buyer. This has been successfully done in a few -instances, but there are not many towns in which those interested -will stick to such an agreement. The worst fault with this plan is -that the moment the egg buyer is given a monopoly he is tempted to -lower the farmer's prices for the purpose of increasing his own -profits. - -Fourth: A modification of the above scheme is the case in which the -produce buyer is on a salary and in the employment of the merchants. -This scheme has been successfully carried into effect in some -Nebraska towns. It may be the ultimate solution of the egg buying in -the West. It eliminates the temptation of the buyer to use his -privilege of monopoly to fatten his own pocket-book. The weakness of -the plan is that a salaried man's efficiency in the close bargaining -necessary to sell the goods is inferior to that of the man trading -for himself. Other difficulties are: Getting a group of merchants -who will live up to such an agreement; the farmers object to driving -to two places; the competition of other towns; the merchants' -realization that, the farmer with cash in his pocket or a check good -at all stores, is not as certain a trader as one standing, egg -basket on arm, before the counter; and last, and most convincing, -the merchant's further realization that any fine Saturday morning, -with eggs selling at fifteen cents at the produce house, he may -stick out a card "Sixteen Cents Paid for Eggs" and make more money -in one day than his competitors did all week. - -Fifth: Co-operative egg buying by the farmers themselves. This has -been discussed in a previous chapter. It is all right in localities -where the business is big enough to warrant it and the farmers are -intelligent and enthusiastic to back it up and stick to it. - - -The High Grade Egg Business. - -There are many excellent opportunities for men of moderate capital -and ability in the high grade egg trade. The produce business on its -present line, either at the country end or at the city end, is as -open as any well-known form of business enterprise can be. The -chances of success for a man new to the trade will be better, -however, if he can find a niche in the business where he may crowd -in and establish himself before the old firms realize what is up. -The proposition of buying high grade eggs from producers and selling -direct to consumers is a proposition of this kind. - -The little game of existence is chiefly one of apeing our betters -and strutting before the lesser members of the flock. The large -cities are full of people in search of some way to display their -superior wealth, taste and exclusiveness. If an ingenious dealer -takes a dozen eggs from common candled stock, places them in a blue -lined box and labels them "Exquisite Ovarian Deposital," he can sell -quite a few of them at a long price, but the game has its limits. -Now, let this man secure a truly high grade article from reliable -producers, teach his customers the points that actually distinguish -his eggs from common stock, and he can get not only the sucker trade -above referred to but a more satisfactory and permanent trade from -that class of people who are willing to pay for genuine superiority -but whose ears have not quite grown through their hats. - -An express messenger running out of St. Louis became interested in -the egg trade. He arranged with a few country friends to ship him -their eggs. These he candled in his house cellar and began selling -them to a limited trade in the wealthy section of the city. At first -he delivered the eggs himself. This was in the World's Fair year of -1904. In 1908 he did a $100,000 worth of business and his type of -business shows a much better percentage of profit than that of the -ordinary type of dealer. - -In Chicago, one of the large dairy companies established an egg -department and placed a young man in charge of it. The eggs in this -case are not bought of farmers but are secured from country produce -buyers whom the Chicago company have encouraged to educate their -farmers to bring in a high grade of goods. These people buy their -eggs in Tennessee in the winter and in Minnesota in the summer, thus -getting the best eggs the year round. They sell by wagon on regular -routes. The business is growing nicely and pays good profits. - -Other similar concerns are operating in Chicago and other large -cities. They are not numerous, however, and there is room for more. -The reason the business has not been overdone is chiefly because of -the difficulty of getting sufficiently really high grade eggs in the -season of scarcity. Southern winter eggs are destined to relieve -this situation more and more. - -Another great difficulty with a plan that attempts to buy eggs -directly from the producer is that premium offered on the goods -tempts the farmer to go out and buy up eggs from his neighbors. This -brings disastrous results in the quality of the goods and the farmer -must be dropped from the list. In order to make a success, a system -of buying directly from producers must be based upon a grading -scheme that will pay for the actual quality of the eggs. No fear -then need be exercised as to whether the farmer sells his own eggs -or those of his neighbor. - -The following extract from Farmer's Bulletin 128 of the U.S. -Department of Agriculture has been used as advertising "dope" in the -sale of high grade eggs: - -"Under certain conditions eggs may be the cause of illness by -communicating some bacterial disease or some parasite. It is -possible for an egg to become infected with micro-organisms, either -before it is laid or after. The shell is porous, and offers no -greater resistance to micro-organisms which cause disease than it -does to those which cause the egg to spoil or rot. When the infected -egg is eaten raw the microorganisms, if present, are communicated to -man and may cause disease. If an egg remains in a dirty nest, -defiled with the micro-organisms which cause typhoid fever, carried -there on the hen's feet or feathers, it is not strange if some of -these bacteria occasionally penetrate the shell and the egg thus -becomes a possible source of infection. Perhaps one of the most -common troubles due to bacterial infection of eggs is the more or -less serious illness sometimes caused by eating those which are -'stale.' This often resembles ptomaine poisoning, which is caused, -not by micro-organisms themselves, but by the poisonous products -which they elaborate from materials on which they grow. - -"In view of this possibility, it is best to keep eggs as clean as -possible and thus endeavor to prevent infection. Clean -poultry-houses, poultry-runs and nests are important, and eggs -should always be stored and marketed under sanitary conditions. The -subject of handling food in a cleanly manner is given entirely too -little attention." - -The reprint upon the succeeding pages will give some idea of the -advertising literature used in selling high grade eggs. This is a -copy of a hand-bill inserted in the egg boxes of a prominent Chicago -dealer: - - * * * * * - - MOORE'S BREAKFAST EGGS - -are guaranteed to be perfect in quality when you receive them -and to remain so until all eaten up. If for any reason they -are not satisfactory return the Eggs to your dealer and get -your money back. - -(Signature.) - - WE URGE YOU - -to assist us in our endeavor to furnish you at all times with -the finest Eggs by being careful to - - KEEP THEM DRY - -A damp "filler" will in 24 hours make the finest fresh Eggs -taste like old Cold Storage Eggs. - -The flavor of an Egg cannot be detected even by the powerful -electric lights used to inspect every Egg in this package, -so it might be possible for a "strong" Egg to get by our inspectors, -but in the past the cause of nearly every complaint -has been traced to the consumer's ice box or pantry window -sill. - - REMEMBER - -Eggs are 25c-40c per doz. retail only when fine Eggs are -scarce. Ordinarily we can get a sufficient supply from the -farmers bringing milk daily to the creameries where we make -Delicia Pure Cream Butter, but in times of scarcity we often -have to go as far as Oklahoma, Arkansas or Tennessee to find -the best Eggs. These are not equal to our creamery Eggs but -are the freshest and best to be had and are vastly superior to -the old Cold Storage Eggs that flood the market at such times. - - Be Sure This Seal is Unbroken When You Get the Eggs - - W. S. MOORE & CO., - - Chicago Office--131 South Water Street. - - -Buying Eggs By Weight. - -Whenever an improved method of buying is installed, eggs should be -bought of the producer by weight. As far as selling to the consumer -is concerned, the present scheme is more feasible; this scheme is to -grade according to the size and other qualities, and sell by the -dozen, the price per dozen varying according to the grade. - -Buying by weight simplifies the problem of grading. It will, in -addition, only be necessary to have a fine of so much for eggs that -are wrong in quality. For rotten or heated eggs should be deducted -an amount considerably in excess of their value, for their presence -is a source of danger to the reputation of the brand. Shrunken eggs -are hard to classify. In order that this may be done fairly and -uniformly the specific gravity or brine test should be used. All -eggs that float in a given salt brine of, say, 1.05 specific gravity -should be fined. Two or more grades can be made in this fashion if -desired. - - -The Retailing of Eggs by the Producer. - -In poultry papers the poultryman has been commonly advised to get -near a large city and retail his own eggs at a fancy price. This -sounds all right on paper but in practice it works out differently. -A man cannot be in two places or do two things at the same time. The -poultryman's time is valuable on his plant, and the question is -whether he can handle city sales as well as a man who made it his -business. If the poultryman tries to retail his own goods he will be -working on too small a scale to advertise his goods or to make -deliveries economically. The man making a specialty of the city end -can sell ten to a hundred times as much produce as one poultryman -can produce. - -With a group of poultry farmers working co-operatively, or a large -corporation having contracts with producers, the producing and -selling end can be brought under the same management advantageously. -The isolated poultryman, unless he find a market at his very door, -will do better to permit at least one middleman to slip in between -himself and the consumer. But there is no reason why he should not -know this middleman personally and insist upon a method of buying -that will pay him upon the merits of his goods. - -Consigning eggs or any other produce to commission men, without a -definite understanding, will always be, as it always has been, a -source of dissatisfaction and loss. There is a great opportunity -here for the man who can organize a system that shall do away with -commission houses, other intermediate steps, and form the single -step from producer to consumer. Some people say that farmers cannot -be dealt with in this manner. Such people would probably have said -as much about general merchandising before the days of the mail -order houses. - -It is all a matter of efficient organization. A system of business -fitted to deal in carload lots will, of course, fail when dealing -with half cases. It is more difficult to deal in little things than -in big ones because the margin is closer, but it can and will be -done. - - -The Price of Eggs. - -We will consider the price of all eggs from the quotation of Western -firsts in the New York market. The reason for this is evident. Every -egg raised east of Colorado is in line for shipment to New York. If -other towns get eggs they must pay sufficiently to keep them from -going to New York. - -In pricing eggs we have first to consider the price of Western -firsts in New York and secondly the quality relation of the -particular grade to Western firsts and the consequent relation in -price. - -The price of eggs varies with the price of other commodities as the -periods of prosperity and adversity follow one another through the -years. - -As is well known, all prices in the '90's passed through a period of -depression. For eggs this reached a base in 1897. Since then there -has been a gradual climb till this realized a high point in 1904, -remained high till 1907. In the spring of 1908 egg prices dropped -again, but the fall prices of 1908 were exceptionally high. As this -work goes to press (May, 1909) eggs are going into storage at the -highest May price on record. - -The prices of eggs also vary independently of other commodities -because of a gradual changing relation between production and -consumption. As stated in the first chapter the prices of poultry -products have shown a general rise when compared with other -articles. This has been most marked since 1900. As for the future we -cannot prophesy save to say that there is nothing in sight to lead -us to believe that we will not go still higher in egg prices. - -A third variation in the price of eggs is the one caused by the -seasonal relation of production and consumption. This change is from -year to year fairly constant. Its normal may be seen in the -scientifically smoothed curve in plate IV. This curve is based upon -the New York prices for the last eighteen years. - -In addition to these broader influences there are disturbing -tendencies that cause the market to fluctuate back and forth across -the line where the more general influences would place it. - -Of those general factors, weather is the most important. Storms, -rain and cold in the egg producing region decrease the lay, lower -supplies and raise the price. This is due both to the fact that -laying is cut down and that the country roads become impassable and -the farmers do not bring the eggs to town. As long as there are -storage eggs in the warehouses weather conditions are not so -effective, but when these are gone, which is usually about the first -of the year, the egg market becomes highly sensitive to all weather -changes. Suppose late in February storms and snows force up the -price of eggs. This is followed by a warm spell which starts the -March lay. The roads, meanwhile, are in a quagmire from melting -snows. When they do dry up eggs come to town by the wagon loads. A -drop of ten cents or more may occur on such occasions within a day -or two's time. This is known as the spring drop and for one to get -caught with eggs on hand means heavy losses. - -When once eggs have suffered this drop to the spring level or the -storage price for the season, the prices for April, May and June -will remain fairly steady. About the last week in June the summer -climb begins. This goes on very steadily with local variation of -about the same as those of the spring months. The storage eggs begin -to come out in August and at first sell about the same as fresh. As -the season advances the fresh product continues to rise in price. -The storage egg price will remain fairly uniform. By November the season -of high prices is reached. If storage eggs are still plentiful and the -weather is mild sudden variations in price may occur. These are caused -by a fear that the storage eggs will not all be consumed before spring. -If an oversupply of eggs have been stored a warm spell in winter will -make a heavy drop in the market, but if storage eggs are scarce the -sudden variations will be up-shots due to cold waves. From November -until spring egg prices are a creature of the weather maps and sudden -jumps from 5 to 10 cents may occur at any time. - -[Illustration: Plate IV. Page 159. Graphs of egg prices and volume -of egg sales as they vary throughout the year.] - -The price curve of 1908, which is represented by the dotted line in -plate IV will illustrate these general principles. In the lower -portion of plate IV is given the curves for the New York receipts. -The heavy line represents the smoothed or normal curve, deduced from -eighteen years' statistics and calculated for the year 1908. The -dotted line shows the actual receipts of 1908. A comparison week by -week of the receipts and price will show the detailed workings of -the law of supply and demand. - -Aside from the weather there are other factors that perceptibly -affect the receipts and price of eggs. A high price of meat will -increase farm and village consumption of eggs and cut down the -receipts that reach the city. Abundance of fruit in the city market -will cut down the demand for eggs. A cold, wet spring will increase -the mortality of chicks and cause a decreased egg yield the -following season, due to a scarcity of pullets. Scarcity and high -price of feed will cut down the egg yield. High price of hens is -said by some to cut down the egg yield, but I think this is -doubtful, as the impulse to sell off the hens is counteracted by the -desire to "keep 'em and raise more." - -The following are the quotations taken from the New York -Price-Current for November 14, 1908: - -State, Pennsylvania and nearby fresh eggs continue in very small -supply and of more or less irregular quality, a good many being -mixed with held eggs--sometimes with pickled stock. The few new laid -lots received direct from henneries command extreme -prices--sometimes working out in a small way above any figures that -could fairly be quoted as a wholesale value. We quote: Selected -white, fancy, 48@50c.; do., fair to choice, 35@46c.; do., lower -grades, 26@32c.; brown and mixed, fancy, 38@40c.; do., fair to -choice, 30@36c; do., lower grades, 25@28c. - - - N.Y. Mercantile Exchange Official Quotations. - - Fresh gathered, extras, per dozen @37 - Fresh gathered, firsts 32 @33 - Fresh gathered, seconds 29 @31 - Fresh gathered, thirds 25 @28 - Dirties, No. 1 21 @22 - Dirties, No. 2 18 @20 - Dirties, inferior 12 @17 - Checks, fresh gathered, fair to prime 18 @20 - Checks, inferior 12 @16 - Refrigerator, firsts, charges paid for season 24 @24-1/2 - Refrigerator, firsts, on dock 23 @23-1/2 - Refrigerator, seconds, charges paid for season 22-1/2 @23-1/2 - Refrigerator, seconds, on dock 21-1/2 @22-1/2 - Refrigerator, thirds 20 @21 - Limed, firsts 22-1/2 @23 - Limed, seconds 21 @22 - -The writer was in the New York market at the time and saw many cases -of White Leghorn eggs sell wholesale at as high as 55 cents. These -were commonly retailed at 5 cents each. There were a good many -brands retailing at 65 cents and one of the largest high class -groceries was selling for 70 cents. This is practically double the -official quotations and three times that of cold storage stock. - -The above prices represent a fair sample of the fall prices of 1908. -It should be noted that the 1908 fall prices were relatively -somewhat better than the rest of the season. - -The time of high prices is also the time of the greatest variation -in the price of the different grades. In the springtime all eggs are -fairly fresh and good, and the fanciest eggs bring wholesale only -two or three cents above quotations. There are a few retailers who -hold the spring prices to their customers up above the general -market. One New York firm that does a large high class egg business -never lets their price at any season go below 40 cents. This, of -course, means big profits and sales only to those who, when they are -satisfied, never bother about price. - -In the fall any man who has fresh eggs can sell them at very near -the highest price, but in the spring only a small per cent. can go -at fancy prices and the great majority of even the high grade eggs -must go at very ordinary prices. In the summer months there is not -so much demand in the cities, as the wealthy are not there to buy. -The coast and mountain resorts are then good markets for fancy -produce. - - - - - -CHAPTER XIII - -BREEDS OF CHICKENS - - -I do not place much dependence on the results of breed tests. -Indeed, I consider the almost universal use of the Barred Rock in -the most productive farm poultry regions in the United States, and -the equal predominance of S.C. White Leghorns on the egg farms of -New York and California, as far more conclusive than any possible -breed tests. - - -Breed Tests. - -In Australia there has been conducted a series of breed tests so -remarkable and extensive that the writer considers them well worth -quoting. The Hawkesbury Agricultural College tests extend over a -period of five years, the pens entered were of six birds each, and -the time one year. The results were as follows: - - No. of Pens Yield of Average Yield - Competing Highest Pen of All Pens - - 1903 ... 70 218 163 - 1904 ... 100 204 152 - 1905 ... 100 235 162 - 1906 ... 100 247 177 - 1907 ... 60 245 173 - -The winners and losers for five years were as follows: - - Winning Pen Losing Pen - - 1903 Silver Wyandotte Silver Wyandotte - 1904 Silver Wyandotte Partridge Wyandotte - 1905 S.C.W. Leghorns S.C.W. Leghorns - 1906 Black Langshans Golden Wyandotte - 1907 S.C.W. Leghorns S.C.B. Leghorns - -As a matter of fact, the winning pen means little for breed -comparison. This is shown by the winning and losing pens frequently -being of the same breed. - -The average for hens of one breed for the whole five years is more -enlightening. For the three most popular Australian breeds, these -grand averages are: - - - Average Av. Wt. Eggs. - No. Hens Egg Yield Oz. Per Doz. - - S.C.W. Leghorns ... 564 175.5 26.4 - - Black Orpingtons ... 522 166.6 26.1 - - Silver Wyandottes ... 474 161.1 24.9 - - -These figures are undoubtedly the most trustworthy breed comparisons -that have ever been obtained. When we go into the other breeds, -however, with smaller numbers entered, the results show chance -variation and become untrustworthy, for illustration: R.C. Brown -Leghorns, with 42 birds entered, have an average of 176.4. This does -not signify that the R.C. Browns are better than the S.S. Whites, -for if the Whites were divided by chance into a dozen lots of -similar size, some would undoubtedly have surpassed the R.C. Browns. -As further proof, take the case of the R.C.W. Leghorns with 36 birds -entered and an egg yield of 166.9. Both breeds are probably a little -poorer layers than S.C. Whites, but luck was with the R.C. Browns -and against the R.C. Whites. For a discussion of this principle of -the worth of averages from different sized flocks see Chapter XV. - -All Leghorns in the tests with 846 birds entered, averaged 170.3 -eggs each. All of the general purpose breeds (Rocks, Wyandottes, -Reds and Orpingtons), with 1416 birds entered, averaged 160.2. The -comparison between the Leghorns and the general purpose fowls as -classes is undoubtedly a fair one. A study of the relations between -the leading breeds in these groups and the general average of these -groups is worth while. It bears out the writer's statement that the -best fowls of a group or breed are to be found in the popular -variety of that breed. The Australian poultryman, wanting utility -only, would do wise to choose out of the three great Australian -breeds here mentioned. The S.C.W. Leghorn is the only one of the -three breeds to which the advice would apply in America. Barred -Rocks and perhaps White Wyandottes, would here represent the other -types. - -There is one more point in the Australian records worthy of especial -mention. The winning pen in 1906 were Black Langshans and, what -seems still more remarkable, were daughters of birds purchased from -the original home of Langshans in North China. Other pens of -Langshans in the test failed to make remarkable records, but this -pen of Chinese stock, with a record of 246 5-6* eggs per hen for the -first year and 414 1-2* eggs per hen for two years, is the world's -record layers beyond all quibble. This record is held by a breed and -a region in which we would not expect to find great layers. - -This holding of the record by a breed hitherto not considered a -laying type, would be comparable to a tenderfoot bagging the pots in -an Arizona gambling den. If the latter incident should occur and be -heralded in the papers it would be no proof that it would pay -another Eastern youth to rush out to Arizona. It is probable that -the man who, on the strength of this single record, stocks an egg -farm with imported Chinese Langshans, will fare as the second -tenderfoot. - -The year following the Langshan winning, the first eleven winning -pens were all S.C.W. Leghorns. This is also remarkable--much more -remarkable in fact than the Langshans record. It is like a royal -flush in a poker game. Standing alone, this would be very suggestive -evidence of the eminence of the breed. Standing as it does, with the -combined evidence of years and numbers, it gives the S.C.W. Leghorn -hen the same reputation in Australia as she has in America and -Denmark--that of being the greatest egg machine ever created. - -Isolated evidence is misleading. Accumulated evidence is convincing. -The difference between the scientist and the enthusiast is that the -former knows the difference between these two classes of evidence. - - -The Hen's Ancestors. - -To one who is unfamiliar with the different types of chickens found -in a poultry showroom, it seems incredible that these varieties -should have descended from one parent source. It was, however, held -by Darwin that all domestic chickens were sprung from a single -species of Indian jungle fowl. Other scientists have since disputed -Darwin's conclusion, but it does not seem to the writer that the -origin of domestic fowls from more than one wild variety makes the -changes that have taken place under domestication any less -remarkable. - -The buff, white and dominique colors, unheard of in wild species, -frizzles with their feathers all awry, the Polish with their -deformed skulls and the sooty fowls whose skin and bones are black, -are some of the remarkable characters that have sprung up and been -preserved under domestication. The varieties of domestic fowl form -one of the most profound exhibits of man's control over the laws of -inheritance. What makes these wonders all the more inexplicable is -that these profound changes were accomplished in an age when a -scientific study of breeding was a thing unheard of. - -The wild chicken whom Darwin credits as the parent of the modern -gallinaceous menagerie, is smaller than modern fowls and is colored -in a manner similar to the Black-breasted Game. The habits of this -bird are like those of the quail and prairie-chicken, both of which -belong to the same zoological family. - -From its natural home in India the chicken spread east and west. -Chinese poultry culture is ancient. In China, as well as in India, -the chief care seems to have been to breed very large fowls, and -from these countries all the large, heavily feathered and feather -legged chickens of the modern world have come. - -Poultry is also known to have been bred in the early Babylonian and -Egyptian periods. Here, however, the progress was in a different -line from that of China. Artificial incubation was early developed, -and the selection was for birds that produced eggs continually, -rather than for those that laid fewer eggs and brooded in the -natural manner. - -The Egyptian type of chicken spread to the countries bordering on -the Mediterranean, and from Southern Europe our non-sitting breeds -of fowls have been imported. Throughout the countries of Northern -Europe minor differences were developed. The French chickens were -selected for the quality of the meat, while in Poland the peculiar -top-knotted breed is supposed to have been formed. - -The English Dorking is one of the oldest of European breeds and is -possessed of five toes. Five-toed fowls were reported in Rome and -exist to-day in Turkey and Japan. The Dorkings may be descended -directly from the Roman fowls, or various strains of five-toed fowls -may have arisen independently from the preservation of sports. - -The chief point to be noted in all European poultry is that it -differs from Asiatic poultry in being smaller, lighter feathered, -quicker maturing, of greater egg-producing capacity, less disposed -to become broody, and more active than the Asiatic fowl. - -The early American hens were of European origin, but of no fixed -breeds. About 1840 Italian chickens began to be imported. These, -with stock from Spain, have been bred for fixed types of form and -color, and constitute our Mediterranean or non-sitting breeds of the -present day. Soon after the importation of Italian chickens a chance -importation was made from Southeastern Asia. These Asiatic chickens -were quite different from anything yet seen, and further -importations followed. - -Poultry-breeding soon became the fashion. The first poultry show was -held in Boston in the early '50's. The Asiatic fowls imported were -gray or yellowish-red in color, and were variously known as the -Brahmapootras, Cochin-Chinas and Shanghais. With the rapid -development of poultry-breeding there came a desire to produce new -varieties. Every conceivable form of cross-breeding was resorted to. -The great majority of breeds and varieties as they exist to-day are -the results of crosses followed by a few years of selection for the -desired form and color. Many of our common breeds still give us -occasional individuals that resemble some of the types from which -the breed was formed. The exact history of the formation of the -American or mixed breeds is in dispute, but it is certain that they -have been formed from a complex mixing of blood from both European -and Asiatic sources. - -The English have recently furnished the world with a very popular -breed which was originated by the same methods. I refer to the -Orpingtons. - -The ever growing multiplicity of varieties of chicken is in reality -only casually related to the business of the poultryman whose object -is the production of human food. - -Breeding as an art or vocation, is a source of endless pleasure to -man, and as such, is as worthy of encouragement as is painting, -music, or the collection of the bones of prehistoric animals. -Breeding as an art has produced many forms of chickens that are -entirely worthless as food producers, but this same group of poultry -breeders, tempered to be sure by the demands of commercialism, have -produced other breeds that are certainly superior for the various -commercial purposes to the unselected fowls of the old-fashioned -farm-yard. - -The mongrel chicken is a production of chance. Its ancestry -represents everything available in the barn-yard of the -neighborhood, and its offspring will be equally varied. In the pure -breeds there has been a rigid selection practiced that gives uniform -appearance. The size and shape requirements of the standard, -although not based on the market demands, come much nearer producing -an ideal carcass than does chance breeding. Ability to mature for -the fall shows is a decidedly practical quality that the fancier -breeds into his chickens. Moreover, poultry-breeders, while still -keeping standard points in mind, have also made improvements in the -lay and meat-producing qualities of their chickens. Considering -these facts it is an erroneous idea to think that mongrel chickens -offer any advantage over pure bred stock. - -In the broader sense we may regard as pure-bred those animals that -reproduce their shape, color, habits, or other distinctive qualities -with uniformity. In order that we may get offspring like the parent -and like each other we must have animals whose ancestors for many -generations back have been of one type. The more generations of such -uniformity, the more certain it will be that the young will possess -similar quality. - -One strain of chickens may be selected for uniform color of -feathers, another for a certain size and shape, another for laying -large eggs of a certain color, and yet another strain for being -producers of many eggs. Each of these strains might be well-bred in -these particular traits, but would be mongrels when the other -considerations were taken into account. - -This explains to us why the family or strains is frequently more -important than the breed. In fact, the whole series of breed -classification is arbitrary. This is especially true of the American -or mixed breeds. Humorously turned fanciers at the poultry show -frequently have much sport trying to get other fanciers to tell -White or Buff Rocks from Wyandottes, when the heads are hidden. From -the dressed carcasses with feet and head removed, the finest set of -poultry judges in the world would be hopelessly lost in a collection -of Rocks, Wyandottes, Reds and Orpingtons and, I dare say, one could -run in a few Langshans and Minorcas if it were not for their black -pin feathers. - - -What Breed. - -The writer has great admiration for breeding as an art. He would -rather be the originator of a breed of green chickens with six toes, -than to have been the author of "Afraid to Go Home in the Dark." But -I do want the novice who reads this book to be spared some of the -mental throes usually indulged in over the selection of a breed. - -So-called meat breeds, that is, the big feather legged Asiatics save -on a few capon and roaster plants in New England, are really -useless. They have given size to American chickens as a class, and -in that have served a useful purpose, but standing alone they cannot -compete with lighter, quick growing breeds. - -For commercial consideration there are really but two types: The egg -breeds of Mediterranean origin and the general purpose breeds or -growers, including the Rocks, Wyandottes and Rhode Island Reds. The -difference between the layers on the one hand and the growers on the -other, is quite important. Which should be used depends on the -location and plan of operations, as has already been discussed. - -The choice of variety within the group is a matter of taste and -chance of sales of fancy stock. This one principle can, however, be -laid down: The more popular the breed, the more choice there will be -in selecting strains and individuals. Pea Comb Plymouth Rocks and -Duckwing Leghorns should not be considered because of their rarity. -Of the growers, their popularity and claims are close enough to make -the particular choice unimportant. For commercial consideration, the -writer would as soon invest his money in a flock of Barred Rock, -White Wyandottes or Rhode Island Reds. Among layers the S. C. White -has achieved such a lead that the majority of good laying strains -are in this breed and to choose any other would be to place a -handicap on oneself. For a description of breeds, the reader should -secure an Illustrated American Standard of Perfection, or some of -the books published by poultry fanciers and judges. To take up the -matter here would merely be using my space for imparting knowledge -which can be better secured elsewhere. - -The relative popularity of breeds at the poultry shows is nicely -shown by the following list. This data was compiled by adding the -numbers of each breed exhibited at 124 different poultry shows in -the season of 1907. A detailed report of the total entries of each -breed is as follows: Plymouth Rocks, 14,514; Wyandottes, 12,320; -Leghorns, 8,740; Rhode Island Reds, 5,812; Orpingtons, 2,857; -Langshans, 2,153; Minorcas, 1,709; Cochin Bantams, 1,590; Games, -1,277; Brahmas, 1,181; Cochins, 1,010; Hamburgs, 758; Game Bantams, -637; Polish, 618; Houdans, 538; Indians, 538; Anconas, 464; Sebright -Bantams, 423; Andalusians, 117; Japanese Bantams, 115; Dorkings, -105; Brahma Bantams, 104; Buckeyes, 95; Silkies, 85; Spanish, 83; -Redcaps, 71; Sumatras, 41; Polish Bantams, 37; Sultans, 18; Malays, -12; Frizzles, 7; Le Fleche, 7; Dominiques, 5; Booted Bantams, 4; -Malay Bantams, 3; Crevecoeure, 3. - - - - - -CHAPTER XIV - -PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC BREEDING - - -Science has been defined as the "know how" and art as the "do how." -The man who works by art depends upon an unconscious judgment which -is inborn or is acquired by long practice. The man who works by -science may also have this artistic taste, but he tests its dicta by -comparison with known facts and principles. The scientist not only -looks before he leaps, but measures the distance and knows exactly -where he is going to land. - -Breeding has for centuries been an art, but the science of breeding -is so new as to seem a mass of contradictions to all except those -familiar with the maze of mathematics and biology by which the -barn-yard facts must find their ultimate explanation. The science of -breeding may in the future bring about that which would now seem -miraculous, but it is the ancient art of breeding that is and will -for years continue to be the means by which the poultry fancier will -achieve his results. - -In a volume the chief aim of which is to place the poultry industry, -which is now conducted as an art, in the realm of technical science, -it might seem proper to devote considerable space to the subject of -breeding, That I shall not do so, is for the reason that while -theoretically I recognize the important part that breeding plays in -all animal production, for the practical proposition of producing -poultry products at the lowest possible cost, a knowledge of the -technical science of breeding is unessential and may, by diverting -the poultryman's time to unprofitable efforts, prove an actual -handicap. - -For the show room breeder the new science of breeding is too -undeveloped to be of immediate service, or I had better say, the -show room requisites are too complicated for theoretical breeding to -promise results. For the commercial poultryman, I shall review what -has been accomplished and state briefly the theories upon which -contemplated work is based. - -The objects striven after in poultry breeding are: 1st: To create -new varieties which shall have improved practical points or shall -attract attention as curiosities. 2d: To approach the ideals -accepted by fanciers for established breeds, and hence win in -competition. 3d: To change some particular feature or habit as, to -increase egg production or reduce the size of bantams. 4th: To -improve several points at once as, eggs and size in general purpose -fowls. This classification is really unnecessary, as the most -specialized breeding involves consideration of many points. - - -Breeding as an Art. - -The method by which breeds and varieties of the show room specimens -have been developed is essentially as follows: The wonderfully -different varieties of fowl from every quarter of the earth are -brought together. Crossing is then resorted to, with the result that -birds of all forms and colors are produced. The breeder then selects -specimens that most nearly conform to the type or ideal in his mind. - -Suppose a man wished to produce Barred Leghorns, with a fifth toe. -He would secure Barred Rocks, White Leghorns and White or Gray -Dorkings. Then he would cross in every conceivable fashion. - -Perhaps he might have trouble getting the white color to disappear. -In that case Buff Leghorns which are a newer breed might be tried -and found more pliable material. By such methods the breeder would in -three or four generations of crossing get a crude type of what he -desired. Henceforth it would be a matter of patience and -selection. Five to twenty years is the time usually taken to produce -new breeds of fancy poultry that will breed true to type. In this -style of breeding the principles at stake are simple. The first is -to secure the variations wanted; second, to breed from the most -desirable of these specimens. - -The same methods of selection that establish a breed are used to -maintain it, or to establish strains. In ordinary breeding there are -two other principles that are sometimes called into play. One is -prepotency, the other is inbreeding. By prepotent we mean having -unusual power to transmit characters to offspring. Suppose a breeder -has five yards headed by five cock birds. The male in yard two he -does not consider quite as fine as the bird in yard one, but in the -fall he finds the offspring of bird from two much better than the -offspring from yard one. The breeder should keep the prepotent sire -and his offspring rather than the more perfect male, who fails to -stamp his traits upon his get. - -Normally a child has two parents, four grandparents, and eight -great-grandparents. Now, when cousins marry, the great-grandparents -of the offspring are reduced to six. The mating of brother and -sister cuts the grandparents to two, and the great-grandparents to -four. Mating of parent and offspring makes a parent and grandparent -identical and likewise eliminates ancestry. Inbreeding means the -reduction of the number of branches in the ancestral tree, and this -means the reduction of the number of chances to get variation, be -they good or bad. - -Inbreeding simply intensifies whatever is there. It does not -necessarily destroy the vitality, but if close inbreeding is -practiced long enough, sooner or later some little existing weakness -or peculiarity would become intensified and may prove fatal to the -strain. For illustration, suppose we began inbreeding brother and -sister with a view of keeping it up indefinitely. Now, in the -original blood, a tendency for the predominance of one sex over the -other undoubtedly exists and would be intensified until there would -come a generation all of one sex, which, of course, terminates our -experiment. - -Inbreeding has always been tabooed by the people generally. -Meanwhile the clever stock breeders have combined inbreeding with -selection and have won the show prizes and sold the people "new -blood" at fancy prices. - -Unintelligent inbreeding as practiced on many a farm, results in run -down stock, not so much from inbreeding as from lack of selection. -Out-crossing or mixing in of new blood is better than hit-or-miss -inbreeding. Intelligent inbreeding is better still. - - -Scientific Theories of Breeding. - - -The main tenet of Darwin's theory of racial inheritance or -evolution, was that changes in animal life, wild or domestic, were -brought about by the addition of very slight, perhaps imperceptible, -variations. He argued that the giraffe with the longest neck could -browse on higher leaves in time of drought and hence left offspring -with slightly longer necks than the previous generation. - -Upon this theory the ordinary breeding by selection is based. In -case of breeding for show room, the breeder's eye, or the judge's -score card, is the tape with which to measure the length of the -giraffe's neck. This principle can be applied equally well, even -better, to characteristics where accurate measurement may be used. - -The last forty years of scientific progress has established firmly -the general theories of Darwin, but they have also resulted in our -questioning his idea that all great changes are due to the sum of -small variations. Many instances have been suggested in which the -theory of gradual changes could not explain the facts. - -The theory of mutation, of which Hugo de Vries, of Holland, is the -chief expounder, does not antagonize Darwin, but simply gives more -weight in the process of evolution to the factor of sudden changes -commonly called sports. Let us illustrate: In the giraffe of our -former forest, one might appear whose neck was not longer because of -slightly longer vertebrae, but who possessed an extra vertebrae. -This would be a mutation. In other words, a mutation is a marked -variation that may be inherited. We now believe that polled cattle, -five-toed Dorkings, top-knotted Houdans, frizzles and black skinned -chickens arose through mutations. - -Burbank's Methods--The wonderful Burbank with his thornless cactus, -his stoneless plum, and his white blackberry, is simply a searcher -after mutations. His success is not because he uses any secret -methods, but because of the size of his operations. He produces his -specimens by the millions, and in these millions looks, and often -looks in vain for the lonely sport that is to father a new race. -Burbank has, with plants, many advantages of which the animal -breeder is deprived. He can produce his specimens in greater number, -he can more easily find out the desirable character, and in many -plants he has not the uncertain element of double parentage to -contend with, while with others he is still more fortunate, as he -can produce them by seed, stimulate variation until the desired -mutation is found and can then reproduce the desired variation with -certainty by the use of cuttings. This latter is not true -inheritance with its inevitable variation, but the indefinite -prolongation of the life of one individual. In this sense there is -only one seedless orange tree in the world. - -The Centgenitor System--Prof. Hays in breeding wheat at Minnesota, -first used in this country a system of breeding which is essentially -as follows: A large variety of individual seeds are selected. These -are planted separately and the amount and character of the yield -observed. The offspring of one seed is kept separate for several -generations, or until the character of the tribe is thoroughly -established. The advantage of this plan of breeding is in that the -selection is not made by comparing individuals, but by comparing the -offspring of individuals. Thus, we necessarily select the only trait -really worth while; that is prepotency or the ability to beget -desirable qualities. - -The application of this centgenitor system necessitates inbreeding; -it also necessitates large operations. Of the former, breeders have -generally been afraid; of the latter they have lacked opportunity. -But the centgenitor system, combined with Burbank's principle of -large opportunity of selection, is, in the writer's belief, the -method by which the 200-egg hen will be ultimately established in -America. - -Much of the recent stimulus to the study of the Science of Breeding -was occasioned by the discovery of Mendel's Law. Briefly, the law -states that when two pure traits or characters are crossed, one -dominates in the first generation of offspring--the other remaining -hidden or recessive. Of the second generation, one-half the -individuals are still mixed, bearing the dominant characteristic -externally and the other hidden; one-fourth are pure dominants and -one-fourth are pure recessives. In future generations the mixed or -hybrid individuals again give birth to mixed and pure types -apportioned as before, thus continuing until all offspring become -ultimately pure. For illustration: If rose and single comb chickens -are crossed, rose combs are dominant. The first generation will all -have rose combs. The second generation will have one-fourth single -combs that will breed true, one-fourth rose combs that will breed -rose combs only, and one-half that again will give all three types. - -Mendel's Law works all right in cases where pure unit -characteristics are to be found. For the great practical problems in -inheritance, Mendel's law is utterly hopeless. The trouble is that -the chief things with which we are concerned are not unit -characteristics but are combinations of countless characteristics -which cannot be seen or known, hence cannot be picked out. Thus the -tendency to revert to pure types is foiled by the constant -recrossing of these types. - -Mendel's law is a scientific curiosity like the aeroplane. It may -some day be more than a curiosity, but both have tremendous odds to -overcome before they supplant our present methods. - -Prof. C.B. Davenport, of the Carnegie Institute, is working on -experimental poultry breeding in its purely scientific sense. His -conclusions have been much criticised by poultry fanciers. The truth -of the matter is that the fancier fails to appreciate the spirit of -pure science. The scientist, enthused to find his white fowl -re-occur after a generation of black ones, is wholly undisturbed by -the fact that the white ones, if exhibited, might be taken for a -Silver Spangled Hamburg. - -Mendel's law as yet offers little to the fancier and less to the -commercial poultryman. Its study is all right in its place, but its -place is not on the poultry plant whose profits are to buy the baby -a new dress. - - -Breeding for Egg Production. - -Attempts to improve the egg-producing qualities of the hen date from -the domestication of the hen, but it has only been within the last -few years that rapid progress has been possible in this work. The -inability to determine the good layers has been the difficulty. - -The great majority of people make no selection of hens from which to -hatch their stock. The eggs of the whole flock are kept together and -when eggs are desired for hatching they are selected from a general -basket. It has been assumed, and is shown by trap-nest records, that -eggs thus selected in the spring of the year are from the poorer, -rather than from the better layers. This is because hens that have -not been laying during the winter will lay very heavily during the -spring season. Many breeders have attempted to pick out the good -layers by the appearance of the hens. Before the advent of the -trap-nest the "egg type" of hen was believed to be a positive -indication of a good layer. The "egg type" hen had slender neck, -small head, long, deep body of a wedge shape. Various "systems" -founded on these or other "signs" have been sold for fancy prices to -people who were easily separated from their money. Trap-nest records -show such systems to be on a par with the lunar guidance in -agricultural operations. - -I might remark here that the determination of sex by the shape of -the egg or similar methods, is in a like category. Science finds no -proof of such theories. - -A few methods of selecting the layers have been suggested which, -while far from absolute, are of some significance and are well worth -noting. The hen that sits upon the roost while other hens are out -foraging, is probably a drone. The excessively fat or the -excessively lean hens are not likely to be layers. It would -naturally be supposed that the active laying hen would be the last -one to go to roost at night. At the Kansas Experiment Station, the -writer made observations upon the order in which the hens went to -roost, and the above assumption was found in the majority of cases -to be correct. - -A still better scheme of selecting layers is the practice of picking -out the thrifty, quickly maturing pullets when they first begin to -lay in the fall season. At the Maine Experiment Station, such a -selection gave a flock of layers which averaged about one hundred -and eighty eggs, when the remainder of the flock yielded only one -hundred and forty. - -Trap-nests devised to catch the hen that lays the egg are numerous -in the market. A trap-nest to be successful, must not only catch the -hen that lays, but must prevent the entrance of the other hens. - -The more trap-nests that are provided, the less often they will -require attention, but the more often the nests are attended the -better for the comfort of the hens. - -The use of trap-nests is expensive and cannot be recommended for the -poultryman who must make every hour of time put on his chickens -yield him an immediate income. Fanciers and Experiment Stations can -well afford to use trap-nests and must, indeed, use them both for -breeding for egg production, and also for determining the hen that -laid the egg when full pedigrees are desired in other breeding work. - -A scheme that has sometimes been used in the place of trap-nests, is -a system of small compartments, in each of which one hen is kept. -Such a scheme does not seem feasible on a large scale, but for -breeders wishing to keep the records of a small number of hens, it -is all right. Because of its cost, this system is wholly out of the -question, except for a man following breeding as a hobby and who -cannot devote himself during the day to the care of trap-nests. - -Having determined the best layers, it remains to breed from these -and from their descendants. The tests of pullets hatched from hens -are better signs of the hen's value as a breeder than is her own -record. It has been surmised that a hen which lays heavily will not -lay eggs containing vigorous germs. So far as the writer's -experience has gone, the laying of infertile eggs is a family or -individual trait not particularly related to the number of eggs -laid. - -When we have bred from the best layers and have raised our average -egg yielder to a higher level, the question arises as to whether the -strain will permanently maintain the high yield or drop back to the -former rate of production. Theory says that it will not drop back. -As a matter of fact it will not do so, for the heavier production -will be more trying on the hen's constitution, and naturally -selection will gradually cause the egg record to dwindle. Hence the -necessity of continued selection or the infusion of new blood from -other selected strains. - -Whatever may be the change desired in a strain of chickens, -specimens showing the trait to be selected should be used as -breeders. Those characteristics readily visible to the eye have long -been the subjects of the breeder's efforts. But traits not directly -visible can likewise be changed by breeding. The number of eggs, -size and color of eggs, rapid growth, ready fattening powers, -quality of meat and general characteristics, are all matters of -inheritance, and if proper means are taken to select the desirable -individuals all such characteristics can be changed at the will of -the breeder. - -It is a fact, however, often overlooked, that the more traits for -which one selects, the slower will be progress. For illustration: If -in breeding for egg production, one-half the good layers are -discarded for lack of fancy points, the progress will be just half -as rapid. - -A discussion of the work in breeding for egg production at the Maine -Experiment Station is taken up in the next chapter. - - - - -CHAPTER XV - -EXPERIMENT STATION WORK - - -Our entire scheme of agricultural education and experimentation is -new. The poultry work at experiment stations is very new. Ten years -will about cover everything worthy of a permanent record in the -poultry experiment station files. - - -Stations Leading in Poultry Work. - -Among the earliest stations to begin poultry work in this country -were Rhode Island, Massachusetts, Connecticut and Maine. Rhode -Island conducted the first school of poultry culture. The two -stations of New York State were also early in the work, and Cornell -now has the leading school of poultry culture in this country. - -West Virginia has always maintained a considerable poultry plant. -Outside of the states east of the Appalachians, the first poultry -work to be heard of was that of Prof. Dryden at the Experiment -Station of Utah. Prof. Dryden's work was of a demonstrative nature. -His early bulletins were forceful and well illustrated, and did much -to call attention to poultry work. - -In all this early work the great Mississippi Valley, where -four-fifths of the nation's poultry is produced, entirely ignored -the hen. The writer began his work with poultry at the Kansas -Station in 1902, but his chickens were housed in a discarded hog -house, and no funds being available, little was accomplished. In the -last three or four years these experiment stations are rapidly -falling into line and a number of poultry bulletins have recently -been issued from these younger schools. - -A few of the early landmarks in experiment station work was as -follows: - -The Utah Station clearly found that hens laid about 65 per cent. as -many eggs in the second as in the first year, and that to keep hens -for egg production beyond the second year, was unprofitable. - -Massachusetts proved that corn was a better food for layers than -wheat, and that the prejudice against it was founded on a misapplied -theory. - -The New York Station at Geneva demonstrated that poultry generally, -and ducks in particular, are not vegetarians, and must have meat to -thrive and that vegetable protein will not make good the deficiency. - -The Maine Station was chiefly instrumental in introducing -trap-nests, curtain front houses and dry feeding. The breeding work -at Maine will be discussed at length in the last section of this -chapter. - -The United States Department of Agriculture did not take up poultry -work until 1906. The publications issued by the department before -that time were written by outsiders and printed by the Government. - -The following is the list of the addresses of the experiment -stations who have taken a leading interest in poultry work. It is -not worth while giving a list of poultry bulletins, as many of them -are out of print and can only be consulted in a library. - - Maine--Orono. - Mass.--Amherst. - Conn.--Storrs. - Rhode Is.--Kingston. - New York--Ithaca. - New York--Geneva. - Maryland--College Park. - West. Va.--Morgantown. - Iowa--Ames. - Kansas--Manhattan. - Utah--Logan. - Calif.--Berkeley. - Oregon--Corvalis. - U.S. Gov.--Washington, D.C. - Ontario--Guelph (Canada). - -Many foreign governments have us out-distanced in the encouragement -of the poultry industry. Our Canadian neighbors have done much more -practical work in getting out among the farmers and improving the -stock and methods along commercial lines. As a result the Canadians -have built up a nice British trade with which we have thus far not -been able to compete. The work by the Ontario Station on the subject -of incubation is discussed in the Chapter on Incubation. - -Australia, like Canada, has given much practical assistance in -marketing the poultry products, the government maintaining packing -stations, where the poultry is packed for export. The Australian -laying contests are quoted in the present volume. They outclass -anything else in the world along that line. - -In England, Ireland and especially in Denmark, the government, or -societies encouraged by the Government, have done a great deal to -develop the poultry industry. Depots for marketing and grading are -maintained and the stock of the farmers is improved by fowls from -the government breeding farms. - - -The Story of the "Big Coon." - -With apologies to Joel Chandler Harris, I will tell a little story. - -Uncle Remus was telling the little boy about the "big coon." It -seems that the "big coon" had been seen on numerous occasions, but -all efforts at his capture had failed. One night they saw the "big -coon" up in the 'simmon tree, in the middle of the ten-acre lot. All -hands and the dogs were summoned. To be sure of bagging the game, -the tree was cut down. The dogs rushed in but there was no coon. - -"But, Uncle Remus," said the little boy, "I thought you said you saw -the big coon in the tree." - -"Laws, chile," replied Uncle Remus, "doesn't youse know dat it am -mighty easy for folks to see something dat ain't dar, when dey are -lookin' fer it?" - -When scientific experimenters entered the poultry field about -fifteen years ago, they found it swarming with old ladies' notions. -For everything a reason was given, but these reasons were derived -from the kind of dreams where that which pleases the human mind is -seized upon and search is made to find ideas to back it, not because -it is true, but because it "listens good" to the dreamer. The first -duty of the scientist was to banish these will-o'-the-wisp ideas -that lead to no practical results. - -For illustration Round eggs were supposed to hatch pullets and long -ones cockerels. Eggs will not hatch if it thunders. Shipped eggs -must be allowed to rest before hatching, the drug store was the -universal source of relief when the chickens became sick, and red -pepper and patent foods were the egg foods par excellence. These -things, thanks to the scientist, are no longer believed or regarded -by well read poultrymen, and instead his attention has been turned -to matters having a more happy relation to his bank account. - -In clearing away the useless popular notions, the scientists -themselves have not been free from their influence, especially when -they seemed to agree with accepted scientific theory. Many, indeed, -are the 'coons in poultry science that have been seen because they -were being looked for. - -As a partial explanation it should be said that men available for -scientific poultry work are very scarce. Poultry keepers schooled in -the University of the Poultry Yard have no conception of scientific -methods, and would explain experimental results by a theory that -would fail to fit elsewhere. The available scientists on the other -hand are seldom poultrymen. - -Among the first men to take up animal husbandry work of all kinds, -were the veterinarians. For years the only poultry publications put -out by the U.S. Government were by veterinarians. These dust covered -volumes with their five color plates of the fifty-seven varieties of -tapeworms, still rest on the shelves of public libraries, a monument -to the time when the practical poultryman knew only things that -weren't so, and the scientific poultryman knew only things that were -useless. - -The first general law that all experimenters should know and the -ignorance of which has caused and still causes the waste of the -major portion of experimental brains and money, we will call the -"Law of Chance." Let the reader who is not familiar with such things -take two pennies and toss them upon the table. They are both heads -up. He tosses them again, one comes heads, the other tails. The -third time repeats the second. The fourth both come tails. The law -of chance says this is correct. Heads should appear 25 per cent., -tails 25 per cent., and mixed 50 per cent. of the time. Now let the -reader try this in a lot of twelve tosses. Does it prove the law? -Try it again. Are all lots alike? Now pitch a hundred times, then -pitch pennies all day. By night the law will be so near proven that -the experimenter will be willing to concede its validity. - -Now suppose the lots of twelve tosses, each were lots of twelve -hens, one Plymouth Rocks, the other Wyandottes, or one fed corn and -the other wheat. The law of chance clearly proves that the larger -number of unites, the nearer the theoretical truths will be the -experimental results. Note, however, that small lots may by chance -be as near the truth as large lots. - -In practice two grave errors are made: First, conclusions are drawn -from small lots compared with each other; second, conclusions are -drawn from large lots compared with small lots. In the first case -both may be off; in the latter case the small one may be off. -Examples of the first error are to be found in the scores of -contradicting breed and feed tests, that were published in the early -days of poultry research. The second error is exemplified in the -Ontario experiments in incubation, to which reference has already -been made. - -Here is a further example of this error. From the fifth egg laying -competition at the Hawkesbury Agricultural College in Australia, I -copy the following: - - No. of Hens. Variety. Ave. Egg Yield. - - 6 Cuckoo Leghorn 190.16 - 30 S.C. Brown Leghorn 177.00 - 138 S.C. White Leghorn 174.93 - 12 R.C. Brown Leghorn 173.50 - 12 R.C. White Leghorn 172.66 - 18 Buff Leghorn 160.55 - 6 Black Leghorn 138.33 - -The ranking of Cuckoo Leghorns as first is a chance happening due to -the small number; likewise the Black Leghorns had a streak of bad -luck and received lowest place. To one not familiar with such work, -the real significance of the table is that the S.C.W. Leghorns did -the best work. A totaling of all other varieties gives 84 fowls with -an average egg production of 170.5, which bears out the conclusion. -As these birds were all kept in pens of six, we would expect to find -the highest single pen to be White Leghorns, because, when compared -with all other Leghorns, they have both the highest average and the -greatest number. This accords with the fact that as the highest -single pen is found to be White Leghorns with an egg yield of 239 -eggs. - -The above illustrates another important phase of the laws of chance, -which says that not only is the average likely to be nearer the -theoretical average sought when the number is increased, but that -the individual extremes will be more removed. - - - -Important Experimental Results at the Illinois Station. - -From an Illinois Experiment Station report, the following is quoted: - -"The stock used was Barred Plymouth Rock pullets. These pullets were -a very uniform Barred Rock stock that had been bred as an individual -strain for many years. They were practically the same age, and -except for the factors mentioned were treated as uniformly as -possible. - - First Year's Results. - - No. Hens. Diet. Ave. Egg Yield. - - 10 Nitrogenous Diet 132.9 - 10 Carbonaceous Diet 128.4 - 10 Wet Wash 155.8 - 10 Dry Wash 111.4 - -"The results of the first test are somewhat surprising for it is -generally believed that the nitrogenous diet is best for laying -hens. The difference indicated in the first year's results was so -light that it was decided to repeat the experiment the second year. - -"As the wet wash is clearly proven to be superior, these hens were -used the second year to compare meat meal with fresh cut bone. - - Second Year's Result. - - No. Hens. Diet. Ave. Egg Yield. - - 10 Nitrogenous 142.2 - 10 Carbonaceous 134.5 - - 10 Meat Meal 102.2 - 10 Green Cut Bone 128.9 - -"The results of the second year clearly indicate the great -superiority of green cut bone as compared with the dry unpalatable -meat meal. The comparison of a highly nitrogenous ration with that -of a ration consisting largely of corn, while showing the advantages -of the nitrogenous rations, does not show the contrast expected. - -"Some visiting poultrymen expressed the opinion that corn is a -better poultry food than commonly supposed. Considering this fact -and the great fundamental importance of the question at issue, it -was decided to repeat the experiment a third year, and feed a large -number of birds on each ration. - - No. Hens. Diet. Ave. Egg Yield. - - 100 Nitrogenous 126.9 - 100 Carbonaceous 127.2" - -I will leave the last without comment, for the whole thing is a -hoax. The Illinois Experiment Station has never owned a chicken. -These "Illinois" experiments were planned and executed in a few -minutes of the writer's spare time. The basis of the experiments was -a pack of cards containing the individual records of the Maine -Experiment Station hens, shuffling the cards and averaging the -desired number of records as they come in the pack, made the -distinction between the various diets. - - -Experimental Bias. - -Pet ideas consciously or unconsciously mold practice. A bias toward -an idea may show itself in the planning and conducting of an -experiment, or it may come out in the later interpretation. - -An illustration of the first kind is found in the early work of the -West Virginia Station (Bulletin 60). With the preconceived notion -that hens should have a nitrogenous diet an experiment was planned -and conducted as follows: - -One lot of hens was fed corn, potatoes, oats and corn meal. A -contrasted lot reveled in corn, potatoes, hominy feed, oat meal, -corn meal and fresh cut bone. The results were in favor of the -latter ration by a doubled egg yield. - -To any experienced poultryman the reason is evident. The variety of -the diet and the meat food are what made the showing. - -About the same time the Massachusetts Station planned a similar -experiment. The bias was the same, but it took a fairer form. The -hens were both given a decent variety of food and some form of meat. -The bulk of the grain was corn in the carbonaceous, and wheat in the -nitrogenous ration. The results were in favor of the corn. This -astonished the experimenter. He tried it again and again tests came -out in favor of corn. At last the old theory was revoked, and the -fallacy of wheat being essential to egg production was exploded. If -by an irony of fate in the shuffling of the hens, the wheat pen had -the first time showed an advantage, the experimenter might have been -satisfied and the waste of feeding high priced feed when a better -and a cheaper is at hand, might have gone on indefinitely. - -Of bias in the interpretation of results all publications are more -or less saturated. A reading of the Chapter on Incubation will -illustrate this. A common error of this kind is the omission of -facts necessary to fully explain results. Items of costs are -invariably omitted or minimized. Food cost alone is usually -mentioned in figuring experimenting station poultry profits, which -statement will undoubtedly cause a sad smile to creep over the face -of many a "has-been" poultryman. - -The writer remembers an incident from his college days which -illustrates the point in hand. Let it first be remarked that this -was on the new lands of the trans-Missouri Country, where manure had -no more commercial value than soil, and is freely given to those -who will haul it away. - -The professor at the blackboard had been figuring up handsome -profits on a type of dairying towards which he wits very partial. -The figures showed a goodly profit, but the biggest expense -item--that of labor--was omitted. One of the students held up his -hand and inquired after the labor bill. - -"Oh," said the smiling professor, "The manure will pay for the -labor." - -When the class adjourned, the student remarked: "They say figures -won't lie, but a liar will figure." - -The third way in which experiments are made worthless is by the -introduction of factors other than the one being tested. This may be -done by chance, and the conductor not realize the presence of the -other factor, or the varying factors may be introduced intentionally -under the belief that they are negligible. Of the first case an -instance may be cited of the placing of two flocks in a house, one -end of which is damper than the other, the accidental introduction -into one flock of a contagious disease, or one flock being thrown -off feed by an excessive feed of greens, etc., etc. These factors -that influence pens of birds greatly add to the error of the law of -chance. In fact it amounts to the same thing on a larger scale. For -this reason not only are many individuals, but many flocks, many -locations, and many years needed to prove the superiority of the -contrasted methods. - -The criticisms in the following section will amply illustrate the -case of foreign factors being unwisely introduced into an -experiment. - - -The Egg Breeding Work at the Maine Station. - -As is well known the Maine Station was for years considered by all -poultrymen to be doing a great and beneficial work in breeding for -increased egg production. Up until the fall of 1907, the poultrymen -of the country were of the opinion that this work was in every way -successful, and a large number of private breeders had taken up the -use of trap-nests in an effort to build up the egg production of -their fowls. - -When early in 1908 Bulletin 157 of the Maine Experiment Station was -published, it showed by averages as given in the table on page 202 -that the egg yield at the station was for the entire period on the -decline. In Bulletin 157, the statement was made that "arithmetical -mistakes" and "faulty statistical methods" accounted for the -discrepancies between the former publications and the criticised -data. The further explanation that "the experiment was a success as -an experiment," etc., only appeared to the public mind as a graceful -way of explaining what was, to the practical man, an utter failure -of the entire work. - -The unfortunate death of Professor Gowell, together with the fact -that he had equipped a private poultry farm with station stock, -added to the confusion, and the result of the bulletin was the -precipitation of a general "pow-wow" in which the poultry editors -were about equally divided between those who were casting -insinuations upon the personnel of the station, and those who -decried the whole effort toward improving the egg yield. - -After going over the publications of Professor Gowell, visiting the -station and meeting the present force, I came to the following -conclusions regarding the matter: - -Professor Gowell's work is open to severe criticism. Errors have -been made in conducting the work at Maine which have made it -possible for a mathematical biologist to take the data and seemingly -prove that selection, as practiced by Professor Gowell, actually -resulted in lowering inherent egg capacity of the strain of Plymouth -Rock hens under experimentation. Had Professor Gowell's successor -been a practical poultryman, it is my candid opinion that the public -would have been given a radically different explanation of the -results. - -Professor Gowell is the author of the following statement: "The -small chicken grower is earnestly urged to use an incubator for -hatching." This opinion is not in accord with that of the majority -of breeders and the more progressive experiment station workers. The -opinion has been expressed by Professor Graham and others, that the -particular results at the Maine Station may have been due to the -decrease of vitality caused by continued artificial hatching. This -view may be wholly without foundation. Nevertheless, as the common -type of incubator is under heavy criticism, and it is pretty well -proven that chicks so hatched have not the vitality of naturally -hatched chicks, surely a series of breeding experiments would carry -more weight if the replenishing of the flock had been accomplished -by natural means. - -For the first few years of the breeding work the house used was the -old-fashioned double walled and warmed pattern. The last few years -of this work were conducted in curtain front houses. That the cool -house is an improvement over the warm house is generally conceded, -but there are many poultrymen who are still of the opinion that the -warm house will give a larger egg yield, though at a greater expense -and less profit. - -In the early years of the work the method of feeding was also a -time-honored one, and included a warm mash. About the middle of the -experimental period Professor Gowell brought out the system of -feeding dry mash from hoppers. This custom became a great fad and -Professor Gowell and Director Woods have preached it far and wide. -Perhaps it is an improvement, but it is to-day much more popular -with novices than with established egg farms. Many old line -poultrymen have tried dry mash only to go back to wet mash, by which -method the hens can be induced to eat more which is conducive to -high egg yields. Whether these changes in housing and feeding have -been improvements as claimed by those who introduced them, or -whether their popularity may be explained in part at least by the -psychology of fads, is a point in question, but certainly the -marring of a breeding experiment by introducing radical changes in -the factors of production is at best unfortunate. - -A much more serious criticism than any of the foregoing is to be -found in a change of the size of flocks and amount of floor space -per fowl. I have gone over carefully the published records of -Professor Gowell, and the review of Dr. Pearl, and the following -table represents, as near as I can determine, these factors for the -series of years. In the year 1903 I find no clear statement as to -the manner in which the birds were housed, and I may be in error in -this case. Otherwise the table gives the facts. - - Year Hens in Flock Per Hen Egg Yield - 1900 20 8. sq. ft. 136.36 - 1901 20 8. sq. ft. 143.44 - 1902 20 8. sq. ft. 155.58 - 1903 20 8. sq. ft. 135.42 - 1904 50 4.4 sq. ft. 117.90 - 1905 50 4.4 sq. ft. 134.07 - 1906 50 4.4 sq. ft. 140.14 - 1907 50 4.4 sq. ft. 113.24 - -Certainly this oversight is a serious one, and one especially -remarkable considering the fact that the comparison of different -size flocks formed a prominent part of the Maine Station work during -the last three years of the breeding test. The results of the work -at the Maine Station on testing flock size, conducted without -relation to the breeding work, gave the following results: - - No. of Hens Sq. ft. per Hen Egg Yield - 150 3.2 111.68 - 100 4.8 123.21 - 50 4.8 129.69 - -No comparisons of 50 and 20 bird flocks in the same year are -available, but by extending the comparisons of the 50, 100 and 150 -flocks into the 20 flock size, we can get some idea of the error -that has been here introduced. The result of the Australian egg -laying contest in which the flocks were composed of six hens, shows -a yield of about one and one-half times as heavy as the Maine -records, which certainly seems to substantiate the ideas here -brought out. - -It is a well established fact in poultry circles that many men who -succeed with a few hundred hens, fail when the number is increased -to as many thousands. When the breeding experiments under discussion -were started, Professor Gowell had under his supervision about three -hundred hens. When the work was closed the experiment station plant -had been increased to four or five times its capacity, and Professor -Gowell had a large private poultry plant of his own in addition. - -It is interesting to note in this connection that the last four -years of the records are explained by Professor Gowell as being low, -due to various "accidents" (?) It is unreasonable to suppose the -true explanation of these "accidents" would be found in connection -with the increased responsibility and size of the plant. - -The breeding stock sent out by Professor Gowell has given general -satisfaction, and was found by Professor Graham of the Ontario -Station, as well as by a number of private individuals, to be of -superior laying quality to that of the average Barred Rock. - -Clearly there is only one way to prove whether Professor Gowell's -work has been a wasted effort, and that is for flocks of his strain -to be tested at other experiment stations against birds of -miscellaneous origin. - -That much has been lost to the poultrymen of the country by the -recent upheaval at the Maine Station, I believe to be the case, but -that does not mean that the men now in charge will not in the future -be of great value to the poultry interests. They are, however, in -the class of pure scientists rather than applied scientists, but if -let alone they will dig out something sooner or later which they or -others can apply to the benefit of the industry. - -Upon the whole, I think that the present case of the trap-nest -method of increasing egg production stands very much as it is has -always stood, being a commendable thing for small breeders who could -afford the time, but not practical in a large way, except at -experiment stations. On a large commercial scale the system of -selecting sires by the collective work of his first year's offspring -would probably get the quickest results. - -The best use of the funds of the people in the promotion of -agricultural industries is in the permanent endorsement on the one -hand of a few high grade research stations where the deeper theories -may be worked out, and on the other the teaching of such good -principles and practices as are already known. - -The greatest opportunity for Government effort lies in the -development demonstration farm work in poultry Just as it is doing -with the corn and cotton in the South. - - - - - -CHAPTER XVI - -POULTRY ON THE GENERAL FARM - - -This chapter will be devoted to specific directions for the -profitable keeping of chickens on the typical American farm. By -typical American farm I mean the farm west of Ohio, north of -Tennessee and east of Colorado. Farms outside this section present -different problems. In the region mentioned about three-quarters of -the American poultry and egg crop is produced, and in this section -poultry keeping is more profitable when conducted as a part of -general farm operations than as an exclusive business. - -There is no reason why a farmer should not be a poultry fancier if -he desires, but in that case his special interest in his chickens -would throw him out of the class we are at present considering. -Likewise, I do not doubt that in many instances where the farmer or -members of his family took special interest in poultry work, it -would be profitable to increase the size of operations beyond those -herein advised, using incubators and keeping Leghorns. Of these -exceptions the farmer himself must judge. The rules I lay down are -for those farmers who wish to keep chickens for profit, but do not -care to devote any larger share of their time and study to them than -they do to the cows, hogs, orchard or garden. - -The advice herein given in this chapter will differ from much of the -advice given to farmers by poultry writers. The average poultry -editor is afraid to give specific advice concerning breeds, -incubators, etc., because he fears to offend his advertisers. The -reader, left to judge for himself, is liable to pick out some fancy -impractical variety or method. - - -Best Breeds for the Farm. - -Keep only one variety of chickens. Do not bother with other -varieties of poultry unless it is turkeys. Whether it will pay to -raise turkeys will depend upon your success with the little turks, -and on the freedom of the community from the disease called -Black-head. - -The kind of chicken you should keep should be picked from the three -following breeds: Barred Plymouth Rock, White Wyandotte, Rhode -Island Reds. If you go outside of these three breeds be sure you -have a very good reason for doing so. - -Then get a start with a new breed, buy at least four sittings of -eggs in a single season, paying not over $2.00 per sitting. Keep all -the pullets and a half dozen of the best cockerels. The next spring -pen these pullets up with the best cockerels, and use none but eggs -from this pen for hatching. That fall sell all of the young -cockerels and all the old scrub hens. The second spring the two old -roosters from the original purchased eggs are used with the general -flock. From this time on the entire flock is pure bred and should -remain so. - -Each year when the chicks are about six or eight weeks old pick out -the largest, most vigorous male chick from each brood. Mark these by -clipping the web of the foot or putting on leg bands. From those so -marked the breeding cockerels for the next season are later -selected. When you pick the good cockerels pick out all runty -looking pullets and cut off the last joint of the hind toe. These -runts are later to be eaten or sold. The more surplus chicks raised, -the more strictly can the selection be made. - -This system of picking the best cockerel from each brood and -discarding the poorest pullets is the most practical method known of -building up a vigorous, quick growing and early laying strain. - -When we allow the entire flock of many different ages to grow up -before the selection is made it is impossible to select -intelligently. - -Every third or fourth year an extra cock bird may be purchased -provided you are sure you are getting a specimen from a better flock -than your own. Swapping roosters or eggs every year is poor policy. -If your neighbor has better stock than you, get his blood pure and -sell off your own, but do not keep a barnyard full of scrubs who can -trace their ancestry to every flock in the neighborhood. - - -Keep Only Workers. - -On many farms few eggs are gathered from October to January. This is -a season when eggs bring the best prices. To secure eggs at this -season, the first requisite is that the pullets be hatched between -the first of March and the middle of May, or, in the case of -Leghorns, between the first of April and the first of June. Pullets -hatched later than these dates are a source of expense during the -fall and early winter. On the other hand, it is an unnecessary waste -of effort to hatch pullets before the dates mentioned, because, if -hatched too early, they will molt in the fall and stop laying the -same as old hens. - -Pullets must be well fed and cared for if expected to develop in the -time allowed. As they begin to show signs of maturity they should be -gotten into permanent quarters. If allowed to begin laying while -roosting in coops or in trees they will be liable to quit when -changed to new quarters. If possible the coops should be gradually -moved toward the hen-house and the pullets gotten into quarters -without excitement or confinement. The poultry-house should have an -ample circulation of fresh air. Young stock that have been roosting -in open coops are liable to catch cold if confined in tight houses. - -A common mistake is to allow a large troop of young roosters to -overrun the premises in the early fall. Not only is money lost in -the decrease in price that can be obtained for these cockerels, but -the pullets are greatly annoyed, to the detriment of the egg yield. - -Any chicken that is not paying for its food in growth or in egg -production is a source of loss. As soon as the hatching season is -over old roosters should be sent to market. Through June and August -egg production is not very profitable, and a thorough culling of the -hens should be made. Market all hens two years or more of age. Send -with these all the yearling hens that appear fat and lazy. By the -time the young pullets are ready to be moved into quarters--the -latter part of August--these hens should be reduced to about -one-half the original number. Some time during September a final -culling of the old stock should be made. Those that have not yet -begun to molt should be sold, as they will not be laying again -before the warm days of the following February. This system of -culling will leave the best portion of the yearling hens, which, -together with the early-hatched pullets, will make a profitable -flock of layers. - - -Hatching Chicks With Hens. - -The eggs for hatching should be stored in a cool, dry location at a -temperature between forty and seventy degrees Fahrenheit. A good -rule is not to set eggs over two weeks old. - -The two chief losses with sitting-hens are due to lice and -interference of other hens. The practice of setting hens in the -chicken-house makes both these difficulties more troublesome. Almost -all farms will have some outbuilding situated apart from the regular -chicken-house that can be used for sitting-hens. The most convenient -arrangement will be to use boxes, and have these open at the top. -They may be placed in rows and a plank somewhat narrower than the -boxes used as a cover. The nests should be made by throwing a shovel -of earth into the box and then shaping a nest of clean straw. Make -the nest roomy enough so that as the hen steps into the nest the -eggs will spread apart readily and not be broken. When a hen shows -signs of broodiness remove her to the sitting-room. This should be -done in the evening, so that the hen becomes accustomed to her -position by daylight. Place the hen upon the nest-eggs and confine -her to the nest. If all is well the next evening give her a full -setting of eggs. - -A practical method to arrange for sitting-hens is to build the nests -out of doors, allowing each hen a little yard, so that she may have -liberty to leave her nest as she chooses. These nests may be built -by using twelve-inch boards set on edge, so as to form a series of -small runways about one by six feet. In one end are built the nests, -which are covered by a broad board, while the remainder of the -arrangement is covered with lath or netting. The food, grit and -water should be placed at the opposite end of the runway. Care -should be taken to locate these nests on well-drained ground. -Arrangements should be made to close the front of the nest during -hatching so that the chicks will not drop out. A contrivance of this -kind furnishes a very convenient method of handling sitting-hens, -and if no separate building is available would be the best method to -use. - - -Incubators on the Farm. - -My candid advice to the farmer who is in doubt as whether to buy -an incubator or not, is to let it alone. If the farmer reads the -chapter on artificial incubation, he will see that he is dealing -with a very complex problem, and one in which his chances of success -are not very great. - -In order to learn the facts concerning incubators on the farms the -writer made a special investigation on the subject while poultryman -at the Kansas Experiment Station. Replies received from 111 Kansas -farmers, report 21 as having tried incubators. Of these, 6 reported -the incubators as being an improvement over hatching with hens; 10 -reported the incubator as being successful, but not better than -hens, while the remaining 5 declared the incubator to be a failure. -The results of this inquiry, and of personal visits to farms, led -the writer to believe that about one-tenth of the farmers of Kansas -had tried incubators, and that about as many failed as succeeded -with artificial hatching. - -The argument for the incubator on the farm is certainly not one of -better hatching, but there is an argument, and a good one for the -farm incubator. The argument is this: Hens will not set early enough -and in sufficient quantities to get out as large a number of chicks -as the farmer may desire. Now, each hen will not hatch over 10 -chicks, but is capable of caring for at least 30. Here the incubator -comes into good use, for the farmer can set a half dozen hens along -with the incubator, and give all the chicks to the hens. This is the -method I recommend where an incubator is to be used. The development -of the public hatchery would supply these other 20 chicks more -economically and more certainly than the farm incubator, but until -that institution becomes established the more ambitious farm poultry -raisers are justified in trying an incubator. - -The best known incubators in the market are the Cyphers, the Model -and the Prairie State. Cheaper machines are liable to do poor work. -The following points may help the farmer in deciding whether or not -to buy an incubator and in picking out a good machine. - -The person to run the incubator is the first condition of its -success. A good incubator requires attention twice a day. One person -should give this attention, and must give it regularly and -carefully. The farmer's wife or some younger member of the family -can often give more time and interest to this work than can the -farmer. The likelihood of a person's success with artificial -hatchers can best be determined by himself. - -The best location for an incubator is a moderately damp cellar. The -next choice would be a room in the house away from the fire or from -windows. Drafts of air blowing on the machine are especially to be -avoided. Not only do they affect the temperature directly, but cause -the lamp to burn irregularly, and this may result in fire. - -The objects in view in building an incubator are: (1) To keep the -eggs at a proper temperature (103 degrees on a level with the top of -the eggs). (2) To cause the evaporation of moisture from the eggs at -a normal rate. (3) To prevent the eggs from resting too long in one -position. - -The case of the incubator should be built double, or triple-walled, -to withstand variation in the outside temperature. The doors should -fit neatly and be made of double glass. The lamp should be made of -the best material, and the wick of sufficient width that the -temperature may be maintained with a low blaze. The most -satisfactory place for the lamp is at the end of the machine, -outside the case. - -Regulators composed of two metals, such as aluminum and steel, are -best. Wafers filled with ether or similar liquid are more sensitive -but weaker in action. Hard-rubber bars are frequently used. - -The most practical system of controlling evaporation is a system of -forced ventilation, in which the air is heated around the lamp-flue -and passes through the egg-chamber at a rate determined by -ventilators in the bottom of the machine. With the outside air cold -and dry only slight current is required, but as the outer air -becomes warmer or damper more circulation is needed. - -Turning the egg is not the work that many imagine it to be. It is -not necessary that the egg be turned with absolute precision and -regularity. An elaborate device for this work is useless. The trays -will need frequently to be removed and turned around or shifted, and -the eggs can be turned at this time by lifting out a few on one side -of the tray and rolling the others over. - -Two other points to be considered in the incubator are: A suitable -nursery or place for the newly hatched chick, and a good -thermometer. - - -Rearing Chicks. - -If it is very early in the spring, and the ground is damp, it is -best to put the hen and her brood in some building. During the most -of the season the best thing is an outdoor coop. The first -consideration in making a chicken-coop is to see that it is -rain-proof and rat-tight. The next thing to look for is that the -coop is not air-tight. Let the front be of rat-tight netting or -heavy screen. The same general plan may be used for small coops for -hens, or for larger coops to be used as colony-houses for growing -chickens. The essentials are: A movable floor raided on cleats, a -sliding front covered with rat-tight netting, and a hood over the -front to keep the rain from beating in. If used late in the fall or -early in the spring a piece of cloth should be tacked on the sliding -front. - -The chicken-coops should not be bunched up, but scattered out over -as much ground as is convenient. Neither should they remain long in -one spot, but should be shifted a few feet each day. At first water -should be provided at each coop, but as the chickens grow older they -may be required to come to a few central water pans. - -As before suggested, rearing chicks with hens is the only suitable -method for general farm practice. The brooder on the farm is an -expensive nuisance. - -For brooder raised chicks it is necessary to provide means for the -little chick to exercise. But in the season when the great majority -of farm chicks are raised they may be placed out of doors from the -start and the trouble will now be to keep them from getting too much -exercise, i.e.: to keep the hens from chasing around with them -especially in the wet grass. This is properly prevented by keeping -the brood coops in plowed ground, and keeping the hens confined by a -slatted door, until the chicks are strong enough to follow her -readily. - -The chick should not be fed until 48 to 72 hours old. It may then be -started on the same kind of food as is to form its diet in after -life. The hard boiled egg and bread and milk diets are wholly -unnecessary and are only a waste of time. - -I recommend the same system of chick feeding for the general farm as -is used on commercial plants, and I especially insist that it will -pay the farmer to provide meat food of some sort for his growing -chicks. The amount eaten will not be large, nor need the farmer fear -that supplying the chicks with meat food will prevent their -consuming all the bugs and worms that come their way. - -Besides comfortable quarters, the chick to thrive, must have: -Exercise, water, grit, a variety of grain food, green or succulent -food, and meat food. - -Water should be provided in shallow dishes. This can best be -arranged by having a dish with an inverted can or bottle which -allows only a little water to stand in the drinking basin. - -Chicks running at large on gravelly ground need no provision for -grit. Chicks on board floors or clay soils must be provided with -either coarse sand or chick grit, such as is sold for the purpose. - -Grain is the principal, and, too often, the only food of the chick. -The common farm way of feeding grain to young chickens is to mix -corn-meal and water and feed in a trough or on the ground. There is -no particular advantage in this way of feeding, and there are -several disadvantages. The feed is all in a bunch, and the weaker -chicks are crowded out, while if wet feed is thrown on the ground or -in a dirty trough the chicks must swallow the adhering filth, and if -any food is left over it quickly sours and becomes a menace to -health. Some people mix dough with sour milk and soda and bake this -into a bread. The better way is to feed all of the grain in a -natural dry condition. - -There are foods in the market known as chick foods. The commercial -foods contain various grains and seeds, together with meat and grit. -Their use renders chick feeding quite a simple matter, it being -necessary to supply in addition only water and green foods. For -those who wish to prepare their own chick foods the following -suggestions are given: - -Oatmeal is probably the best grain food for chicks. Oats cannot be -suitably prepared, however, in a common feed-mill. The hulled oats -are what is wanted. They can be purchased as the common rolled oats, -or sometimes as cut or pin-head oatmeal. The latter form would be -preferred, but either of these is an excellent chick feed. Oats in -these forms are expensive and should be purchased in bulk, not in -packages. If too expensive, oats should be used only for a few days, -when they may be replaced by cheaper grains. Cracked corn is the -best and cheapest chick food. Flaxseed could be used in small -quantities. Kaffir-corn, wheat, cow-peas--in fact any wholesome -grain--may be used, the more variety the better. Farmers possessing -feed-mills have no excuse for feeding chicks exclusively on one kind -of grain. If there is no way of grinding corn on the farm, oatmeal, -millet seed and corn chop can be purchased. At about one week of age -whole Kaffir-corn, and, a little later whole wheat, can be used to -replace the more expensive feeds. - -Green or bulky food of some kind is necessary to the healthy growth -of young chickens. Chickens fed in litter from clover or alfalfa -will pick up many bits of leaves. This answers the purpose fairly -well, but it is advisable to feed some leafy vegetable, as kale or -lettuce. The chicks should be gotten on some growing green crop as -soon as possible. - -Chickens are not by nature vegetarians. They require some meat to -thrive. It has been proven in several experiments that young -chickens with an allowance of meat foods make much better growth -than chickens with a vegetable diet, even when the chemical -constituents and the variety of the two rations are practically the -same. - -Very few farmers feed any meat whatever. They rely on insects to -supply the deficiency. This would be all right if the insects were -plentiful and lasted throughout the year, but as conditions are it -will pay the farmer to supplement this source of food with the -commercial meat foods. - -Fresh bone, cut by bone-cutters, is an excellent source of the meat -and mineral matter needed by growing chicks. If one is handy to a -butcher shop that will agree to furnish fresh bones at little or no -cost, it will pay to get a bone-mill, but the cost of the mill and -labor of grinding are considerable items, and unless the supply of -bones is reliable and convenient this source of meat foods is not to -be depended upon. - -The best way to feed beef-scrap is to keep a supply in the hopper so -the chickens may help themselves. In case meat food is given, -bone-meal, fed in small quantities, will form a valuable addition to -their ration. Infertile eggs from incubators, as well as by-products -of the dairy, can be used to help out in the animal-food portion of -the ration. Chickens may be given all the milk they will drink. It -is generally recommended that this be given clabbered. - - -Feeding Laying Hens. - -The food requirements of a laying hen are very like those of a -growing chicken. One addition to the list is, however, required for -egg production, which is lime, of which the shell of the egg is -formed. In the summer-time hens on the range will find sufficient -lime to supply their needs. In the winter-time they should be -supplied with more lime than the food contains. Crushed oyster shell -answers the purpose admirably. - -A supply of green food is one of the requisites of successful winter -feeding. Every farmer should see that a patch of rye, crimson -clover, or some other winter green crop is grown near his -chicken-house. Vegetables and refuse from the kitchen help out in -this matter, but seldom furnish a sufficient supply. Vegetables may -be grown for this purpose. Mangels and sugar-beets are excellent. -Cabbage, potatoes and turnips answer the purpose fairly well. -Mangels are fed by splitting in halves and sticking to nails driven -in the wall. - -Clover and alfalfa are excellent chicken feeds and should be used in -regions where winter crops will not keep green. The leaves that -shatter off in the mow are the choicest portion for chicken feeding, -and may be fed by scalding with hot water and mixing in a mash. Hens -will eat good green alfalfa if fed dry in a box. - -The feeding of sprouted oats should be practiced when no other green -food is available. Oats may be prepared for this purpose by -thoroughly soaking in warm water and being kept in a warm, damp -place for a few days. Feed when the sprouts are a couple of inches -long. - -Almost all grains are suitable foods for hens. Corn, on account of -its cheapness and general distribution, is the best. The general -prejudice against corn feeding should be directed rather against -feeding one grain alone without the other forms of food. If hens are -supplied with green foods, with mineral matter, some form of meat -food, and are forced to take sufficient amount of exercise, the -danger from overfatness, due to the feeding of a reasonable amount -of corn, need not be feared. - -As has already been emphasized, the variety of food given is more -essential than the kind. Do not feed one grain all the time. The -more variety fed the better. Corn and Kaffir-corn, being cheap -grains, will form the major portion of the ration, but, even if much -higher in price, it will pay to add a portion of such grain as -wheat, barley, oats or buckwheat. - - -Cleanliness. - -The advice commonly given in poultry papers would require one to -exercise nearly as much pains in the cleaning of a chicken house as -in the cleaning of a kitchen. Such advice may be suitable for the -city poultry fanciers, but it is out of place when given to the -farmer. Poultry raising, the same as other farm work, must pay for -the labor put into it, and this will not be the case if attempt is -made to follow all the suggestions of the theoretical poultry -writer. - -The ease with which the premises may be kept reasonably free from -litter and filth is largely a matter of convenient arrangement. The -handiest plan from this view-point is the colony system. In this the -houses are moved to new locations when the ground becomes soiled. If -the chicken-house is a stationary structure it should be built away -from other buildings, scrap-piles, fence corners, etc., so that the -ground can be frequently freshened by plowing and sowing in oats, -rye or rape. The ground should be well sloped, so that the water -draining from the surface may wash away much of the filth that on -level ground would accumulate. - -Cleanliness indoors can be simplified by proper arrangement. First, -the house must be dry. Poultry droppings, when dry, are not a source -of danger if kept out of the feed. They should be removed often -enough to prevent foul odors. Drinking vessels should be rinsed out -when refilled and not allowed to accumulate a coat of slime. If a -mash is fed, feed-boards should be scraped off and dried in the sun. -Sunshine is a cheap and efficient disinfectant. - -The advice on the control of lice and the method of handling sick -chickens that has been given in the main section of the book, will -apply as well on the farm as on the commercial poultry plant. -Certainly the farmer's time is too valuable to fool with the details -of poultry therapeutics. - - -Farm Chicken Houses. - -The following notes on poultry houses apply to Iowa and Nebraska, -where the winters are severe, and similar climates. Farther south -and east the farmer should use the same style of houses as -recommended for egg farms. A chicken house just high enough for a -man to walk erectly and a floor space of about 3 square feet per hen -is advisable. This requires a house 12 by 24 for 100 hens, or 10 by -16 for 50. - -Lands sloping to south or southeast, and that which dries quickly -after a rain, will prove the most suitable for chickens. A gumbo -patch should not be selected as a location for poultry. Hogs and -hens should not occupy the same quarters, in fact, should be some -distance apart, especially if heavy breeds of chickens are kept. -Hens should be removed from the garden, but may be near an orchard. -Chicken-houses should be separated from tool-houses, stables, and -other outbuildings. - -Grading for chicken-houses is not commonly practiced, but this is -the easiest means of preventing dampness in the house and is -necessary in heavy soils. The ground-level may be raised with a plow -and scraper, or the foundation of the house may be built and filled -with dirt. - -A stone foundation is best, but where stone is expensive may be -replaced by cedar, hemlock or Osage orange posts, deeply set in the -ground. Small houses can be built on runners as described for colony -houses for an egg farm. - -Floors are commonly constructed of earth, boards or cement. Cement -floors are perfectly sanitary and easy to keep clean. The objections -to their common use is the first cost of good cement floors. Cheaply -constructed floors will not last. Board floors are very common and -are preferred by many poultrymen, but if close to the ground they -harbor rats, while if open underneath they make the house cold. -Covering wet ground by a board floor does not remedy the fault of -dampness nearly so effectually as would a similar expenditure spent -in raising the floor and surrounding ground by grading. All things -considered, the dirt floor is the most suitable. This should be made -by filling in above the outside ground-level. The drainage will be -facilitated if the first layer of this floor be of cinders, small -rocks or other coarse material. Above this layer should be placed a -layer of clay, wet and packed hard, so the hens cannot scratch it -up, or a different plan may be used and the floor constructed of a -sandy or loamy soil of which the top layer can be renewed each year. - -The walls of a chicken-house must first of all be wind-tight. This -may be attained in several ways. Upright boards with cracks battened -is the cheapest method. Various kinds of lap-siding give similar -results. The single-board wall may be greatly improved by lining -with building-paper. This should be put on between the studding and -siding. Lath should also be used to prevent the paper bagging out -from the wall. The double-board wall is the best where a warm house -is desired. - -It should be made by siding up outside the studding with cheap -lumber. On this is placed a layer of roofing paper and over it the -ordinary siding. The windows of a chicken-house should furnish -sufficient light that the hens may find grain in the litter on -cloudy days. Too much glass in a poultry house makes the house cold -at night, and it is a needless expenditure. - -The subject of roofing farm buildings may be summarized in this -advice: Use patent roofing if you know of a variety that will last; -if not, use shingles. Shingle roofs require a steeper pitch than do -roofs of prepared roofing. A shingle roof can be made much warmer by -using tightly laid sheathing covered with building-paper. Especial -care should be taken that the joints at the eaves of the house are -tightly fitted. - -The object of ventilating a chicken-house is to supply a reasonable -amount of fresh air, and, equally important, to keep the house dry. -Ventilation should not be by cracks or open cupolas. Direct drafts -of air are injurious, and ventilation by such means is always the -greatest when the least needed. - -Schemes of ventilation by a system of pipes are expensive and -unnecessary. The latest, best and cheapest plan for providing -ventilation is the curtain front house for the north, and the open -front house for the more southerly sections. The curtain front house -is giving way to the open front with a somewhat smaller opening in -sections, as far north as Connecticut. - -Make all roosts on the same level. The ladder arrangement is a -nuisance and offers no advantage. Arrange the roosts so that they -may be readily removed for cleaning. Do not fill the chicken-house -full of roosts. Put in only enough to accommodate the hens, and let -these be on one side of the house. The floor under the roosts should -be separated from the feeding floor by a board set on edge. - -For laying flocks the nests must be clean, secluded and plentiful. -Boxes under the roost-platform will answer, but a better plan is to -have the nest upon a shelf along a side wall so arranged as to allow -the hen to enter from the rear side. Nests should be constructed so -that all parts are accessible to a white-wash brush. The less -contrivances in a chicken-house, the better. - -The farmer can get along very well without any chicken-yard at all. -It will, however, prove a very convenient arrangement if a small -yard is attached to the chicken-house. The house should be arranged -to open either into the yard or out into the range. This yard may be -used for fattening chickens or confining cockerels, or perhaps to -enclose the flock during the ripening of a favorite tomato or berry -crop. - - -THE END. - - - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Dollar Hen, by Milo M. 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Obvious typos, like "tim" for "time", have been corrected.] - - - - - - -THE DOLLAR HEN - -BY - -MILO M. HASTINGS - -FORMERLY POULTRYMAN AT -KANSAS EXPERIMENT STATION; -LATER IN CHARGE OF THE COMMERCIAL -POULTRY INVESTIGATION -OF THE UNITED STATES -DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE - -SYRACUSE - -NATIONAL POULTRY MAGAZINE - -1911 - -COPYRIGHT, 1911, - -BY - -NATIONAL POULTRY PUBLISHING COMPANY - - - - - -WHY THIS BOOK WAS WRITTEN - -Twenty-five years ago there were in print hundreds of complete -treatises on human diseases and the practice of medicine. -Notwithstanding the size of the book-shelves or the high standing of -the authorities, one might have read the entire medical library of -that day and still have remained in ignorance of the fact that -out-door life is a better cure for consumption than the contents of -a drug store. The medical professor of 1885 may have gone -prematurely to his grave because of ignorance of facts which are -to-day the property of every intelligent man. - -There are to-day on the book-shelves of agricultural colleges and -public libraries, scores of complete works on "Poultry" and hundreds -of minor writings on various phases of the industry. Let the -would-be poultryman master this entire collection of literature and -he is still in ignorance of facts and principles, a knowledge of -which in better developed industries would be considered prime -necessities for carrying on the business. - -As a concrete illustration of the above statement, I want to point -to a young man, intelligent, enterprising, industrious, and a -graduate of the best known agricultural college poultry course in -the country. This lad invested some $18,000 of his own and his -friends' money in a poultry plant. The plant was built and the -business conducted in accordance with the plans and principles of -the recognized poultry authorities. To-day the young man is bravely -facing the proposition of working on a salary in another business, -to pay back the debts of honor resulting from his attempt to apply -in practice the teaching of our agricultural colleges and our -poultry bookshelves. - -The experience just related did not prove disastrous from some -single item of ignorance or oversight; the difficulty was that the -cost of growing and marketing the product amounted to more than the -receipts from its sale. This poultry farm, like the surgeon's -operation, "was successful, but the patient died." - -The writer's belief in the reality of the situation as above -portrayed warrants him in publishing the present volume. Whether his -criticism of poultry literature is founded on fact or fancy may, -five years after the copyright date of this book, be told by any -unbiased observer. - -I have written this book for the purpose of assisting in placing the -poultry business on a sound scientific and economic basis. The book -does not pretend to be a complete encyclopedia of information -concerning poultry, but treats only of those phases of poultry -production and marketing upon which the financial success of the -business depends. - -The reader who is looking for information concerning fancy breeds, -poultry shows, patent processes, patent foods, or patent methods, -will be disappointed, for the object of this book is to help the -poultryman to make money, not to spend it. - - - - - -HOW TO READ THIS BOOK - -Unless the reader has picked up this volume out of idle curiosity, -he will be one of the following individuals: - -1. A farmer or would-be farmer, who is interested in poultry -production as a portion of the work of general farming. - -2. A poultryman or would-be poultryman, who wishes to make a -business of producing poultry or eggs for sale as a food product or -as breeding stock. - -3. A person interested in poultry as a diversion and who enjoys -losing a dollar on his chickens almost as well as earning one. - -4. A man interested in poultry in the capacity of an editor, teacher -or some one engaged as a manufacturer or dealer in merchandise the -sale of which is dependent upon the welfare of the poultry industry. - -To the reader of the fourth class I have no suggestions to make save -such as he will find in the suggestions made to others. - -To the reader of the third class I wish to say that if you are a -shoe salesman, who has spent your evenings in a Brooklyn flat, -drawing up plans for a poultry plant, I have only to apologize for -any interference that this book may cause with your highly -fascinating amusement. - -To the poultryman already in the business, or to the man who is -planning to engage in the business for reasons equivalent to those -which would justify his entering other occupations of the -semi-technical class, such as dairying, fruit growing or the -manufacture of washing machines, I wish to say it is for you that -"The Dollar Hen" is primarily written. - -This book does not assume you to be a graduate of a technical -school, but it does bring up discussions and use methods of -illustration that may be unfamiliar to many readers. That such -matter is introduced is because the subject requires it; and if it -is confusing to the student he will do better to master it than to -dodge it. Especially would I call your attention to the diagrams -used in illustrating various statistics. Such diagrams are -technically called "curves." They may at first seem mere crooked -lines, if so I suggest that you get a series of figures in which you -are interested, such as the daily egg yields of your own flock or -your monthly food bills, and "plot" a few curves of your own. After -you catch on you will be surprised at the greater ease with which -the true meaning of a series of figures can be recognized when this -graphic method is used. - -I wish to call the farmer's attention to the fact that poultry -keeping as an adjunct to general farming, especially to general -farming in the Mississippi Valley, is quite a different proposition -from poultry production as a regular business. Poultry keeping as a -part of farm life and farm enterprise is a thing well worth while in -any section of the United States, whereas poultry keeping, a -separate occupation, requires special location and special -conditions to make it profitable. I would suggest the farmer first -read Chapter XVI, which is devoted to his special conditions. Later -he may read the remainder of the book, but should again consult the -part on farm poultry production before attempting to apply the more -complicated methods to his own needs. - -Chapter XVI, while written primarily for the farmer, is, because of -the simplicity of its directions, the best general guide for the -beginner in poultry keeping wherever he may be. - -To the reader in general, I want to say, that the table of contents, -a part of the book which most people never read, is in this volume -so placed and so arranged that it cannot well be avoided. Read it -before you begin the rest of the book, and use it then and -thereafter in guiding you toward the facts that you at the time -particularly want to know. Many people in starting to read a book -find something in the first chapter which does not interest them and -cast aside the work, often missing just the information they are -seeking. The conspicuous arrangement of the contents is for the -purpose of preventing such an occurrence in this case. - - - - - - WHAT IS IN THIS VOLUME - - - CHAPTER I - - IS THERE MONEY IN THE POULTRY BUSINESS? - A Big Business; Growing Bigger - Less Ham and More Eggs - Who Gets the Hen Money? - - - CHAPTER II - - WHAT BRANCH OF THE POULTRY BUSINESS? - Various Poultry Products - The Duck Business - Squabs Have Been Overdone - Turkeys not Adapted to Commercial Growing - Guinea Growing a New Venture - Geese, the Fame of Watertown - The Ill-omened Broiler Business - South Shore Roasters - Too Much Competition in Fancy Poultry - Egg Farming the Most Certain and Profitable - - - CHAPTER III - - THE POULTRY PRODUCING COMMUNITY - Established Poultry Communities - Developing Poultry Communities - Will Co-operation Work? - Co-operative Egg Marketing in Denmark - Corporation or Co-operation - - - CHAPTER IV - - WHERE TO LOCATE - Some Poultry Geography - Chicken Climate - Suitable Soil - Marketing--Transportation - Availability of Water - A Few Statistics - - - CHAPTER V - - THE DOLLAR HEN FARM - The Plan of Housing - The Feeding System - Water Systems - Out-door Accommodations - Equipment for Chick Rearing - Twenty-five Acre Poultry Farms - Five Acre Poultry Farms - - - CHAPTER VI - - INCUBATION - Fertility of Eggs - The Wisdom of the Egyptians - Principles of Incubation - Moisture and Evaporation - Ventilation--Carbon Dioxide - Turning Eggs - Cooling Eggs - Searching for the "Open Sesame" of Incubation - The Box Type of Incubator in Actual Use - The Future of Incubation - - - CHAPTER VII - - FEEDING - Conventional Food Chemistry - How the Hen Unbalances Balanced Rations - - - CHAPTER VIII - - DISEASES - Don't Doctor Chickens - The Causes of Poultry Diseases - Chicken Cholera - Roup - Chicken-pox, Gapes, Limber-neck - Lice and Mites - - - CHAPTER IX - - POULTRY FLESH AND POULTRY FATTENING - Crate Fattening - Caponizing - - - CHAPTER X - - MARKETING POULTRY CARCASSES - Farm Grown Chickens - The Special Poultry Plant - Suggestions From Other Countries - Cold Storage of Poultry - Drawn or Undrawn Fowls - Poultry Inspection - - - CHAPTER XI - - QUALITY IN EGGS - Grading Eggs - How Eggs are Spoiled - Egg Size Table - The Loss Due to Carelessness - Requisites of Producing High Grade Eggs - - - CHAPTER XII - - HOW EGGS ARE MARKETED - The Country Merchant - The Huckster - The Produce Buyer - The City Distribution of Eggs - Cold Storage of Eggs - Preserving Eggs Out of Cold Storage - Improved Methods of Marketing Farm-Grown Eggs - The High Grade Egg Business - Buying Eggs by Weight - The Retailing of Eggs by the Producer - The Price of Eggs - N.Y. Mercantile Exchange, Official Quotations - - - CHAPTER XIII - - BREEDS OF CHICKENS - Breed Tests - The Hen's Ancestors - What Breed? - - - CHAPTER XIV - - PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC BREEDING - Breeding as an Art - Scientific Theories of Breeding - Breeding for Egg Production - - - CHAPTER XV - - EXPERIMENT STATION WORK - The Stations Leading in Poultry Work - The Story of the "Big Coon" - Important Experimental Results at the Illinois Station - Experimental Bias - The Egg Breeding Work at the Maine Station - - - CHAPTER XVI - - POULTRY ON THE GENERAL FARM - Best Breeds for the Farm - Keep Only Workers - Hatching Chicks with Hens - Incubators on the Farm - Rearing Chicks - Feeding Laying Hens - Cleanliness - Farm Chicken Houses - - - -THE DOLLAR HEN - - - - -CHAPTER I - -IS THERE MONEY IN THE POULTRY BUSINESS? - - -The chicken business is big. No one knows how big it is and no one -can find out. The reason it is hard to find out is because so many -people are engaged in it and because the chicken crop is sold, not -once a year, but a hundred times a year. - -Statistics are guesses. True statistics are the sum of little -guesses, but often figures published as statistics are big guesses -by a guesser who is big enough to have his guess accepted. - - -A Big Business; Growing Bigger - -The only real statistics for the poultry crop of the United States -are those of the Federal Census. At this writing these statistics -are nine years old and somewhat out of date. The value of poultry -and eggs in 1899, according to the census figures, was $291,000,000. -Is this too big or too little? I don't know. If the reader wishes to -know let him imagine the census enumerator asking a farmer the value -of the poultry and eggs which he has produced the previous year. -Would the farmer's guess be too big or too small? - -From these census figures as a base, estimates have been made for -later years. The Secretary of Agriculture, or, speaking more -accurately, a clerk in the Statistical Bureau of the Department of -Agriculture, says the poultry and egg crop for 1907 was over -$600,000,000. - -The best two sources of information known to the writer by which -this estimate may be checked are the receipts of the New York market -and the annual "Value of Poultry and Eggs Sold," as given by the -Kansas State Board of Agriculture. - -[Illustration: Plate I. Page 14. Graph - Is There Money in Poultry?] - -In plate I the top curve a-a gives the average spring price of -Western first eggs in the New York market. The curve b-b gives the -annual receipts of eggs at New York in millions of cases. Now, since -value equals quantity multiplied by price, and since the quantity -and values of poultry are closely correlated to those of eggs, the -product of these two figures is a fair means of showing the rate of -increase in the value of the poultry crop. Starting with the census -value of $291,000,000 for the year 1899, we thus find that by 1907 -the amount is very close to $700,000,000. This is represented by the -lower line. - -The value of the poultry and eggs sold in Kansas have increased as -follows: - - - Year Value - - 1903 $ 6,498,856 - 1904 7,551,871 - 1905 8,541,153 - 1906 9,085,896 - 1907 10,300,082 - - -The dotted line e-e represents the increase in the national poultry -and egg crop estimated from the Kansas figures. Evidently the -estimate given in Secretary Wilson's report was not excessive. - -Now, I want to call the reader's attention to some relations about -which there can be no doubt and which are even more significant. The -straight line c-c in Plate 1 represents the rate of increase of -population in this country. The line b-b represents the rate of -increase in egg receipts at New York. As the country data backs up -the New York figures, the conclusion is inevitable that the -production of poultry and eggs is increasing much more rapidly than -is our population. - -"Over-production," I hear the pessimist cry, but unfortunately for -Friend Pessimist, we have a gauge on the over-production idea that -lays all fears to rest. When the supply of any commodity increases -faster than the demand, we have over-production and falling prices. -Vice-versa, under-production is shown by a rising price. That prices -of poultry and eggs have risen and risen rapidly, has already been -shown. - -"But prices of all products have risen," says one. Very true, but by -statistics with which I will not burden the reader, I find that -prices of poultry products have risen more rapidly than the average -rise in values of all commodities. This shows that poultry products -are really more in demand and more valuable, not apparently so. -Moreover, the rise in the price of poultry products has been much -more pronounced than the average rise in the price of all food -products, which proves the growing demand for poultry and eggs to be -a real growing demand, not a turning to poultry products because of -the high price of other foods, as is sometimes stated. - - -Less Ham and More Eggs. - -Certainly we, as a nation, are rapidly becoming eaters of hens and -of hen fruit. Reasons are not hard to find. Poultry and eggs are the -most palatable, most wholesome, most convenient of foods. Our -demands for the products of the poultry yard grows because we are -learning to like them, and because our prosperity has grown and we -can afford them. - -Another reason that the consumption of eggs is growing is because -the condition in which they reach the consumer is improving. The -writer may say some pretty hard things in this work about the -condition of poultry and eggs as they are now marketed, but any -old-timer in the business will tell you stories of things as they -used to be that will easily explain why our fathers ate more ham and -less eggs. - -Yet another reason why the per capita consumption of hens as -measured in pounds or dollars increases, is that the hen herself has -increased in size; whereas John when he was Johnnie ate a two-ounce -drumstick, now Johnnie eats an analogous piece that weighs three -ounces. Perhaps, also, we have a growing respect for the law of -Moses, or may be vegetarians who think that eggs grow on egg plants -are becoming more numerous. - -Our consumption of pork per capita has, in the last half century, -diminished by half, our consumption of beef has remained stationary, -but our consumption of poultry and eggs has doubled itself, we know -not how many times, for a half century ago the ancestor of the -industrious hen of this age serenely scratched up grandmother's -geraniums and was unmolested by the statisticians. - - -Who Gets the Hen Money? - -Seven hundred millions of dollars is a lot of money. Who gets it? -There are no Rockefellers or Armours in the hen business. It is the -people's business. Why? Because the nature of the business is such -that it cannot be centralized. Land and intelligent labor, prompted -by the spirit of ownership, is necessary to succeed in the hen -business. Land the captains of industry have not monopolized, and -labor imbued with the spirit of ownership they cannot monopolize. -The chicken business is, in dollars, one of the biggest industries -in the country. In numbers of those engaged in it, the chicken -business is the biggest industry in the world--I bar none. Why is -this true? Primarily because the hen is a natural part of the -equipment of every farm and of many village homes as well. It is -these millions of small flocks that count up in dollars and men and -give such an immense aggregate. - -More than ninety-eight per cent. of the poultry and eggs of the -country are produced on the general farm. The remaining one or two -per cent. are produced on farms or plants where chicken culture is -the cash crop or chief business of the farmer. It is this business, -relatively small, though actually a matter of millions, that is -commonly spoken of as the poultry business, and about which our -chief interest centers. A farmer can disregard all knowledge and all -progress and still keep chickens, but the man who has no other means -of a livelihood must produce chicken products efficiently, or fail -altogether--hence the greater interest in this portion of the -industry. - -The poultry business as a business to occupy a man's time and earn -him a livelihood, is a thing of recent origin and was little heard -of before 1890. Since that time it has undergone a somewhat painful, -though steady growth. Many people have lost money in the business -and have given it up in disgust, but on a whole the business has -progressed wonderfully, and now shows features of development that -are clearly beyond the experimental stage and are undoubtedly here -to stay. - -The suggestion has been made by those who have failed or have seen -others fail in the poultry business, that success was impossible -because of the destructive competition of the farmer, whose expense -of production is small. Herein lies a great truth and a great error. -The farmer's cost of production is small, much smaller than that on -most of the book-made poultry farms--but the inference that the -poultryman's cost of production cannot be lowered below that of the -farmer is a different statement. - -The farm of our grandfather was a very diversified institution. It -contained in miniature a woolen mill, a packing house, a cheese -factory, perhaps a shoe factory and a blacksmith shop. One by one -these industries have been withdrawn from general farm-life, and -established as independent businesses. Likewise our dairy farms, our -fruit farms, and our market gardens have been segregated from the -general farm. This simply means that manufacturing cloth, or cheese, -or producing milk, or tomatoes can be done at less cost in separate -establishments than upon a general farm. - -The general farm will always grow poultry for home consumption, and -will always have some surplus to sell. With the surplus, the -poultryman must compete. His only hope of successful competition is -production at lower cost. Can this be done? It is being done, and -the numbers of people who are doing it are increasing, but they -spend little money at poultry shows, or with the advertisers of -poultry papers, and hence are little heard of in the poultry world. - -The people whose names and faces are in the poultry papers are -frequently there only while their money lasts. They write long -articles and show pictures of many houses and yards to prove that -there is money in the poultry business, but if one should keep their -names and put the question to them five years hence, a great many -could say, "Yes, there is money in the poultry business; mine is in -it." - -Such people and such plants do not get the cost of production down -below the farmer's level. Between these two classes of poultry -plants, the writer hopes in this work to show the distinction. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -WHAT BRANCH OF THE POULTRY BUSINESS? - - -The chicken business is especially prone to failure from a disregard -of the common essential relation of cost and selling price necessary -to the success of any business. That this should be more true of the -poultry business than of any other undertakings is to be explained -by the facts that as a business, it is new, that many of those who -engage in it are inexperienced, but most particularly because -practically all the literature published on the subject has been -written by or written in the interest of those who had something to -sell to the poultryman. As a result the figures of production are -generally given higher than the facts warrant. The investor, be he -ever so shrewd a man, builds upon these promises and when he finds -his production lower, is caught with an excessive investment and a -complicated system on his hands, which make all profits impossible -and which cannot readily be adapted to the new conditions. - -Estimates of poultry profits are quite common, but there are few -published figures showing the results that are actually obtained -under practical working conditions. In this volume I will try to -give the facts of what is being and can be actually accomplished. - - -Various Poultry Products. - -In considering the poultry industry we must first get some idea of -the various articles produced for sale. - -It is common knowledge that the large meat packer can undersell the -small packer because the by-products, such as bristles, which are -wasted by the local killer, are a source of income to the large -packer. Now, this does not infer that the small packer is shiftless -and neglects to save his bristles, but that on the scale on which he -operates it would cost him more to save the bristles than he could -realize on them. - -So it is with poultry farming. For illustration: A visionary writer -in a leading poultry paper, not long ago, advised poultrymen to -store eggs. In reality this would be the height of folly, unless the -poultryman had his own retail store. In the first place profit on -cold storage eggs, when all expenses are paid, will not average a -half a cent a dozen; in the second place, the small lot would be -relatively troublesome and expensive to handle, and in the third -place, small lots of cold storage eggs are looked upon with -suspicion and do not find ready sale. So we see that cold storage -eggs are not a suitable product for the small poultryman to handle. - -A second illustration of an ill-chosen combination might be taken in -the case of a duck farmer who attempts to produce broilers. The -principal difficulty of the duck business is that of getting -sufficient intelligent labor in the rush season. The chief expense -of investment is for incubators and brooder houses. If the duck -farmer now tries to add broilers, he will find that the labor comes -at the same time of the year, that the chief equipment required is -that which is already crowded by the duck business, and that of the -men who have succeeded moderately well in caring for ducks will fail -altogether with the young chicks, which do not thrive under the same -machine-like methods. - -On the other hand, let us take the example of an egg farm man who -has resolved to combine his attention wholly to the production of -market eggs. He succeeds well in his work and is visited by the -poultry editors. His picture, the picture of his chickens and of his -chicken houses, are printed in the poultry papers. For a reasonable -sum invested in advertising and in exhibition at the shows, this man -could now double his income by going into the breeding stock -business. To refuse to spread out in this case would certainly be -foolish. - -The following classification of the sales products of the poultry -industry is given as a basis for farther consideration. - - - CHICKENS. - -For food purposes: - - Eggs. - Hens, after laying has been finished. - Cockerels, necessarily hatched in hatching pullets for layers. - (Sold as squab broilers, regular broilers, springs, - roasters or capons.) - Both sexes as squab broilers, broilers or roasters. - -For stock purposes: - Eggs for hatching. - Day-old chicks. - Mature fowls. - - - DUCKS. - -For table--green or spring ducks. - By-products, old ducks and duck feathers. - -For breeding-stock. - - - GEESE. - - Food, Feathers, Breeders. - - - TURKEYS. - - Food, Breeders. - - - PIGEONS. - - Squabs, Breeding Stock. - - - GUINEAS. - - Broilers, Mature Fowls. - - -I will now discuss these products more in detail. Poultry, other -than chickens, I do not care to discuss at length, because it is not -for the purpose of the book, and because the demand for other kinds -of poultry is limited and the chance for the growth of the business -small. - - -The Duck Business. - -The duck business is the most highly commercialized at the present -time of any branch of the poultry business. The duck is the oldest -domestic bird and was hatched by artificial incubation in China, -when our ancestors were gnawing raw bones in the caves of Europe. -The duck is the most domestic of birds and will thrive under more -machine-like methods and without that touch of nature and of the -owner's kindly interest so necessary to the welfare of the fowls of -the gallinaceous order. The green duck business is about twenty -years old and has become an established business in every sense of -the word. The largest plants now produce about one hundred thousand -ducks per annum. The profits at present are not large even for the -most successful plants, because the demand is limited and the -production has reached such a point that cost of production and -selling price bear a definite relation as in all established -businesses. The green duck business is not an easy one for the -novice because the margin between cost (chiefly food cost) and -selling price is low, and unless the new man can reduce the cost of -production or raise his selling price in some way, he will have no -advantage over the old and successful firms. - - -Squab Business Overdone. - -The business of producing pigeon squabs resembles the duck business -in the sense that it has been reduced to a successful system. The -production of squabs has grown until the demand is satisfied and the -price has fallen to just that figure that will continue to bring in -a sufficient number of squabs from the plants which are already -established, or which continue to be established by those who do not -stop to investigate the relation between the cost of production and -the prevailing prices. - - -Turkeys Not a Commercial Success. - -In the case of turkeys, we find exactly opposite conditions. The -price of turkeys has risen with the price of chickens and eggs, -until one would think that there would be great money in the -business, and there is, for the motherly farm wife who has the knack -of bringing the little turks through the danger of delicate -babyhood. But just as the duck is more domesticated than the -chicken, so the turkey, which yet closely resembles its wild -ancestor, is less domestic and has as yet failed to surrender to the -ways of commercial reasoning, the chief factor of which is -artificial brooding. - -The presence of a disease called blackhead has done vast injury to -the turkey industry in the northeastern section of the country. In -the South the industry has been booming. Especially in Tennessee and -Texas, I found great local pride in the turkey crop. I certainly -would advise any farm wife, in sections where blackhead does not -prevail, to try her hand at turkey raising. As to her advisability -of continuance in the business, the number of turkeys at the end of -the season will be the best judge. - - -Guinea Growing a New Venture. - -The guinea growing business is the newest of the poultry industries. -In fact, it may be said of guineas, as of our grandmother's -tomatoes, "Folks had them around without knowing they were of any -use." The new use for guineas is as a substitute for game. Guinea -broilers make quail-on-toast and older ones are good for grouse, -prairie chicken or pheasant. The retail price in the large cities -runs as high as $1.50 to $2.00 a pair. It will probably not pay to -raise them unless one is sure of receiving as much as 50 cents each. -As for the rearing of guineas, they may be considered on a parallel -case with turkeys, if anything they are even more difficult to raise -in large quantities. I would also advise this additional precaution: -Look up the market in the locality before attempting guinea rearing. - - -Geese--the Fame of Watertown. - -As for the goose business, the writer must admit that he doesn't -know much about it. In fact, the most of my knowledge concerning -this business was acquired by a visit to Watertown, Wis., which is -the center of the noodled goose industry - -The Watertown geese are fed by hand every two hours day and night. -They sell to the Hebrew trade at as much per pound as the goose -weighs, and have brought as high as $14.00 apiece. All of this is -interesting, but I hold that the reader who is willing to take -instruction will do better to be guided toward those branches of the -poultry industry for the products of which there is a great and -increasing demand. So we will leave the goose and guinea business to -the venturesome spirits and consider the various branches of the -chicken industry. - - -The Ill-omened Broiler Business. - -The broiler business stands to-day as the ill-omened valley in the -poultry landscape. As a rule broiler production has not and probably -will not pay. I know of a few exceptions--about enough to prove the -rule. - -Most poultry writers, when they make the statement that broilers do -not pay, insert the phrase "As an exclusive business" after the word -broilers. This is merely a ruse to take the rough edge off an -unpleasant statement, for it certainly hurts the poultry editor to -admit that a much exploited branch of the industry is a failure. -Nevertheless it is a failure and the more frankly we admit the fact, -the less good capital and good brains will be wasted in the attempt -to produce at a profit something which is, and probably always will -be, produced at a loss. - -The reason the broiler is produced at a loss is that 95 per cent. of -the broilers produced are a by-product of egg, fancy and general -poultry production, and as such their selling price is not -determined by the cost of production, or the supply determined by -the demand. That the broiler business received the boom that it did, -is due to plain ignorance of the cost of production, or to the -appreciation that the ability to rear young chicks could find a more -profitable outlet than in broiler production. Let us take an -analogous case. Suppose a city man should discover the fact that -there was a demand for dried casein from skim milk. With pencil and -paper he could easily figure profits in the business. If this -dreamer would attempt to keep cows for the production of casein and -throw away his butter fat, we would have an analogous case to the -broiler raiser who does not keep his pullets for egg production. - -The young cockerel, like skim milk, is a by-product and may pay over -the cost of feeding, or some other specific item, but that he does -not pay the whole cost, including wages for the manager is proven by -two facts: First, every large broiler plant yet started has either -failed flatly or shifted its main line to other things; second, egg -farmers would be only too glad to buy pullets at the price for which -they sell the cockerels--a confession that it costs more to produce -broilers than they will bring. - -The conception of the broiler business when it was boomed twenty -years ago was to produce broilers in early spring, when other folks -had none. It was, like the early watermelon, or the early strawberry -business--to make its profits in extreme prices. - -This idea received several severe blows from the hands of modern -progress. One is the development of poultry fattening and crate -feeding in this country. This has resulted in supplying the consumer -with choice chicken-flesh that can be produced more economically -than broilers. Formerly it was a case of eating old hen--rooster, -age unknown, or broilers--now we have capon, roaster, crate-fattened -chickens and green ducks, all rivals for the place formerly occupied -exclusively by the broiler. - -Again, the improvement of shipping and dressing facilities, the -universal introduction of the refrigerator car and the introduction -into the central west of the American breeds, has flooded the -eastern market with a large amount of spring chickens--by-products -of the egg business on the farm--which are almost equal in quality -to the down-eastern product. - -The most prominent reason of the lessened profit in broilers is the -development of the cold storage industry. Cold storage destroys the -element of season, and allows only that margin of profit that the -consumer is willing to pay for a fresh killed broiler from a Jersey -broiler plant, as compared with last summer's product from the Iowa -farms. From a summer copy of Farm Poultry, I quote the Boston -market: - - Fresh killed Northern and Eastern: - Fowls, choice 15c - Broilers, choice to fancy 23-25c - Western, ice packed: - Fowls, choice 14c - Broilers, choice 20-22c - - Western frozen: - Fowls, choice................. 14c - Broilers, choice..............18-20c - Eggs: - Nearly fancy.................. 26c - Western choice........17-1/2-18-1/2c - -To complete our comparison I turn to the previous winter and find -that the best storage eggs are quoted at 19c, when the best fresh -are selling at 35c. This was a poor storage season and a quotation -of 22c and 25c would perhaps be a fairer comparative figure. We find -the per cent, of premium on the local product to be: - - Fowls, local over fresh western........... 7 per cent. - Fowls, local over frozen western.......... 7 per cent. - Broilers, local over fresh western........14 per cent. - Broilers, local over frozen western.......26 per cent. - Eggs, local over fresh western............30 per cent. - Eggs, local over storage western..........37 per cent. - -I consider these general facts concerning the failure of broiler -production, and the logical explanations given, as far more -convincing than any figures I could give concerning the detailed -cost of production. Nor am I capable of giving as accurate figures -as I can in the case of poultry keeping for egg production, for I -have had neither the desire nor the opportunity to look them up. The -following suggestive analysis I submit for the purpose of pointing -out why the cost of production is too great to allow a profit. We -may consider the chick marketing as May, the weight as 1-1/4, and -the price as 35 cents a pound, or, putting it roundly a price of 50 -cents a bird. - -Now, May broilers mean February eggs. If the reader will refer to -the tables of hatchability and mortality he will see that for our -northern states this is one of the worst seasons for hatching. A -hatchability of 40 per cent, times a liveability of 50 per cent, -gives a net liveability of 20 per cent. Now, anyone with the ability -to produce high grade eggs at that time a year, could get about 40c -a dozen for them, which raises the egg cost per broiler to about 17 -cents. The feed cost per broiler is small, usually estimated at 12 -cents, and this makes a cost of 29 cents. Now, let us allow a cent -for expense of selling charges and forget all about investment, fuel -and incidentals, we have left a margin of 20 cents. - -Before going farther let us look at the labor bill. Suppose it is a -one-man plant. Suppose the owner sets a value on his services of -$1,200 per annum. That is pretty good, but few men who set a lower -value on their services will have accumulated enough capital to go -into the business. At 20 cents each it will take 6,000 broilers to -make $1,200. That will take 30,000 eggs and at three settings will -require 40 240-egg incubators, which, of a good make, will cost -$1,260. To spread the hatching out over a longer period is to run -into cheap prices on the one hand, or a still impossible egg season -on the other. It will take upwards of a hundred brooders to house -the chicks. - -There is no use of going farther till we have solved these -difficulties. First we have more work than one man can do; second, -we require a number of hatchable eggs that cannot be bought in -winter without a campaign of advertising and canvassing for them, -that would make them cost double our previous figure. To produce -them oneself would require a flock of 2,500 hens. When a man gets to -that point in the business he is out of the broiler business and an -egg farmer, and will do the same thing, hatch the chicks when eggs -are cheap and fertile, selling his surplus cockerels for 25 cents -each and permit the storage man to freeze them until the following -spring to compete with the broiler man's expensively produced goods. - -The effort at early broiler production was a natural result of the -combination of the idea of artificial incubation with our -grandmother's pride in having the first setting hen. But in the -present age the man who attempts it is rowing against the current of -economical production, for the cheaply produced broiler can be -stored until the season of scarcity, with but slight loss in -quality. To produce broilers in the season of scarcity, necessitates -the consumption of a product (eggs) which cannot be so successfully -stored, with a lesser quantity of that same product in its season of -plenty. We will give the production of broilers no further attention -save as a by-product of egg production. - - -South Shore Roaster. - -The production of South Shore soft roasters in a local section of -Massachusetts, offers a successful contrast with the broiler -business and is, so far as the writer knows, the only case in the -United States where pullets are profitably diverted from egg -production. The process of roaster production is essentially as -follows: - -The incubators are set in the fall or early winter, and the chicks -reared in brooder houses. As soon as the tender age is past, the -chickens are put in simple colony houses where, with hopper fed -corn, beef scrap and rye on the range, they grow throughout the -winter and spring. They are sold from May 1st to July 1st and bring -such prices that the cockerels are caponized yet not sold as capons, -showing them to be the highest priced chicken flesh in the market -save small broilers. Now, the income of roasters is two to five -times as much per head as that of broilers. The added expense is -only a matter of feed, which bears about the same ratio to weight as -with broilers. The great advantage of the roaster business over that -of the broiler business comes in the following points: - -1st: The initial expense of eggs, incubation and brooding are -distributed over a much larger final valuation. - -2nd: The incubation period, while perhaps in as difficult a -season, can be distributed over a longer period of time. - -With 8 pound roasters at 30 cents, we have an expense account about -as follows: cost of production to broiler stage, 30 cents as -previously given. An additional food cost of 10 cents per pound of -chicken flesh would still leave a margin of $1.40, so, for an income -of $1,200, only about 860 birds need be raised, a proposition not -beyond the capacity of one man to handle. - -Allowing a spread of five hatching periods, the number of eggs -required at once would be one-twelfth that demanded by the broiler -farm. As it is, the roaster grower finds trouble in getting good -eggs and is obliged to pay 50 cents a dozen for them, but his want -is within the region of possibility. - -The South Shore roaster district is an example of an industry built -up by specialization and co-operation. But in this sense I do not -mean co-operation in production, but that the product is handled by -a few dealers and has become well known so that the brand sells -readily at an advanced price. To a beginner in the South Shore -district, the numerous successes and failures around him cannot help -but be of great benefit. The South Shore roaster district of -Massachusetts is the best example of specialized community -production of poultry flesh that we have in the United States. It is -only rivaled by the districts in the south of England and in France. - -In Chapter III the writer takes up fully the community production of -eggs. The reason I have gone into this matter in regard to eggs -rather than roasters, is because the egg production is much the -greater industry, and, whereas the soft roaster is at a premium only -in a few Boston shops, high grade eggs are universally recognized -and in demand. Many of the economies, especially concerning -incubation, would apply equally well in both communities. I expect -to see the time when chicken flesh shall be produced with these more -advanced methods in many "South Shore" communities. - - -Too Much Competition in Fancy Poultry. - -The various types of chicken farming are classified by what is made -the leading sales product. This will depend wholly upon what is done -with the female chicks that are hatched. If they are sold as -broilers it is a broiler plant; if as roasters, it is a roaster -plant; if as stock, it is a fancy or breeding stock business, but if -kept for laying the proposition is an egg farm, and all other -products are by-products. These by-products are to be carefully -considered, and sold at the greatest possible price, but their -production is incidental to the production of the main crop. - -Of the fancy poultry business as a main issue it must be said that -it is certainly a poor policy to start out to make a living doing -what hundreds of other people are only too glad to spend money in -doing. Just as a homeless girl in a great city is beaten out in the -struggle for existence by competition with girls who have good -homes, and are working for chocolate money, so the man starting out -as a poultry fancier is certainly working at great odds in -competition with the professional men, farmers and poultry raisers -whose income from fancy stock is meant to buy Christmas presents and -not to pay grocery bills. - -To enter the fancy poultry business, one should take up poultry -breeding in a small way, while working at another occupation, or he -may take up commercial poultry production, learn to produce stock in -large quantities and at a low productive cost, after which any -breeding stock business he may secure will be added profit. The -fancier will find the cost of production as given for commercial -purposes very instructive, but if he operates in a small way he -should expect to find his productive costs increased unless he -chooses to count his own labor as of little or no value. That every -chicken fancier also has in a small way commercial products to sell, -goes without saying. These, indeed, together with his sales of -high-priced stock, may pull him through with a total profit, even -though his production cost is great, but every fancier should take a -pride in making the sales at commercial rates pay for their cost of -production. - -If the reader has received the impression from the present -discussion that fancy poultry breeding always proves unprofitable, -he certainly has failed to get the key-note of the situation. There -are numbers of fancy poultry breeders making incomes of several -thousand dollars per year, but these are old breeders and well-known -men. - -There is another type of poultry fancier who is more commercial in -his methods, but whose work lacks the personal enthusiasm and -artistic touch of the regular fancier. I refer to the band wagon -style of breeder who gets out a general catalog in which are -pictured acres of poultry yards with fences as straight as the -draughtsman's rule can make them. Such men do a big business. They -may carry a part or all of the breeding stock on a central poultry -plant and farm out the eggs, contracting to buy back the stock in -the fall, or the poultry farm may be a myth and the manager may -simply sell the product of the neighboring farmers who raise it -under contract. - -The system is naturally disliked by the higher class fanciers, but -the writer must confess that any system which gets improved stock -distributed among the farmers is worthy of praise. These types of -poultry farms have been more largely carried on in the West than in -the East, owing to the fact that true fanciers are thicker in the -East. There is undoubtedly still plenty of room for band wagon -poultry plants in the West and especially in the South. - -As adjuncts of this business may be mentioned the sale of a line of -poultry supplies and the handling of other pet stock, such as dogs -or Shetland ponies. In this case the advantage of such additions -depends upon the fact that the greatest cost is that of advertising, -and, if anything that will be associated in the buyer's mind with -the main article be added to the catalog, it will result in -additional sales at a low rate of advertising cost. - - -Egg Farming the Most Certain and Profitable. - -We have now discussed all the branches of the poultry business save -that of egg production, and the result of our review indicates that -most of these fields are either of limited opportunities or that -they present obstacles in the very nature of the work that prevent -their being conducted on a large scale. - -Egg production is undoubtedly the most promising and profitable -branch of the poultry industries. The chief reason that this is true -is to be found in the fact that the most difficult feature in -chicken growing is the rearing of young stock through the brooding -period. Now, as the eggs laid by a hen are worth several times the -value of her carcass, it stands to reason that once we succeed in -rearing pullets, egg farming must be the most profitable business to -engage in. - -For each hen that passes through a laying period there is her own -carcass, and at least one cockerel, that are necessarily produced -and that must be marketed. Now, the pullet is worth more for egg -producing than can be realized for her as a broiler or roaster, and -her extra worth may be considered as counter-balancing the price at -which cockerels must be sold. - -The egg crop represents about two-thirds of the value of all poultry -products, and the demand for the high grade goods has never been -satisfied. Egg farming cannot easily be overdone, whereas any other -type of poultry production must compete with the cockerels and hens -that are a by-product of egg farming. - -Egg farming by no means relieves one from the difficulties of -incubation and growing young stock, but it does throw these -difficult parts of the business at the natural season of the year -and results in a distribution of work throughout a longer period of -time. - -In the remainder of the volume we will consider the poultryman as an -egg farmer. We will also, unless otherwise stated, assume that he is -a White Leghorn egg farmer, who is hatching by artificial -incubation. Such reference to the marketing of poultry flesh or to -other breeds will be made only in comparison of this type of the -business or in relation to the production or handling of farm-grown -poultry. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -THE POULTRY PRODUCING COMMUNITY - - -The builder of air castles in Poultrydom invariably starts out with -a resumé of the specialization of the world's work and the wonderful -advances in the economy of production of the large corporate -organization, compared with the individual producer. - -The lone blacksmith hammering out a horseshoe nail is contrasted -with the mills of the American Steel Company. The fond dreamer looks -upon the steel trust, the oil trust, the department store, the -packing house, the chain groceries, the theatrical trust, and the -colossal enterprises that dominate every field of industry save -agriculture. Here, then, lies the neglected opportunity for the -industrial dreamer to hop over the fence, awaken the sleeping -farmer, and fill his own purse with the wealth to be made by -applying modern business methods to agriculture. - -The knowing smile--the farmer may be asleep and he may not be. -Suppose that he is, does the fond dreamer dream that he is the first -man from the industrial kingdom of great things to look with hungry -eyes at the rich field of agricultural opportunity, basking in last -century's sun? Alas, fond dreamer, your name is legion. Every farmer -who has sent a son to college has known you and the Hon. William -Jennings Bryan has met you, called you an agriculturist and defined -you as a man who makes his money in town and spends it in the -country. - -But the dreamer is right in his first premise--great economies in -production are the result of specialization and combination. Why not -then in agriculture? I'll tell you why. There is a touch of nature -in the living thing that calls for a closer interest on the part of -the laborer than the industrial system of the mine and factory can -give. - -Why is combined and specialized production more economical? It may -be because it gets more efficient work out of labor, it may be that -larger operations make feasible the employment of more efficient -methods and machinery. The cost of production may be lowered, by -either or both of these means, or it may be lowered by an increased -efficiency in machinery, even with a decreased efficiency in labor. - -Combination and specialization so commonly cut down expenses because -of large operations and the use of better tools, that we may take -this saving for granted. When it comes to labor there is a different -story. The negro working with boss and gang, or the machine-tender -in the factory work as well or better for large than for small -concerns, but the labor of a poultry plant is different. It is made -up of a great many different operations well scattered in space and -time. For the most part it is simple labor, but it is essential that -it be performed with reasonable concern for the welfare of the -business. - -In other industries, as with men working at a bench, the presence of -a foreman keeps them busy and their work may be daily inspected. To -have foremen in poultry work would require as many foremen as -laborers, and even then they would be as useless, for when the last -round of the brooders is made at night a foreman standing three feet -away could not know whether the laborer who had placed his hand in -the brooder had found all well or all wrong. - -It is useless to carry the argument farther. The labor bill is one -of the biggest items of expense in poultry production. With a system -where the efficiency of the labor decreases with the size of the -business, large industrial enterprises are impossible. Such savings -as will be made in buying supplies, selling, etc., will be wasted in -the reduced efficiency of labor. - -The bulk of labor in poultry work must be self-reliant labor and the -only test for such efficiency is number of chicks reared and the -weight of the egg basket. Even this will not be a complete test -unless from the income be subtracted the feed bills. - -A system of renting or working on shares that will gain the -advantages of centralization without losing the individual interest -of the laborer, will go a long way toward making the poultry -business one wherein large capital and large brains can find a place -to work. I expect to see in the future some such system evolved. In -fact we have to-day a profit-sharing plan between owner and foreman -on many of our best plants. To extend such to each laborer requires -more system and better superintendence, but it is feasible and must -come. But, better still is it for the worker to own the stock. Best -yet if he owns both stock and land, leaving to larger capital only -such phases of the business as involve great saving when done on a -wholesale basis. - -Just as the manufacturer of farm machinery, the packing of meat and -the manufacture of butter have successfully been taken out of the -control of the individual farmer and placed under corporate or -co-operative organization, so the writer expects to see certain -portions of the process of poultry production removed from the hands -of the farmer and controlled by more specialized and expert labor. -Far from meaning the lessening of the earning power of the farmer, -every one of such steps means larger production and more profits. -The ideal of agricultural economics is to give the farmer the -smallest possible proportion of the work of agricultural production -in order that the most may be produced and the farmer's share along -with the others may be largest. - - -Established Poultry Communities. - -In a previous chapter we spoke of the South Shore roaster district -of Massachusetts. Here is a community where, in lots of from a dozen -to four or five thousand, are annually produced seventy-five or one -hundred thousand market fowls of one particular type. While this -business was not built up by the efforts of a corporation or -individual who planned definitely the entire project, yet we find a -central influence at work in the person of the firm of Curtis Bros., -who for years have bought the majority of South Shore roasters, and -who have done a great deal to advertise the product and encourage -their neighbors to a larger and more uniform production. - -At Little Compton, R. I., is a very similar parallel of the South -Shore district in the shape of egg farms. Here we find within a -radius of two miles about one hundred thousand Rhode Island Red hens -owned in flocks of two thousand or less. The methods used throughout -the community are all alike and are simple in the extreme. There are -no incubators, no brooders, no poultry houses, no long houses, no -dropping boards to be scraped every morning, nothing in fact, but -board-walled, board-roofed, colony houses, scattered over the grass -fields and similar though smaller fields covered with coops for hens -and chicks. Feeding is equally simple; a mash of meat, vegetables -and ground grain mixed once a day and hauled around in a one-horse -cart and hoppers of whole corn exposed in the houses. The houses are -cleaned twice a year. Little Compton is, indeed, a community where -all the rules of the poultry books are regularly violated, and yet a -larger number of successful egg farms can be seen from the church -spire at Little Compton Corners than most poultry writers have ever -seen or read about. Strange it is, as Josh Billings puts it, that -"some folks know things that ain't so." - -An illustration published in a recent issue of the World's Work -tells a remarkable story. A pile of egg shells as big as a straw -stack certainly indicates "something doing" in the chicken business, -and it is a very proud monument to Mr. Byce who, some twenty odd -years ago, established an incubator factory at the town of Petaluma. -Petaluma is in Sonoma County, California, forty miles north of San -Francisco. In the census year of 1899, Sonoma County produced more -eggs than any other county in the United States. To-day there are in -the Petaluma region close to one million hens. - -Like the Little Compton district, Petaluma is a one-breed community, -White Leghorns being the breed used. The individual flocks range -larger than at Little Compton, chiefly because the milder climate, -smaller breed, and establishment of the central hatchery enables one -man to take care of more birds. - -When I asked Mr. Byce for a list of the people in his neighborhood -keeping over one thousand hens, he replied by sending me a list of -twenty-two men who keep from 8,000 down to 2,500 each, and said that -to give those keeping from one to two thousand, would practically be -to take a census of the county. The methods of housing and feeding -used are simple and inexpensive like those at Little Compton. - -The chief reason why Petaluma shows a more advanced development in -the poultry community than the eastern poultry growing localities, -is to be found in the climatic advantages which favor incubation -(see Chapter on Incubation) and the consequent development of the -central hatchery. Outside of this, the location is not especially -favorable. The temperature is milder in the winter than in the East, -but the Petaluma winter is one of continual rain which develops roup -to a greater extent than we have it in the East. The prices received -for high grade eggs in San Francisco is in the winter about equal to -the top prices in New York. In the spring and summer New York will -give more for fancy goods. The cost of corn on the Pacific Coast is -about 40 cents a hundred more than on the Atlantic Coast. Wheat, -however, is cheaper than in the East, but not cheap enough to -substitute for the more staple grain. - -The eggs from the Petaluma region are at present marketed largely -through a co-operative marketing association. - - -Developing Poultry Communities. - -I have shown why the large individual poultry farms with hired labor -have not proven profitable fields for the investment of capital. -Again, I have shown that in a few localities where the business was -incidentally started, communities of independent poultry farmers -have grown up which are very successful, and that there is no -apparent reason why similar communities elsewhere, if intelligently -located, could not do as well or better. - -This looks like an excellent field for corporate enterprise. -Certainly there is no more reason why the poultry community cannot -be as successfully promoted as an irrigation project, or a cheese -factory, or a trucking community. In such a community there are many -functions that can be better performed by a capitalized body managed -by experts than by individual poultrymen acting alone. - -These functions are: - -First, the selection of a location and the purchase of the land in -large quantities. - -Second, laying out this land into suitable individual holdings, with -regard to economy of water supply and the collection of the product. - -Third, the partial or complete equipment of these farms at less -expense and in a more suitable manner than could or would be done by -the individual holders. - -Fourth, the sale or rent of these places to poultrymen at a -reasonable profit on the investment, but at a rate which will still -be below the cost at which the individual could have acquired the -land. Fifth, the selection of the stock that would not only be -better adapted to the enterprise than that which would be acquired -by the individual farmer, but would possess the uniformity necessary -to the maintenance of a standard grade in the product. - -Sixth, the centralized hatching of the chicks by which means chicks -can be more cheaply hatched and better hatched than by the imperfect -methods available to the small poultryman. - -Seventh, the purchase of all outside supplies with the usual savings -involved in large purchases. - -Eighth, a teaming system of delivering such supplies. - -Ninth, a general protection against thieves and predatory animals by -an organized war on all "varments." - -Tenth, maintenance of the best methods in feeding and care by the -employment of skilled advisers, or the operation of demonstration -farms under the direction of the central management. - -Eleventh, the enforced daily gathering of all eggs and their -lodgment that same evening in a clean, dry cooler, with a -thermometer hovering around 29 degrees Fahrenheit. - -Twelfth, the strict enforcement of penalties against the man who -attempts to sell bad eggs. - -Thirteenth, the prompt dispatch of the product to its final market. - -Fourteenth, the final sale of the eggs with opportunities for fancy -prices made possible by an absolutely guaranteed product in -quantities sufficient to permit of a regular supply and of -advertising the product. - -Fifteenth, the conduction of breeding operations along any desired -line, with the opportunity of combining the principle of great -numbers for selection with the comparison of all progeny from -ancestry, a method that will bring results a hundred times more -quickly than the efforts of the small breeder. - -Sixteenth, the advantage of the sale of breeding stock to be -acquired from the free publicity which is showered on all unique -industrial enterprises. - -In these sixteen functions there is ample opportunity for capital, -backed by ability in organization, to reap an ample reward. Is it a -dream? In a sense yes, but a dream made possible by the observation -of the actual results achieved in similar lines, and of the present -tendency in the poultry producing world. - -Why has not this thing been done before? Because no one knew enough -to do it. Why did not the wonderful trucking regions develop earlier -in the South, and why does it still take northern settlers, backed -by railroad advertising, to develop the wonderful modern industries -which enables every city dweller in the North to have strawberries -in February and fresh vegetables any day in the year? - -Why did the California fruit trade develop? Did anyone suppose forty -years ago that the unsettled valley around Pasadena would ever -produce one thousand dollars per acre in one year? These orange -groves, too valuable for agricultural purposes to be used as town -sites, were precarious experiments until the trans-continental -refrigerator car and the California Fruit Growers' Exchange paved -the way and put each day in every eastern and northern city just the -quantity of oranges that the people could consume at a profitable -price. - -Mr. Harwood, in the World's Work for May, 1908, after describing the -"City of a Million Hens," raises the question, "If in Petaluma, why -not anywhere?" I would like to answer that question by saying that -while anywhere is a little broad, the reason the industry has not -developed elsewhere has been because of the diversion of interested -capital towards impractical large individual poultry plants, manned -by hired labor. Another reason has been the lack of the technical -knowledge necessary to construct and operate efficient hatcheries. - -The poultryman has been a disciple of the poultry papers and poultry -fanciers of the day. The poultry papers and poultry literature has -generally been supported by poultry fanciers and manufacturers of -incubators, patent nests and portable houses. The good folks have -vied with one another in complicating the business. They have built -steam-piped houses, with padded walls and miniature railways with -which daily to haul away the droppings. A few famous fanciers -selling eggs at $10.00 per setting have made such business pay, but -alas for the luckless investor in what the visiting poultry editor -would style a "handsomely equipped modern poultry plant." - -A few years ago a Government poultry expert paid a visit to -Petaluma. He came back and reported, "It is a great disappointment, -the methods are very crude." The case is most pathetic. Here was a -man employed by the people to teach them how to make poultry pay. -His carfare is paid across the continent that he might visit the -only community in the United States where at that time any -considerable number of people were making their living from poultry, -and because he did not find lightning rods on the poultry houses, he -came back with the look of Naamen who, when he was requested by -Elisha to bathe seven times in the river Jordan, replied, "It is -very crude." - - -Will Co-operation Work? - - -That magic thing, "Co-operation," while utterly lacking in the -Utopian qualities with which the word artist paints it, is a -decidedly bigger factor in American affairs than the average man -realizes. - -The chief difficulty with co-operation is that the manager, if not -incompetent, has an excellent opportunity to be a grafter. In Europe -co-operation in agricultural and mercantile enterprise is older and -better developed than in this country. Perhaps the Europeans are -less inclined to be grafters, but a more likely explanation is that -the members of such associations as these have learned how to -prevent and detect graft, just as our business men have learned to -avoid losses from the dishonesty of employes. That this is the true -explanation is substantiated by the fact that when co-operation once -becomes established in this country, it succeeds even better than in -Europe. - -When the creameries were started in the West several years ago, -there was much complaint of swindlers, fake stock companies, and -co-operative ventures in which the manager absconded with the butter -money. To-day more than half of the American creameries are -co-operative and the number is constantly increasing. They are -efficient and successful in every way, and to-day make the finest of -butter and pay the highest prices to the farmer for his cream. But -their way was first paved and the business developed by successful -private concerns. - -Co-operation is entirely feasible and successful where the people -behind the movement have enough interest in the enterprise and good -enough business sense to run the proposition as efficiently as -similar private enterprises are run. The idea that co-operation must -always result in a big saving is a misconception. Employes will not -work any harder for an association than for a private employer, -sometimes not as hard. Certainly no employee will work as hard for an -association as he will for himself. - -Why people should expect to buy out the grocery store and hire the -grocer to run it and save money for themselves, is a thing I could -never understand. But if there is some great waste that co-operation -will prevent, as where seven milk wagons drive every morning over -the same route, or where the market of perishable crops is glutted -one day and starved the next, centralization, corporate or -co-operate, will pay. - -I know of no better way to impress the reader with American -co-operation in actual practice than to quote from a brief account -of the California Fruit Growers' Exchange. - -The Exchange was founded upon the theory that every member is -entitled to furnish his pro rata of the fruit for shipment through -his association, and every association to its pro rata to the -various markets of the country. This theory reduced to practice -gives every grower his fair share, and the average price of all -markets throughout the season. - -Another cardinal provision of the plan was that all fruit should be -marketed on a level basis of actual cost, with all books and -accounts open for inspection at the pleasure of the members. These -broad principles of full co-operation constitute the basis of the -Exchange movement. - -The Exchange system is simple, but quite democratic. The local -association consists of a number of growers contiguously situated, -who unite themselves for the purpose of preparing their fruit for -market on a co-operative basis. They establish their own brands, -make such rules as they may agree upon for grading, packing and -pooling their fruit. Usually these associations own thoroughly -equipped packing houses. - -All members are given a like privilege to pick and deliver fruit to -the packing house, where it is weighed in and properly receipted -for. Every grower's fruit is separated into different grades, -according to quality, and usually thereafter it goes into the common -pool, and in due course takes its percentage of the returns -according to grade. - -Any given brand is the exclusive property of the Local Association -using it, and the fruit under this brand is always packed in the -same locality, and therefore of uniform quality. This is of great -advantage in marketing, as the trade soon learns that the pack is -reliable. - -There are more than eighty associations, covering every citrus fruit -district in California, and packing nearly two hundred reliable and -guaranteed brands of oranges and lemons. - -The several local Exchanges designate one man each from their -membership as their representative, and he is elected a director of -the California Fruit Growers' Exchange. By this method the -policy-making and governing power of the organization remains in the -hands of the local Exchanges. - -From top to bottom the organization is planned, dominated and in -general detail controlled absolutely by fruit growers, and for the -common good of all members. No corporation nor individual reaps from -it either dividends or private gain. - -So far we have dealt almost exclusively with the organization of the -Exchange, its co-operative aspects, and general policy at home. -Equally important is its organization in the markets. - -Seeking to free itself from the shifting influence of speculative -trading, by taking the business out of the hands of middlemen at -home, the Exchange found it quite as important to maintain the -control of its own affairs in the markets. - -For this purpose the Exchange established a system of exclusive -agencies in all the principal cities of the country, employing as -agents active, capable young men of experience in the fruit -business. Most of these agents are salaried, and have no other -business of any kind to engage their attention, and none of the -Exchange representatives handle any other citrus fruits. These -agents sell to smaller cities contiguous to their headquarters, or -in the territory covered by their districts. - -Over all these agencies are two general or traveling agents, with -authority to supervise and check up the various offices. These -general agents maintain in their offices at Chicago and Omaha, a -complete bureau of information, through which all agents receive -every day detailed information as to sales of Exchange fruit in -other markets the previous day. Possessing this data, the selling -agent cannot be taken advantage of as to prices. If any agent finds -his market sluggish, and is unable to sell at the average prices -prevailing elsewhere, he promptly advises the head office in Los -Angeles, and sufficient fruit is diverted from his market to relieve -it and restore prices to normal level. - -Through these agencies of its own the Exchange is able to get and -transmit to its members the most trustworthy information regarding -market conditions, visible supplies, etc. This system affords a -maximum of good service at a minimum cost. The volume of the -business is so large that a most thorough equipment is maintained at -much less cost to growers than any other selling agency can offer. - -The annual business of the California Fruit Growers' Exchange -amounts to over ten million dollars, and the Exchange handles over -half the citrus fruit output of the State. Yet there are people who -say co-operation in America will not work. - - -Co-operative Egg Marketing in Denmark. - -I have discussed at length the work of the California Fruit Growers' -Exchange, as the best example in the United States of the -co-operative marketing of farm produce. We have thus far but little -co-operative work in the marketing of poultry products. Canada has a -few examples, but it is to European countries that we must go for a -full demonstration of the principle of co-operation when applied to -the products of the hen. In England and in Ireland co-operative -efforts in the growing, fattening, and marketing of poultry and eggs -are quite common. It is to Denmark, however, that we must go to find -the most wholesale example of this truly modern type of business -effort. - -The Danes are co-operators in the fullest sense. They have -co-operative creameries and co-operative packing houses. The Danish -Egg Export Society is an organization, the plan and work of which is -very much like that of the California Fruit Growers' Exchange. - -The local branch of the association buys the eggs of the farmer, -paying for them by weight. Collectors are hired to gather them at -frequent and regular intervals, and are paid In accordance with the -amount of their collections, but must stand the loss of breakage. -Each individual poultryman's eggs are kept separate until they reach -a centralizing station. There are a number of these central stations -at which the eggs are carefully crated and packed for shipment to -England. - -The individual farmer is fined or taxed for all bad eggs found in -his lot. This fine is deducted from his receipts and he has nothing -to do but to submit to it or get out of the association. The latter -he cannot afford to do because the association has its established -brands and can pay him more for his eggs than he could secure by -attempting to market them himself. As a result of this strict system -of making the producer responsible for weight and quality of the -eggs the Danish eggs have become the largest and finest in the -world. - -Although the writer firmly believes in the co-operative marketing of -farm produce, and considers that the success already secured in this -work is conclusive evidence of the practicability and desirability -of co-operation, it would not be fair to infer that co-operation has -entirely driven out private or corporate enterprise. Just as a -goodly per cent. of the citrus fruit of California is still handled -by private dealers, so in Denmark we find that nearly one-half of -the eggs sent to England are handled by private companies. Let it be -noted, however, that these companies maintain a system of buying on -merit which enforces high quality that is not to be found where -private buyers are without the spur of co-operative competition. -Before co-operation entered the orange regions of California, the -fruit was poorly packed and handled and the markets at times so -glutted, that shipments of fruit sometimes failed to pay the -freight, and this was actually charged back to the unfortunate -grower. Co-operation has done away with this waste. In like manner -the great loss from decomposed eggs and half hatched chicks is -unknown to the egg trade of Denmark. - - -Corporation or Co-operation? - -The community of farmers producing a large quantity of a single kind -of product is the coming form of agricultural enterprise. Will this -community be promoted by corporation or by co-operation? - -Arthur Brisbane says, "As individual control of the Government has -been superceded by collective control, so individual control of -industries will be followed by collective control. That is the -natural order." - -Brisbane is right. The individual, or the corporation, which is an -individual using other men's money, foreruns co-operation, because -the individual knows exactly what he wants to do and the big group -of individuals does not know what they want or how to do it until -individuals have, by concrete successes, shown them. - -When the creameries were started, co-operative creameries were -unsuccessful and could not compete with privately owned creameries. -The farmers have now become too wise to be "easy-marks" to the fake -creamery promoters or to trust their butter sales to a comparative -stranger and co-operation is a success. - -Poultry communities cannot be made out of whole cloth by the -co-operative plan. Private corporations will be necessary to launch -these enterprises. When they have reached the stage of development -now to be seen in Little Compton and Petaluma they are ready for -co-operation. - -I have emphasized the point that the private corporation is the -natural forerunner in this matter in order to discourage premature -or over-ambitious efforts at co-operation. Whenever a community of -poultrymen or, for that matter, a community of growers of any -perishable form of products, who are already successful in the -producing end, wish to take up co-operation and will see that men -are selected to manage it who will use the same precautions to guard -against incompetency or graft that they, as individuals, would use -in their own business, there is excellent chance of success. - -Go slow. Do not expect to get rich quick by "cutting out the -middleman's enormous profits," for the middleman's profits are not -enormous, and if you see that your co-operation is not paying, give -it up and confess to yourselves that you do not know as much about -the business as your private competitors. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -WHERE TO LOCATE - - -That poultry should be kept on every farm to supply the farmer's own -table does not permit of argument. When it comes to production for -market, I believe there are some sections where it costs more to -produce and market poultry and eggs than is received for the product -when sold. For illustration: On a farm which is twenty miles from -town and where grain cannot be profitably grown, the cost of teaming -grain from the railroad station and of sending the eggs to market as -frequently as is necessary to have a wholesome product, would -certainly eat up all possible profits. - -The farmer thus located would find a more profitable use for his -time in some industry where the raw material is near at hand and the -product needs less frequent marketing. - - -Some Poultry Geography. - -When we are discussing poultry on the general farm, the problem of -location is not to be taken into consideration, save to the extent -that there are a few localities where food cost is so high or -marketing facilities so poor as to make even the usual farm surplus -unprofitable. - -The map on page 45 shows the intensity of egg production and also -indicates the location of the more important localities where -poultry plants have succeeded. The map on page 47 shows the quality -of eggs coming from various sections, which indicates pretty closely -the general development of the poultry industry. These indications, -however, are of little value in locating a poultry plant, for they -refer to the poultry product on the general farm, and are a matter -of the number and general intelligence of farmers, rather that a -sign of the suitability of the locality for the poultry industry. - -For purposes of discussion, I have divided the United States into -seven sections as shown by the dotted lines on the second map. - -[Illustration: Plate II. Page 45. Map: -Intensity of egg production in the United States] - -Section 1 is the North Woods and too cold and remote for -the poultry business. - -Section 2 includes the great West, of which an adequate discussion -is out of the question. Of course, the great majority of this area -is too remote from markets for poultry production. The locations -around the big cities in this section are excellent for poultry -farming, as they are so far removed from the great farm region that -their bulk of imported eggs are of necessity somewhat stale. -California is good chicken country. The Puget Sound country is -rather too damp. In the interior western regions the chicken -business has not done well, chiefly because the atmosphere is too -dry for the methods of artificial incubation attempted. - -Section 3 is the great granary of the world. It is also the home of -three-fourths of the country's poultry crop. It is a region of corn, -cattle and hogs. Such a country will produce poultry in a very -inexpensive manner. But it is not the region for special poultry -farms. In the northern portion of this tract, we find a heavy -housing expense and much winter labor necessary. It is a region of -high priced lands and labor, and low prices for poultry products. - -Even the large cities in this region offer little in the way of -demand for high grade poultry products. This is because they are so -abundantly surrounded with farms that all produce is moderately -fresh and plentiful. There are no successful poultry farms in this -section west of the Mississippi. It is the natural location of -extensive rather than intensive branches of agriculture. The only -type of commercial poultry farming that could succeed in any portion -of this section would be a large community of producers who could -ship their products out regularly in carload lots. Such development -could only take place in the southern portion of this region, for -the housing expense is too great for the north. At best the distance -from market is a disadvantage, for the rate on eggs just about -equals the rate on the quantity of grain necessary to produce them. -The added time of shipment is something of a drawback, though in -refrigerator cars this is not serious. After the establishment of -poultry communities becomes more common, the Oklahoma and Texas -region will become available for this purpose, but they must be -established in full swing at the start, for a few isolated -poultrymen have no chance at all in this section, for they cannot -sell their product to advantage. - -Section 4. This region, extending from the Ozarks to Eastern -Tennessee, is one of the very best poultry sections. The climate is -such that green food is available winter and summer, and the expense -of housing and winter labor is reasonable. This section is still in -the corn growing region. The question is almost always one of -railroad facilities to get the product out. All poultry farms in -this section must grow their own grain or buy it of their immediate -neighbors. It will not pay to ship grain into this region. - -[Illustration: Plate III. Page 47. Map: -Intensity of egg production in the United States] - -When near shipping facilities, individual poultry farms in Section 4 -have a good chance of success, especially east of the Mississippi. -This is the most favorable region in the country for the -establishment of poultry communities that are to grow their own -grain. Such poultry farms will not be expected to confine their -attention as exclusively to the business as those in the section -where it is profitable to import the grain. - -Section 5 is the non-grain growing region of the South. It at -present produces little poultry. The climate is all right for the -purpose, but the freight rates on grain from the West are high and -likewise the freight service and freight rates to the final market -are excessive. Under these conditions poultry farming will not pay -except in a few localities as in Florida, where there is a high -class local market due to the popular resorts. If grain could be -profitably grown in this section the same type of poultry farming -that prevails in Section 4 would be advisable. Now, grain can be -grown in the cotton belt of the South, and many Yankee farmers are -making good money doing it. But when grown it is liable to be worth -more to feed mules than to feed chickens. - -Section 6 is the "Down East" section of dense population. The land -for the most part is rocky, wooded and hilly. The climate and nature -of the soil are against the economical production of poultry, but -the grain can be profitably fed, and as the markets are the best in -the country, commercial poultry farming has gained quite a foothold. -If a man is already located in this section and wishes to go into -the poultry business I would by all means say, "Go ahead," but I -would not advise an outsider looking for a location to come here, -for the next section has several advantages. - -Section 7 is the best poultry farming district in the United States, -either for the individual poultry plant or for the community of -poultry growers. The reasons for this are: - -First: The soil is of a sandy nature and excellent land for poultry -farming can be had at a low price. - -Second: The climate is much more favorable than farther north or -farther inland. - -Third: Grain rates from the West are very reasonable. - -Fourth: The best market in the country--New York City--is within -easy shipping distance. - -The type of poultry farming here to be recommended, like that of -Section 6, is one in which imported grain is fed. The fertility of -this grain, going back on the light soil, is used to grow the green -food required by the hens, and, in addition, may be used in a -rotation system for growing truck. It will not pay to grow any -quantity of grain. Section 7, because of its advantages over Section -6 in climate and the availability of large tracts of suitable land, -is a much better location for the poultry community. Over Section 4, -which is the second best region for this purpose, it has the -advantage of nearness to markets. The climatic advantage of Sections -4 and 7 are about on a par. The chief distinction is the matter of -growing grain or importing it. If you are to grow your grain, using -poultry as a means of marketing it, Section 4 is the best locality. -If you are to buy grain, Section 7 is the place. - -The boundaries of Section 7 are not arbitrary and should be noted -carefully. The line runs from Mattawan, New Jersey, across to the -main line of the Pennsylvania and down this to Washington. To the -north and west of this, the soils are heavy clays which are wet, -cold, slushy and easily befouled. Likewise, the line on the south is -distinctly marked by the Norfolk and Western Railway and is a matter -of freight rates on grain. Norfolk gets a rate of sixteen and a half -cents from Chicago; a couple of hundred miles south, the rate is -about twice as much. Cheaper grain rates would of course extend this -belt on down the coast where the climate is even more favorable. - - -Chicken Climate. - - -Climate is a big figure in the cost of poultry production. Every day -that water is frozen in winter means increased labor and decreased -egg yield. Mild winters means cheap houses, cheap labor, cheap feed -(a large proportion of green food), an earlier chick season, which, -together with the mild weather and green feed, mean a large -proportion of the egg yield at the season when eggs are high in -price. - -The American poultry editor wastes a great deal of ink explaining -why the Australian egg records of 175 eggs per hen, cannot be so, -because in this country, the hens at the Maine station only averaged -125. The Maine Experiment Station lies buried in a snow drift for -about five months of the year. The Australian station has a winter -climate equal to that of New Orleans. The Australian records do not -go below thirty eggs per day per hundred hens at any time during the -year. Our New York and New England records run down anywhere from -one to ten eggs per day per hundred hens. The following table will -show the effect of the climate upon the distribution of the egg -yield throughout the year. The records at New York are from a large -number of hens of several different flocks and probably represent a -normal distribution of the egg yield for that section. The Kansas -and Arkansas lists are taken from the record of small flocks and are -not very reliable. The fourth column gives the Australian records -with the months transferred on account of being in the southern -hemisphere. The last column gives the railroad shipments from a -division of the N.C. & St. L. railroad in Western Tennessee: - - - Column Headings: - NY--Central New York per hen per day - KS--Kansas Ex. Station per hen per day - AR--Arkansas Ex. Station per hen per day - AU--Australian Laying Contest per hen per day - NH--Shipments from New Hampshire egg farm - TN--Shipments from Western Tennessee - - NY KS AR AU NH TN - January .21 .25 .32 .51 26 1509 - February .26 .22 .30 .66 41 1520 - March .43 .60 .62 .67 66 2407 - April .56 .52 .38 .61 83 1775 - May .59 .57 .44 .53 81 1650 - June .50 .46 .42 .45 61 1131 - July .44 .43 .34 .43 58 878 - August .37 .32 .38 .41 54 422 - September .26 .28 .29 .29 24 100 - October .17 .13 .22 .31 3 541 - November .08 .06 .18 .31 2 703 - December .14 .25 .15 .40 11 1150 - -An equable climate the year round is the best for the chicken -business. The California coast is fairly equable in temperature, but -its winter rains and summer drouth are against it. The Atlantic -coast south of New York is fairly good, probably the best the -country affords. The most southern portions will be rather too hot -in summer, which will result in a small August and September egg -yield. Probably the region around Norfolk is, all considered, the -best poultry climate the country affords. - - -Suitable Soil. - -Soil is important in poultry farming; in fact it is very important, -and many failures can be traced to soil mistakes. Rocky and -uncultivated lands must not be chosen. To locate on any soil which -will not utilize the droppings for the production of green food, is -to introduce a loss sufficient to turn success into failure. - -The ideal soil for poultry is a soil too sandy to produce ordinary -farm crops successfully, and hence an inexpensive soil; but because -land too sandy to be used for heavy farming is best for poultry, -this does not mean that any cheap soil will do. A heavy wet clay -soil worth $150 an acre for dairying is worth nothing for poultry. -Pure sand is likewise worthless and nothing can be more pitiable -than to see poultry confined in yards of wind swept sand, without a -spear of anything green within half a mile. - -The soils that are valuable for early truck are equally valuable for -poultry. Sand with a little loam, or very fine sand, if a few green -crops are turned under to provide humus, are ideal poultry soils. -The Norfolk fine Sand and Norfolk Sandy Loam of the U.S. soil -survey, are types of such soil. - -These soils absorb the droppings readily and are never covered with -standing water. The winter snows do not stay on them. Crops will -keep greener on them in winter than on clay soils three hundred -miles farther south. - -The disadvantage of such soils is that they lose their fertility by -leaching. The same principles that will cause the droppings to -disappear from the top of the ground will likewise cause them to be -washed down beyond the depths of plant roots. This loss must be -guarded against by not going to the extreme in selecting a light -soil and may be largely overcome by schemes of running the poultry -right among growing crops or by quick rotations. - -Land sloping to the southward is commonly advised for the purpose of -getting the same advantages as are to be had in a sandy soil. In -practice the slope of the land cannot be given great prominence, -although, other things being equal, one should certainly not -disregard this point. In heavy lands it is necessary to raise the -floors and grade up around the houses. The quickly drained soil does -away with this expense. - -Timber on the land is a disadvantage. Poultry farming in the woods -has not been made a success. It's the same proposition of the -droppings going to waste. I know a man who bought a timbered tract -because it was cheap and who scraped up the droppings to sell by the -barrel to his neighbor, who used them to fertilize his cabbage patch -and in turn sold the poultryman cabbages to feed his hens, at 5 -cents a head. Of course, this man failed, as does practically every -man who attempts to scrape dropping boards and carry poultry manure -around in baskets, instead of using it where it falls. - -There is little to be said in favor of uncleared land for the -poultry business, but there is something that can be said in favor -of the poultry business for uncleared land. A man who buys a -timbered land for trucking can get no income whatever the first -year, but the poultryman can begin his operations in the woods, -clearing the land while he is raising a crop of chickens on it. The -coops may be placed in the cleared streak and most of the droppings -utilized. In fact, the plan of a streak of timber alongside the -houses is not bad for a permanent arrangement--the birds certainly -enjoy the shade. But the shade of growing crops is the most -profitable kind for poultry. - - -Marketing--Transportation. - -The possibilities of working up a local trade of high grade eggs at -fancy prices varies greatly with the locality. Large cities and -wealthy people are essentials. Other than this the principal -distinctions are that regions where a general surplus of eggs are -produced offer little chance for a fancy trade. Where the great bulk -of eggs are imported fancy trade is more feasible. St. Louis is the -smallest western city that supports anything like a fancy trade in -eggs and there it is only on a small scale. Minneapolis, Omaha, -etc., would not pay 3 cents premium for the best eggs produced, but -cities of the same size east of the Appalachians and especially in -New England, will pay a good premium. The Far West or the mountain -districts will pay up better than the Mississippi Valley. The South -will pay a little better than the upper Mississippi Valley, but has -few cities of sufficient size to make such markets abundant. The -Southerner has little regard for quality in produce and the most -aristocratic people consume eggs regularly that the wife of a -Connecticut factory hand wouldn't have in the house. The egg farmer -who expects to sell locally had best not locate south of Washington -or west of Pittsburg, unless he goes to the Pacific Coast. - -Where marketing is not done by wagon the subject of railroad -transportation is practically identical with the question of -marketing. It is the cost in freight service and freight rates that -count. The proposition of transportation, especially for the grain -buying poultry farm, catches us coming and going and both must be -considered. - -A poultry farm in Section 7 will buy one hundred pounds of feed per -year per hen and market one-third of a case of eggs. On this basis -the grain rate from Chicago or St. Louis and the egg rate to New -York must be balanced against each other. Don't take these things -for granted. Look them up. - -Jamesburg and Freehold, two New Jersey towns ten miles apart and -equi-distant and with equal freight rates from New York, might seem -to the uninitiated as equally well situated to poultry farming. We -will suppose two men bought forty-acre farms of equal quality and -equi-distant from the railroad stations at these two towns. Suppose, -further, they each kept five thousand hens. Jamesburg is on a -Philadelphia-New York line of the Pennsylvania and its Chicago grain -rate is the same as that of New York, namely: 19-1/2 cents per -hundred. Freehold is on a branch line; its rate is 24-1/2 cents. In -a year the difference amounts to $250. Figured at six per cent. -interest, the land at Jamesburg is worth just about one hundred -dollars an acre more than that at Freehold. - -Lumber rates or local lumber prices should also be taken into -consideration. Whether one plans to ship his product out by express -or freight will, of course, be an important consideration in -deciding the location. - -As a general thing, the individual poultry farmer will, for shipping -his product, use express east of Buffalo and north of Norfolk. The -poultry community could use freight in these same regions and get as -good or better service than by express. - -The location in relation to the railroad station is equally -important to the freight rate. Besides heavy hauling frequent trips -will be necessary in marketing eggs. These on the larger farms will -be daily or at least semi-weekly. On the heavy hauling alone, at 25 -cents per ton mile, distance from the railroad will figure up 1-1/4 -cents per hen which, on the basis of the previous illustration, -would make a difference of twenty-five dollars per acre for every -mile of distance from the station. One of the most successful -poultry farms I know is right along the railroad and has an elevator -which handles the grain from the cars and later dumps it into the -feed wagons without its ever being touched by hand. The labor saving -in this counts up rapidly. - -The poultry community can have its own elevator and the grain can be -sold to the farmer to be delivered directly into the hoppers in his -field with but a single loading into a wagon. - - -Availability of Water. - -One more point to be considered in location is water. - -The labor of watering poultry by carrying water in buckets is -tremendous and not to be considered on any up-to-date poultry plant. -Watering must be accomplished by some artificial piping system or -from spring-fed brooks. The more length of flowing streams on a -piece of land, provided the adjacent ground is dry, the more value -the property has for poultry. Two spring-fed brooks crossing a -forty-acre tract so as to give a half mile of running water, or a -full mile of houses, would water five thousand hens without labor. -This would mean an annual saving of at least one man's time as -against hand watering, or a matter of a thousand dollars or more in -the cost of installation of a watering system. - -If running water cannot be had the next best thing is to get land -with water near the surface which may be tapped with sand points. If -one must go deep for water a large flow is essential so that one -power pump may easily supply sufficient water for the plant. - -The land should lay in a gentle slope so that water may be run over -the entire surface by gravity. Hilly lands are a nuisance in poultry -keeping and raise the expense at every turn. - - -A Few Statistics. - -The following table does not bear directly upon the poultry-man's -choice of a location, but is inserted here because of its general -interest in showing the poultry development of the country. - -It will be noted that the egg production per hen is very low in the -Southern States. This may seem at variance with my previous -statements. The poor poultry keeping of the South is a fault of the -industrial conditions, not of the climate. Chickens on the Southern -farm simply live around the premises as do rats or English sparrows. -No grain is grown; there are no feed lots to run to, no measures are -taken to keep down vermin, and no protection is provided from wind -and rain. In the North chickens could not exist with such treatment. - -The figures given showing the relation between the poultry and total -agricultural wealth is the best way that can be found to express -statistically the importance of poultry keeping in relation to the -general business of farming. These figures should not be confused -with the distribution of the actual volume of poultry products. -Iowa, the greatest poultry producing state, shows only a moderate -proportion of poultry to all farm wealth, but this is because more -agricultural wealth is produced in Iowa than in all the "Down East" -states. - -Table showing the development of the poultry industry in the various -states, according to the returns of the census of 1900: - - - No. of Percentage of No. of Farm value - eggs per farm wealth eggs of eggs per - capita earned by per hen dozen -States poultry - - - -Alabama 124 4.9 48 9.7 cents -Arizona 80 4.5 60 19.9 -Arkansas 235 6.8 58 9.1 -California 197 5.4 74 15.8 -Colorado 127 5.4 71 15.0 -Connecticut 105 11.3 89 19.1 -Delaware 231 14.7 68 13.7 -Florida 96 8.2 46 13.1 -Georgia 156 4.4 41 10.4 -Idaho 213 5.0 67 16.2 -Indiana 338 10.0 77 10.5 -Iowa 536 7.4 64 10.1 -Illinois 215 3.7 62 10.3 -Kansas 597 8.2 73 9.9 -Kentucky 198 8.3 62 9.8 -Louisiana 111 4.0 40 10.0 -Maine 233 11.0 100 15.3 -Maryland 126 10.4 71 12.6 -Massachusetts 56 11.7 96 19.9 -Michigan 270 9.7 82 11.2 -Minnesota 296 5.8 67 10.5 -Mississippi 144 4.7 43 9.9 -Missouri 291 11.6 68 9.8 -Montana 148 4.3 67 21.0 -Nebraska 463 6.1 66 9.9 -Nevada 68 3.7 71 20.8 -New Hampshire 238 11.5 96 17.3 -New Jersey 76 12.0 72 16.2 -New Mexico 45 2.7 65 18.7 -New York 102 7.1 83 13.9 -North Carolina 112 5.7 55 10.2 -North Dakota 249 2.6 64 10.5 -Ohio 265 9.6 77 11.2 -Oklahoma 315 6.4 60 9.3 -Oregon 224 6.2 72 15.1 -Pennsylvania 112 10.8 75 13.5 -Rhode Island 90 19.7 77 20.4 -South Carolina 80 4.0 41 10.3 -South Dakota 502 5.2 68 10.0 -Tennessee 189 8.4 61 9.8 -Texas 228 4.8 52 8.0 -Utah 146 5.1 76 12.5 -Vermont 219 7.5 94 15.3 -Virginia 165 8.9 67 11.1 -Washington 171 7.1 74 16.8 -West Virginia 216 10.2 74 10.9 -Wisconsin 268 7.1 68 10.5 -Wyoming 121 2.4 79 17.4 -Entire U.S. 205 7.4 65 11.1 - - - - -CHAPTER V - -THE DOLLAR HEN FARM - -As has already been emphasized, the way to get money out of the -chicken business is not to put so much in. - -Land, however, well suited to the purpose, should not be begrudged, -for interest at six per cent, will afford a very considerable extra -investment in land well suited to the business if it in any way cuts -down the cost of operation. - - -The Plan of Housing. - -The houses are the next consideration. On most poultry farms they -are the chief items of expense. I know of a poultry farm near New -York City where the house cost $12.00 per hen. The owner built this -farm with a view of making money. People also buy stock in Nevada -gold mines with a view of making money. I know another poultry farm -owned by a man named Tillinghast at Vernon, Connecticut, where the -houses cost thirty cents per hen. Mr. Tillinghast gets more eggs per -hen than the New York man. Incidentally, he is sending his son to -Yale, and he has no other visible means of support except his -chicken farm. - -For the region of light soils and the localities which I have -recommended for poultry farming, the following style of poultry -house should be used: - -No floors, single boarded walls, a roof of matched cypress lumber or -of cheap pine covered with tarred paper. This house is to have no -windows and no door. The roosts are in the back end; the front end -is open or partly open; feed hoppers and nests are in the front end. -The feed hoppers may be made in the walls, made loose to set in the -house, or made to shed water and placed outside the house. All -watering is to be done outside the houses; likewise any feeding -beyond that done in hoppers. - -The exact style of the house I leave to the reader's own plan. Were -I recommending complex houses costing several dollars per hen, this -certainly would be leaving the reader in the dark woods. With houses -of the kind described it is hard to go far amiss. The simplest form -is a double pitched roof, the ridge-pole standing about seven feet -high, and the walls about four. The house is made eight by sixteen, -and one end--not the side--left open. For the house that man is to -enter, this form cannot be improved upon. - -The only other points are to construct it on a couple of 4x4 runners -so that it can be dragged about by a team. Cypress, or other -decay-proof wood should be used for these mud-sills. The framing -should be light and as little of it used as is consistent with -firmness. If the whole house costs more than twenty-five dollars -there is something wrong in its planning. - -This house should accommodate seventy-five or eighty hens. - -For smaller operations, especially for horseless, or intensive -farming, a low, light house may be used, which the attendant never -enters. A portion of the roof lifts up to fill feed-hoppers, gather -eggs or spray. These small houses may be made light enough to be -moved short distances by a pry-pole, the team being required only -when they are moved to a new field. - -Not one particle of poultry manure is to be removed from either -style of house. Instead, the houses are removed from the manure, -which is then scattered on the neighboring ground with a fork, or, -if desired to be used on a field in which poultry may not run, it -may be loaded upon a wagon together with some of the underlaying -soil. - -There have been books and books written on poultry houses, but what -I have just given is sufficient poultry-house knowledge for the -Dollar Hen man. If he hasn't enough intelligence to put this into -practice, he has no business in the hen business. Additional -book-knowledge of hen-houses is useless; it may be harmful. - -If you are sure that you are fool-proof, you may get Dr. Feather or -Reverend Earlobe's "Book of Poultry House Plans." It will be a good -text-book for the children's drawing lessons. - - -The Feeding System. - -Oyster shells, beef scraps, corn, and one other kind of grain, -together with an abundance of pasturage or green feed, is the sum -and substance of feeding hens on the Dollar Hen Farm. - -The dry feeds are placed in hoppers. They are built to protect the -feeds from the weather. The neck must be sufficiently large to -prevent clogging, and the hopper so protected by slats in front that -the hen cannot toss the feed out by a side jerk of her head. These -hoppers may be built any size desired. The grain compartments -should, of course, be made larger than the others. Weekly filling is -good, but where a team is not owned, it would be better to have the -hoppers larger so that feed purchased, say, once a month, could be -delivered directly into the hoppers. - - -Water Systems. - -The best water system is a spring-fed brook. - -The man proposing to establish an individual poultry plant, and who -after reading this book goes and buys a tract of land where an -artificial water system is necessary, would catch Mississippi -drift-wood on shares. But there are plenty of such people in the -world. A man once stood all day on London Bridge hawking gold -sovereigns at a shilling a-piece and did not make a sale. - -Next to natural streams are the made streams. This is the logical -watering method of the community of poultry farmers. These -artificial streams are to be made by conducting the water of natural -streams back of the land to be watered, as in irrigation. It is the -problem of irrigation over again. Indeed, where trucking is combined -with poultry-growing, fowl watering should be combined with -irrigation. - -It may be necessary to dam the stream to get head, sufficient supply -or both. In sandy soils, ditches leak, and board flumes must be -substituted. The larger ones are made of the boards at right angles -and tapered so that one end of one trough rests in the upper end of -the next lower section. The smaller, or lateral troughs may be made -V-shaped. - -The cost of the smaller sized flume is three cents a foot. Iron pipe -costs twelve cents a foot. - -The greater the slope of the ground the smaller may be the troughs, -but on ground where the slopes are great, more expense will be -necessary in stilting the flumes to maintain the level, and the -harder it will be to find a large section that can be brought under -the ditch. - -Fluming water for poultry is, like irrigation, a community project. -The greatest dominating people of history have their origin in arid -countries. It was co-operate or starve, and they learned -co-operation and conquered the earth. If a man interferes with the -flume, or takes more than his share of the water, put him out. We -are in the hen, not the hog business. - -Community water systems, where water must be pumped and piped in -iron pipe, is of course a more expensive undertaking. It will only -pay where water is too deep for individuals to drive sand points on -their own property. There is certainly little reason to consider an -expensive method when there are abundant localities where simple -plans may be used. - -On sand lands, with water near the surface, each farmer may drive -sand points and pump his water by hand. In this case running water -is not possible, but the pipes or flumes may be arranged so that -fresh pumping flushes all the drinking places and also leaves them -full of standing water. The simplest way to arrange this will be by -wooden surface troughs as used in the fluming scheme. The only -difference is that an occasional section is made deeper so that it -will retain water. - -A more permanent arrangement may be made by using a line of -three-fourths inch pipe. At each watering place the pipe is brought -to the surface so that the water flows into a galvanized pan with -sloping sides. This pan has an overflow through a short section of -smaller tubing soldered to the side of the pan. The pipe line is -parallel with the fence line, the pans supply both fields. By this -arrangement the entire plant may be watered in a few minutes. The -overflow tubes are on one side. Using these tubes as a pivot the -pans may be swung out from under the fence with the foot and cleaned -with an old broom. Where the ground water is deep a wind mill and -storage tank would be desirable. - - -Outdoor Accommodations. - -The hen house is a place for roosting, laying and a protection for -the feed. The hen is to live out doors. - -On the most successful New England poultry farms, warm houses for -hens have been given up. Hens fare better out of doors in Virginia -than they do in New England, but make more profit out of doors -anywhere than they will shut up in houses. If your climate will not -permit your hen to live out doors get out of the climate or get out -of the hen business. - -There is, however, a vast difference in the kind of out-of-doors. -The running stream with its fringe of trees, brush and rank growing -grass, forms daylight quarters for the hen par excellence. Rank -growing crops, fodder piled against the fences, a board fence on the -north side of the lot, or little sheds made by propping a platform -against a stake, will all help. A place out of the wind for the hens -to dust and sun and be sociable is what is wanted, and what must be -provided, preferably by Nature, if not by Nature then by the -poultryman. - -The hens are to be kept as much as possible out of the houses, in -sheltered places among the crops or brush. They should not herd -together in a few places but should be separated in little clumps -well scattered over the land. These hiding places for the hens must, -of course, not be too secluded or eggs will be lost. - - -Equipment for Chick Rearing. - -Just as the long houses for hens have been weighed and found -wanting, so larger brooder houses, with one exception, have never -been established on what may be called a successful basis. By -establishment on a successful basis, I mean established so that they -could be used by larger numbers of people in rearing market -chickens. There are plenty of large brooder houses in use, just as -there are plenty of yarded poultry plants, but many intelligent, -industrious people have tried both systems only to find that the -cost of production exceeds the selling price. This makes us prone to -believe that some of those who claim to be succeeding may differ -from the crowd in that they had more capital to begin with and hence -last longer. - -The one exception I make to this is that of the South Shore Roaster -District of Massachusetts. Here steam-pipe brooder houses are used -quite extensively. The logical reason that pipe brooder houses have -found use in the winter chicken business and not in rearing pullets -is that of season and profits. When chicks are to be hatched in the -dead of winter the steam-heated brooder house is a necessity. In -this limited use it is all right, where the profits per chick are -great enough to stand the expense and losses. - -For the rearing of the great bulk of spring chicks the methods that -have proven profitable are as follows: - -First: Rearing with hens as practiced at Little Compton. For -suggestions on this see the chapter entitled "Poultry on the General -Farm." - -Second: Rearing with lamp brooder. Many large book-built poultry -plants have been equipped with steam, or, more properly, hot water -heated brooder houses, only to have a practical manager see that -they did not work, tear out the piping and fill the house with rows -of common lamp brooders. The advantage claimed for the lamp brooder -is that they can be regulated separately for each flock. As a matter -of fact, the same regulation for each flock of chicks could be -secured with a proper type of hot water heaters and one of the most -practical poultry farms in the country is now installing such a -system. - -A brooder system where hot air under the pressure of a blower or -centrifugal fan would seem ideal. So far the efforts made along -these lines have been clumsy and unnecessarily expensive. If the -continuous house is ever made practical, I believe it will be along -this line, but at present I advise sticking to the methods that are -known to be successful. - -Individual lamp brooders in colony houses are perhaps the most -generally successful means of rearing chicks on northern poultry -farms. They are troublesome and somewhat expensive, but with -properly hatched chickens are more successful than hen rearing. In -buying such a brooder the chief points to be observed are: A good -lamp, a heating device giving off the heat from a central drum, and -an arrangement which facilitates easy cleaning. The brooder should -be large, having not less than nine square feet of floor space. The -work demanded of a brooder is not as exacting as with an incubator. -The heat and circulation of air may vary a little without harm, but -they must not fail altogether. The greatest trouble with brooders in -operation is the uncertainty of the lamp. The brooder-lamp should -have sufficient oil capacity and a large wick. Brooder-lamps are -often exposed to the wind, and, if cheaply constructed or poorly -enclosed, the result will be a chilled brood of chicks, or perhaps a -fire. - -The chief thing sought in the internal arrangements of a brooder is -a provision to keep the chicks from piling up and smothering each -other as they crowd toward the source of heat. This can be -accomplished by having the warmest part of the brooder in the center -rather than at the side or corner. If the heat comes from above and -a considerable portion of the brooder be heated to the same -temperature, no crowding will take place. - -The temperature given for running brooders vary with the machine and -the position of the thermometer. The one reliable guide for -temperature is the action of the chicks. If they are cold they will -crowd toward the source of heat; if too warm they will wander -uneasily about; but if the temperature is right, each chick will -sleep stretched out on the floor. The cold chicken does not sleep at -all, but puts in its time fighting its way toward the source of -heat. In an improperly constructed or improperly run brooder the -chicks go through a varying process of chilling, sweating and -struggling when they should be sleeping, and the result is puny -chicks that dwindle and die. - -The arrangement of the brooder for the sleeping accommodations of -the chicks is important, but this is not the only thing to be -considered in a brooder. The brooder used in the early season, and -especially the outdoor brooder, must have ample space provided for -the daytime accommodation of the chick. In the colony house brooder -such space will, of course, be the floor of the house. - -When operating on a large scale it will not pay to buy complete -brooders. The lamps and hovers can be purchased separately and -installed in colony houses which do both for brooders and later for -houses for growing young stock. The universal hover sold by the -Prairie State Incubator people is about as perfect a lamp hover as -can be made. - -The cold brooder, or Philo box, as it has been popularly called, is -the chief item in a system of poultry keeping that has been widely -advertised. The principle of the Philo box is that of holding the -air warmed by the chick down close to them by a sagging piece of -cloth. The cloth checks most of the radiating heat, but is not so -tight as to smother the chick. This limits the space of air to be -warmed by the chicks to such a degree that the body warmth is used -to the greatest advantage. That chickens can be raised in these -fire-less brooders, is not in question, for that has been abundantly -proven, but most poultrymen believe that it will pay better, -especially in the North, to give the little fellows a few weeks' -warmth. - -Curtis Bros. at Ransomville, N.Y., who raise some twenty thousand -chicks per year, have adopted the following system: The chicks are -kept under hovers heated by hot water pipes for one week, or until -they learn to hover. Then they are put in Philo boxes for a week in -the same building but away from the pipes. The third week the Philo -boxes are placed in a large, unheated room. After that they go to a -large Philo box in a colony house. - -To make a Philo house of the Curtis pattern, take a box 5 in. deep -and 18 in. to 24 in. square. Cut a hole in one side for a chick -door, run a strip of screen around the inside of the box to round -the corners. Now take a second similar box. Tack a piece of cloth -rather loosely across its open face. Bore a few augur holes in the -sides of either box. Invert box No. 2 upon box No. 1. This we will -call a Curtis box. It costs about fifteen cents and should -accommodate fifty to seventy-five chicks. - -A universal hover in a colony coop or colony house, for which a -Curtis box is substituted, as early in the game as the weather -permits, is the method I advise for rearing young chicks. The lamp -problem we still have with us, but it is one that cannot be easily -solved. Large vessels or tanks of water which are regularly warmed -by injection of steam from a movable boiler, offers a possible way -out of the difficulty. On a plant large enough to keep one man -continually at this work, this plan might be an improvement over -filling lamps, but for the smaller plant it is lamps, or go south. - -Rearing young chicks is the hardest part of the poultry business. -There is a lot of work about it that cannot be gotten rid of. Little -chicks must be kept comfortable and their water and feed for the -first few days must needs be given largely by hand. They are to be -early led to drink from the regular water vessels and eat from the -hoppers, but this takes time and patience. - -The feeding of chicks I will discuss in the chapter on "Poultry on -the General Farm," and as the same methods apply in both cases, I -will refer the reader to that section. - -After chicks get three or four weeks old their care is the simplest -part of the poultry farm work and consists chiefly of filling feed -hoppers and protecting them from vermin and thieves. - -Board floor colony houses are used as a protection against rats and -this danger necessitates the protection of the opening by netting -and the closing of the doors at night. - -Cockerels must be gotten out of the flocks and sold at an early age. -Those that are to be kept for sale or use as breeding birds should -be early separated from the pullets. Coops for growing chickens, -especially Leghorns, cannot be put among trees, as the birds will -learn to roost in the trees, causing no end of trouble to get them -broken of the habit. - -All pullets save a few culls should be saved for laying. They are to -be kept two years. They should lay sixty-five to seventy per cent as -many eggs the second year as the first. They are sold the third -summer to make room for the growing stock. - - -Twenty-five Acre Poultry Farms. - -This section will be devoted to a general discussion of the type of -poultry farms best suited to Section 4 and the southerly portions of -Section 7 as discussed in the previous chapter. - -We will discuss this type of farm with this assumption: That they -are to be developed in large numbers by co-operative or corporate -effort. This does not infer that they cannot be developed by -individual effort, and nine-tenths of the operations will remain the -same in the latter case. - -Suppose a large tract of land adjacent to railroad facilities has -been found. The land in the original survey should be divided into -long, relatively narrow strips, lying at right angles to the slope -of the land. The farmstead should occupy the highest end of the -strip. For a twenty-five acre or one-man poultry farm these strips -should be about forty rods in width. The object of this survey is to -permit the water being run by gravity to the entire farm. - -The first thing is the farmstead, including such orchard and garden -as are desired. This stretches across the entire front end of the -place. The remainder of the strip is fenced in with chicken fence. -The farm is also divided into two narrow fields by a fence down the -center of the strip. This fence, at frequent intervals, has -removable panels. - -The year's season we will begin late in the fall. All layers are in -field No. 1 pasturing on rape, top turnips or other fall crops. In -lot No. 2 is growing wheat or rye. As the green feed gets short in -the first lot the hens are let into lot No. 2. Sometime in March the -houses that have been brought up close to the gaps are drawn through -into the wheat field. The feed hoppers are also gradually moved and -the hens find themselves confined in lot No. 2 without any serious -disturbance. - -Lot No. 1 is broken up as soon as weather permits and planted in -oats, corn, Kaffir corn and perhaps a few sunflowers. The oats form -a little strip near the coops and watering places and the Kaffir -corn is on the far side. As soon as corn planting is over the farmer -begins to receive his chickens from the hatchery. The brooders are -now placed in the corn field. The object of the corn is not green -food but for a shade and a grain crop. - -The chicks are summered in the corn field and the hens in the wheat -or rye. Whether the latter will head up will depend upon the number -of the flock. It will be best to work the houses across to the far -side and let that portion near the middle fence head up. As the old -grain gets too tough for green food strips of ground should be -broken up and sown in oats. The grain that matures will not be cut, -but the hens will be allowed to thresh it out. The straw may be cut -with mower or scythe for use as nesting material. - -Sometime in June or early in July a little rape vetch or cow-peas is -drilled in between the rows of corn as on the far side from the -chicken coops. During July or about the first of August, after all -cockerels have been sold, the gates are opened and the pullets are -allowed to associate with the hens. After this acquaintance ripens -into friendship the hen houses are worked back into the pullet lots. -Surplus hens are sold off or new houses inserted as the case may be -until there is room for the pullets in the houses. Each coop is -worked up alongside a house and after most of the pullets have taken -to the houses the coops are removed. The vacant lot is now broken up -and sown in a mixture of fall green crops. - -The flock is kept in the corn field until the corn is ripe. The -Kaffir corn and sunflowers are knocked down where they stand and are -threshed by the hens. As soon as the corn crop is ripe the houses -are run back and the corn cut up or husked and the wheat planted in -the corn field. - -The next year the lots are transposed, the young stock being grown -in the lot that had the hens the previous year. - -If the ground is inclined to be at all damp when the fields are -broken up the plowing is done in narrow lands so as to form a -succession of ridges, on which are placed the coops or houses. The -directions of these ridges will be determined by the lay of the -land--the object being neither to dam up water or to encourage -washing. The location of the ridges are alternated by seasons, so -that the droppings from the houses are well distributed throughout -the soil. - -This system with the particular crops found that do best in the -locality, give us an ideal method of poultry husbandry. We have kept -hens and young stock supplied with green food the year round; we -have utilized every particle of manure without one bit of labor. We -have a rotation of crops. We have the benefits to the ground of -several green crops turned under. We have raised one grain crop per -year on most of the ground. We have no labor in feeding and watering -except the keeping of the grain, beef and grit hoppers filled, and -the water system in order. - -The number of fowls that may be kept per acre will be determined by -the richness of the soil. The chief object of the entire scheme is -to provide abundant green pasture at all times and to allow the -production of a reasonable amount of grain. With one hundred hens -per acre on the entire tract, and with houses containing eighty hens -each, it will be necessary to set the houses ninety-five feet apart. -This will give the flock a tract of 95 by 330 feet in which to -pasture. - -The above estimate with a little land allowed for house, garden, -orchard and a little cow and team pasture, will permit the keeping -of two thousand hens on a twenty-five acre farm. In regions where -grain is to be raised most farmers would want more land. They may -also wish to own a few extra cows, hogs, etc., or to alternate the -entire poultry operations with some crop that will, on such highly -fertilized land, give a good cash profit. Forty acres is a good size -for such uses. - -The cost of land when purchased in large tracts in Virginia is very -small, but the cost of clearing is often much more than that of the -land. Twenty-five to fifty dollars an acre should secure such a -tract of land and put it in shape for poultry farming. - -The cost of the farm home, etc., will, of course vary altogether -with the taste of the occupant. If they are constructed by a central -company, from five hundred to a thousand dollars should cover the -amount. - -The cost of poultry buildings and equipment used on the farm will -depend largely on the efficiency of the labor of construction. If -constructed in large numbers by a central company, the cost would be -reduced, but the company would expect to make a profit on their -work. - -A plot laid out for two thousand hens will require in material: 250 -rods of fence with 6-ft. netting which should cost about fifty cents -a rod. My estimate of this fence put up would be $150. If the -neighboring field contained no other poultry, a portion of this -fence might be done away with, although its protection against dogs -and strangers may be worth while. Of course, if poultry fields of -different owners lay adjoining, the fence must be used, but the cost -will be reduced one-half. - -The next most expensive piece of equipment will be a line of about -eighty rods of 3/4 in. gas pipe and about fifty elbows and -twenty-five galvanized iron pans. The cost of installation will -depend largely on how deep it is necessary to go to get below the -frost line. One hundred and seventy-five dollars should cover cost -of material and by the use of a plow the line ought to be put in for -twenty-five dollars. - -The source of water, and the cost of getting a head, will -necessarily vary with the location. The installation of a wind mill -and tank to hold supply for several days, or of a small gasoline -engine, would cost in the neighborhood of one hundred dollars, but -it is a luxury that may be dispensed with if the well is not too -deep. - -The houses for the hens, of which there are twenty-five, are -constructed in accordance with some of the plans previously -discussed. The cost should be about twenty-five cents per hen. - -At least twice as many brooders as colony coops will be needed as -there are hen houses, but of the lamps and hovers not over -twenty-five will be required, as the chicks soon outgrow the need of -this aid. - -This makes a list of equipment required for the keeping of two -thousand layers and their replenishing: - - 25 acres of farm land, at $50 per acre $1250.00 - 250 rods of fence 150.00 - One farmstead 1000.00 - One team, plow and farm implements 300.00 - One watering system 300.00 - 25 hen houses, at $20 500.00 - 50 colony coops, at $2.50 150.00 - 25 lamps and hovers, at $5 125.00 - -------- - $3775.00 - -[Transcriber's note: "50 colony coops, at $2.50" is $125.00, not -$150. The total should therefore be $3750 rather than $3775. This -was, presumably, a printing error, because the correct total is -used in the further calculations below.] - -This is a good, liberal capitalization. The business can be started -with much less. Figured interest at 6 per cent. we have $225.00 per -year. - -The upkeep of the plant will be about 15 per cent. on the capital, -not counting land. This equals $375, which, added to interest, gives -an annual overhead expense of $600, which is our first item to be -set against gross receipts. - -The cost of operation will involve cost of chicks at hatchery, -purchased feed, seed for ground, and feed for team. - -The price of chicks at the Petaluma hatcheries is from six to eight -cents each. We expect to raise enough pullets to make up for the -accidental losses, and to renew bulk of the flock each year. The -number required will, of course, depend upon the loss. This loss -will be much less when the chicks are obtained from a modern -moisture controlled hatchery, than from the box type incubator. I -think a 33 per cent. loss is a liberal estimate, but as I am -treading on unproven ground, I will make that loss 40 per cent., -which is on a par with old style methods. To replace 1,000 hens, -this will require 3,500 chicks at a cost of about two hundred and -fifty dollars. - -Green pasturage throughout the year will materially cut down the -cost of feed. The corn consumed out of the hoppers will be about one -bushel per hen. The beef scrap will also be less than with yarded -fowls, perhaps twenty-five cents per hen. Now, of the corn we will -raise on the land, at least ten acres. This should yield us five -hundred bushels. This leaves fifteen hundred bushels of corn to be -purchased. At the present high rates, this will cost $1,000 which, -added to beef scrap cost, makes an outside feed cost of $1,500. The -seed cost of rye, rape, cow-peas, etc., will amount to about $50 per -annum. For expense of production we have: - - Interest and upkeep of plant $600.00 - Chicks 250.00 - Purchased corn 1000.00 - Beef scrap and grit 500.00 - Seed 50.00 - Team feed 100.00 - --------- - $2,500.00 - -This figures out the cost of production at a little more than a -dollar per hen. The income from the place should be about as -follows: Eleven hundred cockerels sold as squab broilers at 40 cents -each, $440.00; four hundred and seventy-five old hens at 30 cents, -$140.00. - -The receipts from egg yield are, of course, impossible of very -accurate calculation, for it is here that the personal element that -determines success or failure enters. The Arkansas per-hen-day -figures (see last chapter), multiplied by the average quotation for -extras in the New York market, will be as fair as any, and certainly -cannot be considered a high estimate, as it is only 113 eggs per hen -per year. - - Price per doz Income for - Eggs per Extras month from - hen day in New York 2000 layers - --------------------------------------------- - January .32 $ .30 $494.00 - February .30 .29 404.00 - March .62 .22 700.00 - April .38 .19 350.00 - May .44 .19 429.00 - June .42 .18 377.00 - July .34 .21 367.00 - August .38 .22 429.00 - September .21 .25 262.00 - October .22 .28 316.00 - November .18 .33 267.00 - December .15 .32 246.00 - --------- - Total $4,641.00 - -The total income as figured will be $5,221. From this subtract the -cost of production, and we have still nearly $3,000, which is to be -combined item of wages and profit. We have entered no labor bill -because this is to be a one-man farm, and with the assistance of the -public hatchery and co-operative marketing association, which will -send a wagon right to a man's door to gather the eggs, it is -entirely feasible for one man to attend to two thousand hens. In the -rush spring season other members of the family will have to turn out -and help, or a man may be hired to attend the plowing and rougher -work. - -This is a good handsome income, and yet the above price of the man's -labor--it is only about one dollar per hen, which has always been -the estimated profit of successful poultry keeping. As a matter of -fact, this profit is seldom reached under the old system of poultry -keeping, not because the above gross income cannot be reached, but -because the expenses are greater. Under the present methods, with -the exception of the rearing of the young chicks, one man can easily -take care of three thousand hens. Indeed, practically the only work -in their care is cultivating the ground and hauling around and -dumping into hoppers, about two loads of feed per week. - -But, young chicks must be reared, and this is more laborious. For -this reason I advise going into some other industry on a part of the -land, which will not require attention in the young chick season. -One of the best things for this purpose is the cultivation of cane -fruits as blackberries, raspberries and dewberries. The work of -caring for these can be made to fall wholly without the young chick -season. Peaches and grapes for a slower profit can be added, but -spraying and cultivation of these is more liable to take spring -labor. All these fruits have the advantage of doing well in the same -kind of soil recommended for chickens. Young chickens may be grown -around such berry crops and removed to permanent quarters before the -berries ripen. Strawberries would be a very poor crop because their -labor falls in the chick season. - -Another plan, and perhaps a better one, is to have about three -fields, and rotate in such a manner that a marketable crop may be -always kept growing in the third field. Any crop may be selected, -the chief labor of which falls between July and the following March. -Late cabbage and potatoes, or celery, will do if the ground is -suitable for these crops. Kale and spinach are staple fall crops. -Fall lettuce could also be grown. If the market is glutted on such -crops, they can be fed out at home. Whenever a field is vacant, have -some crop growing on it, if only for purposes of green manuring. -Never let sandy ground lie fallow. - -A modification of the above plans suited to heavier ground, is to -seed down the entire farm to grass. It is then divided into three -fields and provided with three sets of colony houses. Coops are -entirely dispensed with, and cheap indoor brooders are used in the -permanent houses. The pullets stay in these same houses in the same -field until the moulting season of the third year, or until they are -two and a half years old. One field will always be vacant during the -fall and winter season which time may be utilized for fresh seeding. - -The difficulty of maintaining a sod will necessitate somewhat -heavier soil than by the previous plan. The houses should be moved -around occasionally, as the grass kills out in the locality. This -plan is a lazy man's way, taking the least labor of any method of -poultry keeping known. It is adapted to the cheaper ground in the -region farthest from market. On the Atlantic seaboard, the more -enterprising man will use the third field for rotation, and sell -some of the fertility of the western grain in the form of a truck -crop. - - -Five Acre Poultry Farms. - -Can a living for a family be made from a five acre poultry farm? -Yes; by individual effort, where the marketing opportunities are -good; by corporate or co-operate effort, any place where the -fundamental conditions are right. - -This type of poultry farm is well suited for development near our -large cities, where the cry of "back to the land" has filled with -new hope the discouraged dweller in flat and tenement. No greater -chance for humanitarian work, and at the same time no greater -business opportunity, is open to-day than that of the promotion of -colonies of small poultry and truck farms where the parent colony -not only sells the land, but helps the settler to establish himself -in the business and to successfully market the product. The natural -location for such projects is in the sandy soils of New Jersey, -Delaware, Maryland and Virginia. - -We have already discussed the twenty-five acre farm, representing -the largest probable unit for such an enterprise. We will now -discuss the five acre farm which represents the smallest probable -unit. - -On the five-acre farm a considerable difference of methods will be -necessary. In the first place, it is to be a horseless farm. All -hauling and plowing must be attended to by the central company, or -the same results could be obtained by a team owned in common by a -small group, say of six farmers, each of whom is to use the team one -day of the week. - -A single isolated farmer in a community of farms or market -gardeners, could hire a team by the day as he needed it. I do not -recommend this scheme, however, but would suggest that the single -individual get a larger plot of ground, at least ten acres, and a -team of his own. In the co-operative community the five-acre -teamless farm is entirely feasible. - -The tract should be surveyed about twice as long as wide, which, for -five acres, makes it 20 by 40 rods, or 330 by 660 feet. Measure off -a strip one hundred feet back from the road. Fence the remainder of -the tract. Now run a partition fence down the center until we have -come to within twelve rods of the back side. Here run a cross fence. -This gives us three yards of about one and one-half acres each. The -gates are arranged so that one passes through the three yards in a -single trip. - -Where the middle partition fence adjoins the front fence, a well is -driven. A water line is run down the partition fence to the rear -yard. - -The plot around the house is set in permanent crops, such as -berries, fruit trees, asparagus, rhubarb, etc. Of the other three -yards, at least one is kept in growing marketable crops. Every inch -is cultivated, and crops of the leafy nature, as lettuce, cabbage, -kale and spinach, are chiefly grown, as they utilize the rich -nitrogenous poultry manure to the best advantage, and the waste -portions, or worthless crops, are utilized for the poultry. The -method of supplying the fowls with green food is entirely by -soiling. This means to grow the food in an adjoining lot and throw -it over the fence. The above mentioned crops are all good for the -purpose. Rape, which is not grown for human food, is also excellent. - -Kale is one of the very best crops for soiling purposes. It is -planted in the fall and fed by pulling off the lower leaves during -the winter. In the spring the hardened stalks stand at a -considerable height and the field may be used for growing young -chicks, giving shade, and at the same time producing abundant green -feed, without any immediate labor, which means a great saving in the -busy season. - -A set of panels or netting stretched on light frames is provided. -They are of sufficient number to set along the longest side of one -of the fields. A strip along the fence, four or five feet wide, can -be planted to sunflowers, corn, rape, kale, or other rank growing -crop and the panels leaned against the fence to protect the young -plants from the hens. In this way the fence rows can be kept -provided with the shade of growing crops, which relieves the -otherwise serious fault of this plan of poultry farming, in that the -hens would be required to live in absolutely barren and sunburned -lots, for we propose to keep five or six hundred hens on one and a -half acres of ground, and no green things could get a start without -protection. - -Rotate the houses from field to field as often as the crops allow. -Never permit hens to run in one bare field for more than six months -at a time. Always keep every inch of ground not in use by the -chickens, luxuriant in something green. If you have a crop of -vegetables which are about matured, drill rape or crimson clover -between the rows; by the time the crop is harvested and the hens are -to be moved in, such crops will have made a good growth. The hens -will kill it out but it will be a "profitable killing." - -By this system of intensive combination of trucking and poultry -farming, we have a combination which for small capital and small -lands cannot be beaten. The hens should yield better than a dollar -profit per head on this plan; the one and a half acres automatically -fertilized and intensely cultivated, growing two or three crops a -year, should easily double the income. - -Twelve hundred dollars a year is a conservative estimate for the net -income from such a plant, and the original investment, exclusive of -residence, will not be over one thousand dollars. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -INCUBATION - - -The differences in the process of reproduction in birds and mammals -is frequently misunderstood. The laying of the bird's egg is not -analogous to the birth of young in mammals. - -The female, whether bird or beast, forms a true egg which must be -fertilized by the male sperm cell before the offspring can develop. -In the mammal, if fertilization does not occur, the egg which is -inconspicuous, passes out of the body and is lost. If fertilized, it -passes into the womb where the young develops through the embryonic -stages, being supplied with nourishment and oxygen directly by the -mother. - -In the bird, the egg, fertilized or unfertilized, passes out of the -body and, being of conspicuous size, is readily observed. The size -of the egg is due to the supply of food material which is comparable -with that supplied to the mammalian young during its stay in the -mother's womb. - -The reptiles lay eggs that are left to develop outside of the body -of the mother, subject to the vicissitudes of the environment. The -young of the bird, being warm blooded, cannot develop without more -uniform temperature than weather conditions ordinarily supply. This -heat is supplied by the instinctive brooding habit of the mother -bird. - - -Fertility of Eggs - -In a state of nature the number of eggs laid by wild fowl are only -as many as can be covered by the female. These are laid in the -spring of the year, and one copulation of the male bird is -sufficient to fertilize the entire clutch. Under domestication, the -hen lays quite indefinitely, and is served by the male at frequent -intervals. The fertilizing power of the male bird extends over a -period of about 15 days. - -For most of my readers, it will be unnecessary to state that the -male has no influence upon the other offspring than those which he -actually fertilizes within this period. The belief in the influence -of the first male upon the later hatches by another male is simply a -superstition. - -The domestic chicken is decidedly polygamous. The common rule is one -male to 12 or 15 hens. I have had equally good results, however, -with one male to 20 hens. In the Little Compton and South Shore -districts, one male is used for thirty or even forty hens. - -By infertile eggs is meant eggs in which the sperm cell has never -united with the ovum. Such eggs may occur in a flock from the -absence of the male, from his disinclination or physical inability -to serve the hens, from the weakness or lack of vitality in the -sperm cells, from his neglect of a particular hen, from -lifelessness, or lack of vitality in the ovule, or from chance -misses, by which some eggs fail to be reached by the sperm cells. - -In practice, lack of sexual inclination in a vigorous looking -rooster is very rare indeed. The more likely explanation is that he -neglects some hens, or that the eggs are fertilized, but the germs -die before incubation begins, or in the early stages of that -process. The former trouble may be avoided by having a relay of -roosters and shutting each one up part of the time. The latter -difficulty will be diminished by setting the egg as fresh as -possible, meanwhile storing them in a cool place. The other factors -to be considered in getting fertile eggs, are so nearly synonymous -with the problems of health and vitality in laying stock generally, -that to discuss it here would be but a repetition of ideas. - -In connection with the discussion of fertile eggs, I want to point -out the fact that the whole subject of fertility as distinct from -hatchability, is somewhat meaningless. The facts of the case are, -that whatever factors in the care of the stock will get a large -percentage fertile eggs, will also give hatchable eggs and vice -versa. This is to be explained by the fact that most of the -unfertile eggs tested out during incubation, are in reality dead -germs in which death has occurred before the chick became visible to -the naked eye. Such deaths should usually be ascribed to poor -parentage, but may be caused by wrong storage or incubation. -Likewise, it would not be just to credit all deaths after chicks -became visible to wrong incubation, although the most of the blame -probably belongs there. - -Likewise, with brooder chicks, we must divide the credit of their -livability in an arbitrary fashion between parentage, incubation, -and care after hatching. - -By the hatchability of eggs, we then mean the percentage of eggs set -that hatch chicks able to walk and eat. By the livability of chicks, -we mean the percentage of chicks hatched that live to the age of -four weeks, after which they are subject to no greater death rate -than adult chickens. By the livability of eggs, we mean the product -of these two factors, i.e.: the percentage of chicks at four weeks -of age based upon the total number of eggs set. - -As before mentioned, the fertility of eggs bears fairly definite -relation to the hatchability, so likewise the hatchability bears a -relation to the livability of chicks. When poor hatches occur -because of weak germs, as because of faulty incubation, this same -injury to the chick's organism is carried over and causes a larger -death among the hatched chicks. - -Moreover, the relation between the two is not the same with all -classes of hatches, but as hatches get poorer the mortality among -the chicks increases at an accelerating rate. The following table -gives a rough approximation of these ratios: - - Per cent. of Per cent. of chick Per cent. of egg - Hatchability. Livability. Livability. - 100 100 100 - 90 95 85 - 80 88 70 - 70 84 50 - 60 72 43 - 50 55 27 - 40 40 16 - 30 24 7 - 20 10 2 - 10 2 1 - -These figures are based on incubator data. Eggs set under hens -usually give a hatchability of 50 per cent. to 65 per cent., and -livability of 70 per cent. to 80 per cent. The reason for the -greater livability is that the real hatchability of the eggs is 70 -per cent. to 75 per cent., and is reduced by mechanical breakage. -The hatchability of eggs varies with the season. This variation is -commonly ascribed to nature, it being stated that springtime is the -natural breeding season, and therefore eggs are of greater -fertility. - -While there may be a little foundation for this idea, the chief -cause is to be found in the manner of artificial incubation, as will -be discussed in a later section of this chapter. The following table -is given as the seasonable hatchability for northern states. This is -based on May hatch of 50 per cent: - - January 38 July 40 - February 42 August 40 - March 47 September 42 - April 49 October 43 - May 50 November 40 - June 46 December 35 - -Most people have an exaggerated idea of the hen's success as a -hatcher. I have a number of records of hen hatching with large -numbers of eggs set, and they are all between 55 per cent. and 60 -per cent. The reasons the hen does not hatch better are as follows: - -First: Actual infertile eggs--usually, running about 10 per cent. in -the best season of the year. - -Second: Mechanical breakage. - -Third: Eggs accidentally getting chilled by rolled to one side of -the nests, or by the sick, lousy or crazy hens leaving the nests or -standing up on the eggs. - -Fourth: Eggs getting damp from wet nests, dung or broken eggs; thus -causing bacterial infection and decay. - -The last three causes are not present in artificial incubation. From -my observation they cause a loss of 15 per cent. of the eggs that -fail to hatch, when hens are managed in large numbers. This would -properly credit our hens with hatches running from 70 per cent. to -75 per cent., which, for reasons later explained, is not equal to -hatches under the best known conditions of artificial incubation. - -The assumption that the hen is a perfect hatcher, even barring -accidents and the inherited imperfection of the egg, is not, I -think, in harmony with our general conception of nature. Not only -are eggs under the hens subject to unfavorable weather conditions, -but the hen, to satisfy her whims or hunger, frequently remains too -long away from the eggs, allowing them to become chilled. - -For directions of how to manage setting hens, consult the Chapter on -"Poultry on the General Farm." - - -The Wisdom of the Egyptians. - -Up to the present there have been just three types of artificial -incubation that have proven successful enough to warrant our -attention. These are: - -First, the modern wooden-box-kerosene-lamp incubator which is seen -at its best development in the United States. - -Second, the Egyptian incubator of ancient origin, which is a large -clay oven holding thousands of eggs and warmed by smouldering fires -of straw. - -Third, the Chinese incubator, much on the principle of the Egyptian -hatchery, but run in the room of an ordinary house, heated with -charcoal braziers and used only for duck eggs. - -I have no accurate information on the results of the Chinese method, -and as it is not used for hen eggs, we will confine our attention to -the first two processes only. - -I do not care to go into detail in discussing makes of box -incubators, but I will mention briefly the chief points in the -development of our present machines. - -The first difficulties were in getting lamps, regulators, etc., that -would give a uniform temperature. This now has been worked out to a -point where, with any good incubator and an experienced operator, -the temperature of the egg chamber is readily kept within the -desired range. - -These are two principal types of box incubators now in use. In the -earliest of these, the eggs were heated by radiation from a tank of -hot water. These machines depended for ventilation or, what is much -more important, evaporation, upon chance air currents passing in and -out of augur holes in the ends or bottom of the machine. - -The second, or more modern type, warms the eggs by a current of air -which passes around a lamp flue where, being made lighter by the -expansion due to heat, the air rises, creating a draft that forces -it into the egg chamber. There it is caused to spread by muslin or -felt diaphragms so that no perceptible current of air strikes the -eggs. This type is the most popular type of small incubator on the -market. Its advantage will be more readily seen after the discussion -of the principles of incubation. - -Hazy tales of Egyptian incubators have gone the rounds of poultry -papers these many years. More recently some accurate accounts from -American travelers and European investigators have come to light, -and as a result, the average poultry editor is kept busy trying to -explain how such wonderful results can be obtained "in opposition to -the well-known laws of incubation." - -The facts about Egyptian incubators are as follows: They have a -capacity of 50 to 100 thousand eggs, and are built as a single large -room, partly underground and made of clay reinforced with straw. The -walls are two or three feet thick. Inside, the main rooms are little -clay domes with two floors. - -The hatching season begins the middle of January and lasts three -months. A couple of weeks before the hatching begins, the fireproof -house is filled with straw which is set afire, thoroughly warming -the hatchery. The ashes are then taken out and little fires built in -pots are set around the outside of the big room. The little clay -rooms with the double floors are now filled with eggs. That is, one -is filled at a time, the idea being to have fresh eggs entering and -chicks moving out in a regular order, so as not to cause radical -changes in the temperature of the hatchery. - -No thermometer is used, but the operator has a very highly -cultivated sense of temperature, such as is possessed by a cheese -maker or dynamite dryer. About the twelfth day the eggs are moved to -the upper part of the little interior rooms where they are further -removed from the heated floor. The eggs are turned and tested out -much as in this country. They are never cooled and the room is full -of the fumes and smoke of burning straw. The ventilation provided is -incidental. - -This is about the whole story save for results. The incubator men -pay back three chicks for four eggs, and take their profits by -selling the extra chicks that are hatched above the 75 per cent. -This statement is in itself so astonishing and yet convincing, that -to add that the hatch runs between 85 per cent. and 90 per cent. of -all eggs set, and that the incubators of the Nile Delta hatch about -75,000,000 chicks a year seems almost superfluous. As for the -explanation of the results of the Egyptian incubators compared with -the American kerosene lamp type, I think it can best be brought -about by a consideration in detail of the scientific principles of -incubators. - - -Principles of Incubation. - -HEAT.--To keep animal life, once started, alive and growing, we -need: First, a suitable surrounding temperature. Second, a fairly -constant proportion of water in the body substance. Third, oxygen. -Fourth, food. - -Now, a fertile egg is a living young animal and as such its wants -should be considered. We may at once dispose of the food problem of -the unhatched chick, by saying that the food is the contents of the -egg at the time of laying, and as far as incubation is concerned, is -beyond our control. - -In consideration of external temperature in its relation to life, we -should note: (A) the optimum temperature; (B) the range of -temperature consistent with general good health; (C) the range at -which death occurs. Just to show the principle at stake, and without -looking up authorities, I will state these temperatures for a number -of animals. Of course you can dispute the accuracy of these figures, -but they will serve to illustrate our purpose: - - - External External External Internal Internal - Optimum Healthful Fatal Optimum Fatal - Point Range Range Point Range - - Man 70 0 to 100 50 to 140 98 90 to 106 - - Dog 60 70 to 140 70 to 140 101 95 to 110 - - Monkey 90 30 to 140 30 to 140 101 95 to 108 - - Horse 80 20 to 120 20 to 120 99 95 to 105 - - Fowl 80 20 to 140 20 to 140 107 100 to 115 - - Newly hatched - chick 90 70 to 100 40 to 120 108 100 to 115 - - Fertile egg - at start of - incubation 103 32 to 110 31 to 125 103 31 to 125 - - Egg incubated - three days 103 98 to 105 80 to 118 103 95 to 118 - - Egg incubated - eighteen days 103 75 to 105 50 to 118 106 98 to 116 - -This table shows, among other things, that we are considering in the -chick not a new proposition to which the laws of general animal life -do not apply, but merely a young animal during the process of growth -to a point where its internal mechanism for heat control, has power -to maintain the body temperature through a greater range of external -temperature change. - -In the cooling process that occurs after laying the living cells of -the egg become dormant, and like a hibernating animal, the actual -internal temperature can be subjected to a much greater range than -when the animal is active. After incubation begins and cell activity -returns, and especially after blood forms and circulation commences, -the temperature of the chick becomes subject to about the same -internal range as with other warm blooded animals. - -In the case of fully formed animals, the internal temperature is -regulated by a double process. If the external temperature be -lowered, more food substance is combined with oxygen to keep up the -warmth of the body, while, if the external temperature be raised, -the body temperature is kept low by the cooling effects of -evaporation. This occurs in mammals chiefly by sweating. Birds do -not sweat, but the same effect is brought about by increased -breathing. Now, the chick gradually develops the heat producing -function during incubation, until towards the close of the period it -can take care of itself fairly well in case of lowered external -temperature. The power to cool the body by breathing is not, -however, granted to the unhatched chick, and for this reason the -incubating egg cannot stand excess of heat as well as lack of it. - -The practical points to be remembered from the above are: - -First: Before incubation begins, eggs may be subjected to any -temperature that will not physically or chemically injure the -substance. - -Second: During the first few days of the hatch, eggs have no -appreciable power of heat formation and the external temperature for -any considerable period of time can safely vary only within the -range of temperature at which the physiological process may be -carried on. - -Third: As the chick develops it needs less careful guarding against -cooling, and must still be guarded against over-heating. - -Fourth: It should be remembered, however, that eggs are very poor -conductors of heat, and if the temperature change is not great -several hours of exposure are required to bring the egg to the new -temperature. - -Temperature is the most readily observed feature about natural -incubation and its control was consequently the first and chief -effort of the early incubator inventors. - -A great deal of experimental work has been done to determine the -degree of temperature for eggs during incubation. The temperature of -the hen's blood is about 105 to 107 degrees F. The eggs are not -warmed quite to this temperature, the amount by which they fail to -reach the temperature of the hen's body depending, of course, upon -the surrounding temperature. 103 degrees F. is the temperature that -has been generally agreed upon by incubator manufacturers. Some of -these advise running 102 degrees the first week, 103 degrees the -second, 104 degrees the third. As a matter of fact it is very -difficult to determine the actual temperature of the egg in the box -incubator. This is because the source of heat is above the eggs and -the air temperature changes rapidly as the thermometer is raised or -lowered through the egg chamber. The advice to place the bulb of the -thermometer against the live egg is very good, but in practice quite -variable results will be found on different eggs and different parts -of the machine. - -With incubators of the same make, and in all appearances identical, -quite marked variation in hatching capacity has been observed in -individual machines. Careful experimentation will usually show this -to be a matter of the way the thermometer is hung in relation to the -heating surfaces and to the eggs. Ovi-thermometers, which consists -of a thermometer enclosed in the celluloid imitation of an egg, are -now in the market and are perhaps as safe as anything that can be -used. - -As was indicated in the previous section greater care in temperature -of the egg is necessary in the first half of the hatch. The -temperature of 102 degrees F. as above given is, in the writer's -opinion, too low for this portion of the hatch. An actual -temperature of 104 degrees at the top of the eggs will, as has been -shown by careful experimental work, give better hatches than the -lower temperature. - - -Moisture and Evaporation. - -The subject of the water content of the egg and its relation to -life, is the least understood of poultry problems. - -The whole study of the water content of the egg during incubation -hangs on the amount of evaporation. Now, the rates of evaporation -from any moist object is determined by two factors: vapor pressure -and the rate of movement of the air past the object. As incubation -is always carried on at the same temperature, the evaporating power -of the air is directly proportioned to the difference in the vapor -pressure of water at that temperature, and the vapor pressure of the -air as it enters the machine. Thus, in order to know the evaporative -power of the air, we have only to determine the vapor pressure of -the air and to remember that the rate of evaporation is in -proportion to this pressure, i.e.: when the vapor pressure is high -the evaporation will be slow and the eggs remain too wet, and when -the vapor pressure is low the eggs will be excessively dried out. - -The reader is probably more familiar with the term relative humidity -than the term vapor pressure, but as the actual significance of -relative humidity is changed at every change in outside temperature, -the use of this term for expressing the evaporating power of the air -has led to no end of confusion. - -The influence of air currents on evaporation is to increase it -directly proportional with the rate of air movement. Thus, 10 cubic -feet of air per hour passing through an egg chamber would remove -twice as much moisture as would 5 cubic feet. - -If the percentage of water in any living body be changed a -relatively small amount, serious disturbances of the physiological -processes and ultimately death will result. The mature animal can, -by drinking, take considerable excess of water without danger, for -the surplus will be speedily removed by perspiration and by the -secretion from the kidneys. But the percentage of water in the -actual tissues of the body can vary only within a narrow range of -not more than three or four per cent. The chick in the shell is not -provided with means of increasing its water content by drinking or -diminishing it by excretion, but the fresh egg is provided with more -moisture than the hatched chick will require, and the surplus is -gradually lost by evaporation. This places the water content of the -chick's body at the mercies of the evaporating power of the air that -surrounds the egg during incubation. - -To assume that these risks of uncertain rates of evaporation is -desirable, is as absurd as to assume that the risks of rainfall are -desirable for plant life. As the plants of a certain climate have -become adapted to the amount of soil moisture which the climate is -likely to provide, so the egg has by natural selection been formed -with about as much excess of water as will be lost in an average -season under the natural conditions of incubation. Plant life -suffers in drought or flood, and likewise bird life suffers in -seasons of abnormal evaporative conditions. This view is -substantiated by the fact that the eggs of water fowl which are in -nature incubated in damper places, have a lower water content than -the eggs of land birds. - -The per cent. of water contained in the contents of fresh eggs is -about 74 per cent., or about 65.5 per cent, based on the weight, -shell included. Unfortunately no investigations have been made -concerning the per cent. of water present in the newly hatched -chick. - -Upon the subject of the loss of water for the whole period of -incubation, valuable data has been collected at the Utah, Oregon and -Ontario Experiment Stations. - -In these tests we find that as a rule the evaporation of eggs under -hens is less than in incubators. With both hens and incubators, the -rate of evaporation is greatest at the Utah Station, which one would -naturally expect from the climate. The eggs under hens at the -Ontario Station averaged about 12 per cent. loss in weight, and -those at the Utah Station about 15 per cent. At both stations, -incubators without moisture ran several per cent. higher evaporation -than eggs under hens. The conclusions at all stations were that the -addition of moisture to incubators was a material aid to good -hatches of livable chicks. - -At Ontario the average evaporation ran from as low as 7 per cent. At -Utah it reached as high as 24 per cent. Now as the entire loss of -weight is loss of water, the solid contents remaining the same, and -as the original per cent, of water contained in the egg (shell -included) is only 65.5, the chicks of the two lots with the same -amount of solid substance would contain water in the proportion of -58.5 to 41.5. Based on the weight of the chick, this would make a -difference of water content of over 25 per cent. - -That human beings or other animals could not exist with such -differences in the chemical composition of the body, is at once -apparent. In fact I do not believe that the chick can live under -such remarkable circumstances. As I have picked the extreme cases in -the series given, it is possible that these extremes were -experimental errors, and as in the Utah data, no information is -given as what happened to the chicks, I have no proof that they did -live. But from the large number of hatches that were recorded below -9 per cent, and above 15 per cent., giving a variation of the actual -water content in the chick's body of about 10 per cent., it is -evident that chicks do hatch under remarkable physiological -difficulties. One explanation that suggests itself is, that as there -is considerable variation in evaporation of individual eggs due to -the amount of shell porosity, and the chicks that hatch in either -case may be the ones whose individual variations threw them nearer -the normal. - -By a further study from the Ontario data of the relation of the -evaporation to the results in livable chicks, it can be readily -observed that all good hatches have evaporation centering around the -12 per cent. moisture loss, and that all lots with evaporations -above 15 per cent. hatch out extremely poor. - -The general averages of the machines supplied with some form of -moisture was 35 per cent. of all eggs set, in chicks alive at four -weeks of age, while the machines ran dry gave only 20 per cent. of -live chicks at a similar period. - -Now, I wish to call attention to a further point in connection with -evaporation. If the final measure of the loss of weight by -evaporation were the only criterion of correct conditions of -moisture in the chick's body, the hatches that show 12 per cent., or -whatever the correct amount of evaporation may be, should be -decidedly superior to those on either side. That they are better, -has already been shown. But they are far from what they should be. -An explanation is not hard to find. The correct content of moisture -is not the only essential to the chick's well being at the moments -of hatching, but during the whole period of incubation. Under our -present system of incubation, the chick is immediately subject to -the changing evaporation of American weather conditions. The data -for that fact, picked at random, will be of interest. The following -table gives the vapor pressure at Buffalo, N. Y., for twenty -consecutive days in April: - -April 1..................170 - 2..................130 - 3...................95 - 4..................103 - 5..................110 - 6..................106 - 7..................154 - 8..................183 - 9..................245 - 10.................311 - 11.................342 - 12.................286 - 13.................219 - 14.................248 - 15.................217 - 16.................193 - 17.................241 - 18.................306 - 19.................261 - 20.................204 - -Supposing a hatch to be started at the beginning of the above -period, by the end of the first week, with the excessive -evaporation, due to a low vapor pressure, the eggs would all be -several per cent. below the normal water content; the fact that the -next week was warm and rainy, and the vapor pressure rose until the -loss was entirely counterbalanced, would not repair the injury, even -though the eggs showed at the end of incubation exactly the correct -amount of shrinkage. A man might thirst in the desert for a week, -then, coming to a hole of water fall in and drown, but we would -hardly accept the report of a normal water content found at the -post-mortem examination as evidence that his death was not connected -with the moisture problem. - -The change of evaporation, due to weather conditions, is, under -hens, less marked than in incubators. This is because there are no -drafts under the hen, and because the hen's moist body and the moist -earth, if she sets on the ground, are separate sources of moisture -which the changing humidity of the atmosphere does not affect. Among -about forty hens set at different times at the Utah Station and the -loss of moisture of which was determined at three equal periods of -six days each, the greatest irregularity I found was as follows: 1st -period, 5.81 per cent; 2d period, 3.86 per cent; 3d period, 6.15 per -cent. Compare this with a similar incubator record at the same -station in which the loss for the three periods was 5.63, 9.18 and -2.15. - -I think the reader is now in position to appreciate the almost -unsurmountable difficulties in the proper control of evaporation -with the common small incubator in our climate. It is little wonder -that one of our best incubator manufacturers, after studying the -proposition for some time, threw over the whole moisture -proposition, and put out a machine in which drafts of air were -slowed down by felt diaphragms and the use of moisture was strictly -forbidden. - -The moisture problem to the small incubator operator presents itself -as follows: If left to the mercies of chance and the weather, the -too great or too little evaporation from his eggs will yield hatches -that will prove unprofitable. In order to regulate this evaporation, -he must know and be able to control both vapor pressure and the -currents of air that strike the eggs. Now he does not know the -amount of vapor pressure and has no way of finding it out. The -so-called humidity gauges on the market are practically worthless, -and even were the readings on relative humidity accurately -determined, they would be wholly confusing, for their effect of the -same relative humidity on the evaporation will vary widely with -variations of the out-of-door temperature. - -If the operator knows or guesses that the humidity is too low, he -can increase it by adding water to the room, or the egg chamber, but -he cannot tell when he has too much, nor can he reduce the vapor -pressure of the air on rainy days when nature gives him too much -water. As to air currents he is little better off--he has no way to -tell accurately as to the behavior of air in the egg chamber and -changes in temperature of the heater or if the outside air will -throw these currents all off, since they depend upon the draft -principle. - -Taking it all in all, the man with the small incubator had better -follow the manufacturer's directions and trust to luck. - -The writer has long been of the conviction that a plan which would -keep the rate of evaporation within as narrow bounds as we now keep -the temperature, would not only solve the problem of artificial -incubation, but improve on nature and increase not only the numbers -but the vitality or livability of the chicks. With a view of -studying further the relations between the conditions of atmospheric -vapor pressure, and the success of artificial incubation, I have -investigated climatic reports and hatching records in the various -sections of the world. - -The following are averages of the monthly vapor pressures at four -points in which we are interested: - - Buffalo, St. Louis, San Fran- Cairo - Month N.Y. Mo. cisco. Egypt - January 87 98 311 279 - February 81 94 310 288 - March 138 224 337 287 - April 171 283 332 311 - May 301 423 317 328 - June 466 550 345 365 - July 546 599 374 413 - August 496 627 382 435 - September 429 506 389 372 - October 285 327 342 365 - November 271 225 285 321 - December 143 133 243 397 - -A study of the extent of daily variations is also of interest. As a -general thing they are less extreme in localities when the seasonal -variations are also less. In Cairo, however, which has a seasonal -variation greater than San Francisco, the daily variations during -the hatching season are much less than in California. This is due to -a constant wind from sea to land, and an absolute absence of -rainfall, conditions for which Egypt is noted. - -Nearness to a coast does not mean uniform vapor pressure, for with -wind alternating from sea to land, it means just the opposite. - -As will be readily seen the months in spring which give the best -hatches, occupy a medium place in the humidity scale. The fact that -both hens and machines succeed best in this period, is to me very -suggestive of the possibility that with an incubator absolutely -controlling evaporation, much of the seasonal variation in the -hatchability would disappear. - -The uniform humidity of the California coast is shown in the above -table. This is not inconsistent with the excellent results obtained -at Petaluma. - -The Egyptian hatcher in his long experience has learned just about -how much airholes and smudge fire are necessary to get results. With -these kept constant and the atmosphere constant, we have more nearly -perfect conditions of incubation than are to be found anywhere else -in the world, and I do not except the natural methods. The climatic -conditions of Egypt cannot be equaled in any other climate, but as -will be shown in the last section of this chapter, their effect can -be duplicated readily enough by modern science and engineering. - -Mr. Edward Brown, who was sent over here by the English Government -to investigate our poultry industry, was greatly surprised at our -poor results in artificial incubation. Compared with our -acknowledged records of less than 50 per cent. hatches, he quotes -the results obtained in hatching 18,000 eggs at an English -experiment station as 62 per cent. I have not obtained any data of -English humidity, but it is undoubtedly more uniform than the -eastern United States. - - -Ventilation--Carbon Dioxide. - -The last of the four life requisites we have to consider is that of -oxygen. The chick in the shell, like a fish, breathes oxygen which -is dissolved in a liquid. A special breathing organ is developed for -the chick during its embryonic stages and floats in the white and -absorbs the oxygen and gives off carbon dioxide. The amount of this -breathing that occurs in the chick is at first insignificant, but -increases with development. At no time, however, is it anywhere -equal to that of the hatched chicks, for the physiological function -to be maintained by the unhatched chicks requires little energy and -little oxidation. - -Upon the subject of ventilation in general, a great misunderstanding -exists. Be it far from me to say anything that will cause either my -readers or his chickens to sleep less in the fresh air, yet for the -love of truth and for the simplification of the problem of -incubation, the real facts about ventilation must be given. - -In breathing, oxygen is absorbed and carbon dioxide and water vapor -are given off. It is popularly held that abundance of fresh air is -necessary to supply the oxygen for breathing and that carbon dioxide -is a poison. Both are mistakes. The amount of oxygen normally in the -air is about 20 per cent. Of carbon dioxide there is normally three -hundredths of one per cent. During breathing these gasses are -exchanged in about equal volume. A doubling or tripling of carbon -dioxide was formerly thought to be "very dangerous." Now, if the -carbon dioxide were increased 100 times, we would have only three -per cent., and have seventeen per cent. of oxygen remaining. This -oxygen would still be of sufficient pressure to readily pass into -the blood. We might breathe a little faster to make up for the -lessened oxygen pressure. In fact such a condition of the air would -not be unlike the effects of higher altitudes. - -Some investigations recently conducted at the U.S. Experiment -Station for human nutrition, have shown the utter misconception of -the old idea of ventilation. The respiratory calorimeter is an -air-tight compartment in which men are confined for a week or more -at a time while studies are being made concerning heat and energy -yielded by food products. It being inconvenient to analyze such an -immense volume of air as would be necessary to keep the room -freshened according to conventional ventilation standards, -experiments were made to see how vitiated the air could be made -without causing ill effects to the subject. - -This led to a remarkable series of experiments in which it was -repeatedly demonstrated that a man could live and work for a week at -a time without experiencing any ill effects whatever in an -atmosphere of his own breath containing as high as 1.86 per cent. of -carbon dioxide, or, in other words, the air had its impurity -increased 62 times. This agrees with what every chemist and -physiologist has long known, and that is that carbon dioxide is not -poisonous, but is a harmless dilutant just as nitrogen. This does -not mean that a man or animal may not die of suffocation, but that -these are smothered, as they are drowned, by a real absence of -oxygen, not poisoned by a fraction of 1 per cent. of carbon dioxide. - -In the same series of experiments, search was made for the -mysterious poisons of the breath which many who had learned of the -actual harmlessness of carbon dioxide alleged to be the cause of the -ill effects attributed to foul air. Without discussion, I will say -that the investigators failed to find such poisons, but concluded -that the sense of suffocation in an unventilated room is due not to -carbon dioxide or other "poisonous" respiratory products, but is -wholly due to warmth, water vapor, and the unpleasant odors given -off by the body. - -The subject of ventilation has always been a bone of contention in -incubator discussions. With its little understood real importance, -as shown in the previous section, and the greatly exaggerated -popular notions of the importance of oxygen and imagined poisonous -qualities of carbon dioxide, the confusion in the subject should -cause little wonder. - -A few years ago some one with an investigating mind decided to see -if incubators were properly ventilated, and proceeded to make carbon -dioxide determinations of the air under a hen and in an incubator. -The air under the hen was found to contain the most of the obnoxious -gas. Now, this information was disconcerting, for the hen had always -been considered the source of all incubator wisdom. Clearly the -perfection of the hen or the conception of pure air must be -sacrificed. Chemistry here came to the rescue, and said that carbon -dioxide mixed with water, formed an acid and acid would dissolve the -lime of an egg shell. Evidently the hen was sacrificing her own -health by breathing impure air in order to soften up the shells a -little so the chicks could get out. Since it could have been -demonstrated in a few hours in any laboratory, that carbon dioxide -in the quantities involved, has no perceptible effect upon egg -shells, it is with some apology that I mention that quite a deal of -good brains has been spent upon the subject by two experiment -stations. The data accumulated, of course, fails to prove the -theory, but it is interesting as further evidence of the -needlessness in the old fear of insufficient ventilation. - -At the Ontario Station, the average amounts of carbon dioxide under -a large number of hens was .32 of one per cent., or about ten times -that of fresh air, or one-sixth of that which the man breathed so -happily in the respiratory calorimeter. With incubators, every -conceivable scheme was tried to change the amount of carbon dioxide. -In some, sour milk was placed which, in fermenting, gives off the -gas in question. Others were supplied with buttermilk, presumably to -familiarize the chickens with this article so they would recognize -it in the fattening rations. In other machines, lamp fumes were run -in, and to still others, pure carbon dioxide was supplied. The -percentage of the gas present varied in the machines from .06 to .58 -of one per cent. The results, of course, vary as any run of hatches -would. The detailed discussion of the hatches and their relation to -the amount of carbon dioxide as given in Bulletin 160 of the Ontario -Station, would be unfortunately confusing to the novice, but would -make amusing reading for the old poultryman. Speaking of a -comparison of two hatches, the writer, on page 53 of the bulletin -says, "The increase in vitality of chicks from the combination of -the carbon dioxide and moisture over moisture only, amounting, as it -does, to 4.5 per cent. of the eggs set, seems directly due to the -higher carbon dioxide content." I cannot refrain from suggesting -that if my reader has two incubators, he might set up a Chinese -prayer machine in front of one and see if he cannot in like manner -demonstrate the efficacy of Heavenly supplications in the hatching -of chickens. - -The practical bearing of the subject of ventilation in the small -incubator is almost wholly one of evaporation. The majority of such -machines are probably too much ventilated. In a large and properly -constructed hatchery, such as is discussed in the last section of -this chapter, the entire composition of the air, as well as its -movement, is entirely under control. Nothing has yet been brought to -light that indicates any particular attention need be given to the -composition of such air save in regard to its moisture content, but -as the control of this factor renders it necessary that the air be -in a closed circuit, and not open to all out-doors, it will be very -easy to subject the air to further changes such as the increasing -oxygen, if such can be demonstrated to be desirable. - - -Turning Eggs. - -The subject of turning eggs is another source of rather meaningless -controversy. Of course, the hen moves her eggs around and in doing -so turns them. Doubtless the reader, were he setting on a pile of -door knobs as big as his head, would do the same thing. As proof -that eggs need turning, we are referred to the fact that yolks stick -to the shell if the eggs are not turned. I have candled thousands of -eggs and have yet to see a yolk stuck to the shell unless the egg -contained foreign organism or was several months old. However, I -have seen hundreds of blood rings stuck to the shell. Whether the -chick died because the blood rings stuck or whether the blood rings -stuck because the chicken died I know not, but I have a strong -presumption that the latter explanation is correct, for I see no -reason if the live blood ring was in the habit of sticking to the -shell, why this would not occur in a few hours as well as in a few -days. - -In the year 1901 I saw plenty of chicks hatched out in Kansas in egg -cases, kitchen cupboards and other places where regular turning was -entirely overlooked. - -Mr. J.P. Collins, head of the Produce Department of Swift & Co., -says that he was one time cruelly deserted in a Pullman smoker for -telling the same story. The statement is true, however, in spite of -Mr. Collins' unpleasant experience. Texas egg dealers frequently -find hatched chickens in cases of eggs. - -Upon the subject of turning eggs the writer will admit that he is -doing what poultry writers as a class do on a great many occasions, -i.e.: expressing an opinion rather than giving the proven facts. In -incubation practice it is highly desirable to change the position of -eggs so that unevenness in temperature and evaporation will be -balanced. When doing this it is easier to turn the eggs than not to -turn them, and for this reason the writer has never gone to the -trouble of thoroughly investigating the matter. But it has been -abundantly proven that any particular pains in egg turning is a -waste of time. - - -Cooling Eggs. - -The belief in the necessity of cooling eggs undoubtedly arose from -the effort to follow closely and blindly in the footsteps of the -hen. With this idea in mind the fact that the hen cooled her eggs -occasionally led us to discover a theory which proved such cooling -to be necessary. A more reasonable theory is that the hen cools the -eggs from necessity, not from choice. In some species of birds the -male relieves the female while the latter goes foraging. - -But there is no need to argue the question. Eggs will hatch if -cooled according to custom, but that they will hatch as well or -better without the cooling is abundantly proven by the results in -Egyptian incubators where no cooling whatever is practiced. - - -Searching for the "Open Sesame" of Incubation. - -The experiment station workers have, the last few years, gone a -hunting for the weak spot in artificial incubation. Some reference -to this work has already been made in the sections on moisture and -ventilation. Before leaving the subject I want to refer to two more -efforts to find this key to the mystery of incubation and in the one -case at least correct an erroneous impression that has been given -out. - -At the Ontario Station a patent disinfectant wash called "Zenoleum" -was incidentally used to deodorize incubators. Now, for some reason, -perhaps due to the belief that white diarrhoea was caused by a germ -in the egg, this idea of washing with Zenoleum was conceived to be a -possible solution of the incubator problem. In the numerous -experiments at that station in 1907 Zenoleum applied to the machine -in various ways was combined with various other incipient panaceas -and at the end of the season the results of the various combinations -were duly tabulated. The machine with buttermilk and Zenoleum headed -the list for livable chicks. - -For reasons explained in the chapter on "Experiment Station Work," -the idea of contrasting the results of one hatch with one sort with -the average results of many hatches of another sort is very poor -science. Feeling that the Station men would hardly be guilty of -expressing as they did in favor of such a method without better -reason, I very carefully went over the results and compared all -machines using Zenoleum with all machines without it. The results in -favor of Zenoleum were less marked but still perceptible. I was -somewhat puzzled, as I could see no rational explanation of the -relation between disinfecting incubator walls and the hatchability -of the chick in its germ-proof cage. Finally I hit upon the scheme -of arranging the hatches by dates and the explanation became at once -apparent. The hatching experiments had extended from March to July, -but the Zenoleum hatches were grouped in April and early in May, -when, as one would expect from weather conditions, all hatches were -running good. After allowing for this error Zenoleum appeared as -harmless and meaningless as would the Attar of Roses. - -The second link after the missing link of incubation to which I wish -to call your attention also occurred at the Ontario Station. The -latter case, however, is happier in that no unwarranted conclusions -were drawn and that an interesting bit of scientific knowledge was -added to the world's store. The conception to be tested was an -offshoot from the carbon dioxide theory. You will remember at the -Utah Station the idea was that carbon dioxide was to dissolve the -shell so the chick could break out easier. - -At the Guelph Station the conception was that the carbon dioxide -might dissolve the lime of the shell for the chick to use in "makin' -hisself." As an egg could not be analyzed fresh and then hatched, a -number were analyzed from the same hens and others from those hens -were then incubated with the various amounts of carbon dioxide, -buttermilk, Zenoleum, and other factors. The lime content of the -contents of the fresh egg averaged about .04 grams. At hatching time -the lime in the chick's body averaged about .20 grams and was always -several times as great as the maximum of the eggs. - -Clearly calcium phosphate of the chick's bones is made by the -digestion of the calcium carbonate from the shell and its -combination with the phosphorus of the yolk. Certainly a remarkable -and hitherto unexplained fact. The amount of lime required is not -great enough, however, to materially weaken the shell, but, of -course, the process is vital to the chick as bones are quite -essential to his welfare, but it is an "inside affair" of which the -three-tenths of one per cent of carbon dioxide incidentally present -under the hen is entirely irrelevant. - -A further observation made by the investigator is that the chicks -which obtained the lowest amount of lime were abnormally weak. As -long as we are powerless to aid the chick in digesting lime this -fact, like the other, belongs in the field of pure, rather than -applied science. I think that we are safe in saying that the -weakness caused the shortage of lime rather than vice versa; if the -writer remembers runts in other animals are usually a little short -of bone material. - -The chemist of the station is to be given special credit for not -jumping at conclusions. In the summary of this work he states: -"There is apparently no connection between the amount of lime -absorbed by the chick and the amount of carbon dioxide present -during incubation." - - -The Box Type of Incubator In Actual Use. - -Although the fact is not so advertised and frequently not recognized -even by the makers, the success of existing incubators is directly -proportional to the extent with which they control evaporation. In -order to show this I have only to call attention briefly to two or -three of the most successful types of incubators on the market. - -Let me first repeat that evaporation increases with increased air -currents and with decreased vapor pressure. Now, the vapor pressure -undergoes all manner of changes with the passing of storm centers -and the changes of prevailing winds. But there is a general tendency -for vapor pressure to increase with increase in outside temperature. -Now, the movement of air in all common incubators depends upon the -draft principle and the greater the difference in machine -temperature and outside temperature the greater will be this draft. -Thus, we have two factors combining to cause variation in the rate -of evaporation. The tendency for the rate of airflow to vary is -diminished when a cellar is used for an incubator room, but the -cellar does not materially remedy the climatic variation in vapor -pressure. - -The general tendency of incubators as ordinarily constructed, is to -dry out the eggs too rapidly. With a view of counteracting this, -water is placed in pans in the egg room. A surface of water exposed -to quiet air does not evaporate as fast as one might think, as is -easily shown by the fact that air above rivers, lakes and even seas -is frequently far from the saturation point. The result of the -moisture pan with a given current of air is that the vapor pressure -is increased a definite amount, but by no means is it regulated or -made uniform. Inasmuch as too much shrinking is the most prevalent -fault in box incubators, the use of moisture is on the whole -beneficial, but in hot, murky weather, with less circulation and -higher outside vapor pressure, the moisture is overdone and the -operator condemns the system. - -The subject not being clearly understood and no means being -available for vapor pressure determinations, the system results in -confusion and disputes. When the felt diaphragm machine was brought -into the market it was advertised as a no-moisture machine. The -result of the diaphragm is that of choking off air movement and -consequently reducing evaporation. This gives exactly the same -results as the use of moisture, but the machine is easier to operate -and seemed to do away with the vexatious moisture problem which, -together perhaps, with some fancied resemblance of felt diaphragms -to hen feathers, has resulted in the widespread use of this type of -machine. - -The latest effort along the lines of reducing evaporation is the -sand tray machine that followed in the wake of the Ontario -investigation. This device simply gives a greater evaporating -surface to the water and hence a greater addition to the vapor -pressure. The results in practice I had given me by a man who last -year hatched sixty-five thousand chicks and as many more ducklings. - -He said: "The sand tray early in the season gave the best hatches -and most vigorous chicks we had, but later on things got too wet and -the chickens drowned." No nicer demonstration of science in practice -could be desired. - -In the present-day incubator of either type we are wholly at the -mercy of sudden climatic changes of vapor pressure. For the slower -changes from season to season some control by greater and less -amounts of supplied moisture, or by ventilator slides is available, -but little understood and seldom practiced. - -It will certainly be of interest to my readers to know the actual -hatches obtained with the prevailing type of box incubator. By -actual hatches we mean the per cent. of live chicks taken out of the -machine to the per cent. of eggs put in. The ordinary published -hatches, based on one per cent. of fertile hatches, are a delusion -and a snare. When eggs are tested out many dead germs come out with -them and the separation of microscopic dead germs from the infertile -egg is, of course, impossible. Such padded and show hatching records -do not interest us. - -Where incubators are run on top of the ground I have found the -results to be poor and to improve, the bigger and deeper and damper -and warmer and less ventilated the cellar is made. The reason for -this is plain. In such a cellar the vapor pressure of the air is not -only greater but is less influenced by the shifting vapor pressure -of the outside air. In a good cellar the operator, though his -knowledge of the factors with which he deals is grievously -deficient, learns, through long and costly experience, about what -addition of moisture or about what rate of ventilation will give him -the best results. In the room more subject to outside influences, -the conditions are so constantly changing that uniformity of -practice never gives uniform results, and hence the operator is -without guidance, either intelligent or blind, and the results are -wholly a product of chance. - -As proof of my contention I may give results of a series of full -season hatches for 1908, each involving several thousand eggs. - -First, a state experiment station, the name of which I do not care -to publish. Incubators kept in a cement basement which has flues in -which fires were built to secure "ample ventilation." This caused a -strong draft of cold, dry air, making the worst possible condition -for incubation. The hatch for the season averaged 25 per cent. and -was explained by lack of vitality in the stock. - -Second, Ontario Agricultural College. A room above ground, moisture -used in most machines and various other efforts being made to -improve the hatches by a staff of half a dozen scientists. Results: -Hatch 48 per cent.--incubator manufacturers call the experimenters -names and say they are ignorant and prejudiced. - -Third, Cornell University: dry ventilated basement representing -typical conditions of common incubator practice of the country. -Results: Hatch 52 per cent., results when given out commonly based -on fertile eggs and every one generally pleased. - -Fourth: One of the most successful poultrymen in New York State, who -has, without knowing why, hit upon the plan of using a no-moisture -type of incubator in a basement which is heated with steam pipes, -which maintains temperature at 70 degrees and has a cement floor -which is kept covered with water. Results: Hatch 59 per cent. - -Fifth: As a fifth in such a series I might mention again the -Egyptian machine with the uniform vapor pressure of the climate and -the three chicks exchanged for four eggs. - -While an official in the United States Department of Agriculture, I -gathered data from original records of private plants covering the -incubation of several hundred thousand eggs. Such information was -furnished me in confidence as a public official and as a private -citizen I have no right to publish that which would mean financial -profit or loss to those concerned. - -Of records where there were ten thousand or more eggs involved, the -lowest I found was 44 per cent. and the highest, that mentioned as -the fourth case above, or 59 per cent. The great majority of these -records hung very closely around the 50 per cent. mark. - -The following is a fair sample of such data. It is the record -of hatching hen eggs for the first six months of 1908, at one -of the largest poultry plants in America: - - Eggs Chicks Per Cent. - Month Set Hatched Hatched - - January 4,213 1,585 37 2-3 - February 6,275 2,339 33 3-4 - March 17,990 6,993 38 1-3 - April 18,819 10,265 54 1-2 - May 24,458 14,438 59 - June 13,100 6,614 55 - ------ ------ ------ - Total 84,855 42,234 50 p.c. - - -The Future Method of Incubation. - -The idea of the mammoth incubator which would hatch eggs by the -hundred thousand and a minimum of expense is the dream of the -American incubator inventor. We have long had available such methods -of insulation and regulating the supply of heat as would point to -the practicability of such a dream. - -The past efforts in this direction have fallen down for the -following simple reason: All eggs were placed in a single big room -with a view of the man's entering the room to take care of them. -Contact with cold walls, the opening of doors, the hatching of -chicks or introduction of fresh eggs set up air currents, the hot -air rising and the cold air settling until great differences in -temperature would be found in the room. No systematic regulation of -evaporation was contemplated, as the principles at stake or the -means of such regulation were unknown. - -The attempt just referred to was made several years ago by one of -the most successful of incubator manufacturers and because of his -failure other inventors were inclined to steer clear of the -proposition. Meanwhile the need of such an incubator has grown -enormously. At the time that above effort was made no duck ranch -existed whose annual production ran over thirty or forty thousand -ducklings, whereas we now have several in the one hundred thousand -class. - -Much more remarkable has been the growth of the day-old chick -business. The discovery that newly hatched chicks could be -successfully shipped hundreds of miles with less loss than shipping -eggs for hatching, has resulted in a few years' time in the growth -of hatcheries of considerable size where chicks are hatched by means -of common incubators. Still another opportunity for the use of large -hatcheries has been by the growth of poultry communities. There are -other communities besides those mentioned in this book which would -amply support public hatcheries. If half the poultry growers of -Lancaster County, Pa., were to be prevailed upon to patronize a -public hatchery, the county would support between fifteen and twenty -100,000 egg incubators. Any of the numerous trolley centers in -Indiana, Ohio and Southern Michigan would likewise be profitable -locations for the establishment of public hatcheries. - -The demand for the incubator of large capacity has, within the last -year or so, brought two or three "mammoth" incubators into the -market. The devices I now refer to consist of a row of box -incubators which, instead of being heated by single lamps, are -heated by continuous hot water pipes. This scheme effects a -considerable saving in fuel cost and labor, but the bulkiness of -construction and the woeful lack of evaporation control are still to -be dealt with. - -The writer now wishes briefly to describe the plan of construction -and operation of a new type of hatchery, the success of which has -recently been made feasible by inventions and technical knowledge -hitherto unavailable. The plan of the hatchery is on that of a cold -storage plant as far as insulation and general construction go. The -eggs are kept in bulk in special cases which are turned as a whole -and may rest on either of four sides. At hatching time the eggs are -spread out in trays in a special hatching room, which is only large -enough to accommodate chicks to the amount of one-sixth of the -incubator capacity, for twice a week deliverings, or one-third if -weekly deliveries are desired. - -There are no pipes or other sources of heat in the egg chambers. All -temperature regulation is by means of air heated (or cooled as the -case may be) outside of the egg rooms and forced into the egg rooms -by a motor driven cone fan, maintaining a steady current of air, the -rate of movement of which may be varied at will. The air movement -maintained will always be sufficiently brisk, however, to prevent an -unevenness of temperature in different parts of the room. - -So simple is this that the reader will doubtless wonder why it was -not developed earlier. The reason is that air subject to the -climatic influences will, with any forced draft sufficient to -equalize temperature, result in a fatal rate of evaporation. -Sprinkling the air has not generally been thought practical because -of the notion that air must not be used in the egg chamber but once, -which involved quite a waste of heat necessary in warming a large -bulk of air and evaporating sufficient water. Moreover, no means -has, in the past, been available for making a sufficiently accurate -measurement of the evaporating power of the air. - -The hair hygrometers commonly sold to incubator operators are known -by scientists to be absolutely unreliable. The range between the wet -and dry bulb thermometers was found in the Ontario experiments to -give readings with and without fanning that varied 15 to 20 per -cent. in relative humidity which, at the temperature of an egg -chamber, would amount to a variation of three to four hundred of -vapor pressure units, which, with the forced draught plan, would -ruin a hatch of eggs in a few hours. The sling psychrometer as used -by the U.S. Weather Bureau should, in the hands of an expert, give -results making possible measurements accurate to two or three per -cent. of relative humidity or forty to sixty units of vapor -pressure. In contrast with these blundering instruments we now have -available an instrument with which the writer has frequently -determined vapor pressure accurately to within a range of two or -three vapor pressure units and the instrument is capable of being -constructed for even finer work. - -As it is only by means of air with the moisture content absolutely -controlled that the use of a large room becomes possible, we can now -see why this type of hatching remained so long undeveloped. By means -of such vapor pressure control the large egg chamber is not only -feasible but the rate of evaporation at once becomes subject to the -control of the operator and we achieve a perfection in artificial -incubation hitherto unattained. - -The means by which the air moisture is regulated is similar to that -used in up-to-date cold storage plants where the air is made moist -by sprinkling and dried with deliquescent salts. The regulation of -vapor pressure, like that of temperature, may be by electrically -moved dampers which switch a greater or less proportion of the -incoming current to the sprinkler or dryer as the case may be. The -ordinary incubator thermostat gives the necessary impulse for the -control of the temperature dampers, while the instrument above -referred to is used for the vapor pressure control. - -As the entire air circuit is closed, the chemical composition of the -air may also be regulated at will. This results in a reduction of -the quantity of heat required to a minimum; in fact, with the -incubator in full swing, the air will, at times, need cooling rather -than warming. - -The question of the cost of incubation by this method, or of profit -of such a hatchery operated for the public is almost wholly one of -the size of operations. Where sufficient eggs may be obtained and -sufficient demand exists for the chicks to make it profitable to -operate, the additional cost of hatching extra chicks will be -insignificant compared with the present system. - -The Egyptian poultryman gives four eggs for three chicks, but the -American poultryman would be willing to give four eggs for one -chick, as is shown by the fact that he sells eggs for from 1 to 3 -cents apiece and buys day-old chicks for ten to fifteen cents. A -plant with a seasonable capacity of 100,000 eggs has a basis to work -upon something as follows: - -With a fifty per cent. hatch and chicks at 10 cents each there would -be a gross income of $5,000 annually. From this we must subtract for -eggs at 2 cents each, $2,000. Salary for operator $1,000, wages for -helper $300. Fuel, supplies and repairs $500. Cost of delivery and -sales of chicks $200. This leaves a residue of $1,000, which would -pay a 20 per cent. interest on the necessary investment of $5,000. -Personally, I think this is about the minimum unit of hatching that -would prove worth while as independent institutions. - -Any increase in the percentage of the hatch would, of course, reduce -the unit of size necessary for profitable operation. Upon a single -poultry plant as a duck farm the cost of operation would be -materially reduced, as the operator himself would take the place of -the intelligent manager and the cost of gathering eggs and the -delivery of the product would be eliminated. - -The most profitable method of hatchery operation undoubtedly will be -upon a plan analogous to what, in creamery operation, is called -centralization. The success of this scheme depends upon the fact -that transportation and agencies at country stores are relatively -less important items of expense than plant construction and high -salaries for skilled labor. A hatchery with a million capacity can -be built and run at not more than twice the cost of one -hundred-thousand plant and better men can be kept in charge of it. A -portion of the saving will of course be expended in maintaining a -system of buying eggs and selling chicks. - -The material advantage of operating a hatchery in connection with a -high-class egg handling and poultry packing establishment, or as one -feature of a poultry community, is at once apparent, for the system -of collecting the market produce will be utilized for gathering eggs -and distributing chicks, each business helping the other. - -The public hatchery also gives an excellent opportunity for the -introduction of good stock among farmers who would be too shiftless -to acquire it by ordinary methods. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -FEEDING - - -The old adage that a little knowledge is a dangerous thing is -nowhere better illustrated than in the scientific phases of poultry -feeding. The attempted application of the common theoretical feeding -standards to poultry has caused not only a great waste of time but -has also resulted in expenditures for high-priced feeds when cheaper -feeds would have given as good or better results. - -The so-called science of food chemistry is really a rough -approximation of things about which the actual facts are unknown. -Such knowledge bears the same relation to accurate science as the -maps of America drawn by the early explorers do to a modern atlas. -Like these early efforts of geography the present science of food -chemistry is all right if we realize its incompleteness. In -practice, the poultryman, after a general glance at the "map," will -find a more reliable guide in simpler things. - -I am writing this book for the poultryman, not the professor, and -because I state that the particular kind of science wherein the -professor has taken the most pains to teach the poultryman is -comparatively useless, I fear it may arouse a mistrust of the value -of science as a whole. I know of no way to prevent this except to -point out the distinction between scientific facts and guesses -couched in scientific language. - -When a scientist states that a hen cannot lay egg shells containing -calcium without having calcium in her food, that is a fact, and it -works out in practice, for calcium is an element, and the hen cannot -create elementary substances. When the same scientist, finding that -an egg contains protein, says that wheat is a better egg food than -corn because it has the largest amount of protein, that is a guess -and does not work in practice because protein is not a definite -substance, but the name of a group of substances of which the -scientist does not know the composition, and which may or may not be -of equal use to the hen in the formation of eggs. - -All substances of which the world is made are composed of elements -which cannot be changed. When these elements are combined they form -definite substances with definite proportions entirely independent -of the original elements. The pure diamond is carbon. Gasoline is -carbon and hydrogen. Several hundred other things are also carbon -and hydrogen. Sugar is carbon combined with hydrogen and oxygen. -These three elements make several thousand different substances, -including fats, alcohol and formaldehyde. Hydrocyanic acid is carbon -combined with hydrogen and nitrogen, and is the most deadly poison -known. - -The failure of food science is partly because we do not know the -composition of many of the substances of food and partly because -these substances are changed in the animal body in a manner which we -do not understand and cannot control. - - -Conventional Food Chemistry - -The conventional analysis of feeding stuff divides the food -substances in water, carbohydrates, fat, protein and ash. The amount -of water in the body is all-important, but, with the exception of -eggs during incubation, I confess I prefer to rely upon the -chicken's judgment as to the amount required. - -The carbohydrate group contains starch, sugar, cellulose and a -number of other things. Carbohydrates constitute two-thirds to -three-fourths of all common rations and nine-tenths of that amount -is starch. The proposition of how much carbohydrates the hen eats is -chiefly determined by the quantity of grain she consumes. - -Of fats there are many kinds of which the composition is definitely -known. The amount of fats the hen eats is unimportant because she -makes starch into fat. The protein or nitrogen containing substances -of the diet is the group of food substances over which most of the -theories are expounded. The hen can make egg fat from corn starch or -cabbage leaves because they contain the same elements. She cannot -make egg white from starch or fat because the element of nitrogen -which is in the egg white is lacking in the starch and fats. - -The substances that have nitrogen in them are called protein. They -are very complex and difficult to analyze. In digestion these -proteins are all torn to pieces and built up into other kinds of -protein. Just as in tearing down an old house, only a portion of the -material can be used in a new house, so it is with protein and -laboratory analysis cannot tell us how much of the old house can be -utilized in building the new one. - -In practice the whole subject simmers down to the proposition of -finding out by direct experiment whether the hen will do the work -best on this or that food, irregardless of its nitrogen content as -determined in the laboratory. - -The results of many experiments and much experience has shown that -lean meat protein will make egg protein and chicken flesh protein -and that vegetable protein pound for pound is not its equal. I know -of no results that have proven that the high priced vegetable foods -such as linseed meal, gluten feed, etc., have proven a more valuable -chicken food than the cheapest grains. - -With cows and pigeons this is not the case, but the hen is not a -vegetarian by nature and high priced vegetable protein doesn't seem -to be in her line. Of the three standard grains there is some -indication of the value of the proteids for chickens and of the -following ranks, 1st oats, 2d corn, 3d wheat. - -The false conceptions of the value of wheat proteids has been -specially the cause of much waste of money. Digestive trials and -direct experiments both show that, as chicken foods, wheat is worth -less, pound for pound, than corn and yet, though much higher in -price, it is still used not only as a variety grain, but by many -poultrymen as the chief article of diet. Wheat contains only 3 per -cent. more proteid than corn. The man who substitutes wheat at one -and one-half cents a pound for corn worth one cent a pound pays 17 -cents a pound for his added protein. In beef scrap he could get the -protein for 5 cents a pound and have a very superior article -besides. - -Milk as a source of protein ranks between the vegetable proteids and -those of meat. It is preferably fed clabbered. The dried casein -recently put on the market is a valuable food but is not worth as -much as meat food and will not be extensively utilized until the -demand for meat scrap forces up the price to a point where the -casein can be sold more cheaply. Meat scrap, to be relished by the -chickens, must not be a fine meal, but should consist of particles -the size of wheat kernels or larger. The fine scrap gives the -manufacturer a chance to utilize dried blood and tankage which is -cheaper in quality and price than particles of real meat. - -The last and least understood of the groups of food substances is -mineral substance or ash. Now, the chemist determines mineral -substance by burning the food and analyzing the residue. In the -intense heat numerous chemical changes take place and the substances -that come out of the furnace are entirely different from those -contained in the fresh food. - -The lay reader will probably ask why the chemist does not analyze -the substances of the fresh material. The answer is that he doesn't -know how. Progress is made every year but the whole subject is yet -too much clouded in obscurity to be of any practical application. At -present the feeding of mineral substance, like the feeding of -protein, can best be learned by experimenting directly with the -foods rather than by attempting to go by their chemical composition. - -In practice it is found that green feed supplies something which -grain lacks, presumably mineral salts. Moreover we know that such -food fed fresh is superior to the same substance dried. This may be -because of chemical changes that occur in curing or simply because -of greater palatability. - -The other chief source of mineral matter is meat preparations with -or without ground bone. Recent experiments at Rhode Island have -attempted to show the relative value of the mineral constituents of -meat by adding bone ash to vegetable proteids, as linseed and gluten -meal. The results clearly indicate that mineral matter of animal -origin greatly improves the value of the vegetable diet, but that -the latter is still sadly deficient. Of course the burning process -used in preparing the bone ash may have destroyed some of the -valuable qualities of the mineral salts. Practically, we do not care -whether the value of animal meal be due to protein, mineral salts or -both. - -In time the world will become so thickly populated that we cannot -afford to rear cattle and condemn a portion of the carcass to go -through another life cycle before human consumption. By that time -the necessary food salts will doubtless be known and we will be able -to medicate our corn and alfalfa and do away with the beef scrap. -The poultrymen will do well, however, not to count on the chemistry -of the future, for the chemist that makes the "tissue salts" for the -hen may manufacture human food with Niagara power and fresh eggs -will come in tin cans. - - -How the Hen Unbalances Balanced Rations. - -Let the poultryman who figures the nutritious ratio of chicken feed -try this simple experiment. Place before a half dozen newly hatched -chicks a feed of one of the commercial chick feeds. When they have -had their fill, sacrifice these innocents on the altar of science -and open their crops. He will find that one chick has eaten almost -exclusively of millet seed, another has preferred cracked corn, -another has filled up heavily on bits of beef scrap and mica crystal -grit, while a fourth fancied oats and granulated bone. In short the -chick has, in three minutes, unbalanced the balanced ration that it -took a week to figure out. This experiment can be varied by placing -hens in individual coops and setting before each weighed portions of -every food in the poultryman supply man's catalogue. - -There is only one kind of feeding that will balance rations and that -is to feed exclusively on wet mash. This is successfully done in the -duck business, but the duck is a Chinese animal and his ways are not -the ways of the more fastidious hen. - -In dairy work the individual preferences of the cows are given -attention and their whimsy catered to by the herdsman. I know of -nothing that makes a man more feel his kinship to the beast than to -hear a good dairyman talk of the personalities and preferences of -his feminine co-operators. - -With commercial chicken work, humanly guided individual feedings is -out of the question, though, if used, it might hasten the coming of -the two-egg-per-day hen. Individual feeding with the hen as sole -judge as to what she shall eat, which means each food in separate -hoppers and free range, is the best system of chicken feeding yet -evolved. - -The duty of the poultryman is to supply the food, giving enough -variety to permit of the hens having a fair selection. In practice -this means that every hen must have access to water, grit -(preferably oyster shell), one kind of grain, one kind of meat, and -one kind of green food. In practice it will pay to add granulated -bone for growing stock. One or two extra grains for variety and as -many green foods as conveniences will permit to increase -palatability--hence increase the amount of food consumed, for a -heavy food consumption is necessary for egg production. - -As corn is the cheapest food known, let it be the bread at the -boarding house and other grains the rotating series of hash, beans -and bacon. The grain hopper may have two divisions. The corn never -changes but the other should have a change of grain occasionally. -The extent of the use made of the various grains will be determined -by their price per pound. - -The proportions of food of the various classes that will be consumed -is about as follows: - -Of 100 lbs. of dry matter: 8 to 12 lbs. meat; 66 to 75 lbs. grain; -15 to 25 lbs. green food. - -The profits of the business will be increased by supplying the green -food in such tempting forms as to increase the amount consumed and -cut down the use of grains. - -The methods we have been describing in which various dry unground -grains, beef scrap and oyster shell, each in a separate compartment, -are exposed before the hen at all times, together with the abundant -use of green food, either as pasture or a soiling crop, is the -method of feeding assumed throughout this book. - -The hopper feeding of so-called dry mash or ground grain mixture has -been quite a fad in the last few years. The tendency of the hens to -waste such food has occasioned considerable trouble. They are -picking it over for their favorite foods and trying to avoid -disagreeable foods. This difficulty is relieved when the food be -separated into its various components and the hen offered each -separately. As a matter of fact, there is no occasion for feeding -ground feed except in fattening rations and here the wet mash is -desirable. - -The use of the products of wheat milling has been the chief excuse -for such practices, but unless these get considerably lower in price -per pound than corn they may be left off the bill-of-fare to -advantage. The great use made of these products in poultry feeding -was chiefly a result of the attempted application of the balanced -ration idea, but as has already been shown the efforts to raise the -protein ratio with grain foods is generally false economy. - -The old-fashioned wet mash which the writer does not recommend -because of the labor involved, is, nevertheless, a fairly profitable -method of poultry feeding. It is used in the Little Compton district -of Rhode Island and was also used in the famous Australian egg -laying contests elsewhere described. Personally I would prefer -feeding ground grain wet, especially wheat bran and middlings, to -feeding it dry. - -The scattering of grain in litter so generally recommended in -poultry literature is all right and proper, but is rather out of -place in commercial poultry farming. It is used on the large poultry -plants with the yards and long houses, but is not used on colony -farms or in any of the poultry growing communities. I should -recommend littered houses for Section 6 and the northern half of -Section 3 (see Chapter IV), but with warmer soils and climate where -the snow does not lie on the ground it would add a labor expense -that would very seriously handicap the business. - -The systems of poultry feeding that are commonly advertised are -based either on some patent nostrum or a recommendation of green -food in novel form, such as sprouted oats. The joke about poultry -feed at 10 cents a bushel, absurd though it may seem, has caught -lots of dollars. To take a bushel of oats worth 50 cents, add water, -let them sprout and have five bushels costing 10 cents, is certainly -a wonderful achievement in wealth getting. The only reason a man -couldn't run a soup kitchen on the same principle is that he can't -do a soup business by mail. Sprouted oats are a good green food, -however, though somewhat laborious to prepare. I should certainly -recommend them if for any reason the regular green food supply -should run out. - -The points already mentioned are about all the practical suggestions -that the science of animal nutrition has to offer the poultryman. -The discussion of feeding from its technical viewpoint is -sufficiently covered in the chapter on "Farm Poultry" and the -discussion of the management and economics of various types of -poultry production. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -DISEASES - - -For the study of the classification and description of the numerous -ailments by which individual fowls pass to their untimely end, I -recommend any of the numerous books written upon the subject. Some -of these works are more accurate than others, but that I consider -immaterial. The study of these diseases is good for the poultryman, -it gives his mind exercise. When a boy in high school I studied -Latin for the same purpose. - - -Don't Doctor Chickens. - -For the cure of all poultry diseases when they have passed a point -when the fowl does not eat or for other reasons recovery is -improbable, I recommend a blow on the head--the hatchet spills the -blood which is unwise. - -The usual formula of "burn or bury deeply" is somewhat troublesome, -unless you have a furnace running. A covered pit is more convenient -if far enough removed from the house that the odor is not -prohibitive. A post with a tally card may be planted near by. This -part of the poultry farm may be marked "Exhibit A," and shown first -to the visitor during the busy season. If he is one of those -prospective pleasure and profit poultrymen who propose to disregard -all facts of biology and economics of production, you may save -yourself the trouble of showing him the rest of the plant. -Unfortunately, this scheme is not open to the poultryman who has -breeding stock for sale. - -I have frequently had the question put to me in the smoker of a -Pullman car, "Do not epidemic diseases make the poultry business -precarious?" Such questions came from farm-raised men, but not from -poultry farmers. Poultrymen should figure a certain loss of birds -just as insurance companies figure on the human death rate, but to -all practical intents and purposes the epidemic disease has been -banished from the poultry farms and seldom if ever enters the -records in answer to the question, "Why do poultry farms fail?" - -Some of my readers may take exception to me either in regard to roup -or white diarrhoea. Roup is a disease of the wrong system and -careless management. White diarrhoea, so-called, is a matter of -wrong incubation. - -The high mortality of young chicks, though not an epidemic disease, -shares with excessive cost of production, very much of the -responsibility for poultry farm failures. At the present writing the -poultry editors of the country are having much discussion over the -conclusion of Dr. Morse of the Bureau of Animal Industry to the -effect that white diarrhoea is caused by an intestinal parasite -similar to the germ that causes human dysentery. Dr. Morse's -opportunities for investigation have been somewhat limited and as -the intestines of any animal are always swarming with various -organisms, it will take very conclusive evidence to prove that the -doctor is right. Practically the naming of the germs that attend the -funeral is not particularly important for the reason that it has -been thoroughly demonstrated that with good parentage, good -incubation and good brooder conditions, white diarrhoea is unknown. - - -The Causes of Poultry Diseases. - -Poultry ailments are assignable to one of the three following -causes, or a combination of these: First, hereditary or inborn -weakness; second, unfavorable conditions of food, surroundings, -etc.; third, bacteria or animal parasites. - -A great many chickens die while yet within the shell, or during the -growing process, there being no assignable reason save that of -inherited weakness. To this class of troubles the only remedy is to -breed from better stock. It is as much the trait of some birds to -produce infertile eggs or chicks of low vitality as it is for others -to produce vigorous offspring. - -The second class of ailments needs no discussion save that accorded -it under the general discussions of the method of conducting the -business. - -The third class of ailments includes the contagious diseases. It is -now believed that most common diseases are caused by microscopic -germs known as bacteria. These germs in some manner gain entrance to -the body of an animal, and, growing within the tissues, give off -poisonous substances known as toxins, which produce the symptoms of -the disease. The ability to withstand disease germs varies with the -particular animal and the kind of disease. As a general rule it may -be stated that disease germs cannot live in the body of a perfectly -vigorous and healthy animal. It is only when the vitality is at a -low ebb, owing to unfavorable conditions or inherited weakness, that -disease germs enter the body and produce disease. - -The bacteria which cause disease, like other living organisms, may -be killed by poisoning. Such poisons are known as disinfectants. If -it were possible to kill the bacteria within the animal, the curing -of disease would be a simple matter, but unfortunately the common -chemical poisons that kill germs kill the animal also. The only -thing that can be relied upon to kill disease germs within the -animal, is a counter-poison developed by the animal itself and known -as anti-toxin. Such anti-toxins can be produced artificially and are -used to combat certain diseases, as diphtheria and small-pox in -human beings and blackleg in cattle. Such methods of combating -poultry diseases have not been developed, and due to the small value -of an individual fowl would probably not be commercially useful even -if successful from a scientific standpoint. The only available -method of fighting contagious diseases of poultry is to destroy the -disease germs before they enter the fowls and to remove the causes -which make the fowl susceptible to the disease. - -Contagious diseases of poultry may be grouped into two general -classes: First, those highly contagious; second, those contracted -only by fowls that are in a weakened condition. To the first class -belong the severe epidemics, of which chicken-cholera is the most -destructive. - - -Chicken-Cholera. - -The European fowl-cholera has only been rarely identified in this -country. Other diseases similar in symptoms and effect are confused -with this. As the treatment should be similar the identification of -the diseases is not essential. - -Yellow or greenish-colored droppings, listless attitude, refusal of -food and great thirst are the more readily observed symptoms. The -disease runs a rapid course, death resulting in about three days. -The death rate is very high. The disease is spread by droppings and -dead birds, and through feed and water. To stamp out the disease -kill or burn or bury all sick chickens, and disinfect the premises -frequently and thoroughly. A spray made of one-half gallon carbolic -acid, one-half gallon of phenol and twenty gallons of water may be -used. Corrosive sublimate, 1 part in 5000 parts of water, should be -used as drinking water. This is not to cure sick birds, but to -prevent the disease from spreading by means of the drinking vessels. -Food should be given in troughs arranged so that the chickens cannot -infect the food with the feet. All this work must be done -thoroughly, and even then considerable loss can be expected before -the disease is stamped out. If cholera has a good start in a flock -of chickens it will often be better to dispose of the entire flock -than to combat the disease. Fortunately cholera epidemics are rare -and in many localities have never been known. - - -Roup. - -This disease is a representative of that class of diseases which, -while being caused by bacteria, can be considered more of a disease -of conditions than of contagion. Roup may be caused by a number of -different bacteria which are commonly found in the air and soil. -When chickens catch cold these germs find lodgment in the nasal -passages and roup ensues. The first symptoms of roup are those of an -ordinary cold, but as the disease progresses a cheesy secretion -appears in the head and throat. A wheezing or rattling sound is -often produced by the breathing. The face and eyes swell, and in -severe cases the chicken becomes blind. The most certain way of -identifying roup is a characteristic sickening odor. The disease may -last a week or a year. Birds occasionally recover, but are generally -useless after having had roup. - -Sick birds should be removed and destroyed, but the time usually -spent in doctoring sick birds and disinfecting houses can in this -case be better employed in finding and remedying the cause of the -disease. Such causes may be looked for as dampness, exposure to cold -winds, or to a sudden change in temperature as is experienced by -chickens roosting in a tight house. Fall and winter are the seasons -of roup, while it is poorly housed and poorly fed flocks that most -commonly suffer from this disease. Flocks that have become -thoroughly roupy should be disposed of and more vigorous birds -secured. The open front house has proved to be the most practical -scheme for the reduction of this disease. - - -Chicken-Pox, Gapes, Limber Neck. - -Chicken-pox or sore-head is a disease peculiar to the South. It -attacks growing chickens late in the summer. Southern poultrymen who -give reasonable attention to their stock, find that, while this -disease is a source of some annoyance, the losses are not severe and -that it may be readily controlled. In the first place, the animal -epidemic of pox can be practically avoided by bringing the chicks -out early in the season. If the disease does develop in the flock, -the birds are taken from the coops at night and their heads dipped -in a proper strength of one of the coal tar disinfectants. Such -treatment once a week has generally been effective. This disease is -an exception to the general rule that disinfectants which kill germs -also kill the chicken. The explanation is that chicken-pox is an -external disease. - -Gapes is given in every poultry book as one of the prominent poultry -diseases, but are not common in the Northern and Western States. -Gapes are caused by a parasitic worm in the windpipe. Growing chicks -are affected. The remedy is to move the chicks to fresh ground and -cultivate the old. - -Limber neck is not a disease, but is the result of the fowl's eating -maggots from dead carcasses. It can be prevented by not allowing -dead carcasses to remain where the chickens will find them. No -practical cure is known. - - -Lice and Mites. - -The parasites referred to as chicken-lice include many different -species, but in habit they may be classed as body-lice and -roost-mites. The first, or true bird-lice, live on the body of the -chicken and eat the feathers and skin. The roost-mite is similar to -a spider and differs in habits from the body-louse in that it sucks -the blood of the chicken and does not remain on the body of the fowl -except at night. - -Body-lice are to be found upon almost all chickens, as well as on -many other kinds of birds. Their presence in small numbers on -matured fowls is not a serious matter. When body-lice are abundant -on sitting hens they go from the hen to the newly hatched chickens, -and may cause the death of the chicks. The successful methods of -destroying body-lice are three in number: First, dust or earth -wallows in which the active hens will get rid of lice. Such dust -baths should be especially provided for yarded chickens and during -the winter. Dry earth can be stored for this purpose. Sitting hens -should have access to dust baths. Second: The second method by which -body-lice may be destroyed is the use of insect powder. The -pyrethrum powder is considered the best for this purpose, but is -expensive and difficult to procure in the pure state. Tobacco dust -is also used. Insect powder is applied by holding the hen by the -feet and working the dust thoroughly into the feathers, especially -the fluff. The use of insect powder should be confined to sitting -hens and fancy stock, as the cost and labor of applying is too great -for use upon the common chicken. The third method is suitable for -young chickens, and consists of applying some oil and grease on the -head and under the wings. Do not grease the chick all over. With -vigorous chickens and correct management the natural dust bath is -all that is needed to combat the lice. - -The roost-mite is probably the cause of more loss to farm poultry -raisers than any other pest or disease. The great difficulty in -destroying mites on many farms is that chickens are allowed to roost -in too many places. If the chicken-house proper is the only building -infected with mites the difficulty of destroying them is not great. -Plainness in the interior furnishings of the chicken-house is also a -great advantage when it comes to fighting mites. The mites in the -daytime are to be found lodged in the cracks near the roosting-place -of the chickens. - -Mites can be killed with various liquids, the best in point of -cheapness is boiling water. Give the chicken-house a thorough -cleaning and scald by throwing dippers of hot water in all places -where the mites can find lodgment. Hot water destroys the eggs as -well as the mites. Whitewash is a good remedy, as it buries both -mites and eggs beneath a coating of lime from which they cannot -emerge. Pure kerosene or a solution of carbolic acid in kerosene, at -the rate of a pint of acid to a gallon of oil, is an effective -lice-paint. Another substance much used for destroying insects or -similar pests is carbon bisulphide. This is a liquid which -evaporates readily, the vapor destroying the insects or mites. -Carbon bisulphide or other fumigating agents are not effective in -the average chicken-house because the house cannot be tightly -closed. The liquid lice-killers on the market are very effective. -They are usually composed of the remedies just mentioned, or of -something of similar properties. - - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -POULTRY FLESH AND POULTRY FATTENING - - -The poultry flesh which is used for food may be grouped into three -divisions. - -First: Poultry carcasses grown especially for market. - -Second: Poultry carcasses consisting of hens and young male birds -that are sold from the general farms where the pullets are kept for -egg production. - -Third: The cockerels and old hens sold as a by-product from egg -farms. - -The third class hardly needs our consideration in the present -chapter. This stock, usually Leghorns, like Jersey veal, is to be -disposed of at whatever price the market offers. - -The cockerel will, if growing nicely, be fairly plump and the hens, -if on hopper rations of corn and beef scrap, will be about as fat as -they can be profitably made, and to waste further effort upon them -would not pay. Leghorn cockerels and hens are a wholesome enough -meat, but will never command fancy prices nor warrant extra pains. - -In class two we find the great mass of the poultry flesh of the -country. This stock consisting chiefly, as it does, of Plymouth -Rocks and Wyandottes, is well worth some extra pains toward -increasing its quantity and quality. - -Within the last ten or fifteen years several changes have been -brought about in the general methods of handling farm poultry. -Formerly it was thought desirable to market all stock not kept as -layers while in the broiler stage of from 1-1/2 to 2 pounds. Since -the introduction of the custom of holding fall broilers over in cold -storage, the price has fallen until it is now more profitable to -market the surplus cockerels from the farm at three or four months -of age. At this period the flesh has cost less per pound to produce -than at either an earlier or later stage. For such purposes only the -well fleshed type of American breeds has been found desirable. The -Leghorns and similar breeds are too small and become staggy too -soon. - -Contrary to a common belief and to the custom in the poultry books -of classifying the Asiatics as meat breeds, the Brahmas and Cochins -are among the very poorest fowls that can be used for farm -production of poultry meat. At the age spoken of these breeds are -lanky and unsightly and not wanted by poultry packers. - -Consecutively with and perhaps responsible for change of sentiment -that demands that broilers be allowed to grow into four pound -chickens, we find the development of the crate fattening industry. - - -Crate-Fattening. - -The introduction of crate-fattening into the Central West occurred -about 1900. The credit of this introduction belongs to the large -meat packing firms. At the present time the business is not confined -to the meat packers, but is shared by independent plants throughout -the country. - -The plants of the West range from a few hundred to as high as 20,000 -capacity. They are constructed for convenience and a saving of -labor, and in this respect are decidedly in advance of the European -establishments where fattening has been long practiced. - -The room used for fattening is well built and sanitary. A good -system of ventilation is essential, as murky, damp air breeds colds -and roup. The coops are built back to back, and two or more coops in -height. Each coop is high and wide enough to comfortably accommodate -the chickens, and long enough to contain from five to twelve -chickens. The chickens stand on slats, beneath which are -dropping-boards that may be drawn out for cleaning. The -dropping-boards and feeding-troughs are often made of metal. Strict -cleanliness is enforced. No droppings or feed are allowed to -accumulate and decompose. - -As is a general rule in meat production, young animals give much -better returns for food consumed than do mature individuals. With -the young chicken the weight is added as flesh, while the hen has a -tendency, which increases with age, to turn the same food into -useless fat. For this reason the general practice is to fatten only -the best of the young chickens. The head feeder at a large and -successful poultry plant gave the following information on the -selection of birds for the fattening-crates: - -"The younger the stock the more profitable the gain. All specimens -showing the slightest indication of disease are discarded. The -Plymouth Rock is the favorite breed, and the Wyandotte is second. -Leghorns are comparatively fat when received, and, while they do -well under feed and 'yellow up' nicely, they do not gain as much as -the American breeds. Black chickens are not fed at all. Brahmas and -Cochins are not considered good feeders at the age when they are -commonly sold. Chickens in fair flesh at the start make better gains -than those that are extremely lean or very fat. But, contrary to -what the amateur might assume, the moderately fat chicken will -continue to make fair gains, while the very lean chicken seldom -returns a profit." - -The idea has been somewhat prevalent that there is some guarded -secret about the rations used in crate-fattening. This is a mistaken -notion. The rations used contain no new or wonderful constituent, -and although individual feeders may have their own formulas, the -general composition of the feed is common knowledge. The feed most -commonly used consists of finely ground grain, mixed to a batter -with buttermilk or sour skim-milk. The favorite grain for the -purpose is oats finely ground and the hulls removed. Oats may be -used as the sole grain, and is the only grain recommended as -suitable to be fed alone. Corn is used, but not by itself. Shorts, -ground barley or ground buckwheat are sometimes used. Beans, peas, -linseed and gluten meals may be used in small quantities. When milk -products are obtainable they are a great aid to successful -fattening. Tallow is often used in small quantities toward the -finish of the feeding period. The assumption is that it causes the -deposit of fat-globules throughout the muscular tissues, thus adding -to the quality of the meat. The following simple rations show that -there is nothing complex about the crate-fed chicken's bill of fare: - -No. 1.--Ground oats, 2 parts; ground barley, 1 part; ground corn, 1 -part; mixed with skim-milk. - -No. 2.--Ground corn, 4 parts; ground peas, 1 part; ground oats, 1 -part; meat-meal, 1 part; mixed with water. - -A ration used by some fatters with great success is composed of -simply oatmeal and buttermilk. - -The feed is given as a soft batter and is left in the troughs for -about thirty minutes, when the residue is removed. Chickens are -generally fed three times per day. Water may or may not be given, -according to the weather and the amount of liquid used in the food. - -The chicken that has been crate-fattened has practically the same -amount of skeleton and offal as the unfattened specimen, but carries -one or two pounds more of edible meat upon its carcass. Not only is -the weight of the chicken and amount of edible meat increased, but -the quality of the meat is greatly improved, consisting of juicy, -tender flesh. For this reason the crate-feeding process is often -spoken of as fleshing rather than as fattening. - -The enforced idleness causes the muscular tissue to become tender -and filled with stored nutriment. The fatness of a young chicken, -crate-fed on buttermilk and oatmeal, is a radically different thing -from the fatness of an old hen that has been ranging around the -corn-crib. - -The crate-fattening industry while deserving credit for great -improvement in the quality of chicken flesh in the regions where it -has been introduced, cannot on the whole be considered a great -success. It is commonly reported that some of the firms instrumental -in its introduction lost money on the deal. The crate-fattening -plant has come to stay in the communities where careful methods of -poultry raising are practiced, and where the stock is of the best, -but when a plant is located in a newly settled region where the -poultry stock is small and feed scarce, the venture is pretty apt to -prove a fiasco. - -While poultryman at the Kansas Experiment Station, the writer made a -large number of individual weighings of fowls in the crates of one -of the large fattening plants of the state. - -These weighings pointed out very clearly why the expected profits -had not been realized. The birds selected for weighing were all -fine, uniform looking Barred Rock Cockerels. At the end of the first -week they were found to still appear much the same, but when handled -a difference was easily noticed. By the end of the second week a few -birds had died and many others were in a bad way. The individual -changes of weight ran from 2-1/2 pounds gain to 3/4 pound loss, and -many of the lighter birds were of very poor appearance. It is simply -a matter of forced feeding being a process that makes trouble with -the health of the chicken if all is not just right. - -It is probable that in the future more fattening will be done on the -farm, or by the farmer operating in a small way among his neighbors. -The reason for this is that the saving of labor in the large plant -is hardly as great as the added loss from the shrinkage of the birds -due to the excitement of shipping and crowding, and the introduction -of disease by the mingling of chickens from so many different -sources. - -The Canadians especially have encouraged fattening on the farm. The -following is a hand-bill gotten out by an enterprising Canadian -dealer for distribution among the farmers of his locality: - - - -HOW TO FATTEN CHICKENS FOR THE EXPORT TRADE. - -To fatten birds for the export trade, it is necessary -to have proper coops to put them in. These should be -two feet long, twenty inches high and twenty inches -deep, the top, bottom and front made of slats. This -size will hold four birds, but the cheapest plan is to -build the coops ten feet long and divide them into five -sections. - -What to feed. - -Oats chopped fine, the coarse hulls sifted out, two -parts; ground buckwheat, one part; mix with skim-milk -to a good soft batter, and feed three times a day. -Or, black barley and oats, two parts oats to one part -barley. Give clean drinking water twice a day, grit -twice a week, and charcoal once a week. During the -first week the birds are in the coops they should be -fed sparingly--only about one-half of what they will -eat. After that gradually increase the amount until -you find out just how much they will eat up clean -each time. Never leave any food in the troughs, as -it will sour and cause trouble. Mix the food always -one feed ahead. Birds fed in this way will be ready -for the export trade in from four to five weeks. -Chickens make the best gain put in the coop weighing -three to four pounds. - -We Supply the Coops. - -We have on hand a number of coops for fattening -chicks, which we will loan to any person, "free of -charge", who will sign an agreement to bring all -chicks fattened in them to us. Every farmer should -have at least one of these coops, as this is the only -way to fatten chicks properly. In this way you can -get the highest market price. We can handle any -quantity of chicks properly fatted. - ARMSTRONG BROS. - - -The farmer who does not think it worth while to construct -fattening-crates for his own crop of chickens, may get very fair -results by simply enclosing the chickens in some vacant shed. To -these may feed a ration of two-thirds corn meal and one-third -shorts, or some of the more complicated rations used at the -fattening plants may be fed. - -In the East, poultry fattening on the general farm is not dissimilar -from the practices in the Central West, but we find a larger use of -cramming machines, caponizing, and the growing of chickens for meat -as an industry independent of keeping hens for egg production. - -The cramming machine is a device by means of which food in a -semi-liquid state is pumped into the bird's crop, through a tube -inserted in the mouth. This means of feeding is much more used in -Europe than in this country. It requires good stock and careful -workmen. The method will probably slowly gain ground in this -country. The feed used in cramming is similar to that used in -ordinary crate feeding, except that it is mixed as a thin batter. - - -Caponizing. - -Caponizing is the castration of male chickens. Capons hold the same -place in the poultry market as do steers in the beef market. - -Caponizing is practiced to quite an extent in France, and to a less -degree in England and the United States. - -Much the larger part of the industry is confined to that portion of -the United States east of Philadelphia, though increasing numbers of -capons are being raised in the North Central States. During the -winter months capon is regularly quoted in the markets of the larger -eastern cities. Massachusetts and New Jersey are the great centers -for the growing of capons, while Boston, New York, and Philadelphia -are the great markets. In many eastern markets the prices paid for -dressed capons range from 20 to 30 cents a pound. The highest prices -usually prevail from January to May, and the larger the birds the -more they bring a pound. - -The purpose of caponizing is not, as is sometimes stated, to -increase the size of the chicken, but to improve the quality of the -meat. The capon fattens more readily and economically than other -birds. As they do not interfere with or worry one another, large -flocks may be kept together. - -The breeds suitable for caponizing are the Asiatics and Americans. -Brahmas will produce, with proper care and sufficient time, the -largest and finest capons. On the ordinary farm, where capons would -be allowed to run loose, Plymouth Rocks would prove more profitable. -Plymouth Rocks, Brahmas, Langshans, Wyandottes, Indian Games, may -all be used for capons. Leghorns are not to be considered for this -purpose. - -Capons should be operated upon when they are about ten weeks or -three months old and weigh about two pounds. - -The operation of caponizing is performed by cutting in between the -last two ribs. Both testicles may be removed from one side or both -sides may be opened. The cockerel should be starved for twenty-four -hours in order to empty the intestines. Asiatics are more difficult -to operate on than Americans, the testicles being larger and less -firm. There is always some danger of causing death by tearing blood -vessels, but the per cent. of loss with an experienced operator is -very small. Loss by inflammation is still more rare. The testicle of -a bird is not as highly developed as in a mammal, and if the organ -is broken and a small fragment remains attached it will produce -birds known as slips. Some growers advise looking over the capons -and puncturing the wind puffs that gather beneath the skin. This, -however, is not necessary. - -A good set of tools is indispensable and can be purchased for from -$2 to $3. As a complete set of instructions is furnished with each -set it is unnecessary to go into details here. The beginner should, -however, operate on several dead cockerels before attempting to -operate on a live one. - -After caponizing the bird should be given plenty of soft feed and -water. The capon begins to eat almost immediately after the -operation is performed, and no one would suppose that a radical -change had taken place in his nature. - -The feeding of capons differs little from the feeding of other -growing chickens. Corn, wheat, barley and Kaffir-corn would be -suitable grain, while beef-scrap would be necessary to produce the -best growth. - -About three weeks before marketing place the capons in small yards -and feed them three or four times a day, giving plenty of corn and -other feed, or fatten them in one of the ways indicated in the -section on fattening poultry. Corn meal and ground oats, equal parts -by weight, moistened with water or milk, make a good mash for -fattening capons. - -In dressing capons leave the head and hackle feathers, the feathers -on the wings to the second joint, the tail feathers, including those -a little way up the back, and the feathers on the legs halfway up to -the thigh. These feathers serve to distinguish capons from other -fowls in the market. Do not cut the head off, for this is also a -distinguishing feature of the capon, on account of the undeveloped -comb and wattles. - -The price received for capons is greater than any other kind of -poultry meat except early broilers. There may be trouble in some -localities in getting dealers to recognize capons as such and pay an -advanced price. - -On several farms in Massachusetts, 500 to 1,000 capons are raised -annually, and on one farm 5,000 cockerels are held for caponizing. -The industry is growing rapidly year by year and the supply does not -equal the demand. - -It is to be expected that the amount of caponizing done in the West -will gradually increase. Those wishing to try the growing of capons -will do well to secure an experienced operator. Good men at this -work receive five cents per bird. Poor operators are dear at any -price, as they produce a large number of worthless slips. - - - - - -CHAPTER X - -MARKETING POULTRY CARCASSES - - -In the marketing of poultry carcasses as in other phases of the -industry, we really have two systems to discuss. The one is used for -the marketing of the product of the farm of the Central West, and -the other the product of the poultryman or eastern farmer, who is -near a large market and who will be repaid for taking special pains -in preparing his poultry for market. - - -Farm-Grown Chickens. - -At the present time almost the entire poultry crop of the Central -West is sold from the farm as live poultry. This farm stock is -purchased by produce buyers or general merchants and shipped to the -nearest county seat or other important town, where there are usually -one or more poultry-killing establishments. These establishments may -vary from a simple shed, where the chickens are picked and packed in -barrels, to the more modern poultry-packing establishment, with its -accommodations for fattening, dressing, packing, freezing, and -storing. - -The poultry-buying stations may be branches of the larger packing -establishments, branch houses of large produce firms, or small firms -operating independently and selling in the open market. - -The chickens as purchased are grouped into the following classes: -Springs, hens, old roosters and (at certain seasons) young roosters -or staggy cockerels. Early in the season small springs are quoted as -broilers, while capons form a separate item where such are grown. - -Chickens are starved before killing, for the purpose of emptying the -crop, and, to some degree, the intestines. If this is not done the -carcass presents an unsightly appearance and spoils more readily in -storage. - -The method of picking is not always the same, even in the same -plant. Scalding is frequently used for local trade, in the summer -season, or with cheap-grade stuff. The greater portion of the stock -is picked dry. The pickers are generally paid so much per bird. In -some plants men do the roughing while girls are employed as pinners. -Pickers work either with the chickens suspended by a cord or -fastened upon a bench adopted to this purpose. The killing is done -by bleeding and sticking. The last thrust reaches the brain and -paralyzes the bird. The manner of making these cuts must be learned -by practical instruction. The feathers are saved, and amount to a -considerable item. White feathers are worth more than others. The -head and feet are left on the chicken and the entrails are not -removed. - -The bird, after being chilled in ice-water or in the cooling room, -is ready for grading and packing. This, from the producer's -standpoint, is the most interesting stage in the process, for it is -here that the quality of the stock is to be observed. The grading is -made on three considerations: (1) The general division of cocks, -springs, hens and capons is kept separate from the killing-room; (2) -the grading for quality; (3) the assortment according to size. - -The grading for quality depends on the general shape of the chicken, -the plumpness or covering of meat, the neatness of picking, the -color of skin and legs, and the appearance of the feet and head, -which latter points indicate the age and condition of health. The -culls consist of deformed and scrawny chickens. The seconds are poor -in flesh, or they may be, in the case of hens, unsightly from -overfatness. They are packed in barrels and go to the cheapest -trade. Those carcasses slightly bruised or torn in dressing also go -in this class. Although a preference is generally stated for -yellow-skinned poultry, the white-skinned birds, if equal in other -points, are not underranked in this score. The skin color that is -decidedly objectionable is the purplish tinge, which is a sign of -diseased stock. Black pin-feathers and dark-colored legs are a -source of objection. Especially is this true with young birds which -show the pin-feathers. Feathered legs are slightly more -objectionable than smooth legs. Small combs and the absence of spurs -give better appearance to the carcass. - -The following is the nomenclature and corresponding weights of the -farm marketed chickens. In each class there will be seconds and -culls. The seconds of each group are kept separate, but not graded -so strictly or perhaps not graded at all for size. The culls are -packed in barrels and all kinds of chickens from fryers to old -roosters here sojourn together until they reach their final -destination, as potted chicken or chicken soup. - -Broilers--Packed in two weights. 1st: Less than two pounds; 2d: -between 2 and 2-1/2 pounds. - -Chickens--Packed in three weights. 1st: between 2-1/2 and 3 pounds; -2d: between 3 and 3-1/2 pounds; 3d: between 3-1/2 and 4 pounds. - -Roasters--Packed in two weights. 1st: between 4 and 5 pounds; 2d: -above 5 pounds. - -Stag Roosters--Cockerels, showing spurs and hard blue meat, packed -in two weights. 1st: under 4 pounds; 2d: above 4 pounds. - -Fowls, are hens. They are packed in three sizes. 1st: under 3-1/4 -pounds; 2d: between 3-1/4 and 4-1/2 pounds; 3d: over 4-1/2 pounds. - -Old Roosters--Packed in barrels. One grade only. - -After packing, chickens may be shipped to market immediately, or -they may be frozen and stored in the local plant. Shipments of any -importance are made in refrigerator cars. - -The poultry that is shipped to the final market alive is gradually -diminishing in quantity, as poultry killing plants are built up -throughout the country. The live poultry shipments are chiefly made -in the Live Poultry Transportation Cars. The following figures give -the number of such cars that moved out of the States named in a -recent year: - - Iowa 645 Tennessee 169 - Missouri 630 Michigan 165 - Illinois 624 S. Dakota 103 - Kentucky 472 Oklahoma 101 - Nebraska 395 Indiana 100 - Kansas 370 Wisconsin 93 - Minnesota 174 Texas 91 - Ohio 173 Arkansas 47 - -The most of this live poultry goes to New York and other eastern -cities and is consumed largely by the Hebrew trade. - - -The Special Poultry Plant. - -The special egg farmer of the East should sell his poultry alive to -the regular dealer. The exception to this advice may be taken in the -case of squab broilers for which some local dealers will not pay as -fancy a price as may be obtained by dressing and shipping to the -hotel trade. - -The grower of roasters and capons will probably want to market his -own product. As to whether it will pay him to do so will depend upon -whether his dealer will pay what the quality of the goods really -demands. The dealer can afford to do this all right, if he will -hustle around and find an outlet for the particular grade of goods, -for he is in position to kill and dress the fowls more economically -than the producer. - -I have never been able to study out why the average writer upon -agricultural subjects is always advising the farmer to attempt to do -difficult work for which special firms already exist. In the case of -fattening just referred to, there is reason why the farmer may be -able to do the work more successfully than the special -establishment, but why any one should urge the farmer to turn the -woodshed into a temporary poultry packing establishment I can hardly -see. If the farmer has nothing to do he had better get a job at the -poultry killing house where they have ice water and barrels in which -to put the feathers. - -I do not think it worth while in this book for me to attempt to -describe in detail the various methods of killing and packing -poultry for the various retail markets. The grower who contemplates -killing his own stuff had better spend a day visiting the produce -houses and market stalls and inquire which methods are locally in -demand. - - -Suggestions from Other Countries. - -In European countries generally, and especially in France and -England, great pains is taken in the production of market poultry. -Each farmer and each neighborhood become known in the market for the -quality of their poultry, and the prices they receive vary -accordingly. In these countries more poultry is fattened and dressed -by the growers than in the United States where we have greater -specialization of labor. - -In countries that have an export trade different systems have -originated. In Denmark and Ireland co-operative societies are -organized to handle perishable farm products. These, however, deal -more with eggs than with poultry. In portions of England the -fattening is done by private fatteners. The country being thickly -settled, the chickens are collected directly from the farms by -wagons making regular trips. This allows the rejection of the poor -and immature specimens, whereas a premium may be paid on better -stock. - -The greatest fault of poultry buying as conducted in this country is -the evil of a uniform price. After chickens are dressed the -difference of quality is readily discerned, and the price varies -from fancy quotations to almost nothing for culls. The packer pays a -given rate per pound for live hens or for spring chickens. The price -is paid alike for the best poultry received or for the scrawniest -chickens that can be coaxed to stand up and be weighed. The prices -paid is the average worth of all chickens purchased at that market. -All farmers who market an article better than the average are unjust -losers, while those who sell inferior stock receive unearned -profits. The producer of good stock receives pay for the extra -quantity of his chickens, but for the extra quality no recognition -whatever is given. To the deserving producer, if quality was -recognized, it would result in a greatly increased stimulation of -the production of good poultry. Any packer, if questioned, will -state that he would be willing to grade chickens and pay for them -according to quality, but that he does not do so because his -competitor would pay a uniform price and drive him out of business. -The man who receives an increased price would say little of it, -while the man who sells poor chickens, if he failed to receive the -full amount to which he is accustomed, would think himself unjustly -treated and use his influence against the dealer. A recognition of -quality in buying is for the interest of both the farmer and the -poultry dealer, and a mutual effort on the part of those interested -to put in practice this reform would result in a great improvement -of the poultry industry. - - -Cold Storage of Poultry. - -The growth of the cold storage of poultry has been phenomenal. -Poultry is packed in thin boxes that will readily lose their heat -and these are stacked in a freezer with a temperature near the zero -point. The temperature used for holding poultry are anywhere from 0 -degree up to 20 degrees. Poultry is held for periods of one to six -weeks at temperature above the freezing point. - -Frozen poultry will keep almost indefinitely save for the drying -out, which is due to the fact that evaporation will proceed slowly -even from a frozen body. The time frozen poultry is stored varies -from a few weeks to eight or ten months. - -The usual rule is that any crop is highest in price when it first -comes on the market and cheapest just after the point of its -greatest production. Thus, broilers are high in May and cheap in -September. In such cases the goods are carried from the season of -plenty to the following season of scarcity. This period is always -less than a year. The idea circulated by wild writers, that cold -storage poultry was kept several years is an economic impossibility. -The interest on the investment alone would make the holding of -storage goods into the second season of plenty, quite unprofitable, -but when the costs of storage, insurance and shrinkage are to be -paid, storing poultry for more than one season becomes absurd. The -fowl that has been once frozen cannot be made to look "fresh killed" -again. For that reason packers like to get a monopoly on a -particular market so that the two classes of goods will not have to -compete side by side. The quality of the frozen fowl when served is -very fair, practically as good as and some say better than the fresh -killed. - -Cold storage poultry is best thawed out by being placed over night -in a tank of water. Poultry prejudice prevents the practice of -retailing the goods frozen, though this method would be highly -desirable. - - -Drawn or Undrawn Fowls. - -Within the last two or three years there has been a great hue and -cry about the marketing of poultry without drawing the entrails. - -The objection to the custom rests upon the general prejudice to -allowing the entrails of animals to remain in the carcass. If a -little thought is given the subject, however, it is seen that human -prejudice is very inconsistent in such matters. We draw beef and -mutton carcasses, to be sure, but fish and game are stored undrawn, -and as for oysters and lobsters we not only store them undrawn but -we eat them so. - -The facts about the undrawn poultry proposition are as follows: The -intestines of the fowl at death contain numerous species of -bacteria, whereas the flesh is quite free from germs. If the carcass -is not drawn, but immediately frozen hard, the bacteria remain -inactive and no essential change occurs. If the carcass is stored -without freezing, or remains for even a short time at a high -temperature, the bacteria will begin to grow through the intestinal -walls and contaminate the flesh. - -Now, if the fowl is drawn, the unprotected flesh is exposed to -bacterial contamination, which results in decomposition more rapidly -than through the intestinal walls. The opening of the carcass also -allows a greater drying out and shrinkage. - -If poultry carcasses were split wide open as with beef or mutton, -drawing might not prove as satisfactory as the present method, but -since this is not desirable, and since ordinary laborers will break -the intestines and spill their contents over the flesh, and -otherwise mutilate the fowl, all those who have had actual -experience in the matter agree that drawing poultry is unpractical -and undesirable. - -As far as danger of disease or ptomaine poison is concerned, chances -between the two methods seem to offer little choice. - -The Bureau of Chemistry of the U.S. Department of Agriculture has -conducted a series of experiments along the line of poultry storage. -So far as the results have been published, nothing very striking has -been learned. From what has been published, the writer is of the -opinion that the somewhat mysterious changes that were observed in -the cold storage poultry were mostly a matter of drying out of the -carcass. - - -Poultry Inspection. - -The enthusiastic members of the medical profession, and others whose -knowledge of practical affairs is somewhat limited, occasionally -come forth with the idea of an inspection of poultry carcasses -similar to the Federal inspection of the heavier meats. - -The reasons that are supposed to warrant the Federal meat inspection -are precaution against disease and the idea of enforcing a -cleanliness in the handling of food behind the consumer's back, -which he would insist upon were he the preparer of his own food -products. - -No doubt there is well established evidence that some diseases, such -as the dread trichinosis, are acquired by the consumption of -diseased meat. As far as it is at present known there are no -diseases acquired from the consumption of diseased poultry flesh, -but, as we do not know as much about the bacteria that infests -poultry as we do of that of larger animals, there is no positive -proof that such transmission of disease could not occur. Thorough -cooking kills all disease germs, and poultry is seldom, if ever, -eaten without such preparation. - -The idea of protecting people from uncleanly methods of handling -their foods, concerning which they cannot themselves know, is -somewhat of a sentimental proposition. In practice it amounts to -nothing, save as the popular conception of this protection increases -the demand for the product which is marked "U.S. Inspected and -Passed." - -It may be interesting to some of the reformers of 1906 to know that -the meat inspection bill then forced upon Congress by a clamoring -public was desired by the packers themselves. Because Congress would -not listen to the packers, and the Department of Agriculture, the -Chief Executive very kindly indulged in a little conversation with a -few reporters, the results of which gave Congress the needed -inspiration. - -It cost the Government three million dollars to tell the people that -their meats are packed in a cleanly manner. If the people want this, -it is all well and good. The tax it places upon the price of meat is -less than half of one per cent. - -A similar inspection of the killing and packing of poultry would -involve a very much higher rate of taxation, because of the fact -that poultry products are packed in small establishments scattered -throughout the entire country. - -One reason that the meat packers wanted the United States -Inspection, is because it puts out of business the little fellow to -whom the Government cannot afford to grant inspection. A few of the -very largest poultry packers would like to see poultry inspection -for the same reason, but with the business so thoroughly scattered -as to render Government inspection so expensive as to be quite -impracticable, any such bill would certainly be killed in a -congressional committee. - -Any practical means to bring about the cleanly handling, and to -prevent the consumption of diseased poultry, should certainly be -encouraged. This can be done by the education of the consumer. -Poultry carcasses should be marketed with head and feet attached and -the entrails undrawn. By this precaution the consumer may tell -whether the fowl he is buying is male or female, young or old, -healthy or diseased. All cold storage poultry should be frozen and -should be sold to the consumer in a frozen condition. - -I am not in favor of the detailed regulation of business by law, but -I do believe that the legal enforcement of these last precautions -would be a good thing. - - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -QUALITY IN EGGS [*] - -[Footnote *: Much of the matter in this and the following chapter is -taken from the writer's report of the egg trade of the United -States, published as Circular 140 of the Bureau of Annual Industry -of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. In the present volume, -however, I have inserted some additional matters which policy -forbade that I discuss in a Federal document.] - - - -Because of the readiness with which eggs spoil, the term "fresh" has -become synonymous with the idea of desirable quality in eggs. As a -matter of fact the actual age of an egg is quite subordinate to -other factors which affect the quality. - -An egg forty-eight hours old that has lain in a wheat shock during a -warm July rain, would probably be swarming with bacteria and be -absolutely unfit for food. Another egg stored eight months in a -first-class cold storage room would be perfectly wholesome. - - -Grading Eggs. - -Eggs are among the most difficult of food products to grade, because -each egg must be considered separately and because the actual -substance of the egg cannot be examined without destroying the egg. -From external appearance, eggs can be selected for size, color, -cleanliness of shell and freedom from cracks. This is the common -method of grading in early spring when the eggs are uniformly of -good quality. - -Later in the season the egg candle is used. In the technical sense -any kind of a light may be used as an egg candle. A sixteen candle -power electric lamp is the most desirable. The light is enclosed in -a dark box, and the eggs are held against openings about the size of -a half dollar. The candler holds the egg large end upward, and gives -it a quick turn in order to view all sides, and to cause the -contents to whirl within the shell. To the expert this process -reveals the actual condition of the egg to an extent that the novice -can hardly realize. The art of egg candling cannot be readily taught -by worded description. One who wishes to learn egg candling had best -go to an adept in the art, or he may begin unaided and by breaking -many eggs learn the essential points. - -Eggs when laid vary considerably in size, but otherwise are a very -uniform product. The purpose of the egg in nature requires that this -be the case, because the contents of the egg must be so proportioned -as to form the chick without surplus or waste, and this demands a -very constant chemical composition. - -For food purposes all fresh eggs are practically equal. The tint of -the yolk varies a little, being a brighter yellow when green food -has been supplied the hens. Occasionally, when hens eat unusual -quantities of green food, the yolk show a greenish brown tint, and -appear dark to the candler. Such eggs are called grass eggs; they -are perfectly wholesome. - -An opinion exists among egg men that the white of the spring egg is -of finer quality and will stand up better than summer eggs. This is -true enough of commercial eggs, but the difference is chiefly, if -not entirely, due to external factors that act upon the egg after it -is laid. - -There are some other peculiarities that may exist in eggs at the -time of laying, such as a blood clot enclosed with the contents of -the egg, a broken yolk or perhaps bacterial contamination. "Tape -worms," so-called by egg candlers, are detached portions of the -membrane lining of the egg. "Liver spots" or "meat spots" are -detached folds from the walls of the oviduct. Such abnormalities are -rare and not worth worrying about. - -The shells of eggs vary in shape, color and firmness. These -variations are more a matter of breed and individual idiosyncrasy -than of care or feed. - -The strength of egg shells is important because of the loss from -breakage. The distinction between weak and firm shelled eggs is not -one, however, which can be readily remedied. Nothing more can be -advised in this regard than to feed a ration containing plenty of -mineral matter and to discard hens that lay noticeably weak shelled -or irregularly shaped eggs. - -Preference in the color of eggs shells is a hobby, and one well -worth catering to. As is commonly stated, Boston and surrounding -towns want brown eggs, while New York and San Francisco demand white -eggs. These trade fancies take their origin in the circumstances of -there being large henneries in the respective localities producing -the particular class of eggs. If the eggs from such farms are the -best in the market and were uniformly of a particular shade, that -mark of distinction, like the trade name on a popular article, would -naturally become a selling point. Only the select trade consider the -color in buying. - -Eggs of all Mediterranean breeds are white. Those of Asiatics are -brown. Those of the American breeds are usually brown, but not of so -uniform a tint. - -The size of eggs is chiefly controlled by the breed or by selection -of layers of large eggs. In a number of experiments published by -various experiment stations, slight differences in the sizes of the -eggs have been noted with varying rations and environment, but this -cannot be attributed to anything more specific than the general -development and vigor of the fowls. Pullets, at the beginning of the -laying period, lay an egg decidedly smaller than those produced at a -later stage in life. - -The egg size table below gives the size of representative -classes of eggs. These figures must not be applied too rigidly, as -the eggs of all breeds and all localities vary. They are given as -approximate averages of the eggs one might reasonably expect to find -in the class mentioned. - - - - EGG SIZE TABLE. - - GEOGRAPHICAL BREED Net Wt. Weight Relative - CLASSIFICATION CLASSIFICATIONS Per 30 Ounces Values - Dozen Per Per - Case Dozen Dozen - - Southern Iowa's Purebred flocks of 45 lbs. 24 25c. - "Two ounce eggs" American varieties of - "egg farm Leghorns." - - Poorest flocks of Games and 36 lbs. 19 1-5 20c. - Southern Dunghills Hamburgs. - - Average Tennessee Poorest strains 40 lbs. 21 1-3 22 1-3c. - or Texas eggs. of Leghorns. - - Average for the The mixed barnyard 43 lbs. 23 23 9-10c. - United States as fowl of the western - represented by farm, largely of - Kansas, Plymouth Rock origin. - Minnesota and - Southern Illinois. - - Average size of eggs American Brahmas 48 lbs. 25 3-5 26 2-3c. - produced in Denmark. and Minorcas. - - Selected brands of Equaled by several 54 lbs. 28 4-5 30c. - Danish eggs. pens of Leghorns in - the Australian laying - contest. - - - -How Eggs Are Spoiled. - -Dirty eggs are grouped roughly in three classes: (A) Plain dirties, -those to which soil or dung adheres; (B) stained eggs, those caused -by contact with damp straw or other material which discolors the -shell (plain dirties when washed usually show this appearance); (C) -smeared eggs, those covered with the contents of broken eggs. - -For the first two classes of dirty eggs the producer is to blame. -The third class originates all along the route from the nest to -consumer. The percentage of dirty eggs varies with the season and -weather conditions, being noticeably increased during rainy weather. -In grading, about five per cent. of farm grown eggs are thrown out -as dirties. These dirties are sold at a loss of at least twenty per -cent. - -The common trade name for cracked eggs is checks. Blind checks are -those in which the break in the shell is not readily observable. -They are detected with the aid of the candle, or by sounding, which -consists of clicking the eggs together. Dents are checks in which -the egg shell is pushed in without rupturing the membrane. Leakers -have lost part of the contents and are not only an entire loss -themselves, but produce smeared eggs. - -The loss from breakage varies considerably with the amount of -handling in the process of marketing. A western produce house, -collecting from grocers by local freight will record from four to -seven per cent. of checks. With properly handled eggs the loss -through breakage should not run over one or two per cent. - -Eggs in which the chick has begun to develop are spoken of as -"heated" eggs. Infertile eggs cannot heat because the germ has not -been fertilized and can make no growth. That such infertile eggs -cannot spoil is, however, a mistaken notion, for they are subjected -to all the other factors by which - -eggs may be spoiled. The sale of eggs tested out of the incubators -has been encouraged by the dissemination of the knowledge that -infertile eggs are not changed by incubation. Eggs thrown out of an -incubator will be shrunken and weakened, and some of them may -contain dead germs and the remains of chicks that have died after -starting to develop. Such eggs may be sold for what they are, but -should never be mixed with other eggs or sold as fresh. When -carefully candled they should be worth ten or twelve cents a dozen. - -Fertile eggs, at the time of laying, cannot be told from infertile -eggs, as the germ of the chick is microscopic in size. If the egg is -immediately cooled and held at a temperature below 70 degrees, the -germ will not develop. At a temperature of 103 degrees, the -development of the chick proceeds most rapidly. At this temperature -the development is about as follows: - -Twelve hours incubation: When broken in a saucer, the germ spot, -visible upon all eggs, seems somewhat enlarged. Looked at with a -candle such an egg cannot be distinguished from a fresh egg. - -Twenty-four hours: The germ spot mottled and about the size of a -dime. This egg, if not too dark shelled, can readily be detected -with the candle, the germ spot causing the yolk to appear -considerably darker than the yolk of a fresh egg. Such an egg is -called a heavy egg or a floater. - -Forty-eight hours: By this time the opaque white membrane, which -surrounds the germ, has spread well over the top of the yolk, and -the egg is quite dark or heavy before the light. Blood appears at -about this period, but is difficult of detection by the candler, -unless the germ dies and the blood ring sticks to the membrane of -the egg. - -Three days: The blood ring is the prominent feature and is as large -as a nickel. The yolk behind the membrane has become watery. - -Four days: The body of the chick becomes readily visible, and -prominent radiating blood vessels are seen. The yolk is half covered -with a water containing membrane. - -These stages develop as given, occurring at a temperature of 103 -degrees. As the temperature is lowered the rate of chick development -is retarded, but at any temperature above 70, this development will -proceed far enough to cause serious injury to the quality of the -eggs. - -For commercial use eggs may be grouped in regard to heating as -follows: - -(1) No heat shown. Cannot be told at the candle from fresh eggs. - -(2) Light floats. First grade that can be separated by candling, -corresponding to about twenty-four hours of incubation. These are -not objectionable to the average housewife. - -(3) Heavy floats. This group has no distinction from the former, -except an exaggeration of the same feature. These eggs are -objectionable to the fastidious housewife, because of the appearing -of the white and scummy looking allantois on the yolk. - -(4) Blood rings. Eggs in which blood has developed, extending to the -period when the chick becomes visible. (5) Chicks visible to the -candle. - -The loss due to heated eggs is enormous; probably greater than that -caused by any other source of loss to the egg trade. The loss varies -with the season of the year, and the climate. In New England heat -loss is to be considered as in the same class as loss from dirties -and checks. In Texas the egg business from the 15th of June until -cool weather in the fall is practically dead. People stop eating -eggs at home and shipping out of the State nets the producer such -small returns by the time the loss is allowed that, at the prices -offered, it hardly pays the farmer to gather the eggs. In the season -of 1901 hatched chickens were commonly found in cases of market -eggs, throughout the trans-Mississippi region, and eggs did well to -net the shippers three cents per dozen. - -Damage to eggs by heating and consequent financial loss is -inexcusable. In the first place, market eggs have no business being -fertilized, but whether they are or not they should be kept in a -place sufficiently cool to prevent all germ growth. - -The egg shell is porous so that the developing chick may obtain air. -This exposes the moist contents of the egg to the drying influence -of the atmosphere. Evaporation from eggs takes place constantly. It -is increased by warm temperatures, dry air and currents of air -striking the egg. - -When the egg is formed within the hen the contents fill the shell -completely. As the egg cools the contents shrink, and the two layers -of membrane separate in the large end of the egg, causing the -appearance of the bubble or air cell. Evaporation of water from the -egg further shrinks the contents and increases the size of the air -cell. The size of the air cell is commonly taken as a guide to the -age of the egg. But when we consider that with the same relative -humidity on a hot July day, evaporation would take place about ten -times as fast as on a frosty November morning, and that differences -in humidity and air currents equally great occur between localities, -we see that the age of an egg, judged by this method, means simply -the extent of evaporation, and proves nothing at all about the -actual age. - -Even as a measure of evaporation, the size of the air cell may be -deceptive, for when an egg with an air cell of considerable size is -roughly handled, the air cell breaks down the side of the egg, and -gives the air cell the appearance of being larger than it really is. -Still rougher handling of shrunken eggs may cause the rupture of the -inner membrane, allowing the air to escape into the contents of the -egg. This causes a so-called watery or frothy egg. The quality is in -no wise injured by the mechanical mishap, but eggs so ruptured are -usually discriminated against by candlers. - -In this connection it might be well to speak further of the subject -of "white strength," by which is meant the stiffness or viscosity of -the egg white. The white of an egg is a limpid, clear liquid, but in -the egg of good quality that portion immediately surrounding the -yolk appears to be in a semi-solid mass. The cause of this -appearance is the presence of an invisible network of fibrous -material. By age and mechanical disturbance this network is -gradually broken down and the liquid white separates out. Such a -weak and watery white is usually associated with shrunken eggs. -These eggs will not stand up well or whip into a firm froth and are -thrown in lower grades. - -The weakness of the yolk membranes also increases with age, and is -objectionable because the breakage of the yolk is unsightly and -spoils the egg for poaching. - -The shrunken egg is most abundant in the fall, when the rising -prices tempt the farmer and grocery man to hold the eggs. This -holding is so prevalent, in fact, that from August to December full -fresh eggs are the exception rather than the rule. - -While we have called attention to evaporation as the most pronounced -fault of fall eggs, losses from other causes are greatly increased -by the holding process. - -If the eggs are held in a warm place, heat and shrinkage will case -the greatest damage; if held in a cellar, rot, mold, and bad odors -will cause the chief loss. - -The loss due to shrunken eggs is not understood nor appreciated by -those outside the trade. Such ignorance is due to the fact that the -shrunken is not so repulsive as the rotten or heated egg. But the -inferiority of the shrunken egg is so well appreciated by the -consumer that high class dealers find it impossible to use them -without ruining their trade. The result is that shrunken eggs are -constantly being sent into the cheaper channels, with the result -that all lower grades of eggs are more depreciated in the fall of -the year than at any other time. - -In the classes of spoiled eggs, of which we have thus far spoken, -the proverbial rotten egg has not been considered. The term "rot" in -the egg trade is used to apply to any egg absolutely unfit for food -purposes. But I prefer to confine the term "rotten egg" to the egg -which contains a growth of bacteria. - -The normal egg when laid is germ free. But the egg shell is not germ -proof. The pores in the egg shell proper are large enough to admit -all forms of bacteria, but the membrane inside the shell is germ -proof as long as it remains dry. When this membrane becomes moist so -that bacteria may grow in it, these germs of decay quickly grow -through it and contaminate the contents of the egg. - -Heat favors the growth of bacteria in eggs and sufficient cold -prevents it, but as bacteria cannot enter without moisture on the -surface of the egg we can consider dampness as the cause of rotten -eggs. Moisture on the shell may come from an external wetting, from -the "sweating" of eggs coming out of cold storage, or by the -prevention of evaporation to such an extent that the external -moisture of the egg thoroughly soaks the membrane. The latter -happens in damp cellars, and when eggs are covered with some -impervious material. - -Rotten eggs may be of different kinds, according to the species of -germ that causes the decomposition. The specific kinds of egg -rotting bacteria have not been worked out, but the following three -groups of bacterially infected eggs are readily distinguishable in -the practical work of egg candling. - -(1) Black rots. It is probable that many different species of -bacteria cause this form of rotten eggs. The prominent feature is -the formation of hydrogen sulphide gas, which blackens the contents -of the egg, gives the characteristic rotten egg smell and sometimes -causes the equally well known explosion. - -(2) Sour eggs or white rots. These eggs have a characteristic sour -smell. The contents become watery, the yolk and the whites mix and -the whole egg is offensive to both eye and nose. - -(3) The spot rot. In this the bacterial growth has not contaminated -the whole egg, but has remained near the point of entrance. Such -eggs are readily picked out with the candle, and when broken open -show lumpy adhesions on the inside of the shell. These lumps are of -various colors and appearances. It is probable that these spots are -caused as much by mold as by bacteria, but for practical purposes -the distinction is immaterial. - -In practice it is impossible to separate rotten from heated eggs for -the reason that in the typical nest of spoiled eggs found around the -farm, both causes have been at work. Dead chicks will not -necessarily cause the eggs to decay, but many such eggs do become -contaminated by bacteria before they reach the candler, and hence, -as a physician would say, show complications. - -The loss of eggs that are actually rotten is not as great as one -might imagine. Perhaps one or two per cent. of the country's egg -crop actually rot, but the expenses of the candling necessitated, -and the lowering of value of eggs that contain even a few rotten -specimens are severe losses. - -Moldy or musty eggs are caused by accidentally wet cases or damp -cellars and ice houses. The moldy egg is most frequently a spot rot. -In the musty egg proper the meat is free from foreign organisms, but -has been tainted by the odor of mold growth upon the shell or -packing materials. - -The absorption of odors is the most baffling of all causes of bad -eggs. Here the candler, so expert in other points, is usually -helpless. Eggs, by storage in old musty cellars, or in rooms, with -lemons, onions and cheese, may become so badly flavored as to be -seriously objected to by a fancy trade, and yet there is no means of -detecting the trouble without destroying the egg. Such eggs occur -most frequently among the held stock of the fall season. - - -The Loss Due to Carelessness. - -The egg crop of the country, more than ninety-five per cent, of -which originates on the general farm, is subject to immense waste -due to ignorant and careless handling. The great mass of eggs for -sale in our large cities possess to a greater or less degree the -faults we have discussed. - -Some idea of the loss due to the present shiftless method of -handling eggs, may be obtained by a comparison of the actual average -prices received for all eggs sold in New York City, and the -wholesale prices quoted by a prominent New York firm dealing in high -grade goods. The contrasted price for the year 1907 are as follows: - - Prices at which total goods Wholesale prices for strictly - moved. fresh eggs. - - January 25.8 January 42. - February 24.5 February 40. - March 19.3 March 32. - April 16.9 April 30. - May 16.6 May 31. - June 15.5 June 32. - July 15.6 July 35. - August 17.7 August 38. - September 20.7 September 40. - October 21.4 October 42. - November 26.0 November 45. - December 27.7 December 48. - -The total values figured by multiplying these prices by the -New York receipts, are as follows: - - Amount actually received $23,832,000 - Values at quotations for strictly fresh 44,730,000 - -No one would contend it is possible to bring the entire egg crop of -the country up to the latter value, but the fact that there is a -definite market for eggs of first class quality at almost double the -figures for which the egg crop as a whole is actually sold, is a -point very significant to the ambitious producer of high grade eggs. - - -Requisites of the Production of High Grade Eggs. - -(a) Hens that produce a goodly number of eggs, and at the same time -an egg that is moderately large (average two ounces each). Plymouth -Rocks, Wyandottes, Rhode Island Reds, Orpingtons, Leghorns, Minorcas -are the varieties which will do this. - -(b) Good housing, regular feeding and watering, and above all clean, -dry nests. - -(c) Daily gathering of eggs, when the temperature is above 80 -degrees, gathering twice a day. - -(d) The confining of all broody hens as soon as discovered. - -(e) The rejection as doubtful of all eggs found in a nest which was -not visited the previous day. (Such eggs should be used at home -where each may be broken separately). - -(f) The placing as soon as gathered of all summer eggs in the -coolest spot available. - -(g) The prevention at all times of moisture in any form coming in -contact with the egg's shell. - -(h) The selling of young cockerels before they begin to annoy the -hens. Also the selling or confining of old male birds from the time -hatching is over until cool weather in fall. - -(i) The using of cracked and dirty, as well as small eggs, at home. -Such eggs if consumed when fresh are perfectly wholesome, but when -marketed are discriminated against and are likely to become an -entire loss. - -(j) Keeping eggs away from musty cellars or bad odors. - -(k) Keeping the egg as cool and dry as possible while en route to -market. - -(l) The marketing of all eggs at least once per week and oftener, -when facilities permit. - -(m) The use of strong, clean cases or cartons and good fillers. - - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -HOW EGGS ARE MARKETED - - -The methods by which the larger number of American eggs pass from -the producer to consumer is as follows: - -The eggs are gathered by the farmer with varying regularity and are -brought perhaps on the average of once a week, to the local village -merchant. - -This merchant receives weekly quotations from a number of -surrounding egg dealers and at intervals of from two days to two -weeks, ships to such a dealer, by local freight. The dealer buys the -eggs case count, that is, he pays for them by the case regardless of -quality. He then repacks the eggs in new cases and, with the -exception of a period in the early spring, candles them. - -This dealer, in turn, receives quotations from city egg houses and -sells to them by wire. He usually ships in carload lots. The city -receiver may also be a jobber who sells to grocers, or he may sell -the car outright to a jobbing house. The jobber re-candles the eggs, -sorting them into a number of grades, which are sold to various -classes of trade. The last link in the chain is the housewife, who -by 'phone or personal call, asks for "a dozen nice fresh eggs." - -This most frequently repeated story of the American egg applies -particularly in the case of eggs produced west of the Mississippi -and marketed in the very large cities of the East. - -We will now discuss the various steps of the egg trade, pointing out -the reason for the existence of the present methods and their -influence upon quality and consequent value. - - -The Country Merchant. - -The country merchant is the logical business link between the farmer -and the outside world and usually continues to act as the farmers' -buyer and seller until the commodity dealt in becomes of such -importance as to demand more specialized form of marketing. Eggs -being a perishable crop continuously produced, must be marketed at -frequent intervals, and the trips to the general store, necessary to -supply the household needs, offers the only convenient opportunity -for such marketing. - -The merchant buys eggs because by doing so he can control his -selling trade. - -The farmer trades where he sells his eggs, because it is convenient -to do both errands at one place, and also because he wishes to avoid -affronting the merchant by breaking the established custom of -trading out the amount. - -For these reasons the merchant knows that to buy eggs means to sell -goods, and he therefore bids for eggs. His competitors across the -street, and in other towns, also bid for eggs. The effect to the -merchant of lowering the price of his goods or raising the price of -eggs is financially the same. In either case it is the matter of -cutting the prices under the spur of competition. Now, the articles -on which the merchant make his chief profits from the farmers' trade -are dry goods and notions. Such articles are not standardized, but -vary in a manner quite impossible of estimation by the -unsophisticated. On the other hand, eggs are quoted by the dozen, -and all that run may read. - -Suppose, for illustration, two merchants in the same town are each -doing a business with a twenty per cent. profit, and are buying eggs -at ten cents and selling for eleven, the cent advance being -sufficient to pay for their labor, incidental loss, and a small -profit. Now one merchant concludes to play for more trade. If he -marks his goods down he would gain some trade, but many people would -fear his goods were cheap. But if he puts up a placard, "Eleven -Cents Paid For Eggs," the farmers will throng his store and never -question the quality of his goods. This move having been successful, -his rival across the street quietly stocks up with a cheaper line of -dry goods, and some fine morning puts out a card, "Twelve Cents For -Eggs." The farm wagons this week will be hitched on the other side -of the street. - -The rate of business at ten per cent, being insufficient to maintain -two men in the town, a mutual understanding is gradually brought -about by which the prices of goods sold are worked back to the basis -of twenty per cent, gross profit, but the false price of eggs will -serve to draw the trade from neighboring towns and is therefore -maintained. - -As a matter of fact the price paid to farmers for eggs by the -general stores of the Mississippi Valley is frequently one to two -cents above the price at which the storekeeper sells the product. -Allowing the cost of handling, we have a condition prevailing in -which the merchant is handling eggs at from five to ten per cent. -loss, and it stands to reason that he is making up the loss by -adding that per cent. to his profits on his goods. Some of the -effects of this system are: - -1--The inflated prices of merchandise is an injustice to the -townspeople and to farmers not selling produce, in fact it amounts -to a taxation of these people for the benefit of the egg producers. -2--The inflated prices of merchant's wares work to his disadvantage -in competition with mail order or out-of-town trade. 3--The farmer -who exchanges eggs for dry goods is not being paid more for his -eggs, save as the tax on the townspeople contributes a little to -that end, but is in the main merely swapping more dollars. 4--The -use of eggs as a drawing card for trade works in favor of inferior -produce, and the loss to the farmer through the lowering of prices -thus caused, is much greater than his gain through the forced -contributions of his neighbors. - - -The Huckster. - -The huckster or peddling wagon which gathers eggs and other produce -directly from the farm, prevail east and south of a line drawn from -Galveston to Chicago through Texarkana, Ark., Springfield, Mo., and -St. Louis. North and west of this line the huckster is almost -unknown. - -The huckster wagons may be of the following types: - -1--An extension of the local grocery store, trading merchandise for -eggs. 2--An independent traveling peddler. 3--A cash dealer who buys -his load, and hauls it to the nearest city where he peddles the -produce from house to house or sells it to city grocers. 4--A -representative of the local produce buyer. 5--A fifth style of egg -wagon does not visit the farm at all, but is a system of rural -freight service run by a produce buyer for the purpose of collecting -the eggs from country stores. - -As far as the quality of product and advantage to the farmer is -concerned, the fourth style of huckster is preferable. This style -exists chiefly in Indiana and Michigan, and the better settled -regions of Kentucky and Tennessee. The writer found hucksters in -southern Michigan working on a profit of one-half a cent per dozen, -while in the mountains of Tennessee he found a huckster paying ten -cents for eggs that were worth eighteen cents in Chattanooga, and -twenty-three cents in New York. - -The huckster scheme of gathering eggs would seemingly be a means of -obtaining good eggs because of the advantage of regularity of -collection, but in reality it does not always work out that way. -While it must be admitted that in the isolated regions of the Middle -and Southern States the presence of the huckster is the only factor -that makes egg selling possible, it is also true that the peddling -huckster of those regions usually disregards the first principles of -handling perishable products. He makes a week's trip in sun and rain -with his load of produce, with the result that the quality of his -summer eggs is about as low as can be found. - -In the more densely populated region with a twice or thrice a week, -or even daily service, the huckster egg becomes the finest farm -grown egg in the market. - -The second step in the usual scheme of egg marketing is the sale of -eggs collected by the small storekeeper to the produce man or -shipper. - - -The Produce Buyer. - -Throughout the Mississippi Valley there are wholesale produce houses -at all important railroad junctions. A typical house will ship the -produce of one to three counties. These houses, once a week or -oftener, send out postal card quotations. These quotations read so -much per case, and are usually case count, with a reservation, -however, of the privilege to reject or charge loss on goods that are -utterly bad. Each grocery receives quotations from one to a dozen -such houses, and perhaps also from commission firms in the nearest -city. The highest of these quotations gets the shipment. - -The buyer repacks the eggs and usually candles them, the strictness -of the grading depending upon the intended destination. The loss in -candling is generally kept account of, but is seldom charged back to -the shipper. The egg man wants volume of business, and if he -antagonizes a shipper by charging up his loss, the usual result will -be the loss of trade. So the buyer estimates his probable loss and -lowers his price enough to cover it. - -By loss off, or "rots out," is meant the subtraction of the bad eggs -from the number to be paid for. Buying on a candled or graded basis, -usually not only means rots cut, but that a variation of the price -is made for two or more grades of merchantable eggs. - -Much discussion prevails among the western egg buyers as to whether -eggs should be bought loss off or case count. Loss off buying seems -to be more desirable and just, but in practice is fraught with -difficulties. - -If the loss off buyer feels he is losing business, he may instruct -his candler to grade more closely, which means he will pay less. -Whether done with honest or dishonest intention, the buyer thus sets -the price to be paid after he has the goods in his own hands, and -this is an obviously difficult commercial system. - -Where the buyer in one case changes the grading basis to protect -himself, there are probably ten cases where the eggs really deserve -the loss charged; but the tenth chance gives the seller an -opportunity to nurse his loss with the belief that he has been -robbed by the buyer. Such an uncertain feeling is disagreeable, and -the results are that where one or two competing egg dealers buys -loss off, and the other case count, the case count man will get most -of the business. - -The case count method being the path of least resistance, the loss -off system can only succeed where there is some factor that -overcomes the disinclination of a shipper to let the other man set -the price. This factor may be: 1st--An exceptional reputation of a -particular firm for honesty and fair dealing. 2d--Exceptional -opportunities for selling fancy goods, enabling the loss off buyer -to pay much higher rates for good stuff. 3d--A condition that -prevails in the South in the summer, where the losses are so heavy -that the dealers will not take the risk involved in case count -buying. 4th--Some sort of a monopoly. - -A monopoly for enforcing the loss off system of buying has been -brought about in some sections of the West by agreement among egg -dealers. In such cases the usual experience has been that some one -would get anxious for more business, and begin quoting case count, -the result being that he would get the business of the disgruntled -shippers in his section. When one buyer begins quoting case count, -the remainder rapidly follow suit and case count buying is quickly -re-established. - - -The City Distribution of Eggs. - -In name, city egg dealers are usually commission houses, but in -practice the majority of large lots of eggs are now bought by -telegraph and the prices definitely known before shipment. - -In the larger cities eggs are dealt in by a produce board of trade. -Such exchanges frequently have rules of grading and an official -inspector. This gives stability to egg dealing and largely solves -the problem of uncertainty as to quality, so annoying to the country -buyer. In the city even, where official grading is not resorted to, -personal inspection of the lot by the buyer is practical, and one -may know what he is getting. - -In many cases, especially in smaller cities, the receiver is the -jobber and sells to the grocers. In larger cities the receiver sells -to a firm who makes a business of selling them to groceries, -restaurants, etc. - -The jobber grades the eggs as the trade demands. In a western city -this may mean two grades--good and bad; in New York, it may mean -seven or eight grades, and the finer of these ones being packed in -sealed cartons, perhaps each egg stamped with the dealer's brand. - -The city retailer of eggs include grocers, dairies, butcher shops, -soda fountains, hotels, restaurants and bakeries. The soda fountain -trade and the first-class hotel are among the high bidder for -strictly first-class eggs. Many such institutions in eastern cities -are supplied directly from large poultry farms. The figures at which -such eggs are purchased are frequently at a given premium above the -market quotation, or a year round contract price for a given number -of eggs per week. This premium over common farm eggs may range from -one or two cents in western cities, to five to twenty cents in New -York and Boston. An advance of ten cents over the quotation for -extras or a year round contract price of thirty-five cents per -dozen, might be considered typical of such arrangements in New York -City. - -Some of the larger chain grocers in New York City are in the market -for strictly fresh eggs and have even installed buying departments -in charge of expert egg men. - -The great bulk of eggs move through the channels of the small -restaurant, bakery and grocery. In the small cities of the Central -West the grocer handles eggs at a margin of one to three cents. In -the South and farther West the margin is two to seven cents, the -retail price always being in the even nickel. In the large eastern -city there exists the custom unknown in the West of having two or -more grades of eggs for sale in the same store. All eggs offered for -sale are claimed by the salesman to be "strictly fresh" or the -"best," and yet these eggs may vary if it be April from fifteen -cents to forty cents, or if in December from thirty cents to -seventy-five cents per dozen. The New York grocers' profit is from -two to five cents on cheap eggs, but runs higher on high grade eggs, -frequently reach twenty cents a dozen and sometimes going as high as -forty cents for very fancy stock. - -City retailing is by far the most expensive item in the marketing of -eggs. As an illustration of the profits of the various handlers of -eggs might be as follows: - - Paid the farmer in Iowa $.15 - Profit of country store .00 - Gross profit of shipper .00-3/4 - Freight to New York .01-1/2 - Gross profit of receiver .00-1/2 - Gross profit of jobber .01-1/2 - Loss from candling .01-1/2 - Gross profit of retailer .04-1/2 - ------- - Cost to consumer $.25 - -The cheapest grade of eggs sold are taken by bakeries and for -cooking purposes at restaurants. When cooked with other food an egg -may have its flavor so covered up that a very repulsive specimen may -be used. Measures have been frequently taken by city boards of -health to stop the sale of spot rots and other low grade eggs. The -great difficulty with such regulations is that they are difficult of -enforcement because no line of demarcation can be drawn as in the -case of adulterated or preserved products. - -That embryo chicks and bacterially contaminated eggs are consumed by -the million cannot be doubted, but the individual examination of -each egg sold would be the only way in which the food inspectors can -prevent their use. The egg from the well-kept flock whose subsequent -handling has been conducted with intelligence and dispatch is the -only egg whose "purity" is assured with or without law. The -encouragement of such production and such handling is the proper -sphere of governmental regulations in regard to this product. - - -Cold Storage of Eggs. - -The supply of eggs ranges from month to month, the heavy season of -production centering about April and the lightest run being in -November. The cold storage men begin storing eggs in March or April -and continue to store heavily until June, after which time the -quality deteriorates and does not keep well in storage. This storage -stock begins to move out in September and should be cleaned up by -December. Great loss may result if storage eggs are held too long. - -The effect of the storage business is to even up the prices for the -year. The reduction of the exceedingly high winter prices is -unfortunate for those who are skilled enough to produce many eggs at -that season of the year, but on a whole the storage business adds to -the wealth-producing powers of the hen, for it serves to increase -the annual consumption of eggs and prevents eggs from becoming a -drug on the market during the season of heavy production. - -March and April eggs are, in spite of a long period of storage, the -best quality of storage stock. This is accounted for by the fact -that owing to cooler weather and rising price eggs leave the farm in -the best condition at this season of the year. - -Because eggs are spoiled by hard freezing, they must be kept at a -higher temperature than meat and butter. Temperatures of from 29 -degrees to 30 degrees F. are used in cold storage of eggs. At such -temperatures the eggs, if kept in moist air, become moldy or musty. -To prevent this mustiness the air in a first class storage room is -kept moderately dry. This shrinks the eggs, though much more slowly -than would occur without storage. - -The growth of bacteria in cold storage is practically prevented, but -if bacteria are in the eggs when stored they will lie dormant and -begin activity when the eggs are warmed up. - -Of the cold storage egg as a whole we can say it is a wholesome food -product, though somewhat inferior in flavor and strength of white to -a fresh egg. The cold storage egg can be very nearly duplicated in -appearance and quality by allowing eggs to stand for a week or two -in a dry room. Cold storage eggs, when in case lots, can be told by -the candler because of the uniform shrinkage, the presence of mold -on cracked eggs and perhaps the occasional presence of certain kinds -of spot rots peculiar to storage stock, but the absolute detection -of a single cold storage egg, so far as the writer knows, is -impossible. - -It may be further said that with the present prevailing custom of -holding eggs without storage facilities for the fall rise of price, -eggs placed in cold storage in April are frequently superior to the -current fall and early winter receipts. Cold storage eggs are -generally sold wholesale as cold storage goods, but are retailed as -"eggs." The fall eggs offered to the consumer cover every imaginable -variation in quality and the poorest ones sold may be a cold storage -product, or they may not be. - -The Bureau of Chemistry of the United States Department of -Agriculture has recently announced the finding of certain crystals -in the yolks of cold storage eggs that are not present in the fresh -stock. This finding of a laboratory method of detecting cold storage -stock was at first taken to be a great discovery. Further -investigation, however, indicates that the crystal mentioned forms -as the egg ages and that the rate of formation varies with the -individual eggs and probably also with the temperature, so that -while crystals may indicate an aged egg, the discovery only means -that the microscopist in the laboratory can now do in a half hour -what any egg candler in his booth can do in ten seconds. - -At the present writing (February, 1909) there has been much talk of -laws against the sale of cold storage eggs as fresh. The Federal -Pure Food Commission, under the general law against misbranding, -have made one such prosecution. Many States have agitated such laws -but little or nothing has been done. I find that the idea of such a -law is quite popular, especially with poultrymen. Contrary to -popular opinion, the cold storage men and larger egg dealers are not -opposed to the law. The people that are hit are the small dealers -and especially the city grocers. These fellows buy the eggs at -wholesale storage prices and sell them at retail prices for fresh, -thus making excessive profits but cutting down the amount of the -sales. This lessens the demand for storage stock and lowers the -wholesale price. This is the reason the wholesaler and warehouse man -are in favor of the law. - -We may all grant that the opportunity given the small dealers to -grab quick gains and in so doing hurt the trade ought to be -abolished. But how are we to do it? "Have State and Federal branding -of the cases as they go into or come out of storage," says one--an -excellent plan, to be sure by which the grocers could buy one case -of fresh, eggs and a back room full of storage goods and do Elijah's -flour barrel trick to perfection. - -Clearly government inspection and stamping of each egg is the only -method that would be effective and the consideration of what this -means turns the whole matter into a joke. The official inspection -now maintained by the boards of trade of the larger cities may be -extended and the producers, dealers and consuming public may be -educated to appreciate quality in eggs, as they have been in dairy -products. City and State laws may also be made which will taboo the -sale of spot eggs or eggs that will float on water. Meanwhile, a -great opportunity is open for the man who has high grade eggs for -sale, whether he be producer or tradesman. - -Many eggs that would not do for ordinary storage are preserved by -direct freezing. These eggs are broken and carefully sorted and -placed in large cans and then frozen. Such a product is disposed of -to bakers, confectioners and others desiring eggs in large -quantities. Another method of preserving eggs is by evaporation. -Evaporated or dried egg is, weight considered, about the most -nourishing food product known. The chief value of such an article -lies in provisioning inaccessible regions. There is no reason, -however, why this product should not become a common article of diet -during the season of high prices of eggs. Dried eggs can be eaten as -custards, omelets, or similar dishes. - - -Preserving Eggs Out of Cold Storage. - -Occasional articles have been printed in agricultural papers calling -attention to the fact that the cold storage men were reaping vast -profits which rightfully belonged to the farmer. Such writers advise -the farmer to send his own eggs to the storage house or to preserve -them by other means. - -As a matter of fact the business of storing eggs has not of late -years been particularly profitable, there being severe losses during -several seasons; Even were the profit of egg storing many times -greater than they are the above advice would still be unwise, for -the storing, removing and selling of a small quantity of eggs would -eat up all possible profit. - -The only reliable methods of preserving eggs outside of cold storage -are as follows: - -Liming: Make a saturated solution of lime, to which salt may be -added, let it settle, dip off the clear liquid, put the eggs in -while fresh, keep them submerged in the liquid and keep the liquid -as cold as the available location will permit. - -Water glass: This is exactly the same as liming except that the -solution used is made by mixing ten per cent. of liquid water glass -or sodium silicate with water. - -Liming eggs was formerly more popular than it is to-day. There are -still two large liming plants in this country and several in Canada. -In Europe both lime and water glass are used on a more extensive -scale. - -All limed or water glassed eggs can be told at a glance by an -experienced candler. They pop open when boiled. When properly -preserved they are as well or better flavored than storage stock, -but the farmer or poultryman will make frequent mistakes and thus -throw lots of positively bad eggs on the market. These eggs must be -sold at a low price themselves, and by their presence cast suspicion -on all eggs, thus tending to suppress the price paid to the -producers. The farmers' efforts to preserve eggs has in this way -acted as a boomerang, and have in the long run caused more loss than -gain to the producers. - -For the poultryman with his own special outlet for high grade goods, -the use of pickling or cold storage is generally not to be -considered for fear of hurting his trade. Any scheme that would help -to overcome the difficulty of getting sufficient fresh eggs to -supply such customers in the season of scarcity would be of great -advantage. The proposition of pickling a limited number of eggs and -selling them for "cooking" purposes, explaining just what they are, -ought to offer something of a solution, although, to the writer's -knowledge, it has not been done. - - -Improved Methods of Marketing Farm-Grown Eggs. - -The loss to the farmers of this country from the careless handling -of eggs is something enormous. No great or sudden change in this -state of affairs can be brought about, but a few points on how this -loss may be averted will not be out of order. - -Numerous efforts have recently been made in western states to -prevent the sale of bad eggs by law. Minnesota began this work by -arresting several farmers and dealers. The parties invariably -pleaded guilty. A number of other States followed the example of -Minnesota in challenging the sale of rotten eggs, but few -prosecutions were made. - -Such laws mean well enough, but the only efficient means of -enforcing them would be to have food inspectors who are trained as -practical candlers. - -The present usefulness of the laws is in calling the attention of -the farmer to the mistake that he may be carelessly committing, and -in placing over him a fear of possible disgrace in case of arrest -and prosecution. - -The weakness of the law is the difficulty of its enforcement because -of the number of violations, and the difficulty of drawing distinct -lines in regard to which eggs are to be considered unlawful. - -Education of the farmer as to the situation is, of course, the -surest means of preventing the loss, but the education of ten -millions of farmers is easier to suggest than to execute. The most -effective plan of education would be the introduction of a method of -buying eggs similar to the one in vogue in Denmark, in which every -producer is paid strictly in accordance with the quality of his -eggs. - -With our complicated system involving five to six dealers between -the producer and the consumer, such a system is well nigh -impossible. With the introduction of co-operative buying or the -community system of production, paying for quality becomes entirely -possible. - -For enterprising farming communities, the following plans offer a -cure for the evil of general store buying that take good and bad -alike and causes the worthy farmer to suffer for the carelessness -and dishonesty of his neighbor. - -First: The encouragement of the cash buying of produce, and, if -possible, the candling of all eggs with proper deduction for loss. - -Second: The buying of eggs by co-operative creameries. The greatest -difficulty in this has been the opposition of the merchants, who -through numerous ways available in a small town, may retaliate and -injure the creamery patronage to an extent greater than the newly -installed egg business will repay. - -Third: The agreement of the merchants to turn all egg buying over to -a single produce buyer. This has been successfully done in a few -instances, but there are not many towns in which those interested -will stick to such an agreement. The worst fault with this plan is -that the moment the egg buyer is given a monopoly he is tempted to -lower the farmer's prices for the purpose of increasing his own -profits. - -Fourth: A modification of the above scheme is the case in which the -produce buyer is on a salary and in the employment of the merchants. -This scheme has been successfully carried into effect in some -Nebraska towns. It may be the ultimate solution of the egg buying in -the West. It eliminates the temptation of the buyer to use his -privilege of monopoly to fatten his own pocket-book. The weakness of -the plan is that a salaried man's efficiency in the close bargaining -necessary to sell the goods is inferior to that of the man trading -for himself. Other difficulties are: Getting a group of merchants -who will live up to such an agreement; the farmers object to driving -to two places; the competition of other towns; the merchants' -realization that, the farmer with cash in his pocket or a check good -at all stores, is not as certain a trader as one standing, egg -basket on arm, before the counter; and last, and most convincing, -the merchant's further realization that any fine Saturday morning, -with eggs selling at fifteen cents at the produce house, he may -stick out a card "Sixteen Cents Paid for Eggs" and make more money -in one day than his competitors did all week. - -Fifth: Co-operative egg buying by the farmers themselves. This has -been discussed in a previous chapter. It is all right in localities -where the business is big enough to warrant it and the farmers are -intelligent and enthusiastic to back it up and stick to it. - - -The High Grade Egg Business. - -There are many excellent opportunities for men of moderate capital -and ability in the high grade egg trade. The produce business on its -present line, either at the country end or at the city end, is as -open as any well-known form of business enterprise can be. The -chances of success for a man new to the trade will be better, -however, if he can find a niche in the business where he may crowd -in and establish himself before the old firms realize what is up. -The proposition of buying high grade eggs from producers and selling -direct to consumers is a proposition of this kind. - -The little game of existence is chiefly one of apeing our betters -and strutting before the lesser members of the flock. The large -cities are full of people in search of some way to display their -superior wealth, taste and exclusiveness. If an ingenious dealer -takes a dozen eggs from common candled stock, places them in a blue -lined box and labels them "Exquisite Ovarian Deposital," he can sell -quite a few of them at a long price, but the game has its limits. -Now, let this man secure a truly high grade article from reliable -producers, teach his customers the points that actually distinguish -his eggs from common stock, and he can get not only the sucker trade -above referred to but a more satisfactory and permanent trade from -that class of people who are willing to pay for genuine superiority -but whose ears have not quite grown through their hats. - -An express messenger running out of St. Louis became interested in -the egg trade. He arranged with a few country friends to ship him -their eggs. These he candled in his house cellar and began selling -them to a limited trade in the wealthy section of the city. At first -he delivered the eggs himself. This was in the World's Fair year of -1904. In 1908 he did a $100,000 worth of business and his type of -business shows a much better percentage of profit than that of the -ordinary type of dealer. - -In Chicago, one of the large dairy companies established an egg -department and placed a young man in charge of it. The eggs in this -case are not bought of farmers but are secured from country produce -buyers whom the Chicago company have encouraged to educate their -farmers to bring in a high grade of goods. These people buy their -eggs in Tennessee in the winter and in Minnesota in the summer, thus -getting the best eggs the year round. They sell by wagon on regular -routes. The business is growing nicely and pays good profits. - -Other similar concerns are operating in Chicago and other large -cities. They are not numerous, however, and there is room for more. -The reason the business has not been overdone is chiefly because of -the difficulty of getting sufficiently really high grade eggs in the -season of scarcity. Southern winter eggs are destined to relieve -this situation more and more. - -Another great difficulty with a plan that attempts to buy eggs -directly from the producer is that premium offered on the goods -tempts the farmer to go out and buy up eggs from his neighbors. This -brings disastrous results in the quality of the goods and the farmer -must be dropped from the list. In order to make a success, a system -of buying directly from producers must be based upon a grading -scheme that will pay for the actual quality of the eggs. No fear -then need be exercised as to whether the farmer sells his own eggs -or those of his neighbor. - -The following extract from Farmer's Bulletin 128 of the U.S. -Department of Agriculture has been used as advertising "dope" in the -sale of high grade eggs: - -"Under certain conditions eggs may be the cause of illness by -communicating some bacterial disease or some parasite. It is -possible for an egg to become infected with micro-organisms, either -before it is laid or after. The shell is porous, and offers no -greater resistance to micro-organisms which cause disease than it -does to those which cause the egg to spoil or rot. When the infected -egg is eaten raw the microorganisms, if present, are communicated to -man and may cause disease. If an egg remains in a dirty nest, -defiled with the micro-organisms which cause typhoid fever, carried -there on the hen's feet or feathers, it is not strange if some of -these bacteria occasionally penetrate the shell and the egg thus -becomes a possible source of infection. Perhaps one of the most -common troubles due to bacterial infection of eggs is the more or -less serious illness sometimes caused by eating those which are -'stale.' This often resembles ptomaine poisoning, which is caused, -not by micro-organisms themselves, but by the poisonous products -which they elaborate from materials on which they grow. - -"In view of this possibility, it is best to keep eggs as clean as -possible and thus endeavor to prevent infection. Clean -poultry-houses, poultry-runs and nests are important, and eggs -should always be stored and marketed under sanitary conditions. The -subject of handling food in a cleanly manner is given entirely too -little attention." - -The reprint upon the succeeding pages will give some idea of the -advertising literature used in selling high grade eggs. This is a -copy of a hand-bill inserted in the egg boxes of a prominent Chicago -dealer: - - * * * * * - - MOORE'S BREAKFAST EGGS - -are guaranteed to be perfect in quality when you receive them -and to remain so until all eaten up. If for any reason they -are not satisfactory return the Eggs to your dealer and get -your money back. - -(Signature.) - - WE URGE YOU - -to assist us in our endeavor to furnish you at all times with -the finest Eggs by being careful to - - KEEP THEM DRY - -A damp "filler" will in 24 hours make the finest fresh Eggs -taste like old Cold Storage Eggs. - -The flavor of an Egg cannot be detected even by the powerful -electric lights used to inspect every Egg in this package, -so it might be possible for a "strong" Egg to get by our inspectors, -but in the past the cause of nearly every complaint -has been traced to the consumer's ice box or pantry window -sill. - - REMEMBER - -Eggs are 25c-40c per doz. retail only when fine Eggs are -scarce. Ordinarily we can get a sufficient supply from the -farmers bringing milk daily to the creameries where we make -Delicia Pure Cream Butter, but in times of scarcity we often -have to go as far as Oklahoma, Arkansas or Tennessee to find -the best Eggs. These are not equal to our creamery Eggs but -are the freshest and best to be had and are vastly superior to -the old Cold Storage Eggs that flood the market at such times. - - Be Sure This Seal is Unbroken When You Get the Eggs - - W. S. MOORE & CO., - - Chicago Office--131 South Water Street. - - -Buying Eggs By Weight. - -Whenever an improved method of buying is installed, eggs should be -bought of the producer by weight. As far as selling to the consumer -is concerned, the present scheme is more feasible; this scheme is to -grade according to the size and other qualities, and sell by the -dozen, the price per dozen varying according to the grade. - -Buying by weight simplifies the problem of grading. It will, in -addition, only be necessary to have a fine of so much for eggs that -are wrong in quality. For rotten or heated eggs should be deducted -an amount considerably in excess of their value, for their presence -is a source of danger to the reputation of the brand. Shrunken eggs -are hard to classify. In order that this may be done fairly and -uniformly the specific gravity or brine test should be used. All -eggs that float in a given salt brine of, say, 1.05 specific gravity -should be fined. Two or more grades can be made in this fashion if -desired. - - -The Retailing of Eggs by the Producer. - -In poultry papers the poultryman has been commonly advised to get -near a large city and retail his own eggs at a fancy price. This -sounds all right on paper but in practice it works out differently. -A man cannot be in two places or do two things at the same time. The -poultryman's time is valuable on his plant, and the question is -whether he can handle city sales as well as a man who made it his -business. If the poultryman tries to retail his own goods he will be -working on too small a scale to advertise his goods or to make -deliveries economically. The man making a specialty of the city end -can sell ten to a hundred times as much produce as one poultryman -can produce. - -With a group of poultry farmers working co-operatively, or a large -corporation having contracts with producers, the producing and -selling end can be brought under the same management advantageously. -The isolated poultryman, unless he find a market at his very door, -will do better to permit at least one middleman to slip in between -himself and the consumer. But there is no reason why he should not -know this middleman personally and insist upon a method of buying -that will pay him upon the merits of his goods. - -Consigning eggs or any other produce to commission men, without a -definite understanding, will always be, as it always has been, a -source of dissatisfaction and loss. There is a great opportunity -here for the man who can organize a system that shall do away with -commission houses, other intermediate steps, and form the single -step from producer to consumer. Some people say that farmers cannot -be dealt with in this manner. Such people would probably have said -as much about general merchandising before the days of the mail -order houses. - -It is all a matter of efficient organization. A system of business -fitted to deal in carload lots will, of course, fail when dealing -with half cases. It is more difficult to deal in little things than -in big ones because the margin is closer, but it can and will be -done. - - -The Price of Eggs. - -We will consider the price of all eggs from the quotation of Western -firsts in the New York market. The reason for this is evident. Every -egg raised east of Colorado is in line for shipment to New York. If -other towns get eggs they must pay sufficiently to keep them from -going to New York. - -In pricing eggs we have first to consider the price of Western -firsts in New York and secondly the quality relation of the -particular grade to Western firsts and the consequent relation in -price. - -The price of eggs varies with the price of other commodities as the -periods of prosperity and adversity follow one another through the -years. - -As is well known, all prices in the '90's passed through a period of -depression. For eggs this reached a base in 1897. Since then there -has been a gradual climb till this realized a high point in 1904, -remained high till 1907. In the spring of 1908 egg prices dropped -again, but the fall prices of 1908 were exceptionally high. As this -work goes to press (May, 1909) eggs are going into storage at the -highest May price on record. - -The prices of eggs also vary independently of other commodities -because of a gradual changing relation between production and -consumption. As stated in the first chapter the prices of poultry -products have shown a general rise when compared with other -articles. This has been most marked since 1900. As for the future we -cannot prophesy save to say that there is nothing in sight to lead -us to believe that we will not go still higher in egg prices. - -A third variation in the price of eggs is the one caused by the -seasonal relation of production and consumption. This change is from -year to year fairly constant. Its normal may be seen in the -scientifically smoothed curve in plate IV. This curve is based upon -the New York prices for the last eighteen years. - -In addition to these broader influences there are disturbing -tendencies that cause the market to fluctuate back and forth across -the line where the more general influences would place it. - -Of those general factors, weather is the most important. Storms, -rain and cold in the egg producing region decrease the lay, lower -supplies and raise the price. This is due both to the fact that -laying is cut down and that the country roads become impassable and -the farmers do not bring the eggs to town. As long as there are -storage eggs in the warehouses weather conditions are not so -effective, but when these are gone, which is usually about the first -of the year, the egg market becomes highly sensitive to all weather -changes. Suppose late in February storms and snows force up the -price of eggs. This is followed by a warm spell which starts the -March lay. The roads, meanwhile, are in a quagmire from melting -snows. When they do dry up eggs come to town by the wagon loads. A -drop of ten cents or more may occur on such occasions within a day -or two's time. This is known as the spring drop and for one to get -caught with eggs on hand means heavy losses. - -When once eggs have suffered this drop to the spring level or the -storage price for the season, the prices for April, May and June -will remain fairly steady. About the last week in June the summer -climb begins. This goes on very steadily with local variation of -about the same as those of the spring months. The storage eggs begin -to come out in August and at first sell about the same as fresh. As -the season advances the fresh product continues to rise in price. -The storage egg price will remain fairly uniform. By November the season -of high prices is reached. If storage eggs are still plentiful and the -weather is mild sudden variations in price may occur. These are caused -by a fear that the storage eggs will not all be consumed before spring. -If an oversupply of eggs have been stored a warm spell in winter will -make a heavy drop in the market, but if storage eggs are scarce the -sudden variations will be up-shots due to cold waves. From November -until spring egg prices are a creature of the weather maps and sudden -jumps from 5 to 10 cents may occur at any time. - -[Illustration: Plate IV. Page 159. Graphs of egg prices and volume -of egg sales as they vary throughout the year.] - -The price curve of 1908, which is represented by the dotted line in -plate IV will illustrate these general principles. In the lower -portion of plate IV is given the curves for the New York receipts. -The heavy line represents the smoothed or normal curve, deduced from -eighteen years' statistics and calculated for the year 1908. The -dotted line shows the actual receipts of 1908. A comparison week by -week of the receipts and price will show the detailed workings of -the law of supply and demand. - -Aside from the weather there are other factors that perceptibly -affect the receipts and price of eggs. A high price of meat will -increase farm and village consumption of eggs and cut down the -receipts that reach the city. Abundance of fruit in the city market -will cut down the demand for eggs. A cold, wet spring will increase -the mortality of chicks and cause a decreased egg yield the -following season, due to a scarcity of pullets. Scarcity and high -price of feed will cut down the egg yield. High price of hens is -said by some to cut down the egg yield, but I think this is -doubtful, as the impulse to sell off the hens is counteracted by the -desire to "keep 'em and raise more." - -The following are the quotations taken from the New York -Price-Current for November 14, 1908: - -State, Pennsylvania and nearby fresh eggs continue in very small -supply and of more or less irregular quality, a good many being -mixed with held eggs--sometimes with pickled stock. The few new laid -lots received direct from henneries command extreme -prices--sometimes working out in a small way above any figures that -could fairly be quoted as a wholesale value. We quote: Selected -white, fancy, 48@50c.; do., fair to choice, 35@46c.; do., lower -grades, 26@32c.; brown and mixed, fancy, 38@40c.; do., fair to -choice, 30@36c; do., lower grades, 25@28c. - - - N.Y. Mercantile Exchange Official Quotations. - - Fresh gathered, extras, per dozen @37 - Fresh gathered, firsts 32 @33 - Fresh gathered, seconds 29 @31 - Fresh gathered, thirds 25 @28 - Dirties, No. 1 21 @22 - Dirties, No. 2 18 @20 - Dirties, inferior 12 @17 - Checks, fresh gathered, fair to prime 18 @20 - Checks, inferior 12 @16 - Refrigerator, firsts, charges paid for season 24 @24-1/2 - Refrigerator, firsts, on dock 23 @23-1/2 - Refrigerator, seconds, charges paid for season 22-1/2 @23-1/2 - Refrigerator, seconds, on dock 21-1/2 @22-1/2 - Refrigerator, thirds 20 @21 - Limed, firsts 22-1/2 @23 - Limed, seconds 21 @22 - -The writer was in the New York market at the time and saw many cases -of White Leghorn eggs sell wholesale at as high as 55 cents. These -were commonly retailed at 5 cents each. There were a good many -brands retailing at 65 cents and one of the largest high class -groceries was selling for 70 cents. This is practically double the -official quotations and three times that of cold storage stock. - -The above prices represent a fair sample of the fall prices of 1908. -It should be noted that the 1908 fall prices were relatively -somewhat better than the rest of the season. - -The time of high prices is also the time of the greatest variation -in the price of the different grades. In the springtime all eggs are -fairly fresh and good, and the fanciest eggs bring wholesale only -two or three cents above quotations. There are a few retailers who -hold the spring prices to their customers up above the general -market. One New York firm that does a large high class egg business -never lets their price at any season go below 40 cents. This, of -course, means big profits and sales only to those who, when they are -satisfied, never bother about price. - -In the fall any man who has fresh eggs can sell them at very near -the highest price, but in the spring only a small per cent. can go -at fancy prices and the great majority of even the high grade eggs -must go at very ordinary prices. In the summer months there is not -so much demand in the cities, as the wealthy are not there to buy. -The coast and mountain resorts are then good markets for fancy -produce. - - - - - -CHAPTER XIII - -BREEDS OF CHICKENS - - -I do not place much dependence on the results of breed tests. -Indeed, I consider the almost universal use of the Barred Rock in -the most productive farm poultry regions in the United States, and -the equal predominance of S.C. White Leghorns on the egg farms of -New York and California, as far more conclusive than any possible -breed tests. - - -Breed Tests. - -In Australia there has been conducted a series of breed tests so -remarkable and extensive that the writer considers them well worth -quoting. The Hawkesbury Agricultural College tests extend over a -period of five years, the pens entered were of six birds each, and -the time one year. The results were as follows: - - No. of Pens Yield of Average Yield - Competing Highest Pen of All Pens - - 1903 ... 70 218 163 - 1904 ... 100 204 152 - 1905 ... 100 235 162 - 1906 ... 100 247 177 - 1907 ... 60 245 173 - -The winners and losers for five years were as follows: - - Winning Pen Losing Pen - - 1903 Silver Wyandotte Silver Wyandotte - 1904 Silver Wyandotte Partridge Wyandotte - 1905 S.C.W. Leghorns S.C.W. Leghorns - 1906 Black Langshans Golden Wyandotte - 1907 S.C.W. Leghorns S.C.B. Leghorns - -As a matter of fact, the winning pen means little for breed -comparison. This is shown by the winning and losing pens frequently -being of the same breed. - -The average for hens of one breed for the whole five years is more -enlightening. For the three most popular Australian breeds, these -grand averages are: - - - Average Av. Wt. Eggs. - No. Hens Egg Yield Oz. Per Doz. - - S.C.W. Leghorns ... 564 175.5 26.4 - - Black Orpingtons ... 522 166.6 26.1 - - Silver Wyandottes ... 474 161.1 24.9 - - -These figures are undoubtedly the most trustworthy breed comparisons -that have ever been obtained. When we go into the other breeds, -however, with smaller numbers entered, the results show chance -variation and become untrustworthy, for illustration: R.C. Brown -Leghorns, with 42 birds entered, have an average of 176.4. This does -not signify that the R.C. Browns are better than the S.S. Whites, -for if the Whites were divided by chance into a dozen lots of -similar size, some would undoubtedly have surpassed the R.C. Browns. -As further proof, take the case of the R.C.W. Leghorns with 36 birds -entered and an egg yield of 166.9. Both breeds are probably a little -poorer layers than S.C. Whites, but luck was with the R.C. Browns -and against the R.C. Whites. For a discussion of this principle of -the worth of averages from different sized flocks see Chapter XV. - -All Leghorns in the tests with 846 birds entered, averaged 170.3 -eggs each. All of the general purpose breeds (Rocks, Wyandottes, -Reds and Orpingtons), with 1416 birds entered, averaged 160.2. The -comparison between the Leghorns and the general purpose fowls as -classes is undoubtedly a fair one. A study of the relations between -the leading breeds in these groups and the general average of these -groups is worth while. It bears out the writer's statement that the -best fowls of a group or breed are to be found in the popular -variety of that breed. The Australian poultryman, wanting utility -only, would do wise to choose out of the three great Australian -breeds here mentioned. The S.C.W. Leghorn is the only one of the -three breeds to which the advice would apply in America. Barred -Rocks and perhaps White Wyandottes, would here represent the other -types. - -There is one more point in the Australian records worthy of especial -mention. The winning pen in 1906 were Black Langshans and, what -seems still more remarkable, were daughters of birds purchased from -the original home of Langshans in North China. Other pens of -Langshans in the test failed to make remarkable records, but this -pen of Chinese stock, with a record of 246 5-6* eggs per hen for the -first year and 414 1-2* eggs per hen for two years, is the world's -record layers beyond all quibble. This record is held by a breed and -a region in which we would not expect to find great layers. - -This holding of the record by a breed hitherto not considered a -laying type, would be comparable to a tenderfoot bagging the pots in -an Arizona gambling den. If the latter incident should occur and be -heralded in the papers it would be no proof that it would pay -another Eastern youth to rush out to Arizona. It is probable that -the man who, on the strength of this single record, stocks an egg -farm with imported Chinese Langshans, will fare as the second -tenderfoot. - -The year following the Langshan winning, the first eleven winning -pens were all S.C.W. Leghorns. This is also remarkable--much more -remarkable in fact than the Langshans record. It is like a royal -flush in a poker game. Standing alone, this would be very suggestive -evidence of the eminence of the breed. Standing as it does, with the -combined evidence of years and numbers, it gives the S.C.W. Leghorn -hen the same reputation in Australia as she has in America and -Denmark--that of being the greatest egg machine ever created. - -Isolated evidence is misleading. Accumulated evidence is convincing. -The difference between the scientist and the enthusiast is that the -former knows the difference between these two classes of evidence. - - -The Hen's Ancestors. - -To one who is unfamiliar with the different types of chickens found -in a poultry showroom, it seems incredible that these varieties -should have descended from one parent source. It was, however, held -by Darwin that all domestic chickens were sprung from a single -species of Indian jungle fowl. Other scientists have since disputed -Darwin's conclusion, but it does not seem to the writer that the -origin of domestic fowls from more than one wild variety makes the -changes that have taken place under domestication any less -remarkable. - -The buff, white and dominique colors, unheard of in wild species, -frizzles with their feathers all awry, the Polish with their -deformed skulls and the sooty fowls whose skin and bones are black, -are some of the remarkable characters that have sprung up and been -preserved under domestication. The varieties of domestic fowl form -one of the most profound exhibits of man's control over the laws of -inheritance. What makes these wonders all the more inexplicable is -that these profound changes were accomplished in an age when a -scientific study of breeding was a thing unheard of. - -The wild chicken whom Darwin credits as the parent of the modern -gallinaceous menagerie, is smaller than modern fowls and is colored -in a manner similar to the Black-breasted Game. The habits of this -bird are like those of the quail and prairie-chicken, both of which -belong to the same zoological family. - -From its natural home in India the chicken spread east and west. -Chinese poultry culture is ancient. In China, as well as in India, -the chief care seems to have been to breed very large fowls, and -from these countries all the large, heavily feathered and feather -legged chickens of the modern world have come. - -Poultry is also known to have been bred in the early Babylonian and -Egyptian periods. Here, however, the progress was in a different -line from that of China. Artificial incubation was early developed, -and the selection was for birds that produced eggs continually, -rather than for those that laid fewer eggs and brooded in the -natural manner. - -The Egyptian type of chicken spread to the countries bordering on -the Mediterranean, and from Southern Europe our non-sitting breeds -of fowls have been imported. Throughout the countries of Northern -Europe minor differences were developed. The French chickens were -selected for the quality of the meat, while in Poland the peculiar -top-knotted breed is supposed to have been formed. - -The English Dorking is one of the oldest of European breeds and is -possessed of five toes. Five-toed fowls were reported in Rome and -exist to-day in Turkey and Japan. The Dorkings may be descended -directly from the Roman fowls, or various strains of five-toed fowls -may have arisen independently from the preservation of sports. - -The chief point to be noted in all European poultry is that it -differs from Asiatic poultry in being smaller, lighter feathered, -quicker maturing, of greater egg-producing capacity, less disposed -to become broody, and more active than the Asiatic fowl. - -The early American hens were of European origin, but of no fixed -breeds. About 1840 Italian chickens began to be imported. These, -with stock from Spain, have been bred for fixed types of form and -color, and constitute our Mediterranean or non-sitting breeds of the -present day. Soon after the importation of Italian chickens a chance -importation was made from Southeastern Asia. These Asiatic chickens -were quite different from anything yet seen, and further -importations followed. - -Poultry-breeding soon became the fashion. The first poultry show was -held in Boston in the early '50's. The Asiatic fowls imported were -gray or yellowish-red in color, and were variously known as the -Brahmapootras, Cochin-Chinas and Shanghais. With the rapid -development of poultry-breeding there came a desire to produce new -varieties. Every conceivable form of cross-breeding was resorted to. -The great majority of breeds and varieties as they exist to-day are -the results of crosses followed by a few years of selection for the -desired form and color. Many of our common breeds still give us -occasional individuals that resemble some of the types from which -the breed was formed. The exact history of the formation of the -American or mixed breeds is in dispute, but it is certain that they -have been formed from a complex mixing of blood from both European -and Asiatic sources. - -The English have recently furnished the world with a very popular -breed which was originated by the same methods. I refer to the -Orpingtons. - -The ever growing multiplicity of varieties of chicken is in reality -only casually related to the business of the poultryman whose object -is the production of human food. - -Breeding as an art or vocation, is a source of endless pleasure to -man, and as such, is as worthy of encouragement as is painting, -music, or the collection of the bones of prehistoric animals. -Breeding as an art has produced many forms of chickens that are -entirely worthless as food producers, but this same group of poultry -breeders, tempered to be sure by the demands of commercialism, have -produced other breeds that are certainly superior for the various -commercial purposes to the unselected fowls of the old-fashioned -farm-yard. - -The mongrel chicken is a production of chance. Its ancestry -represents everything available in the barn-yard of the -neighborhood, and its offspring will be equally varied. In the pure -breeds there has been a rigid selection practiced that gives uniform -appearance. The size and shape requirements of the standard, -although not based on the market demands, come much nearer producing -an ideal carcass than does chance breeding. Ability to mature for -the fall shows is a decidedly practical quality that the fancier -breeds into his chickens. Moreover, poultry-breeders, while still -keeping standard points in mind, have also made improvements in the -lay and meat-producing qualities of their chickens. Considering -these facts it is an erroneous idea to think that mongrel chickens -offer any advantage over pure bred stock. - -In the broader sense we may regard as pure-bred those animals that -reproduce their shape, color, habits, or other distinctive qualities -with uniformity. In order that we may get offspring like the parent -and like each other we must have animals whose ancestors for many -generations back have been of one type. The more generations of such -uniformity, the more certain it will be that the young will possess -similar quality. - -One strain of chickens may be selected for uniform color of -feathers, another for a certain size and shape, another for laying -large eggs of a certain color, and yet another strain for being -producers of many eggs. Each of these strains might be well-bred in -these particular traits, but would be mongrels when the other -considerations were taken into account. - -This explains to us why the family or strains is frequently more -important than the breed. In fact, the whole series of breed -classification is arbitrary. This is especially true of the American -or mixed breeds. Humorously turned fanciers at the poultry show -frequently have much sport trying to get other fanciers to tell -White or Buff Rocks from Wyandottes, when the heads are hidden. From -the dressed carcasses with feet and head removed, the finest set of -poultry judges in the world would be hopelessly lost in a collection -of Rocks, Wyandottes, Reds and Orpingtons and, I dare say, one could -run in a few Langshans and Minorcas if it were not for their black -pin feathers. - - -What Breed. - -The writer has great admiration for breeding as an art. He would -rather be the originator of a breed of green chickens with six toes, -than to have been the author of "Afraid to Go Home in the Dark." But -I do want the novice who reads this book to be spared some of the -mental throes usually indulged in over the selection of a breed. - -So-called meat breeds, that is, the big feather legged Asiatics save -on a few capon and roaster plants in New England, are really -useless. They have given size to American chickens as a class, and -in that have served a useful purpose, but standing alone they cannot -compete with lighter, quick growing breeds. - -For commercial consideration there are really but two types: The egg -breeds of Mediterranean origin and the general purpose breeds or -growers, including the Rocks, Wyandottes and Rhode Island Reds. The -difference between the layers on the one hand and the growers on the -other, is quite important. Which should be used depends on the -location and plan of operations, as has already been discussed. - -The choice of variety within the group is a matter of taste and -chance of sales of fancy stock. This one principle can, however, be -laid down: The more popular the breed, the more choice there will be -in selecting strains and individuals. Pea Comb Plymouth Rocks and -Duckwing Leghorns should not be considered because of their rarity. -Of the growers, their popularity and claims are close enough to make -the particular choice unimportant. For commercial consideration, the -writer would as soon invest his money in a flock of Barred Rock, -White Wyandottes or Rhode Island Reds. Among layers the S. C. White -has achieved such a lead that the majority of good laying strains -are in this breed and to choose any other would be to place a -handicap on oneself. For a description of breeds, the reader should -secure an Illustrated American Standard of Perfection, or some of -the books published by poultry fanciers and judges. To take up the -matter here would merely be using my space for imparting knowledge -which can be better secured elsewhere. - -The relative popularity of breeds at the poultry shows is nicely -shown by the following list. This data was compiled by adding the -numbers of each breed exhibited at 124 different poultry shows in -the season of 1907. A detailed report of the total entries of each -breed is as follows: Plymouth Rocks, 14,514; Wyandottes, 12,320; -Leghorns, 8,740; Rhode Island Reds, 5,812; Orpingtons, 2,857; -Langshans, 2,153; Minorcas, 1,709; Cochin Bantams, 1,590; Games, -1,277; Brahmas, 1,181; Cochins, 1,010; Hamburgs, 758; Game Bantams, -637; Polish, 618; Houdans, 538; Indians, 538; Anconas, 464; Sebright -Bantams, 423; Andalusians, 117; Japanese Bantams, 115; Dorkings, -105; Brahma Bantams, 104; Buckeyes, 95; Silkies, 85; Spanish, 83; -Redcaps, 71; Sumatras, 41; Polish Bantams, 37; Sultans, 18; Malays, -12; Frizzles, 7; Le Fleche, 7; Dominiques, 5; Booted Bantams, 4; -Malay Bantams, 3; Crevecoeure, 3. - - - - - -CHAPTER XIV - -PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC BREEDING - - -Science has been defined as the "know how" and art as the "do how." -The man who works by art depends upon an unconscious judgment which -is inborn or is acquired by long practice. The man who works by -science may also have this artistic taste, but he tests its dicta by -comparison with known facts and principles. The scientist not only -looks before he leaps, but measures the distance and knows exactly -where he is going to land. - -Breeding has for centuries been an art, but the science of breeding -is so new as to seem a mass of contradictions to all except those -familiar with the maze of mathematics and biology by which the -barn-yard facts must find their ultimate explanation. The science of -breeding may in the future bring about that which would now seem -miraculous, but it is the ancient art of breeding that is and will -for years continue to be the means by which the poultry fancier will -achieve his results. - -In a volume the chief aim of which is to place the poultry industry, -which is now conducted as an art, in the realm of technical science, -it might seem proper to devote considerable space to the subject of -breeding, That I shall not do so, is for the reason that while -theoretically I recognize the important part that breeding plays in -all animal production, for the practical proposition of producing -poultry products at the lowest possible cost, a knowledge of the -technical science of breeding is unessential and may, by diverting -the poultryman's time to unprofitable efforts, prove an actual -handicap. - -For the show room breeder the new science of breeding is too -undeveloped to be of immediate service, or I had better say, the -show room requisites are too complicated for theoretical breeding to -promise results. For the commercial poultryman, I shall review what -has been accomplished and state briefly the theories upon which -contemplated work is based. - -The objects striven after in poultry breeding are: 1st: To create -new varieties which shall have improved practical points or shall -attract attention as curiosities. 2d: To approach the ideals -accepted by fanciers for established breeds, and hence win in -competition. 3d: To change some particular feature or habit as, to -increase egg production or reduce the size of bantams. 4th: To -improve several points at once as, eggs and size in general purpose -fowls. This classification is really unnecessary, as the most -specialized breeding involves consideration of many points. - - -Breeding as an Art. - -The method by which breeds and varieties of the show room specimens -have been developed is essentially as follows: The wonderfully -different varieties of fowl from every quarter of the earth are -brought together. Crossing is then resorted to, with the result that -birds of all forms and colors are produced. The breeder then selects -specimens that most nearly conform to the type or ideal in his mind. - -Suppose a man wished to produce Barred Leghorns, with a fifth toe. -He would secure Barred Rocks, White Leghorns and White or Gray -Dorkings. Then he would cross in every conceivable fashion. - -Perhaps he might have trouble getting the white color to disappear. -In that case Buff Leghorns which are a newer breed might be tried -and found more pliable material. By such methods the breeder would in -three or four generations of crossing get a crude type of what he -desired. Henceforth it would be a matter of patience and -selection. Five to twenty years is the time usually taken to produce -new breeds of fancy poultry that will breed true to type. In this -style of breeding the principles at stake are simple. The first is -to secure the variations wanted; second, to breed from the most -desirable of these specimens. - -The same methods of selection that establish a breed are used to -maintain it, or to establish strains. In ordinary breeding there are -two other principles that are sometimes called into play. One is -prepotency, the other is inbreeding. By prepotent we mean having -unusual power to transmit characters to offspring. Suppose a breeder -has five yards headed by five cock birds. The male in yard two he -does not consider quite as fine as the bird in yard one, but in the -fall he finds the offspring of bird from two much better than the -offspring from yard one. The breeder should keep the prepotent sire -and his offspring rather than the more perfect male, who fails to -stamp his traits upon his get. - -Normally a child has two parents, four grandparents, and eight -great-grandparents. Now, when cousins marry, the great-grandparents -of the offspring are reduced to six. The mating of brother and -sister cuts the grandparents to two, and the great-grandparents to -four. Mating of parent and offspring makes a parent and grandparent -identical and likewise eliminates ancestry. Inbreeding means the -reduction of the number of branches in the ancestral tree, and this -means the reduction of the number of chances to get variation, be -they good or bad. - -Inbreeding simply intensifies whatever is there. It does not -necessarily destroy the vitality, but if close inbreeding is -practiced long enough, sooner or later some little existing weakness -or peculiarity would become intensified and may prove fatal to the -strain. For illustration, suppose we began inbreeding brother and -sister with a view of keeping it up indefinitely. Now, in the -original blood, a tendency for the predominance of one sex over the -other undoubtedly exists and would be intensified until there would -come a generation all of one sex, which, of course, terminates our -experiment. - -Inbreeding has always been tabooed by the people generally. -Meanwhile the clever stock breeders have combined inbreeding with -selection and have won the show prizes and sold the people "new -blood" at fancy prices. - -Unintelligent inbreeding as practiced on many a farm, results in run -down stock, not so much from inbreeding as from lack of selection. -Out-crossing or mixing in of new blood is better than hit-or-miss -inbreeding. Intelligent inbreeding is better still. - - -Scientific Theories of Breeding. - - -The main tenet of Darwin's theory of racial inheritance or -evolution, was that changes in animal life, wild or domestic, were -brought about by the addition of very slight, perhaps imperceptible, -variations. He argued that the giraffe with the longest neck could -browse on higher leaves in time of drought and hence left offspring -with slightly longer necks than the previous generation. - -Upon this theory the ordinary breeding by selection is based. In -case of breeding for show room, the breeder's eye, or the judge's -score card, is the tape with which to measure the length of the -giraffe's neck. This principle can be applied equally well, even -better, to characteristics where accurate measurement may be used. - -The last forty years of scientific progress has established firmly -the general theories of Darwin, but they have also resulted in our -questioning his idea that all great changes are due to the sum of -small variations. Many instances have been suggested in which the -theory of gradual changes could not explain the facts. - -The theory of mutation, of which Hugo de Vries, of Holland, is the -chief expounder, does not antagonize Darwin, but simply gives more -weight in the process of evolution to the factor of sudden changes -commonly called sports. Let us illustrate: In the giraffe of our -former forest, one might appear whose neck was not longer because of -slightly longer vertebrae, but who possessed an extra vertebrae. -This would be a mutation. In other words, a mutation is a marked -variation that may be inherited. We now believe that polled cattle, -five-toed Dorkings, top-knotted Houdans, frizzles and black skinned -chickens arose through mutations. - -Burbank's Methods--The wonderful Burbank with his thornless cactus, -his stoneless plum, and his white blackberry, is simply a searcher -after mutations. His success is not because he uses any secret -methods, but because of the size of his operations. He produces his -specimens by the millions, and in these millions looks, and often -looks in vain for the lonely sport that is to father a new race. -Burbank has, with plants, many advantages of which the animal -breeder is deprived. He can produce his specimens in greater number, -he can more easily find out the desirable character, and in many -plants he has not the uncertain element of double parentage to -contend with, while with others he is still more fortunate, as he -can produce them by seed, stimulate variation until the desired -mutation is found and can then reproduce the desired variation with -certainty by the use of cuttings. This latter is not true -inheritance with its inevitable variation, but the indefinite -prolongation of the life of one individual. In this sense there is -only one seedless orange tree in the world. - -The Centgenitor System--Prof. Hays in breeding wheat at Minnesota, -first used in this country a system of breeding which is essentially -as follows: A large variety of individual seeds are selected. These -are planted separately and the amount and character of the yield -observed. The offspring of one seed is kept separate for several -generations, or until the character of the tribe is thoroughly -established. The advantage of this plan of breeding is in that the -selection is not made by comparing individuals, but by comparing the -offspring of individuals. Thus, we necessarily select the only trait -really worth while; that is prepotency or the ability to beget -desirable qualities. - -The application of this centgenitor system necessitates inbreeding; -it also necessitates large operations. Of the former, breeders have -generally been afraid; of the latter they have lacked opportunity. -But the centgenitor system, combined with Burbank's principle of -large opportunity of selection, is, in the writer's belief, the -method by which the 200-egg hen will be ultimately established in -America. - -Much of the recent stimulus to the study of the Science of Breeding -was occasioned by the discovery of Mendel's Law. Briefly, the law -states that when two pure traits or characters are crossed, one -dominates in the first generation of offspring--the other remaining -hidden or recessive. Of the second generation, one-half the -individuals are still mixed, bearing the dominant characteristic -externally and the other hidden; one-fourth are pure dominants and -one-fourth are pure recessives. In future generations the mixed or -hybrid individuals again give birth to mixed and pure types -apportioned as before, thus continuing until all offspring become -ultimately pure. For illustration: If rose and single comb chickens -are crossed, rose combs are dominant. The first generation will all -have rose combs. The second generation will have one-fourth single -combs that will breed true, one-fourth rose combs that will breed -rose combs only, and one-half that again will give all three types. - -Mendel's Law works all right in cases where pure unit -characteristics are to be found. For the great practical problems in -inheritance, Mendel's law is utterly hopeless. The trouble is that -the chief things with which we are concerned are not unit -characteristics but are combinations of countless characteristics -which cannot be seen or known, hence cannot be picked out. Thus the -tendency to revert to pure types is foiled by the constant -recrossing of these types. - -Mendel's law is a scientific curiosity like the aeroplane. It may -some day be more than a curiosity, but both have tremendous odds to -overcome before they supplant our present methods. - -Prof. C.B. Davenport, of the Carnegie Institute, is working on -experimental poultry breeding in its purely scientific sense. His -conclusions have been much criticised by poultry fanciers. The truth -of the matter is that the fancier fails to appreciate the spirit of -pure science. The scientist, enthused to find his white fowl -re-occur after a generation of black ones, is wholly undisturbed by -the fact that the white ones, if exhibited, might be taken for a -Silver Spangled Hamburg. - -Mendel's law as yet offers little to the fancier and less to the -commercial poultryman. Its study is all right in its place, but its -place is not on the poultry plant whose profits are to buy the baby -a new dress. - - -Breeding for Egg Production. - -Attempts to improve the egg-producing qualities of the hen date from -the domestication of the hen, but it has only been within the last -few years that rapid progress has been possible in this work. The -inability to determine the good layers has been the difficulty. - -The great majority of people make no selection of hens from which to -hatch their stock. The eggs of the whole flock are kept together and -when eggs are desired for hatching they are selected from a general -basket. It has been assumed, and is shown by trap-nest records, that -eggs thus selected in the spring of the year are from the poorer, -rather than from the better layers. This is because hens that have -not been laying during the winter will lay very heavily during the -spring season. Many breeders have attempted to pick out the good -layers by the appearance of the hens. Before the advent of the -trap-nest the "egg type" of hen was believed to be a positive -indication of a good layer. The "egg type" hen had slender neck, -small head, long, deep body of a wedge shape. Various "systems" -founded on these or other "signs" have been sold for fancy prices to -people who were easily separated from their money. Trap-nest records -show such systems to be on a par with the lunar guidance in -agricultural operations. - -I might remark here that the determination of sex by the shape of -the egg or similar methods, is in a like category. Science finds no -proof of such theories. - -A few methods of selecting the layers have been suggested which, -while far from absolute, are of some significance and are well worth -noting. The hen that sits upon the roost while other hens are out -foraging, is probably a drone. The excessively fat or the -excessively lean hens are not likely to be layers. It would -naturally be supposed that the active laying hen would be the last -one to go to roost at night. At the Kansas Experiment Station, the -writer made observations upon the order in which the hens went to -roost, and the above assumption was found in the majority of cases -to be correct. - -A still better scheme of selecting layers is the practice of picking -out the thrifty, quickly maturing pullets when they first begin to -lay in the fall season. At the Maine Experiment Station, such a -selection gave a flock of layers which averaged about one hundred -and eighty eggs, when the remainder of the flock yielded only one -hundred and forty. - -Trap-nests devised to catch the hen that lays the egg are numerous -in the market. A trap-nest to be successful, must not only catch the -hen that lays, but must prevent the entrance of the other hens. - -The more trap-nests that are provided, the less often they will -require attention, but the more often the nests are attended the -better for the comfort of the hens. - -The use of trap-nests is expensive and cannot be recommended for the -poultryman who must make every hour of time put on his chickens -yield him an immediate income. Fanciers and Experiment Stations can -well afford to use trap-nests and must, indeed, use them both for -breeding for egg production, and also for determining the hen that -laid the egg when full pedigrees are desired in other breeding work. - -A scheme that has sometimes been used in the place of trap-nests, is -a system of small compartments, in each of which one hen is kept. -Such a scheme does not seem feasible on a large scale, but for -breeders wishing to keep the records of a small number of hens, it -is all right. Because of its cost, this system is wholly out of the -question, except for a man following breeding as a hobby and who -cannot devote himself during the day to the care of trap-nests. - -Having determined the best layers, it remains to breed from these -and from their descendants. The tests of pullets hatched from hens -are better signs of the hen's value as a breeder than is her own -record. It has been surmised that a hen which lays heavily will not -lay eggs containing vigorous germs. So far as the writer's -experience has gone, the laying of infertile eggs is a family or -individual trait not particularly related to the number of eggs -laid. - -When we have bred from the best layers and have raised our average -egg yielder to a higher level, the question arises as to whether the -strain will permanently maintain the high yield or drop back to the -former rate of production. Theory says that it will not drop back. -As a matter of fact it will not do so, for the heavier production -will be more trying on the hen's constitution, and naturally -selection will gradually cause the egg record to dwindle. Hence the -necessity of continued selection or the infusion of new blood from -other selected strains. - -Whatever may be the change desired in a strain of chickens, -specimens showing the trait to be selected should be used as -breeders. Those characteristics readily visible to the eye have long -been the subjects of the breeder's efforts. But traits not directly -visible can likewise be changed by breeding. The number of eggs, -size and color of eggs, rapid growth, ready fattening powers, -quality of meat and general characteristics, are all matters of -inheritance, and if proper means are taken to select the desirable -individuals all such characteristics can be changed at the will of -the breeder. - -It is a fact, however, often overlooked, that the more traits for -which one selects, the slower will be progress. For illustration: If -in breeding for egg production, one-half the good layers are -discarded for lack of fancy points, the progress will be just half -as rapid. - -A discussion of the work in breeding for egg production at the Maine -Experiment Station is taken up in the next chapter. - - - - -CHAPTER XV - -EXPERIMENT STATION WORK - - -Our entire scheme of agricultural education and experimentation is -new. The poultry work at experiment stations is very new. Ten years -will about cover everything worthy of a permanent record in the -poultry experiment station files. - - -Stations Leading in Poultry Work. - -Among the earliest stations to begin poultry work in this country -were Rhode Island, Massachusetts, Connecticut and Maine. Rhode -Island conducted the first school of poultry culture. The two -stations of New York State were also early in the work, and Cornell -now has the leading school of poultry culture in this country. - -West Virginia has always maintained a considerable poultry plant. -Outside of the states east of the Appalachians, the first poultry -work to be heard of was that of Prof. Dryden at the Experiment -Station of Utah. Prof. Dryden's work was of a demonstrative nature. -His early bulletins were forceful and well illustrated, and did much -to call attention to poultry work. - -In all this early work the great Mississippi Valley, where -four-fifths of the nation's poultry is produced, entirely ignored -the hen. The writer began his work with poultry at the Kansas -Station in 1902, but his chickens were housed in a discarded hog -house, and no funds being available, little was accomplished. In the -last three or four years these experiment stations are rapidly -falling into line and a number of poultry bulletins have recently -been issued from these younger schools. - -A few of the early landmarks in experiment station work was as -follows: - -The Utah Station clearly found that hens laid about 65 per cent. as -many eggs in the second as in the first year, and that to keep hens -for egg production beyond the second year, was unprofitable. - -Massachusetts proved that corn was a better food for layers than -wheat, and that the prejudice against it was founded on a misapplied -theory. - -The New York Station at Geneva demonstrated that poultry generally, -and ducks in particular, are not vegetarians, and must have meat to -thrive and that vegetable protein will not make good the deficiency. - -The Maine Station was chiefly instrumental in introducing -trap-nests, curtain front houses and dry feeding. The breeding work -at Maine will be discussed at length in the last section of this -chapter. - -The United States Department of Agriculture did not take up poultry -work until 1906. The publications issued by the department before -that time were written by outsiders and printed by the Government. - -The following is the list of the addresses of the experiment -stations who have taken a leading interest in poultry work. It is -not worth while giving a list of poultry bulletins, as many of them -are out of print and can only be consulted in a library. - - Maine--Orono. - Mass.--Amherst. - Conn.--Storrs. - Rhode Is.--Kingston. - New York--Ithaca. - New York--Geneva. - Maryland--College Park. - West. Va.--Morgantown. - Iowa--Ames. - Kansas--Manhattan. - Utah--Logan. - Calif.--Berkeley. - Oregon--Corvalis. - U.S. Gov.--Washington, D.C. - Ontario--Guelph (Canada). - -Many foreign governments have us out-distanced in the encouragement -of the poultry industry. Our Canadian neighbors have done much more -practical work in getting out among the farmers and improving the -stock and methods along commercial lines. As a result the Canadians -have built up a nice British trade with which we have thus far not -been able to compete. The work by the Ontario Station on the subject -of incubation is discussed in the Chapter on Incubation. - -Australia, like Canada, has given much practical assistance in -marketing the poultry products, the government maintaining packing -stations, where the poultry is packed for export. The Australian -laying contests are quoted in the present volume. They outclass -anything else in the world along that line. - -In England, Ireland and especially in Denmark, the government, or -societies encouraged by the Government, have done a great deal to -develop the poultry industry. Depots for marketing and grading are -maintained and the stock of the farmers is improved by fowls from -the government breeding farms. - - -The Story of the "Big Coon." - -With apologies to Joel Chandler Harris, I will tell a little story. - -Uncle Remus was telling the little boy about the "big coon." It -seems that the "big coon" had been seen on numerous occasions, but -all efforts at his capture had failed. One night they saw the "big -coon" up in the 'simmon tree, in the middle of the ten-acre lot. All -hands and the dogs were summoned. To be sure of bagging the game, -the tree was cut down. The dogs rushed in but there was no coon. - -"But, Uncle Remus," said the little boy, "I thought you said you saw -the big coon in the tree." - -"Laws, chile," replied Uncle Remus, "doesn't youse know dat it am -mighty easy for folks to see something dat ain't dar, when dey are -lookin' fer it?" - -When scientific experimenters entered the poultry field about -fifteen years ago, they found it swarming with old ladies' notions. -For everything a reason was given, but these reasons were derived -from the kind of dreams where that which pleases the human mind is -seized upon and search is made to find ideas to back it, not because -it is true, but because it "listens good" to the dreamer. The first -duty of the scientist was to banish these will-o'-the-wisp ideas -that lead to no practical results. - -For illustration Round eggs were supposed to hatch pullets and long -ones cockerels. Eggs will not hatch if it thunders. Shipped eggs -must be allowed to rest before hatching, the drug store was the -universal source of relief when the chickens became sick, and red -pepper and patent foods were the egg foods par excellence. These -things, thanks to the scientist, are no longer believed or regarded -by well read poultrymen, and instead his attention has been turned -to matters having a more happy relation to his bank account. - -In clearing away the useless popular notions, the scientists -themselves have not been free from their influence, especially when -they seemed to agree with accepted scientific theory. Many, indeed, -are the 'coons in poultry science that have been seen because they -were being looked for. - -As a partial explanation it should be said that men available for -scientific poultry work are very scarce. Poultry keepers schooled in -the University of the Poultry Yard have no conception of scientific -methods, and would explain experimental results by a theory that -would fail to fit elsewhere. The available scientists on the other -hand are seldom poultrymen. - -Among the first men to take up animal husbandry work of all kinds, -were the veterinarians. For years the only poultry publications put -out by the U.S. Government were by veterinarians. These dust covered -volumes with their five color plates of the fifty-seven varieties of -tapeworms, still rest on the shelves of public libraries, a monument -to the time when the practical poultryman knew only things that -weren't so, and the scientific poultryman knew only things that were -useless. - -The first general law that all experimenters should know and the -ignorance of which has caused and still causes the waste of the -major portion of experimental brains and money, we will call the -"Law of Chance." Let the reader who is not familiar with such things -take two pennies and toss them upon the table. They are both heads -up. He tosses them again, one comes heads, the other tails. The -third time repeats the second. The fourth both come tails. The law -of chance says this is correct. Heads should appear 25 per cent., -tails 25 per cent., and mixed 50 per cent. of the time. Now let the -reader try this in a lot of twelve tosses. Does it prove the law? -Try it again. Are all lots alike? Now pitch a hundred times, then -pitch pennies all day. By night the law will be so near proven that -the experimenter will be willing to concede its validity. - -Now suppose the lots of twelve tosses, each were lots of twelve -hens, one Plymouth Rocks, the other Wyandottes, or one fed corn and -the other wheat. The law of chance clearly proves that the larger -number of unites, the nearer the theoretical truths will be the -experimental results. Note, however, that small lots may by chance -be as near the truth as large lots. - -In practice two grave errors are made: First, conclusions are drawn -from small lots compared with each other; second, conclusions are -drawn from large lots compared with small lots. In the first case -both may be off; in the latter case the small one may be off. -Examples of the first error are to be found in the scores of -contradicting breed and feed tests, that were published in the early -days of poultry research. The second error is exemplified in the -Ontario experiments in incubation, to which reference has already -been made. - -Here is a further example of this error. From the fifth egg laying -competition at the Hawkesbury Agricultural College in Australia, I -copy the following: - - No. of Hens. Variety. Ave. Egg Yield. - - 6 Cuckoo Leghorn 190.16 - 30 S.C. Brown Leghorn 177.00 - 138 S.C. White Leghorn 174.93 - 12 R.C. Brown Leghorn 173.50 - 12 R.C. White Leghorn 172.66 - 18 Buff Leghorn 160.55 - 6 Black Leghorn 138.33 - -The ranking of Cuckoo Leghorns as first is a chance happening due to -the small number; likewise the Black Leghorns had a streak of bad -luck and received lowest place. To one not familiar with such work, -the real significance of the table is that the S.C.W. Leghorns did -the best work. A totaling of all other varieties gives 84 fowls with -an average egg production of 170.5, which bears out the conclusion. -As these birds were all kept in pens of six, we would expect to find -the highest single pen to be White Leghorns, because, when compared -with all other Leghorns, they have both the highest average and the -greatest number. This accords with the fact that as the highest -single pen is found to be White Leghorns with an egg yield of 239 -eggs. - -The above illustrates another important phase of the laws of chance, -which says that not only is the average likely to be nearer the -theoretical average sought when the number is increased, but that -the individual extremes will be more removed. - - - -Important Experimental Results at the Illinois Station. - -From an Illinois Experiment Station report, the following is quoted: - -"The stock used was Barred Plymouth Rock pullets. These pullets were -a very uniform Barred Rock stock that had been bred as an individual -strain for many years. They were practically the same age, and -except for the factors mentioned were treated as uniformly as -possible. - - First Year's Results. - - No. Hens. Diet. Ave. Egg Yield. - - 10 Nitrogenous Diet 132.9 - 10 Carbonaceous Diet 128.4 - 10 Wet Wash 155.8 - 10 Dry Wash 111.4 - -"The results of the first test are somewhat surprising for it is -generally believed that the nitrogenous diet is best for laying -hens. The difference indicated in the first year's results was so -light that it was decided to repeat the experiment the second year. - -"As the wet wash is clearly proven to be superior, these hens were -used the second year to compare meat meal with fresh cut bone. - - Second Year's Result. - - No. Hens. Diet. Ave. Egg Yield. - - 10 Nitrogenous 142.2 - 10 Carbonaceous 134.5 - - 10 Meat Meal 102.2 - 10 Green Cut Bone 128.9 - -"The results of the second year clearly indicate the great -superiority of green cut bone as compared with the dry unpalatable -meat meal. The comparison of a highly nitrogenous ration with that -of a ration consisting largely of corn, while showing the advantages -of the nitrogenous rations, does not show the contrast expected. - -"Some visiting poultrymen expressed the opinion that corn is a -better poultry food than commonly supposed. Considering this fact -and the great fundamental importance of the question at issue, it -was decided to repeat the experiment a third year, and feed a large -number of birds on each ration. - - No. Hens. Diet. Ave. Egg Yield. - - 100 Nitrogenous 126.9 - 100 Carbonaceous 127.2" - -I will leave the last without comment, for the whole thing is a -hoax. The Illinois Experiment Station has never owned a chicken. -These "Illinois" experiments were planned and executed in a few -minutes of the writer's spare time. The basis of the experiments was -a pack of cards containing the individual records of the Maine -Experiment Station hens, shuffling the cards and averaging the -desired number of records as they come in the pack, made the -distinction between the various diets. - - -Experimental Bias. - -Pet ideas consciously or unconsciously mold practice. A bias toward -an idea may show itself in the planning and conducting of an -experiment, or it may come out in the later interpretation. - -An illustration of the first kind is found in the early work of the -West Virginia Station (Bulletin 60). With the preconceived notion -that hens should have a nitrogenous diet an experiment was planned -and conducted as follows: - -One lot of hens was fed corn, potatoes, oats and corn meal. A -contrasted lot reveled in corn, potatoes, hominy feed, oat meal, -corn meal and fresh cut bone. The results were in favor of the -latter ration by a doubled egg yield. - -To any experienced poultryman the reason is evident. The variety of -the diet and the meat food are what made the showing. - -About the same time the Massachusetts Station planned a similar -experiment. The bias was the same, but it took a fairer form. The -hens were both given a decent variety of food and some form of meat. -The bulk of the grain was corn in the carbonaceous, and wheat in the -nitrogenous ration. The results were in favor of the corn. This -astonished the experimenter. He tried it again and again tests came -out in favor of corn. At last the old theory was revoked, and the -fallacy of wheat being essential to egg production was exploded. If -by an irony of fate in the shuffling of the hens, the wheat pen had -the first time showed an advantage, the experimenter might have been -satisfied and the waste of feeding high priced feed when a better -and a cheaper is at hand, might have gone on indefinitely. - -Of bias in the interpretation of results all publications are more -or less saturated. A reading of the Chapter on Incubation will -illustrate this. A common error of this kind is the omission of -facts necessary to fully explain results. Items of costs are -invariably omitted or minimized. Food cost alone is usually -mentioned in figuring experimenting station poultry profits, which -statement will undoubtedly cause a sad smile to creep over the face -of many a "has-been" poultryman. - -The writer remembers an incident from his college days which -illustrates the point in hand. Let it first be remarked that this -was on the new lands of the trans-Missouri Country, where manure had -no more commercial value than soil, and is freely given to those -who will haul it away. - -The professor at the blackboard had been figuring up handsome -profits on a type of dairying towards which he wits very partial. -The figures showed a goodly profit, but the biggest expense -item--that of labor--was omitted. One of the students held up his -hand and inquired after the labor bill. - -"Oh," said the smiling professor, "The manure will pay for the -labor." - -When the class adjourned, the student remarked: "They say figures -won't lie, but a liar will figure." - -The third way in which experiments are made worthless is by the -introduction of factors other than the one being tested. This may be -done by chance, and the conductor not realize the presence of the -other factor, or the varying factors may be introduced intentionally -under the belief that they are negligible. Of the first case an -instance may be cited of the placing of two flocks in a house, one -end of which is damper than the other, the accidental introduction -into one flock of a contagious disease, or one flock being thrown -off feed by an excessive feed of greens, etc., etc. These factors -that influence pens of birds greatly add to the error of the law of -chance. In fact it amounts to the same thing on a larger scale. For -this reason not only are many individuals, but many flocks, many -locations, and many years needed to prove the superiority of the -contrasted methods. - -The criticisms in the following section will amply illustrate the -case of foreign factors being unwisely introduced into an -experiment. - - -The Egg Breeding Work at the Maine Station. - -As is well known the Maine Station was for years considered by all -poultrymen to be doing a great and beneficial work in breeding for -increased egg production. Up until the fall of 1907, the poultrymen -of the country were of the opinion that this work was in every way -successful, and a large number of private breeders had taken up the -use of trap-nests in an effort to build up the egg production of -their fowls. - -When early in 1908 Bulletin 157 of the Maine Experiment Station was -published, it showed by averages as given in the table on page 202 -that the egg yield at the station was for the entire period on the -decline. In Bulletin 157, the statement was made that "arithmetical -mistakes" and "faulty statistical methods" accounted for the -discrepancies between the former publications and the criticised -data. The further explanation that "the experiment was a success as -an experiment," etc., only appeared to the public mind as a graceful -way of explaining what was, to the practical man, an utter failure -of the entire work. - -The unfortunate death of Professor Gowell, together with the fact -that he had equipped a private poultry farm with station stock, -added to the confusion, and the result of the bulletin was the -precipitation of a general "pow-wow" in which the poultry editors -were about equally divided between those who were casting -insinuations upon the personnel of the station, and those who -decried the whole effort toward improving the egg yield. - -After going over the publications of Professor Gowell, visiting the -station and meeting the present force, I came to the following -conclusions regarding the matter: - -Professor Gowell's work is open to severe criticism. Errors have -been made in conducting the work at Maine which have made it -possible for a mathematical biologist to take the data and seemingly -prove that selection, as practiced by Professor Gowell, actually -resulted in lowering inherent egg capacity of the strain of Plymouth -Rock hens under experimentation. Had Professor Gowell's successor -been a practical poultryman, it is my candid opinion that the public -would have been given a radically different explanation of the -results. - -Professor Gowell is the author of the following statement: "The -small chicken grower is earnestly urged to use an incubator for -hatching." This opinion is not in accord with that of the majority -of breeders and the more progressive experiment station workers. The -opinion has been expressed by Professor Graham and others, that the -particular results at the Maine Station may have been due to the -decrease of vitality caused by continued artificial hatching. This -view may be wholly without foundation. Nevertheless, as the common -type of incubator is under heavy criticism, and it is pretty well -proven that chicks so hatched have not the vitality of naturally -hatched chicks, surely a series of breeding experiments would carry -more weight if the replenishing of the flock had been accomplished -by natural means. - -For the first few years of the breeding work the house used was the -old-fashioned double walled and warmed pattern. The last few years -of this work were conducted in curtain front houses. That the cool -house is an improvement over the warm house is generally conceded, -but there are many poultrymen who are still of the opinion that the -warm house will give a larger egg yield, though at a greater expense -and less profit. - -In the early years of the work the method of feeding was also a -time-honored one, and included a warm mash. About the middle of the -experimental period Professor Gowell brought out the system of -feeding dry mash from hoppers. This custom became a great fad and -Professor Gowell and Director Woods have preached it far and wide. -Perhaps it is an improvement, but it is to-day much more popular -with novices than with established egg farms. Many old line -poultrymen have tried dry mash only to go back to wet mash, by which -method the hens can be induced to eat more which is conducive to -high egg yields. Whether these changes in housing and feeding have -been improvements as claimed by those who introduced them, or -whether their popularity may be explained in part at least by the -psychology of fads, is a point in question, but certainly the -marring of a breeding experiment by introducing radical changes in -the factors of production is at best unfortunate. - -A much more serious criticism than any of the foregoing is to be -found in a change of the size of flocks and amount of floor space -per fowl. I have gone over carefully the published records of -Professor Gowell, and the review of Dr. Pearl, and the following -table represents, as near as I can determine, these factors for the -series of years. In the year 1903 I find no clear statement as to -the manner in which the birds were housed, and I may be in error in -this case. Otherwise the table gives the facts. - - Year Hens in Flock Per Hen Egg Yield - 1900 20 8. sq. ft. 136.36 - 1901 20 8. sq. ft. 143.44 - 1902 20 8. sq. ft. 155.58 - 1903 20 8. sq. ft. 135.42 - 1904 50 4.4 sq. ft. 117.90 - 1905 50 4.4 sq. ft. 134.07 - 1906 50 4.4 sq. ft. 140.14 - 1907 50 4.4 sq. ft. 113.24 - -Certainly this oversight is a serious one, and one especially -remarkable considering the fact that the comparison of different -size flocks formed a prominent part of the Maine Station work during -the last three years of the breeding test. The results of the work -at the Maine Station on testing flock size, conducted without -relation to the breeding work, gave the following results: - - No. of Hens Sq. ft. per Hen Egg Yield - 150 3.2 111.68 - 100 4.8 123.21 - 50 4.8 129.69 - -No comparisons of 50 and 20 bird flocks in the same year are -available, but by extending the comparisons of the 50, 100 and 150 -flocks into the 20 flock size, we can get some idea of the error -that has been here introduced. The result of the Australian egg -laying contest in which the flocks were composed of six hens, shows -a yield of about one and one-half times as heavy as the Maine -records, which certainly seems to substantiate the ideas here -brought out. - -It is a well established fact in poultry circles that many men who -succeed with a few hundred hens, fail when the number is increased -to as many thousands. When the breeding experiments under discussion -were started, Professor Gowell had under his supervision about three -hundred hens. When the work was closed the experiment station plant -had been increased to four or five times its capacity, and Professor -Gowell had a large private poultry plant of his own in addition. - -It is interesting to note in this connection that the last four -years of the records are explained by Professor Gowell as being low, -due to various "accidents" (?) It is unreasonable to suppose the -true explanation of these "accidents" would be found in connection -with the increased responsibility and size of the plant. - -The breeding stock sent out by Professor Gowell has given general -satisfaction, and was found by Professor Graham of the Ontario -Station, as well as by a number of private individuals, to be of -superior laying quality to that of the average Barred Rock. - -Clearly there is only one way to prove whether Professor Gowell's -work has been a wasted effort, and that is for flocks of his strain -to be tested at other experiment stations against birds of -miscellaneous origin. - -That much has been lost to the poultrymen of the country by the -recent upheaval at the Maine Station, I believe to be the case, but -that does not mean that the men now in charge will not in the future -be of great value to the poultry interests. They are, however, in -the class of pure scientists rather than applied scientists, but if -let alone they will dig out something sooner or later which they or -others can apply to the benefit of the industry. - -Upon the whole, I think that the present case of the trap-nest -method of increasing egg production stands very much as it is has -always stood, being a commendable thing for small breeders who could -afford the time, but not practical in a large way, except at -experiment stations. On a large commercial scale the system of -selecting sires by the collective work of his first year's offspring -would probably get the quickest results. - -The best use of the funds of the people in the promotion of -agricultural industries is in the permanent endorsement on the one -hand of a few high grade research stations where the deeper theories -may be worked out, and on the other the teaching of such good -principles and practices as are already known. - -The greatest opportunity for Government effort lies in the -development demonstration farm work in poultry Just as it is doing -with the corn and cotton in the South. - - - - - -CHAPTER XVI - -POULTRY ON THE GENERAL FARM - - -This chapter will be devoted to specific directions for the -profitable keeping of chickens on the typical American farm. By -typical American farm I mean the farm west of Ohio, north of -Tennessee and east of Colorado. Farms outside this section present -different problems. In the region mentioned about three-quarters of -the American poultry and egg crop is produced, and in this section -poultry keeping is more profitable when conducted as a part of -general farm operations than as an exclusive business. - -There is no reason why a farmer should not be a poultry fancier if -he desires, but in that case his special interest in his chickens -would throw him out of the class we are at present considering. -Likewise, I do not doubt that in many instances where the farmer or -members of his family took special interest in poultry work, it -would be profitable to increase the size of operations beyond those -herein advised, using incubators and keeping Leghorns. Of these -exceptions the farmer himself must judge. The rules I lay down are -for those farmers who wish to keep chickens for profit, but do not -care to devote any larger share of their time and study to them than -they do to the cows, hogs, orchard or garden. - -The advice herein given in this chapter will differ from much of the -advice given to farmers by poultry writers. The average poultry -editor is afraid to give specific advice concerning breeds, -incubators, etc., because he fears to offend his advertisers. The -reader, left to judge for himself, is liable to pick out some fancy -impractical variety or method. - - -Best Breeds for the Farm. - -Keep only one variety of chickens. Do not bother with other -varieties of poultry unless it is turkeys. Whether it will pay to -raise turkeys will depend upon your success with the little turks, -and on the freedom of the community from the disease called -Black-head. - -The kind of chicken you should keep should be picked from the three -following breeds: Barred Plymouth Rock, White Wyandotte, Rhode -Island Reds. If you go outside of these three breeds be sure you -have a very good reason for doing so. - -Then get a start with a new breed, buy at least four sittings of -eggs in a single season, paying not over $2.00 per sitting. Keep all -the pullets and a half dozen of the best cockerels. The next spring -pen these pullets up with the best cockerels, and use none but eggs -from this pen for hatching. That fall sell all of the young -cockerels and all the old scrub hens. The second spring the two old -roosters from the original purchased eggs are used with the general -flock. From this time on the entire flock is pure bred and should -remain so. - -Each year when the chicks are about six or eight weeks old pick out -the largest, most vigorous male chick from each brood. Mark these by -clipping the web of the foot or putting on leg bands. From those so -marked the breeding cockerels for the next season are later -selected. When you pick the good cockerels pick out all runty -looking pullets and cut off the last joint of the hind toe. These -runts are later to be eaten or sold. The more surplus chicks raised, -the more strictly can the selection be made. - -This system of picking the best cockerel from each brood and -discarding the poorest pullets is the most practical method known of -building up a vigorous, quick growing and early laying strain. - -When we allow the entire flock of many different ages to grow up -before the selection is made it is impossible to select -intelligently. - -Every third or fourth year an extra cock bird may be purchased -provided you are sure you are getting a specimen from a better flock -than your own. Swapping roosters or eggs every year is poor policy. -If your neighbor has better stock than you, get his blood pure and -sell off your own, but do not keep a barnyard full of scrubs who can -trace their ancestry to every flock in the neighborhood. - - -Keep Only Workers. - -On many farms few eggs are gathered from October to January. This is -a season when eggs bring the best prices. To secure eggs at this -season, the first requisite is that the pullets be hatched between -the first of March and the middle of May, or, in the case of -Leghorns, between the first of April and the first of June. Pullets -hatched later than these dates are a source of expense during the -fall and early winter. On the other hand, it is an unnecessary waste -of effort to hatch pullets before the dates mentioned, because, if -hatched too early, they will molt in the fall and stop laying the -same as old hens. - -Pullets must be well fed and cared for if expected to develop in the -time allowed. As they begin to show signs of maturity they should be -gotten into permanent quarters. If allowed to begin laying while -roosting in coops or in trees they will be liable to quit when -changed to new quarters. If possible the coops should be gradually -moved toward the hen-house and the pullets gotten into quarters -without excitement or confinement. The poultry-house should have an -ample circulation of fresh air. Young stock that have been roosting -in open coops are liable to catch cold if confined in tight houses. - -A common mistake is to allow a large troop of young roosters to -overrun the premises in the early fall. Not only is money lost in -the decrease in price that can be obtained for these cockerels, but -the pullets are greatly annoyed, to the detriment of the egg yield. - -Any chicken that is not paying for its food in growth or in egg -production is a source of loss. As soon as the hatching season is -over old roosters should be sent to market. Through June and August -egg production is not very profitable, and a thorough culling of the -hens should be made. Market all hens two years or more of age. Send -with these all the yearling hens that appear fat and lazy. By the -time the young pullets are ready to be moved into quarters--the -latter part of August--these hens should be reduced to about -one-half the original number. Some time during September a final -culling of the old stock should be made. Those that have not yet -begun to molt should be sold, as they will not be laying again -before the warm days of the following February. This system of -culling will leave the best portion of the yearling hens, which, -together with the early-hatched pullets, will make a profitable -flock of layers. - - -Hatching Chicks With Hens. - -The eggs for hatching should be stored in a cool, dry location at a -temperature between forty and seventy degrees Fahrenheit. A good -rule is not to set eggs over two weeks old. - -The two chief losses with sitting-hens are due to lice and -interference of other hens. The practice of setting hens in the -chicken-house makes both these difficulties more troublesome. Almost -all farms will have some outbuilding situated apart from the regular -chicken-house that can be used for sitting-hens. The most convenient -arrangement will be to use boxes, and have these open at the top. -They may be placed in rows and a plank somewhat narrower than the -boxes used as a cover. The nests should be made by throwing a shovel -of earth into the box and then shaping a nest of clean straw. Make -the nest roomy enough so that as the hen steps into the nest the -eggs will spread apart readily and not be broken. When a hen shows -signs of broodiness remove her to the sitting-room. This should be -done in the evening, so that the hen becomes accustomed to her -position by daylight. Place the hen upon the nest-eggs and confine -her to the nest. If all is well the next evening give her a full -setting of eggs. - -A practical method to arrange for sitting-hens is to build the nests -out of doors, allowing each hen a little yard, so that she may have -liberty to leave her nest as she chooses. These nests may be built -by using twelve-inch boards set on edge, so as to form a series of -small runways about one by six feet. In one end are built the nests, -which are covered by a broad board, while the remainder of the -arrangement is covered with lath or netting. The food, grit and -water should be placed at the opposite end of the runway. Care -should be taken to locate these nests on well-drained ground. -Arrangements should be made to close the front of the nest during -hatching so that the chicks will not drop out. A contrivance of this -kind furnishes a very convenient method of handling sitting-hens, -and if no separate building is available would be the best method to -use. - - -Incubators on the Farm. - -My candid advice to the farmer who is in doubt as whether to buy -an incubator or not, is to let it alone. If the farmer reads the -chapter on artificial incubation, he will see that he is dealing -with a very complex problem, and one in which his chances of success -are not very great. - -In order to learn the facts concerning incubators on the farms the -writer made a special investigation on the subject while poultryman -at the Kansas Experiment Station. Replies received from 111 Kansas -farmers, report 21 as having tried incubators. Of these, 6 reported -the incubators as being an improvement over hatching with hens; 10 -reported the incubator as being successful, but not better than -hens, while the remaining 5 declared the incubator to be a failure. -The results of this inquiry, and of personal visits to farms, led -the writer to believe that about one-tenth of the farmers of Kansas -had tried incubators, and that about as many failed as succeeded -with artificial hatching. - -The argument for the incubator on the farm is certainly not one of -better hatching, but there is an argument, and a good one for the -farm incubator. The argument is this: Hens will not set early enough -and in sufficient quantities to get out as large a number of chicks -as the farmer may desire. Now, each hen will not hatch over 10 -chicks, but is capable of caring for at least 30. Here the incubator -comes into good use, for the farmer can set a half dozen hens along -with the incubator, and give all the chicks to the hens. This is the -method I recommend where an incubator is to be used. The development -of the public hatchery would supply these other 20 chicks more -economically and more certainly than the farm incubator, but until -that institution becomes established the more ambitious farm poultry -raisers are justified in trying an incubator. - -The best known incubators in the market are the Cyphers, the Model -and the Prairie State. Cheaper machines are liable to do poor work. -The following points may help the farmer in deciding whether or not -to buy an incubator and in picking out a good machine. - -The person to run the incubator is the first condition of its -success. A good incubator requires attention twice a day. One person -should give this attention, and must give it regularly and -carefully. The farmer's wife or some younger member of the family -can often give more time and interest to this work than can the -farmer. The likelihood of a person's success with artificial -hatchers can best be determined by himself. - -The best location for an incubator is a moderately damp cellar. The -next choice would be a room in the house away from the fire or from -windows. Drafts of air blowing on the machine are especially to be -avoided. Not only do they affect the temperature directly, but cause -the lamp to burn irregularly, and this may result in fire. - -The objects in view in building an incubator are: (1) To keep the -eggs at a proper temperature (103 degrees on a level with the top of -the eggs). (2) To cause the evaporation of moisture from the eggs at -a normal rate. (3) To prevent the eggs from resting too long in one -position. - -The case of the incubator should be built double, or triple-walled, -to withstand variation in the outside temperature. The doors should -fit neatly and be made of double glass. The lamp should be made of -the best material, and the wick of sufficient width that the -temperature may be maintained with a low blaze. The most -satisfactory place for the lamp is at the end of the machine, -outside the case. - -Regulators composed of two metals, such as aluminum and steel, are -best. Wafers filled with ether or similar liquid are more sensitive -but weaker in action. Hard-rubber bars are frequently used. - -The most practical system of controlling evaporation is a system of -forced ventilation, in which the air is heated around the lamp-flue -and passes through the egg-chamber at a rate determined by -ventilators in the bottom of the machine. With the outside air cold -and dry only slight current is required, but as the outer air -becomes warmer or damper more circulation is needed. - -Turning the egg is not the work that many imagine it to be. It is -not necessary that the egg be turned with absolute precision and -regularity. An elaborate device for this work is useless. The trays -will need frequently to be removed and turned around or shifted, and -the eggs can be turned at this time by lifting out a few on one side -of the tray and rolling the others over. - -Two other points to be considered in the incubator are: A suitable -nursery or place for the newly hatched chick, and a good -thermometer. - - -Rearing Chicks. - -If it is very early in the spring, and the ground is damp, it is -best to put the hen and her brood in some building. During the most -of the season the best thing is an outdoor coop. The first -consideration in making a chicken-coop is to see that it is -rain-proof and rat-tight. The next thing to look for is that the -coop is not air-tight. Let the front be of rat-tight netting or -heavy screen. The same general plan may be used for small coops for -hens, or for larger coops to be used as colony-houses for growing -chickens. The essentials are: A movable floor raided on cleats, a -sliding front covered with rat-tight netting, and a hood over the -front to keep the rain from beating in. If used late in the fall or -early in the spring a piece of cloth should be tacked on the sliding -front. - -The chicken-coops should not be bunched up, but scattered out over -as much ground as is convenient. Neither should they remain long in -one spot, but should be shifted a few feet each day. At first water -should be provided at each coop, but as the chickens grow older they -may be required to come to a few central water pans. - -As before suggested, rearing chicks with hens is the only suitable -method for general farm practice. The brooder on the farm is an -expensive nuisance. - -For brooder raised chicks it is necessary to provide means for the -little chick to exercise. But in the season when the great majority -of farm chicks are raised they may be placed out of doors from the -start and the trouble will now be to keep them from getting too much -exercise, i.e.: to keep the hens from chasing around with them -especially in the wet grass. This is properly prevented by keeping -the brood coops in plowed ground, and keeping the hens confined by a -slatted door, until the chicks are strong enough to follow her -readily. - -The chick should not be fed until 48 to 72 hours old. It may then be -started on the same kind of food as is to form its diet in after -life. The hard boiled egg and bread and milk diets are wholly -unnecessary and are only a waste of time. - -I recommend the same system of chick feeding for the general farm as -is used on commercial plants, and I especially insist that it will -pay the farmer to provide meat food of some sort for his growing -chicks. The amount eaten will not be large, nor need the farmer fear -that supplying the chicks with meat food will prevent their -consuming all the bugs and worms that come their way. - -Besides comfortable quarters, the chick to thrive, must have: -Exercise, water, grit, a variety of grain food, green or succulent -food, and meat food. - -Water should be provided in shallow dishes. This can best be -arranged by having a dish with an inverted can or bottle which -allows only a little water to stand in the drinking basin. - -Chicks running at large on gravelly ground need no provision for -grit. Chicks on board floors or clay soils must be provided with -either coarse sand or chick grit, such as is sold for the purpose. - -Grain is the principal, and, too often, the only food of the chick. -The common farm way of feeding grain to young chickens is to mix -corn-meal and water and feed in a trough or on the ground. There is -no particular advantage in this way of feeding, and there are -several disadvantages. The feed is all in a bunch, and the weaker -chicks are crowded out, while if wet feed is thrown on the ground or -in a dirty trough the chicks must swallow the adhering filth, and if -any food is left over it quickly sours and becomes a menace to -health. Some people mix dough with sour milk and soda and bake this -into a bread. The better way is to feed all of the grain in a -natural dry condition. - -There are foods in the market known as chick foods. The commercial -foods contain various grains and seeds, together with meat and grit. -Their use renders chick feeding quite a simple matter, it being -necessary to supply in addition only water and green foods. For -those who wish to prepare their own chick foods the following -suggestions are given: - -Oatmeal is probably the best grain food for chicks. Oats cannot be -suitably prepared, however, in a common feed-mill. The hulled oats -are what is wanted. They can be purchased as the common rolled oats, -or sometimes as cut or pin-head oatmeal. The latter form would be -preferred, but either of these is an excellent chick feed. Oats in -these forms are expensive and should be purchased in bulk, not in -packages. If too expensive, oats should be used only for a few days, -when they may be replaced by cheaper grains. Cracked corn is the -best and cheapest chick food. Flaxseed could be used in small -quantities. Kaffir-corn, wheat, cow-peas--in fact any wholesome -grain--may be used, the more variety the better. Farmers possessing -feed-mills have no excuse for feeding chicks exclusively on one kind -of grain. If there is no way of grinding corn on the farm, oatmeal, -millet seed and corn chop can be purchased. At about one week of age -whole Kaffir-corn, and, a little later whole wheat, can be used to -replace the more expensive feeds. - -Green or bulky food of some kind is necessary to the healthy growth -of young chickens. Chickens fed in litter from clover or alfalfa -will pick up many bits of leaves. This answers the purpose fairly -well, but it is advisable to feed some leafy vegetable, as kale or -lettuce. The chicks should be gotten on some growing green crop as -soon as possible. - -Chickens are not by nature vegetarians. They require some meat to -thrive. It has been proven in several experiments that young -chickens with an allowance of meat foods make much better growth -than chickens with a vegetable diet, even when the chemical -constituents and the variety of the two rations are practically the -same. - -Very few farmers feed any meat whatever. They rely on insects to -supply the deficiency. This would be all right if the insects were -plentiful and lasted throughout the year, but as conditions are it -will pay the farmer to supplement this source of food with the -commercial meat foods. - -Fresh bone, cut by bone-cutters, is an excellent source of the meat -and mineral matter needed by growing chicks. If one is handy to a -butcher shop that will agree to furnish fresh bones at little or no -cost, it will pay to get a bone-mill, but the cost of the mill and -labor of grinding are considerable items, and unless the supply of -bones is reliable and convenient this source of meat foods is not to -be depended upon. - -The best way to feed beef-scrap is to keep a supply in the hopper so -the chickens may help themselves. In case meat food is given, -bone-meal, fed in small quantities, will form a valuable addition to -their ration. Infertile eggs from incubators, as well as by-products -of the dairy, can be used to help out in the animal-food portion of -the ration. Chickens may be given all the milk they will drink. It -is generally recommended that this be given clabbered. - - -Feeding Laying Hens. - -The food requirements of a laying hen are very like those of a -growing chicken. One addition to the list is, however, required for -egg production, which is lime, of which the shell of the egg is -formed. In the summer-time hens on the range will find sufficient -lime to supply their needs. In the winter-time they should be -supplied with more lime than the food contains. Crushed oyster shell -answers the purpose admirably. - -A supply of green food is one of the requisites of successful winter -feeding. Every farmer should see that a patch of rye, crimson -clover, or some other winter green crop is grown near his -chicken-house. Vegetables and refuse from the kitchen help out in -this matter, but seldom furnish a sufficient supply. Vegetables may -be grown for this purpose. Mangels and sugar-beets are excellent. -Cabbage, potatoes and turnips answer the purpose fairly well. -Mangels are fed by splitting in halves and sticking to nails driven -in the wall. - -Clover and alfalfa are excellent chicken feeds and should be used in -regions where winter crops will not keep green. The leaves that -shatter off in the mow are the choicest portion for chicken feeding, -and may be fed by scalding with hot water and mixing in a mash. Hens -will eat good green alfalfa if fed dry in a box. - -The feeding of sprouted oats should be practiced when no other green -food is available. Oats may be prepared for this purpose by -thoroughly soaking in warm water and being kept in a warm, damp -place for a few days. Feed when the sprouts are a couple of inches -long. - -Almost all grains are suitable foods for hens. Corn, on account of -its cheapness and general distribution, is the best. The general -prejudice against corn feeding should be directed rather against -feeding one grain alone without the other forms of food. If hens are -supplied with green foods, with mineral matter, some form of meat -food, and are forced to take sufficient amount of exercise, the -danger from overfatness, due to the feeding of a reasonable amount -of corn, need not be feared. - -As has already been emphasized, the variety of food given is more -essential than the kind. Do not feed one grain all the time. The -more variety fed the better. Corn and Kaffir-corn, being cheap -grains, will form the major portion of the ration, but, even if much -higher in price, it will pay to add a portion of such grain as -wheat, barley, oats or buckwheat. - - -Cleanliness. - -The advice commonly given in poultry papers would require one to -exercise nearly as much pains in the cleaning of a chicken house as -in the cleaning of a kitchen. Such advice may be suitable for the -city poultry fanciers, but it is out of place when given to the -farmer. Poultry raising, the same as other farm work, must pay for -the labor put into it, and this will not be the case if attempt is -made to follow all the suggestions of the theoretical poultry -writer. - -The ease with which the premises may be kept reasonably free from -litter and filth is largely a matter of convenient arrangement. The -handiest plan from this view-point is the colony system. In this the -houses are moved to new locations when the ground becomes soiled. If -the chicken-house is a stationary structure it should be built away -from other buildings, scrap-piles, fence corners, etc., so that the -ground can be frequently freshened by plowing and sowing in oats, -rye or rape. The ground should be well sloped, so that the water -draining from the surface may wash away much of the filth that on -level ground would accumulate. - -Cleanliness indoors can be simplified by proper arrangement. First, -the house must be dry. Poultry droppings, when dry, are not a source -of danger if kept out of the feed. They should be removed often -enough to prevent foul odors. Drinking vessels should be rinsed out -when refilled and not allowed to accumulate a coat of slime. If a -mash is fed, feed-boards should be scraped off and dried in the sun. -Sunshine is a cheap and efficient disinfectant. - -The advice on the control of lice and the method of handling sick -chickens that has been given in the main section of the book, will -apply as well on the farm as on the commercial poultry plant. -Certainly the farmer's time is too valuable to fool with the details -of poultry therapeutics. - - -Farm Chicken Houses. - -The following notes on poultry houses apply to Iowa and Nebraska, -where the winters are severe, and similar climates. Farther south -and east the farmer should use the same style of houses as -recommended for egg farms. A chicken house just high enough for a -man to walk erectly and a floor space of about 3 square feet per hen -is advisable. This requires a house 12 by 24 for 100 hens, or 10 by -16 for 50. - -Lands sloping to south or southeast, and that which dries quickly -after a rain, will prove the most suitable for chickens. A gumbo -patch should not be selected as a location for poultry. Hogs and -hens should not occupy the same quarters, in fact, should be some -distance apart, especially if heavy breeds of chickens are kept. -Hens should be removed from the garden, but may be near an orchard. -Chicken-houses should be separated from tool-houses, stables, and -other outbuildings. - -Grading for chicken-houses is not commonly practiced, but this is -the easiest means of preventing dampness in the house and is -necessary in heavy soils. The ground-level may be raised with a plow -and scraper, or the foundation of the house may be built and filled -with dirt. - -A stone foundation is best, but where stone is expensive may be -replaced by cedar, hemlock or Osage orange posts, deeply set in the -ground. Small houses can be built on runners as described for colony -houses for an egg farm. - -Floors are commonly constructed of earth, boards or cement. Cement -floors are perfectly sanitary and easy to keep clean. The objections -to their common use is the first cost of good cement floors. Cheaply -constructed floors will not last. Board floors are very common and -are preferred by many poultrymen, but if close to the ground they -harbor rats, while if open underneath they make the house cold. -Covering wet ground by a board floor does not remedy the fault of -dampness nearly so effectually as would a similar expenditure spent -in raising the floor and surrounding ground by grading. All things -considered, the dirt floor is the most suitable. This should be made -by filling in above the outside ground-level. The drainage will be -facilitated if the first layer of this floor be of cinders, small -rocks or other coarse material. Above this layer should be placed a -layer of clay, wet and packed hard, so the hens cannot scratch it -up, or a different plan may be used and the floor constructed of a -sandy or loamy soil of which the top layer can be renewed each year. - -The walls of a chicken-house must first of all be wind-tight. This -may be attained in several ways. Upright boards with cracks battened -is the cheapest method. Various kinds of lap-siding give similar -results. The single-board wall may be greatly improved by lining -with building-paper. This should be put on between the studding and -siding. Lath should also be used to prevent the paper bagging out -from the wall. The double-board wall is the best where a warm house -is desired. - -It should be made by siding up outside the studding with cheap -lumber. On this is placed a layer of roofing paper and over it the -ordinary siding. The windows of a chicken-house should furnish -sufficient light that the hens may find grain in the litter on -cloudy days. Too much glass in a poultry house makes the house cold -at night, and it is a needless expenditure. - -The subject of roofing farm buildings may be summarized in this -advice: Use patent roofing if you know of a variety that will last; -if not, use shingles. Shingle roofs require a steeper pitch than do -roofs of prepared roofing. A shingle roof can be made much warmer by -using tightly laid sheathing covered with building-paper. Especial -care should be taken that the joints at the eaves of the house are -tightly fitted. - -The object of ventilating a chicken-house is to supply a reasonable -amount of fresh air, and, equally important, to keep the house dry. -Ventilation should not be by cracks or open cupolas. Direct drafts -of air are injurious, and ventilation by such means is always the -greatest when the least needed. - -Schemes of ventilation by a system of pipes are expensive and -unnecessary. The latest, best and cheapest plan for providing -ventilation is the curtain front house for the north, and the open -front house for the more southerly sections. The curtain front house -is giving way to the open front with a somewhat smaller opening in -sections, as far north as Connecticut. - -Make all roosts on the same level. The ladder arrangement is a -nuisance and offers no advantage. Arrange the roosts so that they -may be readily removed for cleaning. Do not fill the chicken-house -full of roosts. Put in only enough to accommodate the hens, and let -these be on one side of the house. The floor under the roosts should -be separated from the feeding floor by a board set on edge. - -For laying flocks the nests must be clean, secluded and plentiful. -Boxes under the roost-platform will answer, but a better plan is to -have the nest upon a shelf along a side wall so arranged as to allow -the hen to enter from the rear side. Nests should be constructed so -that all parts are accessible to a white-wash brush. The less -contrivances in a chicken-house, the better. - -The farmer can get along very well without any chicken-yard at all. -It will, however, prove a very convenient arrangement if a small -yard is attached to the chicken-house. The house should be arranged -to open either into the yard or out into the range. This yard may be -used for fattening chickens or confining cockerels, or perhaps to -enclose the flock during the ripening of a favorite tomato or berry -crop. - - -THE END. - - - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Dollar Hen, by Milo M. Hastings - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 13254 *** diff --git a/old/old-2025-03-05/13254-h.zip b/old/old-2025-03-05/13254-h.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index c083836..0000000 --- a/old/old-2025-03-05/13254-h.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/old-2025-03-05/13254-h/13254-h.htm b/old/old-2025-03-05/13254-h/13254-h.htm deleted file mode 100644 index 2592d54..0000000 --- a/old/old-2025-03-05/13254-h/13254-h.htm +++ /dev/null @@ -1,10408 +0,0 @@ -<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> -<html lang="en"> -<head> -<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1"> -<meta content="pg2html (binary v0.16)" name="generator"> -<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Dollar Hen, by Milo M. 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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: The Dollar Hen - -Author: Milo M. Hastings - -Release Date: August 22, 2004 [EBook #13254] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DOLLAR HEN *** - - - - -Produced by Roger Taft, grandson of Milo Hastings, -Jim Tinsley, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team. - - - -[Transcriber's Note: This printing had more than its share of typographical -errors. Obvious typos, like "tim" for "time", have been corrected.] - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<div style="height: 8em;"><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br></div> - -<h1> - THE DOLLAR HEN -</h1> -<center><b> - BY -</b></center> -<h2> - MILO M. HASTINGS -</h2> -<center><b> - FORMERLY POULTRYMAN AT<br> - KANSAS EXPERIMENT STATION;<br> - LATER IN CHARGE OF THE COMMERCIAL<br> - POULTRY INVESTIGATION<br> - OF THE UNITED STATES<br> - DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE<br> -</b></center> -<center> -<img src="images/hengraphic.png" alt="Dollar Hen Graphic."> -</center> -<center> - SYRACUSE -</center> -<center> - NATIONAL POULTRY MAGAZINE -</center> -<center> - 1911 -</center> -<center> - COPYRIGHT, 1911, -</center> -<center> - BY -</center> -<center> - NATIONAL POULTRY PUBLISHING COMPANY -</center> - - - - -<hr> - - -<a name="2H_4_0001"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> - -<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> - -<h2> - WHY THIS BOOK WAS WRITTEN -</h2> -<p> -Twenty-five years ago there were in print hundreds of complete -treatises on human diseases and the practice of medicine. -Notwithstanding the size of the book-shelves or the high standing of -the authorities, one might have read the entire medical library of -that day and still have remained in ignorance of the fact that -out-door life is a better cure for consumption than the contents of -a drug store. The medical professor of 1885 may have gone -prematurely to his grave because of ignorance of facts which are -to-day the property of every intelligent man. -</p> -<p> -There are to-day on the book-shelves of agricultural colleges and -public libraries, scores of complete works on "Poultry" and hundreds -of minor writings on various phases of the industry. Let the -would-be poultryman master this entire collection of literature and -he is still in ignorance of facts and principles, a knowledge of -which in better developed industries would be considered prime -necessities for carrying on the business. -</p> -<p> -As a concrete illustration of the above statement, I want to point -to a young man, intelligent, enterprising, industrious, and a -graduate of the best known agricultural college poultry course in -the country. This lad invested some $18,000 of his own and his -friends' money in a poultry plant. The plant was built and the -business conducted in accordance with the plans and principles of -the recognized poultry authorities. To-day the young man is bravely -facing the proposition of working on a salary in another business, -to pay back the debts of honor resulting from his attempt to apply -in practice the teaching of our agricultural colleges and our -poultry bookshelves. -</p> -<p> -The experience just related did not prove disastrous from some -single item of ignorance or oversight; the difficulty was that the -cost of growing and marketing the product amounted to more than the -receipts from its sale. This poultry farm, like the surgeon's -operation, "was successful, but the patient died." -</p> -<p> -The writer's belief in the reality of the situation as above -portrayed warrants him in publishing the present volume. Whether his -criticism of poultry literature is founded on fact or fancy may, -five years after the copyright date of this book, be told by any -unbiased observer. -</p> -<p> -I have written this book for the purpose of assisting in placing the -poultry business on a sound scientific and economic basis. The book -does not pretend to be a complete encyclopedia of information -concerning poultry, but treats only of those phases of poultry -production and marketing upon which the financial success of the -business depends. -</p> -<p> -The reader who is looking for information concerning fancy breeds, -poultry shows, patent processes, patent foods, or patent methods, -will be disappointed, for the object of this book is to help the -poultryman to make money, not to spend it. -</p> -<a name="2H_4_0002"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> - -<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> - -<h2> -HOW TO READ THIS BOOK -</h2> -<p> -Unless the reader has picked up this volume out of idle curiosity, -he will be one of the following individuals: -</p> -<p> -1. A farmer or would-be farmer, who is interested in poultry -production as a portion of the work of general farming. -</p> -<p> -2. A poultryman or would-be poultryman, who wishes to make a -business of producing poultry or eggs for sale as a food product or -as breeding stock. -</p> -<p> -3. A person interested in poultry as a diversion and who enjoys -losing a dollar on his chickens almost as well as earning one. -</p> -<p> -4. A man interested in poultry in the capacity of an editor, teacher -or some one engaged as a manufacturer or dealer in merchandise the -sale of which is dependent upon the welfare of the poultry industry. -</p> -<p> -To the reader of the fourth class I have no suggestions to make save -such as he will find in the suggestions made to others. -</p> -<p> -To the reader of the third class I wish to say that if you are a -shoe salesman, who has spent your evenings in a Brooklyn flat, -drawing up plans for a poultry plant, I have only to apologize for -any interference that this book may cause with your highly -fascinating amusement. -</p> -<p> -To the poultryman already in the business, or to the man who is -planning to engage in the business for reasons equivalent to those -which would justify his entering other occupations of the -semi-technical class, such as dairying, fruit growing or the -manufacture of washing machines, I wish to say it is for you that -"The Dollar Hen" is primarily written. -</p> -<p> -This book does not assume you to be a graduate of a technical -school, but it does bring up discussions and use methods of -illustration that may be unfamiliar to many readers. That such -matter is introduced is because the subject requires it; and if it -is confusing to the student he will do better to master it than to -dodge it. Especially would I call your attention to the diagrams -used in illustrating various statistics. Such diagrams are -technically called "curves." They may at first seem mere crooked -lines, if so I suggest that you get a series of figures in which you -are interested, such as the daily egg yields of your own flock or -your monthly food bills, and "plot" a few curves of your own. After -you catch on you will be surprised at the greater ease with which -the true meaning of a series of figures can be recognized when this -graphic method is used. -</p> -<p> -I wish to call the farmer's attention to the fact that poultry -keeping as an adjunct to general farming, especially to general -farming in the Mississippi Valley, is quite a different proposition -from poultry production as a regular business. Poultry keeping as a -part of farm life and farm enterprise is a thing well worth while in -any section of the United States, whereas poultry keeping, a -separate occupation, requires special location and special -conditions to make it profitable. I would suggest the farmer first -read Chapter XVI, which is devoted to his special conditions. Later -he may read the remainder of the book, but should again consult the -part on farm poultry production before attempting to apply the more -complicated methods to his own needs. -</p> -<p> -Chapter XVI, while written primarily for the farmer, is, because of -the simplicity of its directions, the best general guide for the -beginner in poultry keeping wherever he may be. -</p> -<p> -To the reader in general, I want to say, that the table of contents, -a part of the book which most people never read, is in this volume -so placed and so arranged that it cannot well be avoided. Read it -before you begin the rest of the book, and use it then and -thereafter in guiding you toward the facts that you at the time -particularly want to know. Many people in starting to read a book -find something in the first chapter which does not interest them and -cast aside the work, often missing just the information they are -seeking. The conspicuous arrangement of the contents is for the -purpose of preventing such an occurrence in this case. -</p> - -<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> - -<h2> -WHAT IS IN THIS VOLUME -</h2> - - -<p class="chap"> -<a href="#chapI">CHAPTER I</a> -<p> -IS THERE MONEY IN THE POULTRY BUSINESS?<br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>A Big Business; Growing Bigger</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Less Ham and More Eggs</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Who Gets the Hen Money?</span><br> -</p> - - -<p class="chap"> -<a href="#chapII">CHAPTER II</a> -<p> -WHAT BRANCH OF THE POULTRY BUSINESS?<br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Various Poultry Products</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>The Duck Business</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Squabs Have Been Overdone</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Turkeys not Adapted to Commercial Growing</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Guinea Growing a New Venture</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Geese, the Fame of Watertown</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>The Ill-omened Broiler Business</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>South Shore Roasters</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Too Much Competition in Fancy Poultry</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Egg Farming the Most Certain and Profitable</span><br> -</p> - - -<p class="chap"> -<a href="#chapIII">CHAPTER III</a> -<p> -THE POULTRY PRODUCING COMMUNITY<br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Established Poultry Communities</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Developing Poultry Communities</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Will Co-operation Work?</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Co-operative Egg Marketing in Denmark</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Corporation or Co-operation</span><br> -</p> - - -<p class="chap"> -<a href="#chapIV">CHAPTER IV</a> -<p> -WHERE TO LOCATE<br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Some Poultry Geography</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Chicken Climate</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Suitable Soil</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Marketing—Transportation</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Availability of Water</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>A Few Statistics</span><br> -</p> - - -<p class="chap"> -<a href="#chapV">CHAPTER V</a> -<p> -THE DOLLAR HEN FARM<br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>The Plan of Housing</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>The Feeding System</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Water Systems</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Out-door Accommodations</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Equipment for Chick Rearing</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Twenty-five Acre Poultry Farms</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Five Acre Poultry Farms</span><br> -</p> - - -<p class="chap"> -<a href="#chapVI">CHAPTER VI</a> -<p> -INCUBATION<br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Fertility of Eggs</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>The Wisdom of the Egyptians</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Principles of Incubation</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Moisture and Evaporation</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Ventilation—Carbon Dioxide</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Turning Eggs</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Cooling Eggs</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Searching for the "Open Sesame" of Incubation</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>The Box Type of Incubator in Actual Use</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>The Future of Incubation</span><br> -</p> - - -<p class="chap"> -<a href="#chapVII">CHAPTER VII</a> -<p> -FEEDING<br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Conventional Food Chemistry</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>How the Hen Unbalances Balanced Rations</span><br> -</p> - - -<p class="chap"> -<a href="#chapVIII">CHAPTER VIII</a> -<p> -DISEASES<br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Don't Doctor Chickens</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>The Causes of Poultry Diseases</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Chicken Cholera</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Roup</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Chicken-pox, Gapes, Limber-neck</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Lice and Mites</span><br> -</p> - - -<p class="chap"> -<a href="#chapIX">CHAPTER IX</a> -<p> -POULTRY FLESH AND POULTRY FATTENING<br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Crate Fattening</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Caponizing</span><br> -</p> - - -<p class="chap"> -<a href="#chapX">CHAPTER X</a> -<p> -MARKETING POULTRY CARCASSES<br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Farm Grown Chickens</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>The Special Poultry Plant</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Suggestions From Other Countries</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Cold Storage of Poultry</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Drawn or Undrawn Fowls</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Poultry Inspection</span><br> -</p> - - -<p class="chap"> -<a href="#chapXI">CHAPTER XI</a> -<p> -QUALITY IN EGGS<br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Grading Eggs</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>How Eggs are Spoiled</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Egg Size Table</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>The Loss Due to Carelessness</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Requisites of Producing High Grade Eggs</span><br> -</p> - - -<p class="chap"> -<a href="#chapXII">CHAPTER XII</a> -<p> -HOW EGGS ARE MARKETED<br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>The Country Merchant</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>The Huckster</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>The Produce Buyer</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>The City Distribution of Eggs</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Cold Storage of Eggs</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Preserving Eggs Out of Cold Storage</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Improved Methods of Marketing Farm-Grown Eggs</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>The High Grade Egg Business</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Buying Eggs by Weight</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>The Retailing of Eggs by the Producer</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>The Price of Eggs</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>N.Y. Mercantile Exchange, Official Quotations</span><br> -</p> - - -<p class="chap"> -<a href="#chapXIII">CHAPTER XIII</a> -<p> -BREEDS OF CHICKENS<br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Breed Tests</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>The Hen's Ancestors</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>What Breed?</span><br> -</p> - - -<p class="chap"> -<a href="#chapXIV">CHAPTER XIV</a> -<p> -PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC BREEDING<br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Breeding as an Art</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Scientific Theories of Breeding</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Breeding for Egg Production</span><br> -</p> - - -<p class="chap"> -<a href="#chapXV">CHAPTER XV</a> -<p> -EXPERIMENT STATION WORK<br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>The Stations Leading in Poultry Work</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>The Story of the "Big Coon"</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Important Experimental Results at the Illinois Station</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Experimental Bias</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>The Egg Breeding Work at the Maine Station</span><br> -</p> - - -<p class="chap"> -<a href="#chapXVI">CHAPTER XVI</a> -<p> -POULTRY ON THE GENERAL FARM<br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Best Breeds for the Farm</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Keep Only Workers</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Hatching Chicks with Hens</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Incubators on the Farm</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Rearing Chicks</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Feeding Laying Hens</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Cleanliness</span><br> -<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Farm Chicken Houses</span><br> -</p> - -<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> - -<h1> -THE DOLLAR HEN -</h1> -<a name="2HCH0002"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> - -<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> - -<h2> -<a name="chapI"> -CHAPTER I -</a> -</h2> -<h3> -IS THERE MONEY IN THE POULTRY BUSINESS? -</h3> -<p> -The chicken business is big. No one knows how big it is and no one -can find out. The reason it is hard to find out is because so many -people are engaged in it and because the chicken crop is sold, not -once a year, but a hundred times a year. -</p> -<p> -Statistics are guesses. True statistics are the sum of little -guesses, but often figures published as statistics are big guesses -by a guesser who is big enough to have his guess accepted. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -A Big Business; Growing Bigger -</p> -<p> -The only real statistics for the poultry crop of the United States -are those of the Federal Census. At this writing these statistics -are nine years old and somewhat out of date. The value of poultry -and eggs in 1899, according to the census figures, was $291,000,000. -Is this too big or too little? I don't know. If the reader wishes to -know let him imagine the census enumerator asking a farmer the value -of the poultry and eggs which he has produced the previous year. -Would the farmer's guess be too big or too small? -</p> -<p> -From these census figures as a base, estimates have been made for -later years. The Secretary of Agriculture, or, speaking more -accurately, a clerk in the Statistical Bureau of the Department of -Agriculture, says the poultry and egg crop for 1907 was over -$600,000,000. -</p> -<p> -The best two sources of information known to the writer by which -this estimate may be checked are the receipts of the New York market -and the annual "Value of Poultry and Eggs Sold," as given by the -Kansas State Board of Agriculture. -</p> -<a name="image-0001"><!--IMG--></a> -<center> -<img src="images/hen014.png" alt="Plate I. Page 14. Graph - is There Money in Poultry?"> -</center> -<!--IMAGE END--> -<p> -In plate I the top curve a-a gives the average spring price of -Western first eggs in the New York market. The curve b-b gives the -annual receipts of eggs at New York in millions of cases. Now, since -value equals quantity multiplied by price, and since the quantity -and values of poultry are closely correlated to those of eggs, the -product of these two figures is a fair means of showing the rate of -increase in the value of the poultry crop. Starting with the census -value of $291,000,000 for the year 1899, we thus find that by 1907 -the amount is very close to $700,000,000. This is represented by the -lower line. -</p> -<p> -The value of the poultry and eggs sold in Kansas have increased as -follows: -</p> -<table align="center" width="30%" summary="value of poultry and eggs in Kansas"> -<tr><td align="right">Year</td> <td align="right">Value</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">1903</td> <td align="right">$ 6,498,856</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">1904</td> <td align="right">7,551,871</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">1905</td> <td align="right">8,541,153</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">1906</td> <td align="right">9,085,896</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">1907</td> <td align="right">10,300,082</td></tr> -</table> -<p> -The dotted line e-e represents the increase in the national poultry -and egg crop estimated from the Kansas figures. Evidently the -estimate given in Secretary Wilson's report was not excessive. -</p> -<p> -Now, I want to call the reader's attention to some relations about -which there can be no doubt and which are even more significant. The -straight line c-c in Plate 1 represents the rate of increase of -population in this country. The line b-b represents the rate of -increase in egg receipts at New York. As the country data backs up -the New York figures, the conclusion is inevitable that the -production of poultry and eggs is increasing much more rapidly than -is our population. -</p> -<p> -"Over-production," I hear the pessimist cry, but unfortunately for -Friend Pessimist, we have a gauge on the over-production idea that -lays all fears to rest. When the supply of any commodity increases -faster than the demand, we have over-production and falling prices. -Vice-versa, under-production is shown by a rising price. That prices -of poultry and eggs have risen and risen rapidly, has already been -shown. -</p> -<p> -"But prices of all products have risen," says one. Very true, but by -statistics with which I will not burden the reader, I find that -prices of poultry products have risen more rapidly than the average -rise in values of all commodities. This shows that poultry products -are really more in demand and more valuable, not apparently so. -Moreover, the rise in the price of poultry products has been much -more pronounced than the average rise in the price of all food -products, which proves the growing demand for poultry and eggs to be -a real growing demand, not a turning to poultry products because of -the high price of other foods, as is sometimes stated. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Less Ham and More Eggs. -</p> -<p> -Certainly we, as a nation, are rapidly becoming eaters of hens and -of hen fruit. Reasons are not hard to find. Poultry and eggs are the -most palatable, most wholesome, most convenient of foods. Our -demands for the products of the poultry yard grows because we are -learning to like them, and because our prosperity has grown and we -can afford them. -</p> -<p> -Another reason that the consumption of eggs is growing is because -the condition in which they reach the consumer is improving. The -writer may say some pretty hard things in this work about the -condition of poultry and eggs as they are now marketed, but any -old-timer in the business will tell you stories of things as they -used to be that will easily explain why our fathers ate more ham and -less eggs. -</p> -<p> -Yet another reason why the per capita consumption of hens as -measured in pounds or dollars increases, is that the hen herself has -increased in size; whereas John when he was Johnnie ate a two-ounce -drumstick, now Johnnie eats an analogous piece that weighs three -ounces. Perhaps, also, we have a growing respect for the law of -Moses, or may be vegetarians who think that eggs grow on egg plants -are becoming more numerous. -</p> -<p> -Our consumption of pork per capita has, in the last half century, -diminished by half, our consumption of beef has remained stationary, -but our consumption of poultry and eggs has doubled itself, we know -not how many times, for a half century ago the ancestor of the -industrious hen of this age serenely scratched up grandmother's -geraniums and was unmolested by the statisticians. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Who Gets the Hen Money? -</p> -<p> -Seven hundred millions of dollars is a lot of money. Who gets it? -There are no Rockefellers or Armours in the hen business. It is the -people's business. Why? Because the nature of the business is such -that it cannot be centralized. Land and intelligent labor, prompted -by the spirit of ownership, is necessary to succeed in the hen -business. Land the captains of industry have not monopolized, and -labor imbued with the spirit of ownership they cannot monopolize. -The chicken business is, in dollars, one of the biggest industries -in the country. In numbers of those engaged in it, the chicken -business is the biggest industry in the world—I bar none. Why is -this true? Primarily because the hen is a natural part of the -equipment of every farm and of many village homes as well. It is -these millions of small flocks that count up in dollars and men and -give such an immense aggregate. -</p> -<p> -More than ninety-eight per cent. of the poultry and eggs of the -country are produced on the general farm. The remaining one or two -per cent. are produced on farms or plants where chicken culture is -the cash crop or chief business of the farmer. It is this business, -relatively small, though actually a matter of millions, that is -commonly spoken of as the poultry business, and about which our -chief interest centers. A farmer can disregard all knowledge and all -progress and still keep chickens, but the man who has no other means -of a livelihood must produce chicken products efficiently, or fail -altogether—hence the greater interest in this portion of the -industry. -</p> -<p> -The poultry business as a business to occupy a man's time and earn -him a livelihood, is a thing of recent origin and was little heard -of before 1890. Since that time it has undergone a somewhat painful, -though steady growth. Many people have lost money in the business -and have given it up in disgust, but on a whole the business has -progressed wonderfully, and now shows features of development that -are clearly beyond the experimental stage and are undoubtedly here -to stay. -</p> -<p> -The suggestion has been made by those who have failed or have seen -others fail in the poultry business, that success was impossible -because of the destructive competition of the farmer, whose expense -of production is small. Herein lies a great truth and a great error. -The farmer's cost of production is small, much smaller than that on -most of the book-made poultry farms—but the inference that the -poultryman's cost of production cannot be lowered below that of the -farmer is a different statement. -</p> -<p> -The farm of our grandfather was a very diversified institution. It -contained in miniature a woolen mill, a packing house, a cheese -factory, perhaps a shoe factory and a blacksmith shop. One by one -these industries have been withdrawn from general farm-life, and -established as independent businesses. Likewise our dairy farms, our -fruit farms, and our market gardens have been segregated from the -general farm. This simply means that manufacturing cloth, or cheese, -or producing milk, or tomatoes can be done at less cost in separate -establishments than upon a general farm. -</p> -<p> -The general farm will always grow poultry for home consumption, and -will always have some surplus to sell. With the surplus, the -poultryman must compete. His only hope of successful competition is -production at lower cost. Can this be done? It is being done, and -the numbers of people who are doing it are increasing, but they -spend little money at poultry shows, or with the advertisers of -poultry papers, and hence are little heard of in the poultry world. -</p> -<p> -The people whose names and faces are in the poultry papers are -frequently there only while their money lasts. They write long -articles and show pictures of many houses and yards to prove that -there is money in the poultry business, but if one should keep their -names and put the question to them five years hence, a great many -could say, "Yes, there is money in the poultry business; mine is in -it." -</p> -<p> -Such people and such plants do not get the cost of production down -below the farmer's level. Between these two classes of poultry -plants, the writer hopes in this work to show the distinction. -</p> -<a name="2HCH0003"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> - -<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> - -<h2> -<a name="chapII"> -CHAPTER II -</a> -</h2> -<h3> -WHAT BRANCH OF THE POULTRY BUSINESS? -</h3> -<p> -The chicken business is especially prone to failure from a disregard -of the common essential relation of cost and selling price necessary -to the success of any business. That this should be more true of the -poultry business than of any other undertakings is to be explained -by the facts that as a business, it is new, that many of those who -engage in it are inexperienced, but most particularly because -practically all the literature published on the subject has been -written by or written in the interest of those who had something to -sell to the poultryman. As a result the figures of production are -generally given higher than the facts warrant. The investor, be he -ever so shrewd a man, builds upon these promises and when he finds -his production lower, is caught with an excessive investment and a -complicated system on his hands, which make all profits impossible -and which cannot readily be adapted to the new conditions. -</p> -<p> -Estimates of poultry profits are quite common, but there are few -published figures showing the results that are actually obtained -under practical working conditions. In this volume I will try to -give the facts of what is being and can be actually accomplished. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Various Poultry Products. -</p> -<p> -In considering the poultry industry we must first get some idea of -the various articles produced for sale. -</p> -<p> -It is common knowledge that the large meat packer can undersell the -small packer because the by-products, such as bristles, which are -wasted by the local killer, are a source of income to the large -packer. Now, this does not infer that the small packer is shiftless -and neglects to save his bristles, but that on the scale on which he -operates it would cost him more to save the bristles than he could -realize on them. -</p> -<p> -So it is with poultry farming. For illustration: A visionary writer -in a leading poultry paper, not long ago, advised poultrymen to -store eggs. In reality this would be the height of folly, unless the -poultryman had his own retail store. In the first place profit on -cold storage eggs, when all expenses are paid, will not average a -half a cent a dozen; in the second place, the small lot would be -relatively troublesome and expensive to handle, and in the third -place, small lots of cold storage eggs are looked upon with -suspicion and do not find ready sale. So we see that cold storage -eggs are not a suitable product for the small poultryman to handle. -</p> -<p> -A second illustration of an ill-chosen combination might be taken in -the case of a duck farmer who attempts to produce broilers. The -principal difficulty of the duck business is that of getting -sufficient intelligent labor in the rush season. The chief expense -of investment is for incubators and brooder houses. If the duck -farmer now tries to add broilers, he will find that the labor comes -at the same time of the year, that the chief equipment required is -that which is already crowded by the duck business, and that of the -men who have succeeded moderately well in caring for ducks will fail -altogether with the young chicks, which do not thrive under the same -machine-like methods. -</p> -<p> -On the other hand, let us take the example of an egg farm man who -has resolved to combine his attention wholly to the production of -market eggs. He succeeds well in his work and is visited by the -poultry editors. His picture, the picture of his chickens and of his -chicken houses, are printed in the poultry papers. For a reasonable -sum invested in advertising and in exhibition at the shows, this man -could now double his income by going into the breeding stock -business. To refuse to spread out in this case would certainly be -foolish. -</p> -<p> -The following classification of the sales products of the poultry -industry is given as a basis for farther consideration. -</p> -<center> -CHICKENS. -</center> -<p> -For food purposes: -</p> -<p class="indent"> -Eggs. -</p> -<p class="indent"> -Hens, after laying has been finished. -</p> -<p class="indent"> -Cockerels, necessarily hatched in hatching pullets for layers. -(Sold as squab broilers, regular broilers, springs, -roasters or capons.) -</p> -<p class="indent"> -Both sexes as squab broilers, broilers or roasters. -</p> -<p> -For stock purposes: -</p> -<p class="indent"> -Eggs for hatching. -</p> -<p class="indent"> -Day-old chicks. -</p> -<p class="indent"> -Mature fowls. -</p> -<center> -DUCKS. -</center> -<p> -For table—green or spring ducks. -</p> -<p class="indent"> - By-products, old ducks and duck feathers. -</p> -<p> -For breeding-stock. -</> -<center> -GEESE. -</center> -<center> -Food, Feathers, Breeders. -</center> -<center> -TURKEYS. -</center> -<center> -Food, Breeders. -</center> -<center> -PIGEONS. -</center> -<center> -Squabs, Breeding Stock. -</center> -<center> -GUINEAS. -</center> -<center> -Broilers, Mature Fowls. -</center> -<p> -I will now discuss these products more in detail. Poultry, other -than chickens, I do not care to discuss at length, because it is not -for the purpose of the book, and because the demand for other kinds -of poultry is limited and the chance for the growth of the business -small. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -The Duck Business. -</p> -<p> -The duck business is the most highly commercialized at the present -time of any branch of the poultry business. The duck is the oldest -domestic bird and was hatched by artificial incubation in China, -when our ancestors were gnawing raw bones in the caves of Europe. -The duck is the most domestic of birds and will thrive under more -machine-like methods and without that touch of nature and of the -owner's kindly interest so necessary to the welfare of the fowls of -the gallinaceous order. The green duck business is about twenty -years old and has become an established business in every sense of -the word. The largest plants now produce about one hundred thousand -ducks per annum. The profits at present are not large even for the -most successful plants, because the demand is limited and the -production has reached such a point that cost of production and -selling price bear a definite relation as in all established -businesses. The green duck business is not an easy one for the -novice because the margin between cost (chiefly food cost) and -selling price is low, and unless the new man can reduce the cost of -production or raise his selling price in some way, he will have no -advantage over the old and successful firms. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Squab Business Overdone. -</p> -<p> -The business of producing pigeon squabs resembles the duck business -in the sense that it has been reduced to a successful system. The -production of squabs has grown until the demand is satisfied and the -price has fallen to just that figure that will continue to bring in -a sufficient number of squabs from the plants which are already -established, or which continue to be established by those who do not -stop to investigate the relation between the cost of production and -the prevailing prices. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Turkeys Not a Commercial Success. -</p> -<p> -In the case of turkeys, we find exactly opposite conditions. The -price of turkeys has risen with the price of chickens and eggs, -until one would think that there would be great money in the -business, and there is, for the motherly farm wife who has the knack -of bringing the little turks through the danger of delicate -babyhood. But just as the duck is more domesticated than the -chicken, so the turkey, which yet closely resembles its wild -ancestor, is less domestic and has as yet failed to surrender to the -ways of commercial reasoning, the chief factor of which is -artificial brooding. -</p> -<p> -The presence of a disease called blackhead has done vast injury to -the turkey industry in the northeastern section of the country. In -the South the industry has been booming. Especially in Tennessee and -Texas, I found great local pride in the turkey crop. I certainly -would advise any farm wife, in sections where blackhead does not -prevail, to try her hand at turkey raising. As to her advisability -of continuance in the business, the number of turkeys at the end of -the season will be the best judge. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Guinea Growing a New Venture. -</p> -<p> -The guinea growing business is the newest of the poultry industries. -In fact, it may be said of guineas, as of our grandmother's -tomatoes, "Folks had them around without knowing they were of any -use." The new use for guineas is as a substitute for game. Guinea -broilers make quail-on-toast and older ones are good for grouse, -prairie chicken or pheasant. The retail price in the large cities -runs as high as $1.50 to $2.00 a pair. It will probably not pay to -raise them unless one is sure of receiving as much as 50 cents each. -As for the rearing of guineas, they may be considered on a parallel -case with turkeys, if anything they are even more difficult to raise -in large quantities. I would also advise this additional precaution: -Look up the market in the locality before attempting guinea rearing. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Geese—the Fame of Watertown. -</p> -<p> -As for the goose business, the writer must admit that he doesn't -know much about it. In fact, the most of my knowledge concerning -this business was acquired by a visit to Watertown, Wis., which is -the center of the noodled goose industry -</p> -<p> -The Watertown geese are fed by hand every two hours day and night. -They sell to the Hebrew trade at as much per pound as the goose -weighs, and have brought as high as $14.00 apiece. All of this is -interesting, but I hold that the reader who is willing to take -instruction will do better to be guided toward those branches of the -poultry industry for the products of which there is a great and -increasing demand. So we will leave the goose and guinea business to -the venturesome spirits and consider the various branches of the -chicken industry. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -The Ill-omened Broiler Business. -</p> -<p> -The broiler business stands to-day as the ill-omened valley in the -poultry landscape. As a rule broiler production has not and probably -will not pay. I know of a few exceptions—about enough to prove the -rule. -</p> -<p> -Most poultry writers, when they make the statement that broilers do -not pay, insert the phrase "As an exclusive business" after the word -broilers. This is merely a ruse to take the rough edge off an -unpleasant statement, for it certainly hurts the poultry editor to -admit that a much exploited branch of the industry is a failure. -Nevertheless it is a failure and the more frankly we admit the fact, -the less good capital and good brains will be wasted in the attempt -to produce at a profit something which is, and probably always will -be, produced at a loss. -</p> -<p> -The reason the broiler is produced at a loss is that 95 per cent. of -the broilers produced are a by-product of egg, fancy and general -poultry production, and as such their selling price is not -determined by the cost of production, or the supply determined by -the demand. That the broiler business received the boom that it did, -is due to plain ignorance of the cost of production, or to the -appreciation that the ability to rear young chicks could find a more -profitable outlet than in broiler production. Let us take an -analogous case. Suppose a city man should discover the fact that -there was a demand for dried casein from skim milk. With pencil and -paper he could easily figure profits in the business. If this -dreamer would attempt to keep cows for the production of casein and -throw away his butter fat, we would have an analogous case to the -broiler raiser who does not keep his pullets for egg production. -</p> -<p> -The young cockerel, like skim milk, is a by-product and may pay over -the cost of feeding, or some other specific item, but that he does -not pay the whole cost, including wages for the manager is proven by -two facts: First, every large broiler plant yet started has either -failed flatly or shifted its main line to other things; second, egg -farmers would be only too glad to buy pullets at the price for which -they sell the cockerels—a confession that it costs more to produce -broilers than they will bring. -</p> -<p> -The conception of the broiler business when it was boomed twenty -years ago was to produce broilers in early spring, when other folks -had none. It was, like the early watermelon, or the early strawberry -business—to make its profits in extreme prices. -</p> -<p> -This idea received several severe blows from the hands of modern -progress. One is the development of poultry fattening and crate -feeding in this country. This has resulted in supplying the consumer -with choice chicken-flesh that can be produced more economically -than broilers. Formerly it was a case of eating old hen—rooster, -age unknown, or broilers—now we have capon, roaster, crate-fattened -chickens and green ducks, all rivals for the place formerly occupied -exclusively by the broiler. -</p> -<p> -Again, the improvement of shipping and dressing facilities, the -universal introduction of the refrigerator car and the introduction -into the central west of the American breeds, has flooded the -eastern market with a large amount of spring chickens—by-products -of the egg business on the farm—which are almost equal in quality -to the down-eastern product. -</p> -<p> -The most prominent reason of the lessened profit in broilers is the -development of the cold storage industry. Cold storage destroys the -element of season, and allows only that margin of profit that the -consumer is willing to pay for a fresh killed broiler from a Jersey -broiler plant, as compared with last summer's product from the Iowa -farms. From a summer copy of Farm Poultry, I quote the Boston -market: -</p> -<table align="center" width="70%" summary="Cold storage vs fresh"> -<tr><td colspan="3">Fresh killed Northern and Eastern:</td></tr> -<tr><td> </td><td>Fowls, choice</td><td align="right">15c</td></tr> -<tr><td> </td><td>Broilers, choice to fancy</td><td align="right">23-25c</td></tr> -<tr><td>Western, ice packed:</td></tr> -<tr><td> </td><td>Fowls, choice</td><td align="right"> 14c</td></tr> -<tr><td> </td><td>Broilers, choice</td><td align="right"> 20-22c</td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="3">Western frozen:</td></tr> -<tr><td> </td><td>Fowls, choice</td><td align="right"> 14c</td></tr> -<tr><td> </td><td>Broilers, choice</td><td align="right"> 18-20c</td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="3">Eggs:</td></tr> -<tr><td> </td><td>Nearly fancy</td><td align="right"> 26c</td></tr> -<tr><td> </td><td>Western choice</td><td align="right"> 17-1/2--18-1/2c</td></tr> -</table> -<p> -To complete our comparison I turn to the previous winter and find -that the best storage eggs are quoted at 19c, when the best fresh -are selling at 35c. This was a poor storage season and a quotation -of 22c and 25c would perhaps be a fairer comparative figure. We find -the per cent. of premium on the local product to be: -</p> -<table align="center" width="70%" summary="% premium"> -<tr><td>Fowls, local over fresh western</td> <td align="right">7 per cent.</td></tr> -<tr><td>Fowls, local over frozen western</td> <td align="right">7 per cent.</td></tr> -<tr><td>Broilers, local over fresh western</td> <td align="right">14 per cent.</td></tr> -<tr><td>Broilers, local over frozen western</td> <td align="right">26 per cent.</td></tr> -<tr><td>Eggs, local over fresh western</td> <td align="right">30 per cent.</td></tr> -<tr><td>Eggs, local over storage western</td> <td align="right">37 per cent.</td></tr> -</table> -<p> -I consider these general facts concerning the failure of broiler -production, and the logical explanations given, as far more -convincing than any figures I could give concerning the detailed -cost of production. Nor am I capable of giving as accurate figures -as I can in the case of poultry keeping for egg production, for I -have had neither the desire nor the opportunity to look them up. The -following suggestive analysis I submit for the purpose of pointing -out why the cost of production is too great to allow a profit. We -may consider the chick marketing as May, the weight as 1-1/4, and -the price as 35 cents a pound, or, putting it roundly a price of 50 -cents a bird. -</p> -<p> -Now, May broilers mean February eggs. If the reader will refer to -the tables of hatchability and mortality he will see that for our -northern states this is one of the worst seasons for hatching. A -hatchability of 40 per cent. times a liveability of 50 per cent. -gives a net liveability of 20 per cent. Now, anyone with the ability -to produce high grade eggs at that time a year, could get about 40c -a dozen for them, which raises the egg cost per broiler to about 17 -cents. The feed cost per broiler is small, usually estimated at 12 -cents, and this makes a cost of 29 cents. Now, let us allow a cent -for expense of selling charges and forget all about investment, fuel -and incidentals, we have left a margin of 20 cents. -</p> -<p> -Before going farther let us look at the labor bill. Suppose it is a -one-man plant. Suppose the owner sets a value on his services of -$1,200 per annum. That is pretty good, but few men who set a lower -value on their services will have accumulated enough capital to go -into the business. At 20 cents each it will take 6,000 broilers to -make $1,200. That will take 30,000 eggs and at three settings will -require 40 240-egg incubators, which, of a good make, will cost -$1,260. To spread the hatching out over a longer period is to run -into cheap prices on the one hand, or a still impossible egg season -on the other. It will take upwards of a hundred brooders to house -the chicks. -</p> -<p> -There is no use of going farther till we have solved these -difficulties. First we have more work than one man can do; second, -we require a number of hatchable eggs that cannot be bought in -winter without a campaign of advertising and canvassing for them, -that would make them cost double our previous figure. To produce -them oneself would require a flock of 2,500 hens. When a man gets to -that point in the business he is out of the broiler business and an -egg farmer, and will do the same thing, hatch the chicks when eggs -are cheap and fertile, selling his surplus cockerels for 25 cents -each and permit the storage man to freeze them until the following -spring to compete with the broiler man's expensively produced goods. -</p> -<p> -The effort at early broiler production was a natural result of the -combination of the idea of artificial incubation with our -grandmother's pride in having the first setting hen. But in the -present age the man who attempts it is rowing against the current of -economical production, for the cheaply produced broiler can be -stored until the season of scarcity, with but slight loss in -quality. To produce broilers in the season of scarcity, necessitates -the consumption of a product (eggs) which cannot be so successfully -stored, with a lesser quantity of that same product in its season of -plenty. We will give the production of broilers no further attention -save as a by-product of egg production. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -South Shore Roaster. -</p> -<p> -The production of South Shore soft roasters in a local section of -Massachusetts, offers a successful contrast with the broiler -business and is, so far as the writer knows, the only case in the -United States where pullets are profitably diverted from egg -production. The process of roaster production is essentially as -follows: -</p> -<p> -The incubators are set in the fall or early winter, and the chicks -reared in brooder houses. As soon as the tender age is past, the -chickens are put in simple colony houses where, with hopper fed -corn, beef scrap and rye on the range, they grow throughout the -winter and spring. They are sold from May 1st to July 1st and bring -such prices that the cockerels are caponized yet not sold as capons, -showing them to be the highest priced chicken flesh in the market -save small broilers. Now, the income of roasters is two to five -times as much per head as that of broilers. The added expense is -only a matter of feed, which bears about the same ratio to weight as -with broilers. The great advantage of the roaster business over that -of the broiler business comes in the following points: -</p> -<p> -1st: The initial expense of eggs, incubation and brooding are -distributed over a much larger final valuation. -</p> -<p> -2nd: The incubation period, while perhaps in as difficult a -season, can be distributed over a longer period of time. -</p> -<p> -With 8 pound roasters at 30 cents, we have an expense account about -as follows: cost of production to broiler stage, 30 cents as -previously given. An additional food cost of 10 cents per pound of -chicken flesh would still leave a margin of $1.40, so, for an income -of $1,200, only about 860 birds need be raised, a proposition not -beyond the capacity of one man to handle. -</p> -<p> -Allowing a spread of five hatching periods, the number of eggs -required at once would be one-twelfth that demanded by the broiler -farm. As it is, the roaster grower finds trouble in getting good -eggs and is obliged to pay 50 cents a dozen for them, but his want -is within the region of possibility. -</p> -<p> -The South Shore roaster district is an example of an industry built -up by specialization and co-operation. But in this sense I do not -mean co-operation in production, but that the product is handled by -a few dealers and has become well known so that the brand sells -readily at an advanced price. To a beginner in the South Shore -district, the numerous successes and failures around him cannot help -but be of great benefit. The South Shore roaster district of -Massachusetts is the best example of specialized community -production of poultry flesh that we have in the United States. It is -only rivaled by the districts in the south of England and in France. -</p> -<p> -In Chapter III the writer takes up fully the community production of -eggs. The reason I have gone into this matter in regard to eggs -rather than roasters, is because the egg production is much the -greater industry, and, whereas the soft roaster is at a premium only -in a few Boston shops, high grade eggs are universally recognized -and in demand. Many of the economies, especially concerning -incubation, would apply equally well in both communities. I expect -to see the time when chicken flesh shall be produced with these more -advanced methods in many "South Shore" communities. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Too Much Competition in Fancy Poultry. -</p> -<p> -The various types of chicken farming are classified by what is made -the leading sales product. This will depend wholly upon what is done -with the female chicks that are hatched. If they are sold as -broilers it is a broiler plant; if as roasters, it is a roaster -plant; if as stock, it is a fancy or breeding stock business, but if -kept for laying the proposition is an egg farm, and all other -products are by-products. These by-products are to be carefully -considered, and sold at the greatest possible price, but their -production is incidental to the production of the main crop. -</p> -<p> -Of the fancy poultry business as a main issue it must be said that -it is certainly a poor policy to start out to make a living doing -what hundreds of other people are only too glad to spend money in -doing. Just as a homeless girl in a great city is beaten out in the -struggle for existence by competition with girls who have good -homes, and are working for chocolate money, so the man starting out -as a poultry fancier is certainly working at great odds in -competition with the professional men, farmers and poultry raisers -whose income from fancy stock is meant to buy Christmas presents and -not to pay grocery bills. -</p> -<p> -To enter the fancy poultry business, one should take up poultry -breeding in a small way, while working at another occupation, or he -may take up commercial poultry production, learn to produce stock in -large quantities and at a low productive cost, after which any -breeding stock business he may secure will be added profit. The -fancier will find the cost of production as given for commercial -purposes very instructive, but if he operates in a small way he -should expect to find his productive costs increased unless he -chooses to count his own labor as of little or no value. That every -chicken fancier also has in a small way commercial products to sell, -goes without saying. These, indeed, together with his sales of -high-priced stock, may pull him through with a total profit, even -though his production cost is great, but every fancier should take a -pride in making the sales at commercial rates pay for their cost of -production. -</p> -<p> -If the reader has received the impression from the present -discussion that fancy poultry breeding always proves unprofitable, -he certainly has failed to get the key-note of the situation. There -are numbers of fancy poultry breeders making incomes of several -thousand dollars per year, but these are old breeders and well-known -men. -</p> -<p> -There is another type of poultry fancier who is more commercial in -his methods, but whose work lacks the personal enthusiasm and -artistic touch of the regular fancier. I refer to the band wagon -style of breeder who gets out a general catalog in which are -pictured acres of poultry yards with fences as straight as the -draughtsman's rule can make them. Such men do a big business. They -may carry a part or all of the breeding stock on a central poultry -plant and farm out the eggs, contracting to buy back the stock in -the fall, or the poultry farm may be a myth and the manager may -simply sell the product of the neighboring farmers who raise it -under contract. -</p> -<p> -The system is naturally disliked by the higher class fanciers, but -the writer must confess that any system which gets improved stock -distributed among the farmers is worthy of praise. These types of -poultry farms have been more largely carried on in the West than in -the East, owing to the fact that true fanciers are thicker in the -East. There is undoubtedly still plenty of room for band wagon -poultry plants in the West and especially in the South. -</p> -<p> -As adjuncts of this business may be mentioned the sale of a line of -poultry supplies and the handling of other pet stock, such as dogs -or Shetland ponies. In this case the advantage of such additions -depends upon the fact that the greatest cost is that of advertising, -and, if anything that will be associated in the buyer's mind with -the main article be added to the catalog, it will result in -additional sales at a low rate of advertising cost. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Egg Farming the Most Certain and Profitable. -</p> -<p> -We have now discussed all the branches of the poultry business save -that of egg production, and the result of our review indicates that -most of these fields are either of limited opportunities or that -they present obstacles in the very nature of the work that prevent -their being conducted on a large scale. -</p> -<p> -Egg production is undoubtedly the most promising and profitable -branch of the poultry industries. The chief reason that this is true -is to be found in the fact that the most difficult feature in -chicken growing is the rearing of young stock through the brooding -period. Now, as the eggs laid by a hen are worth several times the -value of her carcass, it stands to reason that once we succeed in -rearing pullets, egg farming must be the most profitable business to -engage in. -</p> -<p> -For each hen that passes through a laying period there is -her own carcass, and at least one cockerel, that are necessarily -produced and that must be marketed. Now, the pullet is worth more -for egg producing than can be realized for her as a broiler or -roaster, and her extra worth may be considered as counter-balancing -the price at which cockerels must be sold. -</p> -<p> -The egg crop represents about two-thirds of the value of all poultry -products, and the demand for the high grade goods has never been -satisfied. Egg farming cannot easily be overdone, whereas any other -type of poultry production must compete with the cockerels and hens -that are a by-product of egg farming. -</p> -<p> -Egg farming by no means relieves one from the difficulties of -incubation and growing young stock, but it does throw these -difficult parts of the business at the natural season of the year -and results in a distribution of work throughout a longer period of -time. -</p> -<p> -In the remainder of the volume we will consider the poultryman as an -egg farmer. We will also, unless otherwise stated, assume that he is -a White Leghorn egg farmer, who is hatching by artificial -incubation. Such reference to the marketing of poultry flesh or to -other breeds will be made only in comparison of this type of the -business or in relation to the production or handling of farm-grown -poultry. -</p> -<a name="2HCH0004"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> - -<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> - -<h2> -<a name="chapIII"> -CHAPTER III -</a> -</h2> -<h3> -THE POULTRY PRODUCING COMMUNITY -</h3> -<p> -The builder of air castles in Poultrydom invariably starts out with -a resumé of the specialization of the world's work and the wonderful -advances in the economy of production of the large corporate -organization, compared with the individual producer. -</p> -<p> -The lone blacksmith hammering out a horseshoe nail is contrasted -with the mills of the American Steel Company. The fond dreamer looks -upon the steel trust, the oil trust, the department store, the -packing house, the chain groceries, the theatrical trust, and the -colossal enterprises that dominate every field of industry save -agriculture. Here, then, lies the neglected opportunity for the -industrial dreamer to hop over the fence, awaken the sleeping -farmer, and fill his own purse with the wealth to be made by -applying modern business methods to agriculture. -</p> -<p> -The knowing smile—the farmer may be asleep and he may not be. -Suppose that he is, does the fond dreamer dream that he is the first -man from the industrial kingdom of great things to look with hungry -eyes at the rich field of agricultural opportunity, basking in last -century's sun? Alas, fond dreamer, your name is legion. Every farmer -who has sent a son to college has known you and the Hon. William -Jennings Bryan has met you, called you an agriculturist and defined -you as a man who makes his money in town and spends it in the -country. -</p> -<p> -But the dreamer is right in his first premise—great economies in -production are the result of specialization and combination. Why not -then in agriculture? I'll tell you why. There is a touch of nature -in the living thing that calls for a closer interest on the part of -the laborer than the industrial system of the mine and factory can -give. -</p> -<p> -Why is combined and specialized production more economical? It may -be because it gets more efficient work out of labor, it may be that -larger operations make feasible the employment of more efficient -methods and machinery. The cost of production may be lowered, by -either or both of these means, or it may be lowered by an increased -efficiency in machinery, even with a decreased efficiency in labor. -</p> -<p> -Combination and specialization so commonly cut down expenses because -of large operations and the use of better tools, that we may take -this saving for granted. When it comes to labor there is a different -story. The negro working with boss and gang, or the machine-tender -in the factory work as well or better for large than for small -concerns, but the labor of a poultry plant is different. It is made -up of a great many different operations well scattered in space and -time. For the most part it is simple labor, but it is essential that -it be performed with reasonable concern for the welfare of the -business. -</p> -<p> -In other industries, as with men working at a bench, the presence of -a foreman keeps them busy and their work may be daily inspected. To -have foremen in poultry work would require as many foremen as -laborers, and even then they would be as useless, for when the last -round of the brooders is made at night a foreman standing three feet -away could not know whether the laborer who had placed his hand in -the brooder had found all well or all wrong. -</p> -<p> -It is useless to carry the argument farther. The labor bill is one -of the biggest items of expense in poultry production. With a system -where the efficiency of the labor decreases with the size of the -business, large industrial enterprises are impossible. Such savings -as will be made in buying supplies, selling, etc., will be wasted in -the reduced efficiency of labor. -</p> -<p> -The bulk of labor in poultry work must be self-reliant labor and the -only test for such efficiency is number of chicks reared and the -weight of the egg basket. Even this will not be a complete test -unless from the income be subtracted the feed bills. -</p> -<p> -A system of renting or working on shares that will gain the -advantages of centralization without losing the individual interest -of the laborer, will go a long way toward making the poultry -business one wherein large capital and large brains can find a place -to work. I expect to see in the future some such system evolved. In -fact we have to-day a profit-sharing plan between owner and foreman -on many of our best plants. To extend such to each laborer requires -more system and better superintendence, but it is feasible and must -come. But, better still is it for the worker to own the stock. Best -yet if he owns both stock and land, leaving to larger capital only -such phases of the business as involve great saving when done on a -wholesale basis. -</p> -<p> -Just as the manufacturer of farm machinery, the packing of meat and -the manufacture of butter have successfully been taken out of the -control of the individual farmer and placed under corporate or -co-operative organization, so the writer expects to see certain -portions of the process of poultry production removed from the hands -of the farmer and controlled by more specialized and expert labor. -Far from meaning the lessening of the earning power of the farmer, -every one of such steps means larger production and more profits. -The ideal of agricultural economics is to give the farmer the -smallest possible proportion of the work of agricultural production -in order that the most may be produced and the farmer's share along -with the others may be largest. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Established Poultry Communities. -</p> -<p> -In a previous chapter we spoke of the South Shore roaster district -of Massachusetts. Here is a community where, in lots of from a dozen -to four or five thousand, are annually produced seventy-five or one -hundred thousand market fowls of one particular type. While this -business was not built up by the efforts of a corporation or -individual who planned definitely the entire project, yet we find a -central influence at work in the person of the firm of Curtis Bros., -who for years have bought the majority of South Shore roasters, and -who have done a great deal to advertise the product and encourage -their neighbors to a larger and more uniform production. -</p> -<p> -At Little Compton, R. I., is a very similar parallel of the South -Shore district in the shape of egg farms. Here we find within a -radius of two miles about one hundred thousand Rhode Island Red hens -owned in flocks of two thousand or less. The methods used throughout -the community are all alike and are simple in the extreme. There are -no incubators, no brooders, no poultry houses, no long houses, no -dropping boards to be scraped every morning, nothing in fact, but -board-walled, board-roofed, colony houses, scattered over the grass -fields and similar though smaller fields covered with coops for hens -and chicks. Feeding is equally simple; a mash of meat, vegetables -and ground grain mixed once a day and hauled around in a one-horse -cart and hoppers of whole corn exposed in the houses. The houses are -cleaned twice a year. Little Compton is, indeed, a community where -all the rules of the poultry books are regularly violated, and yet a -larger number of successful egg farms can be seen from the church -spire at Little Compton Corners than most poultry writers have ever -seen or read about. Strange it is, as Josh Billings puts it, that -"some folks know things that ain't so." -</p> -<p> -An illustration published in a recent issue of the World's Work -tells a remarkable story. A pile of egg shells as big as a straw -stack certainly indicates "something doing" in the chicken business, -and it is a very proud monument to Mr. Byce who, some twenty odd -years ago, established an incubator factory at the town of Petaluma. -Petaluma is in Sonoma County, California, forty miles north of San -Francisco. In the census year of 1899, Sonoma County produced more -eggs than any other county in the United States. To-day there are in -the Petaluma region close to one million hens. -</p> -<p> -Like the Little Compton district, Petaluma is a one-breed community, -White Leghorns being the breed used. The individual flocks range -larger than at Little Compton, chiefly because the milder climate, -smaller breed, and establishment of the central hatchery enables one -man to take care of more birds. -</p> -<p> -When I asked Mr. Byce for a list of the people in his neighborhood -keeping over one thousand hens, he replied by sending me a list of -twenty-two men who keep from 8,000 down to 2,500 each, and said that -to give those keeping from one to two thousand, would practically be -to take a census of the county. The methods of housing and feeding -used are simple and inexpensive like those at Little Compton. -</p> -<p> -The chief reason why Petaluma shows a more advanced development in -the poultry community than the eastern poultry growing localities, -is to be found in the climatic advantages which favor incubation -(see Chapter on Incubation) and the consequent development of the -central hatchery. Outside of this, the location is not especially -favorable. The temperature is milder in the winter than in the East, -but the Petaluma winter is one of continual rain which develops roup -to a greater extent than we have it in the East. The prices received -for high grade eggs in San Francisco is in the winter about equal to -the top prices in New York. In the spring and summer New York will -give more for fancy goods. The cost of corn on the Pacific Coast is -about 40 cents a hundred more than on the Atlantic Coast. Wheat, -however, is cheaper than in the East, but not cheap enough to -substitute for the more staple grain. -</p> -<p> -The eggs from the Petaluma region are at present marketed largely -through a co-operative marketing association. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Developing Poultry Communities. -</p> -<p> -I have shown why the large individual poultry farms with hired labor -have not proven profitable fields for the investment of capital. -Again, I have shown that in a few localities where the business was -incidentally started, communities of independent poultry farmers -have grown up which are very successful, and that there is no -apparent reason why similar communities elsewhere, if intelligently -located, could not do as well or better. -</p> -<p> -This looks like an excellent field for corporate enterprise. -Certainly there is no more reason why the poultry community cannot -be as successfully promoted as an irrigation project, or a cheese -factory, or a trucking community. In such a community there are many -functions that can be better performed by a capitalized body managed -by experts than by individual poultrymen acting alone. -</p> -<p> -These functions are: -</p> -<p> -First, the selection of a location and the purchase of the land in -large quantities. -</p> -<p> -Second, laying out this land into suitable individual holdings, with -regard to economy of water supply and the collection of the product. -</p> -<p> -Third, the partial or complete equipment of these farms at less -expense and in a more suitable manner than could or would be done by -the individual holders. -</p> -<p> -Fourth, the sale or rent of these places to poultrymen at a -reasonable profit on the investment, but at a rate which will still -be below the cost at which the individual could have acquired the -land. Fifth, the selection of the stock that would not only be -better adapted to the enterprise than that which would be acquired -by the individual farmer, but would possess the uniformity necessary -to the maintenance of a standard grade in the product. -</p> -<p> -Sixth, the centralized hatching of the chicks by which means chicks -can be more cheaply hatched and better hatched than by the imperfect -methods available to the small poultryman. -</p> -<p> -Seventh, the purchase of all outside supplies with the usual savings -involved in large purchases. -</p> -<p> -Eighth, a teaming system of delivering such supplies. -</p> -<p> -Ninth, a general protection against thieves and predatory animals by -an organized war on all "varments." -</p> -<p> -Tenth, maintenance of the best methods in feeding and care by the -employment of skilled advisers, or the operation of demonstration -farms under the direction of the central management. -</p> -<p> -Eleventh, the enforced daily gathering of all eggs and their -lodgment that same evening in a clean, dry cooler, with a -thermometer hovering around 29 degrees Fahrenheit. -</p> -<p> -Twelfth, the strict enforcement of penalties against the man who -attempts to sell bad eggs. -</p> -<p> -Thirteenth, the prompt dispatch of the product to its final market. -</p> -<p> -Fourteenth, the final sale of the eggs with opportunities for fancy -prices made possible by an absolutely guaranteed product in -quantities sufficient to permit of a regular supply and of -advertising the product. -</p> -<p> -Fifteenth, the conduction of breeding operations along any desired -line, with the opportunity of combining the principle of great -numbers for selection with the comparison of all progeny from -ancestry, a method that will bring results a hundred times more -quickly than the efforts of the small breeder. -</p> -<p> -Sixteenth, the advantage of the sale of breeding stock to be -acquired from the free publicity which is showered on all unique -industrial enterprises. -</p> -<p> -In these sixteen functions there is ample opportunity for capital, -backed by ability in organization, to reap an ample reward. Is it a -dream? In a sense yes, but a dream made possible by the observation -of the actual results achieved in similar lines, and of the present -tendency in the poultry producing world. -</p> -<p> -Why has not this thing been done before? Because no one knew enough -to do it. Why did not the wonderful trucking regions develop earlier -in the South, and why does it still take northern settlers, backed -by railroad advertising, to develop the wonderful modern industries -which enables every city dweller in the North to have strawberries -in February and fresh vegetables any day in the year? -</p> -<p> -Why did the California fruit trade develop? Did anyone suppose forty -years ago that the unsettled valley around Pasadena would ever -produce one thousand dollars per acre in one year? These orange -groves, too valuable for agricultural purposes to be used as town -sites, were precarious experiments until the trans-continental -refrigerator car and the California Fruit Growers' Exchange paved -the way and put each day in every eastern and northern city just the -quantity of oranges that the people could consume at a profitable -price. -</p> -<p> -Mr. Harwood, in the World's Work for May, 1908, after describing the -"City of a Million Hens," raises the question, "If in Petaluma, why -not anywhere?" I would like to answer that question by saying that -while anywhere is a little broad, the reason the industry has not -developed elsewhere has been because of the diversion of interested -capital towards impractical large individual poultry plants, manned -by hired labor. Another reason has been the lack of the technical -knowledge necessary to construct and operate efficient hatcheries. -</p> -<p> -The poultryman has been a disciple of the poultry papers and poultry -fanciers of the day. The poultry papers and poultry literature has -generally been supported by poultry fanciers and manufacturers of -incubators, patent nests and portable houses. The good folks have -vied with one another in complicating the business. They have built -steam-piped houses, with padded walls and miniature railways with -which daily to haul away the droppings. A few famous fanciers -selling eggs at $10.00 per setting have made such business pay, but -alas for the luckless investor in what the visiting poultry editor -would style a "handsomely equipped modern poultry plant." -</p> -<p> -A few years ago a Government poultry expert paid a visit to -Petaluma. He came back and reported, "It is a great disappointment, -the methods are very crude." The case is most pathetic. Here was a -man employed by the people to teach them how to make poultry pay. -His carfare is paid across the continent that he might visit the -only community in the United States where at that time any -considerable number of people were making their living from poultry, -and because he did not find lightning rods on the poultry houses, he -came back with the look of Naamen who, when he was requested by -Elisha to bathe seven times in the river Jordan, replied, "It is -very crude." -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Will Co-operation Work? -</p> -<p> -That magic thing, "Co-operation," while utterly lacking in the -Utopian qualities with which the word artist paints it, is a -decidedly bigger factor in American affairs than the average man -realizes. -</p> -<p> -The chief difficulty with co-operation is that the manager, if not -incompetent, has an excellent opportunity to be a grafter. In Europe -co-operation in agricultural and mercantile enterprise is older and -better developed than in this country. Perhaps the Europeans are -less inclined to be grafters, but a more likely explanation is that -the members of such associations as these have learned how to -prevent and detect graft, just as our business men have learned to -avoid losses from the dishonesty of employes. That this is the true -explanation is substantiated by the fact that when co-operation once -becomes established in this country, it succeeds even better than in -Europe. -</p> -<p> -When the creameries were started in the West several years ago, -there was much complaint of swindlers, fake stock companies, and -co-operative ventures in which the manager absconded with the butter -money. To-day more than half of the American creameries are -co-operative and the number is constantly increasing. They are -efficient and successful in every way, and to-day make the finest of -butter and pay the highest prices to the farmer for his cream. But -their way was first paved and the business developed by successful -private concerns. -</p> -<p> -Co-operation is entirely feasible and successful where the people -behind the movement have enough interest in the enterprise and good -enough business sense to run the proposition as efficiently as -similar private enterprises are run. The idea that co-operation must -always result in a big saving is a misconception. Employes will not -work any harder for an association than for a private employer, -sometimes not as hard. Certainly no employee will work as hard for an -association as he will for himself. -</p> -<p> -Why people should expect to buy out the grocery store and hire the -grocer to run it and save money for themselves, is a thing I could -never understand. But if there is some great waste that co-operation -will prevent, as where seven milk wagons drive every morning over -the same route, or where the market of perishable crops is glutted -one day and starved the next, centralization, corporate or -co-operate, will pay. -</p> -<p> -I know of no better way to impress the reader with American -co-operation in actual practice than to quote from a brief account -of the California Fruit Growers' Exchange. -</p> -<p> -The Exchange was founded upon the theory that every member is -entitled to furnish his pro rata of the fruit for shipment through -his association, and every association to its pro rata to the -various markets of the country. This theory reduced to practice -gives every grower his fair share, and the average price of all -markets throughout the season. -</p> -<p> -Another cardinal provision of the plan was that all fruit should be -marketed on a level basis of actual cost, with all books and -accounts open for inspection at the pleasure of the members. These -broad principles of full co-operation constitute the basis of the -Exchange movement. -</p> -<p> -The Exchange system is simple, but quite democratic. The local -association consists of a number of growers contiguously situated, -who unite themselves for the purpose of preparing their fruit for -market on a co-operative basis. They establish their own brands, -make such rules as they may agree upon for grading, packing and -pooling their fruit. Usually these associations own thoroughly -equipped packing houses. -</p> -<p> -All members are given a like privilege to pick and deliver fruit to -the packing house, where it is weighed in and properly receipted -for. Every grower's fruit is separated into different grades, -according to quality, and usually thereafter it goes into the common -pool, and in due course takes its percentage of the returns -according to grade. -</p> -<p> -Any given brand is the exclusive property of the Local Association -using it, and the fruit under this brand is always packed in the -same locality, and therefore of uniform quality. This is of great -advantage in marketing, as the trade soon learns that the pack is -reliable. -</p> -<p> -There are more than eighty associations, covering every citrus fruit -district in California, and packing nearly two hundred reliable and -guaranteed brands of oranges and lemons. -</p> -<p> -The several local Exchanges designate one man each from their -membership as their representative, and he is elected a director of -the California Fruit Growers' Exchange. By this method the -policy-making and governing power of the organization remains in the -hands of the local Exchanges. -</p> -<p> -From top to bottom the organization is planned, dominated and in -general detail controlled absolutely by fruit growers, and for the -common good of all members. No corporation nor individual reaps from -it either dividends or private gain. -</p> -<p> -So far we have dealt almost exclusively with the organization of the -Exchange, its co-operative aspects, and general policy at home. -Equally important is its organization in the markets. -</p> -<p> -Seeking to free itself from the shifting influence of speculative -trading, by taking the business out of the hands of middlemen at -home, the Exchange found it quite as important to maintain the -control of its own affairs in the markets. -</p> -<p> -For this purpose the Exchange established a system of exclusive -agencies in all the principal cities of the country, employing as -agents active, capable young men of experience in the fruit -business. Most of these agents are salaried, and have no other -business of any kind to engage their attention, and none of the -Exchange representatives handle any other citrus fruits. These -agents sell to smaller cities contiguous to their headquarters, or -in the territory covered by their districts. -</p> -<p> -Over all these agencies are two general or traveling agents, with -authority to supervise and check up the various offices. These -general agents maintain in their offices at Chicago and Omaha, a -complete bureau of information, through which all agents receive -every day detailed information as to sales of Exchange fruit in -other markets the previous day. Possessing this data, the selling -agent cannot be taken advantage of as to prices. If any agent finds -his market sluggish, and is unable to sell at the average prices -prevailing elsewhere, he promptly advises the head office in Los -Angeles, and sufficient fruit is diverted from his market to relieve -it and restore prices to normal level. -</p> -<p> -Through these agencies of its own the Exchange is able to get and -transmit to its members the most trustworthy information regarding -market conditions, visible supplies, etc. This system affords a -maximum of good service at a minimum cost. The volume of the -business is so large that a most thorough equipment is maintained at -much less cost to growers than any other selling agency can offer. -</p> -<p> -The annual business of the California Fruit Growers' Exchange -amounts to over ten million dollars, and the Exchange handles over -half the citrus fruit output of the State. Yet there are people who -say co-operation in America will not work. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Co-operative Egg Marketing in Denmark. -</p> -<p> -I have discussed at length the work of the California Fruit Growers' -Exchange, as the best example in the United States of the -co-operative marketing of farm produce. We have thus far but little -co-operative work in the marketing of poultry products. Canada has a -few examples, but it is to European countries that we must go for a -full demonstration of the principle of co-operation when applied to -the products of the hen. In England and in Ireland co-operative -efforts in the growing, fattening, and marketing of poultry and eggs -are quite common. It is to Denmark, however, that we must go to find -the most wholesale example of this truly modern type of business -effort. -</p> -<p> -The Danes are co-operators in the fullest sense. They have -co-operative creameries and co-operative packing houses. The Danish -Egg Export Society is an organization, the plan and work of which is -very much like that of the California Fruit Growers' Exchange. -</p> -<p> -The local branch of the association buys the eggs of the farmer, -paying for them by weight. Collectors are hired to gather them at -frequent and regular intervals, and are paid In accordance with the -amount of their collections, but must stand the loss of breakage. -Each individual poultryman's eggs are kept separate until they reach -a centralizing station. There are a number of these central stations -at which the eggs are carefully crated and packed for shipment to -England. -</p> -<p> -The individual farmer is fined or taxed for all bad eggs found in -his lot. This fine is deducted from his receipts and he has nothing -to do but to submit to it or get out of the association. The latter -he cannot afford to do because the association has its established -brands and can pay him more for his eggs than he could secure by -attempting to market them himself. As a result of this strict system -of making the producer responsible for weight and quality of the -eggs the Danish eggs have become the largest and finest in the -world. -</p> -<p> -Although the writer firmly believes in the co-operative marketing of -farm produce, and considers that the success already secured in this -work is conclusive evidence of the practicability and desirability -of co-operation, it would not be fair to infer that co-operation has -entirely driven out private or corporate enterprise. Just as a -goodly per cent. of the citrus fruit of California is still handled -by private dealers, so in Denmark we find that nearly one-half of -the eggs sent to England are handled by private companies. Let it be -noted, however, that these companies maintain a system of buying on -merit which enforces high quality that is not to be found where -private buyers are without the spur of co-operative competition. -Before co-operation entered the orange regions of California, the -fruit was poorly packed and handled and the markets at times so -glutted, that shipments of fruit sometimes failed to pay the -freight, and this was actually charged back to the unfortunate -grower. Co-operation has done away with this waste. In like manner -the great loss from decomposed eggs and half hatched chicks is -unknown to the egg trade of Denmark. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Corporation or Co-operation? -</p> -<p> -The community of farmers producing a large quantity of a single kind -of product is the coming form of agricultural enterprise. Will this -community be promoted by corporation or by co-operation? -</p> -<p> -Arthur Brisbane says, "As individual control of the Government has -been superceded by collective control, so individual control of -industries will be followed by collective control. That is the -natural order." -</p> -<p> -Brisbane is right. The individual, or the corporation, which is an -individual using other men's money, foreruns co-operation, because -the individual knows exactly what he wants to do and the big group -of individuals does not know what they want or how to do it until -individuals have, by concrete successes, shown them. -</p> -<p> -When the creameries were started, co-operative creameries were -unsuccessful and could not compete with privately owned creameries. -The farmers have now become too wise to be "easy-marks" to the fake -creamery promoters or to trust their butter sales to a comparative -stranger and co-operation is a success. -</p> -<p> -Poultry communities cannot be made out of whole cloth by the -co-operative plan. Private corporations will be necessary to launch -these enterprises. When they have reached the stage of development -now to be seen in Little Compton and Petaluma they are ready for -co-operation. -</p> -<p> -I have emphasized the point that the private corporation is the -natural forerunner in this matter in order to discourage premature -or over-ambitious efforts at co-operation. Whenever a community of -poultrymen or, for that matter, a community of growers of any -perishable form of products, who are already successful in the -producing end, wish to take up co-operation and will see that men -are selected to manage it who will use the same precautions to guard -against incompetency or graft that they, as individuals, would use -in their own business, there is excellent chance of success. -</p> -<p> -Go slow. Do not expect to get rich quick by "cutting out the -middleman's enormous profits," for the middleman's profits are not -enormous, and if you see that your co-operation is not paying, give -it up and confess to yourselves that you do not know as much about -the business as your private competitors. -</p> -<a name="2HCH0005"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> - -<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> - -<h2> -<a name="chapIV"> -CHAPTER IV -</a> -</h2> -<h3> -WHERE TO LOCATE -</h3> -<p> -That poultry should be kept on every farm to supply the farmer's own -table does not permit of argument. When it comes to production for -market, I believe there are some sections where it costs more to -produce and market poultry and eggs than is received for the product -when sold. For illustration: On a farm which is twenty miles from -town and where grain cannot be profitably grown, the cost of teaming -grain from the railroad station and of sending the eggs to market as -frequently as is necessary to have a wholesome product, would -certainly eat up all possible profits. -</p> -<p> -The farmer thus located would find a more profitable use for his -time in some industry where the raw material is near at hand and the -product needs less frequent marketing. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Some Poultry Geography. -</p> -<p> -When we are discussing poultry on the general farm, the problem of -location is not to be taken into consideration, save to the extent -that there are a few localities where food cost is so high or -marketing facilities so poor as to make even the usual farm surplus -unprofitable. -</p> -<p> -The map on page 45 shows the intensity of egg production and also -indicates the location of the more important localities where -poultry plants have succeeded. The map on page 47 shows the quality -of eggs coming from various sections, which indicates pretty closely -the general development of the poultry industry. These indications, -however, are of little value in locating a poultry plant, for they -refer to the poultry product on the general farm, and are a matter -of the number and general intelligence of farmers, rather that a -sign of the suitability of the locality for the poultry industry. -</p> -<p> -For purposes of discussion, I have divided the United States into -seven sections as shown by the dotted lines on the second map. -</p> -<a name="image-0002"><!--IMG--></a> -<center> -<img src="images/hen045.png" width="90%" alt="Plate II. Page 45. Map: Intensity of Egg Production in the United States "> -</center> -<!--IMAGE END--> - -<p> -Section 1 is the North Woods and too cold and remote for -the poultry business. -</p> -<p> -Section 2 includes the great West, of which an adequate discussion -is out of the question. Of course, the great majority of this area -is too remote from markets for poultry production. The locations -around the big cities in this section are excellent for poultry -farming, as they are so far removed from the great farm region that -their bulk of imported eggs are of necessity somewhat stale. -California is good chicken country. The Puget Sound country is -rather too damp. In the interior western regions the chicken -business has not done well, chiefly because the atmosphere is too -dry for the methods of artificial incubation attempted. -</p> -<p> -Section 3 is the great granary of the world. It is also the home of -three-fourths of the country's poultry crop. It is a region of corn, -cattle and hogs. Such a country will produce poultry in a very -inexpensive manner. But it is not the region for special poultry -farms. In the northern portion of this tract, we find a heavy -housing expense and much winter labor necessary. It is a region of -high priced lands and labor, and low prices for poultry products. -</p> -<p> -Even the large cities in this region offer little in the way of -demand for high grade poultry products. This is because they are so -abundantly surrounded with farms that all produce is moderately -fresh and plentiful. There are no successful poultry farms in this -section west of the Mississippi. It is the natural location of -extensive rather than intensive branches of agriculture. The only -type of commercial poultry farming that could succeed in any portion -of this section would be a large community of producers who could -ship their products out regularly in carload lots. Such development -could only take place in the southern portion of this region, for -the housing expense is too great for the north. At best the distance -from market is a disadvantage, for the rate on eggs just about -equals the rate on the quantity of grain necessary to produce them. -The added time of shipment is something of a drawback, though in -refrigerator cars this is not serious. After the establishment of -poultry communities becomes more common, the Oklahoma and Texas -region will become available for this purpose, but they must be -established in full swing at the start, for a few isolated -poultrymen have no chance at all in this section, for they cannot -sell their product to advantage. -</p> -<p> -Section 4. This region, extending from the Ozarks to Eastern -Tennessee, is one of the very best poultry sections. The climate is -such that green food is available winter and summer, and the expense -of housing and winter labor is reasonable. This section is still in -the corn growing region. The question is almost always one of -All poultry farms in this section must grow their own grain or buy -it of their immediate neighbors. It will not pay to ship grain into -this region. -</p> - -<a name="image-0003"><!--IMG--></a> -<center> -<img src="images/hen047.png" width="90%" alt="Plate III. Page 47. Map: Intensity of egg production in the United States"> -</center> -<!--IMAGE END--> - - -<p> -When near shipping facilities, individual poultry farms in Section 4 -have a good chance of success, especially east of the Mississippi. -This is the most favorable region in the country for the -establishment of poultry communities that are to grow their own -grain. Such poultry farms will not be expected to confine their -attention as exclusively to the business as those in the section -where it is profitable to import the grain. -</p> -<p> -Section 5 is the non-grain growing region of the South. It at -present produces little poultry. The climate is all right for the -purpose, but the freight rates on grain from the West are high and -likewise the freight service and freight rates to the final market -are excessive. Under these conditions poultry farming will not pay -except in a few localities as in Florida, where there is a high -class local market due to the popular resorts. If grain could be -profitably grown in this section the same type of poultry farming -that prevails in Section 4 would be advisable. Now, grain can be -grown in the cotton belt of the South, and many Yankee farmers are -making good money doing it. But when grown it is liable to be worth -more to feed mules than to feed chickens. -</p> -<p> -Section 6 is the "Down East" section of dense population. The land -for the most part is rocky, wooded and hilly. The climate and nature -of the soil are against the economical production of poultry, but -the grain can be profitably fed, and as the markets are the best in -the country, commercial poultry farming has gained quite a foothold. -If a man is already located in this section and wishes to go into -the poultry business I would by all means say, "Go ahead," but I -would not advise an outsider looking for a location to come here, -for the next section has several advantages. -</p> -<p> -Section 7 is the best poultry farming district in the United States, -either for the individual poultry plant or for the community of -poultry growers. The reasons for this are: -</p> -<p> -First: The soil is of a sandy nature and excellent land for poultry -farming can be had at a low price. -</p> -<p> -Second: The climate is much more favorable than farther north or -farther inland. -</p> -<p> -Third: Grain rates from the West are very reasonable. -</p> -<p> -Fourth: The best market in the country—New York City—is within -easy shipping distance. -</p> -<p> -The type of poultry farming here to be recommended, like that of -Section 6, is one in which imported grain is fed. The fertility of -this grain, going back on the light soil, is used to grow the green -food required by the hens, and, in addition, may be used in a -rotation system for growing truck. It will not pay to grow any -quantity of grain. Section 7, because of its advantages over Section -6 in climate and the availability of large tracts of suitable land, -is a much better location for the poultry community. Over Section 4, -which is the second best region for this purpose, it has the -advantage of nearness to markets. The climatic advantage of Sections -4 and 7 are about on a par. The chief distinction is the matter of -growing grain or importing it. If you are to grow your grain, using -poultry as a means of marketing it, Section 4 is the best locality. -If you are to buy grain, Section 7 is the place. -</p> -<p> -The boundaries of Section 7 are not arbitrary and should be noted -carefully. The line runs from Mattawan, New Jersey, across to the -main line of the Pennsylvania and down this to Washington. To the -north and west of this, the soils are heavy clays which are wet, -cold, slushy and easily befouled. Likewise, the line on the south is -distinctly marked by the Norfolk and Western Railway and is a matter -of freight rates on grain. Norfolk gets a rate of sixteen and a half -cents from Chicago; a couple of hundred miles south, the rate is -about twice as much. Cheaper grain rates would of course extend this -belt on down the coast where the climate is even more favorable. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Chicken Climate. -</p> -<p> -Climate is a big figure in the cost of poultry production. Every day -that water is frozen in winter means increased labor and decreased -egg yield. Mild winters means cheap houses, cheap labor, cheap feed -(a large proportion of green food), an earlier chick season, which, -together with the mild weather and green feed, mean a large -proportion of the egg yield at the season when eggs are high in -price. -</p> -<p> -The American poultry editor wastes a great deal of ink explaining -why the Australian egg records of 175 eggs per hen, cannot be so, -because in this country, the hens at the Maine station only averaged -125. The Maine Experiment Station lies buried in a snow drift for -about five months of the year. The Australian station has a winter -climate equal to that of New Orleans. The Australian records do not -go below thirty eggs per day per hundred hens at any time during the -year. Our New York and New England records run down anywhere from -one to ten eggs per day per hundred hens. The following table will -show the effect of the climate upon the distribution of the egg -yield throughout the year. The records at New York are from a large -number of hens of several different flocks and probably represent a -normal distribution of the egg yield for that section. The Kansas -and Arkansas lists are taken from the record of small flocks and are -not very reliable. The fourth column gives the Australian records -with the months transferred on account of being in the southern -hemisphere. The last column gives the railroad shipments from a -division of the N.C. & St. L. railroad in Western Tennessee: -</p> -<p> -<br> -Column Headings:<br> -NY—Central New York per hen per day<br> -KS—Kansas Ex. Station per hen per day<br> -AR—Arkansas Ex. Station per hen per day<br> -AU—Australian Laying Contest per hen per day<br> -NH—Shipments from New Hampshire egg farm<br> -TN—Shipments from Western Tennessee<br> -</p> -<table align="center" width="50%" summary="comparative shipments"> -<tr><td> </td> <td align="right">NY</td> <td align="right">KS</td> <td align="right">AR</td> <td align="right">AU</td> <td align="right">NH</td> <td align="right">TN</td></tr> -<tr><td>January</td> <td align="right">.21</td> <td align="right">.25</td> <td align="right">.32</td> <td align="right">.51</td> <td align="right">26</td> <td align="right">1509</td></tr> -<tr><td>February</td> <td align="right">.26</td> <td align="right">.22</td> <td align="right">.30</td> <td align="right">.66</td> <td align="right">41</td> <td align="right">1520</td></tr> -<tr><td>March</td> <td align="right">.43</td> <td align="right">.60</td> <td align="right">.62</td> <td align="right">.67</td> <td align="right">66</td> <td align="right">2407</td></tr> -<tr><td>April</td> <td align="right">.56</td> <td align="right">.52</td> <td align="right">.38</td> <td align="right">.61</td> <td align="right">83</td> <td align="right">1775</td></tr> -<tr><td>May</td> <td align="right">.59</td> <td align="right">.57</td> <td align="right">.44</td> <td align="right">.53</td> <td align="right">81</td> <td align="right">1650</td></tr> -<tr><td>June</td> <td align="right">.50</td> <td align="right">.46</td> <td align="right">.42</td> <td align="right">.45</td> <td align="right">61</td> <td align="right">1131</td></tr> -<tr><td>July</td> <td align="right">.44</td> <td align="right">.43</td> <td align="right">.34</td> <td align="right">.43</td> <td align="right">58</td> <td align="right">878</td></tr> -<tr><td>August</td> <td align="right">.37</td> <td align="right">.32</td> <td align="right">.38</td> <td align="right">.41</td> <td align="right">54</td> <td align="right">422</td></tr> -<tr><td>September</td> <td align="right">.26</td> <td align="right">.28</td> <td align="right">.29</td> <td align="right">.29</td> <td align="right">24</td> <td align="right">100</td></tr> -<tr><td>October</td> <td align="right">.17</td> <td align="right">.13</td> <td align="right">.22</td> <td align="right">.31</td> <td align="right">3</td> <td align="right">541</td></tr> -<tr><td>November</td> <td align="right">.08</td> <td align="right">.06</td> <td align="right">.18</td> <td align="right">.31</td> <td align="right">2</td> <td align="right">703</td></tr> -<tr><td>December</td> <td align="right">.14</td> <td align="right">.25</td> <td align="right">.15</td> <td align="right">.40</td> <td align="right">11</td> <td align="right">1150</td></tr> -</table> -<p> -An equable climate the year round is the best for the chicken -business. The California coast is fairly equable in temperature, but -its winter rains and summer drouth are against it. The Atlantic -coast south of New York is fairly good, probably the best the -country affords. The most southern portions will be rather too hot -in summer, which will result in a small August and September egg -yield. Probably the region around Norfolk is, all considered, the -best poultry climate the country affords. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Suitable Soil. -</p> -<p> -Soil is important in poultry farming; in fact it is very important, -and many failures can be traced to soil mistakes. Rocky and -uncultivated lands must not be chosen. To locate on any soil which -will not utilize the droppings for the production of green food, is -to introduce a loss sufficient to turn success into failure. -</p> -<p> -The ideal soil for poultry is a soil too sandy to produce ordinary -farm crops successfully, and hence an inexpensive soil; but because -land too sandy to be used for heavy farming is best for poultry, -this does not mean that any cheap soil will do. A heavy wet clay -soil worth $150 an acre for dairying is worth nothing for poultry. -Pure sand is likewise worthless and nothing can be more pitiable -than to see poultry confined in yards of wind swept sand, without a -spear of anything green within half a mile. -</p> -<p> -The soils that are valuable for early truck are equally valuable for -poultry. Sand with a little loam, or very fine sand, if a few green -crops are turned under to provide humus, are ideal poultry soils. -The Norfolk fine Sand and Norfolk Sandy Loam of the U.S. soil -survey, are types of such soil. -</p> -<p> -These soils absorb the droppings readily and are never covered with -standing water. The winter snows do not stay on them. Crops will -keep greener on them in winter than on clay soils three hundred -miles farther south. -</p> -<p> -The disadvantage of such soils is that they lose their fertility by -leaching. The same principles that will cause the droppings to -disappear from the top of the ground will likewise cause them to be -washed down beyond the depths of plant roots. This loss must be -guarded against by not going to the extreme in selecting a light -soil and may be largely overcome by schemes of running the poultry -right among growing crops or by quick rotations. -</p> -<p> -Land sloping to the southward is commonly advised for the purpose of -getting the same advantages as are to be had in a sandy soil. In -practice the slope of the land cannot be given great prominence, -although, other things being equal, one should certainly not -disregard this point. In heavy lands it is necessary to raise the -floors and grade up around the houses. The quickly drained soil does -away with this expense. -</p> -<p> -Timber on the land is a disadvantage. Poultry farming in the woods -has not been made a success. It's the same proposition of the -droppings going to waste. I know a man who bought a timbered tract -because it was cheap and who scraped up the droppings to sell by the -barrel to his neighbor, who used them to fertilize his cabbage patch -and in turn sold the poultryman cabbages to feed his hens, at 5 -cents a head. Of course, this man failed, as does practically every -man who attempts to scrape dropping boards and carry poultry manure -around in baskets, instead of using it where it falls. -</p> -<p> -There is little to be said in favor of uncleared land for the -poultry business, but there is something that can be said in favor -of the poultry business for uncleared land. A man who buys a -timbered land for trucking can get no income whatever the first -year, but the poultryman can begin his operations in the woods, -clearing the land while he is raising a crop of chickens on it. The -coops may be placed in the cleared streak and most of the droppings -utilized. In fact, the plan of a streak of timber alongside the -houses is not bad for a permanent arrangement—the birds certainly -enjoy the shade. But the shade of growing crops is the most -profitable kind for poultry. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Marketing—Transportation. -</p> -<p> -The possibilities of working up a local trade of high grade eggs at -fancy prices varies greatly with the locality. Large cities and -wealthy people are essentials. Other than this the principal -distinctions are that regions where a general surplus of eggs are -produced offer little chance for a fancy trade. Where the great bulk -of eggs are imported fancy trade is more feasible. St. Louis is the -smallest western city that supports anything like a fancy trade in -eggs and there it is only on a small scale. Minneapolis, Omaha, -etc., would not pay 3 cents premium for the best eggs produced, but -cities of the same size east of the Appalachians and especially in -New England, will pay a good premium. The Far West or the mountain -districts will pay up better than the Mississippi Valley. The South -will pay a little better than the upper Mississippi Valley, but has -few cities of sufficient size to make such markets abundant. The -Southerner has little regard for quality in produce and the most -aristocratic people consume eggs regularly that the wife of a -Connecticut factory hand wouldn't have in the house. The egg farmer -who expects to sell locally had best not locate south of Washington -or west of Pittsburg, unless he goes to the Pacific Coast. -</p> -<p> -Where marketing is not done by wagon the subject of railroad -transportation is practically identical with the question of -marketing. It is the cost in freight service and freight rates that -count. The proposition of transportation, especially for the grain -buying poultry farm, catches us coming and going and both must be -considered. -</p> -<p> -A poultry farm in Section 7 will buy one hundred pounds of feed per -year per hen and market one-third of a case of eggs. On this basis -the grain rate from Chicago or St. Louis and the egg rate to New -York must be balanced against each other. Don't take these things -for granted. Look them up. -</p> -<p> -Jamesburg and Freehold, two New Jersey towns ten miles apart and -equi-distant and with equal freight rates from New York, might seem -to the uninitiated as equally well situated to poultry farming. We -will suppose two men bought forty-acre farms of equal quality and -equi-distant from the railroad stations at these two towns. Suppose, -further, they each kept five thousand hens. Jamesburg is on a -Philadelphia-New York line of the Pennsylvania and its Chicago grain -rate is the same as that of New York, namely: 19-1/2 cents per -hundred. Freehold is on a branch line; its rate is 24-1/2 cents. In -a year the difference amounts to $250. Figured at six per cent. -interest, the land at Jamesburg is worth just about one hundred -dollars an acre more than that at Freehold. -</p> -<p> -Lumber rates or local lumber prices should also be taken into -consideration. Whether one plans to ship his product out by express -or freight will, of course, be an important consideration in -deciding the location. -</p> -<p> -As a general thing, the individual poultry farmer will, for shipping -his product, use express east of Buffalo and north of Norfolk. The -poultry community could use freight in these same regions and get as -good or better service than by express. -</p> -<p> -The location in relation to the railroad station is equally -important to the freight rate. Besides heavy hauling frequent trips -will be necessary in marketing eggs. These on the larger farms will -be daily or at least semi-weekly. On the heavy hauling alone, at 25 -cents per ton mile, distance from the railroad will figure up 1-1/4 -cents per hen which, on the basis of the previous illustration, -would make a difference of twenty-five dollars per acre for every -mile of distance from the station. One of the most successful -poultry farms I know is right along the railroad and has an elevator -which handles the grain from the cars and later dumps it into the -feed wagons without its ever being touched by hand. The labor saving -in this counts up rapidly. -</p> -<p> -The poultry community can have its own elevator and the grain can be -sold to the farmer to be delivered directly into the hoppers in his -field with but a single loading into a wagon. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Availability of Water. -</p> -<p> -One more point to be considered in location is water. -</p> -<p> -The labor of watering poultry by carrying water in buckets is -tremendous and not to be considered on any up-to-date poultry plant. -Watering must be accomplished by some artificial piping system or -from spring-fed brooks. The more length of flowing streams on a -piece of land, provided the adjacent ground is dry, the more value -the property has for poultry. Two spring-fed brooks crossing a -forty-acre tract so as to give a half mile of running water, or a -full mile of houses, would water five thousand hens without labor. -This would mean an annual saving of at least one man's time as -against hand watering, or a matter of a thousand dollars or more in -the cost of installation of a watering system. -</p> -<p> -If running water cannot be had the next best thing is to get land -with water near the surface which may be tapped with sand points. If -one must go deep for water a large flow is essential so that one -power pump may easily supply sufficient water for the plant. -</p> -<p> -The land should lay in a gentle slope so that water may be run over -the entire surface by gravity. Hilly lands are a nuisance in poultry -keeping and raise the expense at every turn. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -A Few Statistics. -</p> -<p> -The following table does not bear directly upon the poultry-man's -choice of a location, but is inserted here because of its general -interest in showing the poultry development of the country. -</p> -<p> -It will be noted that the egg production per hen is very low in the -Southern States. This may seem at variance with my previous -statements. The poor poultry keeping of the South is a fault of the -industrial conditions, not of the climate. Chickens on the Southern -farm simply live around the premises as do rats or English sparrows. -No grain is grown; there are no feed lots to run to, no measures are -taken to keep down vermin, and no protection is provided from wind -and rain. In the North chickens could not exist with such treatment. -</p> -<p> -The figures given showing the relation between the poultry and total -agricultural wealth is the best way that can be found to express -statistically the importance of poultry keeping in relation to the -general business of farming. These figures should not be confused -with the distribution of the actual volume of poultry products. -Iowa, the greatest poultry producing state, shows only a moderate -proportion of poultry to all farm wealth, but this is because more -agricultural wealth is produced in Iowa than in all the "Down East" -states. -</p> -<p> -Table showing the development of the poultry industry in the various -states, according to the returns of the census of 1900: -</p> -<table align="center" width="50%" summary="poultry by state"> -<tr><td>States</td> <td>No. of eggs per capita</td> <td>Percentage of farm wealth earned by poultry</td> <td>No. of eggs per hen</td> <td>Farm value of eggs per dozen </td></tr> -<tr><td>Alabama</td> <td>124</td> <td>4.9</td> <td>48</td> <td>9.7 cents</td></tr> -<tr><td>Arizona</td> <td>80</td> <td>4.5</td> <td>60</td> <td>19.9</td></tr> -<tr><td>Arkansas</td> <td>235</td> <td>6.8</td> <td>58</td> <td>9.1</td></tr> -<tr><td>California</td> <td>197</td> <td>5.4</td> <td>74</td> <td>15.8</td></tr> -<tr><td>Colorado</td> <td>127</td> <td>5.4</td> <td>71</td> <td>15.0</td></tr> -<tr><td>Connecticut</td> <td>105</td> <td>11.3</td> <td>89</td> <td>19.1</td></tr> -<tr><td>Delaware</td> <td>231</td> <td>14.7</td> <td>68</td> <td>13.7</td></tr> -<tr><td>Florida</td> <td>96</td> <td>8.2</td> <td>46</td> <td>13.1</td></tr> -<tr><td>Georgia</td> <td>156</td> <td>4.4</td> <td>41</td> <td>10.4</td></tr> -<tr><td>Idaho</td> <td>213</td> <td>5.0</td> <td>67</td> <td>16.2</td></tr> -<tr><td>Illinois</td> <td>215</td> <td>3.7</td> <td>62</td> <td>10.3</td></tr> -<tr><td>Indiana</td> <td>338</td> <td>10.0</td> <td>77</td> <td>10.5</td></tr> -<tr><td>Iowa</td> <td>536</td> <td>7.4</td> <td>64</td> <td>10.1</td></tr> -<tr><td>Kansas</td> <td>597</td> <td>8.2</td> <td>73</td> <td>9.9</td></tr> -<tr><td>Kentucky</td> <td>198</td> <td>8.3</td> <td>62</td> <td>9.8</td></tr> -<tr><td>Louisiana</td> <td>111</td> <td>4.0</td> <td>40</td> <td>10.0</td></tr> -<tr><td>Maine</td> <td>233</td> <td>11.0</td> <td>100</td> <td>15.3</td></tr> -<tr><td>Maryland</td> <td>126</td> <td>10.4</td> <td>71</td> <td>12.6</td></tr> -<tr><td>Massachusetts</td> <td>56</td> <td>11.7</td> <td>96</td> <td>19.9</td></tr> -<tr><td>Michigan</td> <td>270</td> <td>9.7</td> <td>82</td> <td>11.2</td></tr> -<tr><td>Minnesota</td> <td>296</td> <td>5.8</td> <td>67</td> <td>10.5</td></tr> -<tr><td>Mississippi</td> <td>144</td> <td>4.7</td> <td>43</td> <td>9.9</td></tr> -<tr><td>Missouri</td> <td>291</td> <td>11.6</td> <td>68</td> <td>9.8</td></tr> -<tr><td>Montana</td> <td>148</td> <td>4.3</td> <td>67</td> <td>21.0</td></tr> -<tr><td>Nebraska</td> <td>463</td> <td>6.1</td> <td>66</td> <td>9.9</td></tr> -<tr><td>Nevada</td> <td>68</td> <td>3.7</td> <td>71</td> <td>20.8</td></tr> -<tr><td>New Hampshire</td> <td>238</td> <td>11.5</td> <td>96</td> <td>17.3</td></tr> -<tr><td>New Jersey</td> <td>76</td> <td>12.0</td> <td>72</td> <td>16.2</td></tr> -<tr><td>New Mexico</td> <td>45</td> <td>2.7</td> <td>65</td> <td>18.7</td></tr> -<tr><td>New York</td> <td>102</td> <td>7.1</td> <td>83</td> <td>13.9</td></tr> -<tr><td>North Carolina</td> <td>112</td> <td>5.7</td> <td>55</td> <td>10.2</td></tr> -<tr><td>North Dakota</td> <td>249</td> <td>2.6</td> <td>64</td> <td>10.5</td></tr> -<tr><td>Ohio</td> <td>265</td> <td>9.6</td> <td>77</td> <td>11.2</td></tr> -<tr><td>Oklahoma</td> <td>315</td> <td>6.4</td> <td>60</td> <td>9.3</td></tr> -<tr><td>Oregon</td> <td>224</td> <td>6.2</td> <td>72</td> <td>15.1</td></tr> -<tr><td>Pennsylvania</td> <td>112</td> <td>10.8</td> <td>75</td> <td>13.5</td></tr> -<tr><td>Rhode Island</td> <td>90</td> <td>19.7</td> <td>77</td> <td>20.4</td></tr> -<tr><td>South Carolina</td> <td>80</td> <td>4.0</td> <td>41</td> <td>10.3</td></tr> -<tr><td>South Dakota</td> <td>502</td> <td>5.2</td> <td>68</td> <td>10.0</td></tr> -<tr><td>Tennessee</td> <td>189</td> <td>8.4</td> <td>61</td> <td>9.8</td></tr> -<tr><td>Texas</td> <td>228</td> <td>4.8</td> <td>52</td> <td>8.0</td></tr> -<tr><td>Utah</td> <td>146</td> <td>5.1</td> <td>76</td> <td>12.5</td></tr> -<tr><td>Vermont</td> <td>219</td> <td>7.5</td> <td>94</td> <td>15.3</td></tr> -<tr><td>Virginia</td> <td>165</td> <td>8.9</td> <td>67</td> <td>11.1</td></tr> -<tr><td>Washington</td> <td>171</td> <td>7.1</td> <td>74</td> <td>16.8</td></tr> -<tr><td>West Virginia</td> <td>216</td> <td>10.2</td> <td>74</td> <td>10.9</td></tr> -<tr><td>Wisconsin</td> <td>268</td> <td>7.1</td> <td>68</td> <td>10.5</td></tr> -<tr><td>Wyoming</td> <td>121</td> <td>2.4</td> <td>79</td> <td>17.4</td></tr> -<tr><td>Entire U.S.</td> <td>205</td> <td>7.4</td> <td>65</td> <td>11.1</td></tr> -</table> -<a name="2HCH0006"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> - -<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> - -<h2> -<a name="chapV"> -CHAPTER V -</a> -</h2> -<h3> -THE DOLLAR HEN FARM -</h3> -<p> -As has already been emphasized, the way to get money out of the -chicken business is not to put so much in. -</p> -<p> -Land, however, well suited to the purpose, should not be begrudged, -for interest at six per cent. will afford a very considerable extra -investment in land well suited to the business if it in any way cuts -down the cost of operation. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -The Plan of Housing. -</p> -<p> -The houses are the next consideration. On most poultry farms they -are the chief items of expense. I know of a poultry farm near New -York City where the house cost $12.00 per hen. The owner built this -farm with a view of making money. People also buy stock in Nevada -gold mines with a view of making money. I know another poultry farm -owned by a man named Tillinghast at Vernon, Connecticut, where the -houses cost thirty cents per hen. Mr. Tillinghast gets more eggs per -hen than the New York man. Incidentally, he is sending his son to -Yale, and he has no other visible means of support except his -chicken farm. -</p> -<p> -For the region of light soils and the localities which I have -recommended for poultry farming, the following style of poultry -house should be used: -</p> -<p> -No floors, single boarded walls, a roof of matched cypress lumber or -of cheap pine covered with tarred paper. This house is to have no -windows and no door. The roosts are in the back end; the front end -is open or partly open; feed hoppers and nests are in the front end. -The feed hoppers may be made in the walls, made loose to set in the -house, or made to shed water and placed outside the house. All -watering is to be done outside the houses; likewise any feeding -beyond that done in hoppers. -</p> -<p> -The exact style of the house I leave to the reader's own plan. Were -I recommending complex houses costing several dollars per hen, this -certainly would be leaving the reader in the dark woods. With houses -of the kind described it is hard to go far amiss. The simplest form -is a double pitched roof, the ridge-pole standing about seven feet -high, and the walls about four. The house is made eight by sixteen, -and one end—not the side—left open. For the house that man is to -enter, this form cannot be improved upon. -</p> -<p> -The only other points are to construct it on a couple of 4x4 runners -so that it can be dragged about by a team. Cypress, or other -decay-proof wood should be used for these mud-sills. The framing -should be light and as little of it used as is consistent with -firmness. If the whole house costs more than twenty-five dollars -there is something wrong in its planning. -</p> -<p> -This house should accommodate seventy-five or eighty hens. -</p> -<p> -For smaller operations, especially for horseless, or intensive -farming, a low, light house may be used, which the attendant never -enters. A portion of the roof lifts up to fill feed-hoppers, gather -eggs or spray. These small houses may be made light enough to be -moved short distances by a pry-pole, the team being required only -when they are moved to a new field. -</p> -<p> -Not one particle of poultry manure is to be removed from either -style of house. Instead, the houses are removed from the manure, -which is then scattered on the neighboring ground with a fork, or, -if desired to be used on a field in which poultry may not run, it -may be loaded upon a wagon together with some of the underlaying -soil. -</p> -<p> -There have been books and books written on poultry houses, but what -I have just given is sufficient poultry-house knowledge for the -Dollar Hen man. If he hasn't enough intelligence to put this into -practice, he has no business in the hen business. Additional -book-knowledge of hen-houses is useless; it may be harmful. -</p> -<p> -If you are sure that you are fool-proof, you may get Dr. Feather or -Reverend Earlobe's "Book of Poultry House Plans." It will be a good -text-book for the children's drawing lessons. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -The Feeding System. -</p> -<p> -Oyster shells, beef scraps, corn, and one other kind of grain, -together with an abundance of pasturage or green feed, is the sum -and substance of feeding hens on the Dollar Hen Farm. -</p> -<p> -The dry feeds are placed in hoppers. They are built to protect the -feeds from the weather. The neck must be sufficiently large to -prevent clogging, and the hopper so protected by slats in front that -the hen cannot toss the feed out by a side jerk of her head. These -hoppers may be built any size desired. The grain compartments -should, of course, be made larger than the others. Weekly filling is -good, but where a team is not owned, it would be better to have the -hoppers larger so that feed purchased, say, once a month, could be -delivered directly into the hoppers. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Water Systems. -</p> -<p> -The best water system is a spring-fed brook. -</p> -<p> -The man proposing to establish an individual poultry plant, and who -after reading this book goes and buys a tract of land where an -artificial water system is necessary, would catch Mississippi -drift-wood on shares. But there are plenty of such people in the -world. A man once stood all day on London Bridge hawking gold -sovereigns at a shilling a-piece and did not make a sale. -</p> -<p> -Next to natural streams are the made streams. This is the logical -watering method of the community of poultry farmers. These -artificial streams are to be made by conducting the water of natural -streams back of the land to be watered, as in irrigation. It is the -problem of irrigation over again. Indeed, where trucking is combined -with poultry-growing, fowl watering should be combined with -irrigation. -</p> -<p> -It may be necessary to dam the stream to get head, sufficient supply -or both. In sandy soils, ditches leak, and board flumes must be -substituted. The larger ones are made of the boards at right angles -and tapered so that one end of one trough rests in the upper end of -the next lower section. The smaller, or lateral troughs may be made -V-shaped. -</p> -<p> -The cost of the smaller sized flume is three cents a foot. Iron pipe -costs twelve cents a foot. -</p> -<p> -The greater the slope of the ground the smaller may be the troughs, -but on ground where the slopes are great, more expense will be -necessary in stilting the flumes to maintain the level, and the -harder it will be to find a large section that can be brought under -the ditch. -</p> -<p> -Fluming water for poultry is, like irrigation, a community project. -The greatest dominating people of history have their origin in arid -countries. It was co-operate or starve, and they learned -co-operation and conquered the earth. If a man interferes with the -flume, or takes more than his share of the water, put him out. We -are in the hen, not the hog business. -</p> -<p> -Community water systems, where water must be pumped and piped in -iron pipe, is of course a more expensive undertaking. It will only -pay where water is too deep for individuals to drive sand points on -their own property. There is certainly little reason to consider an -expensive method when there are abundant localities where simple -plans may be used. -</p> -<p> -On sand lands, with water near the surface, each farmer may drive -sand points and pump his water by hand. In this case running water -is not possible, but the pipes or flumes may be arranged so that -fresh pumping flushes all the drinking places and also leaves them -full of standing water. The simplest way to arrange this will be by -wooden surface troughs as used in the fluming scheme. The only -difference is that an occasional section is made deeper so that it -will retain water. -</p> -<p> -A more permanent arrangement may be made by using a line of -three-fourths inch pipe. At each watering place the pipe is brought -to the surface so that the water flows into a galvanized pan with -sloping sides. This pan has an overflow through a short section of -smaller tubing soldered to the side of the pan. The pipe line is -parallel with the fence line, the pans supply both fields. By this -arrangement the entire plant may be watered in a few minutes. The -overflow tubes are on one side. Using these tubes as a pivot the -pans may be swung out from under the fence with the foot and cleaned -with an old broom. Where the ground water is deep a wind mill and -storage tank would be desirable. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Outdoor Accommodations. -</p> -<p> -The hen house is a place for roosting, laying and a protection for -the feed. The hen is to live out doors. -</p> -<p> -On the most successful New England poultry farms, warm houses for -hens have been given up. Hens fare better out of doors in Virginia -than they do in New England, but make more profit out of doors -anywhere than they will shut up in houses. If your climate will not -permit your hen to live out doors get out of the climate or get out -of the hen business. -</p> -<p> -There is, however, a vast difference in the kind of out-of-doors. -The running stream with its fringe of trees, brush and rank growing -grass, forms daylight quarters for the hen par excellence. Rank -growing crops, fodder piled against the fences, a board fence on the -north side of the lot, or little sheds made by propping a platform -against a stake, will all help. A place out of the wind for the hens -to dust and sun and be sociable is what is wanted, and what must be -provided, preferably by Nature, if not by Nature then by the -poultryman. -</p> -<p> -The hens are to be kept as much as possible out of the houses, in -sheltered places among the crops or brush. They should not herd -together in a few places but should be separated in little clumps -well scattered over the land. These hiding places for the hens must, -of course, not be too secluded or eggs will be lost. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Equipment for Chick Rearing. -</p> -<p> -Just as the long houses for hens have been weighed and found -wanting, so larger brooder houses, with one exception, have never -been established on what may be called a successful basis. By -establishment on a successful basis, I mean established so that they -could be used by larger numbers of people in rearing market -chickens. There are plenty of large brooder houses in use, just as -there are plenty of yarded poultry plants, but many intelligent, -industrious people have tried both systems only to find that the -cost of production exceeds the selling price. This makes us prone to -believe that some of those who claim to be succeeding may differ -from the crowd in that they had more capital to begin with and hence -last longer. -</p> -<p> -The one exception I make to this is that of the South Shore Roaster -District of Massachusetts. Here steam-pipe brooder houses are used -quite extensively. The logical reason that pipe brooder houses have -found use in the winter chicken business and not in rearing pullets -is that of season and profits. When chicks are to be hatched in the -dead of winter the steam-heated brooder house is a necessity. In -this limited use it is all right, where the profits per chick are -great enough to stand the expense and losses. -</p> -<p> -For the rearing of the great bulk of spring chicks the methods that -have proven profitable are as follows: -</p> -<p> -First: Rearing with hens as practiced at Little Compton. For -suggestions on this see the chapter entitled "Poultry on the General -Farm." -</p> -<p> -Second: Rearing with lamp brooder. Many large book-built poultry -plants have been equipped with steam, or, more properly, hot water -heated brooder houses, only to have a practical manager see that -they did not work, tear out the piping and fill the house with rows -of common lamp brooders. The advantage claimed for the lamp brooder -is that they can be regulated separately for each flock. As a matter -of fact, the same regulation for each flock of chicks could be -secured with a proper type of hot water heaters and one of the most -practical poultry farms in the country is now installing such a -system. -</p> -<p> -A brooder system where hot air under the pressure of a blower or -centrifugal fan would seem ideal. So far the efforts made along -these lines have been clumsy and unnecessarily expensive. If the -continuous house is ever made practical, I believe it will be along -this line, but at present I advise sticking to the methods that are -known to be successful. -</p> -<p> -Individual lamp brooders in colony houses are perhaps the most -generally successful means of rearing chicks on northern poultry -farms. They are troublesome and somewhat expensive, but with -properly hatched chickens are more successful than hen rearing. In -buying such a brooder the chief points to be observed are: A good -lamp, a heating device giving off the heat from a central drum, and -an arrangement which facilitates easy cleaning. The brooder should -be large, having not less than nine square feet of floor space. The -work demanded of a brooder is not as exacting as with an incubator. -The heat and circulation of air may vary a little without harm, but -they must not fail altogether. The greatest trouble with brooders in -operation is the uncertainty of the lamp. The brooder-lamp should -have sufficient oil capacity and a large wick. Brooder-lamps are -often exposed to the wind, and, if cheaply constructed or poorly -enclosed, the result will be a chilled brood of chicks, or perhaps a -fire. -</p> -<p> -The chief thing sought in the internal arrangements of a brooder is -a provision to keep the chicks from piling up and smothering each -other as they crowd toward the source of heat. This can be -accomplished by having the warmest part of the brooder in the center -rather than at the side or corner. If the heat comes from above and -a considerable portion of the brooder be heated to the same -temperature, no crowding will take place. -</p> -<p> -The temperature given for running brooders vary with the machine and -the position of the thermometer. The one reliable guide for -temperature is the action of the chicks. If they are cold they will -crowd toward the source of heat; if too warm they will wander -uneasily about; but if the temperature is right, each chick will -sleep stretched out on the floor. The cold chicken does not sleep at -all, but puts in its time fighting its way toward the source of -heat. In an improperly constructed or improperly run brooder the -chicks go through a varying process of chilling, sweating and -struggling when they should be sleeping, and the result is puny -chicks that dwindle and die. -</p> -<p> -The arrangement of the brooder for the sleeping accommodations of -the chicks is important, but this is not the only thing to be -considered in a brooder. The brooder used in the early season, and -especially the outdoor brooder, must have ample space provided for -the daytime accommodation of the chick. In the colony house brooder -such space will, of course, be the floor of the house. -</p> -<p> -When operating on a large scale it will not pay to buy complete -brooders. The lamps and hovers can be purchased separately and -installed in colony houses which do both for brooders and later for -houses for growing young stock. The universal hover sold by the -Prairie State Incubator people is about as perfect a lamp hover as -can be made. -</p> -<p> -The cold brooder, or Philo box, as it has been popularly called, is -the chief item in a system of poultry keeping that has been widely -advertised. The principle of the Philo box is that of holding the -air warmed by the chick down close to them by a sagging piece of -cloth. The cloth checks most of the radiating heat, but is not so -tight as to smother the chick. This limits the space of air to be -warmed by the chicks to such a degree that the body warmth is used -to the greatest advantage. That chickens can be raised in these -fire-less brooders, is not in question, for that has been abundantly -proven, but most poultrymen believe that it will pay better, -especially in the North, to give the little fellows a few weeks' -warmth. -</p> -<p> -Curtis Bros. at Ransomville, N.Y., who raise some twenty thousand -chicks per year, have adopted the following system: The chicks are -kept under hovers heated by hot water pipes for one week, or until -they learn to hover. Then they are put in Philo boxes for a week in -the same building but away from the pipes. The third week the Philo -boxes are placed in a large, unheated room. After that they go to a -large Philo box in a colony house. -</p> -<p> -To make a Philo house of the Curtis pattern, take a box 5 in. deep -and 18 in. to 24 in. square. Cut a hole in one side for a chick -door, run a strip of screen around the inside of the box to round -the corners. Now take a second similar box. Tack a piece of cloth -rather loosely across its open face. Bore a few augur holes in the -sides of either box. Invert box No. 2 upon box No. 1. This we will -call a Curtis box. It costs about fifteen cents and should -accommodate fifty to seventy-five chicks. -</p> -<p> -A universal hover in a colony coop or colony house, for which a -Curtis box is substituted, as early in the game as the weather -permits, is the method I advise for rearing young chicks. The lamp -problem we still have with us, but it is one that cannot be easily -solved. Large vessels or tanks of water which are regularly warmed -by injection of steam from a movable boiler, offers a possible way -out of the difficulty. On a plant large enough to keep one man -continually at this work, this plan might be an improvement over -filling lamps, but for the smaller plant it is lamps, or go south. -</p> -<p> -Rearing young chicks is the hardest part of the poultry business. -There is a lot of work about it that cannot be gotten rid of. Little -chicks must be kept comfortable and their water and feed for the -first few days must needs be given largely by hand. They are to be -early led to drink from the regular water vessels and eat from the -hoppers, but this takes time and patience. -</p> -<p> -The feeding of chicks I will discuss in the chapter on "Poultry on -the General Farm," and as the same methods apply in both cases, I -will refer the reader to that section. -</p> -<p> -After chicks get three or four weeks old their care is the simplest -part of the poultry farm work and consists chiefly of filling feed -hoppers and protecting them from vermin and thieves. -</p> -<p> -Board floor colony houses are used as a protection against rats and -this danger necessitates the protection of the opening by netting -and the closing of the doors at night. -</p> -<p> -Cockerels must be gotten out of the flocks and sold at an early age. -Those that are to be kept for sale or use as breeding birds should -be early separated from the pullets. Coops for growing chickens, -especially Leghorns, cannot be put among trees, as the birds will -learn to roost in the trees, causing no end of trouble to get them -broken of the habit. -</p> -<p> -All pullets save a few culls should be saved for laying. They are to -be kept two years. They should lay sixty-five to seventy per cent as -many eggs the second year as the first. They are sold the third -summer to make room for the growing stock. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Twenty-five Acre Poultry Farms. -</p> -<p> -This section will be devoted to a general discussion of the type of -poultry farms best suited to Section 4 and the southerly portions of -Section 7 as discussed in the previous chapter. -</p> -<p> -We will discuss this type of farm with this assumption: That they -are to be developed in large numbers by co-operative or corporate -effort. This does not infer that they cannot be developed by -individual effort, and nine-tenths of the operations will remain the -same in the latter case. -</p> -<p> -Suppose a large tract of land adjacent to railroad facilities has -been found. The land in the original survey should be divided into -long, relatively narrow strips, lying at right angles to the slope -of the land. The farmstead should occupy the highest end of the -strip. For a twenty-five acre or one-man poultry farm these strips -should be about forty rods in width. The object of this survey is to -permit the water being run by gravity to the entire farm. -</p> -<p> -The first thing is the farmstead, including such orchard and garden -as are desired. This stretches across the entire front end of the -place. The remainder of the strip is fenced in with chicken fence. -The farm is also divided into two narrow fields by a fence down the -center of the strip. This fence, at frequent intervals, has -removable panels. -</p> -<p> -The year's season we will begin late in the fall. All layers are in -field No. 1 pasturing on rape, top turnips or other fall crops. In -lot No. 2 is growing wheat or rye. As the green feed gets short in -the first lot the hens are let into lot No. 2. Sometime in March the -houses that have been brought up close to the gaps are drawn through -into the wheat field. The feed hoppers are also gradually moved and -the hens find themselves confined in lot No. 2 without any serious -disturbance. -</p> -<p> -Lot No. 1 is broken up as soon as weather permits and planted in -oats, corn, Kaffir corn and perhaps a few sunflowers. The oats form -a little strip near the coops and watering places and the Kaffir -corn is on the far side. As soon as corn planting is over the farmer -begins to receive his chickens from the hatchery. The brooders are -now placed in the corn field. The object of the corn is not green -food but for a shade and a grain crop. -</p> -<p> -The chicks are summered in the corn field and the hens in the wheat -or rye. Whether the latter will head up will depend upon the number -of the flock. It will be best to work the houses across to the far -side and let that portion near the middle fence head up. As the old -grain gets too tough for green food strips of ground should be -broken up and sown in oats. The grain that matures will not be cut, -but the hens will be allowed to thresh it out. The straw may be cut -with mower or scythe for use as nesting material. -</p> -<p> -Sometime in June or early in July a little rape vetch or cow-peas is -drilled in between the rows of corn as on the far side from the -chicken coops. During July or about the first of August, after all -cockerels have been sold, the gates are opened and the pullets are -allowed to associate with the hens. After this acquaintance ripens -into friendship the hen houses are worked back into the pullet lots. -Surplus hens are sold off or new houses inserted as the case may be -until there is room for the pullets in the houses. Each coop is -worked up alongside a house and after most of the pullets have taken -to the houses the coops are removed. The vacant lot is now broken up -and sown in a mixture of fall green crops. -</p> -<p> -The flock is kept in the corn field until the corn is ripe. The -Kaffir corn and sunflowers are knocked down where they stand and are -threshed by the hens. As soon as the corn crop is ripe the houses -are run back and the corn cut up or husked and the wheat planted in -the corn field. -</p> -<p> -The next year the lots are transposed, the young stock being grown -in the lot that had the hens the previous year. -</p> -<p> -If the ground is inclined to be at all damp when the fields are -broken up the plowing is done in narrow lands so as to form a -succession of ridges, on which are placed the coops or houses. The -directions of these ridges will be determined by the lay of the -land—the object being neither to dam up water or to encourage -washing. The location of the ridges are alternated by seasons, so -that the droppings from the houses are well distributed throughout -the soil. -</p> -<p> -This system with the particular crops found that do best in the -locality, give us an ideal method of poultry husbandry. We have kept -hens and young stock supplied with green food the year round; we -have utilized every particle of manure without one bit of labor. We -have a rotation of crops. We have the benefits to the ground of -several green crops turned under. We have raised one grain crop per -year on most of the ground. We have no labor in feeding and watering -except the keeping of the grain, beef and grit hoppers filled, and -the water system in order. -</p> -<p> -The number of fowls that may be kept per acre will be determined by -the richness of the soil. The chief object of the entire scheme is -to provide abundant green pasture at all times and to allow the -production of a reasonable amount of grain. With one hundred hens -per acre on the entire tract, and with houses containing eighty hens -each, it will be necessary to set the houses ninety-five feet apart. -This will give the flock a tract of 95 by 330 feet in which to -pasture. -</p> -<p> -The above estimate with a little land allowed for house, garden, -orchard and a little cow and team pasture, will permit the keeping -of two thousand hens on a twenty-five acre farm. In regions where -grain is to be raised most farmers would want more land. They may -also wish to own a few extra cows, hogs, etc., or to alternate the -entire poultry operations with some crop that will, on such highly -fertilized land, give a good cash profit. Forty acres is a good size -for such uses. -</p> -<p> -The cost of land when purchased in large tracts in Virginia is very -small, but the cost of clearing is often much more than that of the -land. Twenty-five to fifty dollars an acre should secure such a -tract of land and put it in shape for poultry farming. -</p> -<p> -The cost of the farm home, etc., will, of course vary altogether -with the taste of the occupant. If they are constructed by a central -company, from five hundred to a thousand dollars should cover the -amount. -</p> -<p> -The cost of poultry buildings and equipment used on the farm will -depend largely on the efficiency of the labor of construction. If -constructed in large numbers by a central company, the cost would be -reduced, but the company would expect to make a profit on their -work. -</p> -<p> -A plot laid out for two thousand hens will require in material: 250 -rods of fence with 6-ft. netting which should cost about fifty cents -a rod. My estimate of this fence put up would be $150. If the -neighboring field contained no other poultry, a portion of this -fence might be done away with, although its protection against dogs -and strangers may be worth while. Of course, if poultry fields of -different owners lay adjoining, the fence must be used, but the cost -will be reduced one-half. -</p> -<p> -The next most expensive piece of equipment will be a line of about -eighty rods of 3/4 in. gas pipe and about fifty elbows and -twenty-five galvanized iron pans. The cost of installation will -depend largely on how deep it is necessary to go to get below the -frost line. One hundred and seventy-five dollars should cover cost -of material and by the use of a plow the line ought to be put in for -twenty-five dollars. -</p> -<p> -The source of water, and the cost of getting a head, will -necessarily vary with the location. The installation of a wind mill -and tank to hold supply for several days, or of a small gasoline -engine, would cost in the neighborhood of one hundred dollars, but -it is a luxury that may be dispensed with if the well is not too -deep. -</p> -<p> -The houses for the hens, of which there are twenty-five, are -constructed in accordance with some of the plans previously -discussed. The cost should be about twenty-five cents per hen. -</p> -<p> -At least twice as many brooders as colony coops will be needed as -there are hen houses, but of the lamps and hovers not over -twenty-five will be required, as the chicks soon outgrow the need of -this aid. -</p> -<p> -This makes a list of equipment required for the keeping of two -thousand layers and their replenishing: -</p> -<table align="center" width="50%" summary="equipment required"> -<tr><td>25 acres of farm land, at $50 per acre</td> <td align="right">$1250.00</td></tr> -<tr><td>250 rods of fence</td> <td align="right">150.00</td></tr> -<tr><td>One farmstead</td> <td align="right">1000.00</td></tr> -<tr><td>One team, plow and farm implements</td> <td align="right">300.00</td></tr> -<tr><td>One watering system</td> <td align="right">300.00</td></tr> -<tr><td>25 hen houses, at $20</td> <td align="right">500.00</td></tr> -<tr><td>50 colony coops, at $2.50</td> <td align="right">150.00</td></tr> -<tr><td>25 lamps and hovers, at $5</td> <td align="right">125.00</td></tr> -<tr><td> </td> <td align="right">------</td></tr> -<tr><td> </td> <td align="right">$3775.00</td></tr> -</table> -<p> -[Transcriber's note: "50 colony coops, at $2.50" is $125.00, not -$150. The total should therefore be $3750 rather than $3775. This -was, presumably, a printing error, because the correct total is -used in the further calculations below.] -</p> -<p> -This is a good, liberal capitalization. The business can be started -with much less. Figured interest at 6 per cent. we have $225.00 per -year. -</p> -<p> -The upkeep of the plant will be about 15 per cent. on the capital, -not counting land. This equals $375, which, added to interest, gives -an annual overhead expense of $600, which is our first item to be -set against gross receipts. -</p> -<p> -The cost of operation will involve cost of chicks at hatchery, -purchased feed, seed for ground, and feed for team. -</p> -<p> -The price of chicks at the Petaluma hatcheries is from six to eight -cents each. We expect to raise enough pullets to make up for the -accidental losses, and to renew bulk of the flock each year. The -number required will, of course, depend upon the loss. This loss -will be much less when the chicks are obtained from a modern -moisture controlled hatchery, than from the box type incubator. I -think a 33 per cent. loss is a liberal estimate, but as I am -treading on unproven ground, I will make that loss 40 per cent., -which is on a par with old style methods. To replace 1,000 hens, -this will require 3,500 chicks at a cost of about two hundred and -fifty dollars. -</p> -<p> -Green pasturage throughout the year will materially cut down the -cost of feed. The corn consumed out of the hoppers will be about one -bushel per hen. The beef scrap will also be less than with yarded -fowls, perhaps twenty-five cents per hen. Now, of the corn we will -raise on the land, at least ten acres. This should yield us five -hundred bushels. This leaves fifteen hundred bushels of corn to be -purchased. At the present high rates, this will cost $1,000 which, -added to beef scrap cost, makes an outside feed cost of $1,500. The -seed cost of rye, rape, cow-peas, etc., will amount to about $50 per -annum. For expense of production we have: -</p> -<table align="center" width="50%" summary="cost per annum"> -<tr><td>Interest and upkeep of plant</td> <td align="right">$600.00</td></tr> -<tr><td>Chicks</td> <td align="right">250.00</td></tr> -<tr><td>Purchased corn</td> <td align="right">1000.00</td></tr> -<tr><td>Beef scrap and grit</td> <td align="right">500.00</td></tr> -<tr><td>Seed</td> <td align="right">50.00</td></tr> -<tr><td>Team feed</td> <td align="right">100.00</td></tr> -<tr><td> </td> <td align="right">-------</td></tr> -<tr><td> </td> <td align="right">$2,500.00</td></tr> -</table> -<p> -This figures out the cost of production at a little more than a -dollar per hen. The income from the place should be about as -follows: Eleven hundred cockerels sold as squab broilers at 40 cents -each, $440.00; four hundred and seventy-five old hens at 30 cents, -$140.00. -</p> -<p> -The receipts from egg yield are, of course, impossible of very -accurate calculation, for it is here that the personal element that -determines success or failure enters. The Arkansas per-hen-day -figures (see last chapter), multiplied by the average quotation for -extras in the New York market, will be as fair as any, and certainly -cannot be considered a high estimate, as it is only 113 eggs per hen -per year. -</p> -<table align="center" width="50%" summary="egg prices"> -<tr><td> </td> <td align="right">Eggs per hen day</td> <td align="right">Price per doz Extras in New York</td> <td align="right">Income for month from 2000 layers</td></tr> -<tr><td>January</td> <td align="right">.32</td> <td align="right">$ .30</td> <td align="right">$494.00</td></tr> -<tr><td>February</td> <td align="right">.30</td> <td align="right">.29</td> <td align="right">404.00</td></tr> -<tr><td>March</td> <td align="right">.62</td> <td align="right">.22</td> <td align="right">700.00</td></tr> -<tr><td>April</td> <td align="right">.38</td> <td align="right">.19</td> <td align="right">350.00</td></tr> -<tr><td>May</td> <td align="right">.44</td> <td align="right">.19</td> <td align="right">429.00</td></tr> -<tr><td>June</td> <td align="right">.42</td> <td align="right">.18</td> <td align="right">377.00</td></tr> -<tr><td>July</td> <td align="right">.34</td> <td align="right">.21</td> <td align="right">367.00</td></tr> -<tr><td>August</td> <td align="right">.38</td> <td align="right">.22</td> <td align="right">429.00</td></tr> -<tr><td>September</td> <td align="right">.21</td> <td align="right">.25</td> <td align="right">262.00</td></tr> -<tr><td>October</td> <td align="right">.22</td> <td align="right">.28</td> <td align="right">316.00</td></tr> -<tr><td>November</td> <td align="right">.18</td> <td align="right">.33</td> <td align="right">267.00</td></tr> -<tr><td>December</td> <td align="right">.15</td> <td align="right">.32</td> <td align="right">246.00</td></tr> -<tr><td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td align="right">------</td></tr> -<tr><td>Total</td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td align="right">$4,641.00</td></tr> -</table> -<p> -The total income as figured will be $5,221. From this subtract the -cost of production, and we have still nearly $3,000, which is to be -combined item of wages and profit. We have entered no labor bill -because this is to be a one-man farm, and with the assistance of the -public hatchery and co-operative marketing association, which will -send a wagon right to a man's door to gather the eggs, it is -entirely feasible for one man to attend to two thousand hens. In the -rush spring season other members of the family will have to turn out -and help, or a man may be hired to attend the plowing and rougher -work. -</p> -<p> -This is a good handsome income, and yet the above price of the man's -labor—it is only about one dollar per hen, which has always been -the estimated profit of successful poultry keeping. As a matter of -fact, this profit is seldom reached under the old system of poultry -keeping, not because the above gross income cannot be reached, but -because the expenses are greater. Under the present methods, with -the exception of the rearing of the young chicks, one man can easily -take care of three thousand hens. Indeed, practically the only work -in their care is cultivating the ground and hauling around and -dumping into hoppers, about two loads of feed per week. -</p> -<p> -But, young chicks must be reared, and this is more laborious. For -this reason I advise going into some other industry on a part of the -land, which will not require attention in the young chick season. -One of the best things for this purpose is the cultivation of cane -fruits as blackberries, raspberries and dewberries. The work of -caring for these can be made to fall wholly without the young chick -season. Peaches and grapes for a slower profit can be added, but -spraying and cultivation of these is more liable to take spring -labor. All these fruits have the advantage of doing well in the same -kind of soil recommended for chickens. Young chickens may be grown -around such berry crops and removed to permanent quarters before the -berries ripen. Strawberries would be a very poor crop because their -labor falls in the chick season. -</p> -<p> -Another plan, and perhaps a better one, is to have about three -fields, and rotate in such a manner that a marketable crop may be -always kept growing in the third field. Any crop may be selected, -the chief labor of which falls between July and the following March. -Late cabbage and potatoes, or celery, will do if the ground is -suitable for these crops. Kale and spinach are staple fall crops. -Fall lettuce could also be grown. If the market is glutted on such -crops, they can be fed out at home. Whenever a field is vacant, have -some crop growing on it, if only for purposes of green manuring. -Never let sandy ground lie fallow. -</p> -<p> -A modification of the above plans suited to heavier ground, is to -seed down the entire farm to grass. It is then divided into three -fields and provided with three sets of colony houses. Coops are -entirely dispensed with, and cheap indoor brooders are used in the -permanent houses. The pullets stay in these same houses in the same -field until the moulting season of the third year, or until they are -two and a half years old. One field will always be vacant during the -fall and winter season which time may be utilized for fresh seeding. -</p> -<p> -The difficulty of maintaining a sod will necessitate somewhat -heavier soil than by the previous plan. The houses should be moved -around occasionally, as the grass kills out in the locality. This -plan is a lazy man's way, taking the least labor of any method of -poultry keeping known. It is adapted to the cheaper ground in the -region farthest from market. On the Atlantic seaboard, the more -enterprising man will use the third field for rotation, and sell -some of the fertility of the western grain in the form of a truck -crop. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Five Acre Poultry Farms. -</p> -<p> -Can a living for a family be made from a five acre poultry farm? -Yes; by individual effort, where the marketing opportunities are -good; by corporate or co-operate effort, any place where the -fundamental conditions are right. -</p> -<p> -This type of poultry farm is well suited for development near our -large cities, where the cry of "back to the land" has filled with -new hope the discouraged dweller in flat and tenement. No greater -chance for humanitarian work, and at the same time no greater -business opportunity, is open to-day than that of the promotion of -colonies of small poultry and truck farms where the parent colony -not only sells the land, but helps the settler to establish himself -in the business and to successfully market the product. The natural -location for such projects is in the sandy soils of New Jersey, -Delaware, Maryland and Virginia. -</p> -<p> -We have already discussed the twenty-five acre farm, representing -the largest probable unit for such an enterprise. We will now -discuss the five acre farm which represents the smallest probable -unit. -</p> -<p> -On the five-acre farm a considerable difference of methods will be -necessary. In the first place, it is to be a horseless farm. All -hauling and plowing must be attended to by the central company, or -the same results could be obtained by a team owned in common by a -small group, say of six farmers, each of whom is to use the team one -day of the week. -</p> -<p> -A single isolated farmer in a community of farms or market -gardeners, could hire a team by the day as he needed it. I do not -recommend this scheme, however, but would suggest that the single -individual get a larger plot of ground, at least ten acres, and a -team of his own. In the co-operative community the five-acre -teamless farm is entirely feasible. -</p> -<p> -The tract should be surveyed about twice as long as wide, which, for -five acres, makes it 20 by 40 rods, or 330 by 660 feet. Measure off -a strip one hundred feet back from the road. Fence the remainder of -the tract. Now run a partition fence down the center until we have -come to within twelve rods of the back side. Here run a cross fence. -This gives us three yards of about one and one-half acres each. The -gates are arranged so that one passes through the three yards in a -single trip. -</p> -<p> -Where the middle partition fence adjoins the front fence, a well is -driven. A water line is run down the partition fence to the rear -yard. -</p> -<p> -The plot around the house is set in permanent crops, such as -berries, fruit trees, asparagus, rhubarb, etc. Of the other three -yards, at least one is kept in growing marketable crops. Every inch -is cultivated, and crops of the leafy nature, as lettuce, cabbage, -kale and spinach, are chiefly grown, as they utilize the rich -nitrogenous poultry manure to the best advantage, and the waste -portions, or worthless crops, are utilized for the poultry. The -method of supplying the fowls with green food is entirely by -soiling. This means to grow the food in an adjoining lot and throw -it over the fence. The above mentioned crops are all good for the -purpose. Rape, which is not grown for human food, is also excellent. -</p> -<p> -Kale is one of the very best crops for soiling purposes. It is -planted in the fall and fed by pulling off the lower leaves during -the winter. In the spring the hardened stalks stand at a -considerable height and the field may be used for growing young -chicks, giving shade, and at the same time producing abundant green -feed, without any immediate labor, which means a great saving in the -busy season. -</p> -<p> -A set of panels or netting stretched on light frames is provided. -They are of sufficient number to set along the longest side of one -of the fields. A strip along the fence, four or five feet wide, can -be planted to sunflowers, corn, rape, kale, or other rank growing -crop and the panels leaned against the fence to protect the young -plants from the hens. In this way the fence rows can be kept -provided with the shade of growing crops, which relieves the -otherwise serious fault of this plan of poultry farming, in that the -hens would be required to live in absolutely barren and sunburned -lots, for we propose to keep five or six hundred hens on one and a -half acres of ground, and no green things could get a start without -protection. -</p> -<p> -Rotate the houses from field to field as often as the crops allow. -Never permit hens to run in one bare field for more than six months -at a time. Always keep every inch of ground not in use by the -chickens, luxuriant in something green. If you have a crop of -vegetables which are about matured, drill rape or crimson clover -between the rows; by the time the crop is harvested and the hens are -to be moved in, such crops will have made a good growth. The hens -will kill it out but it will be a "profitable killing." -</p> -<p> -By this system of intensive combination of trucking and poultry -farming, we have a combination which for small capital and small -lands cannot be beaten. The hens should yield better than a dollar -profit per head on this plan; the one and a half acres automatically -fertilized and intensely cultivated, growing two or three crops a -year, should easily double the income. -</p> -<p> -Twelve hundred dollars a year is a conservative estimate for the net -income from such a plant, and the original investment, exclusive of -residence, will not be over one thousand dollars. -</p> -<a name="2HCH0007"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> - -<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> - -<h2> -<a name="chapVI"> -CHAPTER VI -</a> -</h2> -<h3> -INCUBATION -</h3> -<p> -The differences in the process of reproduction in birds and mammals -is frequently misunderstood. The laying of the bird's egg is not -analogous to the birth of young in mammals. -</p> -<p> -The female, whether bird or beast, forms a true egg which must be -fertilized by the male sperm cell before the offspring can develop. -In the mammal, if fertilization does not occur, the egg which is -inconspicuous, passes out of the body and is lost. If fertilized, it -passes into the womb where the young develops through the embryonic -stages, being supplied with nourishment and oxygen directly by the -mother. -</p> -<p> -In the bird, the egg, fertilized or unfertilized, passes out of the -body and, being of conspicuous size, is readily observed. The size -of the egg is due to the supply of food material which is comparable -with that supplied to the mammalian young during its stay in the -mother's womb. -</p> -<p> -The reptiles lay eggs that are left to develop outside of the body -of the mother, subject to the vicissitudes of the environment. The -young of the bird, being warm blooded, cannot develop without more -uniform temperature than weather conditions ordinarily supply. This -heat is supplied by the instinctive brooding habit of the mother -bird. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Fertility of Eggs -</p> -<p> -In a state of nature the number of eggs laid by wild fowl are only -as many as can be covered by the female. These are laid in the -spring of the year, and one copulation of the male bird is -sufficient to fertilize the entire clutch. Under domestication, the -hen lays quite indefinitely, and is served by the male at frequent -intervals. The fertilizing power of the male bird extends over a -period of about 15 days. -</p> -<p> -For most of my readers, it will be unnecessary to state that the -male has no influence upon the other offspring than those which he -actually fertilizes within this period. The belief in the influence -of the first male upon the later hatches by another male is simply a -superstition. -</p> -<p> -The domestic chicken is decidedly polygamous. The common rule is one -male to 12 or 15 hens. I have had equally good results, however, -with one male to 20 hens. In the Little Compton and South Shore -districts, one male is used for thirty or even forty hens. -</p> -<p> -By infertile eggs is meant eggs in which the sperm cell has never -united with the ovum. Such eggs may occur in a flock from the -absence of the male, from his disinclination or physical inability -to serve the hens, from the weakness or lack of vitality in the -sperm cells, from his neglect of a particular hen, from -lifelessness, or lack of vitality in the ovule, or from chance -misses, by which some eggs fail to be reached by the sperm cells. -</p> -<p> -In practice, lack of sexual inclination in a vigorous looking -rooster is very rare indeed. The more likely explanation is that he -neglects some hens, or that the eggs are fertilized, but the germs -die before incubation begins, or in the early stages of that -process. The former trouble may be avoided by having a relay of -roosters and shutting each one up part of the time. The latter -difficulty will be diminished by setting the egg as fresh as -possible, meanwhile storing them in a cool place. The other factors -to be considered in getting fertile eggs, are so nearly synonymous -with the problems of health and vitality in laying stock generally, -that to discuss it here would be but a repetition of ideas. -</p> -<p> -In connection with the discussion of fertile eggs, I want to point -out the fact that the whole subject of fertility as distinct from -hatchability, is somewhat meaningless. The facts of the case are, -that whatever factors in the care of the stock will get a large -percentage fertile eggs, will also give hatchable eggs and vice -versa. This is to be explained by the fact that most of the -unfertile eggs tested out during incubation, are in reality dead -germs in which death has occurred before the chick became visible to -the naked eye. Such deaths should usually be ascribed to poor -parentage, but may be caused by wrong storage or incubation. -Likewise, it would not be just to credit all deaths after chicks -became visible to wrong incubation, although the most of the blame -probably belongs there. -</p> -<p> -Likewise, with brooder chicks, we must divide the credit of their -livability in an arbitrary fashion between parentage, incubation, -and care after hatching. -</p> -<p> -By the hatchability of eggs, we then mean the percentage of eggs set -that hatch chicks able to walk and eat. By the livability of chicks, -we mean the percentage of chicks hatched that live to the age of -four weeks, after which they are subject to no greater death rate -than adult chickens. By the livability of eggs, we mean the product -of these two factors, i.e.: the percentage of chicks at four weeks -of age based upon the total number of eggs set. -</p> -<p> -As before mentioned, the fertility of eggs bears fairly definite -relation to the hatchability, so likewise the hatchability bears a -relation to the livability of chicks. When poor hatches occur -because of weak germs, as because of faulty incubation, this same -injury to the chick's organism is carried over and causes a larger -death among the hatched chicks. -</p> -<p> -Moreover, the relation between the two is not the same with all -classes of hatches, but as hatches get poorer the mortality among -the chicks increases at an accelerating rate. The following table -gives a rough approximation of these ratios: -</p> -<table align="center" width="50%" summary="mortality of chicks"> -<tr><td align="right">Per cent. of Hatchability.</td> <td align="right">Per cent. of chick Livability.</td> <td align="right">Per cent. of egg Livability.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">100</td> <td align="right">100</td> <td align="right">100</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">90</td> <td align="right">95</td> <td align="right">85</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">80</td> <td align="right">88</td> <td align="right">70</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">70</td> <td align="right">84</td> <td align="right">50</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">60</td> <td align="right">72</td> <td align="right">43</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">50</td> <td align="right">55</td> <td align="right">27</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">40</td> <td align="right">40</td> <td align="right">16</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">30</td> <td align="right">24</td> <td align="right">7</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">20</td> <td align="right">10</td> <td align="right">2</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">10</td> <td align="right"> 2</td> <td align="right">1</td></tr> -</table> -<p> -These figures are based on incubator data. Eggs set under hens -usually give a hatchability of 50 per cent. to 65 per cent., and -livability of 70 per cent. to 80 per cent. The reason for the -greater livability is that the real hatchability of the eggs is 70 -per cent. to 75 per cent., and is reduced by mechanical breakage. -The hatchability of eggs varies with the season. This variation is -commonly ascribed to nature, it being stated that springtime is the -natural breeding season, and therefore eggs are of greater -fertility. -</p> -<p> -While there may be a little foundation for this idea, the chief -cause is to be found in the manner of artificial incubation, as will -be discussed in a later section of this chapter. The following table -is given as the seasonable hatchability for northern states. This is -based on May hatch of 50 per cent: -</p> -<table align="center" width="50%" summary="hatchability by month"> -<tr><td>January</td> <td align="right">38</td></tr> -<tr><td>February</td> <td align="right">42</td></tr> -<tr><td>March</td> <td align="right">47</td></tr> -<tr><td>April</td> <td align="right">49</td></tr> -<tr><td>May</td> <td align="right">50</td></tr> -<tr><td>June</td> <td align="right">46</td></tr> -<tr><td>July</td> <td align="right">40</td></tr> -<tr><td>August</td> <td align="right">40</td></tr> -<tr><td>September</td> <td align="right">42</td></tr> -<tr><td>October</td> <td align="right">43</td></tr> -<tr><td>November</td> <td align="right">40</td></tr> -<tr><td>December</td> <td align="right">35</td></tr> -</table> -<p> -Most people have an exaggerated idea of the hen's success as a -hatcher. I have a number of records of hen hatching with large -numbers of eggs set, and they are all between 55 per cent. and 60 -per cent. The reasons the hen does not hatch better are as follows: -</p> -<p> -First: Actual infertile eggs—usually, running about 10 per cent. in -the best season of the year. -</p> -<p> -Second: Mechanical breakage. -</p> -<p> -Third: Eggs accidentally getting chilled by rolled to one side of -the nests, or by the sick, lousy or crazy hens leaving the nests or -standing up on the eggs. -</p> -<p> -Fourth: Eggs getting damp from wet nests, dung or broken eggs; thus -causing bacterial infection and decay. -</p> -<p> -The last three causes are not present in artificial incubation. From -my observation they cause a loss of 15 per cent. of the eggs that -fail to hatch, when hens are managed in large numbers. This would -properly credit our hens with hatches running from 70 per cent. to -75 per cent., which, for reasons later explained, is not equal to -hatches under the best known conditions of artificial incubation. -</p> -<p> -The assumption that the hen is a perfect hatcher, even barring -accidents and the inherited imperfection of the egg, is not, I -think, in harmony with our general conception of nature. Not only -are eggs under the hens subject to unfavorable weather conditions, -but the hen, to satisfy her whims or hunger, frequently remains too -long away from the eggs, allowing them to become chilled. -</p> -<p> -For directions of how to manage setting hens, consult the Chapter on -"Poultry on the General Farm." -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -The Wisdom of the Egyptians. -</p> -<p> -Up to the present there have been just three types of artificial -incubation that have proven successful enough to warrant our -attention. These are: -</p> -<p> -First, the modern wooden-box-kerosene-lamp incubator which is seen -at its best development in the United States. -</p> -<p> -Second, the Egyptian incubator of ancient origin, which is a large -clay oven holding thousands of eggs and warmed by smouldering fires -of straw. -</p> -<p> -Third, the Chinese incubator, much on the principle of the Egyptian -hatchery, but run in the room of an ordinary house, heated with -charcoal braziers and used only for duck eggs. -</p> -<p> -I have no accurate information on the results of the Chinese method, -and as it is not used for hen eggs, we will confine our attention to -the first two processes only. -</p> -<p> -I do not care to go into detail in discussing makes of box -incubators, but I will mention briefly the chief points in the -development of our present machines. -</p> -<p> -The first difficulties were in getting lamps, regulators, etc., that -would give a uniform temperature. This now has been worked out to a -point where, with any good incubator and an experienced operator, -the temperature of the egg chamber is readily kept within the -desired range. -</p> -<p> -These are two principal types of box incubators now in use. In the -earliest of these, the eggs were heated by radiation from a tank of -hot water. These machines depended for ventilation or, what is much -more important, evaporation, upon chance air currents passing in and -out of augur holes in the ends or bottom of the machine. -</p> -<p> -The second, or more modern type, warms the eggs by a current of air -which passes around a lamp flue where, being made lighter by the -expansion due to heat, the air rises, creating a draft that forces -it into the egg chamber. There it is caused to spread by muslin or -felt diaphragms so that no perceptible current of air strikes the -eggs. This type is the most popular type of small incubator on the -market. Its advantage will be more readily seen after the discussion -of the principles of incubation. -</p> -<p> -Hazy tales of Egyptian incubators have gone the rounds of poultry -papers these many years. More recently some accurate accounts from -American travelers and European investigators have come to light, -and as a result, the average poultry editor is kept busy trying to -explain how such wonderful results can be obtained "in opposition to -the well-known laws of incubation." -</p> -<p> -The facts about Egyptian incubators are as follows: They have a -capacity of 50 to 100 thousand eggs, and are built as a single large -room, partly underground and made of clay reinforced with straw. The -walls are two or three feet thick. Inside, the main rooms are little -clay domes with two floors. -</p> -<p> -The hatching season begins the middle of January and lasts three -months. A couple of weeks before the hatching begins, the fireproof -house is filled with straw which is set afire, thoroughly warming -the hatchery. The ashes are then taken out and little fires built in -pots are set around the outside of the big room. The little clay -rooms with the double floors are now filled with eggs. That is, one -is filled at a time, the idea being to have fresh eggs entering and -chicks moving out in a regular order, so as not to cause radical -changes in the temperature of the hatchery. -</p> -<p> -No thermometer is used, but the operator has a very highly -cultivated sense of temperature, such as is possessed by a cheese -maker or dynamite dryer. About the twelfth day the eggs are moved to -the upper part of the little interior rooms where they are further -removed from the heated floor. The eggs are turned and tested out -much as in this country. They are never cooled and the room is full -of the fumes and smoke of burning straw. The ventilation provided is -incidental. -</p> -<p> -This is about the whole story save for results. The incubator men -pay back three chicks for four eggs, and take their profits by -selling the extra chicks that are hatched above the 75 per cent. -This statement is in itself so astonishing and yet convincing, that -to add that the hatch runs between 85 per cent. and 90 per cent. of -all eggs set, and that the incubators of the Nile Delta hatch about -75,000,000 chicks a year seems almost superfluous. As for the -explanation of the results of the Egyptian incubators compared with -the American kerosene lamp type, I think it can best be brought -about by a consideration in detail of the scientific principles of -incubators. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Principles of Incubation. -</p> -<p> -HEAT.—To keep animal life, once started, alive and growing, we -need: First, a suitable surrounding temperature. Second, a fairly -constant proportion of water in the body substance. Third, oxygen. -Fourth, food. -</p> -<p> -Now, a fertile egg is a living young animal and as such its wants -should be considered. We may at once dispose of the food problem of -the unhatched chick, by saying that the food is the contents of the -egg at the time of laying, and as far as incubation is concerned, is -beyond our control. -</p> -<p> -In consideration of external temperature in its relation to life, we -should note: (A) the optimum temperature; (B) the range of -temperature consistent with general good health; (C) the range at -which death occurs. Just to show the principle at stake, and without -looking up authorities, I will state these temperatures for a number -of animals. Of course you can dispute the accuracy of these figures, -but they will serve to illustrate our purpose: -</p> -<table align="center" summary="comparative temperatures"> - -<tr><td> </td><td align="right">External Optimum Point</td> <td align="right">External Healthful Range</td> <td align="right">External Fatal Range</td> <td align="right">Internal Optimum Point</td> <td align="right">Internal Fatal Range </td></tr> - -<tr><td>Man</td> <td align="right">70</td> <td align="right">0 to 100</td> <td align="right">50 to 140</td> <td align="right">98</td> <td align="right">90 to 106</td></tr> - -<tr><td>Dog</td> <td align="right">60</td> <td align="right">70 to 140</td> <td align="right">70 to 140</td> <td align="right">101</td> <td align="right">95 to 110</td></tr> - -<tr><td>Monkey</td> <td align="right">90</td> <td align="right">30 to 140</td> <td align="right">30 to 140</td> <td align="right">101</td> <td align="right">95 to 108</td></tr> - -<tr><td>Horse</td> <td align="right">80</td> <td align="right">20 to 120</td> <td align="right">20 to 120</td> <td align="right">99</td> <td align="right">95 to 105</td></tr> - -<tr><td>Fowl</td> <td align="right">80</td> <td align="right">20 to 140</td> <td align="right">20 to 140</td> <td align="right">107</td> <td align="right">100 to 115</td></tr> - -<tr><td>Newly hatched chick</td> <td align="right">90</td> <td align="right">70 to 100</td> <td align="right">40 to 120</td> <td align="right">108</td> <td align="right"> 100 to 115</td></tr> - -<tr><td>Fertile egg at start of incubation</td> <td align="right">103</td> <td align="right">32 to 110</td> <td align="right">31 to 125</td> <td align="right">103</td> <td align="right"> 31 to 125</td></tr> - -<tr><td>Egg incubated three days</td> <td align="right">103</td> <td align="right">98 to 105</td> <td align="right">80 to 118</td> <td align="right">103</td> <td align="right"> 95 to 118</td></tr> - -<tr><td>Egg incubated eighteen days</td> <td align="right">103</td> <td align="right">75 to 105</td> <td align="right">50 to 118</td> <td align="right">106</td> <td align="right"> 98 to 116</td></tr> -</table> -<p> -This table shows, among other things, that we are considering in the -chick not a new proposition to which the laws of general animal life -do not apply, but merely a young animal during the process of growth -to a point where its internal mechanism for heat control, has power -to maintain the body temperature through a greater range of external -temperature change. -</p> -<p> -In the cooling process that occurs after laying the living cells of -the egg become dormant, and like a hibernating animal, the actual -internal temperature can be subjected to a much greater range than -when the animal is active. After incubation begins and cell activity -returns, and especially after blood forms and circulation commences, -the temperature of the chick becomes subject to about the same -internal range as with other warm blooded animals. -</p> -<p> -In the case of fully formed animals, the internal temperature is -regulated by a double process. If the external temperature be -lowered, more food substance is combined with oxygen to keep up the -warmth of the body, while, if the external temperature be raised, -the body temperature is kept low by the cooling effects of -evaporation. This occurs in mammals chiefly by sweating. Birds do -not sweat, but the same effect is brought about by increased -breathing. Now, the chick gradually develops the heat producing -function during incubation, until towards the close of the period it -can take care of itself fairly well in case of lowered external -temperature. The power to cool the body by breathing is not, -however, granted to the unhatched chick, and for this reason the -incubating egg cannot stand excess of heat as well as lack of it. -</p> -<p> -The practical points to be remembered from the above are: -</p> -<p> -First: Before incubation begins, eggs may be subjected to any -temperature that will not physically or chemically injure the -substance. -</p> -<p> -Second: During the first few days of the hatch, eggs have no -appreciable power of heat formation and the external temperature for -any considerable period of time can safely vary only within the -range of temperature at which the physiological process may be -carried on. -</p> -<p> -Third: As the chick develops it needs less careful guarding against -cooling, and must still be guarded against over-heating. -</p> -<p> -Fourth: It should be remembered, however, that eggs are very poor -conductors of heat, and if the temperature change is not great -several hours of exposure are required to bring the egg to the new -temperature. -</p> -<p> -Temperature is the most readily observed feature about natural -incubation and its control was consequently the first and chief -effort of the early incubator inventors. -</p> -<p> -A great deal of experimental work has been done to determine the -degree of temperature for eggs during incubation. The temperature of -the hen's blood is about 105 to 107 degrees F. The eggs are not -warmed quite to this temperature, the amount by which they fail to -reach the temperature of the hen's body depending, of course, upon -the surrounding temperature. 103 degrees F. is the temperature that -has been generally agreed upon by incubator manufacturers. Some of -these advise running 102 degrees the first week, 103 degrees the -second, 104 degrees the third. As a matter of fact it is very -difficult to determine the actual temperature of the egg in the box -incubator. This is because the source of heat is above the eggs and -the air temperature changes rapidly as the thermometer is raised or -lowered through the egg chamber. The advice to place the bulb of the -thermometer against the live egg is very good, but in practice quite -variable results will be found on different eggs and different parts -of the machine. -</p> -<p> -With incubators of the same make, and in all appearances identical, -quite marked variation in hatching capacity has been observed in -individual machines. Careful experimentation will usually show this -to be a matter of the way the thermometer is hung in relation to the -heating surfaces and to the eggs. Ovi-thermometers, which consists -of a thermometer enclosed in the celluloid imitation of an egg, are -now in the market and are perhaps as safe as anything that can be -used. -</p> -<p> -As was indicated in the previous section greater care in temperature -of the egg is necessary in the first half of the hatch. The -temperature of 102 degrees F. as above given is, in the writer's -opinion, too low for this portion of the hatch. An actual -temperature of 104 degrees at the top of the eggs will, as has been -shown by careful experimental work, give better hatches than the -lower temperature. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Moisture and Evaporation. -</p> -<p> -The subject of the water content of the egg and its relation to -life, is the least understood of poultry problems. -</p> -<p> -The whole study of the water content of the egg during incubation -hangs on the amount of evaporation. Now, the rates of evaporation -from any moist object is determined by two factors: vapor pressure -and the rate of movement of the air past the object. As incubation -is always carried on at the same temperature, the evaporating power -of the air is directly proportioned to the difference in the vapor -pressure of water at that temperature, and the vapor pressure of the -air as it enters the machine. Thus, in order to know the evaporative -power of the air, we have only to determine the vapor pressure of -the air and to remember that the rate of evaporation is in -proportion to this pressure, i.e.: when the vapor pressure is high -the evaporation will be slow and the eggs remain too wet, and when -the vapor pressure is low the eggs will be excessively dried out. -</p> -<p> -The reader is probably more familiar with the term relative humidity -than the term vapor pressure, but as the actual significance of -relative humidity is changed at every change in outside temperature, -the use of this term for expressing the evaporating power of the air -has led to no end of confusion. -</p> -<p> -The influence of air currents on evaporation is to increase it -directly proportional with the rate of air movement. Thus, 10 cubic -feet of air per hour passing through an egg chamber would remove -twice as much moisture as would 5 cubic feet. -</p> -<p> -If the percentage of water in any living body be changed a -relatively small amount, serious disturbances of the physiological -processes and ultimately death will result. The mature animal can, -by drinking, take considerable excess of water without danger, for -the surplus will be speedily removed by perspiration and by the -secretion from the kidneys. But the percentage of water in the -actual tissues of the body can vary only within a narrow range of -not more than three or four per cent. The chick in the shell is not -provided with means of increasing its water content by drinking or -diminishing it by excretion, but the fresh egg is provided with more -moisture than the hatched chick will require, and the surplus is -gradually lost by evaporation. This places the water content of the -chick's body at the mercies of the evaporating power of the air that -surrounds the egg during incubation. -</p> -<p> -To assume that these risks of uncertain rates of evaporation is -desirable, is as absurd as to assume that the risks of rainfall are -desirable for plant life. As the plants of a certain climate have -become adapted to the amount of soil moisture which the climate is -likely to provide, so the egg has by natural selection been formed -with about as much excess of water as will be lost in an average -season under the natural conditions of incubation. Plant life -suffers in drought or flood, and likewise bird life suffers in -seasons of abnormal evaporative conditions. This view is -substantiated by the fact that the eggs of water fowl which are in -nature incubated in damper places, have a lower water content than -the eggs of land birds. -</p> -<p> -The per cent. of water contained in the contents of fresh eggs is -about 74 per cent., or about 65.5 per cent. based on the weight, -shell included. Unfortunately no investigations have been made -concerning the per cent. of water present in the newly hatched -chick. -</p> -<p> -Upon the subject of the loss of water for the whole period of -incubation, valuable data has been collected at the Utah, Oregon and -Ontario Experiment Stations. -</p> -<p> -In these tests we find that as a rule the evaporation of eggs under -hens is less than in incubators. With both hens and incubators, the -rate of evaporation is greatest at the Utah Station, which one would -naturally expect from the climate. The eggs under hens at the -Ontario Station averaged about 12 per cent. loss in weight, and -those at the Utah Station about 15 per cent. At both stations, -incubators without moisture ran several per cent. higher evaporation -than eggs under hens. The conclusions at all stations were that the -addition of moisture to incubators was a material aid to good -hatches of livable chicks. -</p> -<p> -At Ontario the average evaporation ran from as low as 7 per cent. At -Utah it reached as high as 24 per cent. Now as the entire loss of -weight is loss of water, the solid contents remaining the same, and -as the original per cent. of water contained in the egg (shell -included) is only 65.5, the chicks of the two lots with the same -amount of solid substance would contain water in the proportion of -58.5 to 41.5. Based on the weight of the chick, this would make a -difference of water content of over 25 per cent. -</p> -<p> -That human beings or other animals could not exist with such -differences in the chemical composition of the body, is at once -apparent. In fact I do not believe that the chick can live under -such remarkable circumstances. As I have picked the extreme cases in -the series given, it is possible that these extremes were -experimental errors, and as in the Utah data, no information is -given as what happened to the chicks, I have no proof that they did -live. But from the large number of hatches that were recorded below -9 per cent. and above 15 per cent., giving a variation of the actual -water content in the chick's body of about 10 per cent., it is -evident that chicks do hatch under remarkable physiological -difficulties. One explanation that suggests itself is, that as there -is considerable variation in evaporation of individual eggs due to -the amount of shell porosity, and the chicks that hatch in either -case may be the ones whose individual variations threw them nearer -the normal. -</p> -<p> -By a further study from the Ontario data of the relation of the -evaporation to the results in livable chicks, it can be readily -observed that all good hatches have evaporation centering around the -12 per cent. moisture loss, and that all lots with evaporations -above 15 per cent. hatch out extremely poor. -</p> -<p> -The general averages of the machines supplied with some form of -moisture was 35 per cent. of all eggs set, in chicks alive at four -weeks of age, while the machines ran dry gave only 20 per cent. of -live chicks at a similar period. -</p> -<p> -Now, I wish to call attention to a further point in connection with -evaporation. If the final measure of the loss of weight by -evaporation were the only criterion of correct conditions of -moisture in the chick's body, the hatches that show 12 per cent., or -whatever the correct amount of evaporation may be, should be -decidedly superior to those on either side. That they are better, -has already been shown. But they are far from what they should be. -An explanation is not hard to find. The correct content of moisture -is not the only essential to the chick's well being at the moments -of hatching, but during the whole period of incubation. Under our -present system of incubation, the chick is immediately subject to -the changing evaporation of American weather conditions. The data -for that fact, picked at random, will be of interest. The following -table gives the vapor pressure at Buffalo, N. Y., for twenty -consecutive days in April: -</p> -<table align="center" width="30%" summary="vapor pressure"> -<tr><td>April 1</td> <td align="right">170</td></tr> -<tr><td>April 2</td> <td align="right">130</td></tr> -<tr><td>April 3</td> <td align="right">95</td></tr> -<tr><td>April 4</td> <td align="right">103</td></tr> -<tr><td>April 5</td> <td align="right">110</td></tr> -<tr><td>April 6</td> <td align="right">106</td></tr> -<tr><td>April 7</td> <td align="right">154</td></tr> -<tr><td>April 8</td> <td align="right">183</td></tr> -<tr><td>April 9</td> <td align="right">245</td></tr> -<tr><td>April 10</td> <td align="right">311</td></tr> -<tr><td>April 11</td> <td align="right">342</td></tr> -<tr><td>April 12</td> <td align="right">286</td></tr> -<tr><td>April 13</td> <td align="right">219</td></tr> -<tr><td>April 14</td> <td align="right">248</td></tr> -<tr><td>April 15</td> <td align="right">217</td></tr> -<tr><td>April 16</td> <td align="right">193</td></tr> -<tr><td>April 17</td> <td align="right">241</td></tr> -<tr><td>April 18</td> <td align="right">306</td></tr> -<tr><td>April 19</td> <td align="right">261</td></tr> -<tr><td>April 20</td> <td align="right">204</td></tr> -</table> -<p> -Supposing a hatch to be started at the beginning of the above -period, by the end of the first week, with the excessive -evaporation, due to a low vapor pressure, the eggs would all be -several per cent. below the normal water content; the fact that the -next week was warm and rainy, and the vapor pressure rose until the -loss was entirely counterbalanced, would not repair the injury, even -though the eggs showed at the end of incubation exactly the correct -amount of shrinkage. A man might thirst in the desert for a week, -then, coming to a hole of water fall in and drown, but we would -hardly accept the report of a normal water content found at the -post-mortem examination as evidence that his death was not connected -with the moisture problem. -</p> -<p> -The change of evaporation, due to weather conditions, is, under -hens, less marked than in incubators. This is because there are no -drafts under the hen, and because the hen's moist body and the moist -earth, if she sets on the ground, are separate sources of moisture -which the changing humidity of the atmosphere does not affect. Among -about forty hens set at different times at the Utah Station and the -loss of moisture of which was determined at three equal periods of -six days each, the greatest irregularity I found was as follows: 1st -period, 5.81 per cent; 2d period, 3.86 per cent; 3d period, 6.15 per -cent. Compare this with a similar incubator record at the same -station in which the loss for the three periods was 5.63, 9.18 and -2.15. -</p> -<p> -I think the reader is now in position to appreciate the almost -unsurmountable difficulties in the proper control of evaporation -with the common small incubator in our climate. It is little wonder -that one of our best incubator manufacturers, after studying the -proposition for some time, threw over the whole moisture -proposition, and put out a machine in which drafts of air were -slowed down by felt diaphragms and the use of moisture was strictly -forbidden. -</p> -<p> -The moisture problem to the small incubator operator presents itself -as follows: If left to the mercies of chance and the weather, the -too great or too little evaporation from his eggs will yield hatches -that will prove unprofitable. In order to regulate this evaporation, -he must know and be able to control both vapor pressure and the -currents of air that strike the eggs. Now he does not know the -amount of vapor pressure and has no way of finding it out. The -so-called humidity gauges on the market are practically worthless, -and even were the readings on relative humidity accurately -determined, they would be wholly confusing, for their effect of the -same relative humidity on the evaporation will vary widely with -variations of the out-of-door temperature. -</p> -<p> -If the operator knows or guesses that the humidity is too low, he -can increase it by adding water to the room, or the egg chamber, but -he cannot tell when he has too much, nor can he reduce the vapor -pressure of the air on rainy days when nature gives him too much -water. As to air currents he is little better off—he has no way to -tell accurately as to the behavior of air in the egg chamber and -changes in temperature of the heater or if the outside air will -throw these currents all off, since they depend upon the draft -principle. -</p> -<p> -Taking it all in all, the man with the small incubator had better -follow the manufacturer's directions and trust to luck. -</p> -<p> -The writer has long been of the conviction that a plan which would -keep the rate of evaporation within as narrow bounds as we now keep -the temperature, would not only solve the problem of artificial -incubation, but improve on nature and increase not only the numbers -but the vitality or livability of the chicks. With a view of -studying further the relations between the conditions of atmospheric -vapor pressure, and the success of artificial incubation, I have -investigated climatic reports and hatching records in the various -sections of the world. -</p> -<p> -The following are averages of the monthly vapor pressures at four -points in which we are interested: -</p> -<table align="center" width="50%" summary="vapor pressures"> - -<tr><td>Month</td> <td align="right">Buffalo, N.Y.</td> <td align="right">St. Louis, Mo.</td> <td align="right">San Francisco.</td> <td align="right">Cairo, Egypt</td></tr> -<tr><td>January</td> <td align="right">87</td> <td align="right">98</td> <td align="right">311</td> <td align="right">279</td></tr> -<tr><td>February</td> <td align="right">81</td> <td align="right">94</td> <td align="right">310</td> <td align="right">288</td></tr> -<tr><td>March</td> <td align="right">138</td> <td align="right">224</td> <td align="right">337</td> <td align="right">287</td></tr> -<tr><td>April</td> <td align="right">171</td> <td align="right">283</td> <td align="right">332</td> <td align="right">311</td></tr> -<tr><td>May</td> <td align="right">301</td> <td align="right">423</td> <td align="right">317</td> <td align="right">328</td></tr> -<tr><td>June</td> <td align="right">466</td> <td align="right">550</td> <td align="right">345</td> <td align="right">365</td></tr> -<tr><td>July</td> <td align="right">546</td> <td align="right">599</td> <td align="right">374</td> <td align="right">413</td></tr> -<tr><td>August</td> <td align="right">496</td> <td align="right">627</td> <td align="right">382</td> <td align="right">435</td></tr> -<tr><td>September</td> <td align="right">429</td> <td align="right">506</td> <td align="right">389</td> <td align="right">372</td></tr> -<tr><td>October</td> <td align="right">285</td> <td align="right">327</td> <td align="right">342</td> <td align="right">365</td></tr> -<tr><td>November</td> <td align="right">271</td> <td align="right">225</td> <td align="right">285</td> <td align="right">321</td></tr> -<tr><td>December</td> <td align="right">143</td> <td align="right">133</td> <td align="right">243</td> <td align="right">397</td></tr> -</table> -<p> -A study of the extent of daily variations is also of interest. As a -general thing they are less extreme in localities when the seasonal -variations are also less. In Cairo, however, which has a seasonal -variation greater than San Francisco, the daily variations during -the hatching season are much less than in California. This is due to -a constant wind from sea to land, and an absolute absence of -rainfall, conditions for which Egypt is noted. -</p> -<p> -Nearness to a coast does not mean uniform vapor pressure, for with -wind alternating from sea to land, it means just the opposite. -</p> -<p> -As will be readily seen the months in spring which give the best -hatches, occupy a medium place in the humidity scale. The fact that -both hens and machines succeed best in this period, is to me very -suggestive of the possibility that with an incubator absolutely -controlling evaporation, much of the seasonal variation in the -hatchability would disappear. -</p> -<p> -The uniform humidity of the California coast is shown in the above -table. This is not inconsistent with the excellent results obtained -at Petaluma. -</p> -<p> -The Egyptian hatcher in his long experience has learned just about -how much airholes and smudge fire are necessary to get results. With -these kept constant and the atmosphere constant, we have more nearly -perfect conditions of incubation than are to be found anywhere else -in the world, and I do not except the natural methods. The climatic -conditions of Egypt cannot be equaled in any other climate, but as -will be shown in the last section of this chapter, their effect can -be duplicated readily enough by modern science and engineering. -</p> -<p> -Mr. Edward Brown, who was sent over here by the English Government -to investigate our poultry industry, was greatly surprised at our -poor results in artificial incubation. Compared with our -acknowledged records of less than 50 per cent. hatches, he quotes -the results obtained in hatching 18,000 eggs at an English -experiment station as 62 per cent. I have not obtained any data of -English humidity, but it is undoubtedly more uniform than the -eastern United States. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Ventilation—Carbon Dioxide. -</p> -<p> -The last of the four life requisites we have to consider is that of -oxygen. The chick in the shell, like a fish, breathes oxygen which -is dissolved in a liquid. A special breathing organ is developed for -the chick during its embryonic stages and floats in the white and -absorbs the oxygen and gives off carbon dioxide. The amount of this -breathing that occurs in the chick is at first insignificant, but -increases with development. At no time, however, is it anywhere -equal to that of the hatched chicks, for the physiological function -to be maintained by the unhatched chicks requires little energy and -little oxidation. -</p> -<p> -Upon the subject of ventilation in general, a great misunderstanding -exists. Be it far from me to say anything that will cause either my -readers or his chickens to sleep less in the fresh air, yet for the -love of truth and for the simplification of the problem of -incubation, the real facts about ventilation must be given. -</p> -<p> -In breathing, oxygen is absorbed and carbon dioxide and water vapor -are given off. It is popularly held that abundance of fresh air is -necessary to supply the oxygen for breathing and that carbon dioxide -is a poison. Both are mistakes. The amount of oxygen normally in the -air is about 20 per cent. Of carbon dioxide there is normally three -hundredths of one per cent. During breathing these gasses are -exchanged in about equal volume. A doubling or tripling of carbon -dioxide was formerly thought to be "very dangerous." Now, if the -carbon dioxide were increased 100 times, we would have only three -per cent., and have seventeen per cent. of oxygen remaining. This -oxygen would still be of sufficient pressure to readily pass into -the blood. We might breathe a little faster to make up for the -lessened oxygen pressure. In fact such a condition of the air would -not be unlike the effects of higher altitudes. -</p> -<p> -Some investigations recently conducted at the U.S. Experiment -Station for human nutrition, have shown the utter misconception of -the old idea of ventilation. The respiratory calorimeter is an -air-tight compartment in which men are confined for a week or more -at a time while studies are being made concerning heat and energy -yielded by food products. It being inconvenient to analyze such an -immense volume of air as would be necessary to keep the room -freshened according to conventional ventilation standards, -experiments were made to see how vitiated the air could be made -without causing ill effects to the subject. -</p> -<p> -This led to a remarkable series of experiments in which it was -repeatedly demonstrated that a man could live and work for a week at -a time without experiencing any ill effects whatever in an -atmosphere of his own breath containing as high as 1.86 per cent. of -carbon dioxide, or, in other words, the air had its impurity -increased 62 times. This agrees with what every chemist and -physiologist has long known, and that is that carbon dioxide is not -poisonous, but is a harmless dilutant just as nitrogen. This does -not mean that a man or animal may not die of suffocation, but that -these are smothered, as they are drowned, by a real absence of -oxygen, not poisoned by a fraction of 1 per cent. of carbon dioxide. -</p> -<p> -In the same series of experiments, search was made for the -mysterious poisons of the breath which many who had learned of the -actual harmlessness of carbon dioxide alleged to be the cause of the -ill effects attributed to foul air. Without discussion, I will say -that the investigators failed to find such poisons, but concluded -that the sense of suffocation in an unventilated room is due not to -carbon dioxide or other "poisonous" respiratory products, but is -wholly due to warmth, water vapor, and the unpleasant odors given -off by the body. -</p> -<p> -The subject of ventilation has always been a bone of contention in -incubator discussions. With its little understood real importance, -as shown in the previous section, and the greatly exaggerated -popular notions of the importance of oxygen and imagined poisonous -qualities of carbon dioxide, the confusion in the subject should -cause little wonder. -</p> -<p> -A few years ago some one with an investigating mind decided to see -if incubators were properly ventilated, and proceeded to make carbon -dioxide determinations of the air under a hen and in an incubator. -The air under the hen was found to contain the most of the obnoxious -gas. Now, this information was disconcerting, for the hen had always -been considered the source of all incubator wisdom. Clearly the -perfection of the hen or the conception of pure air must be -sacrificed. Chemistry here came to the rescue, and said that carbon -dioxide mixed with water, formed an acid and acid would dissolve the -lime of an egg shell. Evidently the hen was sacrificing her own -health by breathing impure air in order to soften up the shells a -little so the chicks could get out. Since it could have been -demonstrated in a few hours in any laboratory, that carbon dioxide -in the quantities involved, has no perceptible effect upon egg -shells, it is with some apology that I mention that quite a deal of -good brains has been spent upon the subject by two experiment -stations. The data accumulated, of course, fails to prove the -theory, but it is interesting as further evidence of the -needlessness in the old fear of insufficient ventilation. -</p> -<p> -At the Ontario Station, the average amounts of carbon dioxide under -a large number of hens was .32 of one per cent., or about ten times -that of fresh air, or one-sixth of that which the man breathed so -happily in the respiratory calorimeter. With incubators, every -conceivable scheme was tried to change the amount of carbon dioxide. -In some, sour milk was placed which, in fermenting, gives off the -gas in question. Others were supplied with buttermilk, presumably to -familiarize the chickens with this article so they would recognize -it in the fattening rations. In other machines, lamp fumes were run -in, and to still others, pure carbon dioxide was supplied. The -percentage of the gas present varied in the machines from .06 to .58 -of one per cent. The results, of course, vary as any run of hatches -would. The detailed discussion of the hatches and their relation to -the amount of carbon dioxide as given in Bulletin 160 of the Ontario -Station, would be unfortunately confusing to the novice, but would -make amusing reading for the old poultryman. Speaking of a -comparison of two hatches, the writer, on page 53 of the bulletin -says, "The increase in vitality of chicks from the combination of -the carbon dioxide and moisture over moisture only, amounting, as it -does, to 4.5 per cent. of the eggs set, seems directly due to the -higher carbon dioxide content." I cannot refrain from suggesting -that if my reader has two incubators, he might set up a Chinese -prayer machine in front of one and see if he cannot in like manner -demonstrate the efficacy of Heavenly supplications in the hatching -of chickens. -</p> -<p> -The practical bearing of the subject of ventilation in the small -incubator is almost wholly one of evaporation. The majority of such -machines are probably too much ventilated. In a large and properly -constructed hatchery, such as is discussed in the last section of -this chapter, the entire composition of the air, as well as its -movement, is entirely under control. Nothing has yet been brought to -light that indicates any particular attention need be given to the -composition of such air save in regard to its moisture content, but -as the control of this factor renders it necessary that the air be -in a closed circuit, and not open to all out-doors, it will be very -easy to subject the air to further changes such as the increasing -oxygen, if such can be demonstrated to be desirable. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Turning Eggs. -</p> -<p> -The subject of turning eggs is another source of rather meaningless -controversy. Of course, the hen moves her eggs around and in doing -so turns them. Doubtless the reader, were he setting on a pile of -door knobs as big as his head, would do the same thing. As proof -that eggs need turning, we are referred to the fact that yolks stick -to the shell if the eggs are not turned. I have candled thousands of -eggs and have yet to see a yolk stuck to the shell unless the egg -contained foreign organism or was several months old. However, I -have seen hundreds of blood rings stuck to the shell. Whether the -chick died because the blood rings stuck or whether the blood rings -stuck because the chicken died I know not, but I have a strong -presumption that the latter explanation is correct, for I see no -reason if the live blood ring was in the habit of sticking to the -shell, why this would not occur in a few hours as well as in a few -days. -</p> -<p> -In the year 1901 I saw plenty of chicks hatched out in Kansas in egg -cases, kitchen cupboards and other places where regular turning was -entirely overlooked. -</p> -<p> -Mr. J.P. Collins, head of the Produce Department of Swift & Co., -says that he was one time cruelly deserted in a Pullman smoker for -telling the same story. The statement is true, however, in spite of -Mr. Collins' unpleasant experience. Texas egg dealers frequently -find hatched chickens in cases of eggs. -</p> -<p> -Upon the subject of turning eggs the writer will admit that he is -doing what poultry writers as a class do on a great many occasions, -i.e.: expressing an opinion rather than giving the proven facts. In -incubation practice it is highly desirable to change the position of -eggs so that unevenness in temperature and evaporation will be -balanced. When doing this it is easier to turn the eggs than not to -turn them, and for this reason the writer has never gone to the -trouble of thoroughly investigating the matter. But it has been -abundantly proven that any particular pains in egg turning is a -waste of time. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Cooling Eggs. -</p> -<p> -The belief in the necessity of cooling eggs undoubtedly arose from -the effort to follow closely and blindly in the footsteps of the -hen. With this idea in mind the fact that the hen cooled her eggs -occasionally led us to discover a theory which proved such cooling -to be necessary. A more reasonable theory is that the hen cools the -eggs from necessity, not from choice. In some species of birds the -male relieves the female while the latter goes foraging. -</p> -<p> -But there is no need to argue the question. Eggs will hatch if -cooled according to custom, but that they will hatch as well or -better without the cooling is abundantly proven by the results in -Egyptian incubators where no cooling whatever is practiced. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Searching for the "Open Sesame" of Incubation. -</p> -<p> -The experiment station workers have, the last few years, gone a -hunting for the weak spot in artificial incubation. Some reference -to this work has already been made in the sections on moisture and -ventilation. Before leaving the subject I want to refer to two more -efforts to find this key to the mystery of incubation and in the one -case at least correct an erroneous impression that has been given -out. -</p> -<p> -At the Ontario Station a patent disinfectant wash called "Zenoleum" -was incidentally used to deodorize incubators. Now, for some reason, -perhaps due to the belief that white diarrhoea was caused by a germ -in the egg, this idea of washing with Zenoleum was conceived to be a -possible solution of the incubator problem. In the numerous -experiments at that station in 1907 Zenoleum applied to the machine -in various ways was combined with various other incipient panaceas -and at the end of the season the results of the various combinations -were duly tabulated. The machine with buttermilk and Zenoleum headed -the list for livable chicks. -</p> -<p> -For reasons explained in the chapter on "Experiment Station Work," -the idea of contrasting the results of one hatch with one sort with -the average results of many hatches of another sort is very poor -science. Feeling that the Station men would hardly be guilty of -expressing as they did in favor of such a method without better -reason, I very carefully went over the results and compared all -machines using Zenoleum with all machines without it. The results in -favor of Zenoleum were less marked but still perceptible. I was -somewhat puzzled, as I could see no rational explanation of the -relation between disinfecting incubator walls and the hatchability -of the chick in its germ-proof cage. Finally I hit upon the scheme -of arranging the hatches by dates and the explanation became at once -apparent. The hatching experiments had extended from March to July, -but the Zenoleum hatches were grouped in April and early in May, -when, as one would expect from weather conditions, all hatches were -running good. After allowing for this error Zenoleum appeared as -harmless and meaningless as would the Attar of Roses. -</p> -<p> -The second link after the missing link of incubation to which I wish -to call your attention also occurred at the Ontario Station. The -latter case, however, is happier in that no unwarranted conclusions -were drawn and that an interesting bit of scientific knowledge was -added to the world's store. The conception to be tested was an -offshoot from the carbon dioxide theory. You will remember at the -Utah Station the idea was that carbon dioxide was to dissolve the -shell so the chick could break out easier. -</p> -<p> -At the Guelph Station the conception was that the carbon dioxide -might dissolve the lime of the shell for the chick to use in "makin' -hisself." As an egg could not be analyzed fresh and then hatched, a -number were analyzed from the same hens and others from those hens -were then incubated with the various amounts of carbon dioxide, -buttermilk, Zenoleum, and other factors. The lime content of the -contents of the fresh egg averaged about .04 grams. At hatching time -the lime in the chick's body averaged about .20 grams and was always -several times as great as the maximum of the eggs. -</p> -<p> -Clearly calcium phosphate of the chick's bones is made by the -digestion of the calcium carbonate from the shell and its -combination with the phosphorus of the yolk. Certainly a remarkable -and hitherto unexplained fact. The amount of lime required is not -great enough, however, to materially weaken the shell, but, of -course, the process is vital to the chick as bones are quite -essential to his welfare, but it is an "inside affair" of which the -three-tenths of one per cent of carbon dioxide incidentally present -under the hen is entirely irrelevant. -</p> -<p> -A further observation made by the investigator is that the chicks -which obtained the lowest amount of lime were abnormally weak. As -long as we are powerless to aid the chick in digesting lime this -fact, like the other, belongs in the field of pure, rather than -applied science. I think that we are safe in saying that the -weakness caused the shortage of lime rather than vice versa; if the -writer remembers runts in other animals are usually a little short -of bone material. -</p> -<p> -The chemist of the station is to be given special credit for not -jumping at conclusions. In the summary of this work he states: -"There is apparently no connection between the amount of lime -absorbed by the chick and the amount of carbon dioxide present -during incubation." -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -The Box Type of Incubator In Actual Use. -</p> -<p> -Although the fact is not so advertised and frequently not recognized -even by the makers, the success of existing incubators is directly -proportional to the extent with which they control evaporation. In -order to show this I have only to call attention briefly to two or -three of the most successful types of incubators on the market. -</p> -<p> -Let me first repeat that evaporation increases with increased air -currents and with decreased vapor pressure. Now, the vapor pressure -undergoes all manner of changes with the passing of storm centers -and the changes of prevailing winds. But there is a general tendency -for vapor pressure to increase with increase in outside temperature. -Now, the movement of air in all common incubators depends upon the -draft principle and the greater the difference in machine -temperature and outside temperature the greater will be this draft. -Thus, we have two factors combining to cause variation in the rate -of evaporation. The tendency for the rate of airflow to vary is -diminished when a cellar is used for an incubator room, but the -cellar does not materially remedy the climatic variation in vapor -pressure. -</p> -<p> -The general tendency of incubators as ordinarily constructed, is to -dry out the eggs too rapidly. With a view of counteracting this, -water is placed in pans in the egg room. A surface of water exposed -to quiet air does not evaporate as fast as one might think, as is -easily shown by the fact that air above rivers, lakes and even seas -is frequently far from the saturation point. The result of the -moisture pan with a given current of air is that the vapor pressure -is increased a definite amount, but by no means is it regulated or -made uniform. Inasmuch as too much shrinking is the most prevalent -fault in box incubators, the use of moisture is on the whole -beneficial, but in hot, murky weather, with less circulation and -higher outside vapor pressure, the moisture is overdone and the -operator condemns the system. -</p> -<p> -The subject not being clearly understood and no means being -available for vapor pressure determinations, the system results in -confusion and disputes. When the felt diaphragm machine was brought -into the market it was advertised as a no-moisture machine. The -result of the diaphragm is that of choking off air movement and -consequently reducing evaporation. This gives exactly the same -results as the use of moisture, but the machine is easier to operate -and seemed to do away with the vexatious moisture problem which, -together perhaps, with some fancied resemblance of felt diaphragms -to hen feathers, has resulted in the widespread use of this type of -machine. -</p> -<p> -The latest effort along the lines of reducing evaporation is the -sand tray machine that followed in the wake of the Ontario -investigation. This device simply gives a greater evaporating -surface to the water and hence a greater addition to the vapor -pressure. The results in practice I had given me by a man who last -year hatched sixty-five thousand chicks and as many more ducklings. -</p> -<p> -He said: "The sand tray early in the season gave the best hatches -and most vigorous chicks we had, but later on things got too wet and -the chickens drowned." No nicer demonstration of science in practice -could be desired. -</p> -<p> -In the present-day incubator of either type we are wholly at the -mercy of sudden climatic changes of vapor pressure. For the slower -changes from season to season some control by greater and less -amounts of supplied moisture, or by ventilator slides is available, -but little understood and seldom practiced. -</p> -<p> -It will certainly be of interest to my readers to know the actual -hatches obtained with the prevailing type of box incubator. By -actual hatches we mean the per cent. of live chicks taken out of the -machine to the per cent. of eggs put in. The ordinary published -hatches, based on one per cent. of fertile hatches, are a delusion -and a snare. When eggs are tested out many dead germs come out with -them and the separation of microscopic dead germs from the infertile -egg is, of course, impossible. Such padded and show hatching records -do not interest us. -</p> -<p> -Where incubators are run on top of the ground I have found the -results to be poor and to improve, the bigger and deeper and damper -and warmer and less ventilated the cellar is made. The reason for -this is plain. In such a cellar the vapor pressure of the air is not -only greater but is less influenced by the shifting vapor pressure -of the outside air. In a good cellar the operator, though his -knowledge of the factors with which he deals is grievously -deficient, learns, through long and costly experience, about what -addition of moisture or about what rate of ventilation will give him -the best results. In the room more subject to outside influences, -the conditions are so constantly changing that uniformity of -practice never gives uniform results, and hence the operator is -without guidance, either intelligent or blind, and the results are -wholly a product of chance. -</p> -<p> -As proof of my contention I may give results of a series of full -season hatches for 1908, each involving several thousand eggs. -</p> -<p> -First, a state experiment station, the name of which I do not care -to publish. Incubators kept in a cement basement which has flues in -which fires were built to secure "ample ventilation." This caused a -strong draft of cold, dry air, making the worst possible condition -for incubation. The hatch for the season averaged 25 per cent. and -was explained by lack of vitality in the stock. -</p> -<p> -Second, Ontario Agricultural College. A room above ground, moisture -used in most machines and various other efforts being made to -improve the hatches by a staff of half a dozen scientists. Results: -Hatch 48 per cent.—incubator manufacturers call the experimenters -names and say they are ignorant and prejudiced. -</p> -<p> -Third, Cornell University: dry ventilated basement representing -typical conditions of common incubator practice of the country. -Results: Hatch 52 per cent., results when given out commonly based -on fertile eggs and every one generally pleased. -</p> -<p> -Fourth: One of the most successful poultrymen in New York State, who -has, without knowing why, hit upon the plan of using a no-moisture -type of incubator in a basement which is heated with steam pipes, -which maintains temperature at 70 degrees and has a cement floor -which is kept covered with water. Results: Hatch 59 per cent. -</p> -<p> -Fifth: As a fifth in such a series I might mention again the -Egyptian machine with the uniform vapor pressure of the climate and -the three chicks exchanged for four eggs. -</p> -<p> -While an official in the United States Department of Agriculture, I -gathered data from original records of private plants covering the -incubation of several hundred thousand eggs. Such information was -furnished me in confidence as a public official and as a private -citizen I have no right to publish that which would mean financial -profit or loss to those concerned. -</p> -<p> -Of records where there were ten thousand or more eggs involved, the -lowest I found was 44 per cent. and the highest, that mentioned as -the fourth case above, or 59 per cent. The great majority of these -records hung very closely around the 50 per cent. mark. -</p> -<p> -The following is a fair sample of such data. It is the record -of hatching hen eggs for the first six months of 1908, at one -of the largest poultry plants in America: -</p> -<table align="center" width="50%" summary="hatching success rates"> -<tr><td>Month</td> <td align="right">Eggs Set</td> <td align="right">Chicks Hatched</td> <td align="right">Per Cent. Hatched</td></tr> -<tr><td>January</td> <td align="right">4,213</td> <td align="right">1,585</td> <td align="right">37 2-3</td></tr> -<tr><td>February</td> <td align="right">6,275</td> <td align="right">2,339</td> <td align="right">33 3-4</td></tr> -<tr><td>March</td> <td align="right">17,990</td> <td align="right">6,993</td> <td align="right">38 1-3</td></tr> -<tr><td>April</td> <td align="right">18,819</td> <td align="right">10,265</td> <td align="right">54 1-2</td></tr> -<tr><td>May</td> <td align="right">24,458</td> <td align="right">14,438</td> <td align="right">59</td></tr> -<tr><td>June</td> <td align="right">13,100</td> <td align="right">6,614</td> <td align="right">55</td></tr> -<tr><td> </td> <td align="right">------</td> <td align="right">------</td> <td align="right">------</td></tr> -<tr><td>Total</td> <td align="right">84,855</td> <td align="right">42,234</td> <td align="right">50 p.c.</td></tr> -</table> -<p class="subhead"> -The Future Method of Incubation. -</p> -<p> -The idea of the mammoth incubator which would hatch eggs by the -hundred thousand and a minimum of expense is the dream of the -American incubator inventor. We have long had available such methods -of insulation and regulating the supply of heat as would point to -the practicability of such a dream. -</p> -<p> -The past efforts in this direction have fallen down for the -following simple reason: All eggs were placed in a single big room -with a view of the man's entering the room to take care of them. -Contact with cold walls, the opening of doors, the hatching of -chicks or introduction of fresh eggs set up air currents, the hot -air rising and the cold air settling until great differences in -temperature would be found in the room. No systematic regulation of -evaporation was contemplated, as the principles at stake or the -means of such regulation were unknown. -</p> -<p> -The attempt just referred to was made several years ago by one of -the most successful of incubator manufacturers and because of his -failure other inventors were inclined to steer clear of the -proposition. Meanwhile the need of such an incubator has grown -enormously. At the time that above effort was made no duck ranch -existed whose annual production ran over thirty or forty thousand -ducklings, whereas we now have several in the one hundred thousand -class. -</p> -<p> -Much more remarkable has been the growth of the day-old chick -business. The discovery that newly hatched chicks could be -successfully shipped hundreds of miles with less loss than shipping -eggs for hatching, has resulted in a few years' time in the growth -of hatcheries of considerable size where chicks are hatched by means -of common incubators. Still another opportunity for the use of large -hatcheries has been by the growth of poultry communities. There are -other communities besides those mentioned in this book which would -amply support public hatcheries. If half the poultry growers of -Lancaster County, Pa., were to be prevailed upon to patronize a -public hatchery, the county would support between fifteen and twenty -100,000 egg incubators. Any of the numerous trolley centers in -Indiana, Ohio and Southern Michigan would likewise be profitable -locations for the establishment of public hatcheries. -</p> -<p> -The demand for the incubator of large capacity has, within the last -year or so, brought two or three "mammoth" incubators into the -market. The devices I now refer to consist of a row of box -incubators which, instead of being heated by single lamps, are -heated by continuous hot water pipes. This scheme effects a -considerable saving in fuel cost and labor, but the bulkiness of -construction and the woeful lack of evaporation control are still to -be dealt with. -</p> -<p> -The writer now wishes briefly to describe the plan of construction -and operation of a new type of hatchery, the success of which has -recently been made feasible by inventions and technical knowledge -hitherto unavailable. The plan of the hatchery is on that of a cold -storage plant as far as insulation and general construction go. The -eggs are kept in bulk in special cases which are turned as a whole -and may rest on either of four sides. At hatching time the eggs are -spread out in trays in a special hatching room, which is only large -enough to accommodate chicks to the amount of one-sixth of the -incubator capacity, for twice a week deliverings, or one-third if -weekly deliveries are desired. -</p> -<p> -There are no pipes or other sources of heat in the egg chambers. All -temperature regulation is by means of air heated (or cooled as the -case may be) outside of the egg rooms and forced into the egg rooms -by a motor driven cone fan, maintaining a steady current of air, the -rate of movement of which may be varied at will. The air movement -maintained will always be sufficiently brisk, however, to prevent an -unevenness of temperature in different parts of the room. -</p> -<p> -So simple is this that the reader will doubtless wonder why it was -not developed earlier. The reason is that air subject to the -climatic influences will, with any forced draft sufficient to -equalize temperature, result in a fatal rate of evaporation. -Sprinkling the air has not generally been thought practical because -of the notion that air must not be used in the egg chamber but once, -which involved quite a waste of heat necessary in warming a large -bulk of air and evaporating sufficient water. Moreover, no means -has, in the past, been available for making a sufficiently accurate -measurement of the evaporating power of the air. -</p> -<p> -The hair hygrometers commonly sold to incubator operators are known -by scientists to be absolutely unreliable. The range between the wet -and dry bulb thermometers was found in the Ontario experiments to -give readings with and without fanning that varied 15 to 20 per -cent. in relative humidity which, at the temperature of an egg -chamber, would amount to a variation of three to four hundred of -vapor pressure units, which, with the forced draught plan, would -ruin a hatch of eggs in a few hours. The sling psychrometer as used -by the U.S. Weather Bureau should, in the hands of an expert, give -results making possible measurements accurate to two or three per -cent. of relative humidity or forty to sixty units of vapor -pressure. In contrast with these blundering instruments we now have -available an instrument with which the writer has frequently -determined vapor pressure accurately to within a range of two or -three vapor pressure units and the instrument is capable of being -constructed for even finer work. -</p> -<p> -As it is only by means of air with the moisture content absolutely -controlled that the use of a large room becomes possible, we can now -see why this type of hatching remained so long undeveloped. By means -of such vapor pressure control the large egg chamber is not only -feasible but the rate of evaporation at once becomes subject to the -control of the operator and we achieve a perfection in artificial -incubation hitherto unattained. -</p> -<p> -The means by which the air moisture is regulated is similar to that -used in up-to-date cold storage plants where the air is made moist -by sprinkling and dried with deliquescent salts. The regulation of -vapor pressure, like that of temperature, may be by electrically -moved dampers which switch a greater or less proportion of the -incoming current to the sprinkler or dryer as the case may be. The -ordinary incubator thermostat gives the necessary impulse for the -control of the temperature dampers, while the instrument above -referred to is used for the vapor pressure control. -</p> -<p> -As the entire air circuit is closed, the chemical composition of the -air may also be regulated at will. This results in a reduction of -the quantity of heat required to a minimum; in fact, with the -incubator in full swing, the air will, at times, need cooling rather -than warming. -</p> -<p> -The question of the cost of incubation by this method, or of profit -of such a hatchery operated for the public is almost wholly one of -the size of operations. Where sufficient eggs may be obtained and -sufficient demand exists for the chicks to make it profitable to -operate, the additional cost of hatching extra chicks will be -insignificant compared with the present system. -</p> -<p> -The Egyptian poultryman gives four eggs for three chicks, but the -American poultryman would be willing to give four eggs for one -chick, as is shown by the fact that he sells eggs for from 1 to 3 -cents apiece and buys day-old chicks for ten to fifteen cents. A -plant with a seasonable capacity of 100,000 eggs has a basis to work -upon something as follows: -</p> -<p> -With a fifty per cent. hatch and chicks at 10 cents each there would -be a gross income of $5,000 annually. From this we must subtract for -eggs at 2 cents each, $2,000. Salary for operator $1,000, wages for -helper $300. Fuel, supplies and repairs $500. Cost of delivery and -sales of chicks $200. This leaves a residue of $1,000, which would -pay a 20 per cent. interest on the necessary investment of $5,000. -Personally, I think this is about the minimum unit of hatching that -would prove worth while as independent institutions. -</p> -<p> -Any increase in the percentage of the hatch would, of course, reduce -the unit of size necessary for profitable operation. Upon a single -poultry plant as a duck farm the cost of operation would be -materially reduced, as the operator himself would take the place of -the intelligent manager and the cost of gathering eggs and the -delivery of the product would be eliminated. -</p> -<p> -The most profitable method of hatchery operation undoubtedly will be -upon a plan analogous to what, in creamery operation, is called -centralization. The success of this scheme depends upon the fact -that transportation and agencies at country stores are relatively -less important items of expense than plant construction and high -salaries for skilled labor. A hatchery with a million capacity can -be built and run at not more than twice the cost of one -hundred-thousand plant and better men can be kept in charge of it. A -portion of the saving will of course be expended in maintaining a -system of buying eggs and selling chicks. -</p> -<p> -The material advantage of operating a hatchery in connection with a -high-class egg handling and poultry packing establishment, or as one -feature of a poultry community, is at once apparent, for the system -of collecting the market produce will be utilized for gathering eggs -and distributing chicks, each business helping the other. -</p> -<p> -The public hatchery also gives an excellent opportunity for the -introduction of good stock among farmers who would be too shiftless -to acquire it by ordinary methods. -</p> -<a name="2HCH0008"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> - -<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> - -<h2> -<a name="chapVII"> -CHAPTER VII -</a> -</h2> -<h3> -FEEDING -</h3> -<p> -The old adage that a little knowledge is a dangerous thing is -nowhere better illustrated than in the scientific phases of poultry -feeding. The attempted application of the common theoretical feeding -standards to poultry has caused not only a great waste of time but -has also resulted in expenditures for high-priced feeds when cheaper -feeds would have given as good or better results. -</p> -<p> -The so-called science of food chemistry is really a rough -approximation of things about which the actual facts are unknown. -Such knowledge bears the same relation to accurate science as the -maps of America drawn by the early explorers do to a modern atlas. -Like these early efforts of geography the present science of food -chemistry is all right if we realize its incompleteness. In -practice, the poultryman, after a general glance at the "map," will -find a more reliable guide in simpler things. -</p> -<p> -I am writing this book for the poultryman, not the professor, and -because I state that the particular kind of science wherein the -professor has taken the most pains to teach the poultryman is -comparatively useless, I fear it may arouse a mistrust of the value -of science as a whole. I know of no way to prevent this except to -point out the distinction between scientific facts and guesses -couched in scientific language. -</p> -<p> -When a scientist states that a hen cannot lay egg shells containing -calcium without having calcium in her food, that is a fact, and it -works out in practice, for calcium is an element, and the hen cannot -create elementary substances. When the same scientist, finding that -an egg contains protein, says that wheat is a better egg food than -corn because it has the largest amount of protein, that is a guess -and does not work in practice because protein is not a definite -substance, but the name of a group of substances of which the -scientist does not know the composition, and which may or may not be -of equal use to the hen in the formation of eggs. -</p> -<p> -All substances of which the world is made are composed of elements -which cannot be changed. When these elements are combined they form -definite substances with definite proportions entirely independent -of the original elements. The pure diamond is carbon. Gasoline is -carbon and hydrogen. Several hundred other things are also carbon -and hydrogen. Sugar is carbon combined with hydrogen and oxygen. -These three elements make several thousand different substances, -including fats, alcohol and formaldehyde. Hydrocyanic acid is carbon -combined with hydrogen and nitrogen, and is the most deadly poison -known. -</p> -<p> -The failure of food science is partly because we do not know the -composition of many of the substances of food and partly because -these substances are changed in the animal body in a manner which we -do not understand and cannot control. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Conventional Food Chemistry -</p> -<p> -The conventional analysis of feeding stuff divides the food -substances in water, carbohydrates, fat, protein and ash. The amount -of water in the body is all-important, but, with the exception of -eggs during incubation, I confess I prefer to rely upon the -chicken's judgment as to the amount required. -</p> -<p> -The carbohydrate group contains starch, sugar, cellulose and a -number of other things. Carbohydrates constitute two-thirds to -three-fourths of all common rations and nine-tenths of that amount -is starch. The proposition of how much carbohydrates the hen eats is -chiefly determined by the quantity of grain she consumes. -</p> -<p> -Of fats there are many kinds of which the composition is definitely -known. The amount of fats the hen eats is unimportant because she -makes starch into fat. The protein or nitrogen containing substances -of the diet is the group of food substances over which most of the -theories are expounded. The hen can make egg fat from corn starch or -cabbage leaves because they contain the same elements. She cannot -make egg white from starch or fat because the element of nitrogen -which is in the egg white is lacking in the starch and fats. -</p> -<p> -The substances that have nitrogen in them are called protein. They -are very complex and difficult to analyze. In digestion these -proteins are all torn to pieces and built up into other kinds of -protein. Just as in tearing down an old house, only a portion of the -material can be used in a new house, so it is with protein and -laboratory analysis cannot tell us how much of the old house can be -utilized in building the new one. -</p> -<p> -In practice the whole subject simmers down to the proposition of -finding out by direct experiment whether the hen will do the work -best on this or that food, irregardless of its nitrogen content as -determined in the laboratory. -</p> -<p> -The results of many experiments and much experience has shown that -lean meat protein will make egg protein and chicken flesh protein -and that vegetable protein pound for pound is not its equal. I know -of no results that have proven that the high priced vegetable foods -such as linseed meal, gluten feed, etc., have proven a more valuable -chicken food than the cheapest grains. -</p> -<p> -With cows and pigeons this is not the case, but the hen is not a -vegetarian by nature and high priced vegetable protein doesn't seem -to be in her line. Of the three standard grains there is some -indication of the value of the proteids for chickens and of the -following ranks, 1st oats, 2d corn, 3d wheat. -</p> -<p> -The false conceptions of the value of wheat proteids has been -specially the cause of much waste of money. Digestive trials and -direct experiments both show that, as chicken foods, wheat is worth -less, pound for pound, than corn and yet, though much higher in -price, it is still used not only as a variety grain, but by many -poultrymen as the chief article of diet. Wheat contains only 3 per -cent. more proteid than corn. The man who substitutes wheat at one -and one-half cents a pound for corn worth one cent a pound pays 17 -cents a pound for his added protein. In beef scrap he could get the -protein for 5 cents a pound and have a very superior article -besides. -</p> -<p> -Milk as a source of protein ranks between the vegetable proteids and -those of meat. It is preferably fed clabbered. The dried casein -recently put on the market is a valuable food but is not worth as -much as meat food and will not be extensively utilized until the -demand for meat scrap forces up the price to a point where the -casein can be sold more cheaply. Meat scrap, to be relished by the -chickens, must not be a fine meal, but should consist of particles -the size of wheat kernels or larger. The fine scrap gives the -manufacturer a chance to utilize dried blood and tankage which is -cheaper in quality and price than particles of real meat. -</p> -<p> -The last and least understood of the groups of food substances is -mineral substance or ash. Now, the chemist determines mineral -substance by burning the food and analyzing the residue. In the -intense heat numerous chemical changes take place and the substances -that come out of the furnace are entirely different from those -contained in the fresh food. -</p> -<p> -The lay reader will probably ask why the chemist does not analyze -the substances of the fresh material. The answer is that he doesn't -know how. Progress is made every year but the whole subject is yet -too much clouded in obscurity to be of any practical application. At -present the feeding of mineral substance, like the feeding of -protein, can best be learned by experimenting directly with the -foods rather than by attempting to go by their chemical composition. -</p> -<p> -In practice it is found that green feed supplies something which -grain lacks, presumably mineral salts. Moreover we know that such -food fed fresh is superior to the same substance dried. This may be -because of chemical changes that occur in curing or simply because -of greater palatability. -</p> -<p> -The other chief source of mineral matter is meat preparations with -or without ground bone. Recent experiments at Rhode Island have -attempted to show the relative value of the mineral constituents of -meat by adding bone ash to vegetable proteids, as linseed and gluten -meal. The results clearly indicate that mineral matter of animal -origin greatly improves the value of the vegetable diet, but that -the latter is still sadly deficient. Of course the burning process -used in preparing the bone ash may have destroyed some of the -valuable qualities of the mineral salts. Practically, we do not care -whether the value of animal meal be due to protein, mineral salts or -both. -</p> -<p> -In time the world will become so thickly populated that we cannot -afford to rear cattle and condemn a portion of the carcass to go -through another life cycle before human consumption. By that time -the necessary food salts will doubtless be known and we will be able -to medicate our corn and alfalfa and do away with the beef scrap. -The poultrymen will do well, however, not to count on the chemistry -of the future, for the chemist that makes the "tissue salts" for the -hen may manufacture human food with Niagara power and fresh eggs -will come in tin cans. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -How the Hen Unbalances Balanced Rations. -</p> -<p> -Let the poultryman who figures the nutritious ratio of chicken feed -try this simple experiment. Place before a half dozen newly hatched -chicks a feed of one of the commercial chick feeds. When they have -had their fill, sacrifice these innocents on the altar of science -and open their crops. He will find that one chick has eaten almost -exclusively of millet seed, another has preferred cracked corn, -another has filled up heavily on bits of beef scrap and mica crystal -grit, while a fourth fancied oats and granulated bone. In short the -chick has, in three minutes, unbalanced the balanced ration that it -took a week to figure out. This experiment can be varied by placing -hens in individual coops and setting before each weighed portions of -every food in the poultryman supply man's catalogue. -</p> -<p> -There is only one kind of feeding that will balance rations and that -is to feed exclusively on wet mash. This is successfully done in the -duck business, but the duck is a Chinese animal and his ways are not -the ways of the more fastidious hen. -</p> -<p> -In dairy work the individual preferences of the cows are given -attention and their whimsy catered to by the herdsman. I know of -nothing that makes a man more feel his kinship to the beast than to -hear a good dairyman talk of the personalities and preferences of -his feminine co-operators. -</p> -<p> -With commercial chicken work, humanly guided individual feedings is -out of the question, though, if used, it might hasten the coming of -the two-egg-per-day hen. Individual feeding with the hen as sole -judge as to what she shall eat, which means each food in separate -hoppers and free range, is the best system of chicken feeding yet -evolved. -</p> -<p> -The duty of the poultryman is to supply the food, giving enough -variety to permit of the hens having a fair selection. In practice -this means that every hen must have access to water, grit -(preferably oyster shell), one kind of grain, one kind of meat, and -one kind of green food. In practice it will pay to add granulated -bone for growing stock. One or two extra grains for variety and as -many green foods as conveniences will permit to increase -palatability—hence increase the amount of food consumed, for a -heavy food consumption is necessary for egg production. -</p> -<p> -As corn is the cheapest food known, let it be the bread at the -boarding house and other grains the rotating series of hash, beans -and bacon. The grain hopper may have two divisions. The corn never -changes but the other should have a change of grain occasionally. -The extent of the use made of the various grains will be determined -by their price per pound. -</p> -<p> -The proportions of food of the various classes that will be consumed -is about as follows: -</p> -<p> -Of 100 lbs. of dry matter: 8 to 12 lbs. meat; 66 to 75 lbs. grain; -15 to 25 lbs. green food. -</p> -<p> -The profits of the business will be increased by supplying the green -food in such tempting forms as to increase the amount consumed and -cut down the use of grains. -</p> -<p> -The methods we have been describing in which various dry unground -grains, beef scrap and oyster shell, each in a separate compartment, -are exposed before the hen at all times, together with the abundant -use of green food, either as pasture or a soiling crop, is the -method of feeding assumed throughout this book. -</p> -<p> -The hopper feeding of so-called dry mash or ground grain mixture has -been quite a fad in the last few years. The tendency of the hens to -waste such food has occasioned considerable trouble. They are -picking it over for their favorite foods and trying to avoid -disagreeable foods. This difficulty is relieved when the food be -separated into its various components and the hen offered each -separately. As a matter of fact, there is no occasion for feeding -ground feed except in fattening rations and here the wet mash is -desirable. -</p> -<p> -The use of the products of wheat milling has been the chief excuse -for such practices, but unless these get considerably lower in price -per pound than corn they may be left off the bill-of-fare to -advantage. The great use made of these products in poultry feeding -was chiefly a result of the attempted application of the balanced -ration idea, but as has already been shown the efforts to raise the -protein ratio with grain foods is generally false economy. -</p> -<p> -The old-fashioned wet mash which the writer does not recommend -because of the labor involved, is, nevertheless, a fairly profitable -method of poultry feeding. It is used in the Little Compton district -of Rhode Island and was also used in the famous Australian egg -laying contests elsewhere described. Personally I would prefer -feeding ground grain wet, especially wheat bran and middlings, to -feeding it dry. -</p> -<p> -The scattering of grain in litter so generally recommended in -poultry literature is all right and proper, but is rather out of -place in commercial poultry farming. It is used on the large poultry -plants with the yards and long houses, but is not used on colony -farms or in any of the poultry growing communities. I should -recommend littered houses for Section 6 and the northern half of -Section 3 (see Chapter IV), but with warmer soils and climate where -the snow does not lie on the ground it would add a labor expense -that would very seriously handicap the business. -</p> -<p> -The systems of poultry feeding that are commonly advertised are -based either on some patent nostrum or a recommendation of green -food in novel form, such as sprouted oats. The joke about poultry -feed at 10 cents a bushel, absurd though it may seem, has caught -lots of dollars. To take a bushel of oats worth 50 cents, add water, -let them sprout and have five bushels costing 10 cents, is certainly -a wonderful achievement in wealth getting. The only reason a man -couldn't run a soup kitchen on the same principle is that he can't -do a soup business by mail. Sprouted oats are a good green food, -however, though somewhat laborious to prepare. I should certainly -recommend them if for any reason the regular green food supply -should run out. -</p> -<p> -The points already mentioned are about all the practical suggestions -that the science of animal nutrition has to offer the poultryman. -The discussion of feeding from its technical viewpoint is -sufficiently covered in the chapter on "Farm Poultry" and the -discussion of the management and economics of various types of -poultry production. -</p> -<a name="2HCH0009"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> - -<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> - -<h2> -<a name="chapVIII"> -CHAPTER VIII -</a> -</h2> -<h3> -DISEASES -</h3> -<p> -For the study of the classification and description of the numerous -ailments by which individual fowls pass to their untimely end, I -recommend any of the numerous books written upon the subject. Some -of these works are more accurate than others, but that I consider -immaterial. The study of these diseases is good for the poultryman, -it gives his mind exercise. When a boy in high school I studied -Latin for the same purpose. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Don't Doctor Chickens. -</p> -<p> -For the cure of all poultry diseases when they have passed a point -when the fowl does not eat or for other reasons recovery is -improbable, I recommend a blow on the head—the hatchet spills the -blood which is unwise. -</p> -<p> -The usual formula of "burn or bury deeply" is somewhat troublesome, -unless you have a furnace running. A covered pit is more convenient -if far enough removed from the house that the odor is not -prohibitive. A post with a tally card may be planted near by. This -part of the poultry farm may be marked "Exhibit A," and shown first -to the visitor during the busy season. If he is one of those -prospective pleasure and profit poultrymen who propose to disregard -all facts of biology and economics of production, you may save -yourself the trouble of showing him the rest of the plant. -Unfortunately, this scheme is not open to the poultryman who has -breeding stock for sale. -</p> -<p> -I have frequently had the question put to me in the smoker of a -Pullman car, "Do not epidemic diseases make the poultry business -precarious?" Such questions came from farm-raised men, but not from -poultry farmers. Poultrymen should figure a certain loss of birds -just as insurance companies figure on the human death rate, but to -all practical intents and purposes the epidemic disease has been -banished from the poultry farms and seldom if ever enters the -records in answer to the question, "Why do poultry farms fail?" -</p> -<p> -Some of my readers may take exception to me either in regard to roup -or white diarrhoea. Roup is a disease of the wrong system and -careless management. White diarrhoea, so-called, is a matter of -wrong incubation. -</p> -<p> -The high mortality of young chicks, though not an epidemic disease, -shares with excessive cost of production, very much of the -responsibility for poultry farm failures. At the present writing the -poultry editors of the country are having much discussion over the -conclusion of Dr. Morse of the Bureau of Animal Industry to the -effect that white diarrhoea is caused by an intestinal parasite -similar to the germ that causes human dysentery. Dr. Morse's -opportunities for investigation have been somewhat limited and as -the intestines of any animal are always swarming with various -organisms, it will take very conclusive evidence to prove that the -doctor is right. Practically the naming of the germs that attend the -funeral is not particularly important for the reason that it has -been thoroughly demonstrated that with good parentage, good -incubation and good brooder conditions, white diarrhoea is unknown. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -The Causes of Poultry Diseases. -</p> -<p> -Poultry ailments are assignable to one of the three following -causes, or a combination of these: First, hereditary or inborn -weakness; second, unfavorable conditions of food, surroundings, -etc.; third, bacteria or animal parasites. -</p> -<p> -A great many chickens die while yet within the shell, or during the -growing process, there being no assignable reason save that of -inherited weakness. To this class of troubles the only remedy is to -breed from better stock. It is as much the trait of some birds to -produce infertile eggs or chicks of low vitality as it is for others -to produce vigorous offspring. -</p> -<p> -The second class of ailments needs no discussion save that accorded -it under the general discussions of the method of conducting the -business. -</p> -<p> -The third class of ailments includes the contagious diseases. It is -now believed that most common diseases are caused by microscopic -germs known as bacteria. These germs in some manner gain entrance to -the body of an animal, and, growing within the tissues, give off -poisonous substances known as toxins, which produce the symptoms of -the disease. The ability to withstand disease germs varies with the -particular animal and the kind of disease. As a general rule it may -be stated that disease germs cannot live in the body of a perfectly -vigorous and healthy animal. It is only when the vitality is at a -low ebb, owing to unfavorable conditions or inherited weakness, that -disease germs enter the body and produce disease. -</p> -<p> -The bacteria which cause disease, like other living organisms, may -be killed by poisoning. Such poisons are known as disinfectants. If -it were possible to kill the bacteria within the animal, the curing -of disease would be a simple matter, but unfortunately the common -chemical poisons that kill germs kill the animal also. The only -thing that can be relied upon to kill disease germs within the -animal, is a counter-poison developed by the animal itself and known -as anti-toxin. Such anti-toxins can be produced artificially and are -used to combat certain diseases, as diphtheria and small-pox in -human beings and blackleg in cattle. Such methods of combating -poultry diseases have not been developed, and due to the small value -of an individual fowl would probably not be commercially useful even -if successful from a scientific standpoint. The only available -method of fighting contagious diseases of poultry is to destroy the -disease germs before they enter the fowls and to remove the causes -which make the fowl susceptible to the disease. -</p> -<p> -Contagious diseases of poultry may be grouped into two general -classes: First, those highly contagious; second, those contracted -only by fowls that are in a weakened condition. To the first class -belong the severe epidemics, of which chicken-cholera is the most -destructive. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Chicken-Cholera. -</p> -<p> -The European fowl-cholera has only been rarely identified in this -country. Other diseases similar in symptoms and effect are confused -with this. As the treatment should be similar the identification of -the diseases is not essential. -</p> -<p> -Yellow or greenish-colored droppings, listless attitude, refusal of -food and great thirst are the more readily observed symptoms. The -disease runs a rapid course, death resulting in about three days. -The death rate is very high. The disease is spread by droppings and -dead birds, and through feed and water. To stamp out the disease -kill or burn or bury all sick chickens, and disinfect the premises -frequently and thoroughly. A spray made of one-half gallon carbolic -acid, one-half gallon of phenol and twenty gallons of water may be -used. Corrosive sublimate, 1 part in 5000 parts of water, should be -used as drinking water. This is not to cure sick birds, but to -prevent the disease from spreading by means of the drinking vessels. -Food should be given in troughs arranged so that the chickens cannot -infect the food with the feet. All this work must be done -thoroughly, and even then considerable loss can be expected before -the disease is stamped out. If cholera has a good start in a flock -of chickens it will often be better to dispose of the entire flock -than to combat the disease. Fortunately cholera epidemics are rare -and in many localities have never been known. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Roup. -</p> -<p> -This disease is a representative of that class of diseases which, -while being caused by bacteria, can be considered more of a disease -of conditions than of contagion. Roup may be caused by a number of -different bacteria which are commonly found in the air and soil. -When chickens catch cold these germs find lodgment in the nasal -passages and roup ensues. The first symptoms of roup are those of an -ordinary cold, but as the disease progresses a cheesy secretion -appears in the head and throat. A wheezing or rattling sound is -often produced by the breathing. The face and eyes swell, and in -severe cases the chicken becomes blind. The most certain way of -identifying roup is a characteristic sickening odor. The disease may -last a week or a year. Birds occasionally recover, but are generally -useless after having had roup. -</p> -<p> -Sick birds should be removed and destroyed, but the time usually -spent in doctoring sick birds and disinfecting houses can in this -case be better employed in finding and remedying the cause of the -disease. Such causes may be looked for as dampness, exposure to cold -winds, or to a sudden change in temperature as is experienced by -chickens roosting in a tight house. Fall and winter are the seasons -of roup, while it is poorly housed and poorly fed flocks that most -commonly suffer from this disease. Flocks that have become -thoroughly roupy should be disposed of and more vigorous birds -secured. The open front house has proved to be the most practical -scheme for the reduction of this disease. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Chicken-Pox, Gapes, Limber Neck. -</p> -<p> -Chicken-pox or sore-head is a disease peculiar to the South. It -attacks growing chickens late in the summer. Southern poultrymen who -give reasonable attention to their stock, find that, while this -disease is a source of some annoyance, the losses are not severe and -that it may be readily controlled. In the first place, the animal -epidemic of pox can be practically avoided by bringing the chicks -out early in the season. If the disease does develop in the flock, -the birds are taken from the coops at night and their heads dipped -in a proper strength of one of the coal tar disinfectants. Such -treatment once a week has generally been effective. This disease is -an exception to the general rule that disinfectants which kill germs -also kill the chicken. The explanation is that chicken-pox is an -external disease. -</p> -<p> -Gapes is given in every poultry book as one of the prominent poultry -diseases, but are not common in the Northern and Western States. -Gapes are caused by a parasitic worm in the windpipe. Growing chicks -are affected. The remedy is to move the chicks to fresh ground and -cultivate the old. -</p> -<p> -Limber neck is not a disease, but is the result of the fowl's eating -maggots from dead carcasses. It can be prevented by not allowing -dead carcasses to remain where the chickens will find them. No -practical cure is known. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Lice and Mites. -</p> -<p> -The parasites referred to as chicken-lice include many different -species, but in habit they may be classed as body-lice and -roost-mites. The first, or true bird-lice, live on the body of the -chicken and eat the feathers and skin. The roost-mite is similar to -a spider and differs in habits from the body-louse in that it sucks -the blood of the chicken and does not remain on the body of the fowl -except at night. -</p> -<p> -Body-lice are to be found upon almost all chickens, as well as on -many other kinds of birds. Their presence in small numbers on -matured fowls is not a serious matter. When body-lice are abundant -on sitting hens they go from the hen to the newly hatched chickens, -and may cause the death of the chicks. The successful methods of -destroying body-lice are three in number: First, dust or earth -wallows in which the active hens will get rid of lice. Such dust -baths should be especially provided for yarded chickens and during -the winter. Dry earth can be stored for this purpose. Sitting hens -should have access to dust baths. Second: The second method by which -body-lice may be destroyed is the use of insect powder. The -pyrethrum powder is considered the best for this purpose, but is -expensive and difficult to procure in the pure state. Tobacco dust -is also used. Insect powder is applied by holding the hen by the -feet and working the dust thoroughly into the feathers, especially -the fluff. The use of insect powder should be confined to sitting -hens and fancy stock, as the cost and labor of applying is too great -for use upon the common chicken. The third method is suitable for -young chickens, and consists of applying some oil and grease on the -head and under the wings. Do not grease the chick all over. With -vigorous chickens and correct management the natural dust bath is -all that is needed to combat the lice. -</p> -<p> -The roost-mite is probably the cause of more loss to farm poultry -raisers than any other pest or disease. The great difficulty in -destroying mites on many farms is that chickens are allowed to roost -in too many places. If the chicken-house proper is the only building -infected with mites the difficulty of destroying them is not great. -Plainness in the interior furnishings of the chicken-house is also a -great advantage when it comes to fighting mites. The mites in the -daytime are to be found lodged in the cracks near the roosting-place -of the chickens. -</p> -<p> -Mites can be killed with various liquids, the best in point of -cheapness is boiling water. Give the chicken-house a thorough -cleaning and scald by throwing dippers of hot water in all places -where the mites can find lodgment. Hot water destroys the eggs as -well as the mites. Whitewash is a good remedy, as it buries both -mites and eggs beneath a coating of lime from which they cannot -emerge. Pure kerosene or a solution of carbolic acid in kerosene, at -the rate of a pint of acid to a gallon of oil, is an effective -lice-paint. Another substance much used for destroying insects or -similar pests is carbon bisulphide. This is a liquid which -evaporates readily, the vapor destroying the insects or mites. -Carbon bisulphide or other fumigating agents are not effective in -the average chicken-house because the house cannot be tightly -closed. The liquid lice-killers on the market are very effective. -They are usually composed of the remedies just mentioned, or of -something of similar properties. -</p> -<a name="2HCH0010"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> - -<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> - -<h2> -<a name="chapIX"> -CHAPTER IX -</a> -</h2> -<h3> -POULTRY FLESH AND POULTRY FATTENING -</h3> -<p> -The poultry flesh which is used for food may be grouped into three -divisions. -</p> -<p> -First: Poultry carcasses grown especially for market. -</p> -<p> -Second: Poultry carcasses consisting of hens and young male birds -that are sold from the general farms where the pullets are kept for -egg production. -</p> -<p> -Third: The cockerels and old hens sold as a by-product from egg -farms. -</p> -<p> -The third class hardly needs our consideration in the present -chapter. This stock, usually Leghorns, like Jersey veal, is to be -disposed of at whatever price the market offers. -</p> -<p> -The cockerel will, if growing nicely, be fairly plump and the hens, -if on hopper rations of corn and beef scrap, will be about as fat as -they can be profitably made, and to waste further effort upon them -would not pay. Leghorn cockerels and hens are a wholesome enough -meat, but will never command fancy prices nor warrant extra pains. -</p> -<p> -In class two we find the great mass of the poultry flesh of the -country. This stock consisting chiefly, as it does, of Plymouth -Rocks and Wyandottes, is well worth some extra pains toward -increasing its quantity and quality. -</p> -<p> -Within the last ten or fifteen years several changes have been -brought about in the general methods of handling farm poultry. -Formerly it was thought desirable to market all stock not kept as -layers while in the broiler stage of from 1-1/2 to 2 pounds. Since -the introduction of the custom of holding fall broilers over in cold -storage, the price has fallen until it is now more profitable to -market the surplus cockerels from the farm at three or four months -of age. At this period the flesh has cost less per pound to produce -than at either an earlier or later stage. For such purposes only the -well fleshed type of American breeds has been found desirable. The -Leghorns and similar breeds are too small and become staggy too -soon. -</p> -<p> -Contrary to a common belief and to the custom in the poultry books -of classifying the Asiatics as meat breeds, the Brahmas and Cochins -are among the very poorest fowls that can be used for farm -production of poultry meat. At the age spoken of these breeds are -lanky and unsightly and not wanted by poultry packers. -</p> -<p> -Consecutively with and perhaps responsible for change of sentiment -that demands that broilers be allowed to grow into four pound -chickens, we find the development of the crate fattening industry. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Crate-Fattening. -</p> -<p> -The introduction of crate-fattening into the Central West occurred -about 1900. The credit of this introduction belongs to the large -meat packing firms. At the present time the business is not confined -to the meat packers, but is shared by independent plants throughout -the country. -</p> -<p> -The plants of the West range from a few hundred to as high as 20,000 -capacity. They are constructed for convenience and a saving of -labor, and in this respect are decidedly in advance of the European -establishments where fattening has been long practiced. -</p> -<p> -The room used for fattening is well built and sanitary. A good -system of ventilation is essential, as murky, damp air breeds colds -and roup. The coops are built back to back, and two or more coops in -height. Each coop is high and wide enough to comfortably accommodate -the chickens, and long enough to contain from five to twelve -chickens. The chickens stand on slats, beneath which are -dropping-boards that may be drawn out for cleaning. The -dropping-boards and feeding-troughs are often made of metal. Strict -cleanliness is enforced. No droppings or feed are allowed to -accumulate and decompose. -</p> -<p> -As is a general rule in meat production, young animals give much -better returns for food consumed than do mature individuals. With -the young chicken the weight is added as flesh, while the hen has a -tendency, which increases with age, to turn the same food into -useless fat. For this reason the general practice is to fatten only -the best of the young chickens. The head feeder at a large and -successful poultry plant gave the following information on the -selection of birds for the fattening-crates: -</p> -<p> -"The younger the stock the more profitable the gain. All specimens -showing the slightest indication of disease are discarded. The -Plymouth Rock is the favorite breed, and the Wyandotte is second. -Leghorns are comparatively fat when received, and, while they do -well under feed and 'yellow up' nicely, they do not gain as much as -the American breeds. Black chickens are not fed at all. Brahmas and -Cochins are not considered good feeders at the age when they are -commonly sold. Chickens in fair flesh at the start make better gains -than those that are extremely lean or very fat. But, contrary to -what the amateur might assume, the moderately fat chicken will -continue to make fair gains, while the very lean chicken seldom -returns a profit." -</p> -<p> -The idea has been somewhat prevalent that there is some guarded -secret about the rations used in crate-fattening. This is a mistaken -notion. The rations used contain no new or wonderful constituent, -and although individual feeders may have their own formulas, the -general composition of the feed is common knowledge. The feed most -commonly used consists of finely ground grain, mixed to a batter -with buttermilk or sour skim-milk. The favorite grain for the -purpose is oats finely ground and the hulls removed. Oats may be -used as the sole grain, and is the only grain recommended as -suitable to be fed alone. Corn is used, but not by itself. Shorts, -ground barley or ground buckwheat are sometimes used. Beans, peas, -linseed and gluten meals may be used in small quantities. When milk -products are obtainable they are a great aid to successful -fattening. Tallow is often used in small quantities toward the -finish of the feeding period. The assumption is that it causes the -deposit of fat-globules throughout the muscular tissues, thus adding -to the quality of the meat. The following simple rations show that -there is nothing complex about the crate-fed chicken's bill of fare: -</p> -<p> -No. 1.—Ground oats, 2 parts; ground barley, 1 part; ground corn, 1 -part; mixed with skim-milk. -</p> -<p> -No. 2.—Ground corn, 4 parts; ground peas, 1 part; ground oats, 1 -part; meat-meal, 1 part; mixed with water. -</p> -<p> -A ration used by some fatters with great success is composed of -simply oatmeal and buttermilk. -</p> -<p> -The feed is given as a soft batter and is left in the troughs for -about thirty minutes, when the residue is removed. Chickens are -generally fed three times per day. Water may or may not be given, -according to the weather and the amount of liquid used in the food. -</p> -<p> -The chicken that has been crate-fattened has practically the same -amount of skeleton and offal as the unfattened specimen, but carries -one or two pounds more of edible meat upon its carcass. Not only is -the weight of the chicken and amount of edible meat increased, but -the quality of the meat is greatly improved, consisting of juicy, -tender flesh. For this reason the crate-feeding process is often -spoken of as fleshing rather than as fattening. -</p> -<p> -The enforced idleness causes the muscular tissue to become tender -and filled with stored nutriment. The fatness of a young chicken, -crate-fed on buttermilk and oatmeal, is a radically different thing -from the fatness of an old hen that has been ranging around the -corn-crib. -</p> -<p> -The crate-fattening industry while deserving credit for great -improvement in the quality of chicken flesh in the regions where it -has been introduced, cannot on the whole be considered a great -success. It is commonly reported that some of the firms instrumental -in its introduction lost money on the deal. The crate-fattening -plant has come to stay in the communities where careful methods of -poultry raising are practiced, and where the stock is of the best, -but when a plant is located in a newly settled region where the -poultry stock is small and feed scarce, the venture is pretty apt to -prove a fiasco. -</p> -<p> -While poultryman at the Kansas Experiment Station, the writer made a -large number of individual weighings of fowls in the crates of one -of the large fattening plants of the state. -</p> -<p> -These weighings pointed out very clearly why the expected profits -had not been realized. The birds selected for weighing were all -fine, uniform looking Barred Rock Cockerels. At the end of the first -week they were found to still appear much the same, but when handled -a difference was easily noticed. By the end of the second week a few -birds had died and many others were in a bad way. The individual -changes of weight ran from 2-1/2 pounds gain to 3/4 pound loss, and -many of the lighter birds were of very poor appearance. It is simply -a matter of forced feeding being a process that makes trouble with -the health of the chicken if all is not just right. -</p> -<p> -It is probable that in the future more fattening will be done on the -farm, or by the farmer operating in a small way among his neighbors. -The reason for this is that the saving of labor in the large plant -is hardly as great as the added loss from the shrinkage of the birds -due to the excitement of shipping and crowding, and the introduction -of disease by the mingling of chickens from so many different -sources. -</p> -<p> -The Canadians especially have encouraged fattening on the farm. The -following is a hand-bill gotten out by an enterprising Canadian -dealer for distribution among the farmers of his locality: -</p> -<hr> -<p class="citehead"> -HOW TO FATTEN CHICKENS FOR THE EXPORT TRADE. -</p> -<p class="cite"> -To fatten birds for the export trade, it is necessary -to have proper coops to put them in. These should be -two feet long, twenty inches high and twenty inches -deep, the top, bottom and front made of slats. This -size will hold four birds, but the cheapest plan is to -build the coops ten feet long and divide them into five -sections. -</p> -<p class="citehead"> -What to feed. -</p> -<p class="cite"> -Oats chopped fine, the coarse hulls sifted out, two -parts; ground buckwheat, one part; mix with skim-milk -to a good soft batter, and feed three times a day. -Or, black barley and oats, two parts oats to one part -barley. Give clean drinking water twice a day, grit -twice a week, and charcoal once a week. During the -first week the birds are in the coops they should be -fed sparingly—only about one-half of what they will -eat. After that gradually increase the amount until -you find out just how much they will eat up clean -each time. Never leave any food in the troughs, as -it will sour and cause trouble. Mix the food always -one feed ahead. Birds fed in this way will be ready -for the export trade in from four to five weeks. -Chickens make the best gain put in the coop weighing -three to four pounds. -</p> -<p class="citehead"> -We Supply the Coops. -</p> -<p class="cite"> -We have on hand a number of coops for fattening -chicks, which we will loan to any person, "free of -charge", who will sign an agreement to bring all -chicks fattened in them to us. Every farmer should -have at least one of these coops, as this is the only -way to fatten chicks properly. In this way you can -get the highest market price. We can handle any -quantity of chicks properly fatted.<br> -<span style='margin-left: 12em;'>ARMSTRONG BROS.</span> -</p> -<hr> -<p> -The farmer who does not think it worth while to construct -fattening-crates for his own crop of chickens, may get very fair -results by simply enclosing the chickens in some vacant shed. To -these may feed a ration of two-thirds corn meal and one-third -shorts, or some of the more complicated rations used at the -fattening plants may be fed. -</p> -<p> -In the East, poultry fattening on the general farm is not dissimilar -from the practices in the Central West, but we find a larger use of -cramming machines, caponizing, and the growing of chickens for meat -as an industry independent of keeping hens for egg production. -</p> -<p> -The cramming machine is a device by means of which food in a -semi-liquid state is pumped into the bird's crop, through a tube -inserted in the mouth. This means of feeding is much more used in -Europe than in this country. It requires good stock and careful -workmen. The method will probably slowly gain ground in this -country. The feed used in cramming is similar to that used in -ordinary crate feeding, except that it is mixed as a thin batter. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Caponizing. -</p> -<p> -Caponizing is the castration of male chickens. Capons hold the same -place in the poultry market as do steers in the beef market. -</p> -<p> -Caponizing is practiced to quite an extent in France, and to a less -degree in England and the United States. -</p> -<p> -Much the larger part of the industry is confined to that portion of -the United States east of Philadelphia, though increasing numbers of -capons are being raised in the North Central States. During the -winter months capon is regularly quoted in the markets of the larger -eastern cities. Massachusetts and New Jersey are the great centers -for the growing of capons, while Boston, New York, and Philadelphia -are the great markets. In many eastern markets the prices paid for -dressed capons range from 20 to 30 cents a pound. The highest prices -usually prevail from January to May, and the larger the birds the -more they bring a pound. -</p> -<p> -The purpose of caponizing is not, as is sometimes stated, to -increase the size of the chicken, but to improve the quality of the -meat. The capon fattens more readily and economically than other -birds. As they do not interfere with or worry one another, large -flocks may be kept together. -</p> -<p> -The breeds suitable for caponizing are the Asiatics and Americans. -Brahmas will produce, with proper care and sufficient time, the -largest and finest capons. On the ordinary farm, where capons would -be allowed to run loose, Plymouth Rocks would prove more profitable. -Plymouth Rocks, Brahmas, Langshans, Wyandottes, Indian Games, may -all be used for capons. Leghorns are not to be considered for this -purpose. -</p> -<p> -Capons should be operated upon when they are about ten weeks or -three months old and weigh about two pounds. -</p> -<p> -The operation of caponizing is performed by cutting in between the -last two ribs. Both testicles may be removed from one side or both -sides may be opened. The cockerel should be starved for twenty-four -hours in order to empty the intestines. Asiatics are more difficult -to operate on than Americans, the testicles being larger and less -firm. There is always some danger of causing death by tearing blood -vessels, but the per cent. of loss with an experienced operator is -very small. Loss by inflammation is still more rare. The testicle of -a bird is not as highly developed as in a mammal, and if the organ -is broken and a small fragment remains attached it will produce -birds known as slips. Some growers advise looking over the capons -and puncturing the wind puffs that gather beneath the skin. This, -however, is not necessary. -</p> -<p> -A good set of tools is indispensable and can be purchased for from -$2 to $3. As a complete set of instructions is furnished with each -set it is unnecessary to go into details here. The beginner should, -however, operate on several dead cockerels before attempting to -operate on a live one. -</p> -<p> -After caponizing the bird should be given plenty of soft feed and -water. The capon begins to eat almost immediately after the -operation is performed, and no one would suppose that a radical -change had taken place in his nature. -</p> -<p> -The feeding of capons differs little from the feeding of other -growing chickens. Corn, wheat, barley and Kaffir-corn would be -suitable grain, while beef-scrap would be necessary to produce the -best growth. -</p> -<p> -About three weeks before marketing place the capons in small yards -and feed them three or four times a day, giving plenty of corn and -other feed, or fatten them in one of the ways indicated in the -section on fattening poultry. Corn meal and ground oats, equal parts -by weight, moistened with water or milk, make a good mash for -fattening capons. -</p> -<p> -In dressing capons leave the head and hackle feathers, the feathers -on the wings to the second joint, the tail feathers, including those -a little way up the back, and the feathers on the legs halfway up to -the thigh. These feathers serve to distinguish capons from other -fowls in the market. Do not cut the head off, for this is also a -distinguishing feature of the capon, on account of the undeveloped -comb and wattles. -</p> -<p> -The price received for capons is greater than any other kind of -poultry meat except early broilers. There may be trouble in some -localities in getting dealers to recognize capons as such and pay an -advanced price. -</p> -<p> -On several farms in Massachusetts, 500 to 1,000 capons are raised -annually, and on one farm 5,000 cockerels are held for caponizing. -The industry is growing rapidly year by year and the supply does not -equal the demand. -</p> -<p> -It is to be expected that the amount of caponizing done in the West -will gradually increase. Those wishing to try the growing of capons -will do well to secure an experienced operator. Good men at this -work receive five cents per bird. Poor operators are dear at any -price, as they produce a large number of worthless slips. -</p> -<a name="2HCH0011"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> - -<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> - -<h2> -<a name="chapX"> -CHAPTER X -</a> -</h2> -<h3> -MARKETING POULTRY CARCASSES -</h3> -<p> -In the marketing of poultry carcasses as in other phases of the -industry, we really have two systems to discuss. The one is used for -the marketing of the product of the farm of the Central West, and -the other the product of the poultryman or eastern farmer, who is -near a large market and who will be repaid for taking special pains -in preparing his poultry for market. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Farm-Grown Chickens. -</p> -<p> -At the present time almost the entire poultry crop of the Central -West is sold from the farm as live poultry. This farm stock is -purchased by produce buyers or general merchants and shipped to the -nearest county seat or other important town, where there are usually -one or more poultry-killing establishments. These establishments may -vary from a simple shed, where the chickens are picked and packed in -barrels, to the more modern poultry-packing establishment, with its -accommodations for fattening, dressing, packing, freezing, and -storing. -</p> -<p> -The poultry-buying stations may be branches of the larger packing -establishments, branch houses of large produce firms, or small firms -operating independently and selling in the open market. -</p> -<p> -The chickens as purchased are grouped into the following classes: -Springs, hens, old roosters and (at certain seasons) young roosters -or staggy cockerels. Early in the season small springs are quoted as -broilers, while capons form a separate item where such are grown. -</p> -<p> -Chickens are starved before killing, for the purpose of emptying the -crop, and, to some degree, the intestines. If this is not done the -carcass presents an unsightly appearance and spoils more readily in -storage. -</p> -<p> -The method of picking is not always the same, even in the same -plant. Scalding is frequently used for local trade, in the summer -season, or with cheap-grade stuff. The greater portion of the stock -is picked dry. The pickers are generally paid so much per bird. In -some plants men do the roughing while girls are employed as pinners. -Pickers work either with the chickens suspended by a cord or -fastened upon a bench adopted to this purpose. The killing is done -by bleeding and sticking. The last thrust reaches the brain and -paralyzes the bird. The manner of making these cuts must be learned -by practical instruction. The feathers are saved, and amount to a -considerable item. White feathers are worth more than others. The -head and feet are left on the chicken and the entrails are not -removed. -</p> -<p> -The bird, after being chilled in ice-water or in the cooling room, -is ready for grading and packing. This, from the producer's -standpoint, is the most interesting stage in the process, for it is -here that the quality of the stock is to be observed. The grading is -made on three considerations: (1) The general division of cocks, -springs, hens and capons is kept separate from the killing-room; (2) -the grading for quality; (3) the assortment according to size. -</p> -<p> -The grading for quality depends on the general shape of the chicken, -the plumpness or covering of meat, the neatness of picking, the -color of skin and legs, and the appearance of the feet and head, -which latter points indicate the age and condition of health. The -culls consist of deformed and scrawny chickens. The seconds are poor -in flesh, or they may be, in the case of hens, unsightly from -overfatness. They are packed in barrels and go to the cheapest -trade. Those carcasses slightly bruised or torn in dressing also go -in this class. Although a preference is generally stated for -yellow-skinned poultry, the white-skinned birds, if equal in other -points, are not underranked in this score. The skin color that is -decidedly objectionable is the purplish tinge, which is a sign of -diseased stock. Black pin-feathers and dark-colored legs are a -source of objection. Especially is this true with young birds which -show the pin-feathers. Feathered legs are slightly more -objectionable than smooth legs. Small combs and the absence of spurs -give better appearance to the carcass. -</p> -<p> -The following is the nomenclature and corresponding weights of the -farm marketed chickens. In each class there will be seconds and -culls. The seconds of each group are kept separate, but not graded -so strictly or perhaps not graded at all for size. The culls are -packed in barrels and all kinds of chickens from fryers to old -roosters here sojourn together until they reach their final -destination, as potted chicken or chicken soup. -</p> -<p> -Broilers—Packed in two weights. 1st: Less than two pounds; 2d: -between 2 and 2-1/2 pounds. -</p> -<p> -Chickens—Packed in three weights. 1st: between 2-1/2 and 3 pounds; -2d: between 3 and 3-1/2 pounds; 3d: between 3-1/2 and 4 pounds. -</p> -<p> -Roasters—Packed in two weights. 1st: between 4 and 5 pounds; 2d: -above 5 pounds. -</p> -<p> -Stag Roosters—Cockerels, showing spurs and hard blue meat, packed -in two weights. 1st: under 4 pounds; 2d: above 4 pounds. -</p> -<p> -Fowls, are hens. They are packed in three sizes. 1st: under 3-1/4 -pounds; 2d: between 3-1/4 and 4-1/2 pounds; 3d: over 4-1/2 pounds. -</p> -<p> -Old Roosters—Packed in barrels. One grade only. -</p> -<p> -After packing, chickens may be shipped to market immediately, or -they may be frozen and stored in the local plant. Shipments of any -importance are made in refrigerator cars. -</p> -<p> -The poultry that is shipped to the final market alive is gradually -diminishing in quantity, as poultry killing plants are built up -throughout the country. The live poultry shipments are chiefly made -in the Live Poultry Transportation Cars. The following figures give -the number of such cars that moved out of the States named in a -recent year: -</p> -<table align="center" width="50%" summary="number of cars by state"> -<tr><td>Iowa</td> <td align="right">645</td></tr> -<tr><td>Missouri</td> <td align="right">630</td></tr> -<tr><td>Illinois</td> <td align="right">624</td></tr> -<tr><td>Kentucky</td> <td align="right">472</td></tr> -<tr><td>Nebraska</td> <td align="right">395</td></tr> -<tr><td>Kansas</td> <td align="right">370</td></tr> -<tr><td>Minnesota</td> <td align="right">174</td></tr> -<tr><td>Ohio</td> <td align="right">173</td></tr> -<tr><td>Tennessee</td> <td align="right">169</td></tr> -<tr><td>Michigan</td> <td align="right">165</td></tr> -<tr><td>S. Dakota</td> <td align="right">103</td></tr> -<tr><td>Oklahoma</td> <td align="right">101</td></tr> -<tr><td>Indiana</td> <td align="right">100</td></tr> -<tr><td>Wisconsin</td> <td align="right">93</td></tr> -<tr><td>Texas</td> <td align="right">91</td></tr> -<tr><td>Arkansas</td> <td align="right">47</td></tr> -</table> -<p> -The most of this live poultry goes to New York and other eastern -cities and is consumed largely by the Hebrew trade. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -The Special Poultry Plant. -</p> -<p> -The special egg farmer of the East should sell his poultry alive to -the regular dealer. The exception to this advice may be taken in the -case of squab broilers for which some local dealers will not pay as -fancy a price as may be obtained by dressing and shipping to the -hotel trade. -</p> -<p> -The grower of roasters and capons will probably want to market his -own product. As to whether it will pay him to do so will depend upon -whether his dealer will pay what the quality of the goods really -demands. The dealer can afford to do this all right, if he will -hustle around and find an outlet for the particular grade of goods, -for he is in position to kill and dress the fowls more economically -than the producer. -</p> -<p> -I have never been able to study out why the average writer upon -agricultural subjects is always advising the farmer to attempt to do -difficult work for which special firms already exist. In the case of -fattening just referred to, there is reason why the farmer may be -able to do the work more successfully than the special -establishment, but why any one should urge the farmer to turn the -woodshed into a temporary poultry packing establishment I can hardly -see. If the farmer has nothing to do he had better get a job at the -poultry killing house where they have ice water and barrels in which -to put the feathers. -</p> -<p> -I do not think it worth while in this book for me to attempt to -describe in detail the various methods of killing and packing -poultry for the various retail markets. The grower who contemplates -killing his own stuff had better spend a day visiting the produce -houses and market stalls and inquire which methods are locally in -demand. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Suggestions from Other Countries. -</p> -<p> -In European countries generally, and especially in France and -England, great pains is taken in the production of market poultry. -Each farmer and each neighborhood become known in the market for the -quality of their poultry, and the prices they receive vary -accordingly. In these countries more poultry is fattened and dressed -by the growers than in the United States where we have greater -specialization of labor. -</p> -<p> -In countries that have an export trade different systems have -originated. In Denmark and Ireland co-operative societies are -organized to handle perishable farm products. These, however, deal -more with eggs than with poultry. In portions of England the -fattening is done by private fatteners. The country being thickly -settled, the chickens are collected directly from the farms by -wagons making regular trips. This allows the rejection of the poor -and immature specimens, whereas a premium may be paid on better -stock. -</p> -<p> -The greatest fault of poultry buying as conducted in this country is -the evil of a uniform price. After chickens are dressed the -difference of quality is readily discerned, and the price varies -from fancy quotations to almost nothing for culls. The packer pays a -given rate per pound for live hens or for spring chickens. The price -is paid alike for the best poultry received or for the scrawniest -chickens that can be coaxed to stand up and be weighed. The prices -paid is the average worth of all chickens purchased at that market. -All farmers who market an article better than the average are unjust -losers, while those who sell inferior stock receive unearned -profits. The producer of good stock receives pay for the extra -quantity of his chickens, but for the extra quality no recognition -whatever is given. To the deserving producer, if quality was -recognized, it would result in a greatly increased stimulation of -the production of good poultry. Any packer, if questioned, will -state that he would be willing to grade chickens and pay for them -according to quality, but that he does not do so because his -competitor would pay a uniform price and drive him out of business. -The man who receives an increased price would say little of it, -while the man who sells poor chickens, if he failed to receive the -full amount to which he is accustomed, would think himself unjustly -treated and use his influence against the dealer. A recognition of -quality in buying is for the interest of both the farmer and the -poultry dealer, and a mutual effort on the part of those interested -to put in practice this reform would result in a great improvement -of the poultry industry. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Cold Storage of Poultry. -</p> -<p> -The growth of the cold storage of poultry has been phenomenal. -Poultry is packed in thin boxes that will readily lose their heat -and these are stacked in a freezer with a temperature near the zero -point. The temperature used for holding poultry are anywhere from 0 -degree up to 20 degrees. Poultry is held for periods of one to six -weeks at temperature above the freezing point. -</p> -<p> -Frozen poultry will keep almost indefinitely save for the drying -out, which is due to the fact that evaporation will proceed slowly -even from a frozen body. The time frozen poultry is stored varies -from a few weeks to eight or ten months. -</p> -<p> -The usual rule is that any crop is highest in price when it first -comes on the market and cheapest just after the point of its -greatest production. Thus, broilers are high in May and cheap in -September. In such cases the goods are carried from the season of -plenty to the following season of scarcity. This period is always -less than a year. The idea circulated by wild writers, that cold -storage poultry was kept several years is an economic impossibility. -The interest on the investment alone would make the holding of -storage goods into the second season of plenty, quite unprofitable, -but when the costs of storage, insurance and shrinkage are to be -paid, storing poultry for more than one season becomes absurd. The -fowl that has been once frozen cannot be made to look "fresh killed" -again. For that reason packers like to get a monopoly on a -particular market so that the two classes of goods will not have to -compete side by side. The quality of the frozen fowl when served is -very fair, practically as good as and some say better than the fresh -killed. -</p> -<p> -Cold storage poultry is best thawed out by being placed over night -in a tank of water. Poultry prejudice prevents the practice of -retailing the goods frozen, though this method would be highly -desirable. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Drawn or Undrawn Fowls. -</p> -<p> -Within the last two or three years there has been a great hue and -cry about the marketing of poultry without drawing the entrails. -</p> -<p> -The objection to the custom rests upon the general prejudice to -allowing the entrails of animals to remain in the carcass. If a -little thought is given the subject, however, it is seen that human -prejudice is very inconsistent in such matters. We draw beef and -mutton carcasses, to be sure, but fish and game are stored undrawn, -and as for oysters and lobsters we not only store them undrawn but -we eat them so. -</p> -<p> -The facts about the undrawn poultry proposition are as follows: The -intestines of the fowl at death contain numerous species of -bacteria, whereas the flesh is quite free from germs. If the carcass -is not drawn, but immediately frozen hard, the bacteria remain -inactive and no essential change occurs. If the carcass is stored -without freezing, or remains for even a short time at a high -temperature, the bacteria will begin to grow through the intestinal -walls and contaminate the flesh. -</p> -<p> -Now, if the fowl is drawn, the unprotected flesh is exposed to -bacterial contamination, which results in decomposition more rapidly -than through the intestinal walls. The opening of the carcass also -allows a greater drying out and shrinkage. -</p> -<p> -If poultry carcasses were split wide open as with beef or mutton, -drawing might not prove as satisfactory as the present method, but -since this is not desirable, and since ordinary laborers will break -the intestines and spill their contents over the flesh, and -otherwise mutilate the fowl, all those who have had actual -experience in the matter agree that drawing poultry is unpractical -and undesirable. -</p> -<p> -As far as danger of disease or ptomaine poison is concerned, chances -between the two methods seem to offer little choice. -</p> -<p> -The Bureau of Chemistry of the U.S. Department of Agriculture has -conducted a series of experiments along the line of poultry storage. -So far as the results have been published, nothing very striking has -been learned. From what has been published, the writer is of the -opinion that the somewhat mysterious changes that were observed in -the cold storage poultry were mostly a matter of drying out of the -carcass. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Poultry Inspection. -</p> -<p> -The enthusiastic members of the medical profession, and others whose -knowledge of practical affairs is somewhat limited, occasionally -come forth with the idea of an inspection of poultry carcasses -similar to the Federal inspection of the heavier meats. -</p> -<p> -The reasons that are supposed to warrant the Federal meat inspection -are precaution against disease and the idea of enforcing a -cleanliness in the handling of food behind the consumer's back, -which he would insist upon were he the preparer of his own food -products. -</p> -<p> -No doubt there is well established evidence that some diseases, such -as the dread trichinosis, are acquired by the consumption of -diseased meat. As far as it is at present known there are no -diseases acquired from the consumption of diseased poultry flesh, -but, as we do not know as much about the bacteria that infests -poultry as we do of that of larger animals, there is no positive -proof that such transmission of disease could not occur. Thorough -cooking kills all disease germs, and poultry is seldom, if ever, -eaten without such preparation. -</p> -<p> -The idea of protecting people from uncleanly methods of handling -their foods, concerning which they cannot themselves know, is -somewhat of a sentimental proposition. In practice it amounts to -nothing, save as the popular conception of this protection increases -the demand for the product which is marked "U.S. Inspected and -Passed." -</p> -<p> -It may be interesting to some of the reformers of 1906 to know that -the meat inspection bill then forced upon Congress by a clamoring -public was desired by the packers themselves. Because Congress would -not listen to the packers, and the Department of Agriculture, the -Chief Executive very kindly indulged in a little conversation with a -few reporters, the results of which gave Congress the needed -inspiration. -</p> -<p> -It cost the Government three million dollars to tell the people that -their meats are packed in a cleanly manner. If the people want this, -it is all well and good. The tax it places upon the price of meat is -less than half of one per cent. -</p> -<p> -A similar inspection of the killing and packing of poultry would -involve a very much higher rate of taxation, because of the fact -that poultry products are packed in small establishments scattered -throughout the entire country. -</p> -<p> -One reason that the meat packers wanted the United States -Inspection, is because it puts out of business the little fellow to -whom the Government cannot afford to grant inspection. A few of the -very largest poultry packers would like to see poultry inspection -for the same reason, but with the business so thoroughly scattered -as to render Government inspection so expensive as to be quite -impracticable, any such bill would certainly be killed in a -congressional committee. -</p> -<p> -Any practical means to bring about the cleanly handling, and to -prevent the consumption of diseased poultry, should certainly be -encouraged. This can be done by the education of the consumer. -Poultry carcasses should be marketed with head and feet attached and -the entrails undrawn. By this precaution the consumer may tell -whether the fowl he is buying is male or female, young or old, -healthy or diseased. All cold storage poultry should be frozen and -should be sold to the consumer in a frozen condition. -</p> -<p> -I am not in favor of the detailed regulation of business by law, but -I do believe that the legal enforcement of these last precautions -would be a good thing. -</p> -<a name="2HCH0012"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> - -<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> - -<h2> -<a name="chapXI"> -CHAPTER XI -</a> -</h2> -<h3> -QUALITY IN EGGS [*] -</h3> - -<p class="foot"> -<u>*</u> [Much of the matter in this and the following chapter is -taken from the writer's report of the egg trade of the United -States, published as Circular 140 of the Bureau of Annual Industry -of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. In the present volume, -however, I have inserted some additional matters which policy -forbade that I discuss in a Federal document.] -</p> -<p> -Because of the readiness with which eggs spoil, the term "fresh" has -become synonymous with the idea of desirable quality in eggs. As a -matter of fact the actual age of an egg is quite subordinate to -other factors which affect the quality. -</p> -<p> -An egg forty-eight hours old that has lain in a wheat shock during a -warm July rain, would probably be swarming with bacteria and be -absolutely unfit for food. Another egg stored eight months in a -first-class cold storage room would be perfectly wholesome. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Grading Eggs. -</p> -<p> -Eggs are among the most difficult of food products to grade, because -each egg must be considered separately and because the actual -substance of the egg cannot be examined without destroying the egg. -From external appearance, eggs can be selected for size, color, -cleanliness of shell and freedom from cracks. This is the common -method of grading in early spring when the eggs are uniformly of -good quality. -</p> -<p> -Later in the season the egg candle is used. In the technical sense -any kind of a light may be used as an egg candle. A sixteen candle -power electric lamp is the most desirable. The light is enclosed in -a dark box, and the eggs are held against openings about the size of -a half dollar. The candler holds the egg large end upward, and gives -it a quick turn in order to view all sides, and to cause the -contents to whirl within the shell. To the expert this process -reveals the actual condition of the egg to an extent that the novice -can hardly realize. The art of egg candling cannot be readily taught -by worded description. One who wishes to learn egg candling had best -go to an adept in the art, or he may begin unaided and by breaking -many eggs learn the essential points. -</p> -<p> -Eggs when laid vary considerably in size, but otherwise are a very -uniform product. The purpose of the egg in nature requires that this -be the case, because the contents of the egg must be so proportioned -as to form the chick without surplus or waste, and this demands a -very constant chemical composition. -</p> -<p> -For food purposes all fresh eggs are practically equal. The tint of -the yolk varies a little, being a brighter yellow when green food -has been supplied the hens. Occasionally, when hens eat unusual -quantities of green food, the yolk show a greenish brown tint, and -appear dark to the candler. Such eggs are called grass eggs; they -are perfectly wholesome. -</p> -<p> -An opinion exists among egg men that the white of the spring egg is -of finer quality and will stand up better than summer eggs. This is -true enough of commercial eggs, but the difference is chiefly, if -not entirely, due to external factors that act upon the egg after it -is laid. -</p> -<p> -There are some other peculiarities that may exist in eggs at the -time of laying, such as a blood clot enclosed with the contents of -the egg, a broken yolk or perhaps bacterial contamination. "Tape -worms," so-called by egg candlers, are detached portions of the -membrane lining of the egg. "Liver spots" or "meat spots" are -detached folds from the walls of the oviduct. Such abnormalities are -rare and not worth worrying about. -</p> -<p> -The shells of eggs vary in shape, color and firmness. These -variations are more a matter of breed and individual idiosyncrasy -than of care or feed. -</p> -<p> -The strength of egg shells is important because of the loss from -breakage. The distinction between weak and firm shelled eggs is not -one, however, which can be readily remedied. Nothing more can be -advised in this regard than to feed a ration containing plenty of -mineral matter and to discard hens that lay noticeably weak shelled -or irregularly shaped eggs. -</p> -<p> -Preference in the color of eggs shells is a hobby, and one well -worth catering to. As is commonly stated, Boston and surrounding -towns want brown eggs, while New York and San Francisco demand white -eggs. These trade fancies take their origin in the circumstances of -there being large henneries in the respective localities producing -the particular class of eggs. If the eggs from such farms are the -best in the market and were uniformly of a particular shade, that -mark of distinction, like the trade name on a popular article, would -naturally become a selling point. Only the select trade consider the -color in buying. -</p> -<p> -Eggs of all Mediterranean breeds are white. Those of Asiatics are -brown. Those of the American breeds are usually brown, but not of so -uniform a tint. -</p> -<p> -The size of eggs is chiefly controlled by the breed or by selection -of layers of large eggs. In a number of experiments published by -various experiment stations, slight differences in the sizes of the -eggs have been noted with varying rations and environment, but this -cannot be attributed to anything more specific than the general -development and vigor of the fowls. Pullets, at the beginning of the -laying period, lay an egg decidedly smaller than those produced at a -later stage in life. -</p> -<p> -The egg size table below gives the size of representative -classes of eggs. These figures must not be applied too rigidly, as -the eggs of all breeds and all localities vary. They are given as -approximate averages of the eggs one might reasonably expect to find -in the class mentioned. -</p> -<table align="center" summary="egg sizes"> -<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"><b>EGG SIZE TABLE.</b></td></tr> - -<tr><td>GEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION</td> <td>BREED CLASSIFICATIONS</td> <td>Net Wt. Per 30 Dozen Case</td> <td>Weight Ounces Per Dozen</td> <td>Relative Values Per Dozen</td></tr> - -<tr><td>Southern Iowa's "Two ounce eggs"</td> <td>Purebred flocks of American varieties of "egg farm Leghorns."</td> <td>45 lbs.</td> <td>24</td> <td>25c.</td></tr> - -<tr><td>Poorest flocks of Southern Dunghills</td> <td>Games and Hamburgs.</td> <td>36 lbs.</td> <td>19 1-5</td> <td>20c.</td></tr> - -<tr><td>Average Tennessee or Texas eggs.</td> <td>Poorest strains of Leghorns.</td> <td>43 lbs.</td> <td>21 1-3</td> <td>22 1-3c.</td></tr> - -<tr><td>Average for the United States as represented by Kansas, Minnesota and Southern Illinois.</td> <td>The mixed barnyard fowl of the western farm, largely of Plymouth Rock origin.</td> <td>40 lbs.</td> <td>23</td> <td>23 9-10c.</td></tr> - -<tr><td>Average size of eggs produced in Denmark.</td> <td>American Brahmas and Minorcas.</td> <td>48 lbs.</td> <td>25 3-5</td> <td>26 2-3c.</td></tr> - -<tr><td>Selected brands of Danish eggs.</td> <td>Equaled by several pens of Leghorns in the Australian laying contest.</td> <td>54 lbs.</td> <td>28 4-5</td> <td>30c.</td></tr> - - -</table> - -<p class="subhead"> -How Eggs Are Spoiled. -</p> -<p> -Dirty eggs are grouped roughly in three classes: (A) Plain dirties, -those to which soil or dung adheres; (B) stained eggs, those caused -by contact with damp straw or other material which discolors the -shell (plain dirties when washed usually show this appearance); (C) -smeared eggs, those covered with the contents of broken eggs. -</p> -<p> -For the first two classes of dirty eggs the producer is to blame. -The third class originates all along the route from the nest to -consumer. The percentage of dirty eggs varies with the season and -weather conditions, being noticeably increased during rainy weather. -In grading, about five per cent. of farm grown eggs are thrown out -as dirties. These dirties are sold at a loss of at least twenty per -cent. -</p> -<p> -The common trade name for cracked eggs is checks. Blind checks are -those in which the break in the shell is not readily observable. -They are detected with the aid of the candle, or by sounding, which -consists of clicking the eggs together. Dents are checks in which -the egg shell is pushed in without rupturing the membrane. Leakers -have lost part of the contents and are not only an entire loss -themselves, but produce smeared eggs. -</p> -<p> -The loss from breakage varies considerably with the amount of -handling in the process of marketing. A western produce house, -collecting from grocers by local freight will record from four to -seven per cent. of checks. With properly handled eggs the loss -through breakage should not run over one or two per cent. -</p> -<p> -Eggs in which the chick has begun to develop are spoken of as -"heated" eggs. Infertile eggs cannot heat because the germ has not -been fertilized and can make no growth. That such infertile eggs -cannot spoil is, however, a mistaken notion, for they are subjected -to all the other factors by which -</p> -<p> -eggs may be spoiled. The sale of eggs tested out of the incubators -has been encouraged by the dissemination of the knowledge that -infertile eggs are not changed by incubation. Eggs thrown out of an -incubator will be shrunken and weakened, and some of them may -contain dead germs and the remains of chicks that have died after -starting to develop. Such eggs may be sold for what they are, but -should never be mixed with other eggs or sold as fresh. When -carefully candled they should be worth ten or twelve cents a dozen. -</p> -<p> -Fertile eggs, at the time of laying, cannot be told from infertile -eggs, as the germ of the chick is microscopic in size. If the egg is -immediately cooled and held at a temperature below 70 degrees, the -germ will not develop. At a temperature of 103 degrees, the -development of the chick proceeds most rapidly. At this temperature -the development is about as follows: -</p> -<p> -Twelve hours incubation: When broken in a saucer, the germ spot, -visible upon all eggs, seems somewhat enlarged. Looked at with a -candle such an egg cannot be distinguished from a fresh egg. -</p> -<p> -Twenty-four hours: The germ spot mottled and about the size of a -dime. This egg, if not too dark shelled, can readily be detected -with the candle, the germ spot causing the yolk to appear -considerably darker than the yolk of a fresh egg. Such an egg is -called a heavy egg or a floater. -</p> -<p> -Forty-eight hours: By this time the opaque white membrane, which -surrounds the germ, has spread well over the top of the yolk, and -the egg is quite dark or heavy before the light. Blood appears at -about this period, but is difficult of detection by the candler, -unless the germ dies and the blood ring sticks to the membrane of -the egg. -</p> -<p> -Three days: The blood ring is the prominent feature and is as large -as a nickel. The yolk behind the membrane has become watery. -</p> -<p> -Four days: The body of the chick becomes readily visible, and -prominent radiating blood vessels are seen. The yolk is half covered -with a water containing membrane. -</p> -<p> -These stages develop as given, occurring at a temperature of 103 -degrees. As the temperature is lowered the rate of chick development -is retarded, but at any temperature above 70, this development will -proceed far enough to cause serious injury to the quality of the -eggs. -</p> -<p> -For commercial use eggs may be grouped in regard to heating as -follows: -</p> -<p> -(1) No heat shown. Cannot be told at the candle from fresh eggs. -</p> -<p> -(2) Light floats. First grade that can be separated by candling, -corresponding to about twenty-four hours of incubation. These are -not objectionable to the average housewife. -</p> -<p> -(3) Heavy floats. This group has no distinction from the former, -except an exaggeration of the same feature. These eggs are -objectionable to the fastidious housewife, because of the appearing -of the white and scummy looking allantois on the yolk. -</p> -<p> -(4) Blood rings. Eggs in which blood has developed, extending to the -period when the chick becomes visible. (5) Chicks visible to the -candle. -</p> -<p> -The loss due to heated eggs is enormous; probably greater than that -caused by any other source of loss to the egg trade. The loss varies -with the season of the year, and the climate. In New England heat -loss is to be considered as in the same class as loss from dirties -and checks. In Texas the egg business from the 15th of June until -cool weather in the fall is practically dead. People stop eating -eggs at home and shipping out of the State nets the producer such -small returns by the time the loss is allowed that, at the prices -offered, it hardly pays the farmer to gather the eggs. In the season -of 1901 hatched chickens were commonly found in cases of market -eggs, throughout the trans-Mississippi region, and eggs did well to -net the shippers three cents per dozen. -</p> -<p> -Damage to eggs by heating and consequent financial loss is -inexcusable. In the first place, market eggs have no business being -fertilized, but whether they are or not they should be kept in a -place sufficiently cool to prevent all germ growth. -</p> -<p> -The egg shell is porous so that the developing chick may obtain air. -This exposes the moist contents of the egg to the drying influence -of the atmosphere. Evaporation from eggs takes place constantly. It -is increased by warm temperatures, dry air and currents of air -striking the egg. -</p> -<p> -When the egg is formed within the hen the contents fill the shell -completely. As the egg cools the contents shrink, and the two layers -of membrane separate in the large end of the egg, causing the -appearance of the bubble or air cell. Evaporation of water from the -egg further shrinks the contents and increases the size of the air -cell. The size of the air cell is commonly taken as a guide to the -age of the egg. But when we consider that with the same relative -humidity on a hot July day, evaporation would take place about ten -times as fast as on a frosty November morning, and that differences -in humidity and air currents equally great occur between localities, -we see that the age of an egg, judged by this method, means simply -the extent of evaporation, and proves nothing at all about the -actual age. -</p> -<p> -Even as a measure of evaporation, the size of the air cell may be -deceptive, for when an egg with an air cell of considerable size is -roughly handled, the air cell breaks down the side of the egg, and -gives the air cell the appearance of being larger than it really is. -Still rougher handling of shrunken eggs may cause the rupture of the -inner membrane, allowing the air to escape into the contents of the -egg. This causes a so-called watery or frothy egg. The quality is in -no wise injured by the mechanical mishap, but eggs so ruptured are -usually discriminated against by candlers. -</p> -<p> -In this connection it might be well to speak further of the subject -of "white strength," by which is meant the stiffness or viscosity of -the egg white. The white of an egg is a limpid, clear liquid, but in -the egg of good quality that portion immediately surrounding the -yolk appears to be in a semi-solid mass. The cause of this -appearance is the presence of an invisible network of fibrous -material. By age and mechanical disturbance this network is -gradually broken down and the liquid white separates out. Such a -weak and watery white is usually associated with shrunken eggs. -These eggs will not stand up well or whip into a firm froth and are -thrown in lower grades. -</p> -<p> -The weakness of the yolk membranes also increases with age, and is -objectionable because the breakage of the yolk is unsightly and -spoils the egg for poaching. -</p> -<p> -The shrunken egg is most abundant in the fall, when the rising -prices tempt the farmer and grocery man to hold the eggs. This -holding is so prevalent, in fact, that from August to December full -fresh eggs are the exception rather than the rule. -</p> -<p> -While we have called attention to evaporation as the most pronounced -fault of fall eggs, losses from other causes are greatly increased -by the holding process. -</p> -<p> -If the eggs are held in a warm place, heat and shrinkage will case -the greatest damage; if held in a cellar, rot, mold, and bad odors -will cause the chief loss. -</p> -<p> -The loss due to shrunken eggs is not understood nor appreciated by -those outside the trade. Such ignorance is due to the fact that the -shrunken is not so repulsive as the rotten or heated egg. But the -inferiority of the shrunken egg is so well appreciated by the -consumer that high class dealers find it impossible to use them -without ruining their trade. The result is that shrunken eggs are -constantly being sent into the cheaper channels, with the result -that all lower grades of eggs are more depreciated in the fall of -the year than at any other time. -</p> -<p> -In the classes of spoiled eggs, of which we have thus far spoken, -the proverbial rotten egg has not been considered. The term "rot" in -the egg trade is used to apply to any egg absolutely unfit for food -purposes. But I prefer to confine the term "rotten egg" to the egg -which contains a growth of bacteria. -</p> -<p> -The normal egg when laid is germ free. But the egg shell is not germ -proof. The pores in the egg shell proper are large enough to admit -all forms of bacteria, but the membrane inside the shell is germ -proof as long as it remains dry. When this membrane becomes moist so -that bacteria may grow in it, these germs of decay quickly grow -through it and contaminate the contents of the egg. -</p> -<p> -Heat favors the growth of bacteria in eggs and sufficient cold -prevents it, but as bacteria cannot enter without moisture on the -surface of the egg we can consider dampness as the cause of rotten -eggs. Moisture on the shell may come from an external wetting, from -the "sweating" of eggs coming out of cold storage, or by the -prevention of evaporation to such an extent that the external -moisture of the egg thoroughly soaks the membrane. The latter -happens in damp cellars, and when eggs are covered with some -impervious material. -</p> -<p> -Rotten eggs may be of different kinds, according to the species of -germ that causes the decomposition. The specific kinds of egg -rotting bacteria have not been worked out, but the following three -groups of bacterially infected eggs are readily distinguishable in -the practical work of egg candling. -</p> -<p> -(1) Black rots. It is probable that many different species of -bacteria cause this form of rotten eggs. The prominent feature is -the formation of hydrogen sulphide gas, which blackens the contents -of the egg, gives the characteristic rotten egg smell and sometimes -causes the equally well known explosion. -</p> -<p> -(2) Sour eggs or white rots. These eggs have a characteristic sour -smell. The contents become watery, the yolk and the whites mix and -the whole egg is offensive to both eye and nose. -</p> -<p> -(3) The spot rot. In this the bacterial growth has not contaminated -the whole egg, but has remained near the point of entrance. Such -eggs are readily picked out with the candle, and when broken open -show lumpy adhesions on the inside of the shell. These lumps are of -various colors and appearances. It is probable that these spots are -caused as much by mold as by bacteria, but for practical purposes -the distinction is immaterial. -</p> -<p> -In practice it is impossible to separate rotten from heated eggs for -the reason that in the typical nest of spoiled eggs found around the -farm, both causes have been at work. Dead chicks will not -necessarily cause the eggs to decay, but many such eggs do become -contaminated by bacteria before they reach the candler, and hence, -as a physician would say, show complications. -</p> -<p> -The loss of eggs that are actually rotten is not as great as one -might imagine. Perhaps one or two per cent. of the country's egg -crop actually rot, but the expenses of the candling necessitated, -and the lowering of value of eggs that contain even a few rotten -specimens are severe losses. -</p> -<p> -Moldy or musty eggs are caused by accidentally wet cases or damp -cellars and ice houses. The moldy egg is most frequently a spot rot. -In the musty egg proper the meat is free from foreign organisms, but -has been tainted by the odor of mold growth upon the shell or -packing materials. -</p> -<p> -The absorption of odors is the most baffling of all causes of bad -eggs. Here the candler, so expert in other points, is usually -helpless. Eggs, by storage in old musty cellars, or in rooms, with -lemons, onions and cheese, may become so badly flavored as to be -seriously objected to by a fancy trade, and yet there is no means of -detecting the trouble without destroying the egg. Such eggs occur -most frequently among the held stock of the fall season. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -The Loss Due to Carelessness. -</p> -<p> -The egg crop of the country, more than ninety-five per cent. of -which originates on the general farm, is subject to immense waste -due to ignorant and careless handling. The great mass of eggs for -sale in our large cities possess to a greater or less degree the -faults we have discussed. -</p> -<p> -Some idea of the loss due to the present shiftless method of -handling eggs, may be obtained by a comparison of the actual average -prices received for all eggs sold in New York City, and the -wholesale prices quoted by a prominent New York firm dealing in high -grade goods. The contrasted price for the year 1907 are as follows: -</p> -<table align="center" width="50%" summary="price of eggs"> -<tr><td> </td> <td align="right">Prices at which total goods moved.</td> <td> </td> <td align="right">Wholesale prices for strictly fresh eggs.</td></tr> -<tr><td>January</td> <td align="right">25.8</td> <td>January</td> <td align="right">42.</td></tr> -<tr><td>February</td> <td align="right">24.5</td> <td>February</td> <td align="right">40.</td></tr> -<tr><td>March</td> <td align="right">19.3</td> <td>March</td> <td align="right">32.</td></tr> -<tr><td>April</td> <td align="right">16.9</td> <td>April</td> <td align="right">30.</td></tr> -<tr><td>May</td> <td align="right">16.6</td> <td>May</td> <td align="right">31.</td></tr> -<tr><td>June</td> <td align="right">15.5</td> <td>June</td> <td align="right">32.</td></tr> -<tr><td>July</td> <td align="right">15.6</td> <td>July</td> <td align="right">35.</td></tr> -<tr><td>August</td> <td align="right">17.7</td> <td>August</td> <td align="right">38.</td></tr> -<tr><td>September</td> <td align="right">20.7</td> <td>September</td> <td align="right">40.</td></tr> -<tr><td>October</td> <td align="right">21.4</td> <td>October</td> <td align="right">42.</td></tr> -<tr><td>November</td> <td align="right">26.0</td> <td>November</td> <td align="right">45.</td></tr> -<tr><td>December</td> <td align="right">27.7</td> <td>December</td> <td align="right">48.</td></tr> -</table> -<p> -The total values figured by multiplying these prices by the -New York receipts, are as follows: -</p> -<table align="center" width="50%" summary="price of eggs"> -<tr><td>Amount actually received </td> <td align="right"> $23,832,000</td></tr> -<tr><td>Values at quotations for strictly fresh </td> <td align="right"> 44,730,000</td></tr> -</table> -<p> -No one would contend it is possible to bring the entire egg crop of -the country up to the latter value, but the fact that there is a -definite market for eggs of first class quality at almost double the -figures for which the egg crop as a whole is actually sold, is a -point very significant to the ambitious producer of high grade eggs. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Requisites of the Production of High Grade Eggs. -</p> -<p> -(a) Hens that produce a goodly number of eggs, and at the same time -an egg that is moderately large (average two ounces each). Plymouth -Rocks, Wyandottes, Rhode Island Reds, Orpingtons, Leghorns, Minorcas -are the varieties which will do this. -</p> -<p> -(b) Good housing, regular feeding and watering, and above all clean, -dry nests. -</p> -<p> -(c) Daily gathering of eggs, when the temperature is above 80 -degrees, gathering twice a day. -</p> -<p> -(d) The confining of all broody hens as soon as discovered. -</p> -<p> -(e) The rejection as doubtful of all eggs found in a nest which was -not visited the previous day. (Such eggs should be used at home -where each may be broken separately). -</p> -<p> -(f) The placing as soon as gathered of all summer eggs in the -coolest spot available. -</p> -<p> -(g) The prevention at all times of moisture in any form coming in -contact with the egg's shell. -</p> -<p> -(h) The selling of young cockerels before they begin to annoy the -hens. Also the selling or confining of old male birds from the time -hatching is over until cool weather in fall. -</p> -<p> -(i) The using of cracked and dirty, as well as small eggs, at home. -Such eggs if consumed when fresh are perfectly wholesome, but when -marketed are discriminated against and are likely to become an -entire loss. -</p> -<p> -(j) Keeping eggs away from musty cellars or bad odors. -</p> -<p> -(k) Keeping the egg as cool and dry as possible while en route to -market. -</p> -<p> -(l) The marketing of all eggs at least once per week and oftener, -when facilities permit. -</p> -<p> -(m) The use of strong, clean cases or cartons and good fillers. -</p> -<a name="2HCH0013"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> - -<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> - -<h2> -<a name="chapXII"> -CHAPTER XII -</a> -</h2> -<h3> -HOW EGGS ARE MARKETED -</h3> -<p> -The methods by which the larger number of American eggs pass from -the producer to consumer is as follows: -</p> -<p> -The eggs are gathered by the farmer with varying regularity and are -brought perhaps on the average of once a week, to the local village -merchant. -</p> -<p> -This merchant receives weekly quotations from a number of -surrounding egg dealers and at intervals of from two days to two -weeks, ships to such a dealer, by local freight. The dealer buys the -eggs case count, that is, he pays for them by the case regardless of -quality. He then repacks the eggs in new cases and, with the -exception of a period in the early spring, candles them. -</p> -<p> -This dealer, in turn, receives quotations from city egg houses and -sells to them by wire. He usually ships in carload lots. The city -receiver may also be a jobber who sells to grocers, or he may sell -the car outright to a jobbing house. The jobber re-candles the eggs, -sorting them into a number of grades, which are sold to various -classes of trade. The last link in the chain is the housewife, who -by 'phone or personal call, asks for "a dozen nice fresh eggs." -</p> -<p> -This most frequently repeated story of the American egg applies -particularly in the case of eggs produced west of the Mississippi -and marketed in the very large cities of the East. -</p> -<p> -We will now discuss the various steps of the egg trade, pointing out -the reason for the existence of the present methods and their -influence upon quality and consequent value. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -The Country Merchant. -</p> -<p> -The country merchant is the logical business link between the farmer -and the outside world and usually continues to act as the farmers' -buyer and seller until the commodity dealt in becomes of such -importance as to demand more specialized form of marketing. Eggs -being a perishable crop continuously produced, must be marketed at -frequent intervals, and the trips to the general store, necessary to -supply the household needs, offers the only convenient opportunity -for such marketing. -</p> -<p> -The merchant buys eggs because by doing so he can control his -selling trade. -</p> -<p> -The farmer trades where he sells his eggs, because it is convenient -to do both errands at one place, and also because he wishes to avoid -affronting the merchant by breaking the established custom of -trading out the amount. -</p> -<p> -For these reasons the merchant knows that to buy eggs means to sell -goods, and he therefore bids for eggs. His competitors across the -street, and in other towns, also bid for eggs. The effect to the -merchant of lowering the price of his goods or raising the price of -eggs is financially the same. In either case it is the matter of -cutting the prices under the spur of competition. Now, the articles -on which the merchant make his chief profits from the farmers' trade -are dry goods and notions. Such articles are not standardized, but -vary in a manner quite impossible of estimation by the -unsophisticated. On the other hand, eggs are quoted by the dozen, -and all that run may read. -</p> -<p> -Suppose, for illustration, two merchants in the same town are each -doing a business with a twenty per cent. profit, and are buying eggs -at ten cents and selling for eleven, the cent advance being -sufficient to pay for their labor, incidental loss, and a small -profit. Now one merchant concludes to play for more trade. If he -marks his goods down he would gain some trade, but many people would -fear his goods were cheap. But if he puts up a placard, "Eleven -Cents Paid For Eggs," the farmers will throng his store and never -question the quality of his goods. This move having been successful, -his rival across the street quietly stocks up with a cheaper line of -dry goods, and some fine morning puts out a card, "Twelve Cents For -Eggs." The farm wagons this week will be hitched on the other side -of the street. -</p> -<p> -The rate of business at ten per cent. being insufficient to maintain -two men in the town, a mutual understanding is gradually brought -about by which the prices of goods sold are worked back to the basis -of twenty per cent. gross profit, but the false price of eggs will -serve to draw the trade from neighboring towns and is therefore -maintained. -</p> -<p> -As a matter of fact the price paid to farmers for eggs by the -general stores of the Mississippi Valley is frequently one to two -cents above the price at which the storekeeper sells the product. -Allowing the cost of handling, we have a condition prevailing in -which the merchant is handling eggs at from five to ten per cent. -loss, and it stands to reason that he is making up the loss by -adding that per cent. to his profits on his goods. Some of the -effects of this system are: -</p> -<p> -1—The inflated prices of merchandise is an injustice to the -townspeople and to farmers not selling produce, in fact it amounts -to a taxation of these people for the benefit of the egg producers. -2—The inflated prices of merchant's wares work to his disadvantage -in competition with mail order or out-of-town trade. 3—The farmer -who exchanges eggs for dry goods is not being paid more for his -eggs, save as the tax on the townspeople contributes a little to -that end, but is in the main merely swapping more dollars. 4—The -use of eggs as a drawing card for trade works in favor of inferior -produce, and the loss to the farmer through the lowering of prices -thus caused, is much greater than his gain through the forced -contributions of his neighbors. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -The Huckster. -</p> -<p> -The huckster or peddling wagon which gathers eggs and other produce -directly from the farm, prevail east and south of a line drawn from -Galveston to Chicago through Texarkana, Ark., Springfield, Mo., and -St. Louis. North and west of this line the huckster is almost -unknown. -</p> -<p> -The huckster wagons may be of the following types: -</p> -<p> -1—An extension of the local grocery store, trading merchandise for -eggs. 2—An independent traveling peddler. 3—A cash dealer who buys -his load, and hauls it to the nearest city where he peddles the -produce from house to house or sells it to city grocers. 4—A -representative of the local produce buyer. 5—A fifth style of egg -wagon does not visit the farm at all, but is a system of rural -freight service run by a produce buyer for the purpose of collecting -the eggs from country stores. -</p> -<p> -As far as the quality of product and advantage to the farmer is -concerned, the fourth style of huckster is preferable. This style -exists chiefly in Indiana and Michigan, and the better settled -regions of Kentucky and Tennessee. The writer found hucksters in -southern Michigan working on a profit of one-half a cent per dozen, -while in the mountains of Tennessee he found a huckster paying ten -cents for eggs that were worth eighteen cents in Chattanooga, and -twenty-three cents in New York. -</p> -<p> -The huckster scheme of gathering eggs would seemingly be a means of -obtaining good eggs because of the advantage of regularity of -collection, but in reality it does not always work out that way. -While it must be admitted that in the isolated regions of the Middle -and Southern States the presence of the huckster is the only factor -that makes egg selling possible, it is also true that the peddling -huckster of those regions usually disregards the first principles of -handling perishable products. He makes a week's trip in sun and rain -with his load of produce, with the result that the quality of his -summer eggs is about as low as can be found. -</p> -<p> -In the more densely populated region with a twice or thrice a week, -or even daily service, the huckster egg becomes the finest farm -grown egg in the market. -</p> -<p> -The second step in the usual scheme of egg marketing is the sale of -eggs collected by the small storekeeper to the produce man or -shipper. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -The Produce Buyer. -</p> -<p> -Throughout the Mississippi Valley there are wholesale produce houses -at all important railroad junctions. A typical house will ship the -produce of one to three counties. These houses, once a week or -oftener, send out postal card quotations. These quotations read so -much per case, and are usually case count, with a reservation, -however, of the privilege to reject or charge loss on goods that are -utterly bad. Each grocery receives quotations from one to a dozen -such houses, and perhaps also from commission firms in the nearest -city. The highest of these quotations gets the shipment. -</p> -<p> -The buyer repacks the eggs and usually candles them, the strictness -of the grading depending upon the intended destination. The loss in -candling is generally kept account of, but is seldom charged back to -the shipper. The egg man wants volume of business, and if he -antagonizes a shipper by charging up his loss, the usual result will -be the loss of trade. So the buyer estimates his probable loss and -lowers his price enough to cover it. -</p> -<p> -By loss off, or "rots out," is meant the subtraction of the bad eggs -from the number to be paid for. Buying on a candled or graded basis, -usually not only means rots cut, but that a variation of the price -is made for two or more grades of merchantable eggs. -</p> -<p> -Much discussion prevails among the western egg buyers as to whether -eggs should be bought loss off or case count. Loss off buying seems -to be more desirable and just, but in practice is fraught with -difficulties. -</p> -<p> -If the loss off buyer feels he is losing business, he may instruct -his candler to grade more closely, which means he will pay less. -Whether done with honest or dishonest intention, the buyer thus sets -the price to be paid after he has the goods in his own hands, and -this is an obviously difficult commercial system. -</p> -<p> -Where the buyer in one case changes the grading basis to protect -himself, there are probably ten cases where the eggs really deserve -the loss charged; but the tenth chance gives the seller an -opportunity to nurse his loss with the belief that he has been -robbed by the buyer. Such an uncertain feeling is disagreeable, and -the results are that where one or two competing egg dealers buys -loss off, and the other case count, the case count man will get most -of the business. -</p> -<p> -The case count method being the path of least resistance, the loss -off system can only succeed where there is some factor that -overcomes the disinclination of a shipper to let the other man set -the price. This factor may be: 1st—An exceptional reputation of a -particular firm for honesty and fair dealing. 2d—Exceptional -opportunities for selling fancy goods, enabling the loss off buyer -to pay much higher rates for good stuff. 3d—A condition that -prevails in the South in the summer, where the losses are so heavy -that the dealers will not take the risk involved in case count -buying. 4th—Some sort of a monopoly. -</p> -<p> -A monopoly for enforcing the loss off system of buying has been -brought about in some sections of the West by agreement among egg -dealers. In such cases the usual experience has been that some one -would get anxious for more business, and begin quoting case count, -the result being that he would get the business of the disgruntled -shippers in his section. When one buyer begins quoting case count, -the remainder rapidly follow suit and case count buying is quickly -re-established. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -The City Distribution of Eggs. -</p> -<p> -In name, city egg dealers are usually commission houses, but in -practice the majority of large lots of eggs are now bought by -telegraph and the prices definitely known before shipment. -</p> -<p> -In the larger cities eggs are dealt in by a produce board of trade. -Such exchanges frequently have rules of grading and an official -inspector. This gives stability to egg dealing and largely solves -the problem of uncertainty as to quality, so annoying to the country -buyer. In the city even, where official grading is not resorted to, -personal inspection of the lot by the buyer is practical, and one -may know what he is getting. -</p> -<p> -In many cases, especially in smaller cities, the receiver is the -jobber and sells to the grocers. In larger cities the receiver sells -to a firm who makes a business of selling them to groceries, -restaurants, etc. -</p> -<p> -The jobber grades the eggs as the trade demands. In a western city -this may mean two grades—good and bad; in New York, it may mean -seven or eight grades, and the finer of these ones being packed in -sealed cartons, perhaps each egg stamped with the dealer's brand. -</p> -<p> -The city retailer of eggs include grocers, dairies, butcher shops, -soda fountains, hotels, restaurants and bakeries. The soda fountain -trade and the first-class hotel are among the high bidder for -strictly first-class eggs. Many such institutions in eastern cities -are supplied directly from large poultry farms. The figures at which -such eggs are purchased are frequently at a given premium above the -market quotation, or a year round contract price for a given number -of eggs per week. This premium over common farm eggs may range from -one or two cents in western cities, to five to twenty cents in New -York and Boston. An advance of ten cents over the quotation for -extras or a year round contract price of thirty-five cents per -dozen, might be considered typical of such arrangements in New York -City. -</p> -<p> -Some of the larger chain grocers in New York City are in the market -for strictly fresh eggs and have even installed buying departments -in charge of expert egg men. -</p> -<p> -The great bulk of eggs move through the channels of the small -restaurant, bakery and grocery. In the small cities of the Central -West the grocer handles eggs at a margin of one to three cents. In -the South and farther West the margin is two to seven cents, the -retail price always being in the even nickel. In the large eastern -city there exists the custom unknown in the West of having two or -more grades of eggs for sale in the same store. All eggs offered for -sale are claimed by the salesman to be "strictly fresh" or the -"best," and yet these eggs may vary if it be April from fifteen -cents to forty cents, or if in December from thirty cents to -seventy-five cents per dozen. The New York grocers' profit is from -two to five cents on cheap eggs, but runs higher on high grade eggs, -frequently reach twenty cents a dozen and sometimes going as high as -forty cents for very fancy stock. -</p> -<p> -City retailing is by far the most expensive item in the marketing of -eggs. As an illustration of the profits of the various handlers of -eggs might be as follows: -</p> -<table align="center" width="50%" summary="breakdown of price"> -<tr><td>Paid the farmer in Iowa</td> <td align="right">$.15</td></tr> -<tr><td>Profit of country store</td> <td align="right">.00</td></tr> -<tr><td>Gross profit of shipper</td> <td align="right">.00-3/4</td></tr> -<tr><td>Freight to New York</td> <td align="right">.01-1/2</td></tr> -<tr><td>Gross profit of receiver</td> <td align="right">.00-1/2</td></tr> -<tr><td>Gross profit of jobber</td> <td align="right">.01-1/2</td></tr> -<tr><td>Loss from candling</td> <td align="right">.01-1/2</td></tr> -<tr><td>Gross profit of retailer</td> <td align="right">.04-1/2</td></tr> -<tr><td> </td> <td align="right">-------</td></tr> -<tr><td>Cost to consumer</td> <td align="right">$.25</td></tr> -</table> -<p> -The cheapest grade of eggs sold are taken by bakeries and for -cooking purposes at restaurants. When cooked with other food an egg -may have its flavor so covered up that a very repulsive specimen may -be used. Measures have been frequently taken by city boards of -health to stop the sale of spot rots and other low grade eggs. The -great difficulty with such regulations is that they are difficult of -enforcement because no line of demarcation can be drawn as in the -case of adulterated or preserved products. -</p> -<p> -That embryo chicks and bacterially contaminated eggs are consumed by -the million cannot be doubted, but the individual examination of -each egg sold would be the only way in which the food inspectors can -prevent their use. The egg from the well-kept flock whose subsequent -handling has been conducted with intelligence and dispatch is the -only egg whose "purity" is assured with or without law. The -encouragement of such production and such handling is the proper -sphere of governmental regulations in regard to this product. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Cold Storage of Eggs. -</p> -<p> -The supply of eggs ranges from month to month, the heavy season of -production centering about April and the lightest run being in -November. The cold storage men begin storing eggs in March or April -and continue to store heavily until June, after which time the -quality deteriorates and does not keep well in storage. This storage -stock begins to move out in September and should be cleaned up by -December. Great loss may result if storage eggs are held too long. -</p> -<p> -The effect of the storage business is to even up the prices for the -year. The reduction of the exceedingly high winter prices is -unfortunate for those who are skilled enough to produce many eggs at -that season of the year, but on a whole the storage business adds to -the wealth-producing powers of the hen, for it serves to increase -the annual consumption of eggs and prevents eggs from becoming a -drug on the market during the season of heavy production. -</p> -<p> -March and April eggs are, in spite of a long period of storage, the -best quality of storage stock. This is accounted for by the fact -that owing to cooler weather and rising price eggs leave the farm in -the best condition at this season of the year. -</p> -<p> -Because eggs are spoiled by hard freezing, they must be kept at a -higher temperature than meat and butter. Temperatures of from 29 -degrees to 30 degrees F. are used in cold storage of eggs. At such -temperatures the eggs, if kept in moist air, become moldy or musty. -To prevent this mustiness the air in a first class storage room is -kept moderately dry. This shrinks the eggs, though much more slowly -than would occur without storage. -</p> -<p> -The growth of bacteria in cold storage is practically prevented, but -if bacteria are in the eggs when stored they will lie dormant and -begin activity when the eggs are warmed up. -</p> -<p> -Of the cold storage egg as a whole we can say it is a wholesome food -product, though somewhat inferior in flavor and strength of white to -a fresh egg. The cold storage egg can be very nearly duplicated in -appearance and quality by allowing eggs to stand for a week or two -in a dry room. Cold storage eggs, when in case lots, can be told by -the candler because of the uniform shrinkage, the presence of mold -on cracked eggs and perhaps the occasional presence of certain kinds -of spot rots peculiar to storage stock, but the absolute detection -of a single cold storage egg, so far as the writer knows, is -impossible. -</p> -<p> -It may be further said that with the present prevailing custom of -holding eggs without storage facilities for the fall rise of price, -eggs placed in cold storage in April are frequently superior to the -current fall and early winter receipts. Cold storage eggs are -generally sold wholesale as cold storage goods, but are retailed as -"eggs." The fall eggs offered to the consumer cover every imaginable -variation in quality and the poorest ones sold may be a cold storage -product, or they may not be. -</p> -<p> -The Bureau of Chemistry of the United States Department of -Agriculture has recently announced the finding of certain crystals -in the yolks of cold storage eggs that are not present in the fresh -stock. This finding of a laboratory method of detecting cold storage -stock was at first taken to be a great discovery. Further -investigation, however, indicates that the crystal mentioned forms -as the egg ages and that the rate of formation varies with the -individual eggs and probably also with the temperature, so that -while crystals may indicate an aged egg, the discovery only means -that the microscopist in the laboratory can now do in a half hour -what any egg candler in his booth can do in ten seconds. -</p> -<p> -At the present writing (February, 1909) there has been much talk of -laws against the sale of cold storage eggs as fresh. The Federal -Pure Food Commission, under the general law against misbranding, -have made one such prosecution. Many States have agitated such laws -but little or nothing has been done. I find that the idea of such a -law is quite popular, especially with poultrymen. Contrary to -popular opinion, the cold storage men and larger egg dealers are not -opposed to the law. The people that are hit are the small dealers -and especially the city grocers. These fellows buy the eggs at -wholesale storage prices and sell them at retail prices for fresh, -thus making excessive profits but cutting down the amount of the -sales. This lessens the demand for storage stock and lowers the -wholesale price. This is the reason the wholesaler and warehouse man -are in favor of the law. -</p> -<p> -We may all grant that the opportunity given the small dealers to -grab quick gains and in so doing hurt the trade ought to be -abolished. But how are we to do it? "Have State and Federal branding -of the cases as they go into or come out of storage," says one--an -excellent plan, to be sure by which the grocers could buy one case -of fresh, eggs and a back room full of storage goods and do Elijah's -flour barrel trick to perfection. -</p> -<p> -Clearly government inspection and stamping of each egg is the only -method that would be effective and the consideration of what this -means turns the whole matter into a joke. The official inspection -now maintained by the boards of trade of the larger cities may be -extended and the producers, dealers and consuming public may be -educated to appreciate quality in eggs, as they have been in dairy -products. City and State laws may also be made which will taboo the -sale of spot eggs or eggs that will float on water. Meanwhile, a -great opportunity is open for the man who has high grade eggs for -sale, whether he be producer or tradesman. -</p> -<p> -Many eggs that would not do for ordinary storage are preserved by -direct freezing. These eggs are broken and carefully sorted and -placed in large cans and then frozen. Such a product is disposed of -to bakers, confectioners and others desiring eggs in large -quantities. Another method of preserving eggs is by evaporation. -Evaporated or dried egg is, weight considered, about the most -nourishing food product known. The chief value of such an article -lies in provisioning inaccessible regions. There is no reason, -however, why this product should not become a common article of diet -during the season of high prices of eggs. Dried eggs can be eaten as -custards, omelets, or similar dishes. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Preserving Eggs Out of Cold Storage. -</p> -<p> -Occasional articles have been printed in agricultural papers calling -attention to the fact that the cold storage men were reaping vast -profits which rightfully belonged to the farmer. Such writers advise -the farmer to send his own eggs to the storage house or to preserve -them by other means. -</p> -<p> -As a matter of fact the business of storing eggs has not of late -years been particularly profitable, there being severe losses during -several seasons; Even were the profit of egg storing many times -greater than they are the above advice would still be unwise, for -the storing, removing and selling of a small quantity of eggs would -eat up all possible profit. -</p> -<p> -The only reliable methods of preserving eggs outside of cold storage -are as follows: -</p> -<p> -Liming: Make a saturated solution of lime, to which salt may be -added, let it settle, dip off the clear liquid, put the eggs in -while fresh, keep them submerged in the liquid and keep the liquid -as cold as the available location will permit. -</p> -<p> -Water glass: This is exactly the same as liming except that the -solution used is made by mixing ten per cent. of liquid water glass -or sodium silicate with water. -</p> -<p> -Liming eggs was formerly more popular than it is to-day. There are -still two large liming plants in this country and several in Canada. -In Europe both lime and water glass are used on a more extensive -scale. -</p> -<p> -All limed or water glassed eggs can be told at a glance by an -experienced candler. They pop open when boiled. When properly -preserved they are as well or better flavored than storage stock, -but the farmer or poultryman will make frequent mistakes and thus -throw lots of positively bad eggs on the market. These eggs must be -sold at a low price themselves, and by their presence cast suspicion -on all eggs, thus tending to suppress the price paid to the -producers. The farmers' efforts to preserve eggs has in this way -acted as a boomerang, and have in the long run caused more loss than -gain to the producers. -</p> -<p> -For the poultryman with his own special outlet for high grade goods, -the use of pickling or cold storage is generally not to be -considered for fear of hurting his trade. Any scheme that would help -to overcome the difficulty of getting sufficient fresh eggs to -supply such customers in the season of scarcity would be of great -advantage. The proposition of pickling a limited number of eggs and -selling them for "cooking" purposes, explaining just what they are, -ought to offer something of a solution, although, to the writer's -knowledge, it has not been done. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Improved Methods of Marketing Farm-Grown Eggs. -</p> -<p> -The loss to the farmers of this country from the careless handling -of eggs is something enormous. No great or sudden change in this -state of affairs can be brought about, but a few points on how this -loss may be averted will not be out of order. -</p> -<p> -Numerous efforts have recently been made in western states to -prevent the sale of bad eggs by law. Minnesota began this work by -arresting several farmers and dealers. The parties invariably -pleaded guilty. A number of other States followed the example of -Minnesota in challenging the sale of rotten eggs, but few -prosecutions were made. -</p> -<p> -Such laws mean well enough, but the only efficient means of -enforcing them would be to have food inspectors who are trained as -practical candlers. -</p> -<p> -The present usefulness of the laws is in calling the attention of -the farmer to the mistake that he may be carelessly committing, and -in placing over him a fear of possible disgrace in case of arrest -and prosecution. -</p> -<p> -The weakness of the law is the difficulty of its enforcement because -of the number of violations, and the difficulty of drawing distinct -lines in regard to which eggs are to be considered unlawful. -</p> -<p> -Education of the farmer as to the situation is, of course, the -surest means of preventing the loss, but the education of ten -millions of farmers is easier to suggest than to execute. The most -effective plan of education would be the introduction of a method of -buying eggs similar to the one in vogue in Denmark, in which every -producer is paid strictly in accordance with the quality of his -eggs. -</p> -<p> -With our complicated system involving five to six dealers between -the producer and the consumer, such a system is well nigh -impossible. With the introduction of co-operative buying or the -community system of production, paying for quality becomes entirely -possible. -</p> -<p> -For enterprising farming communities, the following plans offer a -cure for the evil of general store buying that take good and bad -alike and causes the worthy farmer to suffer for the carelessness -and dishonesty of his neighbor. -</p> -<p> -First: The encouragement of the cash buying of produce, and, if -possible, the candling of all eggs with proper deduction for loss. -</p> -<p> -Second: The buying of eggs by co-operative creameries. The greatest -difficulty in this has been the opposition of the merchants, who -through numerous ways available in a small town, may retaliate and -injure the creamery patronage to an extent greater than the newly -installed egg business will repay. -</p> -<p> -Third: The agreement of the merchants to turn all egg buying over to -a single produce buyer. This has been successfully done in a few -instances, but there are not many towns in which those interested -will stick to such an agreement. The worst fault with this plan is -that the moment the egg buyer is given a monopoly he is tempted to -lower the farmer's prices for the purpose of increasing his own -profits. -</p> -<p> -Fourth: A modification of the above scheme is the case in which the -produce buyer is on a salary and in the employment of the merchants. -This scheme has been successfully carried into effect in some -Nebraska towns. It may be the ultimate solution of the egg buying in -the West. It eliminates the temptation of the buyer to use his -privilege of monopoly to fatten his own pocket-book. The weakness of -the plan is that a salaried man's efficiency in the close bargaining -necessary to sell the goods is inferior to that of the man trading -for himself. Other difficulties are: Getting a group of merchants -who will live up to such an agreement; the farmers object to driving -to two places; the competition of other towns; the merchants' -realization that, the farmer with cash in his pocket or a check good -at all stores, is not as certain a trader as one standing, egg -basket on arm, before the counter; and last, and most convincing, -the merchant's further realization that any fine Saturday morning, -with eggs selling at fifteen cents at the produce house, he may -stick out a card "Sixteen Cents Paid for Eggs" and make more money -in one day than his competitors did all week. -</p> -<p> -Fifth: Co-operative egg buying by the farmers themselves. This has -been discussed in a previous chapter. It is all right in localities -where the business is big enough to warrant it and the farmers are -intelligent and enthusiastic to back it up and stick to it. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -The High Grade Egg Business. -</p> -<p> -There are many excellent opportunities for men of moderate capital -and ability in the high grade egg trade. The produce business on its -present line, either at the country end or at the city end, is as -open as any well-known form of business enterprise can be. The -chances of success for a man new to the trade will be better, -however, if he can find a niche in the business where he may crowd -in and establish himself before the old firms realize what is up. -The proposition of buying high grade eggs from producers and selling -direct to consumers is a proposition of this kind. -</p> -<p> -The little game of existence is chiefly one of apeing our betters -and strutting before the lesser members of the flock. The large -cities are full of people in search of some way to display their -superior wealth, taste and exclusiveness. If an ingenious dealer -takes a dozen eggs from common candled stock, places them in a blue -lined box and labels them "Exquisite Ovarian Deposital," he can sell -quite a few of them at a long price, but the game has its limits. -Now, let this man secure a truly high grade article from reliable -producers, teach his customers the points that actually distinguish -his eggs from common stock, and he can get not only the sucker trade -above referred to but a more satisfactory and permanent trade from -that class of people who are willing to pay for genuine superiority -but whose ears have not quite grown through their hats. -</p> -<p> -An express messenger running out of St. Louis became interested in -the egg trade. He arranged with a few country friends to ship him -their eggs. These he candled in his house cellar and began selling -them to a limited trade in the wealthy section of the city. At first -he delivered the eggs himself. This was in the World's Fair year of -1904. In 1908 he did a $100,000 worth of business and his type of -business shows a much better percentage of profit than that of the -ordinary type of dealer. -</p> -<p> -In Chicago, one of the large dairy companies established an egg -department and placed a young man in charge of it. The eggs in this -case are not bought of farmers but are secured from country produce -buyers whom the Chicago company have encouraged to educate their -farmers to bring in a high grade of goods. These people buy their -eggs in Tennessee in the winter and in Minnesota in the summer, thus -getting the best eggs the year round. They sell by wagon on regular -routes. The business is growing nicely and pays good profits. -</p> -<p> -Other similar concerns are operating in Chicago and other large -cities. They are not numerous, however, and there is room for more. -The reason the business has not been overdone is chiefly because of -the difficulty of getting sufficiently really high grade eggs in the -season of scarcity. Southern winter eggs are destined to relieve -this situation more and more. -</p> -<p> -Another great difficulty with a plan that attempts to buy eggs -directly from the producer is that premium offered on the goods -tempts the farmer to go out and buy up eggs from his neighbors. This -brings disastrous results in the quality of the goods and the farmer -must be dropped from the list. In order to make a success, a system -of buying directly from producers must be based upon a grading -scheme that will pay for the actual quality of the eggs. No fear -then need be exercised as to whether the farmer sells his own eggs -or those of his neighbor. -</p> -<p> -The following extract from Farmer's Bulletin 128 of the U.S. -Department of Agriculture has been used as advertising "dope" in the -sale of high grade eggs: -</p> -<p> -"Under certain conditions eggs may be the cause of illness by -communicating some bacterial disease or some parasite. It is -possible for an egg to become infected with micro-organisms, either -before it is laid or after. The shell is porous, and offers no -greater resistance to micro-organisms which cause disease than it -does to those which cause the egg to spoil or rot. When the infected -egg is eaten raw the microorganisms, if present, are communicated to -man and may cause disease. If an egg remains in a dirty nest, -defiled with the micro-organisms which cause typhoid fever, carried -there on the hen's feet or feathers, it is not strange if some of -these bacteria occasionally penetrate the shell and the egg thus -becomes a possible source of infection. Perhaps one of the most -common troubles due to bacterial infection of eggs is the more or -less serious illness sometimes caused by eating those which are -'stale.' This often resembles ptomaine poisoning, which is caused, -not by micro-organisms themselves, but by the poisonous products -which they elaborate from materials on which they grow. -</p> -<p> -"In view of this possibility, it is best to keep eggs as clean as -possible and thus endeavor to prevent infection. Clean -poultry-houses, poultry-runs and nests are important, and eggs -should always be stored and marketed under sanitary conditions. The -subject of handling food in a cleanly manner is given entirely too -little attention." -</p> -<p> -The reprint upon the succeeding pages will give some idea of the -advertising literature used in selling high grade eggs. This is a -copy of a hand-bill inserted in the egg boxes of a prominent Chicago -dealer: -</p> -<hr> -<p class="citehead"> -MOORE'S BREAKFAST EGGS -</p> -<p class="cite"> -are guaranteed to be perfect in quality when you receive them -and to remain so until all eaten up. If for any reason they -are not satisfactory return the Eggs to your dealer and get -your money back. -</p> -<p class="cite"> -(Signature.) -</p> -<p class="citehead"> -WE URGE YOU -</p> -<p class="cite"> -to assist us in our endeavor to furnish you at all times with -the finest Eggs by being careful to -</p> -<p class="citehead"> -KEEP THEM DRY -</p> -<p class="cite"> -A damp "filler" will in 24 hours make the finest fresh Eggs -taste like old Cold Storage Eggs. -</p> -<p class="cite"> -The flavor of an Egg cannot be detected even by the powerful -electric lights used to inspect every Egg in this package, -so it might be possible for a "strong" Egg to get by our inspectors, -but in the past the cause of nearly every complaint -has been traced to the consumer's ice box or pantry window -sill. -</p> -<p class="citehead"> -REMEMBER -</p> -<p class="cite"> -Eggs are 25c-40c per doz. retail only when fine Eggs are -scarce. Ordinarily we can get a sufficient supply from the -farmers bringing milk daily to the creameries where we make -Delicia Pure Cream Butter, but in times of scarcity we often -have to go as far as Oklahoma, Arkansas or Tennessee to find -the best Eggs. These are not equal to our creamery Eggs but -are the freshest and best to be had and are vastly superior to -the old Cold Storage Eggs that flood the market at such times. -</p> -<p class="citehead"> -Be Sure This Seal is Unbroken When You Get the Eggs -</p> -<p class="citehead"> -W. S. MOORE & CO.,<br> -Chicago Office—131 South Water Street. -</p> -<hr> -<p class="subhead"> -Buying Eggs By Weight. -</p> -<p> -Whenever an improved method of buying is installed, eggs should be -bought of the producer by weight. As far as selling to the consumer -is concerned, the present scheme is more feasible; this scheme is to -grade according to the size and other qualities, and sell by the -dozen, the price per dozen varying according to the grade. -</p> -<p> -Buying by weight simplifies the problem of grading. It will, in -addition, only be necessary to have a fine of so much for eggs that -are wrong in quality. For rotten or heated eggs should be deducted -an amount considerably in excess of their value, for their presence -is a source of danger to the reputation of the brand. Shrunken eggs -are hard to classify. In order that this may be done fairly and -uniformly the specific gravity or brine test should be used. All -eggs that float in a given salt brine of, say, 1.05 specific gravity -should be fined. Two or more grades can be made in this fashion if -desired. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -The Retailing of Eggs by the Producer. -</p> -<p> -In poultry papers the poultryman has been commonly advised to get -near a large city and retail his own eggs at a fancy price. This -sounds all right on paper but in practice it works out differently. -A man cannot be in two places or do two things at the same time. The -poultryman's time is valuable on his plant, and the question is -whether he can handle city sales as well as a man who made it his -business. If the poultryman tries to retail his own goods he will be -working on too small a scale to advertise his goods or to make -deliveries economically. The man making a specialty of the city end -can sell ten to a hundred times as much produce as one poultryman -can produce. -</p> -<p> -With a group of poultry farmers working co-operatively, or a large -corporation having contracts with producers, the producing and -selling end can be brought under the same management advantageously. -The isolated poultryman, unless he find a market at his very door, -will do better to permit at least one middleman to slip in between -himself and the consumer. But there is no reason why he should not -know this middleman personally and insist upon a method of buying -that will pay him upon the merits of his goods. -</p> -<p> -Consigning eggs or any other produce to commission men, without a -definite understanding, will always be, as it always has been, a -source of dissatisfaction and loss. There is a great opportunity -here for the man who can organize a system that shall do away with -commission houses, other intermediate steps, and form the single -step from producer to consumer. Some people say that farmers cannot -be dealt with in this manner. Such people would probably have said -as much about general merchandising before the days of the mail -order houses. -</p> -<p> -It is all a matter of efficient organization. A system of business -fitted to deal in carload lots will, of course, fail when dealing -with half cases. It is more difficult to deal in little things than -in big ones because the margin is closer, but it can and will be -done. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -The Price of Eggs. -</p> -<p> -We will consider the price of all eggs from the quotation of Western -firsts in the New York market. The reason for this is evident. Every -egg raised east of Colorado is in line for shipment to New York. If -other towns get eggs they must pay sufficiently to keep them from -going to New York. -</p> -<p> -In pricing eggs we have first to consider the price of Western -firsts in New York and secondly the quality relation of the -particular grade to Western firsts and the consequent relation in -price. -</p> -<p> -The price of eggs varies with the price of other commodities as the -periods of prosperity and adversity follow one another through the -years. -</p> -<p> -As is well known, all prices in the '90's passed through a period of -depression. For eggs this reached a base in 1897. Since then there -has been a gradual climb till this realized a high point in 1904, -remained high till 1907. In the spring of 1908 egg prices dropped -again, but the fall prices of 1908 were exceptionally high. As this -work goes to press (May, 1909) eggs are going into storage at the -highest May price on record. -</p> -<p> -The prices of eggs also vary independently of other commodities -because of a gradual changing relation between production and -consumption. As stated in the first chapter the prices of poultry -products have shown a general rise when compared with other -articles. This has been most marked since 1900. As for the future we -cannot prophesy save to say that there is nothing in sight to lead -us to believe that we will not go still higher in egg prices. -</p> -<p> -A third variation in the price of eggs is the one caused by the -seasonal relation of production and consumption. This change is from -year to year fairly constant. Its normal may be seen in the -scientifically smoothed curve in plate IV. This curve is based upon -the New York prices for the last eighteen years. -</p> -<p> -In addition to these broader influences there are disturbing -tendencies that cause the market to fluctuate back and forth across -the line where the more general influences would place it. -</p> -<p> -Of those general factors, weather is the most important. Storms, -rain and cold in the egg producing region decrease the lay, lower -supplies and raise the price. This is due both to the fact that -laying is cut down and that the country roads become impassable and -the farmers do not bring the eggs to town. As long as there are -storage eggs in the warehouses weather conditions are not so -effective, but when these are gone, which is usually about the first -of the year, the egg market becomes highly sensitive to all weather -changes. Suppose late in February storms and snows force up the -price of eggs. This is followed by a warm spell which starts the -March lay. The roads, meanwhile, are in a quagmire from melting -snows. When they do dry up eggs come to town by the wagon loads. A -drop of ten cents or more may occur on such occasions within a day -or two's time. This is known as the spring drop and for one to get -caught with eggs on hand means heavy losses. -</p> -<p> -When once eggs have suffered this drop to the spring level or the -storage price for the season, the prices for April, May and June -will remain fairly steady. About the last week in June the summer -climb begins. This goes on very steadily with local variation of -about the same as those of the spring months. The storage eggs begin -to come out in August and at first sell about the same as fresh. As -the season advances the fresh product continues to rise in price. -The storage egg -price will remain fairly uniform. By November the season of high -prices is reached. If storage eggs are still plentiful and the -weather is mild sudden variations in price may occur. These are -caused by a fear that the storage eggs will not all be consumed -before spring. If an oversupply of eggs have been stored a warm -spell in winter will make a heavy drop in the market, but if storage -eggs are scarce the sudden variations will be up-shots due to cold -waves. From November until spring egg prices are a creature of the -weather maps and sudden jumps from 5 to 10 cents may occur at any -time. -</p> -<a name="image-0004"><!--IMG--></a> -<center> -<img src="images/hen159.png" alt="Plate IV. Page 159. Graphs of egg prices and volume of egg sales as they vary throughout the year."> -</center> -<!--IMAGE END--> - -<p> -The price curve of 1908, which is represented by the dotted line in -plate IV will illustrate these general principles. In the lower -portion of plate IV is given the curves for the New York receipts. -The heavy line represents the smoothed or normal curve, deduced from -eighteen years' statistics and calculated for the year 1908. The -dotted line shows the actual receipts of 1908. A comparison week by -week of the receipts and price will show the detailed workings of -the law of supply and demand. -</p> -<p> -Aside from the weather there are other factors that perceptibly -affect the receipts and price of eggs. A high price of meat will -increase farm and village consumption of eggs and cut down the -receipts that reach the city. Abundance of fruit in the city market -will cut down the demand for eggs. A cold, wet spring will increase -the mortality of chicks and cause a decreased egg yield the -following season, due to a scarcity of pullets. Scarcity and high -price of feed will cut down the egg yield. High price of hens is -said by some to cut down the egg yield, but I think this is -doubtful, as the impulse to sell off the hens is counteracted by the -desire to "keep 'em and raise more." -</p> -<p> -The following are the quotations taken from the New York -Price-Current for November 14, 1908: -</p> -<p> -State, Pennsylvania and nearby fresh eggs continue in very small -supply and of more or less irregular quality, a good many being -mixed with held eggs—sometimes with pickled stock. The few new laid -lots received direct from henneries command extreme -prices—sometimes working out in a small way above any figures that -could fairly be quoted as a wholesale value. We quote: Selected -white, fancy, 48@50c.; do., fair to choice, 35@46c.; do., lower -grades, 26@32c.; brown and mixed, fancy, 38@40c.; do., fair to -choice, 30@36c; do., lower grades, 25@28c. -</p> -<table align="center" width="70%" summary="price of eggs on the N.Y. Mercantile Exchange"> -<tr><td colspan="3" align="center">N.Y. Mercantile Exchange Official Quotations.</td></tr> -<tr><td>Fresh gathered, extras, per dozen</td> <td> </td> <td align="right">@37</td></tr> -<tr><td>Fresh gathered, firsts</td> <td align="right">32</td> <td align="right">@33</td></tr> -<tr><td>Fresh gathered, seconds</td> <td align="right">29</td> <td align="right">@31</td></tr> -<tr><td>Fresh gathered, thirds</td> <td align="right">25</td> <td align="right">@28</td></tr> -<tr><td>Dirties, No. 1</td> <td align="right">21</td> <td align="right">@22</td></tr> -<tr><td>Dirties, No. 2</td> <td align="right">18</td> <td align="right">@20</td></tr> -<tr><td>Dirties, inferior</td> <td align="right">12</td> <td align="right">@17</td></tr> -<tr><td>Checks, fresh gathered, fair to prime</td> <td align="right">18</td> <td align="right">@20</td></tr> -<tr><td>Checks, inferior</td> <td align="right">12</td> <td align="right">@16</td></tr> -<tr><td>Refrigerator, firsts, charges paid for season</td> <td align="right">24</td> <td align="right">@24-1/2</td></tr> -<tr><td>Refrigerator, firsts, on dock</td> <td align="right">23</td> <td align="right">@23-1/2</td></tr> -<tr><td>Refrigerator, seconds, charges paid for season</td> <td align="right">22-1/2</td> <td align="right">@23-1/2</td></tr> -<tr><td>Refrigerator, seconds, on dock</td> <td align="right">21-1/2</td> <td align="right">@22-1/2</td></tr> -<tr><td>Refrigerator, thirds</td> <td align="right">20</td> <td align="right">@21</td></tr> -<tr><td>Limed, firsts</td> <td align="right">22-1/2</td> <td align="right">@23</td></tr> -<tr><td>Limed, seconds</td> <td align="right">21</td> <td align="right">@22</td></tr> -</table> -<p> -The writer was in the New York market at the time and saw many cases -of White Leghorn eggs sell wholesale at as high as 55 cents. These -were commonly retailed at 5 cents each. There were a good many -brands retailing at 65 cents and one of the largest high class -groceries was selling for 70 cents. This is practically double the -official quotations and three times that of cold storage stock. -</p> -<p> -The above prices represent a fair sample of the fall prices of 1908. -It should be noted that the 1908 fall prices were relatively -somewhat better than the rest of the season. -</p> -<p> -The time of high prices is also the time of the greatest variation -in the price of the different grades. In the springtime all eggs are -fairly fresh and good, and the fanciest eggs bring wholesale only -two or three cents above quotations. There are a few retailers who -hold the spring prices to their customers up above the general -market. One New York firm that does a large high class egg business -never lets their price at any season go below 40 cents. This, of -course, means big profits and sales only to those who, when they are -satisfied, never bother about price. -</p> -<p> -In the fall any man who has fresh eggs can sell them at very near -the highest price, but in the spring only a small per cent. can go -at fancy prices and the great majority of even the high grade eggs -must go at very ordinary prices. In the summer months there is not -so much demand in the cities, as the wealthy are not there to buy. -The coast and mountain resorts are then good markets for fancy -produce. -</p> -<a name="2HCH0014"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> - -<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> - -<h2> -<a name="chapXIII"> -CHAPTER XIII -</a> -</h2> -<h3> -BREEDS OF CHICKENS -</h3> -<p> -I do not place much dependence on the results of breed tests. -Indeed, I consider the almost universal use of the Barred Rock in -the most productive farm poultry regions in the United States, and -the equal predominance of S.C. White Leghorns on the egg farms of -New York and California, as far more conclusive than any possible -breed tests. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Breed Tests. -</p> -<p> -In Australia there has been conducted a series of breed tests so -remarkable and extensive that the writer considers them well worth -quoting. The Hawkesbury Agricultural College tests extend over a -period of five years, the pens entered were of six birds each, and -the time one year. The results were as follows: -</p> -<table align="center" width="50%" summary="pen yields"> -<tr><td> </td> <td align="right">No. of Pens Competing</td> <td align="right">Yield of Highest Pen</td> <td align="right">Average Yield of All Pens</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">1903 </td> <td align="right">70</td> <td align="right">218</td> <td align="right">163</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">1904 </td> <td align="right">100</td> <td align="right">204</td> <td align="right">152</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">1905 </td> <td align="right">100</td> <td align="right">235</td> <td align="right">162</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">1906 </td> <td align="right">100</td> <td align="right">247</td> <td align="right">177</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">1907 </td> <td align="right">60</td> <td align="right">245</td> <td align="right">173</td></tr> -</table> -<p> -The winners and losers for five years were as follows: -</p> -<table align="center" width="50%" summary="pen winners and losers"> -<tr><td> </td> <td>Winning Pen</td> <td>Losing Pen</td></tr> - -<tr><td>1903</td> <td>Silver Wyandotte</td> <td>Silver Wyandotte</td></tr> -<tr><td>1904</td> <td>Silver Wyandotte</td> <td>Partridge Wyandotte</td></tr> -<tr><td>1905</td> <td>S.C.W. Leghorns</td> <td>S.C.W. Leghorns</td></tr> -<tr><td>1906</td> <td>Black Langshans</td> <td>Golden Wyandotte</td></tr> -<tr><td>1907</td> <td>S.C.W. Leghorns</td> <td>S.C.B. Leghorns</td></tr> -</table> -<p> -As a matter of fact, the winning pen means little for breed -comparison. This is shown by the winning and losing pens frequently -being of the same breed. -</p> -<p> -The average for hens of one breed for the whole five years is more -enlightening. For the three most popular Australian breeds, these -grand averages are: -</p> -<table align="center" width="50%" summary="pen yields"> -<tr><td> </td> <td align="right">Average No. Hens</td> <td align="right">Av. Egg Yield</td> <td align="right">Wt. Eggs. Oz. Per Doz.</td></tr> -<tr><td>S.C.W. Leghorns</td> <td align="right">564</td> <td align="right">175.5</td> <td align="right">26.4</td></tr> -<tr><td>Black Orpingtons</td> <td align="right">522</td> <td align="right">166.6</td> <td align="right">26.1</td></tr> -<tr><td>Silver Wyandottes</td> <td align="right">474</td> <td align="right">161.1</td> <td align="right">24.9</td></tr> -</table> -<p> -These figures are undoubtedly the most trustworthy breed comparisons -that have ever been obtained. When we go into the other breeds, -however, with smaller numbers entered, the results show chance -variation and become untrustworthy, for illustration: R.C. Brown -Leghorns, with 42 birds entered, have an average of 176.4. This does -not signify that the R.C. Browns are better than the S.S. Whites, -for if the Whites were divided by chance into a dozen lots of -similar size, some would undoubtedly have surpassed the R.C. Browns. -As further proof, take the case of the R.C.W. Leghorns with 36 birds -entered and an egg yield of 166.9. Both breeds are probably a little -poorer layers than S.C. Whites, but luck was with the R.C. Browns -and against the R.C. Whites. For a discussion of this principle of -the worth of averages from different sized flocks see Chapter XV. -</p> -<p> -All Leghorns in the tests with 846 birds entered, averaged 170.3 -eggs each. All of the general purpose breeds (Rocks, Wyandottes, -Reds and Orpingtons), with 1416 birds entered, averaged 160.2. The -comparison between the Leghorns and the general purpose fowls as -classes is undoubtedly a fair one. A study of the relations between -the leading breeds in these groups and the general average of these -groups is worth while. It bears out the writer's statement that the -best fowls of a group or breed are to be found in the popular -variety of that breed. The Australian poultryman, wanting utility -only, would do wise to choose out of the three great Australian -breeds here mentioned. The S.C.W. Leghorn is the only one of the -three breeds to which the advice would apply in America. Barred -Rocks and perhaps White Wyandottes, would here represent the other -types. -</p> -<p> -There is one more point in the Australian records worthy of especial -mention. The winning pen in 1906 were Black Langshans and, what -seems still more remarkable, were daughters of birds purchased from -the original home of Langshans in North China. Other pens of -Langshans in the test failed to make remarkable records, but this -pen of Chinese stock, with a record of 246 5-6* eggs per hen for the -first year and 414 1-2* eggs per hen for two years, is the world's -record layers beyond all quibble. This record is held by a breed and -a region in which we would not expect to find great layers. -</p> -<p> -This holding of the record by a breed hitherto not considered a -laying type, would be comparable to a tenderfoot bagging the pots in -an Arizona gambling den. If the latter incident should occur and be -heralded in the papers it would be no proof that it would pay -another Eastern youth to rush out to Arizona. It is probable that -the man who, on the strength of this single record, stocks an egg -farm with imported Chinese Langshans, will fare as the second -tenderfoot. -</p> -<p> -The year following the Langshan winning, the first eleven winning -pens were all S.C.W. Leghorns. This is also remarkable—much more -remarkable in fact than the Langshans record. It is like a royal -flush in a poker game. Standing alone, this would be very suggestive -evidence of the eminence of the breed. Standing as it does, with the -combined evidence of years and numbers, it gives the S.C.W. Leghorn -hen the same reputation in Australia as she has in America and -Denmark—that of being the greatest egg machine ever created. -</p> -<p> -Isolated evidence is misleading. Accumulated evidence is convincing. -The difference between the scientist and the enthusiast is that the -former knows the difference between these two classes of evidence. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -The Hen's Ancestors. -</p> -<p> -To one who is unfamiliar with the different types of chickens found -in a poultry showroom, it seems incredible that these varieties -should have descended from one parent source. It was, however, held -by Darwin that all domestic chickens were sprung from a single -species of Indian jungle fowl. Other scientists have since disputed -Darwin's conclusion, but it does not seem to the writer that the -origin of domestic fowls from more than one wild variety makes the -changes that have taken place under domestication any less -remarkable. -</p> -<p> -The buff, white and dominique colors, unheard of in wild species, -frizzles with their feathers all awry, the Polish with their -deformed skulls and the sooty fowls whose skin and bones are black, -are some of the remarkable characters that have sprung up and been -preserved under domestication. The varieties of domestic fowl form -one of the most profound exhibits of man's control over the laws of -inheritance. What makes these wonders all the more inexplicable is -that these profound changes were accomplished in an age when a -scientific study of breeding was a thing unheard of. -</p> -<p> -The wild chicken whom Darwin credits as the parent of the modern -gallinaceous menagerie, is smaller than modern fowls and is colored -in a manner similar to the Black-breasted Game. The habits of this -bird are like those of the quail and prairie-chicken, both of which -belong to the same zoological family. -</p> -<p> -From its natural home in India the chicken spread east and west. -Chinese poultry culture is ancient. In China, as well as in India, -the chief care seems to have been to breed very large fowls, and -from these countries all the large, heavily feathered and feather -legged chickens of the modern world have come. -</p> -<p> -Poultry is also known to have been bred in the early Babylonian and -Egyptian periods. Here, however, the progress was in a different -line from that of China. Artificial incubation was early developed, -and the selection was for birds that produced eggs continually, -rather than for those that laid fewer eggs and brooded in the -natural manner. -</p> -<p> -The Egyptian type of chicken spread to the countries bordering on -the Mediterranean, and from Southern Europe our non-sitting breeds -of fowls have been imported. Throughout the countries of Northern -Europe minor differences were developed. The French chickens were -selected for the quality of the meat, while in Poland the peculiar -top-knotted breed is supposed to have been formed. -</p> -<p> -The English Dorking is one of the oldest of European breeds and is -possessed of five toes. Five-toed fowls were reported in Rome and -exist to-day in Turkey and Japan. The Dorkings may be descended -directly from the Roman fowls, or various strains of five-toed fowls -may have arisen independently from the preservation of sports. -</p> -<p> -The chief point to be noted in all European poultry is that it -differs from Asiatic poultry in being smaller, lighter feathered, -quicker maturing, of greater egg-producing capacity, less disposed -to become broody, and more active than the Asiatic fowl. -</p> -<p> -The early American hens were of European origin, but of no fixed -breeds. About 1840 Italian chickens began to be imported. These, -with stock from Spain, have been bred for fixed types of form and -color, and constitute our Mediterranean or non-sitting breeds of the -present day. Soon after the importation of Italian chickens a chance -importation was made from Southeastern Asia. These Asiatic chickens -were quite different from anything yet seen, and further -importations followed. -</p> -<p> -Poultry-breeding soon became the fashion. The first poultry show was -held in Boston in the early '50's. The Asiatic fowls imported were -gray or yellowish-red in color, and were variously known as the -Brahmapootras, Cochin-Chinas and Shanghais. With the rapid -development of poultry-breeding there came a desire to produce new -varieties. Every conceivable form of cross-breeding was resorted to. -The great majority of breeds and varieties as they exist to-day are -the results of crosses followed by a few years of selection for the -desired form and color. Many of our common breeds still give us -occasional individuals that resemble some of the types from which -the breed was formed. The exact history of the formation of the -American or mixed breeds is in dispute, but it is certain that they -have been formed from a complex mixing of blood from both European -and Asiatic sources. -</p> -<p> -The English have recently furnished the world with a very popular -breed which was originated by the same methods. I refer to the -Orpingtons. -</p> -<p> -The ever growing multiplicity of varieties of chicken is in reality -only casually related to the business of the poultryman whose object -is the production of human food. -</p> -<p> -Breeding as an art or vocation, is a source of endless pleasure to -man, and as such, is as worthy of encouragement as is painting, -music, or the collection of the bones of prehistoric animals. -Breeding as an art has produced many forms of chickens that are -entirely worthless as food producers, but this same group of poultry -breeders, tempered to be sure by the demands of commercialism, have -produced other breeds that are certainly superior for the various -commercial purposes to the unselected fowls of the old-fashioned -farm-yard. -</p> -<p> -The mongrel chicken is a production of chance. Its ancestry -represents everything available in the barn-yard of the -neighborhood, and its offspring will be equally varied. In the pure -breeds there has been a rigid selection practiced that gives uniform -appearance. The size and shape requirements of the standard, -although not based on the market demands, come much nearer producing -an ideal carcass than does chance breeding. Ability to mature for -the fall shows is a decidedly practical quality that the fancier -breeds into his chickens. Moreover, poultry-breeders, while still -keeping standard points in mind, have also made improvements in the -lay and meat-producing qualities of their chickens. Considering -these facts it is an erroneous idea to think that mongrel chickens -offer any advantage over pure bred stock. -</p> -<p> -In the broader sense we may regard as pure-bred those animals that -reproduce their shape, color, habits, or other distinctive qualities -with uniformity. In order that we may get offspring like the parent -and like each other we must have animals whose ancestors for many -generations back have been of one type. The more generations of such -uniformity, the more certain it will be that the young will possess -similar quality. -</p> -<p> -One strain of chickens may be selected for uniform color of -feathers, another for a certain size and shape, another for laying -large eggs of a certain color, and yet another strain for being -producers of many eggs. Each of these strains might be well-bred in -these particular traits, but would be mongrels when the other -considerations were taken into account. -</p> -<p> -This explains to us why the family or strains is frequently more -important than the breed. In fact, the whole series of breed -classification is arbitrary. This is especially true of the American -or mixed breeds. Humorously turned fanciers at the poultry show -frequently have much sport trying to get other fanciers to tell -White or Buff Rocks from Wyandottes, when the heads are hidden. From -the dressed carcasses with feet and head removed, the finest set of -poultry judges in the world would be hopelessly lost in a collection -of Rocks, Wyandottes, Reds and Orpingtons and, I dare say, one could -run in a few Langshans and Minorcas if it were not for their black -pin feathers. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -What Breed. -</p> -<p> -The writer has great admiration for breeding as an art. He would -rather be the originator of a breed of green chickens with six toes, -than to have been the author of "Afraid to Go Home in the Dark." But -I do want the novice who reads this book to be spared some of the -mental throes usually indulged in over the selection of a breed. -</p> -<p> -So-called meat breeds, that is, the big feather legged Asiatics save -on a few capon and roaster plants in New England, are really -useless. They have given size to American chickens as a class, and -in that have served a useful purpose, but standing alone they cannot -compete with lighter, quick growing breeds. -</p> -<p> -For commercial consideration there are really but two types: The egg -breeds of Mediterranean origin and the general purpose breeds or -growers, including the Rocks, Wyandottes and Rhode Island Reds. The -difference between the layers on the one hand and the growers on the -other, is quite important. Which should be used depends on the -location and plan of operations, as has already been discussed. -</p> -<p> -The choice of variety within the group is a matter of taste and -chance of sales of fancy stock. This one principle can, however, be -laid down: The more popular the breed, the more choice there will be -in selecting strains and individuals. Pea Comb Plymouth Rocks and -Duckwing Leghorns should not be considered because of their rarity. -Of the growers, their popularity and claims are close enough to make -the particular choice unimportant. For commercial consideration, the -writer would as soon invest his money in a flock of Barred Rock, -White Wyandottes or Rhode Island Reds. Among layers the S. C. White -has achieved such a lead that the majority of good laying strains -are in this breed and to choose any other would be to place a -handicap on oneself. For a description of breeds, the reader should -secure an Illustrated American Standard of Perfection, or some of -the books published by poultry fanciers and judges. To take up the -matter here would merely be using my space for imparting knowledge -which can be better secured elsewhere. -</p> -<p> -The relative popularity of breeds at the poultry shows is nicely -shown by the following list. This data was compiled by adding the -numbers of each breed exhibited at 124 different poultry shows in -the season of 1907. A detailed report of the total entries of each -breed is as follows: Plymouth Rocks, 14,514; Wyandottes, 12,320; -Leghorns, 8,740; Rhode Island Reds, 5,812; Orpingtons, 2,857; -Langshans, 2,153; Minorcas, 1,709; Cochin Bantams, 1,590; Games, -1,277; Brahmas, 1,181; Cochins, 1,010; Hamburgs, 758; Game Bantams, -637; Polish, 618; Houdans, 538; Indians, 538; Anconas, 464; Sebright -Bantams, 423; Andalusians, 117; Japanese Bantams, 115; Dorkings, -105; Brahma Bantams, 104; Buckeyes, 95; Silkies, 85; Spanish, 83; -Redcaps, 71; Sumatras, 41; Polish Bantams, 37; Sultans, 18; Malays, -12; Frizzles, 7; Le Fleche, 7; Dominiques, 5; Booted Bantams, 4; -Malay Bantams, 3; Crevecoeure, 3. -</p> -<a name="2HCH0015"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> - -<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> - -<h2> -<a name="chapXIV"> -CHAPTER XIV -</a> -</h2> -<h3> -PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC BREEDING -</h3> -<p> -Science has been defined as the "know how" and art as the "do how." -The man who works by art depends upon an unconscious judgment which -is inborn or is acquired by long practice. The man who works by -science may also have this artistic taste, but he tests its dicta by -comparison with known facts and principles. The scientist not only -looks before he leaps, but measures the distance and knows exactly -where he is going to land. -</p> -<p> -Breeding has for centuries been an art, but the science of breeding -is so new as to seem a mass of contradictions to all except those -familiar with the maze of mathematics and biology by which the -barn-yard facts must find their ultimate explanation. The science of -breeding may in the future bring about that which would now seem -miraculous, but it is the ancient art of breeding that is and will -for years continue to be the means by which the poultry fancier will -achieve his results. -</p> -<p> -In a volume the chief aim of which is to place the poultry industry, -which is now conducted as an art, in the realm of technical science, -it might seem proper to devote considerable space to the subject of -breeding, That I shall not do so, is for the reason that while -theoretically I recognize the important part that breeding plays in -all animal production, for the practical proposition of producing -poultry products at the lowest possible cost, a knowledge of the -technical science of breeding is unessential and may, by diverting -the poultryman's time to unprofitable efforts, prove an actual -handicap. -</p> -<p> -For the show room breeder the new science of breeding is too -undeveloped to be of immediate service, or I had better say, the -show room requisites are too complicated for theoretical breeding to -promise results. For the commercial poultryman, I shall review what -has been accomplished and state briefly the theories upon which -contemplated work is based. -</p> -<p> -The objects striven after in poultry breeding are: 1st: To create -new varieties which shall have improved practical points or shall -attract attention as curiosities. 2d: To approach the ideals -accepted by fanciers for established breeds, and hence win in -competition. 3d: To change some particular feature or habit as, to -increase egg production or reduce the size of bantams. 4th: To -improve several points at once as, eggs and size in general purpose -fowls. This classification is really unnecessary, as the most -specialized breeding involves consideration of many points. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Breeding as an Art. -</p> -<p> -The method by which breeds and varieties of the show room specimens -have been developed is essentially as follows: The wonderfully -different varieties of fowl from every quarter of the earth are -brought together. Crossing is then resorted to, with the result that -birds of all forms and colors are produced. The breeder then selects -specimens that most nearly conform to the type or ideal in his mind. -</p> -<p> -Suppose a man wished to produce Barred Leghorns, with a fifth toe. -He would secure Barred Rocks, White Leghorns and White or Gray -Dorkings. Then he would cross in every conceivable fashion. -</p> -<p> -Perhaps he might have trouble getting the white color to disappear. -In that case Buff Leghorns which are a newer breed might be tried -and found more pliable material. By such methods the breeder would in -three or four generations of crossing get a crude type of what he -desired. Henceforth it would be a matter of patience and -selection. Five to twenty years is the time usually taken to produce -new breeds of fancy poultry that will breed true to type. In this -style of breeding the principles at stake are simple. The first is -to secure the variations wanted; second, to breed from the most -desirable of these specimens. -</p> -<p> -The same methods of selection that establish a breed are used to -maintain it, or to establish strains. In ordinary breeding there are -two other principles that are sometimes called into play. One is -prepotency, the other is inbreeding. By prepotent we mean having -unusual power to transmit characters to offspring. Suppose a breeder -has five yards headed by five cock birds. The male in yard two he -does not consider quite as fine as the bird in yard one, but in the -fall he finds the offspring of bird from two much better than the -offspring from yard one. The breeder should keep the prepotent sire -and his offspring rather than the more perfect male, who fails to -stamp his traits upon his get. -</p> -<p> -Normally a child has two parents, four grandparents, and eight -great-grandparents. Now, when cousins marry, the great-grandparents -of the offspring are reduced to six. The mating of brother and -sister cuts the grandparents to two, and the great-grandparents to -four. Mating of parent and offspring makes a parent and grandparent -identical and likewise eliminates ancestry. Inbreeding means the -reduction of the number of branches in the ancestral tree, and this -means the reduction of the number of chances to get variation, be -they good or bad. -</p> -<p> -Inbreeding simply intensifies whatever is there. It does not -necessarily destroy the vitality, but if close inbreeding is -practiced long enough, sooner or later some little existing weakness -or peculiarity would become intensified and may prove fatal to the -strain. For illustration, suppose we began inbreeding brother and -sister with a view of keeping it up indefinitely. Now, in the -original blood, a tendency for the predominance of one sex over the -other undoubtedly exists and would be intensified until there would -come a generation all of one sex, which, of course, terminates our -experiment. -</p> -<p> -Inbreeding has always been tabooed by the people generally. -Meanwhile the clever stock breeders have combined inbreeding with -selection and have won the show prizes and sold the people "new -blood" at fancy prices. -</p> -<p> -Unintelligent inbreeding as practiced on many a farm, results in run -down stock, not so much from inbreeding as from lack of selection. -Out-crossing or mixing in of new blood is better than hit-or-miss -inbreeding. Intelligent inbreeding is better still. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Scientific Theories of Breeding. -</p> -<p> -The main tenet of Darwin's theory of racial inheritance or -evolution, was that changes in animal life, wild or domestic, were -brought about by the addition of very slight, perhaps imperceptible, -variations. He argued that the giraffe with the longest neck could -browse on higher leaves in time of drought and hence left offspring -with slightly longer necks than the previous generation. -</p> -<p> -Upon this theory the ordinary breeding by selection is based. In -case of breeding for show room, the breeder's eye, or the judge's -score card, is the tape with which to measure the length of the -giraffe's neck. This principle can be applied equally well, even -better, to characteristics where accurate measurement may be used. -</p> -<p> -The last forty years of scientific progress has established firmly -the general theories of Darwin, but they have also resulted in our -questioning his idea that all great changes are due to the sum of -small variations. Many instances have been suggested in which the -theory of gradual changes could not explain the facts. -</p> -<p> -The theory of mutation, of which Hugo de Vries, of Holland, is the -chief expounder, does not antagonize Darwin, but simply gives more -weight in the process of evolution to the factor of sudden changes -commonly called sports. Let us illustrate: In the giraffe of our -former forest, one might appear whose neck was not longer because of -slightly longer vertebrae, but who possessed an extra vertebrae. -This would be a mutation. In other words, a mutation is a marked -variation that may be inherited. We now believe that polled cattle, -five-toed Dorkings, top-knotted Houdans, frizzles and black skinned -chickens arose through mutations. -</p> -<p> -Burbank's Methods—The wonderful Burbank with his thornless cactus, -his stoneless plum, and his white blackberry, is simply a searcher -after mutations. His success is not because he uses any secret -methods, but because of the size of his operations. He produces his -specimens by the millions, and in these millions looks, and often -looks in vain for the lonely sport that is to father a new race. -Burbank has, with plants, many advantages of which the animal -breeder is deprived. He can produce his specimens in greater number, -he can more easily find out the desirable character, and in many -plants he has not the uncertain element of double parentage to -contend with, while with others he is still more fortunate, as he -can produce them by seed, stimulate variation until the desired -mutation is found and can then reproduce the desired variation with -certainty by the use of cuttings. This latter is not true -inheritance with its inevitable variation, but the indefinite -prolongation of the life of one individual. In this sense there is -only one seedless orange tree in the world. -</p> -<p> -The Centgenitor System—Prof. Hays in breeding wheat at Minnesota, -first used in this country a system of breeding which is essentially -as follows: A large variety of individual seeds are selected. These -are planted separately and the amount and character of the yield -observed. The offspring of one seed is kept separate for several -generations, or until the character of the tribe is thoroughly -established. The advantage of this plan of breeding is in that the -selection is not made by comparing individuals, but by comparing the -offspring of individuals. Thus, we necessarily select the only trait -really worth while; that is prepotency or the ability to beget -desirable qualities. -</p> -<p> -The application of this centgenitor system necessitates inbreeding; -it also necessitates large operations. Of the former, breeders have -generally been afraid; of the latter they have lacked opportunity. -But the centgenitor system, combined with Burbank's principle of -large opportunity of selection, is, in the writer's belief, the -method by which the 200-egg hen will be ultimately established in -America. -</p> -<p> -Much of the recent stimulus to the study of the Science of Breeding -was occasioned by the discovery of Mendel's Law. Briefly, the law -states that when two pure traits or characters are crossed, one -dominates in the first generation of offspring—the other remaining -hidden or recessive. Of the second generation, one-half the -individuals are still mixed, bearing the dominant characteristic -externally and the other hidden; one-fourth are pure dominants and -one-fourth are pure recessives. In future generations the mixed or -hybrid individuals again give birth to mixed and pure types -apportioned as before, thus continuing until all offspring become -ultimately pure. For illustration: If rose and single comb chickens -are crossed, rose combs are dominant. The first generation will all -have rose combs. The second generation will have one-fourth single -combs that will breed true, one-fourth rose combs that will breed -rose combs only, and one-half that again will give all three types. -</p> -<p> -Mendel's Law works all right in cases where pure unit -characteristics are to be found. For the great practical problems in -inheritance, Mendel's law is utterly hopeless. The trouble is that -the chief things with which we are concerned are not unit -characteristics but are combinations of countless characteristics -which cannot be seen or known, hence cannot be picked out. Thus the -tendency to revert to pure types is foiled by the constant -recrossing of these types. -</p> -<p> -Mendel's law is a scientific curiosity like the aeroplane. It may -some day be more than a curiosity, but both have tremendous odds to -overcome before they supplant our present methods. -</p> -<p> -Prof. C.B. Davenport, of the Carnegie Institute, is working on -experimental poultry breeding in its purely scientific sense. His -conclusions have been much criticised by poultry fanciers. The truth -of the matter is that the fancier fails to appreciate the spirit of -pure science. The scientist, enthused to find his white fowl -re-occur after a generation of black ones, is wholly undisturbed by -the fact that the white ones, if exhibited, might be taken for a -Silver Spangled Hamburg. -</p> -<p> -Mendel's law as yet offers little to the fancier and less to the -commercial poultryman. Its study is all right in its place, but its -place is not on the poultry plant whose profits are to buy the baby -a new dress. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Breeding for Egg Production. -</p> -<p> -Attempts to improve the egg-producing qualities of the hen date from -the domestication of the hen, but it has only been within the last -few years that rapid progress has been possible in this work. The -inability to determine the good layers has been the difficulty. -</p> -<p> -The great majority of people make no selection of hens from which to -hatch their stock. The eggs of the whole flock are kept together and -when eggs are desired for hatching they are selected from a general -basket. It has been assumed, and is shown by trap-nest records, that -eggs thus selected in the spring of the year are from the poorer, -rather than from the better layers. This is because hens that have -not been laying during the winter will lay very heavily during the -spring season. Many breeders have attempted to pick out the good -layers by the appearance of the hens. Before the advent of the -trap-nest the "egg type" of hen was believed to be a positive -indication of a good layer. The "egg type" hen had slender neck, -small head, long, deep body of a wedge shape. Various "systems" -founded on these or other "signs" have been sold for fancy prices to -people who were easily separated from their money. Trap-nest records -show such systems to be on a par with the lunar guidance in -agricultural operations. -</p> -<p> -I might remark here that the determination of sex by the shape of -the egg or similar methods, is in a like category. Science finds no -proof of such theories. -</p> -<p> -A few methods of selecting the layers have been suggested which, -while far from absolute, are of some significance and are well worth -noting. The hen that sits upon the roost while other hens are out -foraging, is probably a drone. The excessively fat or the -excessively lean hens are not likely to be layers. It would -naturally be supposed that the active laying hen would be the last -one to go to roost at night. At the Kansas Experiment Station, the -writer made observations upon the order in which the hens went to -roost, and the above assumption was found in the majority of cases -to be correct. -</p> -<p> -A still better scheme of selecting layers is the practice of picking -out the thrifty, quickly maturing pullets when they first begin to -lay in the fall season. At the Maine Experiment Station, such a -selection gave a flock of layers which averaged about one hundred -and eighty eggs, when the remainder of the flock yielded only one -hundred and forty. -</p> -<p> -Trap-nests devised to catch the hen that lays the egg are numerous -in the market. A trap-nest to be successful, must not only catch the -hen that lays, but must prevent the entrance of the other hens. -</p> -<p> -The more trap-nests that are provided, the less often they will -require attention, but the more often the nests are attended the -better for the comfort of the hens. -</p> -<p> -The use of trap-nests is expensive and cannot be recommended for the -poultryman who must make every hour of time put on his chickens -yield him an immediate income. Fanciers and Experiment Stations can -well afford to use trap-nests and must, indeed, use them both for -breeding for egg production, and also for determining the hen that -laid the egg when full pedigrees are desired in other breeding work. -</p> -<p> -A scheme that has sometimes been used in the place of trap-nests, is -a system of small compartments, in each of which one hen is kept. -Such a scheme does not seem feasible on a large scale, but for -breeders wishing to keep the records of a small number of hens, it -is all right. Because of its cost, this system is wholly out of the -question, except for a man following breeding as a hobby and who -cannot devote himself during the day to the care of trap-nests. -</p> -<p> -Having determined the best layers, it remains to breed from these -and from their descendants. The tests of pullets hatched from hens -are better signs of the hen's value as a breeder than is her own -record. It has been surmised that a hen which lays heavily will not -lay eggs containing vigorous germs. So far as the writer's -experience has gone, the laying of infertile eggs is a family or -individual trait not particularly related to the number of eggs -laid. -</p> -<p> -When we have bred from the best layers and have raised our average -egg yielder to a higher level, the question arises as to whether the -strain will permanently maintain the high yield or drop back to the -former rate of production. Theory says that it will not drop back. -As a matter of fact it will not do so, for the heavier production -will be more trying on the hen's constitution, and naturally -selection will gradually cause the egg record to dwindle. Hence the -necessity of continued selection or the infusion of new blood from -other selected strains. -</p> -<p> -Whatever may be the change desired in a strain of chickens, -specimens showing the trait to be selected should be used as -breeders. Those characteristics readily visible to the eye have long -been the subjects of the breeder's efforts. But traits not directly -visible can likewise be changed by breeding. The number of eggs, -size and color of eggs, rapid growth, ready fattening powers, -quality of meat and general characteristics, are all matters of -inheritance, and if proper means are taken to select the desirable -individuals all such characteristics can be changed at the will of -the breeder. -</p> -<p> -It is a fact, however, often overlooked, that the more traits for -which one selects, the slower will be progress. For illustration: If -in breeding for egg production, one-half the good layers are -discarded for lack of fancy points, the progress will be just half -as rapid. -</p> -<p> -A discussion of the work in breeding for egg production at the Maine -Experiment Station is taken up in the next chapter. -</p> -<a name="2HCH0016"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> - -<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> - -<h2> -<a name="chapXV"> -CHAPTER XV -</a> -</h2> -<h3> -EXPERIMENT STATION WORK -</h3> -<p> -Our entire scheme of agricultural education and experimentation is -new. The poultry work at experiment stations is very new. Ten years -will about cover everything worthy of a permanent record in the -poultry experiment station files. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Stations Leading in Poultry Work. -</p> -<p> -Among the earliest stations to begin poultry work in this country -were Rhode Island, Massachusetts, Connecticut and Maine. Rhode -Island conducted the first school of poultry culture. The two -stations of New York State were also early in the work, and Cornell -now has the leading school of poultry culture in this country. -</p> -<p> -West Virginia has always maintained a considerable poultry plant. -Outside of the states east of the Appalachians, the first poultry -work to be heard of was that of Prof. Dryden at the Experiment -Station of Utah. Prof. Dryden's work was of a demonstrative nature. -His early bulletins were forceful and well illustrated, and did much -to call attention to poultry work. -</p> -<p> -In all this early work the great Mississippi Valley, where -four-fifths of the nation's poultry is produced, entirely ignored -the hen. The writer began his work with poultry at the Kansas -Station in 1902, but his chickens were housed in a discarded hog -house, and no funds being available, little was accomplished. In the -last three or four years these experiment stations are rapidly -falling into line and a number of poultry bulletins have recently -been issued from these younger schools. -</p> -<p> -A few of the early landmarks in experiment station work was as -follows: -</p> -<p> -The Utah Station clearly found that hens laid about 65 per cent. as -many eggs in the second as in the first year, and that to keep hens -for egg production beyond the second year, was unprofitable. -</p> -<p> -Massachusetts proved that corn was a better food for layers than -wheat, and that the prejudice against it was founded on a misapplied -theory. -</p> -<p> -The New York Station at Geneva demonstrated that poultry generally, -and ducks in particular, are not vegetarians, and must have meat to -thrive and that vegetable protein will not make good the deficiency. -</p> -<p> -The Maine Station was chiefly instrumental in introducing -trap-nests, curtain front houses and dry feeding. The breeding work -at Maine will be discussed at length in the last section of this -chapter. -</p> -<p> -The United States Department of Agriculture did not take up poultry -work until 1906. The publications issued by the department before -that time were written by outsiders and printed by the Government. -</p> -<p> -The following is the list of the addresses of the experiment -stations who have taken a leading interest in poultry work. It is -not worth while giving a list of poultry bulletins, as many of them -are out of print and can only be consulted in a library. -</p> -<p class="indent"> -<br> -Maine—Orono. <br> -Mass.—Amherst. <br> -Conn.—Storrs. <br> -Rhode Is.—Kingston. <br> -New York—Ithaca. <br> -New York—Geneva. <br> -Maryland—College Park. <br> -West. Va.—Morgantown.<br> -Iowa—Ames. <br> -Kansas—Manhattan. <br> -Utah—Logan. <br> -Calif.—Berkeley. <br> -Oregon—Corvalis. <br> -U.S. Gov.—Washington, D.C. <br> -Ontario—Guelph (Canada). <br> -</p> -<p> -Many foreign governments have us out-distanced in the encouragement -of the poultry industry. Our Canadian neighbors have done much more -practical work in getting out among the farmers and improving the -stock and methods along commercial lines. As a result the Canadians -have built up a nice British trade with which we have thus far not -been able to compete. The work by the Ontario Station on the subject -of incubation is discussed in the Chapter on Incubation. -</p> -<p> -Australia, like Canada, has given much practical assistance in -marketing the poultry products, the government maintaining packing -stations, where the poultry is packed for export. The Australian -laying contests are quoted in the present volume. They outclass -anything else in the world along that line. -</p> -<p> -In England, Ireland and especially in Denmark, the government, or -societies encouraged by the Government, have done a great deal to -develop the poultry industry. Depots for marketing and grading are -maintained and the stock of the farmers is improved by fowls from -the government breeding farms. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -The Story of the "Big Coon." -</p> -<p> -With apologies to Joel Chandler Harris, I will tell a little story. -</p> -<p> -Uncle Remus was telling the little boy about the "big coon." It -seems that the "big coon" had been seen on numerous occasions, but -all efforts at his capture had failed. One night they saw the "big -coon" up in the 'simmon tree, in the middle of the ten-acre lot. All -hands and the dogs were summoned. To be sure of bagging the game, -the tree was cut down. The dogs rushed in but there was no coon. -</p> -<p> -"But, Uncle Remus," said the little boy, "I thought you said you saw -the big coon in the tree." -</p> -<p> -"Laws, chile," replied Uncle Remus, "doesn't youse know dat it am -mighty easy for folks to see something dat ain't dar, when dey are -lookin' fer it?" -</p> -<p> -When scientific experimenters entered the poultry field about -fifteen years ago, they found it swarming with old ladies' notions. -For everything a reason was given, but these reasons were derived -from the kind of dreams where that which pleases the human mind is -seized upon and search is made to find ideas to back it, not because -it is true, but because it "listens good" to the dreamer. The first -duty of the scientist was to banish these will-o'-the-wisp ideas -that lead to no practical results. -</p> -<p> -For illustration Round eggs were supposed to hatch pullets and long -ones cockerels. Eggs will not hatch if it thunders. Shipped eggs -must be allowed to rest before hatching, the drug store was the -universal source of relief when the chickens became sick, and red -pepper and patent foods were the egg foods par excellence. These -things, thanks to the scientist, are no longer believed or regarded -by well read poultrymen, and instead his attention has been turned -to matters having a more happy relation to his bank account. -</p> -<p> -In clearing away the useless popular notions, the scientists -themselves have not been free from their influence, especially when -they seemed to agree with accepted scientific theory. Many, indeed, -are the 'coons in poultry science that have been seen because they -were being looked for. -</p> -<p> -As a partial explanation it should be said that men available for -scientific poultry work are very scarce. Poultry keepers schooled in -the University of the Poultry Yard have no conception of scientific -methods, and would explain experimental results by a theory that -would fail to fit elsewhere. The available scientists on the other -hand are seldom poultrymen. -</p> -<p> -Among the first men to take up animal husbandry work of all kinds, -were the veterinarians. For years the only poultry publications put -out by the U.S. Government were by veterinarians. These dust covered -volumes with their five color plates of the fifty-seven varieties of -tapeworms, still rest on the shelves of public libraries, a monument -to the time when the practical poultryman knew only things that -weren't so, and the scientific poultryman knew only things that were -useless. -</p> -<p> -The first general law that all experimenters should know and the -ignorance of which has caused and still causes the waste of the -major portion of experimental brains and money, we will call the -"Law of Chance." Let the reader who is not familiar with such things -take two pennies and toss them upon the table. They are both heads -up. He tosses them again, one comes heads, the other tails. The -third time repeats the second. The fourth both come tails. The law -of chance says this is correct. Heads should appear 25 per cent., -tails 25 per cent., and mixed 50 per cent. of the time. Now let the -reader try this in a lot of twelve tosses. Does it prove the law? -Try it again. Are all lots alike? Now pitch a hundred times, then -pitch pennies all day. By night the law will be so near proven that -the experimenter will be willing to concede its validity. -</p> -<p> -Now suppose the lots of twelve tosses, each were lots of twelve -hens, one Plymouth Rocks, the other Wyandottes, or one fed corn and -the other wheat. The law of chance clearly proves that the larger -number of unites, the nearer the theoretical truths will be the -experimental results. Note, however, that small lots may by chance -be as near the truth as large lots. -</p> -<p> -In practice two grave errors are made: First, conclusions are drawn -from small lots compared with each other; second, conclusions are -drawn from large lots compared with small lots. In the first case -both may be off; in the latter case the small one may be off. -Examples of the first error are to be found in the scores of -contradicting breed and feed tests, that were published in the early -days of poultry research. The second error is exemplified in the -Ontario experiments in incubation, to which reference has already -been made. -</p> -<p> -Here is a further example of this error. From the fifth egg laying -competition at the Hawkesbury Agricultural College in Australia, I -copy the following: -</p> -<table align="center" width="70%" summary="egg laying competition yields"> -<tr><td align="right">No. of Hens.</td> <td>Variety.</td> <td align="right">Ave. Egg Yield.</td></tr> - -<tr><td align="right">6</td> <td>Cuckoo Leghorn</td> <td align="right">190.16</td></tr> - -<tr><td align="right">30</td> <td>S.C. Brown Leghorn</td> <td align="right">177.00</td></tr> - -<tr><td align="right">138</td> <td>S.C. White Leghorn</td> <td align="right">174.93</td></tr> - -<tr><td align="right">12</td> <td>R.C. Brown Leghorn</td> <td align="right">173.50</td></tr> - -<tr><td align="right">12</td> <td>R.C. White Leghorn</td> <td align="right">172.66</td></tr> - -<tr><td align="right">18</td> <td>Buff Leghorn</td> <td align="right">160.55</td></tr> - -<tr><td align="right">6</td> <td>Black Leghorn</td> <td align="right">138.33</td></tr> -</table> -<p> -The ranking of Cuckoo Leghorns as first is a chance happening due to -the small number; likewise the Black Leghorns had a streak of bad -luck and received lowest place. To one not familiar with such work, -the real significance of the table is that the S.C.W. Leghorns did -the best work. A totaling of all other varieties gives 84 fowls with -an average egg production of 170.5, which bears out the conclusion. -As these birds were all kept in pens of six, we would expect to find -the highest single pen to be White Leghorns, because, when compared -with all other Leghorns, they have both the highest average and the -greatest number. This accords with the fact that as the highest -single pen is found to be White Leghorns with an egg yield of 239 -eggs. -</p> -<p> -The above illustrates another important phase of the laws of chance, -which says that not only is the average likely to be nearer the -theoretical average sought when the number is increased, but that -the individual extremes will be more removed. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Important Experimental Results at the Illinois Station. -</p> -<p> -From an Illinois Experiment Station report, the following is quoted: -</p> -<p> -"The stock used was Barred Plymouth Rock pullets. These pullets were -a very uniform Barred Rock stock that had been bred as an individual -strain for many years. They were practically the same age, and -except for the factors mentioned were treated as uniformly as -possible. -</p> -<table align="center" width="70%" summary="diet yields"> -<tr><td colspan="3">First Year's Results.</td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">No. Hens.</td> <td>Diet.</td> <td align="right">Ave. Egg Yield.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">10</td> <td>Nitrogenous Diet</td> <td align="right">132.9</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">10</td> <td>Carbonaceous Diet</td> <td align="right">128.4</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">10</td> <td>Wet Wash</td> <td align="right">155.8</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">10</td> <td>Dry Wash</td> <td align="right">111.4</td></tr> -</table> -<p> -"The results of the first test are somewhat surprising for it is -generally believed that the nitrogenous diet is best for laying -hens. The difference indicated in the first year's results was so -light that it was decided to repeat the experiment the second year. -</p> -<p> -"As the wet wash is clearly proven to be superior, these hens were -used the second year to compare meat meal with fresh cut bone. -</p> -<table align="center" width="70%" summary="diet yields"> -<tr><td colspan="3">Second Year's Result.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">No. Hens.</td> <td>Diet.</td> <td align="right">Ave. Egg Yield.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">10</td> <td>Nitrogenous</td> <td align="right">142.2</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">10</td> <td>Carbonaceous</td> <td align="right">134.5</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">10</td> <td>Meat Meal</td> <td align="right">102.2</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">10</td> <td>Green Cut Bone</td> <td align="right">128.9</td></tr> -</table> -<p> -"The results of the second year clearly indicate the great -superiority of green cut bone as compared with the dry unpalatable -meat meal. The comparison of a highly nitrogenous ration with that -of a ration consisting largely of corn, while showing the advantages -of the nitrogenous rations, does not show the contrast expected. -</p> -<p> -"Some visiting poultrymen expressed the opinion that corn is a -better poultry food than commonly supposed. Considering this fact -and the great fundamental importance of the question at issue, it -was decided to repeat the experiment a third year, and feed a large -number of birds on each ration. -</p> -<table align="center" width="70%" summary="diet yields"> -<tr><td align="right">No. Hens.</td> <td>Diet.</td> <td align="right">Ave. Egg Yield.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">100</td> <td>Nitrogenous</td> <td align="right">126.9</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">100</td> <td>Carbonaceous</td> <td align="right">127.2</td></tr> -</table> -<p> -I will leave the last without comment, for the whole thing is a -hoax. The Illinois Experiment Station has never owned a chicken. -These "Illinois" experiments were planned and executed in a few -minutes of the writer's spare time. The basis of the experiments was -a pack of cards containing the individual records of the Maine -Experiment Station hens, shuffling the cards and averaging the -desired number of records as they come in the pack, made the -distinction between the various diets. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Experimental Bias -</p> -<p> -Pet ideas consciously or unconsciously mold practice. A bias toward -an idea may show itself in the planning and conducting of an -experiment, or it may come out in the later interpretation. -</p> -<p> -An illustration of the first kind is found in the early work of the -West Virginia Station (Bulletin 60). With the preconceived notion -that hens should have a nitrogenous diet an experiment was planned -and conducted as follows: -</p> -<p> -One lot of hens was fed corn, potatoes, oats and corn meal. A -contrasted lot reveled in corn, potatoes, hominy feed, oat meal, -corn meal and fresh cut bone. The results were in favor of the -latter ration by a doubled egg yield. -</p> -<p> -To any experienced poultryman the reason is evident. The variety of -the diet and the meat food are what made the showing. -</p> -<p> -About the same time the Massachusetts Station planned a similar -experiment. The bias was the same, but it took a fairer form. The -hens were both given a decent variety of food and some form of meat. -The bulk of the grain was corn in the carbonaceous, and wheat in the -nitrogenous ration. The results were in favor of the corn. This -astonished the experimenter. He tried it again and again tests came -out in favor of corn. At last the old theory was revoked, and the -fallacy of wheat being essential to egg production was exploded. If -by an irony of fate in the shuffling of the hens, the wheat pen had -the first time showed an advantage, the experimenter might have been -satisfied and the waste of feeding high priced feed when a better -and a cheaper is at hand, might have gone on indefinitely. -</p> -<p> -Of bias in the interpretation of results all publications are more -or less saturated. A reading of the Chapter on Incubation will -illustrate this. A common error of this kind is the omission of -facts necessary to fully explain results. Items of costs are -invariably omitted or minimized. Food cost alone is usually -mentioned in figuring experimenting station poultry profits, which -statement will undoubtedly cause a sad smile to creep over the face -of many a "has-been" poultryman. -</p> -<p> -The writer remembers an incident from his college days which -illustrates the point in hand. Let it first be remarked that this -was on the new lands of the trans-Missouri Country, where manure had -no more commercial value than soil, and is freely given to those -who will haul it away. -</p> -<p> -The professor at the blackboard had been figuring up handsome -profits on a type of dairying towards which he wits very partial. -The figures showed a goodly profit, but the biggest expense -item—that of labor—was omitted. One of the students held up his -hand and inquired after the labor bill. -</p> -<p> -"Oh," said the smiling professor, "The manure will pay for the -labor." -</p> -<p> -When the class adjourned, the student remarked: "They say figures -won't lie, but a liar will figure." -</p> -<p> -The third way in which experiments are made worthless is by the -introduction of factors other than the one being tested. This may be -done by chance, and the conductor not realize the presence of the -other factor, or the varying factors may be introduced intentionally -under the belief that they are negligible. Of the first case an -instance may be cited of the placing of two flocks in a house, one -end of which is damper than the other, the accidental introduction -into one flock of a contagious disease, or one flock being thrown -off feed by an excessive feed of greens, etc., etc. These factors -that influence pens of birds greatly add to the error of the law of -chance. In fact it amounts to the same thing on a larger scale. For -this reason not only are many individuals, but many flocks, many -locations, and many years needed to prove the superiority of the -contrasted methods. -</p> -<p> -The criticisms in the following section will amply illustrate the -case of foreign factors being unwisely introduced into an -experiment. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -The Egg Breeding Work at the Maine Station. -</p> -<p> -As is well known the Maine Station was for years considered by all -poultrymen to be doing a great and beneficial work in breeding for -increased egg production. Up until the fall of 1907, the poultrymen -of the country were of the opinion that this work was in every way -successful, and a large number of private breeders had taken up the -use of trap-nests in an effort to build up the egg production of -their fowls. -</p> -<p> -When early in 1908 Bulletin 157 of the Maine Experiment Station was -published, it showed by averages as given in the table on page 202 -that the egg yield at the station was for the entire period on the -decline. In Bulletin 157, the statement was made that "arithmetical -mistakes" and "faulty statistical methods" accounted for the -discrepancies between the former publications and the criticised -data. The further explanation that "the experiment was a success as -an experiment," etc., only appeared to the public mind as a graceful -way of explaining what was, to the practical man, an utter failure -of the entire work. -</p> -<p> -The unfortunate death of Professor Gowell, together with the fact -that he had equipped a private poultry farm with station stock, -added to the confusion, and the result of the bulletin was the -precipitation of a general "pow-wow" in which the poultry editors -were about equally divided between those who were casting -insinuations upon the personnel of the station, and those who -decried the whole effort toward improving the egg yield. -</p> -<p> -After going over the publications of Professor Gowell, visiting the -station and meeting the present force, I came to the following -conclusions regarding the matter: -</p> -<p> -Professor Gowell's work is open to severe criticism. Errors have -been made in conducting the work at Maine which have made it -possible for a mathematical biologist to take the data and seemingly -prove that selection, as practiced by Professor Gowell, actually -resulted in lowering inherent egg capacity of the strain of Plymouth -Rock hens under experimentation. Had Professor Gowell's successor -been a practical poultryman, it is my candid opinion that the public -would have been given a radically different explanation of the -results. -</p> -<p> -Professor Gowell is the author of the following statement: "The -small chicken grower is earnestly urged to use an incubator for -hatching." This opinion is not in accord with that of the majority -of breeders and the more progressive experiment station workers. The -opinion has been expressed by Professor Graham and others, that the -particular results at the Maine Station may have been due to the -decrease of vitality caused by continued artificial hatching. This -view may be wholly without foundation. Nevertheless, as the common -type of incubator is under heavy criticism, and it is pretty well -proven that chicks so hatched have not the vitality of naturally -hatched chicks, surely a series of breeding experiments would carry -more weight if the replenishing of the flock had been accomplished -by natural means. -</p> -<p> -For the first few years of the breeding work the house used was the -old-fashioned double walled and warmed pattern. The last few years -of this work were conducted in curtain front houses. That the cool -house is an improvement over the warm house is generally conceded, -but there are many poultrymen who are still of the opinion that the -warm house will give a larger egg yield, though at a greater expense -and less profit. -</p> -<p> -In the early years of the work the method of feeding was also a -time-honored one, and included a warm mash. About the middle of the -experimental period Professor Gowell brought out the system of -feeding dry mash from hoppers. This custom became a great fad and -Professor Gowell and Director Woods have preached it far and wide. -Perhaps it is an improvement, but it is to-day much more popular -with novices than with established egg farms. Many old line -poultrymen have tried dry mash only to go back to wet mash, by which -method the hens can be induced to eat more which is conducive to -high egg yields. Whether these changes in housing and feeding have -been improvements as claimed by those who introduced them, or -whether their popularity may be explained in part at least by the -psychology of fads, is a point in question, but certainly the -marring of a breeding experiment by introducing radical changes in -the factors of production is at best unfortunate. -</p> -<p> -A much more serious criticism than any of the foregoing is to be -found in a change of the size of flocks and amount of floor space -per fowl. I have gone over carefully the published records of -Professor Gowell, and the review of Dr. Pearl, and the following -table represents, as near as I can determine, these factors for the -series of years. In the year 1903 I find no clear statement as to -the manner in which the birds were housed, and I may be in error in -this case. Otherwise the table gives the facts. -</p> -<table align="center" width="70%" summary="yields by flock size"> -<tr><td align="right">Year</td> <td align="right">Hens in Flock</td> <td align="right">Per Hen</td> <td align="right">Egg Yield</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">1900</td> <td align="right">20</td> <td align="right">8. sq. ft.</td> <td align="right">136.36</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">1901</td> <td align="right">20</td> <td align="right">8. sq. ft.</td> <td align="right">143.44</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">1902</td> <td align="right">20</td> <td align="right">8. sq. ft.</td> <td align="right">155.58</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">1903</td> <td align="right">20</td> <td align="right">8. sq. ft.</td> <td align="right">135.42</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">1904</td> <td align="right">50</td> <td align="right">4.4 sq. ft.</td> <td align="right">117.90</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">1905</td> <td align="right">50</td> <td align="right">4.4 sq. ft.</td> <td align="right">134.07</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">1906</td> <td align="right">50</td> <td align="right">4.4 sq. ft.</td> <td align="right">140.14</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">1907</td> <td align="right">50</td> <td align="right">4.4 sq. ft.</td> <td align="right">113.24</td></tr> -</table> -<p> -Certainly this oversight is a serious one, and one especially -remarkable considering the fact that the comparison of different -size flocks formed a prominent part of the Maine Station work during -the last three years of the breeding test. The results of the work -at the Maine Station on testing flock size, conducted without -relation to the breeding work, gave the following results: -</p> -<table align="center" width="50%" summary="yields by flock size"> -<tr><td align="right">No. of Hens</td> <td align="right">Sq. ft. per Hen</td> <td align="right">Egg Yield</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">150</td> <td align="right">3.2</td> <td align="right">111.68</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">100</td> <td align="right">4.8</td> <td align="right">123.21</td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">50</td> <td align="right">4.8</td> <td align="right">129.69</td></tr> -</table> -<p> -No comparisons of 50 and 20 bird flocks in the same year are -available, but by extending the comparisons of the 50, 100 and 150 -flocks into the 20 flock size, we can get some idea of the error -that has been here introduced. The result of the Australian egg -laying contest in which the flocks were composed of six hens, shows -a yield of about one and one-half times as heavy as the Maine -records, which certainly seems to substantiate the ideas here -brought out. -</p> -<p> -It is a well established fact in poultry circles that many men who -succeed with a few hundred hens, fail when the number is increased -to as many thousands. When the breeding experiments under discussion -were started, Professor Gowell had under his supervision about three -hundred hens. When the work was closed the experiment station plant -had been increased to four or five times its capacity, and Professor -Gowell had a large private poultry plant of his own in addition. -</p> -<p> -It is interesting to note in this connection that the last four -years of the records are explained by Professor Gowell as being low, -due to various "accidents" (?) It is unreasonable to suppose the -true explanation of these "accidents" would be found in connection -with the increased responsibility and size of the plant. -</p> -<p> -The breeding stock sent out by Professor Gowell has given general -satisfaction, and was found by Professor Graham of the Ontario -Station, as well as by a number of private individuals, to be of -superior laying quality to that of the average Barred Rock. -</p> -<p> -Clearly there is only one way to prove whether Professor Gowell's -work has been a wasted effort, and that is for flocks of his strain -to be tested at other experiment stations against birds of -miscellaneous origin. -</p> -<p> -That much has been lost to the poultrymen of the country by the -recent upheaval at the Maine Station, I believe to be the case, but -that does not mean that the men now in charge will not in the future -be of great value to the poultry interests. They are, however, in -the class of pure scientists rather than applied scientists, but if -let alone they will dig out something sooner or later which they or -others can apply to the benefit of the industry. -</p> -<p> -Upon the whole, I think that the present case of the trap-nest -method of increasing egg production stands very much as it is has -always stood, being a commendable thing for small breeders who could -afford the time, but not practical in a large way, except at -experiment stations. On a large commercial scale the system of -selecting sires by the collective work of his first year's offspring -would probably get the quickest results. -</p> -<p> -The best use of the funds of the people in the promotion of -agricultural industries is in the permanent endorsement on the one -hand of a few high grade research stations where the deeper theories -may be worked out, and on the other the teaching of such good -principles and practices as are already known. -</p> -<p> -The greatest opportunity for Government effort lies in the -development demonstration farm work in poultry Just as it is doing -with the corn and cotton in the South. -</p> -<a name="2HCH0017"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> - -<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> - -<h2> -<a name="chapXVI"> -CHAPTER XVI -</a> -</h2> -<h3> -POULTRY ON THE GENERAL FARM -</h3> -<p> -This chapter will be devoted to specific directions for the -profitable keeping of chickens on the typical American farm. By -typical American farm I mean the farm west of Ohio, north of -Tennessee and east of Colorado. Farms outside this section present -different problems. In the region mentioned about three-quarters of -the American poultry and egg crop is produced, and in this section -poultry keeping is more profitable when conducted as a part of -general farm operations than as an exclusive business. -</p> -<p> -There is no reason why a farmer should not be a poultry fancier if -he desires, but in that case his special interest in his chickens -would throw him out of the class we are at present considering. -Likewise, I do not doubt that in many instances where the farmer or -members of his family took special interest in poultry work, it -would be profitable to increase the size of operations beyond those -herein advised, using incubators and keeping Leghorns. Of these -exceptions the farmer himself must judge. The rules I lay down are -for those farmers who wish to keep chickens for profit, but do not -care to devote any larger share of their time and study to them than -they do to the cows, hogs, orchard or garden. -</p> -<p> -The advice herein given in this chapter will differ from much of the -advice given to farmers by poultry writers. The average poultry -editor is afraid to give specific advice concerning breeds, -incubators, etc., because he fears to offend his advertisers. The -reader, left to judge for himself, is liable to pick out some fancy -impractical variety or method. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Best Breeds for the Farm. -</p> -<p> -Keep only one variety of chickens. Do not bother with other -varieties of poultry unless it is turkeys. Whether it will pay to -raise turkeys will depend upon your success with the little turks, -and on the freedom of the community from the disease called -Black-head. -</p> -<p> -The kind of chicken you should keep should be picked from the three -following breeds: Barred Plymouth Rock, White Wyandotte, Rhode -Island Reds. If you go outside of these three breeds be sure you -have a very good reason for doing so. -</p> -<p> -Then get a start with a new breed, buy at least four sittings of -eggs in a single season, paying not over $2.00 per sitting. Keep all -the pullets and a half dozen of the best cockerels. The next spring -pen these pullets up with the best cockerels, and use none but eggs -from this pen for hatching. That fall sell all of the young -cockerels and all the old scrub hens. The second spring the two old -roosters from the original purchased eggs are used with the general -flock. From this time on the entire flock is pure bred and should -remain so. -</p> -<p> -Each year when the chicks are about six or eight weeks old pick out -the largest, most vigorous male chick from each brood. Mark these by -clipping the web of the foot or putting on leg bands. From those so -marked the breeding cockerels for the next season are later -selected. When you pick the good cockerels pick out all runty -looking pullets and cut off the last joint of the hind toe. These -runts are later to be eaten or sold. The more surplus chicks raised, -the more strictly can the selection be made. -</p> -<p> -This system of picking the best cockerel from each brood and -discarding the poorest pullets is the most practical method known of -building up a vigorous, quick growing and early laying strain. -</p> -<p> -When we allow the entire flock of many different ages to grow up -before the selection is made it is impossible to select -intelligently. -</p> -<p> -Every third or fourth year an extra cock bird may be purchased -provided you are sure you are getting a specimen from a better flock -than your own. Swapping roosters or eggs every year is poor policy. -If your neighbor has better stock than you, get his blood pure and -sell off your own, but do not keep a barnyard full of scrubs who can -trace their ancestry to every flock in the neighborhood. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Keep Only Workers. -</p> -<p> -On many farms few eggs are gathered from October to January. This is -a season when eggs bring the best prices. To secure eggs at this -season, the first requisite is that the pullets be hatched between -the first of March and the middle of May, or, in the case of -Leghorns, between the first of April and the first of June. Pullets -hatched later than these dates are a source of expense during the -fall and early winter. On the other hand, it is an unnecessary waste -of effort to hatch pullets before the dates mentioned, because, if -hatched too early, they will molt in the fall and stop laying the -same as old hens. -</p> -<p> -Pullets must be well fed and cared for if expected to develop in the -time allowed. As they begin to show signs of maturity they should be -gotten into permanent quarters. If allowed to begin laying while -roosting in coops or in trees they will be liable to quit when -changed to new quarters. If possible the coops should be gradually -moved toward the hen-house and the pullets gotten into quarters -without excitement or confinement. The poultry-house should have an -ample circulation of fresh air. Young stock that have been roosting -in open coops are liable to catch cold if confined in tight houses. -</p> -<p> -A common mistake is to allow a large troop of young roosters to -overrun the premises in the early fall. Not only is money lost in -the decrease in price that can be obtained for these cockerels, but -the pullets are greatly annoyed, to the detriment of the egg yield. -</p> -<p> -Any chicken that is not paying for its food in growth or in egg -production is a source of loss. As soon as the hatching season is -over old roosters should be sent to market. Through June and August -egg production is not very profitable, and a thorough culling of the -hens should be made. Market all hens two years or more of age. Send -with these all the yearling hens that appear fat and lazy. By the -time the young pullets are ready to be moved into quarters—the -latter part of August—these hens should be reduced to about -one-half the original number. Some time during September a final -culling of the old stock should be made. Those that have not yet -begun to molt should be sold, as they will not be laying again -before the warm days of the following February. This system of -culling will leave the best portion of the yearling hens, which, -together with the early-hatched pullets, will make a profitable -flock of layers. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Hatching Chicks With Hens -</p> -<p> -The eggs for hatching should be stored in a cool, dry location at a -temperature between forty and seventy degrees Fahrenheit. A good -rule is not to set eggs over two weeks old. -</p> -<p> -The two chief losses with sitting-hens are due to lice and -interference of other hens. The practice of setting hens in the -chicken-house makes both these difficulties more troublesome. Almost -all farms will have some outbuilding situated apart from the regular -chicken-house that can be used for sitting-hens. The most convenient -arrangement will be to use boxes, and have these open at the top. -They may be placed in rows and a plank somewhat narrower than the -boxes used as a cover. The nests should be made by throwing a shovel -of earth into the box and then shaping a nest of clean straw. Make -the nest roomy enough so that as the hen steps into the nest the -eggs will spread apart readily and not be broken. When a hen shows -signs of broodiness remove her to the sitting-room. This should be -done in the evening, so that the hen becomes accustomed to her -position by daylight. Place the hen upon the nest-eggs and confine -her to the nest. If all is well the next evening give her a full -setting of eggs. -</p> -<p> -A practical method to arrange for sitting-hens is to build the nests -out of doors, allowing each hen a little yard, so that she may have -liberty to leave her nest as she chooses. These nests may be built -by using twelve-inch boards set on edge, so as to form a series of -small runways about one by six feet. In one end are built the nests, -which are covered by a broad board, while the remainder of the -arrangement is covered with lath or netting. The food, grit and -water should be placed at the opposite end of the runway. Care -should be taken to locate these nests on well-drained ground. -Arrangements should be made to close the front of the nest during -hatching so that the chicks will not drop out. A contrivance of this -kind furnishes a very convenient method of handling sitting-hens, -and if no separate building is available would be the best method to -use. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Incubators on the Farm. -</p> -<p> -My candid advice to the farmer who is in doubt as whether to buy an -incubator or not, is to let it alone. If the farmer reads the -chapter on artificial incubation, he will see that he is dealing -with a very complex problem, and one in which his chances of success -are not very great. -</p> -<p> -In order to learn the facts concerning incubators on the farms the -writer made a special investigation on the subject while poultryman -at the Kansas Experiment Station. Replies received from 111 Kansas -farmers, report 21 as having tried incubators. Of these, 6 reported -the incubators as being an improvement over hatching with hens; 10 -reported the incubator as being successful, but not better than -hens, while the remaining 5 declared the incubator to be a failure. -The results of this inquiry, and of personal visits to farms, led -the writer to believe that about one-tenth of the farmers of Kansas -had tried incubators, and that about as many failed as succeeded -with artificial hatching. -</p> -<p> -The argument for the incubator on the farm is certainly not one of -better hatching, but there is an argument, and a good one for the -farm incubator. The argument is this: Hens will not set early enough -and in sufficient quantities to get out as large a number of chicks -as the farmer may desire. Now, each hen will not hatch over 10 -chicks, but is capable of caring for at least 30. Here the incubator -comes into good use, for the farmer can set a half dozen hens along -with the incubator, and give all the chicks to the hens. This is the -method I recommend where an incubator is to be used. The development -of the public hatchery would supply these other 20 chicks more -economically and more certainly than the farm incubator, but until -that institution becomes established the more ambitious farm poultry -raisers are justified in trying an incubator. -</p> -<p> -The best known incubators in the market are the Cyphers, the Model -and the Prairie State. Cheaper machines are liable to do poor work. -The following points may help the farmer in deciding whether or not -to buy an incubator and in picking out a good machine. -</p> -<p> -The person to run the incubator is the first condition of its -success. A good incubator requires attention twice a day. One person -should give this attention, and must give it regularly and -carefully. The farmer's wife or some younger member of the family -can often give more time and interest to this work than can the -farmer. The likelihood of a person's success with artificial -hatchers can best be determined by himself. -</p> -<p> -The best location for an incubator is a moderately damp cellar. The -next choice would be a room in the house away from the fire or from -windows. Drafts of air blowing on the machine are especially to be -avoided. Not only do they affect the temperature directly, but cause -the lamp to burn irregularly, and this may result in fire. -</p> -<p> -The objects in view in building an incubator are: (1) To keep the -eggs at a proper temperature (103 degrees on a level with the top of -the eggs). (2) To cause the evaporation of moisture from the eggs at -a normal rate. (3) To prevent the eggs from resting too long in one -position. -</p> -<p> -The case of the incubator should be built double, or triple-walled, -to withstand variation in the outside temperature. The doors should -fit neatly and be made of double glass. The lamp should be made of -the best material, and the wick of sufficient width that the -temperature may be maintained with a low blaze. The most -satisfactory place for the lamp is at the end of the machine, -outside the case. -</p> -<p> -Regulators composed of two metals, such as aluminum and steel, are -best. Wafers filled with ether or similar liquid are more sensitive -but weaker in action. Hard-rubber bars are frequently used. -</p> -<p> -The most practical system of controlling evaporation is a system of -forced ventilation, in which the air is heated around the lamp-flue -and passes through the egg-chamber at a rate determined by -ventilators in the bottom of the machine. With the outside air cold -and dry only slight current is required, but as the outer air -becomes warmer or damper more circulation is needed. -</p> -<p> -Turning the egg is not the work that many imagine it to be. It is -not necessary that the egg be turned with absolute precision and -regularity. An elaborate device for this work is useless. The trays -will need frequently to be removed and turned around or shifted, and -the eggs can be turned at this time by lifting out a few on one side -of the tray and rolling the others over. -</p> -<p> -Two other points to be considered in the incubator are: A suitable -nursery or place for the newly hatched chick, and a good -thermometer. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Rearing Chicks. -</p> -<p> -If it is very early in the spring, and the ground is damp, it is -best to put the hen and her brood in some building. During the most -of the season the best thing is an outdoor coop. The first -consideration in making a chicken-coop is to see that it is -rain-proof and rat-tight. The next thing to look for is that the -coop is not air-tight. Let the front be of rat-tight netting or -heavy screen. The same general plan may be used for small coops for -hens, or for larger coops to be used as colony-houses for growing -chickens. The essentials are: A movable floor raided on cleats, a -sliding front covered with rat-tight netting, and a hood over the -front to keep the rain from beating in. If used late in the fall or -early in the spring a piece of cloth should be tacked on the sliding -front. -</p> -<p> -The chicken-coops should not be bunched up, but scattered out over -as much ground as is convenient. Neither should they remain long in -one spot, but should be shifted a few feet each day. At first water -should be provided at each coop, but as the chickens grow older they -may be required to come to a few central water pans. -</p> -<p> -As before suggested, rearing chicks with hens is the only suitable -method for general farm practice. The brooder on the farm is an -expensive nuisance. -</p> -<p> -For brooder raised chicks it is necessary to provide means for the -little chick to exercise. But in the season when the great majority -of farm chicks are raised they may be placed out of doors from the -start and the trouble will now be to keep them from getting too much -exercise, i.e.: to keep the hens from chasing around with them -especially in the wet grass. This is properly prevented by keeping -the brood coops in plowed ground, and keeping the hens confined by a -slatted door, until the chicks are strong enough to follow her -readily. -</p> -<p> -The chick should not be fed until 48 to 72 hours old. It may then be -started on the same kind of food as is to form its diet in after -life. The hard boiled egg and bread and milk diets are wholly -unnecessary and are only a waste of time. -</p> -<p> -I recommend the same system of chick feeding for the general farm as -is used on commercial plants, and I especially insist that it will -pay the farmer to provide meat food of some sort for his growing -chicks. The amount eaten will not be large, nor need the farmer fear -that supplying the chicks with meat food will prevent their -consuming all the bugs and worms that come their way. -</p> -<p> -Besides comfortable quarters, the chick to thrive, must have: -Exercise, water, grit, a variety of grain food, green or succulent -food, and meat food. -</p> -<p> -Water should be provided in shallow dishes. This can best be -arranged by having a dish with an inverted can or bottle which -allows only a little water to stand in the drinking basin. -</p> -<p> -Chicks running at large on gravelly ground need no provision for -grit. Chicks on board floors or clay soils must be provided with -either coarse sand or chick grit, such as is sold for the purpose. -</p> -<p> -Grain is the principal, and, too often, the only food of the chick. -The common farm way of feeding grain to young chickens is to mix -corn-meal and water and feed in a trough or on the ground. There is -no particular advantage in this way of feeding, and there are -several disadvantages. The feed is all in a bunch, and the weaker -chicks are crowded out, while if wet feed is thrown on the ground or -in a dirty trough the chicks must swallow the adhering filth, and if -any food is left over it quickly sours and becomes a menace to -health. Some people mix dough with sour milk and soda and bake this -into a bread. The better way is to feed all of the grain in a -natural dry condition. -</p> -<p> -There are foods in the market known as chick foods. The commercial -foods contain various grains and seeds, together with meat and grit. -Their use renders chick feeding quite a simple matter, it being -necessary to supply in addition only water and green foods. For -those who wish to prepare their own chick foods the following -suggestions are given: -</p> -<p> -Oatmeal is probably the best grain food for chicks. Oats cannot be -suitably prepared, however, in a common feed-mill. The hulled oats -are what is wanted. They can be purchased as the common rolled oats, -or sometimes as cut or pin-head oatmeal. The latter form would be -preferred, but either of these is an excellent chick feed. Oats in -these forms are expensive and should be purchased in bulk, not in -packages. If too expensive, oats should be used only for a few days, -when they may be replaced by cheaper grains. Cracked corn is the -best and cheapest chick food. Flaxseed could be used in small -quantities. Kaffir-corn, wheat, cow-peas—in fact any wholesome -grain—may be used, the more variety the better. Farmers possessing -feed-mills have no excuse for feeding chicks exclusively on one kind -of grain. If there is no way of grinding corn on the farm, oatmeal, -millet seed and corn chop can be purchased. At about one week of age -whole Kaffir-corn, and, a little later whole wheat, can be used to -replace the more expensive feeds. -</p> -<p> -Green or bulky food of some kind is necessary to the healthy growth -of young chickens. Chickens fed in litter from clover or alfalfa -will pick up many bits of leaves. This answers the purpose fairly -well, but it is advisable to feed some leafy vegetable, as kale or -lettuce. The chicks should be gotten on some growing green crop as -soon as possible. -</p> -<p> -Chickens are not by nature vegetarians. They require some meat to -thrive. It has been proven in several experiments that young -chickens with an allowance of meat foods make much better growth -than chickens with a vegetable diet, even when the chemical -constituents and the variety of the two rations are practically the -same. -</p> -<p> -Very few farmers feed any meat whatever. They rely on insects to -supply the deficiency. This would be all right if the insects were -plentiful and lasted throughout the year, but as conditions are it -will pay the farmer to supplement this source of food with the -commercial meat foods. -</p> -<p> -Fresh bone, cut by bone-cutters, is an excellent source of the meat -and mineral matter needed by growing chicks. If one is handy to a -butcher shop that will agree to furnish fresh bones at little or no -cost, it will pay to get a bone-mill, but the cost of the mill and -labor of grinding are considerable items, and unless the supply of -bones is reliable and convenient this source of meat foods is not to -be depended upon. -</p> -<p> -The best way to feed beef-scrap is to keep a supply in the hopper so -the chickens may help themselves. In case meat food is given, -bone-meal, fed in small quantities, will form a valuable addition to -their ration. Infertile eggs from incubators, as well as by-products -of the dairy, can be used to help out in the animal-food portion of -the ration. Chickens may be given all the milk they will drink. It -is generally recommended that this be given clabbered. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Feeding Laying Hens. -</p> -<p> -The food requirements of a laying hen are very like those of a -growing chicken. One addition to the list is, however, required for -egg production, which is lime, of which the shell of the egg is -formed. In the summer-time hens on the range will find sufficient -lime to supply their needs. In the winter-time they should be -supplied with more lime than the food contains. Crushed oyster shell -answers the purpose admirably. -</p> -<p> -A supply of green food is one of the requisites of successful winter -feeding. Every farmer should see that a patch of rye, crimson -clover, or some other winter green crop is grown near his -chicken-house. Vegetables and refuse from the kitchen help out in -this matter, but seldom furnish a sufficient supply. Vegetables may -be grown for this purpose. Mangels and sugar-beets are excellent. -Cabbage, potatoes and turnips answer the purpose fairly well. -Mangels are fed by splitting in halves and sticking to nails driven -in the wall. -</p> -<p> -Clover and alfalfa are excellent chicken feeds and should be used in -regions where winter crops will not keep green. The leaves that -shatter off in the mow are the choicest portion for chicken feeding, -and may be fed by scalding with hot water and mixing in a mash. Hens -will eat good green alfalfa if fed dry in a box. -</p> -<p> -The feeding of sprouted oats should be practiced when no other green -food is available. Oats may be prepared for this purpose by -thoroughly soaking in warm water and being kept in a warm, damp -place for a few days. Feed when the sprouts are a couple of inches -long. -</p> -<p> -Almost all grains are suitable foods for hens. Corn, on account of -its cheapness and general distribution, is the best. The general -prejudice against corn feeding should be directed rather against -feeding one grain alone without the other forms of food. If hens are -supplied with green foods, with mineral matter, some form of meat -food, and are forced to take sufficient amount of exercise, the -danger from overfatness, due to the feeding of a reasonable amount -of corn, need not be feared. -</p> -<p> -As has already been emphasized, the variety of food given is more -essential than the kind. Do not feed one grain all the time. The -more variety fed the better. Corn and Kaffir-corn, being cheap -grains, will form the major portion of the ration, but, even if much -higher in price, it will pay to add a portion of such grain as -wheat, barley, oats or buckwheat. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Cleanliness. -</p> -<p> -The advice commonly given in poultry papers would require one to -exercise nearly as much pains in the cleaning of a chicken house as -in the cleaning of a kitchen. Such advice may be suitable for the -city poultry fanciers, but it is out of place when given to the -farmer. Poultry raising, the same as other farm work, must pay for -the labor put into it, and this will not be the case if attempt is -made to follow all the suggestions of the theoretical poultry -writer. -</p> -<p> -The ease with which the premises may be kept reasonably free from -litter and filth is largely a matter of convenient arrangement. The -handiest plan from this view-point is the colony system. In this the -houses are moved to new locations when the ground becomes soiled. If -the chicken-house is a stationary structure it should be built away -from other buildings, scrap-piles, fence corners, etc., so that the -ground can be frequently freshened by plowing and sowing in oats, -rye or rape. The ground should be well sloped, so that the water -draining from the surface may wash away much of the filth that on -level ground would accumulate. -</p> -<p> -Cleanliness indoors can be simplified by proper arrangement. First, -the house must be dry. Poultry droppings, when dry, are not a source -of danger if kept out of the feed. They should be removed often -enough to prevent foul odors. Drinking vessels should be rinsed out -when refilled and not allowed to accumulate a coat of slime. If a -mash is fed, feed-boards should be scraped off and dried in the sun. -Sunshine is a cheap and efficient disinfectant. -</p> -<p> -The advice on the control of lice and the method of handling sick -chickens that has been given in the main section of the book, will -apply as well on the farm as on the commercial poultry plant. -Certainly the farmer's time is too valuable to fool with the details -of poultry therapeutics. -</p> -<p class="subhead"> -Farm Chicken Houses. -</p> -<p> -The following notes on poultry houses apply to Iowa and Nebraska, -where the winters are severe, and similar climates. Farther south -and east the farmer should use the same style of houses as -recommended for egg farms. A chicken house just high enough for a -man to walk erectly and a floor space of about 3 square feet per hen -is advisable. This requires a house 12 by 24 for 100 hens, or 10 by -16 for 50. -</p> -<p> -Lands sloping to south or southeast, and that which dries quickly -after a rain, will prove the most suitable for chickens. A gumbo -patch should not be selected as a location for poultry. Hogs and -hens should not occupy the same quarters, in fact, should be some -distance apart, especially if heavy breeds of chickens are kept. -Hens should be removed from the garden, but may be near an orchard. -Chicken-houses should be separated from tool-houses, stables, and -other outbuildings. -</p> -<p> -Grading for chicken-houses is not commonly practiced, but this is -the easiest means of preventing dampness in the house and is -necessary in heavy soils. The ground-level may be raised with a plow -and scraper, or the foundation of the house may be built and filled -with dirt. -</p> -<p> -A stone foundation is best, but where stone is expensive may be -replaced by cedar, hemlock or Osage orange posts, deeply set in the -ground. Small houses can be built on runners as described for colony -houses for an egg farm. -</p> -<p> -Floors are commonly constructed of earth, boards or cement. Cement -floors are perfectly sanitary and easy to keep clean. The objections -to their common use is the first cost of good cement floors. Cheaply -constructed floors will not last. Board floors are very common and -are preferred by many poultrymen, but if close to the ground they -harbor rats, while if open underneath they make the house cold. -Covering wet ground by a board floor does not remedy the fault of -dampness nearly so effectually as would a similar expenditure spent -in raising the floor and surrounding ground by grading. All things -considered, the dirt floor is the most suitable. This should be made -by filling in above the outside ground-level. The drainage will be -facilitated if the first layer of this floor be of cinders, small -rocks or other coarse material. Above this layer should be placed a -layer of clay, wet and packed hard, so the hens cannot scratch it -up, or a different plan may be used and the floor constructed of a -sandy or loamy soil of which the top layer can be renewed each year. -</p> -<p> -The walls of a chicken-house must first of all be wind-tight. This -may be attained in several ways. Upright boards with cracks battened -is the cheapest method. Various kinds of lap-siding give similar -results. The single-board wall may be greatly improved by lining -with building-paper. This should be put on between the studding and -siding. Lath should also be used to prevent the paper bagging out -from the wall. The double-board wall is the best where a warm house -is desired. -</p> -<p> -It should be made by siding up outside the studding with cheap -lumber. On this is placed a layer of roofing paper and over it the -ordinary siding. The windows of a chicken-house should furnish -sufficient light that the hens may find grain in the litter on -cloudy days. Too much glass in a poultry house makes the house cold -at night, and it is a needless expenditure. -</p> -<p> -The subject of roofing farm buildings may be summarized in this -advice: Use patent roofing if you know of a variety that will last; -if not, use shingles. Shingle roofs require a steeper pitch than do -roofs of prepared roofing. A shingle roof can be made much warmer by -using tightly laid sheathing covered with building-paper. Especial -care should be taken that the joints at the eaves of the house are -tightly fitted. -</p> -<p> -The object of ventilating a chicken-house is to supply a reasonable -amount of fresh air, and, equally important, to keep the house dry. -Ventilation should not be by cracks or open cupolas. Direct drafts -of air are injurious, and ventilation by such means is always the -greatest when the least needed. -</p> -<p> -Schemes of ventilation by a system of pipes are expensive and -unnecessary. The latest, best and cheapest plan for providing -ventilation is the curtain front house for the north, and the open -front house for the more southerly sections. The curtain front house -is giving way to the open front with a somewhat smaller opening in -sections, as far north as Connecticut. -</p> -<p> -Make all roosts on the same level. The ladder arrangement is a -nuisance and offers no advantage. Arrange the roosts so that they -may be readily removed for cleaning. Do not fill the chicken-house -full of roosts. Put in only enough to accommodate the hens, and let -these be on one side of the house. The floor under the roosts should -be separated from the feeding floor by a board set on edge. -</p> -<p> -For laying flocks the nests must be clean, secluded and plentiful. -Boxes under the roost-platform will answer, but a better plan is to -have the nest upon a shelf along a side wall so arranged as to allow -the hen to enter from the rear side. Nests should be constructed so -that all parts are accessible to a white-wash brush. The less -contrivances in a chicken-house, the better. -</p> -<p> -The farmer can get along very well without any chicken-yard at all. -It will, however, prove a very convenient arrangement if a small -yard is attached to the chicken-house. The house should be arranged -to open either into the yard or out into the range. This yard may be -used for fattening chickens or confining cockerels, or perhaps to -enclose the flock during the ripening of a favorite tomato or berry -crop. -</p> -<center> -<b>THE END.</b> -</center> - - -<div style="height: 6em;"><br><br><br><br><br><br></div> - -<center> -<img src="images/hencover.jpg" alt="Cover."> -</center> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Dollar Hen, by Milo M. 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Hastings - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: The Dollar Hen - -Author: Milo M. Hastings - -Release Date: August 22, 2004 [EBook #13254] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DOLLAR HEN *** - - - - -Produced by Roger Taft, grandson of Milo Hastings, -Jim Tinsley, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team. - - - -[Transcriber's Note: This printing had more than its share of typographical -errors. Obvious typos, like "tim" for "time", have been corrected.] - - - - - - -THE DOLLAR HEN - -BY - -MILO M. HASTINGS - -FORMERLY POULTRYMAN AT -KANSAS EXPERIMENT STATION; -LATER IN CHARGE OF THE COMMERCIAL -POULTRY INVESTIGATION -OF THE UNITED STATES -DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE - -SYRACUSE - -NATIONAL POULTRY MAGAZINE - -1911 - -COPYRIGHT, 1911, - -BY - -NATIONAL POULTRY PUBLISHING COMPANY - - - - - -WHY THIS BOOK WAS WRITTEN - -Twenty-five years ago there were in print hundreds of complete -treatises on human diseases and the practice of medicine. -Notwithstanding the size of the book-shelves or the high standing of -the authorities, one might have read the entire medical library of -that day and still have remained in ignorance of the fact that -out-door life is a better cure for consumption than the contents of -a drug store. The medical professor of 1885 may have gone -prematurely to his grave because of ignorance of facts which are -to-day the property of every intelligent man. - -There are to-day on the book-shelves of agricultural colleges and -public libraries, scores of complete works on "Poultry" and hundreds -of minor writings on various phases of the industry. Let the -would-be poultryman master this entire collection of literature and -he is still in ignorance of facts and principles, a knowledge of -which in better developed industries would be considered prime -necessities for carrying on the business. - -As a concrete illustration of the above statement, I want to point -to a young man, intelligent, enterprising, industrious, and a -graduate of the best known agricultural college poultry course in -the country. This lad invested some $18,000 of his own and his -friends' money in a poultry plant. The plant was built and the -business conducted in accordance with the plans and principles of -the recognized poultry authorities. To-day the young man is bravely -facing the proposition of working on a salary in another business, -to pay back the debts of honor resulting from his attempt to apply -in practice the teaching of our agricultural colleges and our -poultry bookshelves. - -The experience just related did not prove disastrous from some -single item of ignorance or oversight; the difficulty was that the -cost of growing and marketing the product amounted to more than the -receipts from its sale. This poultry farm, like the surgeon's -operation, "was successful, but the patient died." - -The writer's belief in the reality of the situation as above -portrayed warrants him in publishing the present volume. Whether his -criticism of poultry literature is founded on fact or fancy may, -five years after the copyright date of this book, be told by any -unbiased observer. - -I have written this book for the purpose of assisting in placing the -poultry business on a sound scientific and economic basis. The book -does not pretend to be a complete encyclopedia of information -concerning poultry, but treats only of those phases of poultry -production and marketing upon which the financial success of the -business depends. - -The reader who is looking for information concerning fancy breeds, -poultry shows, patent processes, patent foods, or patent methods, -will be disappointed, for the object of this book is to help the -poultryman to make money, not to spend it. - - - - - -HOW TO READ THIS BOOK - -Unless the reader has picked up this volume out of idle curiosity, -he will be one of the following individuals: - -1. A farmer or would-be farmer, who is interested in poultry -production as a portion of the work of general farming. - -2. A poultryman or would-be poultryman, who wishes to make a -business of producing poultry or eggs for sale as a food product or -as breeding stock. - -3. A person interested in poultry as a diversion and who enjoys -losing a dollar on his chickens almost as well as earning one. - -4. A man interested in poultry in the capacity of an editor, teacher -or some one engaged as a manufacturer or dealer in merchandise the -sale of which is dependent upon the welfare of the poultry industry. - -To the reader of the fourth class I have no suggestions to make save -such as he will find in the suggestions made to others. - -To the reader of the third class I wish to say that if you are a -shoe salesman, who has spent your evenings in a Brooklyn flat, -drawing up plans for a poultry plant, I have only to apologize for -any interference that this book may cause with your highly -fascinating amusement. - -To the poultryman already in the business, or to the man who is -planning to engage in the business for reasons equivalent to those -which would justify his entering other occupations of the -semi-technical class, such as dairying, fruit growing or the -manufacture of washing machines, I wish to say it is for you that -"The Dollar Hen" is primarily written. - -This book does not assume you to be a graduate of a technical -school, but it does bring up discussions and use methods of -illustration that may be unfamiliar to many readers. That such -matter is introduced is because the subject requires it; and if it -is confusing to the student he will do better to master it than to -dodge it. Especially would I call your attention to the diagrams -used in illustrating various statistics. Such diagrams are -technically called "curves." They may at first seem mere crooked -lines, if so I suggest that you get a series of figures in which you -are interested, such as the daily egg yields of your own flock or -your monthly food bills, and "plot" a few curves of your own. After -you catch on you will be surprised at the greater ease with which -the true meaning of a series of figures can be recognized when this -graphic method is used. - -I wish to call the farmer's attention to the fact that poultry -keeping as an adjunct to general farming, especially to general -farming in the Mississippi Valley, is quite a different proposition -from poultry production as a regular business. Poultry keeping as a -part of farm life and farm enterprise is a thing well worth while in -any section of the United States, whereas poultry keeping, a -separate occupation, requires special location and special -conditions to make it profitable. I would suggest the farmer first -read Chapter XVI, which is devoted to his special conditions. Later -he may read the remainder of the book, but should again consult the -part on farm poultry production before attempting to apply the more -complicated methods to his own needs. - -Chapter XVI, while written primarily for the farmer, is, because of -the simplicity of its directions, the best general guide for the -beginner in poultry keeping wherever he may be. - -To the reader in general, I want to say, that the table of contents, -a part of the book which most people never read, is in this volume -so placed and so arranged that it cannot well be avoided. Read it -before you begin the rest of the book, and use it then and -thereafter in guiding you toward the facts that you at the time -particularly want to know. Many people in starting to read a book -find something in the first chapter which does not interest them and -cast aside the work, often missing just the information they are -seeking. The conspicuous arrangement of the contents is for the -purpose of preventing such an occurrence in this case. - - - - - - WHAT IS IN THIS VOLUME - - - CHAPTER I - - IS THERE MONEY IN THE POULTRY BUSINESS? - A Big Business; Growing Bigger - Less Ham and More Eggs - Who Gets the Hen Money? - - - CHAPTER II - - WHAT BRANCH OF THE POULTRY BUSINESS? - Various Poultry Products - The Duck Business - Squabs Have Been Overdone - Turkeys not Adapted to Commercial Growing - Guinea Growing a New Venture - Geese, the Fame of Watertown - The Ill-omened Broiler Business - South Shore Roasters - Too Much Competition in Fancy Poultry - Egg Farming the Most Certain and Profitable - - - CHAPTER III - - THE POULTRY PRODUCING COMMUNITY - Established Poultry Communities - Developing Poultry Communities - Will Co-operation Work? - Co-operative Egg Marketing in Denmark - Corporation or Co-operation - - - CHAPTER IV - - WHERE TO LOCATE - Some Poultry Geography - Chicken Climate - Suitable Soil - Marketing--Transportation - Availability of Water - A Few Statistics - - - CHAPTER V - - THE DOLLAR HEN FARM - The Plan of Housing - The Feeding System - Water Systems - Out-door Accommodations - Equipment for Chick Rearing - Twenty-five Acre Poultry Farms - Five Acre Poultry Farms - - - CHAPTER VI - - INCUBATION - Fertility of Eggs - The Wisdom of the Egyptians - Principles of Incubation - Moisture and Evaporation - Ventilation--Carbon Dioxide - Turning Eggs - Cooling Eggs - Searching for the "Open Sesame" of Incubation - The Box Type of Incubator in Actual Use - The Future of Incubation - - - CHAPTER VII - - FEEDING - Conventional Food Chemistry - How the Hen Unbalances Balanced Rations - - - CHAPTER VIII - - DISEASES - Don't Doctor Chickens - The Causes of Poultry Diseases - Chicken Cholera - Roup - Chicken-pox, Gapes, Limber-neck - Lice and Mites - - - CHAPTER IX - - POULTRY FLESH AND POULTRY FATTENING - Crate Fattening - Caponizing - - - CHAPTER X - - MARKETING POULTRY CARCASSES - Farm Grown Chickens - The Special Poultry Plant - Suggestions From Other Countries - Cold Storage of Poultry - Drawn or Undrawn Fowls - Poultry Inspection - - - CHAPTER XI - - QUALITY IN EGGS - Grading Eggs - How Eggs are Spoiled - Egg Size Table - The Loss Due to Carelessness - Requisites of Producing High Grade Eggs - - - CHAPTER XII - - HOW EGGS ARE MARKETED - The Country Merchant - The Huckster - The Produce Buyer - The City Distribution of Eggs - Cold Storage of Eggs - Preserving Eggs Out of Cold Storage - Improved Methods of Marketing Farm-Grown Eggs - The High Grade Egg Business - Buying Eggs by Weight - The Retailing of Eggs by the Producer - The Price of Eggs - N.Y. Mercantile Exchange, Official Quotations - - - CHAPTER XIII - - BREEDS OF CHICKENS - Breed Tests - The Hen's Ancestors - What Breed? - - - CHAPTER XIV - - PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC BREEDING - Breeding as an Art - Scientific Theories of Breeding - Breeding for Egg Production - - - CHAPTER XV - - EXPERIMENT STATION WORK - The Stations Leading in Poultry Work - The Story of the "Big Coon" - Important Experimental Results at the Illinois Station - Experimental Bias - The Egg Breeding Work at the Maine Station - - - CHAPTER XVI - - POULTRY ON THE GENERAL FARM - Best Breeds for the Farm - Keep Only Workers - Hatching Chicks with Hens - Incubators on the Farm - Rearing Chicks - Feeding Laying Hens - Cleanliness - Farm Chicken Houses - - - -THE DOLLAR HEN - - - - -CHAPTER I - -IS THERE MONEY IN THE POULTRY BUSINESS? - - -The chicken business is big. No one knows how big it is and no one -can find out. The reason it is hard to find out is because so many -people are engaged in it and because the chicken crop is sold, not -once a year, but a hundred times a year. - -Statistics are guesses. True statistics are the sum of little -guesses, but often figures published as statistics are big guesses -by a guesser who is big enough to have his guess accepted. - - -A Big Business; Growing Bigger - -The only real statistics for the poultry crop of the United States -are those of the Federal Census. At this writing these statistics -are nine years old and somewhat out of date. The value of poultry -and eggs in 1899, according to the census figures, was $291,000,000. -Is this too big or too little? I don't know. If the reader wishes to -know let him imagine the census enumerator asking a farmer the value -of the poultry and eggs which he has produced the previous year. -Would the farmer's guess be too big or too small? - -From these census figures as a base, estimates have been made for -later years. The Secretary of Agriculture, or, speaking more -accurately, a clerk in the Statistical Bureau of the Department of -Agriculture, says the poultry and egg crop for 1907 was over -$600,000,000. - -The best two sources of information known to the writer by which -this estimate may be checked are the receipts of the New York market -and the annual "Value of Poultry and Eggs Sold," as given by the -Kansas State Board of Agriculture. - -[Illustration: Plate I. Page 14. Graph - Is There Money in Poultry?] - -In plate I the top curve a-a gives the average spring price of -Western first eggs in the New York market. The curve b-b gives the -annual receipts of eggs at New York in millions of cases. Now, since -value equals quantity multiplied by price, and since the quantity -and values of poultry are closely correlated to those of eggs, the -product of these two figures is a fair means of showing the rate of -increase in the value of the poultry crop. Starting with the census -value of $291,000,000 for the year 1899, we thus find that by 1907 -the amount is very close to $700,000,000. This is represented by the -lower line. - -The value of the poultry and eggs sold in Kansas have increased as -follows: - - - Year Value - - 1903 $ 6,498,856 - 1904 7,551,871 - 1905 8,541,153 - 1906 9,085,896 - 1907 10,300,082 - - -The dotted line e-e represents the increase in the national poultry -and egg crop estimated from the Kansas figures. Evidently the -estimate given in Secretary Wilson's report was not excessive. - -Now, I want to call the reader's attention to some relations about -which there can be no doubt and which are even more significant. The -straight line c-c in Plate 1 represents the rate of increase of -population in this country. The line b-b represents the rate of -increase in egg receipts at New York. As the country data backs up -the New York figures, the conclusion is inevitable that the -production of poultry and eggs is increasing much more rapidly than -is our population. - -"Over-production," I hear the pessimist cry, but unfortunately for -Friend Pessimist, we have a gauge on the over-production idea that -lays all fears to rest. When the supply of any commodity increases -faster than the demand, we have over-production and falling prices. -Vice-versa, under-production is shown by a rising price. That prices -of poultry and eggs have risen and risen rapidly, has already been -shown. - -"But prices of all products have risen," says one. Very true, but by -statistics with which I will not burden the reader, I find that -prices of poultry products have risen more rapidly than the average -rise in values of all commodities. This shows that poultry products -are really more in demand and more valuable, not apparently so. -Moreover, the rise in the price of poultry products has been much -more pronounced than the average rise in the price of all food -products, which proves the growing demand for poultry and eggs to be -a real growing demand, not a turning to poultry products because of -the high price of other foods, as is sometimes stated. - - -Less Ham and More Eggs. - -Certainly we, as a nation, are rapidly becoming eaters of hens and -of hen fruit. Reasons are not hard to find. Poultry and eggs are the -most palatable, most wholesome, most convenient of foods. Our -demands for the products of the poultry yard grows because we are -learning to like them, and because our prosperity has grown and we -can afford them. - -Another reason that the consumption of eggs is growing is because -the condition in which they reach the consumer is improving. The -writer may say some pretty hard things in this work about the -condition of poultry and eggs as they are now marketed, but any -old-timer in the business will tell you stories of things as they -used to be that will easily explain why our fathers ate more ham and -less eggs. - -Yet another reason why the per capita consumption of hens as -measured in pounds or dollars increases, is that the hen herself has -increased in size; whereas John when he was Johnnie ate a two-ounce -drumstick, now Johnnie eats an analogous piece that weighs three -ounces. Perhaps, also, we have a growing respect for the law of -Moses, or may be vegetarians who think that eggs grow on egg plants -are becoming more numerous. - -Our consumption of pork per capita has, in the last half century, -diminished by half, our consumption of beef has remained stationary, -but our consumption of poultry and eggs has doubled itself, we know -not how many times, for a half century ago the ancestor of the -industrious hen of this age serenely scratched up grandmother's -geraniums and was unmolested by the statisticians. - - -Who Gets the Hen Money? - -Seven hundred millions of dollars is a lot of money. Who gets it? -There are no Rockefellers or Armours in the hen business. It is the -people's business. Why? Because the nature of the business is such -that it cannot be centralized. Land and intelligent labor, prompted -by the spirit of ownership, is necessary to succeed in the hen -business. Land the captains of industry have not monopolized, and -labor imbued with the spirit of ownership they cannot monopolize. -The chicken business is, in dollars, one of the biggest industries -in the country. In numbers of those engaged in it, the chicken -business is the biggest industry in the world--I bar none. Why is -this true? Primarily because the hen is a natural part of the -equipment of every farm and of many village homes as well. It is -these millions of small flocks that count up in dollars and men and -give such an immense aggregate. - -More than ninety-eight per cent. of the poultry and eggs of the -country are produced on the general farm. The remaining one or two -per cent. are produced on farms or plants where chicken culture is -the cash crop or chief business of the farmer. It is this business, -relatively small, though actually a matter of millions, that is -commonly spoken of as the poultry business, and about which our -chief interest centers. A farmer can disregard all knowledge and all -progress and still keep chickens, but the man who has no other means -of a livelihood must produce chicken products efficiently, or fail -altogether--hence the greater interest in this portion of the -industry. - -The poultry business as a business to occupy a man's time and earn -him a livelihood, is a thing of recent origin and was little heard -of before 1890. Since that time it has undergone a somewhat painful, -though steady growth. Many people have lost money in the business -and have given it up in disgust, but on a whole the business has -progressed wonderfully, and now shows features of development that -are clearly beyond the experimental stage and are undoubtedly here -to stay. - -The suggestion has been made by those who have failed or have seen -others fail in the poultry business, that success was impossible -because of the destructive competition of the farmer, whose expense -of production is small. Herein lies a great truth and a great error. -The farmer's cost of production is small, much smaller than that on -most of the book-made poultry farms--but the inference that the -poultryman's cost of production cannot be lowered below that of the -farmer is a different statement. - -The farm of our grandfather was a very diversified institution. It -contained in miniature a woolen mill, a packing house, a cheese -factory, perhaps a shoe factory and a blacksmith shop. One by one -these industries have been withdrawn from general farm-life, and -established as independent businesses. Likewise our dairy farms, our -fruit farms, and our market gardens have been segregated from the -general farm. This simply means that manufacturing cloth, or cheese, -or producing milk, or tomatoes can be done at less cost in separate -establishments than upon a general farm. - -The general farm will always grow poultry for home consumption, and -will always have some surplus to sell. With the surplus, the -poultryman must compete. His only hope of successful competition is -production at lower cost. Can this be done? It is being done, and -the numbers of people who are doing it are increasing, but they -spend little money at poultry shows, or with the advertisers of -poultry papers, and hence are little heard of in the poultry world. - -The people whose names and faces are in the poultry papers are -frequently there only while their money lasts. They write long -articles and show pictures of many houses and yards to prove that -there is money in the poultry business, but if one should keep their -names and put the question to them five years hence, a great many -could say, "Yes, there is money in the poultry business; mine is in -it." - -Such people and such plants do not get the cost of production down -below the farmer's level. Between these two classes of poultry -plants, the writer hopes in this work to show the distinction. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -WHAT BRANCH OF THE POULTRY BUSINESS? - - -The chicken business is especially prone to failure from a disregard -of the common essential relation of cost and selling price necessary -to the success of any business. That this should be more true of the -poultry business than of any other undertakings is to be explained -by the facts that as a business, it is new, that many of those who -engage in it are inexperienced, but most particularly because -practically all the literature published on the subject has been -written by or written in the interest of those who had something to -sell to the poultryman. As a result the figures of production are -generally given higher than the facts warrant. The investor, be he -ever so shrewd a man, builds upon these promises and when he finds -his production lower, is caught with an excessive investment and a -complicated system on his hands, which make all profits impossible -and which cannot readily be adapted to the new conditions. - -Estimates of poultry profits are quite common, but there are few -published figures showing the results that are actually obtained -under practical working conditions. In this volume I will try to -give the facts of what is being and can be actually accomplished. - - -Various Poultry Products. - -In considering the poultry industry we must first get some idea of -the various articles produced for sale. - -It is common knowledge that the large meat packer can undersell the -small packer because the by-products, such as bristles, which are -wasted by the local killer, are a source of income to the large -packer. Now, this does not infer that the small packer is shiftless -and neglects to save his bristles, but that on the scale on which he -operates it would cost him more to save the bristles than he could -realize on them. - -So it is with poultry farming. For illustration: A visionary writer -in a leading poultry paper, not long ago, advised poultrymen to -store eggs. In reality this would be the height of folly, unless the -poultryman had his own retail store. In the first place profit on -cold storage eggs, when all expenses are paid, will not average a -half a cent a dozen; in the second place, the small lot would be -relatively troublesome and expensive to handle, and in the third -place, small lots of cold storage eggs are looked upon with -suspicion and do not find ready sale. So we see that cold storage -eggs are not a suitable product for the small poultryman to handle. - -A second illustration of an ill-chosen combination might be taken in -the case of a duck farmer who attempts to produce broilers. The -principal difficulty of the duck business is that of getting -sufficient intelligent labor in the rush season. The chief expense -of investment is for incubators and brooder houses. If the duck -farmer now tries to add broilers, he will find that the labor comes -at the same time of the year, that the chief equipment required is -that which is already crowded by the duck business, and that of the -men who have succeeded moderately well in caring for ducks will fail -altogether with the young chicks, which do not thrive under the same -machine-like methods. - -On the other hand, let us take the example of an egg farm man who -has resolved to combine his attention wholly to the production of -market eggs. He succeeds well in his work and is visited by the -poultry editors. His picture, the picture of his chickens and of his -chicken houses, are printed in the poultry papers. For a reasonable -sum invested in advertising and in exhibition at the shows, this man -could now double his income by going into the breeding stock -business. To refuse to spread out in this case would certainly be -foolish. - -The following classification of the sales products of the poultry -industry is given as a basis for farther consideration. - - - CHICKENS. - -For food purposes: - - Eggs. - Hens, after laying has been finished. - Cockerels, necessarily hatched in hatching pullets for layers. - (Sold as squab broilers, regular broilers, springs, - roasters or capons.) - Both sexes as squab broilers, broilers or roasters. - -For stock purposes: - Eggs for hatching. - Day-old chicks. - Mature fowls. - - - DUCKS. - -For table--green or spring ducks. - By-products, old ducks and duck feathers. - -For breeding-stock. - - - GEESE. - - Food, Feathers, Breeders. - - - TURKEYS. - - Food, Breeders. - - - PIGEONS. - - Squabs, Breeding Stock. - - - GUINEAS. - - Broilers, Mature Fowls. - - -I will now discuss these products more in detail. Poultry, other -than chickens, I do not care to discuss at length, because it is not -for the purpose of the book, and because the demand for other kinds -of poultry is limited and the chance for the growth of the business -small. - - -The Duck Business. - -The duck business is the most highly commercialized at the present -time of any branch of the poultry business. The duck is the oldest -domestic bird and was hatched by artificial incubation in China, -when our ancestors were gnawing raw bones in the caves of Europe. -The duck is the most domestic of birds and will thrive under more -machine-like methods and without that touch of nature and of the -owner's kindly interest so necessary to the welfare of the fowls of -the gallinaceous order. The green duck business is about twenty -years old and has become an established business in every sense of -the word. The largest plants now produce about one hundred thousand -ducks per annum. The profits at present are not large even for the -most successful plants, because the demand is limited and the -production has reached such a point that cost of production and -selling price bear a definite relation as in all established -businesses. The green duck business is not an easy one for the -novice because the margin between cost (chiefly food cost) and -selling price is low, and unless the new man can reduce the cost of -production or raise his selling price in some way, he will have no -advantage over the old and successful firms. - - -Squab Business Overdone. - -The business of producing pigeon squabs resembles the duck business -in the sense that it has been reduced to a successful system. The -production of squabs has grown until the demand is satisfied and the -price has fallen to just that figure that will continue to bring in -a sufficient number of squabs from the plants which are already -established, or which continue to be established by those who do not -stop to investigate the relation between the cost of production and -the prevailing prices. - - -Turkeys Not a Commercial Success. - -In the case of turkeys, we find exactly opposite conditions. The -price of turkeys has risen with the price of chickens and eggs, -until one would think that there would be great money in the -business, and there is, for the motherly farm wife who has the knack -of bringing the little turks through the danger of delicate -babyhood. But just as the duck is more domesticated than the -chicken, so the turkey, which yet closely resembles its wild -ancestor, is less domestic and has as yet failed to surrender to the -ways of commercial reasoning, the chief factor of which is -artificial brooding. - -The presence of a disease called blackhead has done vast injury to -the turkey industry in the northeastern section of the country. In -the South the industry has been booming. Especially in Tennessee and -Texas, I found great local pride in the turkey crop. I certainly -would advise any farm wife, in sections where blackhead does not -prevail, to try her hand at turkey raising. As to her advisability -of continuance in the business, the number of turkeys at the end of -the season will be the best judge. - - -Guinea Growing a New Venture. - -The guinea growing business is the newest of the poultry industries. -In fact, it may be said of guineas, as of our grandmother's -tomatoes, "Folks had them around without knowing they were of any -use." The new use for guineas is as a substitute for game. Guinea -broilers make quail-on-toast and older ones are good for grouse, -prairie chicken or pheasant. The retail price in the large cities -runs as high as $1.50 to $2.00 a pair. It will probably not pay to -raise them unless one is sure of receiving as much as 50 cents each. -As for the rearing of guineas, they may be considered on a parallel -case with turkeys, if anything they are even more difficult to raise -in large quantities. I would also advise this additional precaution: -Look up the market in the locality before attempting guinea rearing. - - -Geese--the Fame of Watertown. - -As for the goose business, the writer must admit that he doesn't -know much about it. In fact, the most of my knowledge concerning -this business was acquired by a visit to Watertown, Wis., which is -the center of the noodled goose industry - -The Watertown geese are fed by hand every two hours day and night. -They sell to the Hebrew trade at as much per pound as the goose -weighs, and have brought as high as $14.00 apiece. All of this is -interesting, but I hold that the reader who is willing to take -instruction will do better to be guided toward those branches of the -poultry industry for the products of which there is a great and -increasing demand. So we will leave the goose and guinea business to -the venturesome spirits and consider the various branches of the -chicken industry. - - -The Ill-omened Broiler Business. - -The broiler business stands to-day as the ill-omened valley in the -poultry landscape. As a rule broiler production has not and probably -will not pay. I know of a few exceptions--about enough to prove the -rule. - -Most poultry writers, when they make the statement that broilers do -not pay, insert the phrase "As an exclusive business" after the word -broilers. This is merely a ruse to take the rough edge off an -unpleasant statement, for it certainly hurts the poultry editor to -admit that a much exploited branch of the industry is a failure. -Nevertheless it is a failure and the more frankly we admit the fact, -the less good capital and good brains will be wasted in the attempt -to produce at a profit something which is, and probably always will -be, produced at a loss. - -The reason the broiler is produced at a loss is that 95 per cent. of -the broilers produced are a by-product of egg, fancy and general -poultry production, and as such their selling price is not -determined by the cost of production, or the supply determined by -the demand. That the broiler business received the boom that it did, -is due to plain ignorance of the cost of production, or to the -appreciation that the ability to rear young chicks could find a more -profitable outlet than in broiler production. Let us take an -analogous case. Suppose a city man should discover the fact that -there was a demand for dried casein from skim milk. With pencil and -paper he could easily figure profits in the business. If this -dreamer would attempt to keep cows for the production of casein and -throw away his butter fat, we would have an analogous case to the -broiler raiser who does not keep his pullets for egg production. - -The young cockerel, like skim milk, is a by-product and may pay over -the cost of feeding, or some other specific item, but that he does -not pay the whole cost, including wages for the manager is proven by -two facts: First, every large broiler plant yet started has either -failed flatly or shifted its main line to other things; second, egg -farmers would be only too glad to buy pullets at the price for which -they sell the cockerels--a confession that it costs more to produce -broilers than they will bring. - -The conception of the broiler business when it was boomed twenty -years ago was to produce broilers in early spring, when other folks -had none. It was, like the early watermelon, or the early strawberry -business--to make its profits in extreme prices. - -This idea received several severe blows from the hands of modern -progress. One is the development of poultry fattening and crate -feeding in this country. This has resulted in supplying the consumer -with choice chicken-flesh that can be produced more economically -than broilers. Formerly it was a case of eating old hen--rooster, -age unknown, or broilers--now we have capon, roaster, crate-fattened -chickens and green ducks, all rivals for the place formerly occupied -exclusively by the broiler. - -Again, the improvement of shipping and dressing facilities, the -universal introduction of the refrigerator car and the introduction -into the central west of the American breeds, has flooded the -eastern market with a large amount of spring chickens--by-products -of the egg business on the farm--which are almost equal in quality -to the down-eastern product. - -The most prominent reason of the lessened profit in broilers is the -development of the cold storage industry. Cold storage destroys the -element of season, and allows only that margin of profit that the -consumer is willing to pay for a fresh killed broiler from a Jersey -broiler plant, as compared with last summer's product from the Iowa -farms. From a summer copy of Farm Poultry, I quote the Boston -market: - - Fresh killed Northern and Eastern: - Fowls, choice 15c - Broilers, choice to fancy 23-25c - Western, ice packed: - Fowls, choice 14c - Broilers, choice 20-22c - - Western frozen: - Fowls, choice................. 14c - Broilers, choice..............18-20c - Eggs: - Nearly fancy.................. 26c - Western choice........17-1/2-18-1/2c - -To complete our comparison I turn to the previous winter and find -that the best storage eggs are quoted at 19c, when the best fresh -are selling at 35c. This was a poor storage season and a quotation -of 22c and 25c would perhaps be a fairer comparative figure. We find -the per cent, of premium on the local product to be: - - Fowls, local over fresh western........... 7 per cent. - Fowls, local over frozen western.......... 7 per cent. - Broilers, local over fresh western........14 per cent. - Broilers, local over frozen western.......26 per cent. - Eggs, local over fresh western............30 per cent. - Eggs, local over storage western..........37 per cent. - -I consider these general facts concerning the failure of broiler -production, and the logical explanations given, as far more -convincing than any figures I could give concerning the detailed -cost of production. Nor am I capable of giving as accurate figures -as I can in the case of poultry keeping for egg production, for I -have had neither the desire nor the opportunity to look them up. The -following suggestive analysis I submit for the purpose of pointing -out why the cost of production is too great to allow a profit. We -may consider the chick marketing as May, the weight as 1-1/4, and -the price as 35 cents a pound, or, putting it roundly a price of 50 -cents a bird. - -Now, May broilers mean February eggs. If the reader will refer to -the tables of hatchability and mortality he will see that for our -northern states this is one of the worst seasons for hatching. A -hatchability of 40 per cent, times a liveability of 50 per cent, -gives a net liveability of 20 per cent. Now, anyone with the ability -to produce high grade eggs at that time a year, could get about 40c -a dozen for them, which raises the egg cost per broiler to about 17 -cents. The feed cost per broiler is small, usually estimated at 12 -cents, and this makes a cost of 29 cents. Now, let us allow a cent -for expense of selling charges and forget all about investment, fuel -and incidentals, we have left a margin of 20 cents. - -Before going farther let us look at the labor bill. Suppose it is a -one-man plant. Suppose the owner sets a value on his services of -$1,200 per annum. That is pretty good, but few men who set a lower -value on their services will have accumulated enough capital to go -into the business. At 20 cents each it will take 6,000 broilers to -make $1,200. That will take 30,000 eggs and at three settings will -require 40 240-egg incubators, which, of a good make, will cost -$1,260. To spread the hatching out over a longer period is to run -into cheap prices on the one hand, or a still impossible egg season -on the other. It will take upwards of a hundred brooders to house -the chicks. - -There is no use of going farther till we have solved these -difficulties. First we have more work than one man can do; second, -we require a number of hatchable eggs that cannot be bought in -winter without a campaign of advertising and canvassing for them, -that would make them cost double our previous figure. To produce -them oneself would require a flock of 2,500 hens. When a man gets to -that point in the business he is out of the broiler business and an -egg farmer, and will do the same thing, hatch the chicks when eggs -are cheap and fertile, selling his surplus cockerels for 25 cents -each and permit the storage man to freeze them until the following -spring to compete with the broiler man's expensively produced goods. - -The effort at early broiler production was a natural result of the -combination of the idea of artificial incubation with our -grandmother's pride in having the first setting hen. But in the -present age the man who attempts it is rowing against the current of -economical production, for the cheaply produced broiler can be -stored until the season of scarcity, with but slight loss in -quality. To produce broilers in the season of scarcity, necessitates -the consumption of a product (eggs) which cannot be so successfully -stored, with a lesser quantity of that same product in its season of -plenty. We will give the production of broilers no further attention -save as a by-product of egg production. - - -South Shore Roaster. - -The production of South Shore soft roasters in a local section of -Massachusetts, offers a successful contrast with the broiler -business and is, so far as the writer knows, the only case in the -United States where pullets are profitably diverted from egg -production. The process of roaster production is essentially as -follows: - -The incubators are set in the fall or early winter, and the chicks -reared in brooder houses. As soon as the tender age is past, the -chickens are put in simple colony houses where, with hopper fed -corn, beef scrap and rye on the range, they grow throughout the -winter and spring. They are sold from May 1st to July 1st and bring -such prices that the cockerels are caponized yet not sold as capons, -showing them to be the highest priced chicken flesh in the market -save small broilers. Now, the income of roasters is two to five -times as much per head as that of broilers. The added expense is -only a matter of feed, which bears about the same ratio to weight as -with broilers. The great advantage of the roaster business over that -of the broiler business comes in the following points: - -1st: The initial expense of eggs, incubation and brooding are -distributed over a much larger final valuation. - -2nd: The incubation period, while perhaps in as difficult a -season, can be distributed over a longer period of time. - -With 8 pound roasters at 30 cents, we have an expense account about -as follows: cost of production to broiler stage, 30 cents as -previously given. An additional food cost of 10 cents per pound of -chicken flesh would still leave a margin of $1.40, so, for an income -of $1,200, only about 860 birds need be raised, a proposition not -beyond the capacity of one man to handle. - -Allowing a spread of five hatching periods, the number of eggs -required at once would be one-twelfth that demanded by the broiler -farm. As it is, the roaster grower finds trouble in getting good -eggs and is obliged to pay 50 cents a dozen for them, but his want -is within the region of possibility. - -The South Shore roaster district is an example of an industry built -up by specialization and co-operation. But in this sense I do not -mean co-operation in production, but that the product is handled by -a few dealers and has become well known so that the brand sells -readily at an advanced price. To a beginner in the South Shore -district, the numerous successes and failures around him cannot help -but be of great benefit. The South Shore roaster district of -Massachusetts is the best example of specialized community -production of poultry flesh that we have in the United States. It is -only rivaled by the districts in the south of England and in France. - -In Chapter III the writer takes up fully the community production of -eggs. The reason I have gone into this matter in regard to eggs -rather than roasters, is because the egg production is much the -greater industry, and, whereas the soft roaster is at a premium only -in a few Boston shops, high grade eggs are universally recognized -and in demand. Many of the economies, especially concerning -incubation, would apply equally well in both communities. I expect -to see the time when chicken flesh shall be produced with these more -advanced methods in many "South Shore" communities. - - -Too Much Competition in Fancy Poultry. - -The various types of chicken farming are classified by what is made -the leading sales product. This will depend wholly upon what is done -with the female chicks that are hatched. If they are sold as -broilers it is a broiler plant; if as roasters, it is a roaster -plant; if as stock, it is a fancy or breeding stock business, but if -kept for laying the proposition is an egg farm, and all other -products are by-products. These by-products are to be carefully -considered, and sold at the greatest possible price, but their -production is incidental to the production of the main crop. - -Of the fancy poultry business as a main issue it must be said that -it is certainly a poor policy to start out to make a living doing -what hundreds of other people are only too glad to spend money in -doing. Just as a homeless girl in a great city is beaten out in the -struggle for existence by competition with girls who have good -homes, and are working for chocolate money, so the man starting out -as a poultry fancier is certainly working at great odds in -competition with the professional men, farmers and poultry raisers -whose income from fancy stock is meant to buy Christmas presents and -not to pay grocery bills. - -To enter the fancy poultry business, one should take up poultry -breeding in a small way, while working at another occupation, or he -may take up commercial poultry production, learn to produce stock in -large quantities and at a low productive cost, after which any -breeding stock business he may secure will be added profit. The -fancier will find the cost of production as given for commercial -purposes very instructive, but if he operates in a small way he -should expect to find his productive costs increased unless he -chooses to count his own labor as of little or no value. That every -chicken fancier also has in a small way commercial products to sell, -goes without saying. These, indeed, together with his sales of -high-priced stock, may pull him through with a total profit, even -though his production cost is great, but every fancier should take a -pride in making the sales at commercial rates pay for their cost of -production. - -If the reader has received the impression from the present -discussion that fancy poultry breeding always proves unprofitable, -he certainly has failed to get the key-note of the situation. There -are numbers of fancy poultry breeders making incomes of several -thousand dollars per year, but these are old breeders and well-known -men. - -There is another type of poultry fancier who is more commercial in -his methods, but whose work lacks the personal enthusiasm and -artistic touch of the regular fancier. I refer to the band wagon -style of breeder who gets out a general catalog in which are -pictured acres of poultry yards with fences as straight as the -draughtsman's rule can make them. Such men do a big business. They -may carry a part or all of the breeding stock on a central poultry -plant and farm out the eggs, contracting to buy back the stock in -the fall, or the poultry farm may be a myth and the manager may -simply sell the product of the neighboring farmers who raise it -under contract. - -The system is naturally disliked by the higher class fanciers, but -the writer must confess that any system which gets improved stock -distributed among the farmers is worthy of praise. These types of -poultry farms have been more largely carried on in the West than in -the East, owing to the fact that true fanciers are thicker in the -East. There is undoubtedly still plenty of room for band wagon -poultry plants in the West and especially in the South. - -As adjuncts of this business may be mentioned the sale of a line of -poultry supplies and the handling of other pet stock, such as dogs -or Shetland ponies. In this case the advantage of such additions -depends upon the fact that the greatest cost is that of advertising, -and, if anything that will be associated in the buyer's mind with -the main article be added to the catalog, it will result in -additional sales at a low rate of advertising cost. - - -Egg Farming the Most Certain and Profitable. - -We have now discussed all the branches of the poultry business save -that of egg production, and the result of our review indicates that -most of these fields are either of limited opportunities or that -they present obstacles in the very nature of the work that prevent -their being conducted on a large scale. - -Egg production is undoubtedly the most promising and profitable -branch of the poultry industries. The chief reason that this is true -is to be found in the fact that the most difficult feature in -chicken growing is the rearing of young stock through the brooding -period. Now, as the eggs laid by a hen are worth several times the -value of her carcass, it stands to reason that once we succeed in -rearing pullets, egg farming must be the most profitable business to -engage in. - -For each hen that passes through a laying period there is her own -carcass, and at least one cockerel, that are necessarily produced -and that must be marketed. Now, the pullet is worth more for egg -producing than can be realized for her as a broiler or roaster, and -her extra worth may be considered as counter-balancing the price at -which cockerels must be sold. - -The egg crop represents about two-thirds of the value of all poultry -products, and the demand for the high grade goods has never been -satisfied. Egg farming cannot easily be overdone, whereas any other -type of poultry production must compete with the cockerels and hens -that are a by-product of egg farming. - -Egg farming by no means relieves one from the difficulties of -incubation and growing young stock, but it does throw these -difficult parts of the business at the natural season of the year -and results in a distribution of work throughout a longer period of -time. - -In the remainder of the volume we will consider the poultryman as an -egg farmer. We will also, unless otherwise stated, assume that he is -a White Leghorn egg farmer, who is hatching by artificial -incubation. Such reference to the marketing of poultry flesh or to -other breeds will be made only in comparison of this type of the -business or in relation to the production or handling of farm-grown -poultry. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -THE POULTRY PRODUCING COMMUNITY - - -The builder of air castles in Poultrydom invariably starts out with -a resumé of the specialization of the world's work and the wonderful -advances in the economy of production of the large corporate -organization, compared with the individual producer. - -The lone blacksmith hammering out a horseshoe nail is contrasted -with the mills of the American Steel Company. The fond dreamer looks -upon the steel trust, the oil trust, the department store, the -packing house, the chain groceries, the theatrical trust, and the -colossal enterprises that dominate every field of industry save -agriculture. Here, then, lies the neglected opportunity for the -industrial dreamer to hop over the fence, awaken the sleeping -farmer, and fill his own purse with the wealth to be made by -applying modern business methods to agriculture. - -The knowing smile--the farmer may be asleep and he may not be. -Suppose that he is, does the fond dreamer dream that he is the first -man from the industrial kingdom of great things to look with hungry -eyes at the rich field of agricultural opportunity, basking in last -century's sun? Alas, fond dreamer, your name is legion. Every farmer -who has sent a son to college has known you and the Hon. William -Jennings Bryan has met you, called you an agriculturist and defined -you as a man who makes his money in town and spends it in the -country. - -But the dreamer is right in his first premise--great economies in -production are the result of specialization and combination. Why not -then in agriculture? I'll tell you why. There is a touch of nature -in the living thing that calls for a closer interest on the part of -the laborer than the industrial system of the mine and factory can -give. - -Why is combined and specialized production more economical? It may -be because it gets more efficient work out of labor, it may be that -larger operations make feasible the employment of more efficient -methods and machinery. The cost of production may be lowered, by -either or both of these means, or it may be lowered by an increased -efficiency in machinery, even with a decreased efficiency in labor. - -Combination and specialization so commonly cut down expenses because -of large operations and the use of better tools, that we may take -this saving for granted. When it comes to labor there is a different -story. The negro working with boss and gang, or the machine-tender -in the factory work as well or better for large than for small -concerns, but the labor of a poultry plant is different. It is made -up of a great many different operations well scattered in space and -time. For the most part it is simple labor, but it is essential that -it be performed with reasonable concern for the welfare of the -business. - -In other industries, as with men working at a bench, the presence of -a foreman keeps them busy and their work may be daily inspected. To -have foremen in poultry work would require as many foremen as -laborers, and even then they would be as useless, for when the last -round of the brooders is made at night a foreman standing three feet -away could not know whether the laborer who had placed his hand in -the brooder had found all well or all wrong. - -It is useless to carry the argument farther. The labor bill is one -of the biggest items of expense in poultry production. With a system -where the efficiency of the labor decreases with the size of the -business, large industrial enterprises are impossible. Such savings -as will be made in buying supplies, selling, etc., will be wasted in -the reduced efficiency of labor. - -The bulk of labor in poultry work must be self-reliant labor and the -only test for such efficiency is number of chicks reared and the -weight of the egg basket. Even this will not be a complete test -unless from the income be subtracted the feed bills. - -A system of renting or working on shares that will gain the -advantages of centralization without losing the individual interest -of the laborer, will go a long way toward making the poultry -business one wherein large capital and large brains can find a place -to work. I expect to see in the future some such system evolved. In -fact we have to-day a profit-sharing plan between owner and foreman -on many of our best plants. To extend such to each laborer requires -more system and better superintendence, but it is feasible and must -come. But, better still is it for the worker to own the stock. Best -yet if he owns both stock and land, leaving to larger capital only -such phases of the business as involve great saving when done on a -wholesale basis. - -Just as the manufacturer of farm machinery, the packing of meat and -the manufacture of butter have successfully been taken out of the -control of the individual farmer and placed under corporate or -co-operative organization, so the writer expects to see certain -portions of the process of poultry production removed from the hands -of the farmer and controlled by more specialized and expert labor. -Far from meaning the lessening of the earning power of the farmer, -every one of such steps means larger production and more profits. -The ideal of agricultural economics is to give the farmer the -smallest possible proportion of the work of agricultural production -in order that the most may be produced and the farmer's share along -with the others may be largest. - - -Established Poultry Communities. - -In a previous chapter we spoke of the South Shore roaster district -of Massachusetts. Here is a community where, in lots of from a dozen -to four or five thousand, are annually produced seventy-five or one -hundred thousand market fowls of one particular type. While this -business was not built up by the efforts of a corporation or -individual who planned definitely the entire project, yet we find a -central influence at work in the person of the firm of Curtis Bros., -who for years have bought the majority of South Shore roasters, and -who have done a great deal to advertise the product and encourage -their neighbors to a larger and more uniform production. - -At Little Compton, R. I., is a very similar parallel of the South -Shore district in the shape of egg farms. Here we find within a -radius of two miles about one hundred thousand Rhode Island Red hens -owned in flocks of two thousand or less. The methods used throughout -the community are all alike and are simple in the extreme. There are -no incubators, no brooders, no poultry houses, no long houses, no -dropping boards to be scraped every morning, nothing in fact, but -board-walled, board-roofed, colony houses, scattered over the grass -fields and similar though smaller fields covered with coops for hens -and chicks. Feeding is equally simple; a mash of meat, vegetables -and ground grain mixed once a day and hauled around in a one-horse -cart and hoppers of whole corn exposed in the houses. The houses are -cleaned twice a year. Little Compton is, indeed, a community where -all the rules of the poultry books are regularly violated, and yet a -larger number of successful egg farms can be seen from the church -spire at Little Compton Corners than most poultry writers have ever -seen or read about. Strange it is, as Josh Billings puts it, that -"some folks know things that ain't so." - -An illustration published in a recent issue of the World's Work -tells a remarkable story. A pile of egg shells as big as a straw -stack certainly indicates "something doing" in the chicken business, -and it is a very proud monument to Mr. Byce who, some twenty odd -years ago, established an incubator factory at the town of Petaluma. -Petaluma is in Sonoma County, California, forty miles north of San -Francisco. In the census year of 1899, Sonoma County produced more -eggs than any other county in the United States. To-day there are in -the Petaluma region close to one million hens. - -Like the Little Compton district, Petaluma is a one-breed community, -White Leghorns being the breed used. The individual flocks range -larger than at Little Compton, chiefly because the milder climate, -smaller breed, and establishment of the central hatchery enables one -man to take care of more birds. - -When I asked Mr. Byce for a list of the people in his neighborhood -keeping over one thousand hens, he replied by sending me a list of -twenty-two men who keep from 8,000 down to 2,500 each, and said that -to give those keeping from one to two thousand, would practically be -to take a census of the county. The methods of housing and feeding -used are simple and inexpensive like those at Little Compton. - -The chief reason why Petaluma shows a more advanced development in -the poultry community than the eastern poultry growing localities, -is to be found in the climatic advantages which favor incubation -(see Chapter on Incubation) and the consequent development of the -central hatchery. Outside of this, the location is not especially -favorable. The temperature is milder in the winter than in the East, -but the Petaluma winter is one of continual rain which develops roup -to a greater extent than we have it in the East. The prices received -for high grade eggs in San Francisco is in the winter about equal to -the top prices in New York. In the spring and summer New York will -give more for fancy goods. The cost of corn on the Pacific Coast is -about 40 cents a hundred more than on the Atlantic Coast. Wheat, -however, is cheaper than in the East, but not cheap enough to -substitute for the more staple grain. - -The eggs from the Petaluma region are at present marketed largely -through a co-operative marketing association. - - -Developing Poultry Communities. - -I have shown why the large individual poultry farms with hired labor -have not proven profitable fields for the investment of capital. -Again, I have shown that in a few localities where the business was -incidentally started, communities of independent poultry farmers -have grown up which are very successful, and that there is no -apparent reason why similar communities elsewhere, if intelligently -located, could not do as well or better. - -This looks like an excellent field for corporate enterprise. -Certainly there is no more reason why the poultry community cannot -be as successfully promoted as an irrigation project, or a cheese -factory, or a trucking community. In such a community there are many -functions that can be better performed by a capitalized body managed -by experts than by individual poultrymen acting alone. - -These functions are: - -First, the selection of a location and the purchase of the land in -large quantities. - -Second, laying out this land into suitable individual holdings, with -regard to economy of water supply and the collection of the product. - -Third, the partial or complete equipment of these farms at less -expense and in a more suitable manner than could or would be done by -the individual holders. - -Fourth, the sale or rent of these places to poultrymen at a -reasonable profit on the investment, but at a rate which will still -be below the cost at which the individual could have acquired the -land. Fifth, the selection of the stock that would not only be -better adapted to the enterprise than that which would be acquired -by the individual farmer, but would possess the uniformity necessary -to the maintenance of a standard grade in the product. - -Sixth, the centralized hatching of the chicks by which means chicks -can be more cheaply hatched and better hatched than by the imperfect -methods available to the small poultryman. - -Seventh, the purchase of all outside supplies with the usual savings -involved in large purchases. - -Eighth, a teaming system of delivering such supplies. - -Ninth, a general protection against thieves and predatory animals by -an organized war on all "varments." - -Tenth, maintenance of the best methods in feeding and care by the -employment of skilled advisers, or the operation of demonstration -farms under the direction of the central management. - -Eleventh, the enforced daily gathering of all eggs and their -lodgment that same evening in a clean, dry cooler, with a -thermometer hovering around 29 degrees Fahrenheit. - -Twelfth, the strict enforcement of penalties against the man who -attempts to sell bad eggs. - -Thirteenth, the prompt dispatch of the product to its final market. - -Fourteenth, the final sale of the eggs with opportunities for fancy -prices made possible by an absolutely guaranteed product in -quantities sufficient to permit of a regular supply and of -advertising the product. - -Fifteenth, the conduction of breeding operations along any desired -line, with the opportunity of combining the principle of great -numbers for selection with the comparison of all progeny from -ancestry, a method that will bring results a hundred times more -quickly than the efforts of the small breeder. - -Sixteenth, the advantage of the sale of breeding stock to be -acquired from the free publicity which is showered on all unique -industrial enterprises. - -In these sixteen functions there is ample opportunity for capital, -backed by ability in organization, to reap an ample reward. Is it a -dream? In a sense yes, but a dream made possible by the observation -of the actual results achieved in similar lines, and of the present -tendency in the poultry producing world. - -Why has not this thing been done before? Because no one knew enough -to do it. Why did not the wonderful trucking regions develop earlier -in the South, and why does it still take northern settlers, backed -by railroad advertising, to develop the wonderful modern industries -which enables every city dweller in the North to have strawberries -in February and fresh vegetables any day in the year? - -Why did the California fruit trade develop? Did anyone suppose forty -years ago that the unsettled valley around Pasadena would ever -produce one thousand dollars per acre in one year? These orange -groves, too valuable for agricultural purposes to be used as town -sites, were precarious experiments until the trans-continental -refrigerator car and the California Fruit Growers' Exchange paved -the way and put each day in every eastern and northern city just the -quantity of oranges that the people could consume at a profitable -price. - -Mr. Harwood, in the World's Work for May, 1908, after describing the -"City of a Million Hens," raises the question, "If in Petaluma, why -not anywhere?" I would like to answer that question by saying that -while anywhere is a little broad, the reason the industry has not -developed elsewhere has been because of the diversion of interested -capital towards impractical large individual poultry plants, manned -by hired labor. Another reason has been the lack of the technical -knowledge necessary to construct and operate efficient hatcheries. - -The poultryman has been a disciple of the poultry papers and poultry -fanciers of the day. The poultry papers and poultry literature has -generally been supported by poultry fanciers and manufacturers of -incubators, patent nests and portable houses. The good folks have -vied with one another in complicating the business. They have built -steam-piped houses, with padded walls and miniature railways with -which daily to haul away the droppings. A few famous fanciers -selling eggs at $10.00 per setting have made such business pay, but -alas for the luckless investor in what the visiting poultry editor -would style a "handsomely equipped modern poultry plant." - -A few years ago a Government poultry expert paid a visit to -Petaluma. He came back and reported, "It is a great disappointment, -the methods are very crude." The case is most pathetic. Here was a -man employed by the people to teach them how to make poultry pay. -His carfare is paid across the continent that he might visit the -only community in the United States where at that time any -considerable number of people were making their living from poultry, -and because he did not find lightning rods on the poultry houses, he -came back with the look of Naamen who, when he was requested by -Elisha to bathe seven times in the river Jordan, replied, "It is -very crude." - - -Will Co-operation Work? - - -That magic thing, "Co-operation," while utterly lacking in the -Utopian qualities with which the word artist paints it, is a -decidedly bigger factor in American affairs than the average man -realizes. - -The chief difficulty with co-operation is that the manager, if not -incompetent, has an excellent opportunity to be a grafter. In Europe -co-operation in agricultural and mercantile enterprise is older and -better developed than in this country. Perhaps the Europeans are -less inclined to be grafters, but a more likely explanation is that -the members of such associations as these have learned how to -prevent and detect graft, just as our business men have learned to -avoid losses from the dishonesty of employes. That this is the true -explanation is substantiated by the fact that when co-operation once -becomes established in this country, it succeeds even better than in -Europe. - -When the creameries were started in the West several years ago, -there was much complaint of swindlers, fake stock companies, and -co-operative ventures in which the manager absconded with the butter -money. To-day more than half of the American creameries are -co-operative and the number is constantly increasing. They are -efficient and successful in every way, and to-day make the finest of -butter and pay the highest prices to the farmer for his cream. But -their way was first paved and the business developed by successful -private concerns. - -Co-operation is entirely feasible and successful where the people -behind the movement have enough interest in the enterprise and good -enough business sense to run the proposition as efficiently as -similar private enterprises are run. The idea that co-operation must -always result in a big saving is a misconception. Employes will not -work any harder for an association than for a private employer, -sometimes not as hard. Certainly no employee will work as hard for an -association as he will for himself. - -Why people should expect to buy out the grocery store and hire the -grocer to run it and save money for themselves, is a thing I could -never understand. But if there is some great waste that co-operation -will prevent, as where seven milk wagons drive every morning over -the same route, or where the market of perishable crops is glutted -one day and starved the next, centralization, corporate or -co-operate, will pay. - -I know of no better way to impress the reader with American -co-operation in actual practice than to quote from a brief account -of the California Fruit Growers' Exchange. - -The Exchange was founded upon the theory that every member is -entitled to furnish his pro rata of the fruit for shipment through -his association, and every association to its pro rata to the -various markets of the country. This theory reduced to practice -gives every grower his fair share, and the average price of all -markets throughout the season. - -Another cardinal provision of the plan was that all fruit should be -marketed on a level basis of actual cost, with all books and -accounts open for inspection at the pleasure of the members. These -broad principles of full co-operation constitute the basis of the -Exchange movement. - -The Exchange system is simple, but quite democratic. The local -association consists of a number of growers contiguously situated, -who unite themselves for the purpose of preparing their fruit for -market on a co-operative basis. They establish their own brands, -make such rules as they may agree upon for grading, packing and -pooling their fruit. Usually these associations own thoroughly -equipped packing houses. - -All members are given a like privilege to pick and deliver fruit to -the packing house, where it is weighed in and properly receipted -for. Every grower's fruit is separated into different grades, -according to quality, and usually thereafter it goes into the common -pool, and in due course takes its percentage of the returns -according to grade. - -Any given brand is the exclusive property of the Local Association -using it, and the fruit under this brand is always packed in the -same locality, and therefore of uniform quality. This is of great -advantage in marketing, as the trade soon learns that the pack is -reliable. - -There are more than eighty associations, covering every citrus fruit -district in California, and packing nearly two hundred reliable and -guaranteed brands of oranges and lemons. - -The several local Exchanges designate one man each from their -membership as their representative, and he is elected a director of -the California Fruit Growers' Exchange. By this method the -policy-making and governing power of the organization remains in the -hands of the local Exchanges. - -From top to bottom the organization is planned, dominated and in -general detail controlled absolutely by fruit growers, and for the -common good of all members. No corporation nor individual reaps from -it either dividends or private gain. - -So far we have dealt almost exclusively with the organization of the -Exchange, its co-operative aspects, and general policy at home. -Equally important is its organization in the markets. - -Seeking to free itself from the shifting influence of speculative -trading, by taking the business out of the hands of middlemen at -home, the Exchange found it quite as important to maintain the -control of its own affairs in the markets. - -For this purpose the Exchange established a system of exclusive -agencies in all the principal cities of the country, employing as -agents active, capable young men of experience in the fruit -business. Most of these agents are salaried, and have no other -business of any kind to engage their attention, and none of the -Exchange representatives handle any other citrus fruits. These -agents sell to smaller cities contiguous to their headquarters, or -in the territory covered by their districts. - -Over all these agencies are two general or traveling agents, with -authority to supervise and check up the various offices. These -general agents maintain in their offices at Chicago and Omaha, a -complete bureau of information, through which all agents receive -every day detailed information as to sales of Exchange fruit in -other markets the previous day. Possessing this data, the selling -agent cannot be taken advantage of as to prices. If any agent finds -his market sluggish, and is unable to sell at the average prices -prevailing elsewhere, he promptly advises the head office in Los -Angeles, and sufficient fruit is diverted from his market to relieve -it and restore prices to normal level. - -Through these agencies of its own the Exchange is able to get and -transmit to its members the most trustworthy information regarding -market conditions, visible supplies, etc. This system affords a -maximum of good service at a minimum cost. The volume of the -business is so large that a most thorough equipment is maintained at -much less cost to growers than any other selling agency can offer. - -The annual business of the California Fruit Growers' Exchange -amounts to over ten million dollars, and the Exchange handles over -half the citrus fruit output of the State. Yet there are people who -say co-operation in America will not work. - - -Co-operative Egg Marketing in Denmark. - -I have discussed at length the work of the California Fruit Growers' -Exchange, as the best example in the United States of the -co-operative marketing of farm produce. We have thus far but little -co-operative work in the marketing of poultry products. Canada has a -few examples, but it is to European countries that we must go for a -full demonstration of the principle of co-operation when applied to -the products of the hen. In England and in Ireland co-operative -efforts in the growing, fattening, and marketing of poultry and eggs -are quite common. It is to Denmark, however, that we must go to find -the most wholesale example of this truly modern type of business -effort. - -The Danes are co-operators in the fullest sense. They have -co-operative creameries and co-operative packing houses. The Danish -Egg Export Society is an organization, the plan and work of which is -very much like that of the California Fruit Growers' Exchange. - -The local branch of the association buys the eggs of the farmer, -paying for them by weight. Collectors are hired to gather them at -frequent and regular intervals, and are paid In accordance with the -amount of their collections, but must stand the loss of breakage. -Each individual poultryman's eggs are kept separate until they reach -a centralizing station. There are a number of these central stations -at which the eggs are carefully crated and packed for shipment to -England. - -The individual farmer is fined or taxed for all bad eggs found in -his lot. This fine is deducted from his receipts and he has nothing -to do but to submit to it or get out of the association. The latter -he cannot afford to do because the association has its established -brands and can pay him more for his eggs than he could secure by -attempting to market them himself. As a result of this strict system -of making the producer responsible for weight and quality of the -eggs the Danish eggs have become the largest and finest in the -world. - -Although the writer firmly believes in the co-operative marketing of -farm produce, and considers that the success already secured in this -work is conclusive evidence of the practicability and desirability -of co-operation, it would not be fair to infer that co-operation has -entirely driven out private or corporate enterprise. Just as a -goodly per cent. of the citrus fruit of California is still handled -by private dealers, so in Denmark we find that nearly one-half of -the eggs sent to England are handled by private companies. Let it be -noted, however, that these companies maintain a system of buying on -merit which enforces high quality that is not to be found where -private buyers are without the spur of co-operative competition. -Before co-operation entered the orange regions of California, the -fruit was poorly packed and handled and the markets at times so -glutted, that shipments of fruit sometimes failed to pay the -freight, and this was actually charged back to the unfortunate -grower. Co-operation has done away with this waste. In like manner -the great loss from decomposed eggs and half hatched chicks is -unknown to the egg trade of Denmark. - - -Corporation or Co-operation? - -The community of farmers producing a large quantity of a single kind -of product is the coming form of agricultural enterprise. Will this -community be promoted by corporation or by co-operation? - -Arthur Brisbane says, "As individual control of the Government has -been superceded by collective control, so individual control of -industries will be followed by collective control. That is the -natural order." - -Brisbane is right. The individual, or the corporation, which is an -individual using other men's money, foreruns co-operation, because -the individual knows exactly what he wants to do and the big group -of individuals does not know what they want or how to do it until -individuals have, by concrete successes, shown them. - -When the creameries were started, co-operative creameries were -unsuccessful and could not compete with privately owned creameries. -The farmers have now become too wise to be "easy-marks" to the fake -creamery promoters or to trust their butter sales to a comparative -stranger and co-operation is a success. - -Poultry communities cannot be made out of whole cloth by the -co-operative plan. Private corporations will be necessary to launch -these enterprises. When they have reached the stage of development -now to be seen in Little Compton and Petaluma they are ready for -co-operation. - -I have emphasized the point that the private corporation is the -natural forerunner in this matter in order to discourage premature -or over-ambitious efforts at co-operation. Whenever a community of -poultrymen or, for that matter, a community of growers of any -perishable form of products, who are already successful in the -producing end, wish to take up co-operation and will see that men -are selected to manage it who will use the same precautions to guard -against incompetency or graft that they, as individuals, would use -in their own business, there is excellent chance of success. - -Go slow. Do not expect to get rich quick by "cutting out the -middleman's enormous profits," for the middleman's profits are not -enormous, and if you see that your co-operation is not paying, give -it up and confess to yourselves that you do not know as much about -the business as your private competitors. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -WHERE TO LOCATE - - -That poultry should be kept on every farm to supply the farmer's own -table does not permit of argument. When it comes to production for -market, I believe there are some sections where it costs more to -produce and market poultry and eggs than is received for the product -when sold. For illustration: On a farm which is twenty miles from -town and where grain cannot be profitably grown, the cost of teaming -grain from the railroad station and of sending the eggs to market as -frequently as is necessary to have a wholesome product, would -certainly eat up all possible profits. - -The farmer thus located would find a more profitable use for his -time in some industry where the raw material is near at hand and the -product needs less frequent marketing. - - -Some Poultry Geography. - -When we are discussing poultry on the general farm, the problem of -location is not to be taken into consideration, save to the extent -that there are a few localities where food cost is so high or -marketing facilities so poor as to make even the usual farm surplus -unprofitable. - -The map on page 45 shows the intensity of egg production and also -indicates the location of the more important localities where -poultry plants have succeeded. The map on page 47 shows the quality -of eggs coming from various sections, which indicates pretty closely -the general development of the poultry industry. These indications, -however, are of little value in locating a poultry plant, for they -refer to the poultry product on the general farm, and are a matter -of the number and general intelligence of farmers, rather that a -sign of the suitability of the locality for the poultry industry. - -For purposes of discussion, I have divided the United States into -seven sections as shown by the dotted lines on the second map. - -[Illustration: Plate II. Page 45. Map: -Intensity of egg production in the United States] - -Section 1 is the North Woods and too cold and remote for -the poultry business. - -Section 2 includes the great West, of which an adequate discussion -is out of the question. Of course, the great majority of this area -is too remote from markets for poultry production. The locations -around the big cities in this section are excellent for poultry -farming, as they are so far removed from the great farm region that -their bulk of imported eggs are of necessity somewhat stale. -California is good chicken country. The Puget Sound country is -rather too damp. In the interior western regions the chicken -business has not done well, chiefly because the atmosphere is too -dry for the methods of artificial incubation attempted. - -Section 3 is the great granary of the world. It is also the home of -three-fourths of the country's poultry crop. It is a region of corn, -cattle and hogs. Such a country will produce poultry in a very -inexpensive manner. But it is not the region for special poultry -farms. In the northern portion of this tract, we find a heavy -housing expense and much winter labor necessary. It is a region of -high priced lands and labor, and low prices for poultry products. - -Even the large cities in this region offer little in the way of -demand for high grade poultry products. This is because they are so -abundantly surrounded with farms that all produce is moderately -fresh and plentiful. There are no successful poultry farms in this -section west of the Mississippi. It is the natural location of -extensive rather than intensive branches of agriculture. The only -type of commercial poultry farming that could succeed in any portion -of this section would be a large community of producers who could -ship their products out regularly in carload lots. Such development -could only take place in the southern portion of this region, for -the housing expense is too great for the north. At best the distance -from market is a disadvantage, for the rate on eggs just about -equals the rate on the quantity of grain necessary to produce them. -The added time of shipment is something of a drawback, though in -refrigerator cars this is not serious. After the establishment of -poultry communities becomes more common, the Oklahoma and Texas -region will become available for this purpose, but they must be -established in full swing at the start, for a few isolated -poultrymen have no chance at all in this section, for they cannot -sell their product to advantage. - -Section 4. This region, extending from the Ozarks to Eastern -Tennessee, is one of the very best poultry sections. The climate is -such that green food is available winter and summer, and the expense -of housing and winter labor is reasonable. This section is still in -the corn growing region. The question is almost always one of -railroad facilities to get the product out. All poultry farms in -this section must grow their own grain or buy it of their immediate -neighbors. It will not pay to ship grain into this region. - -[Illustration: Plate III. Page 47. Map: -Intensity of egg production in the United States] - -When near shipping facilities, individual poultry farms in Section 4 -have a good chance of success, especially east of the Mississippi. -This is the most favorable region in the country for the -establishment of poultry communities that are to grow their own -grain. Such poultry farms will not be expected to confine their -attention as exclusively to the business as those in the section -where it is profitable to import the grain. - -Section 5 is the non-grain growing region of the South. It at -present produces little poultry. The climate is all right for the -purpose, but the freight rates on grain from the West are high and -likewise the freight service and freight rates to the final market -are excessive. Under these conditions poultry farming will not pay -except in a few localities as in Florida, where there is a high -class local market due to the popular resorts. If grain could be -profitably grown in this section the same type of poultry farming -that prevails in Section 4 would be advisable. Now, grain can be -grown in the cotton belt of the South, and many Yankee farmers are -making good money doing it. But when grown it is liable to be worth -more to feed mules than to feed chickens. - -Section 6 is the "Down East" section of dense population. The land -for the most part is rocky, wooded and hilly. The climate and nature -of the soil are against the economical production of poultry, but -the grain can be profitably fed, and as the markets are the best in -the country, commercial poultry farming has gained quite a foothold. -If a man is already located in this section and wishes to go into -the poultry business I would by all means say, "Go ahead," but I -would not advise an outsider looking for a location to come here, -for the next section has several advantages. - -Section 7 is the best poultry farming district in the United States, -either for the individual poultry plant or for the community of -poultry growers. The reasons for this are: - -First: The soil is of a sandy nature and excellent land for poultry -farming can be had at a low price. - -Second: The climate is much more favorable than farther north or -farther inland. - -Third: Grain rates from the West are very reasonable. - -Fourth: The best market in the country--New York City--is within -easy shipping distance. - -The type of poultry farming here to be recommended, like that of -Section 6, is one in which imported grain is fed. The fertility of -this grain, going back on the light soil, is used to grow the green -food required by the hens, and, in addition, may be used in a -rotation system for growing truck. It will not pay to grow any -quantity of grain. Section 7, because of its advantages over Section -6 in climate and the availability of large tracts of suitable land, -is a much better location for the poultry community. Over Section 4, -which is the second best region for this purpose, it has the -advantage of nearness to markets. The climatic advantage of Sections -4 and 7 are about on a par. The chief distinction is the matter of -growing grain or importing it. If you are to grow your grain, using -poultry as a means of marketing it, Section 4 is the best locality. -If you are to buy grain, Section 7 is the place. - -The boundaries of Section 7 are not arbitrary and should be noted -carefully. The line runs from Mattawan, New Jersey, across to the -main line of the Pennsylvania and down this to Washington. To the -north and west of this, the soils are heavy clays which are wet, -cold, slushy and easily befouled. Likewise, the line on the south is -distinctly marked by the Norfolk and Western Railway and is a matter -of freight rates on grain. Norfolk gets a rate of sixteen and a half -cents from Chicago; a couple of hundred miles south, the rate is -about twice as much. Cheaper grain rates would of course extend this -belt on down the coast where the climate is even more favorable. - - -Chicken Climate. - - -Climate is a big figure in the cost of poultry production. Every day -that water is frozen in winter means increased labor and decreased -egg yield. Mild winters means cheap houses, cheap labor, cheap feed -(a large proportion of green food), an earlier chick season, which, -together with the mild weather and green feed, mean a large -proportion of the egg yield at the season when eggs are high in -price. - -The American poultry editor wastes a great deal of ink explaining -why the Australian egg records of 175 eggs per hen, cannot be so, -because in this country, the hens at the Maine station only averaged -125. The Maine Experiment Station lies buried in a snow drift for -about five months of the year. The Australian station has a winter -climate equal to that of New Orleans. The Australian records do not -go below thirty eggs per day per hundred hens at any time during the -year. Our New York and New England records run down anywhere from -one to ten eggs per day per hundred hens. The following table will -show the effect of the climate upon the distribution of the egg -yield throughout the year. The records at New York are from a large -number of hens of several different flocks and probably represent a -normal distribution of the egg yield for that section. The Kansas -and Arkansas lists are taken from the record of small flocks and are -not very reliable. The fourth column gives the Australian records -with the months transferred on account of being in the southern -hemisphere. The last column gives the railroad shipments from a -division of the N.C. & St. L. railroad in Western Tennessee: - - - Column Headings: - NY--Central New York per hen per day - KS--Kansas Ex. Station per hen per day - AR--Arkansas Ex. Station per hen per day - AU--Australian Laying Contest per hen per day - NH--Shipments from New Hampshire egg farm - TN--Shipments from Western Tennessee - - NY KS AR AU NH TN - January .21 .25 .32 .51 26 1509 - February .26 .22 .30 .66 41 1520 - March .43 .60 .62 .67 66 2407 - April .56 .52 .38 .61 83 1775 - May .59 .57 .44 .53 81 1650 - June .50 .46 .42 .45 61 1131 - July .44 .43 .34 .43 58 878 - August .37 .32 .38 .41 54 422 - September .26 .28 .29 .29 24 100 - October .17 .13 .22 .31 3 541 - November .08 .06 .18 .31 2 703 - December .14 .25 .15 .40 11 1150 - -An equable climate the year round is the best for the chicken -business. The California coast is fairly equable in temperature, but -its winter rains and summer drouth are against it. The Atlantic -coast south of New York is fairly good, probably the best the -country affords. The most southern portions will be rather too hot -in summer, which will result in a small August and September egg -yield. Probably the region around Norfolk is, all considered, the -best poultry climate the country affords. - - -Suitable Soil. - -Soil is important in poultry farming; in fact it is very important, -and many failures can be traced to soil mistakes. Rocky and -uncultivated lands must not be chosen. To locate on any soil which -will not utilize the droppings for the production of green food, is -to introduce a loss sufficient to turn success into failure. - -The ideal soil for poultry is a soil too sandy to produce ordinary -farm crops successfully, and hence an inexpensive soil; but because -land too sandy to be used for heavy farming is best for poultry, -this does not mean that any cheap soil will do. A heavy wet clay -soil worth $150 an acre for dairying is worth nothing for poultry. -Pure sand is likewise worthless and nothing can be more pitiable -than to see poultry confined in yards of wind swept sand, without a -spear of anything green within half a mile. - -The soils that are valuable for early truck are equally valuable for -poultry. Sand with a little loam, or very fine sand, if a few green -crops are turned under to provide humus, are ideal poultry soils. -The Norfolk fine Sand and Norfolk Sandy Loam of the U.S. soil -survey, are types of such soil. - -These soils absorb the droppings readily and are never covered with -standing water. The winter snows do not stay on them. Crops will -keep greener on them in winter than on clay soils three hundred -miles farther south. - -The disadvantage of such soils is that they lose their fertility by -leaching. The same principles that will cause the droppings to -disappear from the top of the ground will likewise cause them to be -washed down beyond the depths of plant roots. This loss must be -guarded against by not going to the extreme in selecting a light -soil and may be largely overcome by schemes of running the poultry -right among growing crops or by quick rotations. - -Land sloping to the southward is commonly advised for the purpose of -getting the same advantages as are to be had in a sandy soil. In -practice the slope of the land cannot be given great prominence, -although, other things being equal, one should certainly not -disregard this point. In heavy lands it is necessary to raise the -floors and grade up around the houses. The quickly drained soil does -away with this expense. - -Timber on the land is a disadvantage. Poultry farming in the woods -has not been made a success. It's the same proposition of the -droppings going to waste. I know a man who bought a timbered tract -because it was cheap and who scraped up the droppings to sell by the -barrel to his neighbor, who used them to fertilize his cabbage patch -and in turn sold the poultryman cabbages to feed his hens, at 5 -cents a head. Of course, this man failed, as does practically every -man who attempts to scrape dropping boards and carry poultry manure -around in baskets, instead of using it where it falls. - -There is little to be said in favor of uncleared land for the -poultry business, but there is something that can be said in favor -of the poultry business for uncleared land. A man who buys a -timbered land for trucking can get no income whatever the first -year, but the poultryman can begin his operations in the woods, -clearing the land while he is raising a crop of chickens on it. The -coops may be placed in the cleared streak and most of the droppings -utilized. In fact, the plan of a streak of timber alongside the -houses is not bad for a permanent arrangement--the birds certainly -enjoy the shade. But the shade of growing crops is the most -profitable kind for poultry. - - -Marketing--Transportation. - -The possibilities of working up a local trade of high grade eggs at -fancy prices varies greatly with the locality. Large cities and -wealthy people are essentials. Other than this the principal -distinctions are that regions where a general surplus of eggs are -produced offer little chance for a fancy trade. Where the great bulk -of eggs are imported fancy trade is more feasible. St. Louis is the -smallest western city that supports anything like a fancy trade in -eggs and there it is only on a small scale. Minneapolis, Omaha, -etc., would not pay 3 cents premium for the best eggs produced, but -cities of the same size east of the Appalachians and especially in -New England, will pay a good premium. The Far West or the mountain -districts will pay up better than the Mississippi Valley. The South -will pay a little better than the upper Mississippi Valley, but has -few cities of sufficient size to make such markets abundant. The -Southerner has little regard for quality in produce and the most -aristocratic people consume eggs regularly that the wife of a -Connecticut factory hand wouldn't have in the house. The egg farmer -who expects to sell locally had best not locate south of Washington -or west of Pittsburg, unless he goes to the Pacific Coast. - -Where marketing is not done by wagon the subject of railroad -transportation is practically identical with the question of -marketing. It is the cost in freight service and freight rates that -count. The proposition of transportation, especially for the grain -buying poultry farm, catches us coming and going and both must be -considered. - -A poultry farm in Section 7 will buy one hundred pounds of feed per -year per hen and market one-third of a case of eggs. On this basis -the grain rate from Chicago or St. Louis and the egg rate to New -York must be balanced against each other. Don't take these things -for granted. Look them up. - -Jamesburg and Freehold, two New Jersey towns ten miles apart and -equi-distant and with equal freight rates from New York, might seem -to the uninitiated as equally well situated to poultry farming. We -will suppose two men bought forty-acre farms of equal quality and -equi-distant from the railroad stations at these two towns. Suppose, -further, they each kept five thousand hens. Jamesburg is on a -Philadelphia-New York line of the Pennsylvania and its Chicago grain -rate is the same as that of New York, namely: 19-1/2 cents per -hundred. Freehold is on a branch line; its rate is 24-1/2 cents. In -a year the difference amounts to $250. Figured at six per cent. -interest, the land at Jamesburg is worth just about one hundred -dollars an acre more than that at Freehold. - -Lumber rates or local lumber prices should also be taken into -consideration. Whether one plans to ship his product out by express -or freight will, of course, be an important consideration in -deciding the location. - -As a general thing, the individual poultry farmer will, for shipping -his product, use express east of Buffalo and north of Norfolk. The -poultry community could use freight in these same regions and get as -good or better service than by express. - -The location in relation to the railroad station is equally -important to the freight rate. Besides heavy hauling frequent trips -will be necessary in marketing eggs. These on the larger farms will -be daily or at least semi-weekly. On the heavy hauling alone, at 25 -cents per ton mile, distance from the railroad will figure up 1-1/4 -cents per hen which, on the basis of the previous illustration, -would make a difference of twenty-five dollars per acre for every -mile of distance from the station. One of the most successful -poultry farms I know is right along the railroad and has an elevator -which handles the grain from the cars and later dumps it into the -feed wagons without its ever being touched by hand. The labor saving -in this counts up rapidly. - -The poultry community can have its own elevator and the grain can be -sold to the farmer to be delivered directly into the hoppers in his -field with but a single loading into a wagon. - - -Availability of Water. - -One more point to be considered in location is water. - -The labor of watering poultry by carrying water in buckets is -tremendous and not to be considered on any up-to-date poultry plant. -Watering must be accomplished by some artificial piping system or -from spring-fed brooks. The more length of flowing streams on a -piece of land, provided the adjacent ground is dry, the more value -the property has for poultry. Two spring-fed brooks crossing a -forty-acre tract so as to give a half mile of running water, or a -full mile of houses, would water five thousand hens without labor. -This would mean an annual saving of at least one man's time as -against hand watering, or a matter of a thousand dollars or more in -the cost of installation of a watering system. - -If running water cannot be had the next best thing is to get land -with water near the surface which may be tapped with sand points. If -one must go deep for water a large flow is essential so that one -power pump may easily supply sufficient water for the plant. - -The land should lay in a gentle slope so that water may be run over -the entire surface by gravity. Hilly lands are a nuisance in poultry -keeping and raise the expense at every turn. - - -A Few Statistics. - -The following table does not bear directly upon the poultry-man's -choice of a location, but is inserted here because of its general -interest in showing the poultry development of the country. - -It will be noted that the egg production per hen is very low in the -Southern States. This may seem at variance with my previous -statements. The poor poultry keeping of the South is a fault of the -industrial conditions, not of the climate. Chickens on the Southern -farm simply live around the premises as do rats or English sparrows. -No grain is grown; there are no feed lots to run to, no measures are -taken to keep down vermin, and no protection is provided from wind -and rain. In the North chickens could not exist with such treatment. - -The figures given showing the relation between the poultry and total -agricultural wealth is the best way that can be found to express -statistically the importance of poultry keeping in relation to the -general business of farming. These figures should not be confused -with the distribution of the actual volume of poultry products. -Iowa, the greatest poultry producing state, shows only a moderate -proportion of poultry to all farm wealth, but this is because more -agricultural wealth is produced in Iowa than in all the "Down East" -states. - -Table showing the development of the poultry industry in the various -states, according to the returns of the census of 1900: - - - No. of Percentage of No. of Farm value - eggs per farm wealth eggs of eggs per - capita earned by per hen dozen -States poultry - - - -Alabama 124 4.9 48 9.7 cents -Arizona 80 4.5 60 19.9 -Arkansas 235 6.8 58 9.1 -California 197 5.4 74 15.8 -Colorado 127 5.4 71 15.0 -Connecticut 105 11.3 89 19.1 -Delaware 231 14.7 68 13.7 -Florida 96 8.2 46 13.1 -Georgia 156 4.4 41 10.4 -Idaho 213 5.0 67 16.2 -Indiana 338 10.0 77 10.5 -Iowa 536 7.4 64 10.1 -Illinois 215 3.7 62 10.3 -Kansas 597 8.2 73 9.9 -Kentucky 198 8.3 62 9.8 -Louisiana 111 4.0 40 10.0 -Maine 233 11.0 100 15.3 -Maryland 126 10.4 71 12.6 -Massachusetts 56 11.7 96 19.9 -Michigan 270 9.7 82 11.2 -Minnesota 296 5.8 67 10.5 -Mississippi 144 4.7 43 9.9 -Missouri 291 11.6 68 9.8 -Montana 148 4.3 67 21.0 -Nebraska 463 6.1 66 9.9 -Nevada 68 3.7 71 20.8 -New Hampshire 238 11.5 96 17.3 -New Jersey 76 12.0 72 16.2 -New Mexico 45 2.7 65 18.7 -New York 102 7.1 83 13.9 -North Carolina 112 5.7 55 10.2 -North Dakota 249 2.6 64 10.5 -Ohio 265 9.6 77 11.2 -Oklahoma 315 6.4 60 9.3 -Oregon 224 6.2 72 15.1 -Pennsylvania 112 10.8 75 13.5 -Rhode Island 90 19.7 77 20.4 -South Carolina 80 4.0 41 10.3 -South Dakota 502 5.2 68 10.0 -Tennessee 189 8.4 61 9.8 -Texas 228 4.8 52 8.0 -Utah 146 5.1 76 12.5 -Vermont 219 7.5 94 15.3 -Virginia 165 8.9 67 11.1 -Washington 171 7.1 74 16.8 -West Virginia 216 10.2 74 10.9 -Wisconsin 268 7.1 68 10.5 -Wyoming 121 2.4 79 17.4 -Entire U.S. 205 7.4 65 11.1 - - - - -CHAPTER V - -THE DOLLAR HEN FARM - -As has already been emphasized, the way to get money out of the -chicken business is not to put so much in. - -Land, however, well suited to the purpose, should not be begrudged, -for interest at six per cent, will afford a very considerable extra -investment in land well suited to the business if it in any way cuts -down the cost of operation. - - -The Plan of Housing. - -The houses are the next consideration. On most poultry farms they -are the chief items of expense. I know of a poultry farm near New -York City where the house cost $12.00 per hen. The owner built this -farm with a view of making money. People also buy stock in Nevada -gold mines with a view of making money. I know another poultry farm -owned by a man named Tillinghast at Vernon, Connecticut, where the -houses cost thirty cents per hen. Mr. Tillinghast gets more eggs per -hen than the New York man. Incidentally, he is sending his son to -Yale, and he has no other visible means of support except his -chicken farm. - -For the region of light soils and the localities which I have -recommended for poultry farming, the following style of poultry -house should be used: - -No floors, single boarded walls, a roof of matched cypress lumber or -of cheap pine covered with tarred paper. This house is to have no -windows and no door. The roosts are in the back end; the front end -is open or partly open; feed hoppers and nests are in the front end. -The feed hoppers may be made in the walls, made loose to set in the -house, or made to shed water and placed outside the house. All -watering is to be done outside the houses; likewise any feeding -beyond that done in hoppers. - -The exact style of the house I leave to the reader's own plan. Were -I recommending complex houses costing several dollars per hen, this -certainly would be leaving the reader in the dark woods. With houses -of the kind described it is hard to go far amiss. The simplest form -is a double pitched roof, the ridge-pole standing about seven feet -high, and the walls about four. The house is made eight by sixteen, -and one end--not the side--left open. For the house that man is to -enter, this form cannot be improved upon. - -The only other points are to construct it on a couple of 4x4 runners -so that it can be dragged about by a team. Cypress, or other -decay-proof wood should be used for these mud-sills. The framing -should be light and as little of it used as is consistent with -firmness. If the whole house costs more than twenty-five dollars -there is something wrong in its planning. - -This house should accommodate seventy-five or eighty hens. - -For smaller operations, especially for horseless, or intensive -farming, a low, light house may be used, which the attendant never -enters. A portion of the roof lifts up to fill feed-hoppers, gather -eggs or spray. These small houses may be made light enough to be -moved short distances by a pry-pole, the team being required only -when they are moved to a new field. - -Not one particle of poultry manure is to be removed from either -style of house. Instead, the houses are removed from the manure, -which is then scattered on the neighboring ground with a fork, or, -if desired to be used on a field in which poultry may not run, it -may be loaded upon a wagon together with some of the underlaying -soil. - -There have been books and books written on poultry houses, but what -I have just given is sufficient poultry-house knowledge for the -Dollar Hen man. If he hasn't enough intelligence to put this into -practice, he has no business in the hen business. Additional -book-knowledge of hen-houses is useless; it may be harmful. - -If you are sure that you are fool-proof, you may get Dr. Feather or -Reverend Earlobe's "Book of Poultry House Plans." It will be a good -text-book for the children's drawing lessons. - - -The Feeding System. - -Oyster shells, beef scraps, corn, and one other kind of grain, -together with an abundance of pasturage or green feed, is the sum -and substance of feeding hens on the Dollar Hen Farm. - -The dry feeds are placed in hoppers. They are built to protect the -feeds from the weather. The neck must be sufficiently large to -prevent clogging, and the hopper so protected by slats in front that -the hen cannot toss the feed out by a side jerk of her head. These -hoppers may be built any size desired. The grain compartments -should, of course, be made larger than the others. Weekly filling is -good, but where a team is not owned, it would be better to have the -hoppers larger so that feed purchased, say, once a month, could be -delivered directly into the hoppers. - - -Water Systems. - -The best water system is a spring-fed brook. - -The man proposing to establish an individual poultry plant, and who -after reading this book goes and buys a tract of land where an -artificial water system is necessary, would catch Mississippi -drift-wood on shares. But there are plenty of such people in the -world. A man once stood all day on London Bridge hawking gold -sovereigns at a shilling a-piece and did not make a sale. - -Next to natural streams are the made streams. This is the logical -watering method of the community of poultry farmers. These -artificial streams are to be made by conducting the water of natural -streams back of the land to be watered, as in irrigation. It is the -problem of irrigation over again. Indeed, where trucking is combined -with poultry-growing, fowl watering should be combined with -irrigation. - -It may be necessary to dam the stream to get head, sufficient supply -or both. In sandy soils, ditches leak, and board flumes must be -substituted. The larger ones are made of the boards at right angles -and tapered so that one end of one trough rests in the upper end of -the next lower section. The smaller, or lateral troughs may be made -V-shaped. - -The cost of the smaller sized flume is three cents a foot. Iron pipe -costs twelve cents a foot. - -The greater the slope of the ground the smaller may be the troughs, -but on ground where the slopes are great, more expense will be -necessary in stilting the flumes to maintain the level, and the -harder it will be to find a large section that can be brought under -the ditch. - -Fluming water for poultry is, like irrigation, a community project. -The greatest dominating people of history have their origin in arid -countries. It was co-operate or starve, and they learned -co-operation and conquered the earth. If a man interferes with the -flume, or takes more than his share of the water, put him out. We -are in the hen, not the hog business. - -Community water systems, where water must be pumped and piped in -iron pipe, is of course a more expensive undertaking. It will only -pay where water is too deep for individuals to drive sand points on -their own property. There is certainly little reason to consider an -expensive method when there are abundant localities where simple -plans may be used. - -On sand lands, with water near the surface, each farmer may drive -sand points and pump his water by hand. In this case running water -is not possible, but the pipes or flumes may be arranged so that -fresh pumping flushes all the drinking places and also leaves them -full of standing water. The simplest way to arrange this will be by -wooden surface troughs as used in the fluming scheme. The only -difference is that an occasional section is made deeper so that it -will retain water. - -A more permanent arrangement may be made by using a line of -three-fourths inch pipe. At each watering place the pipe is brought -to the surface so that the water flows into a galvanized pan with -sloping sides. This pan has an overflow through a short section of -smaller tubing soldered to the side of the pan. The pipe line is -parallel with the fence line, the pans supply both fields. By this -arrangement the entire plant may be watered in a few minutes. The -overflow tubes are on one side. Using these tubes as a pivot the -pans may be swung out from under the fence with the foot and cleaned -with an old broom. Where the ground water is deep a wind mill and -storage tank would be desirable. - - -Outdoor Accommodations. - -The hen house is a place for roosting, laying and a protection for -the feed. The hen is to live out doors. - -On the most successful New England poultry farms, warm houses for -hens have been given up. Hens fare better out of doors in Virginia -than they do in New England, but make more profit out of doors -anywhere than they will shut up in houses. If your climate will not -permit your hen to live out doors get out of the climate or get out -of the hen business. - -There is, however, a vast difference in the kind of out-of-doors. -The running stream with its fringe of trees, brush and rank growing -grass, forms daylight quarters for the hen par excellence. Rank -growing crops, fodder piled against the fences, a board fence on the -north side of the lot, or little sheds made by propping a platform -against a stake, will all help. A place out of the wind for the hens -to dust and sun and be sociable is what is wanted, and what must be -provided, preferably by Nature, if not by Nature then by the -poultryman. - -The hens are to be kept as much as possible out of the houses, in -sheltered places among the crops or brush. They should not herd -together in a few places but should be separated in little clumps -well scattered over the land. These hiding places for the hens must, -of course, not be too secluded or eggs will be lost. - - -Equipment for Chick Rearing. - -Just as the long houses for hens have been weighed and found -wanting, so larger brooder houses, with one exception, have never -been established on what may be called a successful basis. By -establishment on a successful basis, I mean established so that they -could be used by larger numbers of people in rearing market -chickens. There are plenty of large brooder houses in use, just as -there are plenty of yarded poultry plants, but many intelligent, -industrious people have tried both systems only to find that the -cost of production exceeds the selling price. This makes us prone to -believe that some of those who claim to be succeeding may differ -from the crowd in that they had more capital to begin with and hence -last longer. - -The one exception I make to this is that of the South Shore Roaster -District of Massachusetts. Here steam-pipe brooder houses are used -quite extensively. The logical reason that pipe brooder houses have -found use in the winter chicken business and not in rearing pullets -is that of season and profits. When chicks are to be hatched in the -dead of winter the steam-heated brooder house is a necessity. In -this limited use it is all right, where the profits per chick are -great enough to stand the expense and losses. - -For the rearing of the great bulk of spring chicks the methods that -have proven profitable are as follows: - -First: Rearing with hens as practiced at Little Compton. For -suggestions on this see the chapter entitled "Poultry on the General -Farm." - -Second: Rearing with lamp brooder. Many large book-built poultry -plants have been equipped with steam, or, more properly, hot water -heated brooder houses, only to have a practical manager see that -they did not work, tear out the piping and fill the house with rows -of common lamp brooders. The advantage claimed for the lamp brooder -is that they can be regulated separately for each flock. As a matter -of fact, the same regulation for each flock of chicks could be -secured with a proper type of hot water heaters and one of the most -practical poultry farms in the country is now installing such a -system. - -A brooder system where hot air under the pressure of a blower or -centrifugal fan would seem ideal. So far the efforts made along -these lines have been clumsy and unnecessarily expensive. If the -continuous house is ever made practical, I believe it will be along -this line, but at present I advise sticking to the methods that are -known to be successful. - -Individual lamp brooders in colony houses are perhaps the most -generally successful means of rearing chicks on northern poultry -farms. They are troublesome and somewhat expensive, but with -properly hatched chickens are more successful than hen rearing. In -buying such a brooder the chief points to be observed are: A good -lamp, a heating device giving off the heat from a central drum, and -an arrangement which facilitates easy cleaning. The brooder should -be large, having not less than nine square feet of floor space. The -work demanded of a brooder is not as exacting as with an incubator. -The heat and circulation of air may vary a little without harm, but -they must not fail altogether. The greatest trouble with brooders in -operation is the uncertainty of the lamp. The brooder-lamp should -have sufficient oil capacity and a large wick. Brooder-lamps are -often exposed to the wind, and, if cheaply constructed or poorly -enclosed, the result will be a chilled brood of chicks, or perhaps a -fire. - -The chief thing sought in the internal arrangements of a brooder is -a provision to keep the chicks from piling up and smothering each -other as they crowd toward the source of heat. This can be -accomplished by having the warmest part of the brooder in the center -rather than at the side or corner. If the heat comes from above and -a considerable portion of the brooder be heated to the same -temperature, no crowding will take place. - -The temperature given for running brooders vary with the machine and -the position of the thermometer. The one reliable guide for -temperature is the action of the chicks. If they are cold they will -crowd toward the source of heat; if too warm they will wander -uneasily about; but if the temperature is right, each chick will -sleep stretched out on the floor. The cold chicken does not sleep at -all, but puts in its time fighting its way toward the source of -heat. In an improperly constructed or improperly run brooder the -chicks go through a varying process of chilling, sweating and -struggling when they should be sleeping, and the result is puny -chicks that dwindle and die. - -The arrangement of the brooder for the sleeping accommodations of -the chicks is important, but this is not the only thing to be -considered in a brooder. The brooder used in the early season, and -especially the outdoor brooder, must have ample space provided for -the daytime accommodation of the chick. In the colony house brooder -such space will, of course, be the floor of the house. - -When operating on a large scale it will not pay to buy complete -brooders. The lamps and hovers can be purchased separately and -installed in colony houses which do both for brooders and later for -houses for growing young stock. The universal hover sold by the -Prairie State Incubator people is about as perfect a lamp hover as -can be made. - -The cold brooder, or Philo box, as it has been popularly called, is -the chief item in a system of poultry keeping that has been widely -advertised. The principle of the Philo box is that of holding the -air warmed by the chick down close to them by a sagging piece of -cloth. The cloth checks most of the radiating heat, but is not so -tight as to smother the chick. This limits the space of air to be -warmed by the chicks to such a degree that the body warmth is used -to the greatest advantage. That chickens can be raised in these -fire-less brooders, is not in question, for that has been abundantly -proven, but most poultrymen believe that it will pay better, -especially in the North, to give the little fellows a few weeks' -warmth. - -Curtis Bros. at Ransomville, N.Y., who raise some twenty thousand -chicks per year, have adopted the following system: The chicks are -kept under hovers heated by hot water pipes for one week, or until -they learn to hover. Then they are put in Philo boxes for a week in -the same building but away from the pipes. The third week the Philo -boxes are placed in a large, unheated room. After that they go to a -large Philo box in a colony house. - -To make a Philo house of the Curtis pattern, take a box 5 in. deep -and 18 in. to 24 in. square. Cut a hole in one side for a chick -door, run a strip of screen around the inside of the box to round -the corners. Now take a second similar box. Tack a piece of cloth -rather loosely across its open face. Bore a few augur holes in the -sides of either box. Invert box No. 2 upon box No. 1. This we will -call a Curtis box. It costs about fifteen cents and should -accommodate fifty to seventy-five chicks. - -A universal hover in a colony coop or colony house, for which a -Curtis box is substituted, as early in the game as the weather -permits, is the method I advise for rearing young chicks. The lamp -problem we still have with us, but it is one that cannot be easily -solved. Large vessels or tanks of water which are regularly warmed -by injection of steam from a movable boiler, offers a possible way -out of the difficulty. On a plant large enough to keep one man -continually at this work, this plan might be an improvement over -filling lamps, but for the smaller plant it is lamps, or go south. - -Rearing young chicks is the hardest part of the poultry business. -There is a lot of work about it that cannot be gotten rid of. Little -chicks must be kept comfortable and their water and feed for the -first few days must needs be given largely by hand. They are to be -early led to drink from the regular water vessels and eat from the -hoppers, but this takes time and patience. - -The feeding of chicks I will discuss in the chapter on "Poultry on -the General Farm," and as the same methods apply in both cases, I -will refer the reader to that section. - -After chicks get three or four weeks old their care is the simplest -part of the poultry farm work and consists chiefly of filling feed -hoppers and protecting them from vermin and thieves. - -Board floor colony houses are used as a protection against rats and -this danger necessitates the protection of the opening by netting -and the closing of the doors at night. - -Cockerels must be gotten out of the flocks and sold at an early age. -Those that are to be kept for sale or use as breeding birds should -be early separated from the pullets. Coops for growing chickens, -especially Leghorns, cannot be put among trees, as the birds will -learn to roost in the trees, causing no end of trouble to get them -broken of the habit. - -All pullets save a few culls should be saved for laying. They are to -be kept two years. They should lay sixty-five to seventy per cent as -many eggs the second year as the first. They are sold the third -summer to make room for the growing stock. - - -Twenty-five Acre Poultry Farms. - -This section will be devoted to a general discussion of the type of -poultry farms best suited to Section 4 and the southerly portions of -Section 7 as discussed in the previous chapter. - -We will discuss this type of farm with this assumption: That they -are to be developed in large numbers by co-operative or corporate -effort. This does not infer that they cannot be developed by -individual effort, and nine-tenths of the operations will remain the -same in the latter case. - -Suppose a large tract of land adjacent to railroad facilities has -been found. The land in the original survey should be divided into -long, relatively narrow strips, lying at right angles to the slope -of the land. The farmstead should occupy the highest end of the -strip. For a twenty-five acre or one-man poultry farm these strips -should be about forty rods in width. The object of this survey is to -permit the water being run by gravity to the entire farm. - -The first thing is the farmstead, including such orchard and garden -as are desired. This stretches across the entire front end of the -place. The remainder of the strip is fenced in with chicken fence. -The farm is also divided into two narrow fields by a fence down the -center of the strip. This fence, at frequent intervals, has -removable panels. - -The year's season we will begin late in the fall. All layers are in -field No. 1 pasturing on rape, top turnips or other fall crops. In -lot No. 2 is growing wheat or rye. As the green feed gets short in -the first lot the hens are let into lot No. 2. Sometime in March the -houses that have been brought up close to the gaps are drawn through -into the wheat field. The feed hoppers are also gradually moved and -the hens find themselves confined in lot No. 2 without any serious -disturbance. - -Lot No. 1 is broken up as soon as weather permits and planted in -oats, corn, Kaffir corn and perhaps a few sunflowers. The oats form -a little strip near the coops and watering places and the Kaffir -corn is on the far side. As soon as corn planting is over the farmer -begins to receive his chickens from the hatchery. The brooders are -now placed in the corn field. The object of the corn is not green -food but for a shade and a grain crop. - -The chicks are summered in the corn field and the hens in the wheat -or rye. Whether the latter will head up will depend upon the number -of the flock. It will be best to work the houses across to the far -side and let that portion near the middle fence head up. As the old -grain gets too tough for green food strips of ground should be -broken up and sown in oats. The grain that matures will not be cut, -but the hens will be allowed to thresh it out. The straw may be cut -with mower or scythe for use as nesting material. - -Sometime in June or early in July a little rape vetch or cow-peas is -drilled in between the rows of corn as on the far side from the -chicken coops. During July or about the first of August, after all -cockerels have been sold, the gates are opened and the pullets are -allowed to associate with the hens. After this acquaintance ripens -into friendship the hen houses are worked back into the pullet lots. -Surplus hens are sold off or new houses inserted as the case may be -until there is room for the pullets in the houses. Each coop is -worked up alongside a house and after most of the pullets have taken -to the houses the coops are removed. The vacant lot is now broken up -and sown in a mixture of fall green crops. - -The flock is kept in the corn field until the corn is ripe. The -Kaffir corn and sunflowers are knocked down where they stand and are -threshed by the hens. As soon as the corn crop is ripe the houses -are run back and the corn cut up or husked and the wheat planted in -the corn field. - -The next year the lots are transposed, the young stock being grown -in the lot that had the hens the previous year. - -If the ground is inclined to be at all damp when the fields are -broken up the plowing is done in narrow lands so as to form a -succession of ridges, on which are placed the coops or houses. The -directions of these ridges will be determined by the lay of the -land--the object being neither to dam up water or to encourage -washing. The location of the ridges are alternated by seasons, so -that the droppings from the houses are well distributed throughout -the soil. - -This system with the particular crops found that do best in the -locality, give us an ideal method of poultry husbandry. We have kept -hens and young stock supplied with green food the year round; we -have utilized every particle of manure without one bit of labor. We -have a rotation of crops. We have the benefits to the ground of -several green crops turned under. We have raised one grain crop per -year on most of the ground. We have no labor in feeding and watering -except the keeping of the grain, beef and grit hoppers filled, and -the water system in order. - -The number of fowls that may be kept per acre will be determined by -the richness of the soil. The chief object of the entire scheme is -to provide abundant green pasture at all times and to allow the -production of a reasonable amount of grain. With one hundred hens -per acre on the entire tract, and with houses containing eighty hens -each, it will be necessary to set the houses ninety-five feet apart. -This will give the flock a tract of 95 by 330 feet in which to -pasture. - -The above estimate with a little land allowed for house, garden, -orchard and a little cow and team pasture, will permit the keeping -of two thousand hens on a twenty-five acre farm. In regions where -grain is to be raised most farmers would want more land. They may -also wish to own a few extra cows, hogs, etc., or to alternate the -entire poultry operations with some crop that will, on such highly -fertilized land, give a good cash profit. Forty acres is a good size -for such uses. - -The cost of land when purchased in large tracts in Virginia is very -small, but the cost of clearing is often much more than that of the -land. Twenty-five to fifty dollars an acre should secure such a -tract of land and put it in shape for poultry farming. - -The cost of the farm home, etc., will, of course vary altogether -with the taste of the occupant. If they are constructed by a central -company, from five hundred to a thousand dollars should cover the -amount. - -The cost of poultry buildings and equipment used on the farm will -depend largely on the efficiency of the labor of construction. If -constructed in large numbers by a central company, the cost would be -reduced, but the company would expect to make a profit on their -work. - -A plot laid out for two thousand hens will require in material: 250 -rods of fence with 6-ft. netting which should cost about fifty cents -a rod. My estimate of this fence put up would be $150. If the -neighboring field contained no other poultry, a portion of this -fence might be done away with, although its protection against dogs -and strangers may be worth while. Of course, if poultry fields of -different owners lay adjoining, the fence must be used, but the cost -will be reduced one-half. - -The next most expensive piece of equipment will be a line of about -eighty rods of 3/4 in. gas pipe and about fifty elbows and -twenty-five galvanized iron pans. The cost of installation will -depend largely on how deep it is necessary to go to get below the -frost line. One hundred and seventy-five dollars should cover cost -of material and by the use of a plow the line ought to be put in for -twenty-five dollars. - -The source of water, and the cost of getting a head, will -necessarily vary with the location. The installation of a wind mill -and tank to hold supply for several days, or of a small gasoline -engine, would cost in the neighborhood of one hundred dollars, but -it is a luxury that may be dispensed with if the well is not too -deep. - -The houses for the hens, of which there are twenty-five, are -constructed in accordance with some of the plans previously -discussed. The cost should be about twenty-five cents per hen. - -At least twice as many brooders as colony coops will be needed as -there are hen houses, but of the lamps and hovers not over -twenty-five will be required, as the chicks soon outgrow the need of -this aid. - -This makes a list of equipment required for the keeping of two -thousand layers and their replenishing: - - 25 acres of farm land, at $50 per acre $1250.00 - 250 rods of fence 150.00 - One farmstead 1000.00 - One team, plow and farm implements 300.00 - One watering system 300.00 - 25 hen houses, at $20 500.00 - 50 colony coops, at $2.50 150.00 - 25 lamps and hovers, at $5 125.00 - -------- - $3775.00 - -[Transcriber's note: "50 colony coops, at $2.50" is $125.00, not -$150. The total should therefore be $3750 rather than $3775. This -was, presumably, a printing error, because the correct total is -used in the further calculations below.] - -This is a good, liberal capitalization. The business can be started -with much less. Figured interest at 6 per cent. we have $225.00 per -year. - -The upkeep of the plant will be about 15 per cent. on the capital, -not counting land. This equals $375, which, added to interest, gives -an annual overhead expense of $600, which is our first item to be -set against gross receipts. - -The cost of operation will involve cost of chicks at hatchery, -purchased feed, seed for ground, and feed for team. - -The price of chicks at the Petaluma hatcheries is from six to eight -cents each. We expect to raise enough pullets to make up for the -accidental losses, and to renew bulk of the flock each year. The -number required will, of course, depend upon the loss. This loss -will be much less when the chicks are obtained from a modern -moisture controlled hatchery, than from the box type incubator. I -think a 33 per cent. loss is a liberal estimate, but as I am -treading on unproven ground, I will make that loss 40 per cent., -which is on a par with old style methods. To replace 1,000 hens, -this will require 3,500 chicks at a cost of about two hundred and -fifty dollars. - -Green pasturage throughout the year will materially cut down the -cost of feed. The corn consumed out of the hoppers will be about one -bushel per hen. The beef scrap will also be less than with yarded -fowls, perhaps twenty-five cents per hen. Now, of the corn we will -raise on the land, at least ten acres. This should yield us five -hundred bushels. This leaves fifteen hundred bushels of corn to be -purchased. At the present high rates, this will cost $1,000 which, -added to beef scrap cost, makes an outside feed cost of $1,500. The -seed cost of rye, rape, cow-peas, etc., will amount to about $50 per -annum. For expense of production we have: - - Interest and upkeep of plant $600.00 - Chicks 250.00 - Purchased corn 1000.00 - Beef scrap and grit 500.00 - Seed 50.00 - Team feed 100.00 - --------- - $2,500.00 - -This figures out the cost of production at a little more than a -dollar per hen. The income from the place should be about as -follows: Eleven hundred cockerels sold as squab broilers at 40 cents -each, $440.00; four hundred and seventy-five old hens at 30 cents, -$140.00. - -The receipts from egg yield are, of course, impossible of very -accurate calculation, for it is here that the personal element that -determines success or failure enters. The Arkansas per-hen-day -figures (see last chapter), multiplied by the average quotation for -extras in the New York market, will be as fair as any, and certainly -cannot be considered a high estimate, as it is only 113 eggs per hen -per year. - - Price per doz Income for - Eggs per Extras month from - hen day in New York 2000 layers - --------------------------------------------- - January .32 $ .30 $494.00 - February .30 .29 404.00 - March .62 .22 700.00 - April .38 .19 350.00 - May .44 .19 429.00 - June .42 .18 377.00 - July .34 .21 367.00 - August .38 .22 429.00 - September .21 .25 262.00 - October .22 .28 316.00 - November .18 .33 267.00 - December .15 .32 246.00 - --------- - Total $4,641.00 - -The total income as figured will be $5,221. From this subtract the -cost of production, and we have still nearly $3,000, which is to be -combined item of wages and profit. We have entered no labor bill -because this is to be a one-man farm, and with the assistance of the -public hatchery and co-operative marketing association, which will -send a wagon right to a man's door to gather the eggs, it is -entirely feasible for one man to attend to two thousand hens. In the -rush spring season other members of the family will have to turn out -and help, or a man may be hired to attend the plowing and rougher -work. - -This is a good handsome income, and yet the above price of the man's -labor--it is only about one dollar per hen, which has always been -the estimated profit of successful poultry keeping. As a matter of -fact, this profit is seldom reached under the old system of poultry -keeping, not because the above gross income cannot be reached, but -because the expenses are greater. Under the present methods, with -the exception of the rearing of the young chicks, one man can easily -take care of three thousand hens. Indeed, practically the only work -in their care is cultivating the ground and hauling around and -dumping into hoppers, about two loads of feed per week. - -But, young chicks must be reared, and this is more laborious. For -this reason I advise going into some other industry on a part of the -land, which will not require attention in the young chick season. -One of the best things for this purpose is the cultivation of cane -fruits as blackberries, raspberries and dewberries. The work of -caring for these can be made to fall wholly without the young chick -season. Peaches and grapes for a slower profit can be added, but -spraying and cultivation of these is more liable to take spring -labor. All these fruits have the advantage of doing well in the same -kind of soil recommended for chickens. Young chickens may be grown -around such berry crops and removed to permanent quarters before the -berries ripen. Strawberries would be a very poor crop because their -labor falls in the chick season. - -Another plan, and perhaps a better one, is to have about three -fields, and rotate in such a manner that a marketable crop may be -always kept growing in the third field. Any crop may be selected, -the chief labor of which falls between July and the following March. -Late cabbage and potatoes, or celery, will do if the ground is -suitable for these crops. Kale and spinach are staple fall crops. -Fall lettuce could also be grown. If the market is glutted on such -crops, they can be fed out at home. Whenever a field is vacant, have -some crop growing on it, if only for purposes of green manuring. -Never let sandy ground lie fallow. - -A modification of the above plans suited to heavier ground, is to -seed down the entire farm to grass. It is then divided into three -fields and provided with three sets of colony houses. Coops are -entirely dispensed with, and cheap indoor brooders are used in the -permanent houses. The pullets stay in these same houses in the same -field until the moulting season of the third year, or until they are -two and a half years old. One field will always be vacant during the -fall and winter season which time may be utilized for fresh seeding. - -The difficulty of maintaining a sod will necessitate somewhat -heavier soil than by the previous plan. The houses should be moved -around occasionally, as the grass kills out in the locality. This -plan is a lazy man's way, taking the least labor of any method of -poultry keeping known. It is adapted to the cheaper ground in the -region farthest from market. On the Atlantic seaboard, the more -enterprising man will use the third field for rotation, and sell -some of the fertility of the western grain in the form of a truck -crop. - - -Five Acre Poultry Farms. - -Can a living for a family be made from a five acre poultry farm? -Yes; by individual effort, where the marketing opportunities are -good; by corporate or co-operate effort, any place where the -fundamental conditions are right. - -This type of poultry farm is well suited for development near our -large cities, where the cry of "back to the land" has filled with -new hope the discouraged dweller in flat and tenement. No greater -chance for humanitarian work, and at the same time no greater -business opportunity, is open to-day than that of the promotion of -colonies of small poultry and truck farms where the parent colony -not only sells the land, but helps the settler to establish himself -in the business and to successfully market the product. The natural -location for such projects is in the sandy soils of New Jersey, -Delaware, Maryland and Virginia. - -We have already discussed the twenty-five acre farm, representing -the largest probable unit for such an enterprise. We will now -discuss the five acre farm which represents the smallest probable -unit. - -On the five-acre farm a considerable difference of methods will be -necessary. In the first place, it is to be a horseless farm. All -hauling and plowing must be attended to by the central company, or -the same results could be obtained by a team owned in common by a -small group, say of six farmers, each of whom is to use the team one -day of the week. - -A single isolated farmer in a community of farms or market -gardeners, could hire a team by the day as he needed it. I do not -recommend this scheme, however, but would suggest that the single -individual get a larger plot of ground, at least ten acres, and a -team of his own. In the co-operative community the five-acre -teamless farm is entirely feasible. - -The tract should be surveyed about twice as long as wide, which, for -five acres, makes it 20 by 40 rods, or 330 by 660 feet. Measure off -a strip one hundred feet back from the road. Fence the remainder of -the tract. Now run a partition fence down the center until we have -come to within twelve rods of the back side. Here run a cross fence. -This gives us three yards of about one and one-half acres each. The -gates are arranged so that one passes through the three yards in a -single trip. - -Where the middle partition fence adjoins the front fence, a well is -driven. A water line is run down the partition fence to the rear -yard. - -The plot around the house is set in permanent crops, such as -berries, fruit trees, asparagus, rhubarb, etc. Of the other three -yards, at least one is kept in growing marketable crops. Every inch -is cultivated, and crops of the leafy nature, as lettuce, cabbage, -kale and spinach, are chiefly grown, as they utilize the rich -nitrogenous poultry manure to the best advantage, and the waste -portions, or worthless crops, are utilized for the poultry. The -method of supplying the fowls with green food is entirely by -soiling. This means to grow the food in an adjoining lot and throw -it over the fence. The above mentioned crops are all good for the -purpose. Rape, which is not grown for human food, is also excellent. - -Kale is one of the very best crops for soiling purposes. It is -planted in the fall and fed by pulling off the lower leaves during -the winter. In the spring the hardened stalks stand at a -considerable height and the field may be used for growing young -chicks, giving shade, and at the same time producing abundant green -feed, without any immediate labor, which means a great saving in the -busy season. - -A set of panels or netting stretched on light frames is provided. -They are of sufficient number to set along the longest side of one -of the fields. A strip along the fence, four or five feet wide, can -be planted to sunflowers, corn, rape, kale, or other rank growing -crop and the panels leaned against the fence to protect the young -plants from the hens. In this way the fence rows can be kept -provided with the shade of growing crops, which relieves the -otherwise serious fault of this plan of poultry farming, in that the -hens would be required to live in absolutely barren and sunburned -lots, for we propose to keep five or six hundred hens on one and a -half acres of ground, and no green things could get a start without -protection. - -Rotate the houses from field to field as often as the crops allow. -Never permit hens to run in one bare field for more than six months -at a time. Always keep every inch of ground not in use by the -chickens, luxuriant in something green. If you have a crop of -vegetables which are about matured, drill rape or crimson clover -between the rows; by the time the crop is harvested and the hens are -to be moved in, such crops will have made a good growth. The hens -will kill it out but it will be a "profitable killing." - -By this system of intensive combination of trucking and poultry -farming, we have a combination which for small capital and small -lands cannot be beaten. The hens should yield better than a dollar -profit per head on this plan; the one and a half acres automatically -fertilized and intensely cultivated, growing two or three crops a -year, should easily double the income. - -Twelve hundred dollars a year is a conservative estimate for the net -income from such a plant, and the original investment, exclusive of -residence, will not be over one thousand dollars. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -INCUBATION - - -The differences in the process of reproduction in birds and mammals -is frequently misunderstood. The laying of the bird's egg is not -analogous to the birth of young in mammals. - -The female, whether bird or beast, forms a true egg which must be -fertilized by the male sperm cell before the offspring can develop. -In the mammal, if fertilization does not occur, the egg which is -inconspicuous, passes out of the body and is lost. If fertilized, it -passes into the womb where the young develops through the embryonic -stages, being supplied with nourishment and oxygen directly by the -mother. - -In the bird, the egg, fertilized or unfertilized, passes out of the -body and, being of conspicuous size, is readily observed. The size -of the egg is due to the supply of food material which is comparable -with that supplied to the mammalian young during its stay in the -mother's womb. - -The reptiles lay eggs that are left to develop outside of the body -of the mother, subject to the vicissitudes of the environment. The -young of the bird, being warm blooded, cannot develop without more -uniform temperature than weather conditions ordinarily supply. This -heat is supplied by the instinctive brooding habit of the mother -bird. - - -Fertility of Eggs - -In a state of nature the number of eggs laid by wild fowl are only -as many as can be covered by the female. These are laid in the -spring of the year, and one copulation of the male bird is -sufficient to fertilize the entire clutch. Under domestication, the -hen lays quite indefinitely, and is served by the male at frequent -intervals. The fertilizing power of the male bird extends over a -period of about 15 days. - -For most of my readers, it will be unnecessary to state that the -male has no influence upon the other offspring than those which he -actually fertilizes within this period. The belief in the influence -of the first male upon the later hatches by another male is simply a -superstition. - -The domestic chicken is decidedly polygamous. The common rule is one -male to 12 or 15 hens. I have had equally good results, however, -with one male to 20 hens. In the Little Compton and South Shore -districts, one male is used for thirty or even forty hens. - -By infertile eggs is meant eggs in which the sperm cell has never -united with the ovum. Such eggs may occur in a flock from the -absence of the male, from his disinclination or physical inability -to serve the hens, from the weakness or lack of vitality in the -sperm cells, from his neglect of a particular hen, from -lifelessness, or lack of vitality in the ovule, or from chance -misses, by which some eggs fail to be reached by the sperm cells. - -In practice, lack of sexual inclination in a vigorous looking -rooster is very rare indeed. The more likely explanation is that he -neglects some hens, or that the eggs are fertilized, but the germs -die before incubation begins, or in the early stages of that -process. The former trouble may be avoided by having a relay of -roosters and shutting each one up part of the time. The latter -difficulty will be diminished by setting the egg as fresh as -possible, meanwhile storing them in a cool place. The other factors -to be considered in getting fertile eggs, are so nearly synonymous -with the problems of health and vitality in laying stock generally, -that to discuss it here would be but a repetition of ideas. - -In connection with the discussion of fertile eggs, I want to point -out the fact that the whole subject of fertility as distinct from -hatchability, is somewhat meaningless. The facts of the case are, -that whatever factors in the care of the stock will get a large -percentage fertile eggs, will also give hatchable eggs and vice -versa. This is to be explained by the fact that most of the -unfertile eggs tested out during incubation, are in reality dead -germs in which death has occurred before the chick became visible to -the naked eye. Such deaths should usually be ascribed to poor -parentage, but may be caused by wrong storage or incubation. -Likewise, it would not be just to credit all deaths after chicks -became visible to wrong incubation, although the most of the blame -probably belongs there. - -Likewise, with brooder chicks, we must divide the credit of their -livability in an arbitrary fashion between parentage, incubation, -and care after hatching. - -By the hatchability of eggs, we then mean the percentage of eggs set -that hatch chicks able to walk and eat. By the livability of chicks, -we mean the percentage of chicks hatched that live to the age of -four weeks, after which they are subject to no greater death rate -than adult chickens. By the livability of eggs, we mean the product -of these two factors, i.e.: the percentage of chicks at four weeks -of age based upon the total number of eggs set. - -As before mentioned, the fertility of eggs bears fairly definite -relation to the hatchability, so likewise the hatchability bears a -relation to the livability of chicks. When poor hatches occur -because of weak germs, as because of faulty incubation, this same -injury to the chick's organism is carried over and causes a larger -death among the hatched chicks. - -Moreover, the relation between the two is not the same with all -classes of hatches, but as hatches get poorer the mortality among -the chicks increases at an accelerating rate. The following table -gives a rough approximation of these ratios: - - Per cent. of Per cent. of chick Per cent. of egg - Hatchability. Livability. Livability. - 100 100 100 - 90 95 85 - 80 88 70 - 70 84 50 - 60 72 43 - 50 55 27 - 40 40 16 - 30 24 7 - 20 10 2 - 10 2 1 - -These figures are based on incubator data. Eggs set under hens -usually give a hatchability of 50 per cent. to 65 per cent., and -livability of 70 per cent. to 80 per cent. The reason for the -greater livability is that the real hatchability of the eggs is 70 -per cent. to 75 per cent., and is reduced by mechanical breakage. -The hatchability of eggs varies with the season. This variation is -commonly ascribed to nature, it being stated that springtime is the -natural breeding season, and therefore eggs are of greater -fertility. - -While there may be a little foundation for this idea, the chief -cause is to be found in the manner of artificial incubation, as will -be discussed in a later section of this chapter. The following table -is given as the seasonable hatchability for northern states. This is -based on May hatch of 50 per cent: - - January 38 July 40 - February 42 August 40 - March 47 September 42 - April 49 October 43 - May 50 November 40 - June 46 December 35 - -Most people have an exaggerated idea of the hen's success as a -hatcher. I have a number of records of hen hatching with large -numbers of eggs set, and they are all between 55 per cent. and 60 -per cent. The reasons the hen does not hatch better are as follows: - -First: Actual infertile eggs--usually, running about 10 per cent. in -the best season of the year. - -Second: Mechanical breakage. - -Third: Eggs accidentally getting chilled by rolled to one side of -the nests, or by the sick, lousy or crazy hens leaving the nests or -standing up on the eggs. - -Fourth: Eggs getting damp from wet nests, dung or broken eggs; thus -causing bacterial infection and decay. - -The last three causes are not present in artificial incubation. From -my observation they cause a loss of 15 per cent. of the eggs that -fail to hatch, when hens are managed in large numbers. This would -properly credit our hens with hatches running from 70 per cent. to -75 per cent., which, for reasons later explained, is not equal to -hatches under the best known conditions of artificial incubation. - -The assumption that the hen is a perfect hatcher, even barring -accidents and the inherited imperfection of the egg, is not, I -think, in harmony with our general conception of nature. Not only -are eggs under the hens subject to unfavorable weather conditions, -but the hen, to satisfy her whims or hunger, frequently remains too -long away from the eggs, allowing them to become chilled. - -For directions of how to manage setting hens, consult the Chapter on -"Poultry on the General Farm." - - -The Wisdom of the Egyptians. - -Up to the present there have been just three types of artificial -incubation that have proven successful enough to warrant our -attention. These are: - -First, the modern wooden-box-kerosene-lamp incubator which is seen -at its best development in the United States. - -Second, the Egyptian incubator of ancient origin, which is a large -clay oven holding thousands of eggs and warmed by smouldering fires -of straw. - -Third, the Chinese incubator, much on the principle of the Egyptian -hatchery, but run in the room of an ordinary house, heated with -charcoal braziers and used only for duck eggs. - -I have no accurate information on the results of the Chinese method, -and as it is not used for hen eggs, we will confine our attention to -the first two processes only. - -I do not care to go into detail in discussing makes of box -incubators, but I will mention briefly the chief points in the -development of our present machines. - -The first difficulties were in getting lamps, regulators, etc., that -would give a uniform temperature. This now has been worked out to a -point where, with any good incubator and an experienced operator, -the temperature of the egg chamber is readily kept within the -desired range. - -These are two principal types of box incubators now in use. In the -earliest of these, the eggs were heated by radiation from a tank of -hot water. These machines depended for ventilation or, what is much -more important, evaporation, upon chance air currents passing in and -out of augur holes in the ends or bottom of the machine. - -The second, or more modern type, warms the eggs by a current of air -which passes around a lamp flue where, being made lighter by the -expansion due to heat, the air rises, creating a draft that forces -it into the egg chamber. There it is caused to spread by muslin or -felt diaphragms so that no perceptible current of air strikes the -eggs. This type is the most popular type of small incubator on the -market. Its advantage will be more readily seen after the discussion -of the principles of incubation. - -Hazy tales of Egyptian incubators have gone the rounds of poultry -papers these many years. More recently some accurate accounts from -American travelers and European investigators have come to light, -and as a result, the average poultry editor is kept busy trying to -explain how such wonderful results can be obtained "in opposition to -the well-known laws of incubation." - -The facts about Egyptian incubators are as follows: They have a -capacity of 50 to 100 thousand eggs, and are built as a single large -room, partly underground and made of clay reinforced with straw. The -walls are two or three feet thick. Inside, the main rooms are little -clay domes with two floors. - -The hatching season begins the middle of January and lasts three -months. A couple of weeks before the hatching begins, the fireproof -house is filled with straw which is set afire, thoroughly warming -the hatchery. The ashes are then taken out and little fires built in -pots are set around the outside of the big room. The little clay -rooms with the double floors are now filled with eggs. That is, one -is filled at a time, the idea being to have fresh eggs entering and -chicks moving out in a regular order, so as not to cause radical -changes in the temperature of the hatchery. - -No thermometer is used, but the operator has a very highly -cultivated sense of temperature, such as is possessed by a cheese -maker or dynamite dryer. About the twelfth day the eggs are moved to -the upper part of the little interior rooms where they are further -removed from the heated floor. The eggs are turned and tested out -much as in this country. They are never cooled and the room is full -of the fumes and smoke of burning straw. The ventilation provided is -incidental. - -This is about the whole story save for results. The incubator men -pay back three chicks for four eggs, and take their profits by -selling the extra chicks that are hatched above the 75 per cent. -This statement is in itself so astonishing and yet convincing, that -to add that the hatch runs between 85 per cent. and 90 per cent. of -all eggs set, and that the incubators of the Nile Delta hatch about -75,000,000 chicks a year seems almost superfluous. As for the -explanation of the results of the Egyptian incubators compared with -the American kerosene lamp type, I think it can best be brought -about by a consideration in detail of the scientific principles of -incubators. - - -Principles of Incubation. - -HEAT.--To keep animal life, once started, alive and growing, we -need: First, a suitable surrounding temperature. Second, a fairly -constant proportion of water in the body substance. Third, oxygen. -Fourth, food. - -Now, a fertile egg is a living young animal and as such its wants -should be considered. We may at once dispose of the food problem of -the unhatched chick, by saying that the food is the contents of the -egg at the time of laying, and as far as incubation is concerned, is -beyond our control. - -In consideration of external temperature in its relation to life, we -should note: (A) the optimum temperature; (B) the range of -temperature consistent with general good health; (C) the range at -which death occurs. Just to show the principle at stake, and without -looking up authorities, I will state these temperatures for a number -of animals. Of course you can dispute the accuracy of these figures, -but they will serve to illustrate our purpose: - - - External External External Internal Internal - Optimum Healthful Fatal Optimum Fatal - Point Range Range Point Range - - Man 70 0 to 100 50 to 140 98 90 to 106 - - Dog 60 70 to 140 70 to 140 101 95 to 110 - - Monkey 90 30 to 140 30 to 140 101 95 to 108 - - Horse 80 20 to 120 20 to 120 99 95 to 105 - - Fowl 80 20 to 140 20 to 140 107 100 to 115 - - Newly hatched - chick 90 70 to 100 40 to 120 108 100 to 115 - - Fertile egg - at start of - incubation 103 32 to 110 31 to 125 103 31 to 125 - - Egg incubated - three days 103 98 to 105 80 to 118 103 95 to 118 - - Egg incubated - eighteen days 103 75 to 105 50 to 118 106 98 to 116 - -This table shows, among other things, that we are considering in the -chick not a new proposition to which the laws of general animal life -do not apply, but merely a young animal during the process of growth -to a point where its internal mechanism for heat control, has power -to maintain the body temperature through a greater range of external -temperature change. - -In the cooling process that occurs after laying the living cells of -the egg become dormant, and like a hibernating animal, the actual -internal temperature can be subjected to a much greater range than -when the animal is active. After incubation begins and cell activity -returns, and especially after blood forms and circulation commences, -the temperature of the chick becomes subject to about the same -internal range as with other warm blooded animals. - -In the case of fully formed animals, the internal temperature is -regulated by a double process. If the external temperature be -lowered, more food substance is combined with oxygen to keep up the -warmth of the body, while, if the external temperature be raised, -the body temperature is kept low by the cooling effects of -evaporation. This occurs in mammals chiefly by sweating. Birds do -not sweat, but the same effect is brought about by increased -breathing. Now, the chick gradually develops the heat producing -function during incubation, until towards the close of the period it -can take care of itself fairly well in case of lowered external -temperature. The power to cool the body by breathing is not, -however, granted to the unhatched chick, and for this reason the -incubating egg cannot stand excess of heat as well as lack of it. - -The practical points to be remembered from the above are: - -First: Before incubation begins, eggs may be subjected to any -temperature that will not physically or chemically injure the -substance. - -Second: During the first few days of the hatch, eggs have no -appreciable power of heat formation and the external temperature for -any considerable period of time can safely vary only within the -range of temperature at which the physiological process may be -carried on. - -Third: As the chick develops it needs less careful guarding against -cooling, and must still be guarded against over-heating. - -Fourth: It should be remembered, however, that eggs are very poor -conductors of heat, and if the temperature change is not great -several hours of exposure are required to bring the egg to the new -temperature. - -Temperature is the most readily observed feature about natural -incubation and its control was consequently the first and chief -effort of the early incubator inventors. - -A great deal of experimental work has been done to determine the -degree of temperature for eggs during incubation. The temperature of -the hen's blood is about 105 to 107 degrees F. The eggs are not -warmed quite to this temperature, the amount by which they fail to -reach the temperature of the hen's body depending, of course, upon -the surrounding temperature. 103 degrees F. is the temperature that -has been generally agreed upon by incubator manufacturers. Some of -these advise running 102 degrees the first week, 103 degrees the -second, 104 degrees the third. As a matter of fact it is very -difficult to determine the actual temperature of the egg in the box -incubator. This is because the source of heat is above the eggs and -the air temperature changes rapidly as the thermometer is raised or -lowered through the egg chamber. The advice to place the bulb of the -thermometer against the live egg is very good, but in practice quite -variable results will be found on different eggs and different parts -of the machine. - -With incubators of the same make, and in all appearances identical, -quite marked variation in hatching capacity has been observed in -individual machines. Careful experimentation will usually show this -to be a matter of the way the thermometer is hung in relation to the -heating surfaces and to the eggs. Ovi-thermometers, which consists -of a thermometer enclosed in the celluloid imitation of an egg, are -now in the market and are perhaps as safe as anything that can be -used. - -As was indicated in the previous section greater care in temperature -of the egg is necessary in the first half of the hatch. The -temperature of 102 degrees F. as above given is, in the writer's -opinion, too low for this portion of the hatch. An actual -temperature of 104 degrees at the top of the eggs will, as has been -shown by careful experimental work, give better hatches than the -lower temperature. - - -Moisture and Evaporation. - -The subject of the water content of the egg and its relation to -life, is the least understood of poultry problems. - -The whole study of the water content of the egg during incubation -hangs on the amount of evaporation. Now, the rates of evaporation -from any moist object is determined by two factors: vapor pressure -and the rate of movement of the air past the object. As incubation -is always carried on at the same temperature, the evaporating power -of the air is directly proportioned to the difference in the vapor -pressure of water at that temperature, and the vapor pressure of the -air as it enters the machine. Thus, in order to know the evaporative -power of the air, we have only to determine the vapor pressure of -the air and to remember that the rate of evaporation is in -proportion to this pressure, i.e.: when the vapor pressure is high -the evaporation will be slow and the eggs remain too wet, and when -the vapor pressure is low the eggs will be excessively dried out. - -The reader is probably more familiar with the term relative humidity -than the term vapor pressure, but as the actual significance of -relative humidity is changed at every change in outside temperature, -the use of this term for expressing the evaporating power of the air -has led to no end of confusion. - -The influence of air currents on evaporation is to increase it -directly proportional with the rate of air movement. Thus, 10 cubic -feet of air per hour passing through an egg chamber would remove -twice as much moisture as would 5 cubic feet. - -If the percentage of water in any living body be changed a -relatively small amount, serious disturbances of the physiological -processes and ultimately death will result. The mature animal can, -by drinking, take considerable excess of water without danger, for -the surplus will be speedily removed by perspiration and by the -secretion from the kidneys. But the percentage of water in the -actual tissues of the body can vary only within a narrow range of -not more than three or four per cent. The chick in the shell is not -provided with means of increasing its water content by drinking or -diminishing it by excretion, but the fresh egg is provided with more -moisture than the hatched chick will require, and the surplus is -gradually lost by evaporation. This places the water content of the -chick's body at the mercies of the evaporating power of the air that -surrounds the egg during incubation. - -To assume that these risks of uncertain rates of evaporation is -desirable, is as absurd as to assume that the risks of rainfall are -desirable for plant life. As the plants of a certain climate have -become adapted to the amount of soil moisture which the climate is -likely to provide, so the egg has by natural selection been formed -with about as much excess of water as will be lost in an average -season under the natural conditions of incubation. Plant life -suffers in drought or flood, and likewise bird life suffers in -seasons of abnormal evaporative conditions. This view is -substantiated by the fact that the eggs of water fowl which are in -nature incubated in damper places, have a lower water content than -the eggs of land birds. - -The per cent. of water contained in the contents of fresh eggs is -about 74 per cent., or about 65.5 per cent, based on the weight, -shell included. Unfortunately no investigations have been made -concerning the per cent. of water present in the newly hatched -chick. - -Upon the subject of the loss of water for the whole period of -incubation, valuable data has been collected at the Utah, Oregon and -Ontario Experiment Stations. - -In these tests we find that as a rule the evaporation of eggs under -hens is less than in incubators. With both hens and incubators, the -rate of evaporation is greatest at the Utah Station, which one would -naturally expect from the climate. The eggs under hens at the -Ontario Station averaged about 12 per cent. loss in weight, and -those at the Utah Station about 15 per cent. At both stations, -incubators without moisture ran several per cent. higher evaporation -than eggs under hens. The conclusions at all stations were that the -addition of moisture to incubators was a material aid to good -hatches of livable chicks. - -At Ontario the average evaporation ran from as low as 7 per cent. At -Utah it reached as high as 24 per cent. Now as the entire loss of -weight is loss of water, the solid contents remaining the same, and -as the original per cent, of water contained in the egg (shell -included) is only 65.5, the chicks of the two lots with the same -amount of solid substance would contain water in the proportion of -58.5 to 41.5. Based on the weight of the chick, this would make a -difference of water content of over 25 per cent. - -That human beings or other animals could not exist with such -differences in the chemical composition of the body, is at once -apparent. In fact I do not believe that the chick can live under -such remarkable circumstances. As I have picked the extreme cases in -the series given, it is possible that these extremes were -experimental errors, and as in the Utah data, no information is -given as what happened to the chicks, I have no proof that they did -live. But from the large number of hatches that were recorded below -9 per cent, and above 15 per cent., giving a variation of the actual -water content in the chick's body of about 10 per cent., it is -evident that chicks do hatch under remarkable physiological -difficulties. One explanation that suggests itself is, that as there -is considerable variation in evaporation of individual eggs due to -the amount of shell porosity, and the chicks that hatch in either -case may be the ones whose individual variations threw them nearer -the normal. - -By a further study from the Ontario data of the relation of the -evaporation to the results in livable chicks, it can be readily -observed that all good hatches have evaporation centering around the -12 per cent. moisture loss, and that all lots with evaporations -above 15 per cent. hatch out extremely poor. - -The general averages of the machines supplied with some form of -moisture was 35 per cent. of all eggs set, in chicks alive at four -weeks of age, while the machines ran dry gave only 20 per cent. of -live chicks at a similar period. - -Now, I wish to call attention to a further point in connection with -evaporation. If the final measure of the loss of weight by -evaporation were the only criterion of correct conditions of -moisture in the chick's body, the hatches that show 12 per cent., or -whatever the correct amount of evaporation may be, should be -decidedly superior to those on either side. That they are better, -has already been shown. But they are far from what they should be. -An explanation is not hard to find. The correct content of moisture -is not the only essential to the chick's well being at the moments -of hatching, but during the whole period of incubation. Under our -present system of incubation, the chick is immediately subject to -the changing evaporation of American weather conditions. The data -for that fact, picked at random, will be of interest. The following -table gives the vapor pressure at Buffalo, N. Y., for twenty -consecutive days in April: - -April 1..................170 - 2..................130 - 3...................95 - 4..................103 - 5..................110 - 6..................106 - 7..................154 - 8..................183 - 9..................245 - 10.................311 - 11.................342 - 12.................286 - 13.................219 - 14.................248 - 15.................217 - 16.................193 - 17.................241 - 18.................306 - 19.................261 - 20.................204 - -Supposing a hatch to be started at the beginning of the above -period, by the end of the first week, with the excessive -evaporation, due to a low vapor pressure, the eggs would all be -several per cent. below the normal water content; the fact that the -next week was warm and rainy, and the vapor pressure rose until the -loss was entirely counterbalanced, would not repair the injury, even -though the eggs showed at the end of incubation exactly the correct -amount of shrinkage. A man might thirst in the desert for a week, -then, coming to a hole of water fall in and drown, but we would -hardly accept the report of a normal water content found at the -post-mortem examination as evidence that his death was not connected -with the moisture problem. - -The change of evaporation, due to weather conditions, is, under -hens, less marked than in incubators. This is because there are no -drafts under the hen, and because the hen's moist body and the moist -earth, if she sets on the ground, are separate sources of moisture -which the changing humidity of the atmosphere does not affect. Among -about forty hens set at different times at the Utah Station and the -loss of moisture of which was determined at three equal periods of -six days each, the greatest irregularity I found was as follows: 1st -period, 5.81 per cent; 2d period, 3.86 per cent; 3d period, 6.15 per -cent. Compare this with a similar incubator record at the same -station in which the loss for the three periods was 5.63, 9.18 and -2.15. - -I think the reader is now in position to appreciate the almost -unsurmountable difficulties in the proper control of evaporation -with the common small incubator in our climate. It is little wonder -that one of our best incubator manufacturers, after studying the -proposition for some time, threw over the whole moisture -proposition, and put out a machine in which drafts of air were -slowed down by felt diaphragms and the use of moisture was strictly -forbidden. - -The moisture problem to the small incubator operator presents itself -as follows: If left to the mercies of chance and the weather, the -too great or too little evaporation from his eggs will yield hatches -that will prove unprofitable. In order to regulate this evaporation, -he must know and be able to control both vapor pressure and the -currents of air that strike the eggs. Now he does not know the -amount of vapor pressure and has no way of finding it out. The -so-called humidity gauges on the market are practically worthless, -and even were the readings on relative humidity accurately -determined, they would be wholly confusing, for their effect of the -same relative humidity on the evaporation will vary widely with -variations of the out-of-door temperature. - -If the operator knows or guesses that the humidity is too low, he -can increase it by adding water to the room, or the egg chamber, but -he cannot tell when he has too much, nor can he reduce the vapor -pressure of the air on rainy days when nature gives him too much -water. As to air currents he is little better off--he has no way to -tell accurately as to the behavior of air in the egg chamber and -changes in temperature of the heater or if the outside air will -throw these currents all off, since they depend upon the draft -principle. - -Taking it all in all, the man with the small incubator had better -follow the manufacturer's directions and trust to luck. - -The writer has long been of the conviction that a plan which would -keep the rate of evaporation within as narrow bounds as we now keep -the temperature, would not only solve the problem of artificial -incubation, but improve on nature and increase not only the numbers -but the vitality or livability of the chicks. With a view of -studying further the relations between the conditions of atmospheric -vapor pressure, and the success of artificial incubation, I have -investigated climatic reports and hatching records in the various -sections of the world. - -The following are averages of the monthly vapor pressures at four -points in which we are interested: - - Buffalo, St. Louis, San Fran- Cairo - Month N.Y. Mo. cisco. Egypt - January 87 98 311 279 - February 81 94 310 288 - March 138 224 337 287 - April 171 283 332 311 - May 301 423 317 328 - June 466 550 345 365 - July 546 599 374 413 - August 496 627 382 435 - September 429 506 389 372 - October 285 327 342 365 - November 271 225 285 321 - December 143 133 243 397 - -A study of the extent of daily variations is also of interest. As a -general thing they are less extreme in localities when the seasonal -variations are also less. In Cairo, however, which has a seasonal -variation greater than San Francisco, the daily variations during -the hatching season are much less than in California. This is due to -a constant wind from sea to land, and an absolute absence of -rainfall, conditions for which Egypt is noted. - -Nearness to a coast does not mean uniform vapor pressure, for with -wind alternating from sea to land, it means just the opposite. - -As will be readily seen the months in spring which give the best -hatches, occupy a medium place in the humidity scale. The fact that -both hens and machines succeed best in this period, is to me very -suggestive of the possibility that with an incubator absolutely -controlling evaporation, much of the seasonal variation in the -hatchability would disappear. - -The uniform humidity of the California coast is shown in the above -table. This is not inconsistent with the excellent results obtained -at Petaluma. - -The Egyptian hatcher in his long experience has learned just about -how much airholes and smudge fire are necessary to get results. With -these kept constant and the atmosphere constant, we have more nearly -perfect conditions of incubation than are to be found anywhere else -in the world, and I do not except the natural methods. The climatic -conditions of Egypt cannot be equaled in any other climate, but as -will be shown in the last section of this chapter, their effect can -be duplicated readily enough by modern science and engineering. - -Mr. Edward Brown, who was sent over here by the English Government -to investigate our poultry industry, was greatly surprised at our -poor results in artificial incubation. Compared with our -acknowledged records of less than 50 per cent. hatches, he quotes -the results obtained in hatching 18,000 eggs at an English -experiment station as 62 per cent. I have not obtained any data of -English humidity, but it is undoubtedly more uniform than the -eastern United States. - - -Ventilation--Carbon Dioxide. - -The last of the four life requisites we have to consider is that of -oxygen. The chick in the shell, like a fish, breathes oxygen which -is dissolved in a liquid. A special breathing organ is developed for -the chick during its embryonic stages and floats in the white and -absorbs the oxygen and gives off carbon dioxide. The amount of this -breathing that occurs in the chick is at first insignificant, but -increases with development. At no time, however, is it anywhere -equal to that of the hatched chicks, for the physiological function -to be maintained by the unhatched chicks requires little energy and -little oxidation. - -Upon the subject of ventilation in general, a great misunderstanding -exists. Be it far from me to say anything that will cause either my -readers or his chickens to sleep less in the fresh air, yet for the -love of truth and for the simplification of the problem of -incubation, the real facts about ventilation must be given. - -In breathing, oxygen is absorbed and carbon dioxide and water vapor -are given off. It is popularly held that abundance of fresh air is -necessary to supply the oxygen for breathing and that carbon dioxide -is a poison. Both are mistakes. The amount of oxygen normally in the -air is about 20 per cent. Of carbon dioxide there is normally three -hundredths of one per cent. During breathing these gasses are -exchanged in about equal volume. A doubling or tripling of carbon -dioxide was formerly thought to be "very dangerous." Now, if the -carbon dioxide were increased 100 times, we would have only three -per cent., and have seventeen per cent. of oxygen remaining. This -oxygen would still be of sufficient pressure to readily pass into -the blood. We might breathe a little faster to make up for the -lessened oxygen pressure. In fact such a condition of the air would -not be unlike the effects of higher altitudes. - -Some investigations recently conducted at the U.S. Experiment -Station for human nutrition, have shown the utter misconception of -the old idea of ventilation. The respiratory calorimeter is an -air-tight compartment in which men are confined for a week or more -at a time while studies are being made concerning heat and energy -yielded by food products. It being inconvenient to analyze such an -immense volume of air as would be necessary to keep the room -freshened according to conventional ventilation standards, -experiments were made to see how vitiated the air could be made -without causing ill effects to the subject. - -This led to a remarkable series of experiments in which it was -repeatedly demonstrated that a man could live and work for a week at -a time without experiencing any ill effects whatever in an -atmosphere of his own breath containing as high as 1.86 per cent. of -carbon dioxide, or, in other words, the air had its impurity -increased 62 times. This agrees with what every chemist and -physiologist has long known, and that is that carbon dioxide is not -poisonous, but is a harmless dilutant just as nitrogen. This does -not mean that a man or animal may not die of suffocation, but that -these are smothered, as they are drowned, by a real absence of -oxygen, not poisoned by a fraction of 1 per cent. of carbon dioxide. - -In the same series of experiments, search was made for the -mysterious poisons of the breath which many who had learned of the -actual harmlessness of carbon dioxide alleged to be the cause of the -ill effects attributed to foul air. Without discussion, I will say -that the investigators failed to find such poisons, but concluded -that the sense of suffocation in an unventilated room is due not to -carbon dioxide or other "poisonous" respiratory products, but is -wholly due to warmth, water vapor, and the unpleasant odors given -off by the body. - -The subject of ventilation has always been a bone of contention in -incubator discussions. With its little understood real importance, -as shown in the previous section, and the greatly exaggerated -popular notions of the importance of oxygen and imagined poisonous -qualities of carbon dioxide, the confusion in the subject should -cause little wonder. - -A few years ago some one with an investigating mind decided to see -if incubators were properly ventilated, and proceeded to make carbon -dioxide determinations of the air under a hen and in an incubator. -The air under the hen was found to contain the most of the obnoxious -gas. Now, this information was disconcerting, for the hen had always -been considered the source of all incubator wisdom. Clearly the -perfection of the hen or the conception of pure air must be -sacrificed. Chemistry here came to the rescue, and said that carbon -dioxide mixed with water, formed an acid and acid would dissolve the -lime of an egg shell. Evidently the hen was sacrificing her own -health by breathing impure air in order to soften up the shells a -little so the chicks could get out. Since it could have been -demonstrated in a few hours in any laboratory, that carbon dioxide -in the quantities involved, has no perceptible effect upon egg -shells, it is with some apology that I mention that quite a deal of -good brains has been spent upon the subject by two experiment -stations. The data accumulated, of course, fails to prove the -theory, but it is interesting as further evidence of the -needlessness in the old fear of insufficient ventilation. - -At the Ontario Station, the average amounts of carbon dioxide under -a large number of hens was .32 of one per cent., or about ten times -that of fresh air, or one-sixth of that which the man breathed so -happily in the respiratory calorimeter. With incubators, every -conceivable scheme was tried to change the amount of carbon dioxide. -In some, sour milk was placed which, in fermenting, gives off the -gas in question. Others were supplied with buttermilk, presumably to -familiarize the chickens with this article so they would recognize -it in the fattening rations. In other machines, lamp fumes were run -in, and to still others, pure carbon dioxide was supplied. The -percentage of the gas present varied in the machines from .06 to .58 -of one per cent. The results, of course, vary as any run of hatches -would. The detailed discussion of the hatches and their relation to -the amount of carbon dioxide as given in Bulletin 160 of the Ontario -Station, would be unfortunately confusing to the novice, but would -make amusing reading for the old poultryman. Speaking of a -comparison of two hatches, the writer, on page 53 of the bulletin -says, "The increase in vitality of chicks from the combination of -the carbon dioxide and moisture over moisture only, amounting, as it -does, to 4.5 per cent. of the eggs set, seems directly due to the -higher carbon dioxide content." I cannot refrain from suggesting -that if my reader has two incubators, he might set up a Chinese -prayer machine in front of one and see if he cannot in like manner -demonstrate the efficacy of Heavenly supplications in the hatching -of chickens. - -The practical bearing of the subject of ventilation in the small -incubator is almost wholly one of evaporation. The majority of such -machines are probably too much ventilated. In a large and properly -constructed hatchery, such as is discussed in the last section of -this chapter, the entire composition of the air, as well as its -movement, is entirely under control. Nothing has yet been brought to -light that indicates any particular attention need be given to the -composition of such air save in regard to its moisture content, but -as the control of this factor renders it necessary that the air be -in a closed circuit, and not open to all out-doors, it will be very -easy to subject the air to further changes such as the increasing -oxygen, if such can be demonstrated to be desirable. - - -Turning Eggs. - -The subject of turning eggs is another source of rather meaningless -controversy. Of course, the hen moves her eggs around and in doing -so turns them. Doubtless the reader, were he setting on a pile of -door knobs as big as his head, would do the same thing. As proof -that eggs need turning, we are referred to the fact that yolks stick -to the shell if the eggs are not turned. I have candled thousands of -eggs and have yet to see a yolk stuck to the shell unless the egg -contained foreign organism or was several months old. However, I -have seen hundreds of blood rings stuck to the shell. Whether the -chick died because the blood rings stuck or whether the blood rings -stuck because the chicken died I know not, but I have a strong -presumption that the latter explanation is correct, for I see no -reason if the live blood ring was in the habit of sticking to the -shell, why this would not occur in a few hours as well as in a few -days. - -In the year 1901 I saw plenty of chicks hatched out in Kansas in egg -cases, kitchen cupboards and other places where regular turning was -entirely overlooked. - -Mr. J.P. Collins, head of the Produce Department of Swift & Co., -says that he was one time cruelly deserted in a Pullman smoker for -telling the same story. The statement is true, however, in spite of -Mr. Collins' unpleasant experience. Texas egg dealers frequently -find hatched chickens in cases of eggs. - -Upon the subject of turning eggs the writer will admit that he is -doing what poultry writers as a class do on a great many occasions, -i.e.: expressing an opinion rather than giving the proven facts. In -incubation practice it is highly desirable to change the position of -eggs so that unevenness in temperature and evaporation will be -balanced. When doing this it is easier to turn the eggs than not to -turn them, and for this reason the writer has never gone to the -trouble of thoroughly investigating the matter. But it has been -abundantly proven that any particular pains in egg turning is a -waste of time. - - -Cooling Eggs. - -The belief in the necessity of cooling eggs undoubtedly arose from -the effort to follow closely and blindly in the footsteps of the -hen. With this idea in mind the fact that the hen cooled her eggs -occasionally led us to discover a theory which proved such cooling -to be necessary. A more reasonable theory is that the hen cools the -eggs from necessity, not from choice. In some species of birds the -male relieves the female while the latter goes foraging. - -But there is no need to argue the question. Eggs will hatch if -cooled according to custom, but that they will hatch as well or -better without the cooling is abundantly proven by the results in -Egyptian incubators where no cooling whatever is practiced. - - -Searching for the "Open Sesame" of Incubation. - -The experiment station workers have, the last few years, gone a -hunting for the weak spot in artificial incubation. Some reference -to this work has already been made in the sections on moisture and -ventilation. Before leaving the subject I want to refer to two more -efforts to find this key to the mystery of incubation and in the one -case at least correct an erroneous impression that has been given -out. - -At the Ontario Station a patent disinfectant wash called "Zenoleum" -was incidentally used to deodorize incubators. Now, for some reason, -perhaps due to the belief that white diarrhoea was caused by a germ -in the egg, this idea of washing with Zenoleum was conceived to be a -possible solution of the incubator problem. In the numerous -experiments at that station in 1907 Zenoleum applied to the machine -in various ways was combined with various other incipient panaceas -and at the end of the season the results of the various combinations -were duly tabulated. The machine with buttermilk and Zenoleum headed -the list for livable chicks. - -For reasons explained in the chapter on "Experiment Station Work," -the idea of contrasting the results of one hatch with one sort with -the average results of many hatches of another sort is very poor -science. Feeling that the Station men would hardly be guilty of -expressing as they did in favor of such a method without better -reason, I very carefully went over the results and compared all -machines using Zenoleum with all machines without it. The results in -favor of Zenoleum were less marked but still perceptible. I was -somewhat puzzled, as I could see no rational explanation of the -relation between disinfecting incubator walls and the hatchability -of the chick in its germ-proof cage. Finally I hit upon the scheme -of arranging the hatches by dates and the explanation became at once -apparent. The hatching experiments had extended from March to July, -but the Zenoleum hatches were grouped in April and early in May, -when, as one would expect from weather conditions, all hatches were -running good. After allowing for this error Zenoleum appeared as -harmless and meaningless as would the Attar of Roses. - -The second link after the missing link of incubation to which I wish -to call your attention also occurred at the Ontario Station. The -latter case, however, is happier in that no unwarranted conclusions -were drawn and that an interesting bit of scientific knowledge was -added to the world's store. The conception to be tested was an -offshoot from the carbon dioxide theory. You will remember at the -Utah Station the idea was that carbon dioxide was to dissolve the -shell so the chick could break out easier. - -At the Guelph Station the conception was that the carbon dioxide -might dissolve the lime of the shell for the chick to use in "makin' -hisself." As an egg could not be analyzed fresh and then hatched, a -number were analyzed from the same hens and others from those hens -were then incubated with the various amounts of carbon dioxide, -buttermilk, Zenoleum, and other factors. The lime content of the -contents of the fresh egg averaged about .04 grams. At hatching time -the lime in the chick's body averaged about .20 grams and was always -several times as great as the maximum of the eggs. - -Clearly calcium phosphate of the chick's bones is made by the -digestion of the calcium carbonate from the shell and its -combination with the phosphorus of the yolk. Certainly a remarkable -and hitherto unexplained fact. The amount of lime required is not -great enough, however, to materially weaken the shell, but, of -course, the process is vital to the chick as bones are quite -essential to his welfare, but it is an "inside affair" of which the -three-tenths of one per cent of carbon dioxide incidentally present -under the hen is entirely irrelevant. - -A further observation made by the investigator is that the chicks -which obtained the lowest amount of lime were abnormally weak. As -long as we are powerless to aid the chick in digesting lime this -fact, like the other, belongs in the field of pure, rather than -applied science. I think that we are safe in saying that the -weakness caused the shortage of lime rather than vice versa; if the -writer remembers runts in other animals are usually a little short -of bone material. - -The chemist of the station is to be given special credit for not -jumping at conclusions. In the summary of this work he states: -"There is apparently no connection between the amount of lime -absorbed by the chick and the amount of carbon dioxide present -during incubation." - - -The Box Type of Incubator In Actual Use. - -Although the fact is not so advertised and frequently not recognized -even by the makers, the success of existing incubators is directly -proportional to the extent with which they control evaporation. In -order to show this I have only to call attention briefly to two or -three of the most successful types of incubators on the market. - -Let me first repeat that evaporation increases with increased air -currents and with decreased vapor pressure. Now, the vapor pressure -undergoes all manner of changes with the passing of storm centers -and the changes of prevailing winds. But there is a general tendency -for vapor pressure to increase with increase in outside temperature. -Now, the movement of air in all common incubators depends upon the -draft principle and the greater the difference in machine -temperature and outside temperature the greater will be this draft. -Thus, we have two factors combining to cause variation in the rate -of evaporation. The tendency for the rate of airflow to vary is -diminished when a cellar is used for an incubator room, but the -cellar does not materially remedy the climatic variation in vapor -pressure. - -The general tendency of incubators as ordinarily constructed, is to -dry out the eggs too rapidly. With a view of counteracting this, -water is placed in pans in the egg room. A surface of water exposed -to quiet air does not evaporate as fast as one might think, as is -easily shown by the fact that air above rivers, lakes and even seas -is frequently far from the saturation point. The result of the -moisture pan with a given current of air is that the vapor pressure -is increased a definite amount, but by no means is it regulated or -made uniform. Inasmuch as too much shrinking is the most prevalent -fault in box incubators, the use of moisture is on the whole -beneficial, but in hot, murky weather, with less circulation and -higher outside vapor pressure, the moisture is overdone and the -operator condemns the system. - -The subject not being clearly understood and no means being -available for vapor pressure determinations, the system results in -confusion and disputes. When the felt diaphragm machine was brought -into the market it was advertised as a no-moisture machine. The -result of the diaphragm is that of choking off air movement and -consequently reducing evaporation. This gives exactly the same -results as the use of moisture, but the machine is easier to operate -and seemed to do away with the vexatious moisture problem which, -together perhaps, with some fancied resemblance of felt diaphragms -to hen feathers, has resulted in the widespread use of this type of -machine. - -The latest effort along the lines of reducing evaporation is the -sand tray machine that followed in the wake of the Ontario -investigation. This device simply gives a greater evaporating -surface to the water and hence a greater addition to the vapor -pressure. The results in practice I had given me by a man who last -year hatched sixty-five thousand chicks and as many more ducklings. - -He said: "The sand tray early in the season gave the best hatches -and most vigorous chicks we had, but later on things got too wet and -the chickens drowned." No nicer demonstration of science in practice -could be desired. - -In the present-day incubator of either type we are wholly at the -mercy of sudden climatic changes of vapor pressure. For the slower -changes from season to season some control by greater and less -amounts of supplied moisture, or by ventilator slides is available, -but little understood and seldom practiced. - -It will certainly be of interest to my readers to know the actual -hatches obtained with the prevailing type of box incubator. By -actual hatches we mean the per cent. of live chicks taken out of the -machine to the per cent. of eggs put in. The ordinary published -hatches, based on one per cent. of fertile hatches, are a delusion -and a snare. When eggs are tested out many dead germs come out with -them and the separation of microscopic dead germs from the infertile -egg is, of course, impossible. Such padded and show hatching records -do not interest us. - -Where incubators are run on top of the ground I have found the -results to be poor and to improve, the bigger and deeper and damper -and warmer and less ventilated the cellar is made. The reason for -this is plain. In such a cellar the vapor pressure of the air is not -only greater but is less influenced by the shifting vapor pressure -of the outside air. In a good cellar the operator, though his -knowledge of the factors with which he deals is grievously -deficient, learns, through long and costly experience, about what -addition of moisture or about what rate of ventilation will give him -the best results. In the room more subject to outside influences, -the conditions are so constantly changing that uniformity of -practice never gives uniform results, and hence the operator is -without guidance, either intelligent or blind, and the results are -wholly a product of chance. - -As proof of my contention I may give results of a series of full -season hatches for 1908, each involving several thousand eggs. - -First, a state experiment station, the name of which I do not care -to publish. Incubators kept in a cement basement which has flues in -which fires were built to secure "ample ventilation." This caused a -strong draft of cold, dry air, making the worst possible condition -for incubation. The hatch for the season averaged 25 per cent. and -was explained by lack of vitality in the stock. - -Second, Ontario Agricultural College. A room above ground, moisture -used in most machines and various other efforts being made to -improve the hatches by a staff of half a dozen scientists. Results: -Hatch 48 per cent.--incubator manufacturers call the experimenters -names and say they are ignorant and prejudiced. - -Third, Cornell University: dry ventilated basement representing -typical conditions of common incubator practice of the country. -Results: Hatch 52 per cent., results when given out commonly based -on fertile eggs and every one generally pleased. - -Fourth: One of the most successful poultrymen in New York State, who -has, without knowing why, hit upon the plan of using a no-moisture -type of incubator in a basement which is heated with steam pipes, -which maintains temperature at 70 degrees and has a cement floor -which is kept covered with water. Results: Hatch 59 per cent. - -Fifth: As a fifth in such a series I might mention again the -Egyptian machine with the uniform vapor pressure of the climate and -the three chicks exchanged for four eggs. - -While an official in the United States Department of Agriculture, I -gathered data from original records of private plants covering the -incubation of several hundred thousand eggs. Such information was -furnished me in confidence as a public official and as a private -citizen I have no right to publish that which would mean financial -profit or loss to those concerned. - -Of records where there were ten thousand or more eggs involved, the -lowest I found was 44 per cent. and the highest, that mentioned as -the fourth case above, or 59 per cent. The great majority of these -records hung very closely around the 50 per cent. mark. - -The following is a fair sample of such data. It is the record -of hatching hen eggs for the first six months of 1908, at one -of the largest poultry plants in America: - - Eggs Chicks Per Cent. - Month Set Hatched Hatched - - January 4,213 1,585 37 2-3 - February 6,275 2,339 33 3-4 - March 17,990 6,993 38 1-3 - April 18,819 10,265 54 1-2 - May 24,458 14,438 59 - June 13,100 6,614 55 - ------ ------ ------ - Total 84,855 42,234 50 p.c. - - -The Future Method of Incubation. - -The idea of the mammoth incubator which would hatch eggs by the -hundred thousand and a minimum of expense is the dream of the -American incubator inventor. We have long had available such methods -of insulation and regulating the supply of heat as would point to -the practicability of such a dream. - -The past efforts in this direction have fallen down for the -following simple reason: All eggs were placed in a single big room -with a view of the man's entering the room to take care of them. -Contact with cold walls, the opening of doors, the hatching of -chicks or introduction of fresh eggs set up air currents, the hot -air rising and the cold air settling until great differences in -temperature would be found in the room. No systematic regulation of -evaporation was contemplated, as the principles at stake or the -means of such regulation were unknown. - -The attempt just referred to was made several years ago by one of -the most successful of incubator manufacturers and because of his -failure other inventors were inclined to steer clear of the -proposition. Meanwhile the need of such an incubator has grown -enormously. At the time that above effort was made no duck ranch -existed whose annual production ran over thirty or forty thousand -ducklings, whereas we now have several in the one hundred thousand -class. - -Much more remarkable has been the growth of the day-old chick -business. The discovery that newly hatched chicks could be -successfully shipped hundreds of miles with less loss than shipping -eggs for hatching, has resulted in a few years' time in the growth -of hatcheries of considerable size where chicks are hatched by means -of common incubators. Still another opportunity for the use of large -hatcheries has been by the growth of poultry communities. There are -other communities besides those mentioned in this book which would -amply support public hatcheries. If half the poultry growers of -Lancaster County, Pa., were to be prevailed upon to patronize a -public hatchery, the county would support between fifteen and twenty -100,000 egg incubators. Any of the numerous trolley centers in -Indiana, Ohio and Southern Michigan would likewise be profitable -locations for the establishment of public hatcheries. - -The demand for the incubator of large capacity has, within the last -year or so, brought two or three "mammoth" incubators into the -market. The devices I now refer to consist of a row of box -incubators which, instead of being heated by single lamps, are -heated by continuous hot water pipes. This scheme effects a -considerable saving in fuel cost and labor, but the bulkiness of -construction and the woeful lack of evaporation control are still to -be dealt with. - -The writer now wishes briefly to describe the plan of construction -and operation of a new type of hatchery, the success of which has -recently been made feasible by inventions and technical knowledge -hitherto unavailable. The plan of the hatchery is on that of a cold -storage plant as far as insulation and general construction go. The -eggs are kept in bulk in special cases which are turned as a whole -and may rest on either of four sides. At hatching time the eggs are -spread out in trays in a special hatching room, which is only large -enough to accommodate chicks to the amount of one-sixth of the -incubator capacity, for twice a week deliverings, or one-third if -weekly deliveries are desired. - -There are no pipes or other sources of heat in the egg chambers. All -temperature regulation is by means of air heated (or cooled as the -case may be) outside of the egg rooms and forced into the egg rooms -by a motor driven cone fan, maintaining a steady current of air, the -rate of movement of which may be varied at will. The air movement -maintained will always be sufficiently brisk, however, to prevent an -unevenness of temperature in different parts of the room. - -So simple is this that the reader will doubtless wonder why it was -not developed earlier. The reason is that air subject to the -climatic influences will, with any forced draft sufficient to -equalize temperature, result in a fatal rate of evaporation. -Sprinkling the air has not generally been thought practical because -of the notion that air must not be used in the egg chamber but once, -which involved quite a waste of heat necessary in warming a large -bulk of air and evaporating sufficient water. Moreover, no means -has, in the past, been available for making a sufficiently accurate -measurement of the evaporating power of the air. - -The hair hygrometers commonly sold to incubator operators are known -by scientists to be absolutely unreliable. The range between the wet -and dry bulb thermometers was found in the Ontario experiments to -give readings with and without fanning that varied 15 to 20 per -cent. in relative humidity which, at the temperature of an egg -chamber, would amount to a variation of three to four hundred of -vapor pressure units, which, with the forced draught plan, would -ruin a hatch of eggs in a few hours. The sling psychrometer as used -by the U.S. Weather Bureau should, in the hands of an expert, give -results making possible measurements accurate to two or three per -cent. of relative humidity or forty to sixty units of vapor -pressure. In contrast with these blundering instruments we now have -available an instrument with which the writer has frequently -determined vapor pressure accurately to within a range of two or -three vapor pressure units and the instrument is capable of being -constructed for even finer work. - -As it is only by means of air with the moisture content absolutely -controlled that the use of a large room becomes possible, we can now -see why this type of hatching remained so long undeveloped. By means -of such vapor pressure control the large egg chamber is not only -feasible but the rate of evaporation at once becomes subject to the -control of the operator and we achieve a perfection in artificial -incubation hitherto unattained. - -The means by which the air moisture is regulated is similar to that -used in up-to-date cold storage plants where the air is made moist -by sprinkling and dried with deliquescent salts. The regulation of -vapor pressure, like that of temperature, may be by electrically -moved dampers which switch a greater or less proportion of the -incoming current to the sprinkler or dryer as the case may be. The -ordinary incubator thermostat gives the necessary impulse for the -control of the temperature dampers, while the instrument above -referred to is used for the vapor pressure control. - -As the entire air circuit is closed, the chemical composition of the -air may also be regulated at will. This results in a reduction of -the quantity of heat required to a minimum; in fact, with the -incubator in full swing, the air will, at times, need cooling rather -than warming. - -The question of the cost of incubation by this method, or of profit -of such a hatchery operated for the public is almost wholly one of -the size of operations. Where sufficient eggs may be obtained and -sufficient demand exists for the chicks to make it profitable to -operate, the additional cost of hatching extra chicks will be -insignificant compared with the present system. - -The Egyptian poultryman gives four eggs for three chicks, but the -American poultryman would be willing to give four eggs for one -chick, as is shown by the fact that he sells eggs for from 1 to 3 -cents apiece and buys day-old chicks for ten to fifteen cents. A -plant with a seasonable capacity of 100,000 eggs has a basis to work -upon something as follows: - -With a fifty per cent. hatch and chicks at 10 cents each there would -be a gross income of $5,000 annually. From this we must subtract for -eggs at 2 cents each, $2,000. Salary for operator $1,000, wages for -helper $300. Fuel, supplies and repairs $500. Cost of delivery and -sales of chicks $200. This leaves a residue of $1,000, which would -pay a 20 per cent. interest on the necessary investment of $5,000. -Personally, I think this is about the minimum unit of hatching that -would prove worth while as independent institutions. - -Any increase in the percentage of the hatch would, of course, reduce -the unit of size necessary for profitable operation. Upon a single -poultry plant as a duck farm the cost of operation would be -materially reduced, as the operator himself would take the place of -the intelligent manager and the cost of gathering eggs and the -delivery of the product would be eliminated. - -The most profitable method of hatchery operation undoubtedly will be -upon a plan analogous to what, in creamery operation, is called -centralization. The success of this scheme depends upon the fact -that transportation and agencies at country stores are relatively -less important items of expense than plant construction and high -salaries for skilled labor. A hatchery with a million capacity can -be built and run at not more than twice the cost of one -hundred-thousand plant and better men can be kept in charge of it. A -portion of the saving will of course be expended in maintaining a -system of buying eggs and selling chicks. - -The material advantage of operating a hatchery in connection with a -high-class egg handling and poultry packing establishment, or as one -feature of a poultry community, is at once apparent, for the system -of collecting the market produce will be utilized for gathering eggs -and distributing chicks, each business helping the other. - -The public hatchery also gives an excellent opportunity for the -introduction of good stock among farmers who would be too shiftless -to acquire it by ordinary methods. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -FEEDING - - -The old adage that a little knowledge is a dangerous thing is -nowhere better illustrated than in the scientific phases of poultry -feeding. The attempted application of the common theoretical feeding -standards to poultry has caused not only a great waste of time but -has also resulted in expenditures for high-priced feeds when cheaper -feeds would have given as good or better results. - -The so-called science of food chemistry is really a rough -approximation of things about which the actual facts are unknown. -Such knowledge bears the same relation to accurate science as the -maps of America drawn by the early explorers do to a modern atlas. -Like these early efforts of geography the present science of food -chemistry is all right if we realize its incompleteness. In -practice, the poultryman, after a general glance at the "map," will -find a more reliable guide in simpler things. - -I am writing this book for the poultryman, not the professor, and -because I state that the particular kind of science wherein the -professor has taken the most pains to teach the poultryman is -comparatively useless, I fear it may arouse a mistrust of the value -of science as a whole. I know of no way to prevent this except to -point out the distinction between scientific facts and guesses -couched in scientific language. - -When a scientist states that a hen cannot lay egg shells containing -calcium without having calcium in her food, that is a fact, and it -works out in practice, for calcium is an element, and the hen cannot -create elementary substances. When the same scientist, finding that -an egg contains protein, says that wheat is a better egg food than -corn because it has the largest amount of protein, that is a guess -and does not work in practice because protein is not a definite -substance, but the name of a group of substances of which the -scientist does not know the composition, and which may or may not be -of equal use to the hen in the formation of eggs. - -All substances of which the world is made are composed of elements -which cannot be changed. When these elements are combined they form -definite substances with definite proportions entirely independent -of the original elements. The pure diamond is carbon. Gasoline is -carbon and hydrogen. Several hundred other things are also carbon -and hydrogen. Sugar is carbon combined with hydrogen and oxygen. -These three elements make several thousand different substances, -including fats, alcohol and formaldehyde. Hydrocyanic acid is carbon -combined with hydrogen and nitrogen, and is the most deadly poison -known. - -The failure of food science is partly because we do not know the -composition of many of the substances of food and partly because -these substances are changed in the animal body in a manner which we -do not understand and cannot control. - - -Conventional Food Chemistry - -The conventional analysis of feeding stuff divides the food -substances in water, carbohydrates, fat, protein and ash. The amount -of water in the body is all-important, but, with the exception of -eggs during incubation, I confess I prefer to rely upon the -chicken's judgment as to the amount required. - -The carbohydrate group contains starch, sugar, cellulose and a -number of other things. Carbohydrates constitute two-thirds to -three-fourths of all common rations and nine-tenths of that amount -is starch. The proposition of how much carbohydrates the hen eats is -chiefly determined by the quantity of grain she consumes. - -Of fats there are many kinds of which the composition is definitely -known. The amount of fats the hen eats is unimportant because she -makes starch into fat. The protein or nitrogen containing substances -of the diet is the group of food substances over which most of the -theories are expounded. The hen can make egg fat from corn starch or -cabbage leaves because they contain the same elements. She cannot -make egg white from starch or fat because the element of nitrogen -which is in the egg white is lacking in the starch and fats. - -The substances that have nitrogen in them are called protein. They -are very complex and difficult to analyze. In digestion these -proteins are all torn to pieces and built up into other kinds of -protein. Just as in tearing down an old house, only a portion of the -material can be used in a new house, so it is with protein and -laboratory analysis cannot tell us how much of the old house can be -utilized in building the new one. - -In practice the whole subject simmers down to the proposition of -finding out by direct experiment whether the hen will do the work -best on this or that food, irregardless of its nitrogen content as -determined in the laboratory. - -The results of many experiments and much experience has shown that -lean meat protein will make egg protein and chicken flesh protein -and that vegetable protein pound for pound is not its equal. I know -of no results that have proven that the high priced vegetable foods -such as linseed meal, gluten feed, etc., have proven a more valuable -chicken food than the cheapest grains. - -With cows and pigeons this is not the case, but the hen is not a -vegetarian by nature and high priced vegetable protein doesn't seem -to be in her line. Of the three standard grains there is some -indication of the value of the proteids for chickens and of the -following ranks, 1st oats, 2d corn, 3d wheat. - -The false conceptions of the value of wheat proteids has been -specially the cause of much waste of money. Digestive trials and -direct experiments both show that, as chicken foods, wheat is worth -less, pound for pound, than corn and yet, though much higher in -price, it is still used not only as a variety grain, but by many -poultrymen as the chief article of diet. Wheat contains only 3 per -cent. more proteid than corn. The man who substitutes wheat at one -and one-half cents a pound for corn worth one cent a pound pays 17 -cents a pound for his added protein. In beef scrap he could get the -protein for 5 cents a pound and have a very superior article -besides. - -Milk as a source of protein ranks between the vegetable proteids and -those of meat. It is preferably fed clabbered. The dried casein -recently put on the market is a valuable food but is not worth as -much as meat food and will not be extensively utilized until the -demand for meat scrap forces up the price to a point where the -casein can be sold more cheaply. Meat scrap, to be relished by the -chickens, must not be a fine meal, but should consist of particles -the size of wheat kernels or larger. The fine scrap gives the -manufacturer a chance to utilize dried blood and tankage which is -cheaper in quality and price than particles of real meat. - -The last and least understood of the groups of food substances is -mineral substance or ash. Now, the chemist determines mineral -substance by burning the food and analyzing the residue. In the -intense heat numerous chemical changes take place and the substances -that come out of the furnace are entirely different from those -contained in the fresh food. - -The lay reader will probably ask why the chemist does not analyze -the substances of the fresh material. The answer is that he doesn't -know how. Progress is made every year but the whole subject is yet -too much clouded in obscurity to be of any practical application. At -present the feeding of mineral substance, like the feeding of -protein, can best be learned by experimenting directly with the -foods rather than by attempting to go by their chemical composition. - -In practice it is found that green feed supplies something which -grain lacks, presumably mineral salts. Moreover we know that such -food fed fresh is superior to the same substance dried. This may be -because of chemical changes that occur in curing or simply because -of greater palatability. - -The other chief source of mineral matter is meat preparations with -or without ground bone. Recent experiments at Rhode Island have -attempted to show the relative value of the mineral constituents of -meat by adding bone ash to vegetable proteids, as linseed and gluten -meal. The results clearly indicate that mineral matter of animal -origin greatly improves the value of the vegetable diet, but that -the latter is still sadly deficient. Of course the burning process -used in preparing the bone ash may have destroyed some of the -valuable qualities of the mineral salts. Practically, we do not care -whether the value of animal meal be due to protein, mineral salts or -both. - -In time the world will become so thickly populated that we cannot -afford to rear cattle and condemn a portion of the carcass to go -through another life cycle before human consumption. By that time -the necessary food salts will doubtless be known and we will be able -to medicate our corn and alfalfa and do away with the beef scrap. -The poultrymen will do well, however, not to count on the chemistry -of the future, for the chemist that makes the "tissue salts" for the -hen may manufacture human food with Niagara power and fresh eggs -will come in tin cans. - - -How the Hen Unbalances Balanced Rations. - -Let the poultryman who figures the nutritious ratio of chicken feed -try this simple experiment. Place before a half dozen newly hatched -chicks a feed of one of the commercial chick feeds. When they have -had their fill, sacrifice these innocents on the altar of science -and open their crops. He will find that one chick has eaten almost -exclusively of millet seed, another has preferred cracked corn, -another has filled up heavily on bits of beef scrap and mica crystal -grit, while a fourth fancied oats and granulated bone. In short the -chick has, in three minutes, unbalanced the balanced ration that it -took a week to figure out. This experiment can be varied by placing -hens in individual coops and setting before each weighed portions of -every food in the poultryman supply man's catalogue. - -There is only one kind of feeding that will balance rations and that -is to feed exclusively on wet mash. This is successfully done in the -duck business, but the duck is a Chinese animal and his ways are not -the ways of the more fastidious hen. - -In dairy work the individual preferences of the cows are given -attention and their whimsy catered to by the herdsman. I know of -nothing that makes a man more feel his kinship to the beast than to -hear a good dairyman talk of the personalities and preferences of -his feminine co-operators. - -With commercial chicken work, humanly guided individual feedings is -out of the question, though, if used, it might hasten the coming of -the two-egg-per-day hen. Individual feeding with the hen as sole -judge as to what she shall eat, which means each food in separate -hoppers and free range, is the best system of chicken feeding yet -evolved. - -The duty of the poultryman is to supply the food, giving enough -variety to permit of the hens having a fair selection. In practice -this means that every hen must have access to water, grit -(preferably oyster shell), one kind of grain, one kind of meat, and -one kind of green food. In practice it will pay to add granulated -bone for growing stock. One or two extra grains for variety and as -many green foods as conveniences will permit to increase -palatability--hence increase the amount of food consumed, for a -heavy food consumption is necessary for egg production. - -As corn is the cheapest food known, let it be the bread at the -boarding house and other grains the rotating series of hash, beans -and bacon. The grain hopper may have two divisions. The corn never -changes but the other should have a change of grain occasionally. -The extent of the use made of the various grains will be determined -by their price per pound. - -The proportions of food of the various classes that will be consumed -is about as follows: - -Of 100 lbs. of dry matter: 8 to 12 lbs. meat; 66 to 75 lbs. grain; -15 to 25 lbs. green food. - -The profits of the business will be increased by supplying the green -food in such tempting forms as to increase the amount consumed and -cut down the use of grains. - -The methods we have been describing in which various dry unground -grains, beef scrap and oyster shell, each in a separate compartment, -are exposed before the hen at all times, together with the abundant -use of green food, either as pasture or a soiling crop, is the -method of feeding assumed throughout this book. - -The hopper feeding of so-called dry mash or ground grain mixture has -been quite a fad in the last few years. The tendency of the hens to -waste such food has occasioned considerable trouble. They are -picking it over for their favorite foods and trying to avoid -disagreeable foods. This difficulty is relieved when the food be -separated into its various components and the hen offered each -separately. As a matter of fact, there is no occasion for feeding -ground feed except in fattening rations and here the wet mash is -desirable. - -The use of the products of wheat milling has been the chief excuse -for such practices, but unless these get considerably lower in price -per pound than corn they may be left off the bill-of-fare to -advantage. The great use made of these products in poultry feeding -was chiefly a result of the attempted application of the balanced -ration idea, but as has already been shown the efforts to raise the -protein ratio with grain foods is generally false economy. - -The old-fashioned wet mash which the writer does not recommend -because of the labor involved, is, nevertheless, a fairly profitable -method of poultry feeding. It is used in the Little Compton district -of Rhode Island and was also used in the famous Australian egg -laying contests elsewhere described. Personally I would prefer -feeding ground grain wet, especially wheat bran and middlings, to -feeding it dry. - -The scattering of grain in litter so generally recommended in -poultry literature is all right and proper, but is rather out of -place in commercial poultry farming. It is used on the large poultry -plants with the yards and long houses, but is not used on colony -farms or in any of the poultry growing communities. I should -recommend littered houses for Section 6 and the northern half of -Section 3 (see Chapter IV), but with warmer soils and climate where -the snow does not lie on the ground it would add a labor expense -that would very seriously handicap the business. - -The systems of poultry feeding that are commonly advertised are -based either on some patent nostrum or a recommendation of green -food in novel form, such as sprouted oats. The joke about poultry -feed at 10 cents a bushel, absurd though it may seem, has caught -lots of dollars. To take a bushel of oats worth 50 cents, add water, -let them sprout and have five bushels costing 10 cents, is certainly -a wonderful achievement in wealth getting. The only reason a man -couldn't run a soup kitchen on the same principle is that he can't -do a soup business by mail. Sprouted oats are a good green food, -however, though somewhat laborious to prepare. I should certainly -recommend them if for any reason the regular green food supply -should run out. - -The points already mentioned are about all the practical suggestions -that the science of animal nutrition has to offer the poultryman. -The discussion of feeding from its technical viewpoint is -sufficiently covered in the chapter on "Farm Poultry" and the -discussion of the management and economics of various types of -poultry production. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -DISEASES - - -For the study of the classification and description of the numerous -ailments by which individual fowls pass to their untimely end, I -recommend any of the numerous books written upon the subject. Some -of these works are more accurate than others, but that I consider -immaterial. The study of these diseases is good for the poultryman, -it gives his mind exercise. When a boy in high school I studied -Latin for the same purpose. - - -Don't Doctor Chickens. - -For the cure of all poultry diseases when they have passed a point -when the fowl does not eat or for other reasons recovery is -improbable, I recommend a blow on the head--the hatchet spills the -blood which is unwise. - -The usual formula of "burn or bury deeply" is somewhat troublesome, -unless you have a furnace running. A covered pit is more convenient -if far enough removed from the house that the odor is not -prohibitive. A post with a tally card may be planted near by. This -part of the poultry farm may be marked "Exhibit A," and shown first -to the visitor during the busy season. If he is one of those -prospective pleasure and profit poultrymen who propose to disregard -all facts of biology and economics of production, you may save -yourself the trouble of showing him the rest of the plant. -Unfortunately, this scheme is not open to the poultryman who has -breeding stock for sale. - -I have frequently had the question put to me in the smoker of a -Pullman car, "Do not epidemic diseases make the poultry business -precarious?" Such questions came from farm-raised men, but not from -poultry farmers. Poultrymen should figure a certain loss of birds -just as insurance companies figure on the human death rate, but to -all practical intents and purposes the epidemic disease has been -banished from the poultry farms and seldom if ever enters the -records in answer to the question, "Why do poultry farms fail?" - -Some of my readers may take exception to me either in regard to roup -or white diarrhoea. Roup is a disease of the wrong system and -careless management. White diarrhoea, so-called, is a matter of -wrong incubation. - -The high mortality of young chicks, though not an epidemic disease, -shares with excessive cost of production, very much of the -responsibility for poultry farm failures. At the present writing the -poultry editors of the country are having much discussion over the -conclusion of Dr. Morse of the Bureau of Animal Industry to the -effect that white diarrhoea is caused by an intestinal parasite -similar to the germ that causes human dysentery. Dr. Morse's -opportunities for investigation have been somewhat limited and as -the intestines of any animal are always swarming with various -organisms, it will take very conclusive evidence to prove that the -doctor is right. Practically the naming of the germs that attend the -funeral is not particularly important for the reason that it has -been thoroughly demonstrated that with good parentage, good -incubation and good brooder conditions, white diarrhoea is unknown. - - -The Causes of Poultry Diseases. - -Poultry ailments are assignable to one of the three following -causes, or a combination of these: First, hereditary or inborn -weakness; second, unfavorable conditions of food, surroundings, -etc.; third, bacteria or animal parasites. - -A great many chickens die while yet within the shell, or during the -growing process, there being no assignable reason save that of -inherited weakness. To this class of troubles the only remedy is to -breed from better stock. It is as much the trait of some birds to -produce infertile eggs or chicks of low vitality as it is for others -to produce vigorous offspring. - -The second class of ailments needs no discussion save that accorded -it under the general discussions of the method of conducting the -business. - -The third class of ailments includes the contagious diseases. It is -now believed that most common diseases are caused by microscopic -germs known as bacteria. These germs in some manner gain entrance to -the body of an animal, and, growing within the tissues, give off -poisonous substances known as toxins, which produce the symptoms of -the disease. The ability to withstand disease germs varies with the -particular animal and the kind of disease. As a general rule it may -be stated that disease germs cannot live in the body of a perfectly -vigorous and healthy animal. It is only when the vitality is at a -low ebb, owing to unfavorable conditions or inherited weakness, that -disease germs enter the body and produce disease. - -The bacteria which cause disease, like other living organisms, may -be killed by poisoning. Such poisons are known as disinfectants. If -it were possible to kill the bacteria within the animal, the curing -of disease would be a simple matter, but unfortunately the common -chemical poisons that kill germs kill the animal also. The only -thing that can be relied upon to kill disease germs within the -animal, is a counter-poison developed by the animal itself and known -as anti-toxin. Such anti-toxins can be produced artificially and are -used to combat certain diseases, as diphtheria and small-pox in -human beings and blackleg in cattle. Such methods of combating -poultry diseases have not been developed, and due to the small value -of an individual fowl would probably not be commercially useful even -if successful from a scientific standpoint. The only available -method of fighting contagious diseases of poultry is to destroy the -disease germs before they enter the fowls and to remove the causes -which make the fowl susceptible to the disease. - -Contagious diseases of poultry may be grouped into two general -classes: First, those highly contagious; second, those contracted -only by fowls that are in a weakened condition. To the first class -belong the severe epidemics, of which chicken-cholera is the most -destructive. - - -Chicken-Cholera. - -The European fowl-cholera has only been rarely identified in this -country. Other diseases similar in symptoms and effect are confused -with this. As the treatment should be similar the identification of -the diseases is not essential. - -Yellow or greenish-colored droppings, listless attitude, refusal of -food and great thirst are the more readily observed symptoms. The -disease runs a rapid course, death resulting in about three days. -The death rate is very high. The disease is spread by droppings and -dead birds, and through feed and water. To stamp out the disease -kill or burn or bury all sick chickens, and disinfect the premises -frequently and thoroughly. A spray made of one-half gallon carbolic -acid, one-half gallon of phenol and twenty gallons of water may be -used. Corrosive sublimate, 1 part in 5000 parts of water, should be -used as drinking water. This is not to cure sick birds, but to -prevent the disease from spreading by means of the drinking vessels. -Food should be given in troughs arranged so that the chickens cannot -infect the food with the feet. All this work must be done -thoroughly, and even then considerable loss can be expected before -the disease is stamped out. If cholera has a good start in a flock -of chickens it will often be better to dispose of the entire flock -than to combat the disease. Fortunately cholera epidemics are rare -and in many localities have never been known. - - -Roup. - -This disease is a representative of that class of diseases which, -while being caused by bacteria, can be considered more of a disease -of conditions than of contagion. Roup may be caused by a number of -different bacteria which are commonly found in the air and soil. -When chickens catch cold these germs find lodgment in the nasal -passages and roup ensues. The first symptoms of roup are those of an -ordinary cold, but as the disease progresses a cheesy secretion -appears in the head and throat. A wheezing or rattling sound is -often produced by the breathing. The face and eyes swell, and in -severe cases the chicken becomes blind. The most certain way of -identifying roup is a characteristic sickening odor. The disease may -last a week or a year. Birds occasionally recover, but are generally -useless after having had roup. - -Sick birds should be removed and destroyed, but the time usually -spent in doctoring sick birds and disinfecting houses can in this -case be better employed in finding and remedying the cause of the -disease. Such causes may be looked for as dampness, exposure to cold -winds, or to a sudden change in temperature as is experienced by -chickens roosting in a tight house. Fall and winter are the seasons -of roup, while it is poorly housed and poorly fed flocks that most -commonly suffer from this disease. Flocks that have become -thoroughly roupy should be disposed of and more vigorous birds -secured. The open front house has proved to be the most practical -scheme for the reduction of this disease. - - -Chicken-Pox, Gapes, Limber Neck. - -Chicken-pox or sore-head is a disease peculiar to the South. It -attacks growing chickens late in the summer. Southern poultrymen who -give reasonable attention to their stock, find that, while this -disease is a source of some annoyance, the losses are not severe and -that it may be readily controlled. In the first place, the animal -epidemic of pox can be practically avoided by bringing the chicks -out early in the season. If the disease does develop in the flock, -the birds are taken from the coops at night and their heads dipped -in a proper strength of one of the coal tar disinfectants. Such -treatment once a week has generally been effective. This disease is -an exception to the general rule that disinfectants which kill germs -also kill the chicken. The explanation is that chicken-pox is an -external disease. - -Gapes is given in every poultry book as one of the prominent poultry -diseases, but are not common in the Northern and Western States. -Gapes are caused by a parasitic worm in the windpipe. Growing chicks -are affected. The remedy is to move the chicks to fresh ground and -cultivate the old. - -Limber neck is not a disease, but is the result of the fowl's eating -maggots from dead carcasses. It can be prevented by not allowing -dead carcasses to remain where the chickens will find them. No -practical cure is known. - - -Lice and Mites. - -The parasites referred to as chicken-lice include many different -species, but in habit they may be classed as body-lice and -roost-mites. The first, or true bird-lice, live on the body of the -chicken and eat the feathers and skin. The roost-mite is similar to -a spider and differs in habits from the body-louse in that it sucks -the blood of the chicken and does not remain on the body of the fowl -except at night. - -Body-lice are to be found upon almost all chickens, as well as on -many other kinds of birds. Their presence in small numbers on -matured fowls is not a serious matter. When body-lice are abundant -on sitting hens they go from the hen to the newly hatched chickens, -and may cause the death of the chicks. The successful methods of -destroying body-lice are three in number: First, dust or earth -wallows in which the active hens will get rid of lice. Such dust -baths should be especially provided for yarded chickens and during -the winter. Dry earth can be stored for this purpose. Sitting hens -should have access to dust baths. Second: The second method by which -body-lice may be destroyed is the use of insect powder. The -pyrethrum powder is considered the best for this purpose, but is -expensive and difficult to procure in the pure state. Tobacco dust -is also used. Insect powder is applied by holding the hen by the -feet and working the dust thoroughly into the feathers, especially -the fluff. The use of insect powder should be confined to sitting -hens and fancy stock, as the cost and labor of applying is too great -for use upon the common chicken. The third method is suitable for -young chickens, and consists of applying some oil and grease on the -head and under the wings. Do not grease the chick all over. With -vigorous chickens and correct management the natural dust bath is -all that is needed to combat the lice. - -The roost-mite is probably the cause of more loss to farm poultry -raisers than any other pest or disease. The great difficulty in -destroying mites on many farms is that chickens are allowed to roost -in too many places. If the chicken-house proper is the only building -infected with mites the difficulty of destroying them is not great. -Plainness in the interior furnishings of the chicken-house is also a -great advantage when it comes to fighting mites. The mites in the -daytime are to be found lodged in the cracks near the roosting-place -of the chickens. - -Mites can be killed with various liquids, the best in point of -cheapness is boiling water. Give the chicken-house a thorough -cleaning and scald by throwing dippers of hot water in all places -where the mites can find lodgment. Hot water destroys the eggs as -well as the mites. Whitewash is a good remedy, as it buries both -mites and eggs beneath a coating of lime from which they cannot -emerge. Pure kerosene or a solution of carbolic acid in kerosene, at -the rate of a pint of acid to a gallon of oil, is an effective -lice-paint. Another substance much used for destroying insects or -similar pests is carbon bisulphide. This is a liquid which -evaporates readily, the vapor destroying the insects or mites. -Carbon bisulphide or other fumigating agents are not effective in -the average chicken-house because the house cannot be tightly -closed. The liquid lice-killers on the market are very effective. -They are usually composed of the remedies just mentioned, or of -something of similar properties. - - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -POULTRY FLESH AND POULTRY FATTENING - - -The poultry flesh which is used for food may be grouped into three -divisions. - -First: Poultry carcasses grown especially for market. - -Second: Poultry carcasses consisting of hens and young male birds -that are sold from the general farms where the pullets are kept for -egg production. - -Third: The cockerels and old hens sold as a by-product from egg -farms. - -The third class hardly needs our consideration in the present -chapter. This stock, usually Leghorns, like Jersey veal, is to be -disposed of at whatever price the market offers. - -The cockerel will, if growing nicely, be fairly plump and the hens, -if on hopper rations of corn and beef scrap, will be about as fat as -they can be profitably made, and to waste further effort upon them -would not pay. Leghorn cockerels and hens are a wholesome enough -meat, but will never command fancy prices nor warrant extra pains. - -In class two we find the great mass of the poultry flesh of the -country. This stock consisting chiefly, as it does, of Plymouth -Rocks and Wyandottes, is well worth some extra pains toward -increasing its quantity and quality. - -Within the last ten or fifteen years several changes have been -brought about in the general methods of handling farm poultry. -Formerly it was thought desirable to market all stock not kept as -layers while in the broiler stage of from 1-1/2 to 2 pounds. Since -the introduction of the custom of holding fall broilers over in cold -storage, the price has fallen until it is now more profitable to -market the surplus cockerels from the farm at three or four months -of age. At this period the flesh has cost less per pound to produce -than at either an earlier or later stage. For such purposes only the -well fleshed type of American breeds has been found desirable. The -Leghorns and similar breeds are too small and become staggy too -soon. - -Contrary to a common belief and to the custom in the poultry books -of classifying the Asiatics as meat breeds, the Brahmas and Cochins -are among the very poorest fowls that can be used for farm -production of poultry meat. At the age spoken of these breeds are -lanky and unsightly and not wanted by poultry packers. - -Consecutively with and perhaps responsible for change of sentiment -that demands that broilers be allowed to grow into four pound -chickens, we find the development of the crate fattening industry. - - -Crate-Fattening. - -The introduction of crate-fattening into the Central West occurred -about 1900. The credit of this introduction belongs to the large -meat packing firms. At the present time the business is not confined -to the meat packers, but is shared by independent plants throughout -the country. - -The plants of the West range from a few hundred to as high as 20,000 -capacity. They are constructed for convenience and a saving of -labor, and in this respect are decidedly in advance of the European -establishments where fattening has been long practiced. - -The room used for fattening is well built and sanitary. A good -system of ventilation is essential, as murky, damp air breeds colds -and roup. The coops are built back to back, and two or more coops in -height. Each coop is high and wide enough to comfortably accommodate -the chickens, and long enough to contain from five to twelve -chickens. The chickens stand on slats, beneath which are -dropping-boards that may be drawn out for cleaning. The -dropping-boards and feeding-troughs are often made of metal. Strict -cleanliness is enforced. No droppings or feed are allowed to -accumulate and decompose. - -As is a general rule in meat production, young animals give much -better returns for food consumed than do mature individuals. With -the young chicken the weight is added as flesh, while the hen has a -tendency, which increases with age, to turn the same food into -useless fat. For this reason the general practice is to fatten only -the best of the young chickens. The head feeder at a large and -successful poultry plant gave the following information on the -selection of birds for the fattening-crates: - -"The younger the stock the more profitable the gain. All specimens -showing the slightest indication of disease are discarded. The -Plymouth Rock is the favorite breed, and the Wyandotte is second. -Leghorns are comparatively fat when received, and, while they do -well under feed and 'yellow up' nicely, they do not gain as much as -the American breeds. Black chickens are not fed at all. Brahmas and -Cochins are not considered good feeders at the age when they are -commonly sold. Chickens in fair flesh at the start make better gains -than those that are extremely lean or very fat. But, contrary to -what the amateur might assume, the moderately fat chicken will -continue to make fair gains, while the very lean chicken seldom -returns a profit." - -The idea has been somewhat prevalent that there is some guarded -secret about the rations used in crate-fattening. This is a mistaken -notion. The rations used contain no new or wonderful constituent, -and although individual feeders may have their own formulas, the -general composition of the feed is common knowledge. The feed most -commonly used consists of finely ground grain, mixed to a batter -with buttermilk or sour skim-milk. The favorite grain for the -purpose is oats finely ground and the hulls removed. Oats may be -used as the sole grain, and is the only grain recommended as -suitable to be fed alone. Corn is used, but not by itself. Shorts, -ground barley or ground buckwheat are sometimes used. Beans, peas, -linseed and gluten meals may be used in small quantities. When milk -products are obtainable they are a great aid to successful -fattening. Tallow is often used in small quantities toward the -finish of the feeding period. The assumption is that it causes the -deposit of fat-globules throughout the muscular tissues, thus adding -to the quality of the meat. The following simple rations show that -there is nothing complex about the crate-fed chicken's bill of fare: - -No. 1.--Ground oats, 2 parts; ground barley, 1 part; ground corn, 1 -part; mixed with skim-milk. - -No. 2.--Ground corn, 4 parts; ground peas, 1 part; ground oats, 1 -part; meat-meal, 1 part; mixed with water. - -A ration used by some fatters with great success is composed of -simply oatmeal and buttermilk. - -The feed is given as a soft batter and is left in the troughs for -about thirty minutes, when the residue is removed. Chickens are -generally fed three times per day. Water may or may not be given, -according to the weather and the amount of liquid used in the food. - -The chicken that has been crate-fattened has practically the same -amount of skeleton and offal as the unfattened specimen, but carries -one or two pounds more of edible meat upon its carcass. Not only is -the weight of the chicken and amount of edible meat increased, but -the quality of the meat is greatly improved, consisting of juicy, -tender flesh. For this reason the crate-feeding process is often -spoken of as fleshing rather than as fattening. - -The enforced idleness causes the muscular tissue to become tender -and filled with stored nutriment. The fatness of a young chicken, -crate-fed on buttermilk and oatmeal, is a radically different thing -from the fatness of an old hen that has been ranging around the -corn-crib. - -The crate-fattening industry while deserving credit for great -improvement in the quality of chicken flesh in the regions where it -has been introduced, cannot on the whole be considered a great -success. It is commonly reported that some of the firms instrumental -in its introduction lost money on the deal. The crate-fattening -plant has come to stay in the communities where careful methods of -poultry raising are practiced, and where the stock is of the best, -but when a plant is located in a newly settled region where the -poultry stock is small and feed scarce, the venture is pretty apt to -prove a fiasco. - -While poultryman at the Kansas Experiment Station, the writer made a -large number of individual weighings of fowls in the crates of one -of the large fattening plants of the state. - -These weighings pointed out very clearly why the expected profits -had not been realized. The birds selected for weighing were all -fine, uniform looking Barred Rock Cockerels. At the end of the first -week they were found to still appear much the same, but when handled -a difference was easily noticed. By the end of the second week a few -birds had died and many others were in a bad way. The individual -changes of weight ran from 2-1/2 pounds gain to 3/4 pound loss, and -many of the lighter birds were of very poor appearance. It is simply -a matter of forced feeding being a process that makes trouble with -the health of the chicken if all is not just right. - -It is probable that in the future more fattening will be done on the -farm, or by the farmer operating in a small way among his neighbors. -The reason for this is that the saving of labor in the large plant -is hardly as great as the added loss from the shrinkage of the birds -due to the excitement of shipping and crowding, and the introduction -of disease by the mingling of chickens from so many different -sources. - -The Canadians especially have encouraged fattening on the farm. The -following is a hand-bill gotten out by an enterprising Canadian -dealer for distribution among the farmers of his locality: - - - -HOW TO FATTEN CHICKENS FOR THE EXPORT TRADE. - -To fatten birds for the export trade, it is necessary -to have proper coops to put them in. These should be -two feet long, twenty inches high and twenty inches -deep, the top, bottom and front made of slats. This -size will hold four birds, but the cheapest plan is to -build the coops ten feet long and divide them into five -sections. - -What to feed. - -Oats chopped fine, the coarse hulls sifted out, two -parts; ground buckwheat, one part; mix with skim-milk -to a good soft batter, and feed three times a day. -Or, black barley and oats, two parts oats to one part -barley. Give clean drinking water twice a day, grit -twice a week, and charcoal once a week. During the -first week the birds are in the coops they should be -fed sparingly--only about one-half of what they will -eat. After that gradually increase the amount until -you find out just how much they will eat up clean -each time. Never leave any food in the troughs, as -it will sour and cause trouble. Mix the food always -one feed ahead. Birds fed in this way will be ready -for the export trade in from four to five weeks. -Chickens make the best gain put in the coop weighing -three to four pounds. - -We Supply the Coops. - -We have on hand a number of coops for fattening -chicks, which we will loan to any person, "free of -charge", who will sign an agreement to bring all -chicks fattened in them to us. Every farmer should -have at least one of these coops, as this is the only -way to fatten chicks properly. In this way you can -get the highest market price. We can handle any -quantity of chicks properly fatted. - ARMSTRONG BROS. - - -The farmer who does not think it worth while to construct -fattening-crates for his own crop of chickens, may get very fair -results by simply enclosing the chickens in some vacant shed. To -these may feed a ration of two-thirds corn meal and one-third -shorts, or some of the more complicated rations used at the -fattening plants may be fed. - -In the East, poultry fattening on the general farm is not dissimilar -from the practices in the Central West, but we find a larger use of -cramming machines, caponizing, and the growing of chickens for meat -as an industry independent of keeping hens for egg production. - -The cramming machine is a device by means of which food in a -semi-liquid state is pumped into the bird's crop, through a tube -inserted in the mouth. This means of feeding is much more used in -Europe than in this country. It requires good stock and careful -workmen. The method will probably slowly gain ground in this -country. The feed used in cramming is similar to that used in -ordinary crate feeding, except that it is mixed as a thin batter. - - -Caponizing. - -Caponizing is the castration of male chickens. Capons hold the same -place in the poultry market as do steers in the beef market. - -Caponizing is practiced to quite an extent in France, and to a less -degree in England and the United States. - -Much the larger part of the industry is confined to that portion of -the United States east of Philadelphia, though increasing numbers of -capons are being raised in the North Central States. During the -winter months capon is regularly quoted in the markets of the larger -eastern cities. Massachusetts and New Jersey are the great centers -for the growing of capons, while Boston, New York, and Philadelphia -are the great markets. In many eastern markets the prices paid for -dressed capons range from 20 to 30 cents a pound. The highest prices -usually prevail from January to May, and the larger the birds the -more they bring a pound. - -The purpose of caponizing is not, as is sometimes stated, to -increase the size of the chicken, but to improve the quality of the -meat. The capon fattens more readily and economically than other -birds. As they do not interfere with or worry one another, large -flocks may be kept together. - -The breeds suitable for caponizing are the Asiatics and Americans. -Brahmas will produce, with proper care and sufficient time, the -largest and finest capons. On the ordinary farm, where capons would -be allowed to run loose, Plymouth Rocks would prove more profitable. -Plymouth Rocks, Brahmas, Langshans, Wyandottes, Indian Games, may -all be used for capons. Leghorns are not to be considered for this -purpose. - -Capons should be operated upon when they are about ten weeks or -three months old and weigh about two pounds. - -The operation of caponizing is performed by cutting in between the -last two ribs. Both testicles may be removed from one side or both -sides may be opened. The cockerel should be starved for twenty-four -hours in order to empty the intestines. Asiatics are more difficult -to operate on than Americans, the testicles being larger and less -firm. There is always some danger of causing death by tearing blood -vessels, but the per cent. of loss with an experienced operator is -very small. Loss by inflammation is still more rare. The testicle of -a bird is not as highly developed as in a mammal, and if the organ -is broken and a small fragment remains attached it will produce -birds known as slips. Some growers advise looking over the capons -and puncturing the wind puffs that gather beneath the skin. This, -however, is not necessary. - -A good set of tools is indispensable and can be purchased for from -$2 to $3. As a complete set of instructions is furnished with each -set it is unnecessary to go into details here. The beginner should, -however, operate on several dead cockerels before attempting to -operate on a live one. - -After caponizing the bird should be given plenty of soft feed and -water. The capon begins to eat almost immediately after the -operation is performed, and no one would suppose that a radical -change had taken place in his nature. - -The feeding of capons differs little from the feeding of other -growing chickens. Corn, wheat, barley and Kaffir-corn would be -suitable grain, while beef-scrap would be necessary to produce the -best growth. - -About three weeks before marketing place the capons in small yards -and feed them three or four times a day, giving plenty of corn and -other feed, or fatten them in one of the ways indicated in the -section on fattening poultry. Corn meal and ground oats, equal parts -by weight, moistened with water or milk, make a good mash for -fattening capons. - -In dressing capons leave the head and hackle feathers, the feathers -on the wings to the second joint, the tail feathers, including those -a little way up the back, and the feathers on the legs halfway up to -the thigh. These feathers serve to distinguish capons from other -fowls in the market. Do not cut the head off, for this is also a -distinguishing feature of the capon, on account of the undeveloped -comb and wattles. - -The price received for capons is greater than any other kind of -poultry meat except early broilers. There may be trouble in some -localities in getting dealers to recognize capons as such and pay an -advanced price. - -On several farms in Massachusetts, 500 to 1,000 capons are raised -annually, and on one farm 5,000 cockerels are held for caponizing. -The industry is growing rapidly year by year and the supply does not -equal the demand. - -It is to be expected that the amount of caponizing done in the West -will gradually increase. Those wishing to try the growing of capons -will do well to secure an experienced operator. Good men at this -work receive five cents per bird. Poor operators are dear at any -price, as they produce a large number of worthless slips. - - - - - -CHAPTER X - -MARKETING POULTRY CARCASSES - - -In the marketing of poultry carcasses as in other phases of the -industry, we really have two systems to discuss. The one is used for -the marketing of the product of the farm of the Central West, and -the other the product of the poultryman or eastern farmer, who is -near a large market and who will be repaid for taking special pains -in preparing his poultry for market. - - -Farm-Grown Chickens. - -At the present time almost the entire poultry crop of the Central -West is sold from the farm as live poultry. This farm stock is -purchased by produce buyers or general merchants and shipped to the -nearest county seat or other important town, where there are usually -one or more poultry-killing establishments. These establishments may -vary from a simple shed, where the chickens are picked and packed in -barrels, to the more modern poultry-packing establishment, with its -accommodations for fattening, dressing, packing, freezing, and -storing. - -The poultry-buying stations may be branches of the larger packing -establishments, branch houses of large produce firms, or small firms -operating independently and selling in the open market. - -The chickens as purchased are grouped into the following classes: -Springs, hens, old roosters and (at certain seasons) young roosters -or staggy cockerels. Early in the season small springs are quoted as -broilers, while capons form a separate item where such are grown. - -Chickens are starved before killing, for the purpose of emptying the -crop, and, to some degree, the intestines. If this is not done the -carcass presents an unsightly appearance and spoils more readily in -storage. - -The method of picking is not always the same, even in the same -plant. Scalding is frequently used for local trade, in the summer -season, or with cheap-grade stuff. The greater portion of the stock -is picked dry. The pickers are generally paid so much per bird. In -some plants men do the roughing while girls are employed as pinners. -Pickers work either with the chickens suspended by a cord or -fastened upon a bench adopted to this purpose. The killing is done -by bleeding and sticking. The last thrust reaches the brain and -paralyzes the bird. The manner of making these cuts must be learned -by practical instruction. The feathers are saved, and amount to a -considerable item. White feathers are worth more than others. The -head and feet are left on the chicken and the entrails are not -removed. - -The bird, after being chilled in ice-water or in the cooling room, -is ready for grading and packing. This, from the producer's -standpoint, is the most interesting stage in the process, for it is -here that the quality of the stock is to be observed. The grading is -made on three considerations: (1) The general division of cocks, -springs, hens and capons is kept separate from the killing-room; (2) -the grading for quality; (3) the assortment according to size. - -The grading for quality depends on the general shape of the chicken, -the plumpness or covering of meat, the neatness of picking, the -color of skin and legs, and the appearance of the feet and head, -which latter points indicate the age and condition of health. The -culls consist of deformed and scrawny chickens. The seconds are poor -in flesh, or they may be, in the case of hens, unsightly from -overfatness. They are packed in barrels and go to the cheapest -trade. Those carcasses slightly bruised or torn in dressing also go -in this class. Although a preference is generally stated for -yellow-skinned poultry, the white-skinned birds, if equal in other -points, are not underranked in this score. The skin color that is -decidedly objectionable is the purplish tinge, which is a sign of -diseased stock. Black pin-feathers and dark-colored legs are a -source of objection. Especially is this true with young birds which -show the pin-feathers. Feathered legs are slightly more -objectionable than smooth legs. Small combs and the absence of spurs -give better appearance to the carcass. - -The following is the nomenclature and corresponding weights of the -farm marketed chickens. In each class there will be seconds and -culls. The seconds of each group are kept separate, but not graded -so strictly or perhaps not graded at all for size. The culls are -packed in barrels and all kinds of chickens from fryers to old -roosters here sojourn together until they reach their final -destination, as potted chicken or chicken soup. - -Broilers--Packed in two weights. 1st: Less than two pounds; 2d: -between 2 and 2-1/2 pounds. - -Chickens--Packed in three weights. 1st: between 2-1/2 and 3 pounds; -2d: between 3 and 3-1/2 pounds; 3d: between 3-1/2 and 4 pounds. - -Roasters--Packed in two weights. 1st: between 4 and 5 pounds; 2d: -above 5 pounds. - -Stag Roosters--Cockerels, showing spurs and hard blue meat, packed -in two weights. 1st: under 4 pounds; 2d: above 4 pounds. - -Fowls, are hens. They are packed in three sizes. 1st: under 3-1/4 -pounds; 2d: between 3-1/4 and 4-1/2 pounds; 3d: over 4-1/2 pounds. - -Old Roosters--Packed in barrels. One grade only. - -After packing, chickens may be shipped to market immediately, or -they may be frozen and stored in the local plant. Shipments of any -importance are made in refrigerator cars. - -The poultry that is shipped to the final market alive is gradually -diminishing in quantity, as poultry killing plants are built up -throughout the country. The live poultry shipments are chiefly made -in the Live Poultry Transportation Cars. The following figures give -the number of such cars that moved out of the States named in a -recent year: - - Iowa 645 Tennessee 169 - Missouri 630 Michigan 165 - Illinois 624 S. Dakota 103 - Kentucky 472 Oklahoma 101 - Nebraska 395 Indiana 100 - Kansas 370 Wisconsin 93 - Minnesota 174 Texas 91 - Ohio 173 Arkansas 47 - -The most of this live poultry goes to New York and other eastern -cities and is consumed largely by the Hebrew trade. - - -The Special Poultry Plant. - -The special egg farmer of the East should sell his poultry alive to -the regular dealer. The exception to this advice may be taken in the -case of squab broilers for which some local dealers will not pay as -fancy a price as may be obtained by dressing and shipping to the -hotel trade. - -The grower of roasters and capons will probably want to market his -own product. As to whether it will pay him to do so will depend upon -whether his dealer will pay what the quality of the goods really -demands. The dealer can afford to do this all right, if he will -hustle around and find an outlet for the particular grade of goods, -for he is in position to kill and dress the fowls more economically -than the producer. - -I have never been able to study out why the average writer upon -agricultural subjects is always advising the farmer to attempt to do -difficult work for which special firms already exist. In the case of -fattening just referred to, there is reason why the farmer may be -able to do the work more successfully than the special -establishment, but why any one should urge the farmer to turn the -woodshed into a temporary poultry packing establishment I can hardly -see. If the farmer has nothing to do he had better get a job at the -poultry killing house where they have ice water and barrels in which -to put the feathers. - -I do not think it worth while in this book for me to attempt to -describe in detail the various methods of killing and packing -poultry for the various retail markets. The grower who contemplates -killing his own stuff had better spend a day visiting the produce -houses and market stalls and inquire which methods are locally in -demand. - - -Suggestions from Other Countries. - -In European countries generally, and especially in France and -England, great pains is taken in the production of market poultry. -Each farmer and each neighborhood become known in the market for the -quality of their poultry, and the prices they receive vary -accordingly. In these countries more poultry is fattened and dressed -by the growers than in the United States where we have greater -specialization of labor. - -In countries that have an export trade different systems have -originated. In Denmark and Ireland co-operative societies are -organized to handle perishable farm products. These, however, deal -more with eggs than with poultry. In portions of England the -fattening is done by private fatteners. The country being thickly -settled, the chickens are collected directly from the farms by -wagons making regular trips. This allows the rejection of the poor -and immature specimens, whereas a premium may be paid on better -stock. - -The greatest fault of poultry buying as conducted in this country is -the evil of a uniform price. After chickens are dressed the -difference of quality is readily discerned, and the price varies -from fancy quotations to almost nothing for culls. The packer pays a -given rate per pound for live hens or for spring chickens. The price -is paid alike for the best poultry received or for the scrawniest -chickens that can be coaxed to stand up and be weighed. The prices -paid is the average worth of all chickens purchased at that market. -All farmers who market an article better than the average are unjust -losers, while those who sell inferior stock receive unearned -profits. The producer of good stock receives pay for the extra -quantity of his chickens, but for the extra quality no recognition -whatever is given. To the deserving producer, if quality was -recognized, it would result in a greatly increased stimulation of -the production of good poultry. Any packer, if questioned, will -state that he would be willing to grade chickens and pay for them -according to quality, but that he does not do so because his -competitor would pay a uniform price and drive him out of business. -The man who receives an increased price would say little of it, -while the man who sells poor chickens, if he failed to receive the -full amount to which he is accustomed, would think himself unjustly -treated and use his influence against the dealer. A recognition of -quality in buying is for the interest of both the farmer and the -poultry dealer, and a mutual effort on the part of those interested -to put in practice this reform would result in a great improvement -of the poultry industry. - - -Cold Storage of Poultry. - -The growth of the cold storage of poultry has been phenomenal. -Poultry is packed in thin boxes that will readily lose their heat -and these are stacked in a freezer with a temperature near the zero -point. The temperature used for holding poultry are anywhere from 0 -degree up to 20 degrees. Poultry is held for periods of one to six -weeks at temperature above the freezing point. - -Frozen poultry will keep almost indefinitely save for the drying -out, which is due to the fact that evaporation will proceed slowly -even from a frozen body. The time frozen poultry is stored varies -from a few weeks to eight or ten months. - -The usual rule is that any crop is highest in price when it first -comes on the market and cheapest just after the point of its -greatest production. Thus, broilers are high in May and cheap in -September. In such cases the goods are carried from the season of -plenty to the following season of scarcity. This period is always -less than a year. The idea circulated by wild writers, that cold -storage poultry was kept several years is an economic impossibility. -The interest on the investment alone would make the holding of -storage goods into the second season of plenty, quite unprofitable, -but when the costs of storage, insurance and shrinkage are to be -paid, storing poultry for more than one season becomes absurd. The -fowl that has been once frozen cannot be made to look "fresh killed" -again. For that reason packers like to get a monopoly on a -particular market so that the two classes of goods will not have to -compete side by side. The quality of the frozen fowl when served is -very fair, practically as good as and some say better than the fresh -killed. - -Cold storage poultry is best thawed out by being placed over night -in a tank of water. Poultry prejudice prevents the practice of -retailing the goods frozen, though this method would be highly -desirable. - - -Drawn or Undrawn Fowls. - -Within the last two or three years there has been a great hue and -cry about the marketing of poultry without drawing the entrails. - -The objection to the custom rests upon the general prejudice to -allowing the entrails of animals to remain in the carcass. If a -little thought is given the subject, however, it is seen that human -prejudice is very inconsistent in such matters. We draw beef and -mutton carcasses, to be sure, but fish and game are stored undrawn, -and as for oysters and lobsters we not only store them undrawn but -we eat them so. - -The facts about the undrawn poultry proposition are as follows: The -intestines of the fowl at death contain numerous species of -bacteria, whereas the flesh is quite free from germs. If the carcass -is not drawn, but immediately frozen hard, the bacteria remain -inactive and no essential change occurs. If the carcass is stored -without freezing, or remains for even a short time at a high -temperature, the bacteria will begin to grow through the intestinal -walls and contaminate the flesh. - -Now, if the fowl is drawn, the unprotected flesh is exposed to -bacterial contamination, which results in decomposition more rapidly -than through the intestinal walls. The opening of the carcass also -allows a greater drying out and shrinkage. - -If poultry carcasses were split wide open as with beef or mutton, -drawing might not prove as satisfactory as the present method, but -since this is not desirable, and since ordinary laborers will break -the intestines and spill their contents over the flesh, and -otherwise mutilate the fowl, all those who have had actual -experience in the matter agree that drawing poultry is unpractical -and undesirable. - -As far as danger of disease or ptomaine poison is concerned, chances -between the two methods seem to offer little choice. - -The Bureau of Chemistry of the U.S. Department of Agriculture has -conducted a series of experiments along the line of poultry storage. -So far as the results have been published, nothing very striking has -been learned. From what has been published, the writer is of the -opinion that the somewhat mysterious changes that were observed in -the cold storage poultry were mostly a matter of drying out of the -carcass. - - -Poultry Inspection. - -The enthusiastic members of the medical profession, and others whose -knowledge of practical affairs is somewhat limited, occasionally -come forth with the idea of an inspection of poultry carcasses -similar to the Federal inspection of the heavier meats. - -The reasons that are supposed to warrant the Federal meat inspection -are precaution against disease and the idea of enforcing a -cleanliness in the handling of food behind the consumer's back, -which he would insist upon were he the preparer of his own food -products. - -No doubt there is well established evidence that some diseases, such -as the dread trichinosis, are acquired by the consumption of -diseased meat. As far as it is at present known there are no -diseases acquired from the consumption of diseased poultry flesh, -but, as we do not know as much about the bacteria that infests -poultry as we do of that of larger animals, there is no positive -proof that such transmission of disease could not occur. Thorough -cooking kills all disease germs, and poultry is seldom, if ever, -eaten without such preparation. - -The idea of protecting people from uncleanly methods of handling -their foods, concerning which they cannot themselves know, is -somewhat of a sentimental proposition. In practice it amounts to -nothing, save as the popular conception of this protection increases -the demand for the product which is marked "U.S. Inspected and -Passed." - -It may be interesting to some of the reformers of 1906 to know that -the meat inspection bill then forced upon Congress by a clamoring -public was desired by the packers themselves. Because Congress would -not listen to the packers, and the Department of Agriculture, the -Chief Executive very kindly indulged in a little conversation with a -few reporters, the results of which gave Congress the needed -inspiration. - -It cost the Government three million dollars to tell the people that -their meats are packed in a cleanly manner. If the people want this, -it is all well and good. The tax it places upon the price of meat is -less than half of one per cent. - -A similar inspection of the killing and packing of poultry would -involve a very much higher rate of taxation, because of the fact -that poultry products are packed in small establishments scattered -throughout the entire country. - -One reason that the meat packers wanted the United States -Inspection, is because it puts out of business the little fellow to -whom the Government cannot afford to grant inspection. A few of the -very largest poultry packers would like to see poultry inspection -for the same reason, but with the business so thoroughly scattered -as to render Government inspection so expensive as to be quite -impracticable, any such bill would certainly be killed in a -congressional committee. - -Any practical means to bring about the cleanly handling, and to -prevent the consumption of diseased poultry, should certainly be -encouraged. This can be done by the education of the consumer. -Poultry carcasses should be marketed with head and feet attached and -the entrails undrawn. By this precaution the consumer may tell -whether the fowl he is buying is male or female, young or old, -healthy or diseased. All cold storage poultry should be frozen and -should be sold to the consumer in a frozen condition. - -I am not in favor of the detailed regulation of business by law, but -I do believe that the legal enforcement of these last precautions -would be a good thing. - - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -QUALITY IN EGGS [*] - -[Footnote *: Much of the matter in this and the following chapter is -taken from the writer's report of the egg trade of the United -States, published as Circular 140 of the Bureau of Annual Industry -of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. In the present volume, -however, I have inserted some additional matters which policy -forbade that I discuss in a Federal document.] - - - -Because of the readiness with which eggs spoil, the term "fresh" has -become synonymous with the idea of desirable quality in eggs. As a -matter of fact the actual age of an egg is quite subordinate to -other factors which affect the quality. - -An egg forty-eight hours old that has lain in a wheat shock during a -warm July rain, would probably be swarming with bacteria and be -absolutely unfit for food. Another egg stored eight months in a -first-class cold storage room would be perfectly wholesome. - - -Grading Eggs. - -Eggs are among the most difficult of food products to grade, because -each egg must be considered separately and because the actual -substance of the egg cannot be examined without destroying the egg. -From external appearance, eggs can be selected for size, color, -cleanliness of shell and freedom from cracks. This is the common -method of grading in early spring when the eggs are uniformly of -good quality. - -Later in the season the egg candle is used. In the technical sense -any kind of a light may be used as an egg candle. A sixteen candle -power electric lamp is the most desirable. The light is enclosed in -a dark box, and the eggs are held against openings about the size of -a half dollar. The candler holds the egg large end upward, and gives -it a quick turn in order to view all sides, and to cause the -contents to whirl within the shell. To the expert this process -reveals the actual condition of the egg to an extent that the novice -can hardly realize. The art of egg candling cannot be readily taught -by worded description. One who wishes to learn egg candling had best -go to an adept in the art, or he may begin unaided and by breaking -many eggs learn the essential points. - -Eggs when laid vary considerably in size, but otherwise are a very -uniform product. The purpose of the egg in nature requires that this -be the case, because the contents of the egg must be so proportioned -as to form the chick without surplus or waste, and this demands a -very constant chemical composition. - -For food purposes all fresh eggs are practically equal. The tint of -the yolk varies a little, being a brighter yellow when green food -has been supplied the hens. Occasionally, when hens eat unusual -quantities of green food, the yolk show a greenish brown tint, and -appear dark to the candler. Such eggs are called grass eggs; they -are perfectly wholesome. - -An opinion exists among egg men that the white of the spring egg is -of finer quality and will stand up better than summer eggs. This is -true enough of commercial eggs, but the difference is chiefly, if -not entirely, due to external factors that act upon the egg after it -is laid. - -There are some other peculiarities that may exist in eggs at the -time of laying, such as a blood clot enclosed with the contents of -the egg, a broken yolk or perhaps bacterial contamination. "Tape -worms," so-called by egg candlers, are detached portions of the -membrane lining of the egg. "Liver spots" or "meat spots" are -detached folds from the walls of the oviduct. Such abnormalities are -rare and not worth worrying about. - -The shells of eggs vary in shape, color and firmness. These -variations are more a matter of breed and individual idiosyncrasy -than of care or feed. - -The strength of egg shells is important because of the loss from -breakage. The distinction between weak and firm shelled eggs is not -one, however, which can be readily remedied. Nothing more can be -advised in this regard than to feed a ration containing plenty of -mineral matter and to discard hens that lay noticeably weak shelled -or irregularly shaped eggs. - -Preference in the color of eggs shells is a hobby, and one well -worth catering to. As is commonly stated, Boston and surrounding -towns want brown eggs, while New York and San Francisco demand white -eggs. These trade fancies take their origin in the circumstances of -there being large henneries in the respective localities producing -the particular class of eggs. If the eggs from such farms are the -best in the market and were uniformly of a particular shade, that -mark of distinction, like the trade name on a popular article, would -naturally become a selling point. Only the select trade consider the -color in buying. - -Eggs of all Mediterranean breeds are white. Those of Asiatics are -brown. Those of the American breeds are usually brown, but not of so -uniform a tint. - -The size of eggs is chiefly controlled by the breed or by selection -of layers of large eggs. In a number of experiments published by -various experiment stations, slight differences in the sizes of the -eggs have been noted with varying rations and environment, but this -cannot be attributed to anything more specific than the general -development and vigor of the fowls. Pullets, at the beginning of the -laying period, lay an egg decidedly smaller than those produced at a -later stage in life. - -The egg size table below gives the size of representative -classes of eggs. These figures must not be applied too rigidly, as -the eggs of all breeds and all localities vary. They are given as -approximate averages of the eggs one might reasonably expect to find -in the class mentioned. - - - - EGG SIZE TABLE. - - GEOGRAPHICAL BREED Net Wt. Weight Relative - CLASSIFICATION CLASSIFICATIONS Per 30 Ounces Values - Dozen Per Per - Case Dozen Dozen - - Southern Iowa's Purebred flocks of 45 lbs. 24 25c. - "Two ounce eggs" American varieties of - "egg farm Leghorns." - - Poorest flocks of Games and 36 lbs. 19 1-5 20c. - Southern Dunghills Hamburgs. - - Average Tennessee Poorest strains 40 lbs. 21 1-3 22 1-3c. - or Texas eggs. of Leghorns. - - Average for the The mixed barnyard 43 lbs. 23 23 9-10c. - United States as fowl of the western - represented by farm, largely of - Kansas, Plymouth Rock origin. - Minnesota and - Southern Illinois. - - Average size of eggs American Brahmas 48 lbs. 25 3-5 26 2-3c. - produced in Denmark. and Minorcas. - - Selected brands of Equaled by several 54 lbs. 28 4-5 30c. - Danish eggs. pens of Leghorns in - the Australian laying - contest. - - - -How Eggs Are Spoiled. - -Dirty eggs are grouped roughly in three classes: (A) Plain dirties, -those to which soil or dung adheres; (B) stained eggs, those caused -by contact with damp straw or other material which discolors the -shell (plain dirties when washed usually show this appearance); (C) -smeared eggs, those covered with the contents of broken eggs. - -For the first two classes of dirty eggs the producer is to blame. -The third class originates all along the route from the nest to -consumer. The percentage of dirty eggs varies with the season and -weather conditions, being noticeably increased during rainy weather. -In grading, about five per cent. of farm grown eggs are thrown out -as dirties. These dirties are sold at a loss of at least twenty per -cent. - -The common trade name for cracked eggs is checks. Blind checks are -those in which the break in the shell is not readily observable. -They are detected with the aid of the candle, or by sounding, which -consists of clicking the eggs together. Dents are checks in which -the egg shell is pushed in without rupturing the membrane. Leakers -have lost part of the contents and are not only an entire loss -themselves, but produce smeared eggs. - -The loss from breakage varies considerably with the amount of -handling in the process of marketing. A western produce house, -collecting from grocers by local freight will record from four to -seven per cent. of checks. With properly handled eggs the loss -through breakage should not run over one or two per cent. - -Eggs in which the chick has begun to develop are spoken of as -"heated" eggs. Infertile eggs cannot heat because the germ has not -been fertilized and can make no growth. That such infertile eggs -cannot spoil is, however, a mistaken notion, for they are subjected -to all the other factors by which - -eggs may be spoiled. The sale of eggs tested out of the incubators -has been encouraged by the dissemination of the knowledge that -infertile eggs are not changed by incubation. Eggs thrown out of an -incubator will be shrunken and weakened, and some of them may -contain dead germs and the remains of chicks that have died after -starting to develop. Such eggs may be sold for what they are, but -should never be mixed with other eggs or sold as fresh. When -carefully candled they should be worth ten or twelve cents a dozen. - -Fertile eggs, at the time of laying, cannot be told from infertile -eggs, as the germ of the chick is microscopic in size. If the egg is -immediately cooled and held at a temperature below 70 degrees, the -germ will not develop. At a temperature of 103 degrees, the -development of the chick proceeds most rapidly. At this temperature -the development is about as follows: - -Twelve hours incubation: When broken in a saucer, the germ spot, -visible upon all eggs, seems somewhat enlarged. Looked at with a -candle such an egg cannot be distinguished from a fresh egg. - -Twenty-four hours: The germ spot mottled and about the size of a -dime. This egg, if not too dark shelled, can readily be detected -with the candle, the germ spot causing the yolk to appear -considerably darker than the yolk of a fresh egg. Such an egg is -called a heavy egg or a floater. - -Forty-eight hours: By this time the opaque white membrane, which -surrounds the germ, has spread well over the top of the yolk, and -the egg is quite dark or heavy before the light. Blood appears at -about this period, but is difficult of detection by the candler, -unless the germ dies and the blood ring sticks to the membrane of -the egg. - -Three days: The blood ring is the prominent feature and is as large -as a nickel. The yolk behind the membrane has become watery. - -Four days: The body of the chick becomes readily visible, and -prominent radiating blood vessels are seen. The yolk is half covered -with a water containing membrane. - -These stages develop as given, occurring at a temperature of 103 -degrees. As the temperature is lowered the rate of chick development -is retarded, but at any temperature above 70, this development will -proceed far enough to cause serious injury to the quality of the -eggs. - -For commercial use eggs may be grouped in regard to heating as -follows: - -(1) No heat shown. Cannot be told at the candle from fresh eggs. - -(2) Light floats. First grade that can be separated by candling, -corresponding to about twenty-four hours of incubation. These are -not objectionable to the average housewife. - -(3) Heavy floats. This group has no distinction from the former, -except an exaggeration of the same feature. These eggs are -objectionable to the fastidious housewife, because of the appearing -of the white and scummy looking allantois on the yolk. - -(4) Blood rings. Eggs in which blood has developed, extending to the -period when the chick becomes visible. (5) Chicks visible to the -candle. - -The loss due to heated eggs is enormous; probably greater than that -caused by any other source of loss to the egg trade. The loss varies -with the season of the year, and the climate. In New England heat -loss is to be considered as in the same class as loss from dirties -and checks. In Texas the egg business from the 15th of June until -cool weather in the fall is practically dead. People stop eating -eggs at home and shipping out of the State nets the producer such -small returns by the time the loss is allowed that, at the prices -offered, it hardly pays the farmer to gather the eggs. In the season -of 1901 hatched chickens were commonly found in cases of market -eggs, throughout the trans-Mississippi region, and eggs did well to -net the shippers three cents per dozen. - -Damage to eggs by heating and consequent financial loss is -inexcusable. In the first place, market eggs have no business being -fertilized, but whether they are or not they should be kept in a -place sufficiently cool to prevent all germ growth. - -The egg shell is porous so that the developing chick may obtain air. -This exposes the moist contents of the egg to the drying influence -of the atmosphere. Evaporation from eggs takes place constantly. It -is increased by warm temperatures, dry air and currents of air -striking the egg. - -When the egg is formed within the hen the contents fill the shell -completely. As the egg cools the contents shrink, and the two layers -of membrane separate in the large end of the egg, causing the -appearance of the bubble or air cell. Evaporation of water from the -egg further shrinks the contents and increases the size of the air -cell. The size of the air cell is commonly taken as a guide to the -age of the egg. But when we consider that with the same relative -humidity on a hot July day, evaporation would take place about ten -times as fast as on a frosty November morning, and that differences -in humidity and air currents equally great occur between localities, -we see that the age of an egg, judged by this method, means simply -the extent of evaporation, and proves nothing at all about the -actual age. - -Even as a measure of evaporation, the size of the air cell may be -deceptive, for when an egg with an air cell of considerable size is -roughly handled, the air cell breaks down the side of the egg, and -gives the air cell the appearance of being larger than it really is. -Still rougher handling of shrunken eggs may cause the rupture of the -inner membrane, allowing the air to escape into the contents of the -egg. This causes a so-called watery or frothy egg. The quality is in -no wise injured by the mechanical mishap, but eggs so ruptured are -usually discriminated against by candlers. - -In this connection it might be well to speak further of the subject -of "white strength," by which is meant the stiffness or viscosity of -the egg white. The white of an egg is a limpid, clear liquid, but in -the egg of good quality that portion immediately surrounding the -yolk appears to be in a semi-solid mass. The cause of this -appearance is the presence of an invisible network of fibrous -material. By age and mechanical disturbance this network is -gradually broken down and the liquid white separates out. Such a -weak and watery white is usually associated with shrunken eggs. -These eggs will not stand up well or whip into a firm froth and are -thrown in lower grades. - -The weakness of the yolk membranes also increases with age, and is -objectionable because the breakage of the yolk is unsightly and -spoils the egg for poaching. - -The shrunken egg is most abundant in the fall, when the rising -prices tempt the farmer and grocery man to hold the eggs. This -holding is so prevalent, in fact, that from August to December full -fresh eggs are the exception rather than the rule. - -While we have called attention to evaporation as the most pronounced -fault of fall eggs, losses from other causes are greatly increased -by the holding process. - -If the eggs are held in a warm place, heat and shrinkage will case -the greatest damage; if held in a cellar, rot, mold, and bad odors -will cause the chief loss. - -The loss due to shrunken eggs is not understood nor appreciated by -those outside the trade. Such ignorance is due to the fact that the -shrunken is not so repulsive as the rotten or heated egg. But the -inferiority of the shrunken egg is so well appreciated by the -consumer that high class dealers find it impossible to use them -without ruining their trade. The result is that shrunken eggs are -constantly being sent into the cheaper channels, with the result -that all lower grades of eggs are more depreciated in the fall of -the year than at any other time. - -In the classes of spoiled eggs, of which we have thus far spoken, -the proverbial rotten egg has not been considered. The term "rot" in -the egg trade is used to apply to any egg absolutely unfit for food -purposes. But I prefer to confine the term "rotten egg" to the egg -which contains a growth of bacteria. - -The normal egg when laid is germ free. But the egg shell is not germ -proof. The pores in the egg shell proper are large enough to admit -all forms of bacteria, but the membrane inside the shell is germ -proof as long as it remains dry. When this membrane becomes moist so -that bacteria may grow in it, these germs of decay quickly grow -through it and contaminate the contents of the egg. - -Heat favors the growth of bacteria in eggs and sufficient cold -prevents it, but as bacteria cannot enter without moisture on the -surface of the egg we can consider dampness as the cause of rotten -eggs. Moisture on the shell may come from an external wetting, from -the "sweating" of eggs coming out of cold storage, or by the -prevention of evaporation to such an extent that the external -moisture of the egg thoroughly soaks the membrane. The latter -happens in damp cellars, and when eggs are covered with some -impervious material. - -Rotten eggs may be of different kinds, according to the species of -germ that causes the decomposition. The specific kinds of egg -rotting bacteria have not been worked out, but the following three -groups of bacterially infected eggs are readily distinguishable in -the practical work of egg candling. - -(1) Black rots. It is probable that many different species of -bacteria cause this form of rotten eggs. The prominent feature is -the formation of hydrogen sulphide gas, which blackens the contents -of the egg, gives the characteristic rotten egg smell and sometimes -causes the equally well known explosion. - -(2) Sour eggs or white rots. These eggs have a characteristic sour -smell. The contents become watery, the yolk and the whites mix and -the whole egg is offensive to both eye and nose. - -(3) The spot rot. In this the bacterial growth has not contaminated -the whole egg, but has remained near the point of entrance. Such -eggs are readily picked out with the candle, and when broken open -show lumpy adhesions on the inside of the shell. These lumps are of -various colors and appearances. It is probable that these spots are -caused as much by mold as by bacteria, but for practical purposes -the distinction is immaterial. - -In practice it is impossible to separate rotten from heated eggs for -the reason that in the typical nest of spoiled eggs found around the -farm, both causes have been at work. Dead chicks will not -necessarily cause the eggs to decay, but many such eggs do become -contaminated by bacteria before they reach the candler, and hence, -as a physician would say, show complications. - -The loss of eggs that are actually rotten is not as great as one -might imagine. Perhaps one or two per cent. of the country's egg -crop actually rot, but the expenses of the candling necessitated, -and the lowering of value of eggs that contain even a few rotten -specimens are severe losses. - -Moldy or musty eggs are caused by accidentally wet cases or damp -cellars and ice houses. The moldy egg is most frequently a spot rot. -In the musty egg proper the meat is free from foreign organisms, but -has been tainted by the odor of mold growth upon the shell or -packing materials. - -The absorption of odors is the most baffling of all causes of bad -eggs. Here the candler, so expert in other points, is usually -helpless. Eggs, by storage in old musty cellars, or in rooms, with -lemons, onions and cheese, may become so badly flavored as to be -seriously objected to by a fancy trade, and yet there is no means of -detecting the trouble without destroying the egg. Such eggs occur -most frequently among the held stock of the fall season. - - -The Loss Due to Carelessness. - -The egg crop of the country, more than ninety-five per cent, of -which originates on the general farm, is subject to immense waste -due to ignorant and careless handling. The great mass of eggs for -sale in our large cities possess to a greater or less degree the -faults we have discussed. - -Some idea of the loss due to the present shiftless method of -handling eggs, may be obtained by a comparison of the actual average -prices received for all eggs sold in New York City, and the -wholesale prices quoted by a prominent New York firm dealing in high -grade goods. The contrasted price for the year 1907 are as follows: - - Prices at which total goods Wholesale prices for strictly - moved. fresh eggs. - - January 25.8 January 42. - February 24.5 February 40. - March 19.3 March 32. - April 16.9 April 30. - May 16.6 May 31. - June 15.5 June 32. - July 15.6 July 35. - August 17.7 August 38. - September 20.7 September 40. - October 21.4 October 42. - November 26.0 November 45. - December 27.7 December 48. - -The total values figured by multiplying these prices by the -New York receipts, are as follows: - - Amount actually received $23,832,000 - Values at quotations for strictly fresh 44,730,000 - -No one would contend it is possible to bring the entire egg crop of -the country up to the latter value, but the fact that there is a -definite market for eggs of first class quality at almost double the -figures for which the egg crop as a whole is actually sold, is a -point very significant to the ambitious producer of high grade eggs. - - -Requisites of the Production of High Grade Eggs. - -(a) Hens that produce a goodly number of eggs, and at the same time -an egg that is moderately large (average two ounces each). Plymouth -Rocks, Wyandottes, Rhode Island Reds, Orpingtons, Leghorns, Minorcas -are the varieties which will do this. - -(b) Good housing, regular feeding and watering, and above all clean, -dry nests. - -(c) Daily gathering of eggs, when the temperature is above 80 -degrees, gathering twice a day. - -(d) The confining of all broody hens as soon as discovered. - -(e) The rejection as doubtful of all eggs found in a nest which was -not visited the previous day. (Such eggs should be used at home -where each may be broken separately). - -(f) The placing as soon as gathered of all summer eggs in the -coolest spot available. - -(g) The prevention at all times of moisture in any form coming in -contact with the egg's shell. - -(h) The selling of young cockerels before they begin to annoy the -hens. Also the selling or confining of old male birds from the time -hatching is over until cool weather in fall. - -(i) The using of cracked and dirty, as well as small eggs, at home. -Such eggs if consumed when fresh are perfectly wholesome, but when -marketed are discriminated against and are likely to become an -entire loss. - -(j) Keeping eggs away from musty cellars or bad odors. - -(k) Keeping the egg as cool and dry as possible while en route to -market. - -(l) The marketing of all eggs at least once per week and oftener, -when facilities permit. - -(m) The use of strong, clean cases or cartons and good fillers. - - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -HOW EGGS ARE MARKETED - - -The methods by which the larger number of American eggs pass from -the producer to consumer is as follows: - -The eggs are gathered by the farmer with varying regularity and are -brought perhaps on the average of once a week, to the local village -merchant. - -This merchant receives weekly quotations from a number of -surrounding egg dealers and at intervals of from two days to two -weeks, ships to such a dealer, by local freight. The dealer buys the -eggs case count, that is, he pays for them by the case regardless of -quality. He then repacks the eggs in new cases and, with the -exception of a period in the early spring, candles them. - -This dealer, in turn, receives quotations from city egg houses and -sells to them by wire. He usually ships in carload lots. The city -receiver may also be a jobber who sells to grocers, or he may sell -the car outright to a jobbing house. The jobber re-candles the eggs, -sorting them into a number of grades, which are sold to various -classes of trade. The last link in the chain is the housewife, who -by 'phone or personal call, asks for "a dozen nice fresh eggs." - -This most frequently repeated story of the American egg applies -particularly in the case of eggs produced west of the Mississippi -and marketed in the very large cities of the East. - -We will now discuss the various steps of the egg trade, pointing out -the reason for the existence of the present methods and their -influence upon quality and consequent value. - - -The Country Merchant. - -The country merchant is the logical business link between the farmer -and the outside world and usually continues to act as the farmers' -buyer and seller until the commodity dealt in becomes of such -importance as to demand more specialized form of marketing. Eggs -being a perishable crop continuously produced, must be marketed at -frequent intervals, and the trips to the general store, necessary to -supply the household needs, offers the only convenient opportunity -for such marketing. - -The merchant buys eggs because by doing so he can control his -selling trade. - -The farmer trades where he sells his eggs, because it is convenient -to do both errands at one place, and also because he wishes to avoid -affronting the merchant by breaking the established custom of -trading out the amount. - -For these reasons the merchant knows that to buy eggs means to sell -goods, and he therefore bids for eggs. His competitors across the -street, and in other towns, also bid for eggs. The effect to the -merchant of lowering the price of his goods or raising the price of -eggs is financially the same. In either case it is the matter of -cutting the prices under the spur of competition. Now, the articles -on which the merchant make his chief profits from the farmers' trade -are dry goods and notions. Such articles are not standardized, but -vary in a manner quite impossible of estimation by the -unsophisticated. On the other hand, eggs are quoted by the dozen, -and all that run may read. - -Suppose, for illustration, two merchants in the same town are each -doing a business with a twenty per cent. profit, and are buying eggs -at ten cents and selling for eleven, the cent advance being -sufficient to pay for their labor, incidental loss, and a small -profit. Now one merchant concludes to play for more trade. If he -marks his goods down he would gain some trade, but many people would -fear his goods were cheap. But if he puts up a placard, "Eleven -Cents Paid For Eggs," the farmers will throng his store and never -question the quality of his goods. This move having been successful, -his rival across the street quietly stocks up with a cheaper line of -dry goods, and some fine morning puts out a card, "Twelve Cents For -Eggs." The farm wagons this week will be hitched on the other side -of the street. - -The rate of business at ten per cent, being insufficient to maintain -two men in the town, a mutual understanding is gradually brought -about by which the prices of goods sold are worked back to the basis -of twenty per cent, gross profit, but the false price of eggs will -serve to draw the trade from neighboring towns and is therefore -maintained. - -As a matter of fact the price paid to farmers for eggs by the -general stores of the Mississippi Valley is frequently one to two -cents above the price at which the storekeeper sells the product. -Allowing the cost of handling, we have a condition prevailing in -which the merchant is handling eggs at from five to ten per cent. -loss, and it stands to reason that he is making up the loss by -adding that per cent. to his profits on his goods. Some of the -effects of this system are: - -1--The inflated prices of merchandise is an injustice to the -townspeople and to farmers not selling produce, in fact it amounts -to a taxation of these people for the benefit of the egg producers. -2--The inflated prices of merchant's wares work to his disadvantage -in competition with mail order or out-of-town trade. 3--The farmer -who exchanges eggs for dry goods is not being paid more for his -eggs, save as the tax on the townspeople contributes a little to -that end, but is in the main merely swapping more dollars. 4--The -use of eggs as a drawing card for trade works in favor of inferior -produce, and the loss to the farmer through the lowering of prices -thus caused, is much greater than his gain through the forced -contributions of his neighbors. - - -The Huckster. - -The huckster or peddling wagon which gathers eggs and other produce -directly from the farm, prevail east and south of a line drawn from -Galveston to Chicago through Texarkana, Ark., Springfield, Mo., and -St. Louis. North and west of this line the huckster is almost -unknown. - -The huckster wagons may be of the following types: - -1--An extension of the local grocery store, trading merchandise for -eggs. 2--An independent traveling peddler. 3--A cash dealer who buys -his load, and hauls it to the nearest city where he peddles the -produce from house to house or sells it to city grocers. 4--A -representative of the local produce buyer. 5--A fifth style of egg -wagon does not visit the farm at all, but is a system of rural -freight service run by a produce buyer for the purpose of collecting -the eggs from country stores. - -As far as the quality of product and advantage to the farmer is -concerned, the fourth style of huckster is preferable. This style -exists chiefly in Indiana and Michigan, and the better settled -regions of Kentucky and Tennessee. The writer found hucksters in -southern Michigan working on a profit of one-half a cent per dozen, -while in the mountains of Tennessee he found a huckster paying ten -cents for eggs that were worth eighteen cents in Chattanooga, and -twenty-three cents in New York. - -The huckster scheme of gathering eggs would seemingly be a means of -obtaining good eggs because of the advantage of regularity of -collection, but in reality it does not always work out that way. -While it must be admitted that in the isolated regions of the Middle -and Southern States the presence of the huckster is the only factor -that makes egg selling possible, it is also true that the peddling -huckster of those regions usually disregards the first principles of -handling perishable products. He makes a week's trip in sun and rain -with his load of produce, with the result that the quality of his -summer eggs is about as low as can be found. - -In the more densely populated region with a twice or thrice a week, -or even daily service, the huckster egg becomes the finest farm -grown egg in the market. - -The second step in the usual scheme of egg marketing is the sale of -eggs collected by the small storekeeper to the produce man or -shipper. - - -The Produce Buyer. - -Throughout the Mississippi Valley there are wholesale produce houses -at all important railroad junctions. A typical house will ship the -produce of one to three counties. These houses, once a week or -oftener, send out postal card quotations. These quotations read so -much per case, and are usually case count, with a reservation, -however, of the privilege to reject or charge loss on goods that are -utterly bad. Each grocery receives quotations from one to a dozen -such houses, and perhaps also from commission firms in the nearest -city. The highest of these quotations gets the shipment. - -The buyer repacks the eggs and usually candles them, the strictness -of the grading depending upon the intended destination. The loss in -candling is generally kept account of, but is seldom charged back to -the shipper. The egg man wants volume of business, and if he -antagonizes a shipper by charging up his loss, the usual result will -be the loss of trade. So the buyer estimates his probable loss and -lowers his price enough to cover it. - -By loss off, or "rots out," is meant the subtraction of the bad eggs -from the number to be paid for. Buying on a candled or graded basis, -usually not only means rots cut, but that a variation of the price -is made for two or more grades of merchantable eggs. - -Much discussion prevails among the western egg buyers as to whether -eggs should be bought loss off or case count. Loss off buying seems -to be more desirable and just, but in practice is fraught with -difficulties. - -If the loss off buyer feels he is losing business, he may instruct -his candler to grade more closely, which means he will pay less. -Whether done with honest or dishonest intention, the buyer thus sets -the price to be paid after he has the goods in his own hands, and -this is an obviously difficult commercial system. - -Where the buyer in one case changes the grading basis to protect -himself, there are probably ten cases where the eggs really deserve -the loss charged; but the tenth chance gives the seller an -opportunity to nurse his loss with the belief that he has been -robbed by the buyer. Such an uncertain feeling is disagreeable, and -the results are that where one or two competing egg dealers buys -loss off, and the other case count, the case count man will get most -of the business. - -The case count method being the path of least resistance, the loss -off system can only succeed where there is some factor that -overcomes the disinclination of a shipper to let the other man set -the price. This factor may be: 1st--An exceptional reputation of a -particular firm for honesty and fair dealing. 2d--Exceptional -opportunities for selling fancy goods, enabling the loss off buyer -to pay much higher rates for good stuff. 3d--A condition that -prevails in the South in the summer, where the losses are so heavy -that the dealers will not take the risk involved in case count -buying. 4th--Some sort of a monopoly. - -A monopoly for enforcing the loss off system of buying has been -brought about in some sections of the West by agreement among egg -dealers. In such cases the usual experience has been that some one -would get anxious for more business, and begin quoting case count, -the result being that he would get the business of the disgruntled -shippers in his section. When one buyer begins quoting case count, -the remainder rapidly follow suit and case count buying is quickly -re-established. - - -The City Distribution of Eggs. - -In name, city egg dealers are usually commission houses, but in -practice the majority of large lots of eggs are now bought by -telegraph and the prices definitely known before shipment. - -In the larger cities eggs are dealt in by a produce board of trade. -Such exchanges frequently have rules of grading and an official -inspector. This gives stability to egg dealing and largely solves -the problem of uncertainty as to quality, so annoying to the country -buyer. In the city even, where official grading is not resorted to, -personal inspection of the lot by the buyer is practical, and one -may know what he is getting. - -In many cases, especially in smaller cities, the receiver is the -jobber and sells to the grocers. In larger cities the receiver sells -to a firm who makes a business of selling them to groceries, -restaurants, etc. - -The jobber grades the eggs as the trade demands. In a western city -this may mean two grades--good and bad; in New York, it may mean -seven or eight grades, and the finer of these ones being packed in -sealed cartons, perhaps each egg stamped with the dealer's brand. - -The city retailer of eggs include grocers, dairies, butcher shops, -soda fountains, hotels, restaurants and bakeries. The soda fountain -trade and the first-class hotel are among the high bidder for -strictly first-class eggs. Many such institutions in eastern cities -are supplied directly from large poultry farms. The figures at which -such eggs are purchased are frequently at a given premium above the -market quotation, or a year round contract price for a given number -of eggs per week. This premium over common farm eggs may range from -one or two cents in western cities, to five to twenty cents in New -York and Boston. An advance of ten cents over the quotation for -extras or a year round contract price of thirty-five cents per -dozen, might be considered typical of such arrangements in New York -City. - -Some of the larger chain grocers in New York City are in the market -for strictly fresh eggs and have even installed buying departments -in charge of expert egg men. - -The great bulk of eggs move through the channels of the small -restaurant, bakery and grocery. In the small cities of the Central -West the grocer handles eggs at a margin of one to three cents. In -the South and farther West the margin is two to seven cents, the -retail price always being in the even nickel. In the large eastern -city there exists the custom unknown in the West of having two or -more grades of eggs for sale in the same store. All eggs offered for -sale are claimed by the salesman to be "strictly fresh" or the -"best," and yet these eggs may vary if it be April from fifteen -cents to forty cents, or if in December from thirty cents to -seventy-five cents per dozen. The New York grocers' profit is from -two to five cents on cheap eggs, but runs higher on high grade eggs, -frequently reach twenty cents a dozen and sometimes going as high as -forty cents for very fancy stock. - -City retailing is by far the most expensive item in the marketing of -eggs. As an illustration of the profits of the various handlers of -eggs might be as follows: - - Paid the farmer in Iowa $.15 - Profit of country store .00 - Gross profit of shipper .00-3/4 - Freight to New York .01-1/2 - Gross profit of receiver .00-1/2 - Gross profit of jobber .01-1/2 - Loss from candling .01-1/2 - Gross profit of retailer .04-1/2 - ------- - Cost to consumer $.25 - -The cheapest grade of eggs sold are taken by bakeries and for -cooking purposes at restaurants. When cooked with other food an egg -may have its flavor so covered up that a very repulsive specimen may -be used. Measures have been frequently taken by city boards of -health to stop the sale of spot rots and other low grade eggs. The -great difficulty with such regulations is that they are difficult of -enforcement because no line of demarcation can be drawn as in the -case of adulterated or preserved products. - -That embryo chicks and bacterially contaminated eggs are consumed by -the million cannot be doubted, but the individual examination of -each egg sold would be the only way in which the food inspectors can -prevent their use. The egg from the well-kept flock whose subsequent -handling has been conducted with intelligence and dispatch is the -only egg whose "purity" is assured with or without law. The -encouragement of such production and such handling is the proper -sphere of governmental regulations in regard to this product. - - -Cold Storage of Eggs. - -The supply of eggs ranges from month to month, the heavy season of -production centering about April and the lightest run being in -November. The cold storage men begin storing eggs in March or April -and continue to store heavily until June, after which time the -quality deteriorates and does not keep well in storage. This storage -stock begins to move out in September and should be cleaned up by -December. Great loss may result if storage eggs are held too long. - -The effect of the storage business is to even up the prices for the -year. The reduction of the exceedingly high winter prices is -unfortunate for those who are skilled enough to produce many eggs at -that season of the year, but on a whole the storage business adds to -the wealth-producing powers of the hen, for it serves to increase -the annual consumption of eggs and prevents eggs from becoming a -drug on the market during the season of heavy production. - -March and April eggs are, in spite of a long period of storage, the -best quality of storage stock. This is accounted for by the fact -that owing to cooler weather and rising price eggs leave the farm in -the best condition at this season of the year. - -Because eggs are spoiled by hard freezing, they must be kept at a -higher temperature than meat and butter. Temperatures of from 29 -degrees to 30 degrees F. are used in cold storage of eggs. At such -temperatures the eggs, if kept in moist air, become moldy or musty. -To prevent this mustiness the air in a first class storage room is -kept moderately dry. This shrinks the eggs, though much more slowly -than would occur without storage. - -The growth of bacteria in cold storage is practically prevented, but -if bacteria are in the eggs when stored they will lie dormant and -begin activity when the eggs are warmed up. - -Of the cold storage egg as a whole we can say it is a wholesome food -product, though somewhat inferior in flavor and strength of white to -a fresh egg. The cold storage egg can be very nearly duplicated in -appearance and quality by allowing eggs to stand for a week or two -in a dry room. Cold storage eggs, when in case lots, can be told by -the candler because of the uniform shrinkage, the presence of mold -on cracked eggs and perhaps the occasional presence of certain kinds -of spot rots peculiar to storage stock, but the absolute detection -of a single cold storage egg, so far as the writer knows, is -impossible. - -It may be further said that with the present prevailing custom of -holding eggs without storage facilities for the fall rise of price, -eggs placed in cold storage in April are frequently superior to the -current fall and early winter receipts. Cold storage eggs are -generally sold wholesale as cold storage goods, but are retailed as -"eggs." The fall eggs offered to the consumer cover every imaginable -variation in quality and the poorest ones sold may be a cold storage -product, or they may not be. - -The Bureau of Chemistry of the United States Department of -Agriculture has recently announced the finding of certain crystals -in the yolks of cold storage eggs that are not present in the fresh -stock. This finding of a laboratory method of detecting cold storage -stock was at first taken to be a great discovery. Further -investigation, however, indicates that the crystal mentioned forms -as the egg ages and that the rate of formation varies with the -individual eggs and probably also with the temperature, so that -while crystals may indicate an aged egg, the discovery only means -that the microscopist in the laboratory can now do in a half hour -what any egg candler in his booth can do in ten seconds. - -At the present writing (February, 1909) there has been much talk of -laws against the sale of cold storage eggs as fresh. The Federal -Pure Food Commission, under the general law against misbranding, -have made one such prosecution. Many States have agitated such laws -but little or nothing has been done. I find that the idea of such a -law is quite popular, especially with poultrymen. Contrary to -popular opinion, the cold storage men and larger egg dealers are not -opposed to the law. The people that are hit are the small dealers -and especially the city grocers. These fellows buy the eggs at -wholesale storage prices and sell them at retail prices for fresh, -thus making excessive profits but cutting down the amount of the -sales. This lessens the demand for storage stock and lowers the -wholesale price. This is the reason the wholesaler and warehouse man -are in favor of the law. - -We may all grant that the opportunity given the small dealers to -grab quick gains and in so doing hurt the trade ought to be -abolished. But how are we to do it? "Have State and Federal branding -of the cases as they go into or come out of storage," says one--an -excellent plan, to be sure by which the grocers could buy one case -of fresh, eggs and a back room full of storage goods and do Elijah's -flour barrel trick to perfection. - -Clearly government inspection and stamping of each egg is the only -method that would be effective and the consideration of what this -means turns the whole matter into a joke. The official inspection -now maintained by the boards of trade of the larger cities may be -extended and the producers, dealers and consuming public may be -educated to appreciate quality in eggs, as they have been in dairy -products. City and State laws may also be made which will taboo the -sale of spot eggs or eggs that will float on water. Meanwhile, a -great opportunity is open for the man who has high grade eggs for -sale, whether he be producer or tradesman. - -Many eggs that would not do for ordinary storage are preserved by -direct freezing. These eggs are broken and carefully sorted and -placed in large cans and then frozen. Such a product is disposed of -to bakers, confectioners and others desiring eggs in large -quantities. Another method of preserving eggs is by evaporation. -Evaporated or dried egg is, weight considered, about the most -nourishing food product known. The chief value of such an article -lies in provisioning inaccessible regions. There is no reason, -however, why this product should not become a common article of diet -during the season of high prices of eggs. Dried eggs can be eaten as -custards, omelets, or similar dishes. - - -Preserving Eggs Out of Cold Storage. - -Occasional articles have been printed in agricultural papers calling -attention to the fact that the cold storage men were reaping vast -profits which rightfully belonged to the farmer. Such writers advise -the farmer to send his own eggs to the storage house or to preserve -them by other means. - -As a matter of fact the business of storing eggs has not of late -years been particularly profitable, there being severe losses during -several seasons; Even were the profit of egg storing many times -greater than they are the above advice would still be unwise, for -the storing, removing and selling of a small quantity of eggs would -eat up all possible profit. - -The only reliable methods of preserving eggs outside of cold storage -are as follows: - -Liming: Make a saturated solution of lime, to which salt may be -added, let it settle, dip off the clear liquid, put the eggs in -while fresh, keep them submerged in the liquid and keep the liquid -as cold as the available location will permit. - -Water glass: This is exactly the same as liming except that the -solution used is made by mixing ten per cent. of liquid water glass -or sodium silicate with water. - -Liming eggs was formerly more popular than it is to-day. There are -still two large liming plants in this country and several in Canada. -In Europe both lime and water glass are used on a more extensive -scale. - -All limed or water glassed eggs can be told at a glance by an -experienced candler. They pop open when boiled. When properly -preserved they are as well or better flavored than storage stock, -but the farmer or poultryman will make frequent mistakes and thus -throw lots of positively bad eggs on the market. These eggs must be -sold at a low price themselves, and by their presence cast suspicion -on all eggs, thus tending to suppress the price paid to the -producers. The farmers' efforts to preserve eggs has in this way -acted as a boomerang, and have in the long run caused more loss than -gain to the producers. - -For the poultryman with his own special outlet for high grade goods, -the use of pickling or cold storage is generally not to be -considered for fear of hurting his trade. Any scheme that would help -to overcome the difficulty of getting sufficient fresh eggs to -supply such customers in the season of scarcity would be of great -advantage. The proposition of pickling a limited number of eggs and -selling them for "cooking" purposes, explaining just what they are, -ought to offer something of a solution, although, to the writer's -knowledge, it has not been done. - - -Improved Methods of Marketing Farm-Grown Eggs. - -The loss to the farmers of this country from the careless handling -of eggs is something enormous. No great or sudden change in this -state of affairs can be brought about, but a few points on how this -loss may be averted will not be out of order. - -Numerous efforts have recently been made in western states to -prevent the sale of bad eggs by law. Minnesota began this work by -arresting several farmers and dealers. The parties invariably -pleaded guilty. A number of other States followed the example of -Minnesota in challenging the sale of rotten eggs, but few -prosecutions were made. - -Such laws mean well enough, but the only efficient means of -enforcing them would be to have food inspectors who are trained as -practical candlers. - -The present usefulness of the laws is in calling the attention of -the farmer to the mistake that he may be carelessly committing, and -in placing over him a fear of possible disgrace in case of arrest -and prosecution. - -The weakness of the law is the difficulty of its enforcement because -of the number of violations, and the difficulty of drawing distinct -lines in regard to which eggs are to be considered unlawful. - -Education of the farmer as to the situation is, of course, the -surest means of preventing the loss, but the education of ten -millions of farmers is easier to suggest than to execute. The most -effective plan of education would be the introduction of a method of -buying eggs similar to the one in vogue in Denmark, in which every -producer is paid strictly in accordance with the quality of his -eggs. - -With our complicated system involving five to six dealers between -the producer and the consumer, such a system is well nigh -impossible. With the introduction of co-operative buying or the -community system of production, paying for quality becomes entirely -possible. - -For enterprising farming communities, the following plans offer a -cure for the evil of general store buying that take good and bad -alike and causes the worthy farmer to suffer for the carelessness -and dishonesty of his neighbor. - -First: The encouragement of the cash buying of produce, and, if -possible, the candling of all eggs with proper deduction for loss. - -Second: The buying of eggs by co-operative creameries. The greatest -difficulty in this has been the opposition of the merchants, who -through numerous ways available in a small town, may retaliate and -injure the creamery patronage to an extent greater than the newly -installed egg business will repay. - -Third: The agreement of the merchants to turn all egg buying over to -a single produce buyer. This has been successfully done in a few -instances, but there are not many towns in which those interested -will stick to such an agreement. The worst fault with this plan is -that the moment the egg buyer is given a monopoly he is tempted to -lower the farmer's prices for the purpose of increasing his own -profits. - -Fourth: A modification of the above scheme is the case in which the -produce buyer is on a salary and in the employment of the merchants. -This scheme has been successfully carried into effect in some -Nebraska towns. It may be the ultimate solution of the egg buying in -the West. It eliminates the temptation of the buyer to use his -privilege of monopoly to fatten his own pocket-book. The weakness of -the plan is that a salaried man's efficiency in the close bargaining -necessary to sell the goods is inferior to that of the man trading -for himself. Other difficulties are: Getting a group of merchants -who will live up to such an agreement; the farmers object to driving -to two places; the competition of other towns; the merchants' -realization that, the farmer with cash in his pocket or a check good -at all stores, is not as certain a trader as one standing, egg -basket on arm, before the counter; and last, and most convincing, -the merchant's further realization that any fine Saturday morning, -with eggs selling at fifteen cents at the produce house, he may -stick out a card "Sixteen Cents Paid for Eggs" and make more money -in one day than his competitors did all week. - -Fifth: Co-operative egg buying by the farmers themselves. This has -been discussed in a previous chapter. It is all right in localities -where the business is big enough to warrant it and the farmers are -intelligent and enthusiastic to back it up and stick to it. - - -The High Grade Egg Business. - -There are many excellent opportunities for men of moderate capital -and ability in the high grade egg trade. The produce business on its -present line, either at the country end or at the city end, is as -open as any well-known form of business enterprise can be. The -chances of success for a man new to the trade will be better, -however, if he can find a niche in the business where he may crowd -in and establish himself before the old firms realize what is up. -The proposition of buying high grade eggs from producers and selling -direct to consumers is a proposition of this kind. - -The little game of existence is chiefly one of apeing our betters -and strutting before the lesser members of the flock. The large -cities are full of people in search of some way to display their -superior wealth, taste and exclusiveness. If an ingenious dealer -takes a dozen eggs from common candled stock, places them in a blue -lined box and labels them "Exquisite Ovarian Deposital," he can sell -quite a few of them at a long price, but the game has its limits. -Now, let this man secure a truly high grade article from reliable -producers, teach his customers the points that actually distinguish -his eggs from common stock, and he can get not only the sucker trade -above referred to but a more satisfactory and permanent trade from -that class of people who are willing to pay for genuine superiority -but whose ears have not quite grown through their hats. - -An express messenger running out of St. Louis became interested in -the egg trade. He arranged with a few country friends to ship him -their eggs. These he candled in his house cellar and began selling -them to a limited trade in the wealthy section of the city. At first -he delivered the eggs himself. This was in the World's Fair year of -1904. In 1908 he did a $100,000 worth of business and his type of -business shows a much better percentage of profit than that of the -ordinary type of dealer. - -In Chicago, one of the large dairy companies established an egg -department and placed a young man in charge of it. The eggs in this -case are not bought of farmers but are secured from country produce -buyers whom the Chicago company have encouraged to educate their -farmers to bring in a high grade of goods. These people buy their -eggs in Tennessee in the winter and in Minnesota in the summer, thus -getting the best eggs the year round. They sell by wagon on regular -routes. The business is growing nicely and pays good profits. - -Other similar concerns are operating in Chicago and other large -cities. They are not numerous, however, and there is room for more. -The reason the business has not been overdone is chiefly because of -the difficulty of getting sufficiently really high grade eggs in the -season of scarcity. Southern winter eggs are destined to relieve -this situation more and more. - -Another great difficulty with a plan that attempts to buy eggs -directly from the producer is that premium offered on the goods -tempts the farmer to go out and buy up eggs from his neighbors. This -brings disastrous results in the quality of the goods and the farmer -must be dropped from the list. In order to make a success, a system -of buying directly from producers must be based upon a grading -scheme that will pay for the actual quality of the eggs. No fear -then need be exercised as to whether the farmer sells his own eggs -or those of his neighbor. - -The following extract from Farmer's Bulletin 128 of the U.S. -Department of Agriculture has been used as advertising "dope" in the -sale of high grade eggs: - -"Under certain conditions eggs may be the cause of illness by -communicating some bacterial disease or some parasite. It is -possible for an egg to become infected with micro-organisms, either -before it is laid or after. The shell is porous, and offers no -greater resistance to micro-organisms which cause disease than it -does to those which cause the egg to spoil or rot. When the infected -egg is eaten raw the microorganisms, if present, are communicated to -man and may cause disease. If an egg remains in a dirty nest, -defiled with the micro-organisms which cause typhoid fever, carried -there on the hen's feet or feathers, it is not strange if some of -these bacteria occasionally penetrate the shell and the egg thus -becomes a possible source of infection. Perhaps one of the most -common troubles due to bacterial infection of eggs is the more or -less serious illness sometimes caused by eating those which are -'stale.' This often resembles ptomaine poisoning, which is caused, -not by micro-organisms themselves, but by the poisonous products -which they elaborate from materials on which they grow. - -"In view of this possibility, it is best to keep eggs as clean as -possible and thus endeavor to prevent infection. Clean -poultry-houses, poultry-runs and nests are important, and eggs -should always be stored and marketed under sanitary conditions. The -subject of handling food in a cleanly manner is given entirely too -little attention." - -The reprint upon the succeeding pages will give some idea of the -advertising literature used in selling high grade eggs. This is a -copy of a hand-bill inserted in the egg boxes of a prominent Chicago -dealer: - - * * * * * - - MOORE'S BREAKFAST EGGS - -are guaranteed to be perfect in quality when you receive them -and to remain so until all eaten up. If for any reason they -are not satisfactory return the Eggs to your dealer and get -your money back. - -(Signature.) - - WE URGE YOU - -to assist us in our endeavor to furnish you at all times with -the finest Eggs by being careful to - - KEEP THEM DRY - -A damp "filler" will in 24 hours make the finest fresh Eggs -taste like old Cold Storage Eggs. - -The flavor of an Egg cannot be detected even by the powerful -electric lights used to inspect every Egg in this package, -so it might be possible for a "strong" Egg to get by our inspectors, -but in the past the cause of nearly every complaint -has been traced to the consumer's ice box or pantry window -sill. - - REMEMBER - -Eggs are 25c-40c per doz. retail only when fine Eggs are -scarce. Ordinarily we can get a sufficient supply from the -farmers bringing milk daily to the creameries where we make -Delicia Pure Cream Butter, but in times of scarcity we often -have to go as far as Oklahoma, Arkansas or Tennessee to find -the best Eggs. These are not equal to our creamery Eggs but -are the freshest and best to be had and are vastly superior to -the old Cold Storage Eggs that flood the market at such times. - - Be Sure This Seal is Unbroken When You Get the Eggs - - W. S. MOORE & CO., - - Chicago Office--131 South Water Street. - - -Buying Eggs By Weight. - -Whenever an improved method of buying is installed, eggs should be -bought of the producer by weight. As far as selling to the consumer -is concerned, the present scheme is more feasible; this scheme is to -grade according to the size and other qualities, and sell by the -dozen, the price per dozen varying according to the grade. - -Buying by weight simplifies the problem of grading. It will, in -addition, only be necessary to have a fine of so much for eggs that -are wrong in quality. For rotten or heated eggs should be deducted -an amount considerably in excess of their value, for their presence -is a source of danger to the reputation of the brand. Shrunken eggs -are hard to classify. In order that this may be done fairly and -uniformly the specific gravity or brine test should be used. All -eggs that float in a given salt brine of, say, 1.05 specific gravity -should be fined. Two or more grades can be made in this fashion if -desired. - - -The Retailing of Eggs by the Producer. - -In poultry papers the poultryman has been commonly advised to get -near a large city and retail his own eggs at a fancy price. This -sounds all right on paper but in practice it works out differently. -A man cannot be in two places or do two things at the same time. The -poultryman's time is valuable on his plant, and the question is -whether he can handle city sales as well as a man who made it his -business. If the poultryman tries to retail his own goods he will be -working on too small a scale to advertise his goods or to make -deliveries economically. The man making a specialty of the city end -can sell ten to a hundred times as much produce as one poultryman -can produce. - -With a group of poultry farmers working co-operatively, or a large -corporation having contracts with producers, the producing and -selling end can be brought under the same management advantageously. -The isolated poultryman, unless he find a market at his very door, -will do better to permit at least one middleman to slip in between -himself and the consumer. But there is no reason why he should not -know this middleman personally and insist upon a method of buying -that will pay him upon the merits of his goods. - -Consigning eggs or any other produce to commission men, without a -definite understanding, will always be, as it always has been, a -source of dissatisfaction and loss. There is a great opportunity -here for the man who can organize a system that shall do away with -commission houses, other intermediate steps, and form the single -step from producer to consumer. Some people say that farmers cannot -be dealt with in this manner. Such people would probably have said -as much about general merchandising before the days of the mail -order houses. - -It is all a matter of efficient organization. A system of business -fitted to deal in carload lots will, of course, fail when dealing -with half cases. It is more difficult to deal in little things than -in big ones because the margin is closer, but it can and will be -done. - - -The Price of Eggs. - -We will consider the price of all eggs from the quotation of Western -firsts in the New York market. The reason for this is evident. Every -egg raised east of Colorado is in line for shipment to New York. If -other towns get eggs they must pay sufficiently to keep them from -going to New York. - -In pricing eggs we have first to consider the price of Western -firsts in New York and secondly the quality relation of the -particular grade to Western firsts and the consequent relation in -price. - -The price of eggs varies with the price of other commodities as the -periods of prosperity and adversity follow one another through the -years. - -As is well known, all prices in the '90's passed through a period of -depression. For eggs this reached a base in 1897. Since then there -has been a gradual climb till this realized a high point in 1904, -remained high till 1907. In the spring of 1908 egg prices dropped -again, but the fall prices of 1908 were exceptionally high. As this -work goes to press (May, 1909) eggs are going into storage at the -highest May price on record. - -The prices of eggs also vary independently of other commodities -because of a gradual changing relation between production and -consumption. As stated in the first chapter the prices of poultry -products have shown a general rise when compared with other -articles. This has been most marked since 1900. As for the future we -cannot prophesy save to say that there is nothing in sight to lead -us to believe that we will not go still higher in egg prices. - -A third variation in the price of eggs is the one caused by the -seasonal relation of production and consumption. This change is from -year to year fairly constant. Its normal may be seen in the -scientifically smoothed curve in plate IV. This curve is based upon -the New York prices for the last eighteen years. - -In addition to these broader influences there are disturbing -tendencies that cause the market to fluctuate back and forth across -the line where the more general influences would place it. - -Of those general factors, weather is the most important. Storms, -rain and cold in the egg producing region decrease the lay, lower -supplies and raise the price. This is due both to the fact that -laying is cut down and that the country roads become impassable and -the farmers do not bring the eggs to town. As long as there are -storage eggs in the warehouses weather conditions are not so -effective, but when these are gone, which is usually about the first -of the year, the egg market becomes highly sensitive to all weather -changes. Suppose late in February storms and snows force up the -price of eggs. This is followed by a warm spell which starts the -March lay. The roads, meanwhile, are in a quagmire from melting -snows. When they do dry up eggs come to town by the wagon loads. A -drop of ten cents or more may occur on such occasions within a day -or two's time. This is known as the spring drop and for one to get -caught with eggs on hand means heavy losses. - -When once eggs have suffered this drop to the spring level or the -storage price for the season, the prices for April, May and June -will remain fairly steady. About the last week in June the summer -climb begins. This goes on very steadily with local variation of -about the same as those of the spring months. The storage eggs begin -to come out in August and at first sell about the same as fresh. As -the season advances the fresh product continues to rise in price. -The storage egg price will remain fairly uniform. By November the season -of high prices is reached. If storage eggs are still plentiful and the -weather is mild sudden variations in price may occur. These are caused -by a fear that the storage eggs will not all be consumed before spring. -If an oversupply of eggs have been stored a warm spell in winter will -make a heavy drop in the market, but if storage eggs are scarce the -sudden variations will be up-shots due to cold waves. From November -until spring egg prices are a creature of the weather maps and sudden -jumps from 5 to 10 cents may occur at any time. - -[Illustration: Plate IV. Page 159. Graphs of egg prices and volume -of egg sales as they vary throughout the year.] - -The price curve of 1908, which is represented by the dotted line in -plate IV will illustrate these general principles. In the lower -portion of plate IV is given the curves for the New York receipts. -The heavy line represents the smoothed or normal curve, deduced from -eighteen years' statistics and calculated for the year 1908. The -dotted line shows the actual receipts of 1908. A comparison week by -week of the receipts and price will show the detailed workings of -the law of supply and demand. - -Aside from the weather there are other factors that perceptibly -affect the receipts and price of eggs. A high price of meat will -increase farm and village consumption of eggs and cut down the -receipts that reach the city. Abundance of fruit in the city market -will cut down the demand for eggs. A cold, wet spring will increase -the mortality of chicks and cause a decreased egg yield the -following season, due to a scarcity of pullets. Scarcity and high -price of feed will cut down the egg yield. High price of hens is -said by some to cut down the egg yield, but I think this is -doubtful, as the impulse to sell off the hens is counteracted by the -desire to "keep 'em and raise more." - -The following are the quotations taken from the New York -Price-Current for November 14, 1908: - -State, Pennsylvania and nearby fresh eggs continue in very small -supply and of more or less irregular quality, a good many being -mixed with held eggs--sometimes with pickled stock. The few new laid -lots received direct from henneries command extreme -prices--sometimes working out in a small way above any figures that -could fairly be quoted as a wholesale value. We quote: Selected -white, fancy, 48@50c.; do., fair to choice, 35@46c.; do., lower -grades, 26@32c.; brown and mixed, fancy, 38@40c.; do., fair to -choice, 30@36c; do., lower grades, 25@28c. - - - N.Y. Mercantile Exchange Official Quotations. - - Fresh gathered, extras, per dozen @37 - Fresh gathered, firsts 32 @33 - Fresh gathered, seconds 29 @31 - Fresh gathered, thirds 25 @28 - Dirties, No. 1 21 @22 - Dirties, No. 2 18 @20 - Dirties, inferior 12 @17 - Checks, fresh gathered, fair to prime 18 @20 - Checks, inferior 12 @16 - Refrigerator, firsts, charges paid for season 24 @24-1/2 - Refrigerator, firsts, on dock 23 @23-1/2 - Refrigerator, seconds, charges paid for season 22-1/2 @23-1/2 - Refrigerator, seconds, on dock 21-1/2 @22-1/2 - Refrigerator, thirds 20 @21 - Limed, firsts 22-1/2 @23 - Limed, seconds 21 @22 - -The writer was in the New York market at the time and saw many cases -of White Leghorn eggs sell wholesale at as high as 55 cents. These -were commonly retailed at 5 cents each. There were a good many -brands retailing at 65 cents and one of the largest high class -groceries was selling for 70 cents. This is practically double the -official quotations and three times that of cold storage stock. - -The above prices represent a fair sample of the fall prices of 1908. -It should be noted that the 1908 fall prices were relatively -somewhat better than the rest of the season. - -The time of high prices is also the time of the greatest variation -in the price of the different grades. In the springtime all eggs are -fairly fresh and good, and the fanciest eggs bring wholesale only -two or three cents above quotations. There are a few retailers who -hold the spring prices to their customers up above the general -market. One New York firm that does a large high class egg business -never lets their price at any season go below 40 cents. This, of -course, means big profits and sales only to those who, when they are -satisfied, never bother about price. - -In the fall any man who has fresh eggs can sell them at very near -the highest price, but in the spring only a small per cent. can go -at fancy prices and the great majority of even the high grade eggs -must go at very ordinary prices. In the summer months there is not -so much demand in the cities, as the wealthy are not there to buy. -The coast and mountain resorts are then good markets for fancy -produce. - - - - - -CHAPTER XIII - -BREEDS OF CHICKENS - - -I do not place much dependence on the results of breed tests. -Indeed, I consider the almost universal use of the Barred Rock in -the most productive farm poultry regions in the United States, and -the equal predominance of S.C. White Leghorns on the egg farms of -New York and California, as far more conclusive than any possible -breed tests. - - -Breed Tests. - -In Australia there has been conducted a series of breed tests so -remarkable and extensive that the writer considers them well worth -quoting. The Hawkesbury Agricultural College tests extend over a -period of five years, the pens entered were of six birds each, and -the time one year. The results were as follows: - - No. of Pens Yield of Average Yield - Competing Highest Pen of All Pens - - 1903 ... 70 218 163 - 1904 ... 100 204 152 - 1905 ... 100 235 162 - 1906 ... 100 247 177 - 1907 ... 60 245 173 - -The winners and losers for five years were as follows: - - Winning Pen Losing Pen - - 1903 Silver Wyandotte Silver Wyandotte - 1904 Silver Wyandotte Partridge Wyandotte - 1905 S.C.W. Leghorns S.C.W. Leghorns - 1906 Black Langshans Golden Wyandotte - 1907 S.C.W. Leghorns S.C.B. Leghorns - -As a matter of fact, the winning pen means little for breed -comparison. This is shown by the winning and losing pens frequently -being of the same breed. - -The average for hens of one breed for the whole five years is more -enlightening. For the three most popular Australian breeds, these -grand averages are: - - - Average Av. Wt. Eggs. - No. Hens Egg Yield Oz. Per Doz. - - S.C.W. Leghorns ... 564 175.5 26.4 - - Black Orpingtons ... 522 166.6 26.1 - - Silver Wyandottes ... 474 161.1 24.9 - - -These figures are undoubtedly the most trustworthy breed comparisons -that have ever been obtained. When we go into the other breeds, -however, with smaller numbers entered, the results show chance -variation and become untrustworthy, for illustration: R.C. Brown -Leghorns, with 42 birds entered, have an average of 176.4. This does -not signify that the R.C. Browns are better than the S.S. Whites, -for if the Whites were divided by chance into a dozen lots of -similar size, some would undoubtedly have surpassed the R.C. Browns. -As further proof, take the case of the R.C.W. Leghorns with 36 birds -entered and an egg yield of 166.9. Both breeds are probably a little -poorer layers than S.C. Whites, but luck was with the R.C. Browns -and against the R.C. Whites. For a discussion of this principle of -the worth of averages from different sized flocks see Chapter XV. - -All Leghorns in the tests with 846 birds entered, averaged 170.3 -eggs each. All of the general purpose breeds (Rocks, Wyandottes, -Reds and Orpingtons), with 1416 birds entered, averaged 160.2. The -comparison between the Leghorns and the general purpose fowls as -classes is undoubtedly a fair one. A study of the relations between -the leading breeds in these groups and the general average of these -groups is worth while. It bears out the writer's statement that the -best fowls of a group or breed are to be found in the popular -variety of that breed. The Australian poultryman, wanting utility -only, would do wise to choose out of the three great Australian -breeds here mentioned. The S.C.W. Leghorn is the only one of the -three breeds to which the advice would apply in America. Barred -Rocks and perhaps White Wyandottes, would here represent the other -types. - -There is one more point in the Australian records worthy of especial -mention. The winning pen in 1906 were Black Langshans and, what -seems still more remarkable, were daughters of birds purchased from -the original home of Langshans in North China. Other pens of -Langshans in the test failed to make remarkable records, but this -pen of Chinese stock, with a record of 246 5-6* eggs per hen for the -first year and 414 1-2* eggs per hen for two years, is the world's -record layers beyond all quibble. This record is held by a breed and -a region in which we would not expect to find great layers. - -This holding of the record by a breed hitherto not considered a -laying type, would be comparable to a tenderfoot bagging the pots in -an Arizona gambling den. If the latter incident should occur and be -heralded in the papers it would be no proof that it would pay -another Eastern youth to rush out to Arizona. It is probable that -the man who, on the strength of this single record, stocks an egg -farm with imported Chinese Langshans, will fare as the second -tenderfoot. - -The year following the Langshan winning, the first eleven winning -pens were all S.C.W. Leghorns. This is also remarkable--much more -remarkable in fact than the Langshans record. It is like a royal -flush in a poker game. Standing alone, this would be very suggestive -evidence of the eminence of the breed. Standing as it does, with the -combined evidence of years and numbers, it gives the S.C.W. Leghorn -hen the same reputation in Australia as she has in America and -Denmark--that of being the greatest egg machine ever created. - -Isolated evidence is misleading. Accumulated evidence is convincing. -The difference between the scientist and the enthusiast is that the -former knows the difference between these two classes of evidence. - - -The Hen's Ancestors. - -To one who is unfamiliar with the different types of chickens found -in a poultry showroom, it seems incredible that these varieties -should have descended from one parent source. It was, however, held -by Darwin that all domestic chickens were sprung from a single -species of Indian jungle fowl. Other scientists have since disputed -Darwin's conclusion, but it does not seem to the writer that the -origin of domestic fowls from more than one wild variety makes the -changes that have taken place under domestication any less -remarkable. - -The buff, white and dominique colors, unheard of in wild species, -frizzles with their feathers all awry, the Polish with their -deformed skulls and the sooty fowls whose skin and bones are black, -are some of the remarkable characters that have sprung up and been -preserved under domestication. The varieties of domestic fowl form -one of the most profound exhibits of man's control over the laws of -inheritance. What makes these wonders all the more inexplicable is -that these profound changes were accomplished in an age when a -scientific study of breeding was a thing unheard of. - -The wild chicken whom Darwin credits as the parent of the modern -gallinaceous menagerie, is smaller than modern fowls and is colored -in a manner similar to the Black-breasted Game. The habits of this -bird are like those of the quail and prairie-chicken, both of which -belong to the same zoological family. - -From its natural home in India the chicken spread east and west. -Chinese poultry culture is ancient. In China, as well as in India, -the chief care seems to have been to breed very large fowls, and -from these countries all the large, heavily feathered and feather -legged chickens of the modern world have come. - -Poultry is also known to have been bred in the early Babylonian and -Egyptian periods. Here, however, the progress was in a different -line from that of China. Artificial incubation was early developed, -and the selection was for birds that produced eggs continually, -rather than for those that laid fewer eggs and brooded in the -natural manner. - -The Egyptian type of chicken spread to the countries bordering on -the Mediterranean, and from Southern Europe our non-sitting breeds -of fowls have been imported. Throughout the countries of Northern -Europe minor differences were developed. The French chickens were -selected for the quality of the meat, while in Poland the peculiar -top-knotted breed is supposed to have been formed. - -The English Dorking is one of the oldest of European breeds and is -possessed of five toes. Five-toed fowls were reported in Rome and -exist to-day in Turkey and Japan. The Dorkings may be descended -directly from the Roman fowls, or various strains of five-toed fowls -may have arisen independently from the preservation of sports. - -The chief point to be noted in all European poultry is that it -differs from Asiatic poultry in being smaller, lighter feathered, -quicker maturing, of greater egg-producing capacity, less disposed -to become broody, and more active than the Asiatic fowl. - -The early American hens were of European origin, but of no fixed -breeds. About 1840 Italian chickens began to be imported. These, -with stock from Spain, have been bred for fixed types of form and -color, and constitute our Mediterranean or non-sitting breeds of the -present day. Soon after the importation of Italian chickens a chance -importation was made from Southeastern Asia. These Asiatic chickens -were quite different from anything yet seen, and further -importations followed. - -Poultry-breeding soon became the fashion. The first poultry show was -held in Boston in the early '50's. The Asiatic fowls imported were -gray or yellowish-red in color, and were variously known as the -Brahmapootras, Cochin-Chinas and Shanghais. With the rapid -development of poultry-breeding there came a desire to produce new -varieties. Every conceivable form of cross-breeding was resorted to. -The great majority of breeds and varieties as they exist to-day are -the results of crosses followed by a few years of selection for the -desired form and color. Many of our common breeds still give us -occasional individuals that resemble some of the types from which -the breed was formed. The exact history of the formation of the -American or mixed breeds is in dispute, but it is certain that they -have been formed from a complex mixing of blood from both European -and Asiatic sources. - -The English have recently furnished the world with a very popular -breed which was originated by the same methods. I refer to the -Orpingtons. - -The ever growing multiplicity of varieties of chicken is in reality -only casually related to the business of the poultryman whose object -is the production of human food. - -Breeding as an art or vocation, is a source of endless pleasure to -man, and as such, is as worthy of encouragement as is painting, -music, or the collection of the bones of prehistoric animals. -Breeding as an art has produced many forms of chickens that are -entirely worthless as food producers, but this same group of poultry -breeders, tempered to be sure by the demands of commercialism, have -produced other breeds that are certainly superior for the various -commercial purposes to the unselected fowls of the old-fashioned -farm-yard. - -The mongrel chicken is a production of chance. Its ancestry -represents everything available in the barn-yard of the -neighborhood, and its offspring will be equally varied. In the pure -breeds there has been a rigid selection practiced that gives uniform -appearance. The size and shape requirements of the standard, -although not based on the market demands, come much nearer producing -an ideal carcass than does chance breeding. Ability to mature for -the fall shows is a decidedly practical quality that the fancier -breeds into his chickens. Moreover, poultry-breeders, while still -keeping standard points in mind, have also made improvements in the -lay and meat-producing qualities of their chickens. Considering -these facts it is an erroneous idea to think that mongrel chickens -offer any advantage over pure bred stock. - -In the broader sense we may regard as pure-bred those animals that -reproduce their shape, color, habits, or other distinctive qualities -with uniformity. In order that we may get offspring like the parent -and like each other we must have animals whose ancestors for many -generations back have been of one type. The more generations of such -uniformity, the more certain it will be that the young will possess -similar quality. - -One strain of chickens may be selected for uniform color of -feathers, another for a certain size and shape, another for laying -large eggs of a certain color, and yet another strain for being -producers of many eggs. Each of these strains might be well-bred in -these particular traits, but would be mongrels when the other -considerations were taken into account. - -This explains to us why the family or strains is frequently more -important than the breed. In fact, the whole series of breed -classification is arbitrary. This is especially true of the American -or mixed breeds. Humorously turned fanciers at the poultry show -frequently have much sport trying to get other fanciers to tell -White or Buff Rocks from Wyandottes, when the heads are hidden. From -the dressed carcasses with feet and head removed, the finest set of -poultry judges in the world would be hopelessly lost in a collection -of Rocks, Wyandottes, Reds and Orpingtons and, I dare say, one could -run in a few Langshans and Minorcas if it were not for their black -pin feathers. - - -What Breed. - -The writer has great admiration for breeding as an art. He would -rather be the originator of a breed of green chickens with six toes, -than to have been the author of "Afraid to Go Home in the Dark." But -I do want the novice who reads this book to be spared some of the -mental throes usually indulged in over the selection of a breed. - -So-called meat breeds, that is, the big feather legged Asiatics save -on a few capon and roaster plants in New England, are really -useless. They have given size to American chickens as a class, and -in that have served a useful purpose, but standing alone they cannot -compete with lighter, quick growing breeds. - -For commercial consideration there are really but two types: The egg -breeds of Mediterranean origin and the general purpose breeds or -growers, including the Rocks, Wyandottes and Rhode Island Reds. The -difference between the layers on the one hand and the growers on the -other, is quite important. Which should be used depends on the -location and plan of operations, as has already been discussed. - -The choice of variety within the group is a matter of taste and -chance of sales of fancy stock. This one principle can, however, be -laid down: The more popular the breed, the more choice there will be -in selecting strains and individuals. Pea Comb Plymouth Rocks and -Duckwing Leghorns should not be considered because of their rarity. -Of the growers, their popularity and claims are close enough to make -the particular choice unimportant. For commercial consideration, the -writer would as soon invest his money in a flock of Barred Rock, -White Wyandottes or Rhode Island Reds. Among layers the S. C. White -has achieved such a lead that the majority of good laying strains -are in this breed and to choose any other would be to place a -handicap on oneself. For a description of breeds, the reader should -secure an Illustrated American Standard of Perfection, or some of -the books published by poultry fanciers and judges. To take up the -matter here would merely be using my space for imparting knowledge -which can be better secured elsewhere. - -The relative popularity of breeds at the poultry shows is nicely -shown by the following list. This data was compiled by adding the -numbers of each breed exhibited at 124 different poultry shows in -the season of 1907. A detailed report of the total entries of each -breed is as follows: Plymouth Rocks, 14,514; Wyandottes, 12,320; -Leghorns, 8,740; Rhode Island Reds, 5,812; Orpingtons, 2,857; -Langshans, 2,153; Minorcas, 1,709; Cochin Bantams, 1,590; Games, -1,277; Brahmas, 1,181; Cochins, 1,010; Hamburgs, 758; Game Bantams, -637; Polish, 618; Houdans, 538; Indians, 538; Anconas, 464; Sebright -Bantams, 423; Andalusians, 117; Japanese Bantams, 115; Dorkings, -105; Brahma Bantams, 104; Buckeyes, 95; Silkies, 85; Spanish, 83; -Redcaps, 71; Sumatras, 41; Polish Bantams, 37; Sultans, 18; Malays, -12; Frizzles, 7; Le Fleche, 7; Dominiques, 5; Booted Bantams, 4; -Malay Bantams, 3; Crevecoeure, 3. - - - - - -CHAPTER XIV - -PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC BREEDING - - -Science has been defined as the "know how" and art as the "do how." -The man who works by art depends upon an unconscious judgment which -is inborn or is acquired by long practice. The man who works by -science may also have this artistic taste, but he tests its dicta by -comparison with known facts and principles. The scientist not only -looks before he leaps, but measures the distance and knows exactly -where he is going to land. - -Breeding has for centuries been an art, but the science of breeding -is so new as to seem a mass of contradictions to all except those -familiar with the maze of mathematics and biology by which the -barn-yard facts must find their ultimate explanation. The science of -breeding may in the future bring about that which would now seem -miraculous, but it is the ancient art of breeding that is and will -for years continue to be the means by which the poultry fancier will -achieve his results. - -In a volume the chief aim of which is to place the poultry industry, -which is now conducted as an art, in the realm of technical science, -it might seem proper to devote considerable space to the subject of -breeding, That I shall not do so, is for the reason that while -theoretically I recognize the important part that breeding plays in -all animal production, for the practical proposition of producing -poultry products at the lowest possible cost, a knowledge of the -technical science of breeding is unessential and may, by diverting -the poultryman's time to unprofitable efforts, prove an actual -handicap. - -For the show room breeder the new science of breeding is too -undeveloped to be of immediate service, or I had better say, the -show room requisites are too complicated for theoretical breeding to -promise results. For the commercial poultryman, I shall review what -has been accomplished and state briefly the theories upon which -contemplated work is based. - -The objects striven after in poultry breeding are: 1st: To create -new varieties which shall have improved practical points or shall -attract attention as curiosities. 2d: To approach the ideals -accepted by fanciers for established breeds, and hence win in -competition. 3d: To change some particular feature or habit as, to -increase egg production or reduce the size of bantams. 4th: To -improve several points at once as, eggs and size in general purpose -fowls. This classification is really unnecessary, as the most -specialized breeding involves consideration of many points. - - -Breeding as an Art. - -The method by which breeds and varieties of the show room specimens -have been developed is essentially as follows: The wonderfully -different varieties of fowl from every quarter of the earth are -brought together. Crossing is then resorted to, with the result that -birds of all forms and colors are produced. The breeder then selects -specimens that most nearly conform to the type or ideal in his mind. - -Suppose a man wished to produce Barred Leghorns, with a fifth toe. -He would secure Barred Rocks, White Leghorns and White or Gray -Dorkings. Then he would cross in every conceivable fashion. - -Perhaps he might have trouble getting the white color to disappear. -In that case Buff Leghorns which are a newer breed might be tried -and found more pliable material. By such methods the breeder would in -three or four generations of crossing get a crude type of what he -desired. Henceforth it would be a matter of patience and -selection. Five to twenty years is the time usually taken to produce -new breeds of fancy poultry that will breed true to type. In this -style of breeding the principles at stake are simple. The first is -to secure the variations wanted; second, to breed from the most -desirable of these specimens. - -The same methods of selection that establish a breed are used to -maintain it, or to establish strains. In ordinary breeding there are -two other principles that are sometimes called into play. One is -prepotency, the other is inbreeding. By prepotent we mean having -unusual power to transmit characters to offspring. Suppose a breeder -has five yards headed by five cock birds. The male in yard two he -does not consider quite as fine as the bird in yard one, but in the -fall he finds the offspring of bird from two much better than the -offspring from yard one. The breeder should keep the prepotent sire -and his offspring rather than the more perfect male, who fails to -stamp his traits upon his get. - -Normally a child has two parents, four grandparents, and eight -great-grandparents. Now, when cousins marry, the great-grandparents -of the offspring are reduced to six. The mating of brother and -sister cuts the grandparents to two, and the great-grandparents to -four. Mating of parent and offspring makes a parent and grandparent -identical and likewise eliminates ancestry. Inbreeding means the -reduction of the number of branches in the ancestral tree, and this -means the reduction of the number of chances to get variation, be -they good or bad. - -Inbreeding simply intensifies whatever is there. It does not -necessarily destroy the vitality, but if close inbreeding is -practiced long enough, sooner or later some little existing weakness -or peculiarity would become intensified and may prove fatal to the -strain. For illustration, suppose we began inbreeding brother and -sister with a view of keeping it up indefinitely. Now, in the -original blood, a tendency for the predominance of one sex over the -other undoubtedly exists and would be intensified until there would -come a generation all of one sex, which, of course, terminates our -experiment. - -Inbreeding has always been tabooed by the people generally. -Meanwhile the clever stock breeders have combined inbreeding with -selection and have won the show prizes and sold the people "new -blood" at fancy prices. - -Unintelligent inbreeding as practiced on many a farm, results in run -down stock, not so much from inbreeding as from lack of selection. -Out-crossing or mixing in of new blood is better than hit-or-miss -inbreeding. Intelligent inbreeding is better still. - - -Scientific Theories of Breeding. - - -The main tenet of Darwin's theory of racial inheritance or -evolution, was that changes in animal life, wild or domestic, were -brought about by the addition of very slight, perhaps imperceptible, -variations. He argued that the giraffe with the longest neck could -browse on higher leaves in time of drought and hence left offspring -with slightly longer necks than the previous generation. - -Upon this theory the ordinary breeding by selection is based. In -case of breeding for show room, the breeder's eye, or the judge's -score card, is the tape with which to measure the length of the -giraffe's neck. This principle can be applied equally well, even -better, to characteristics where accurate measurement may be used. - -The last forty years of scientific progress has established firmly -the general theories of Darwin, but they have also resulted in our -questioning his idea that all great changes are due to the sum of -small variations. Many instances have been suggested in which the -theory of gradual changes could not explain the facts. - -The theory of mutation, of which Hugo de Vries, of Holland, is the -chief expounder, does not antagonize Darwin, but simply gives more -weight in the process of evolution to the factor of sudden changes -commonly called sports. Let us illustrate: In the giraffe of our -former forest, one might appear whose neck was not longer because of -slightly longer vertebrae, but who possessed an extra vertebrae. -This would be a mutation. In other words, a mutation is a marked -variation that may be inherited. We now believe that polled cattle, -five-toed Dorkings, top-knotted Houdans, frizzles and black skinned -chickens arose through mutations. - -Burbank's Methods--The wonderful Burbank with his thornless cactus, -his stoneless plum, and his white blackberry, is simply a searcher -after mutations. His success is not because he uses any secret -methods, but because of the size of his operations. He produces his -specimens by the millions, and in these millions looks, and often -looks in vain for the lonely sport that is to father a new race. -Burbank has, with plants, many advantages of which the animal -breeder is deprived. He can produce his specimens in greater number, -he can more easily find out the desirable character, and in many -plants he has not the uncertain element of double parentage to -contend with, while with others he is still more fortunate, as he -can produce them by seed, stimulate variation until the desired -mutation is found and can then reproduce the desired variation with -certainty by the use of cuttings. This latter is not true -inheritance with its inevitable variation, but the indefinite -prolongation of the life of one individual. In this sense there is -only one seedless orange tree in the world. - -The Centgenitor System--Prof. Hays in breeding wheat at Minnesota, -first used in this country a system of breeding which is essentially -as follows: A large variety of individual seeds are selected. These -are planted separately and the amount and character of the yield -observed. The offspring of one seed is kept separate for several -generations, or until the character of the tribe is thoroughly -established. The advantage of this plan of breeding is in that the -selection is not made by comparing individuals, but by comparing the -offspring of individuals. Thus, we necessarily select the only trait -really worth while; that is prepotency or the ability to beget -desirable qualities. - -The application of this centgenitor system necessitates inbreeding; -it also necessitates large operations. Of the former, breeders have -generally been afraid; of the latter they have lacked opportunity. -But the centgenitor system, combined with Burbank's principle of -large opportunity of selection, is, in the writer's belief, the -method by which the 200-egg hen will be ultimately established in -America. - -Much of the recent stimulus to the study of the Science of Breeding -was occasioned by the discovery of Mendel's Law. Briefly, the law -states that when two pure traits or characters are crossed, one -dominates in the first generation of offspring--the other remaining -hidden or recessive. Of the second generation, one-half the -individuals are still mixed, bearing the dominant characteristic -externally and the other hidden; one-fourth are pure dominants and -one-fourth are pure recessives. In future generations the mixed or -hybrid individuals again give birth to mixed and pure types -apportioned as before, thus continuing until all offspring become -ultimately pure. For illustration: If rose and single comb chickens -are crossed, rose combs are dominant. The first generation will all -have rose combs. The second generation will have one-fourth single -combs that will breed true, one-fourth rose combs that will breed -rose combs only, and one-half that again will give all three types. - -Mendel's Law works all right in cases where pure unit -characteristics are to be found. For the great practical problems in -inheritance, Mendel's law is utterly hopeless. The trouble is that -the chief things with which we are concerned are not unit -characteristics but are combinations of countless characteristics -which cannot be seen or known, hence cannot be picked out. Thus the -tendency to revert to pure types is foiled by the constant -recrossing of these types. - -Mendel's law is a scientific curiosity like the aeroplane. It may -some day be more than a curiosity, but both have tremendous odds to -overcome before they supplant our present methods. - -Prof. C.B. Davenport, of the Carnegie Institute, is working on -experimental poultry breeding in its purely scientific sense. His -conclusions have been much criticised by poultry fanciers. The truth -of the matter is that the fancier fails to appreciate the spirit of -pure science. The scientist, enthused to find his white fowl -re-occur after a generation of black ones, is wholly undisturbed by -the fact that the white ones, if exhibited, might be taken for a -Silver Spangled Hamburg. - -Mendel's law as yet offers little to the fancier and less to the -commercial poultryman. Its study is all right in its place, but its -place is not on the poultry plant whose profits are to buy the baby -a new dress. - - -Breeding for Egg Production. - -Attempts to improve the egg-producing qualities of the hen date from -the domestication of the hen, but it has only been within the last -few years that rapid progress has been possible in this work. The -inability to determine the good layers has been the difficulty. - -The great majority of people make no selection of hens from which to -hatch their stock. The eggs of the whole flock are kept together and -when eggs are desired for hatching they are selected from a general -basket. It has been assumed, and is shown by trap-nest records, that -eggs thus selected in the spring of the year are from the poorer, -rather than from the better layers. This is because hens that have -not been laying during the winter will lay very heavily during the -spring season. Many breeders have attempted to pick out the good -layers by the appearance of the hens. Before the advent of the -trap-nest the "egg type" of hen was believed to be a positive -indication of a good layer. The "egg type" hen had slender neck, -small head, long, deep body of a wedge shape. Various "systems" -founded on these or other "signs" have been sold for fancy prices to -people who were easily separated from their money. Trap-nest records -show such systems to be on a par with the lunar guidance in -agricultural operations. - -I might remark here that the determination of sex by the shape of -the egg or similar methods, is in a like category. Science finds no -proof of such theories. - -A few methods of selecting the layers have been suggested which, -while far from absolute, are of some significance and are well worth -noting. The hen that sits upon the roost while other hens are out -foraging, is probably a drone. The excessively fat or the -excessively lean hens are not likely to be layers. It would -naturally be supposed that the active laying hen would be the last -one to go to roost at night. At the Kansas Experiment Station, the -writer made observations upon the order in which the hens went to -roost, and the above assumption was found in the majority of cases -to be correct. - -A still better scheme of selecting layers is the practice of picking -out the thrifty, quickly maturing pullets when they first begin to -lay in the fall season. At the Maine Experiment Station, such a -selection gave a flock of layers which averaged about one hundred -and eighty eggs, when the remainder of the flock yielded only one -hundred and forty. - -Trap-nests devised to catch the hen that lays the egg are numerous -in the market. A trap-nest to be successful, must not only catch the -hen that lays, but must prevent the entrance of the other hens. - -The more trap-nests that are provided, the less often they will -require attention, but the more often the nests are attended the -better for the comfort of the hens. - -The use of trap-nests is expensive and cannot be recommended for the -poultryman who must make every hour of time put on his chickens -yield him an immediate income. Fanciers and Experiment Stations can -well afford to use trap-nests and must, indeed, use them both for -breeding for egg production, and also for determining the hen that -laid the egg when full pedigrees are desired in other breeding work. - -A scheme that has sometimes been used in the place of trap-nests, is -a system of small compartments, in each of which one hen is kept. -Such a scheme does not seem feasible on a large scale, but for -breeders wishing to keep the records of a small number of hens, it -is all right. Because of its cost, this system is wholly out of the -question, except for a man following breeding as a hobby and who -cannot devote himself during the day to the care of trap-nests. - -Having determined the best layers, it remains to breed from these -and from their descendants. The tests of pullets hatched from hens -are better signs of the hen's value as a breeder than is her own -record. It has been surmised that a hen which lays heavily will not -lay eggs containing vigorous germs. So far as the writer's -experience has gone, the laying of infertile eggs is a family or -individual trait not particularly related to the number of eggs -laid. - -When we have bred from the best layers and have raised our average -egg yielder to a higher level, the question arises as to whether the -strain will permanently maintain the high yield or drop back to the -former rate of production. Theory says that it will not drop back. -As a matter of fact it will not do so, for the heavier production -will be more trying on the hen's constitution, and naturally -selection will gradually cause the egg record to dwindle. Hence the -necessity of continued selection or the infusion of new blood from -other selected strains. - -Whatever may be the change desired in a strain of chickens, -specimens showing the trait to be selected should be used as -breeders. Those characteristics readily visible to the eye have long -been the subjects of the breeder's efforts. But traits not directly -visible can likewise be changed by breeding. The number of eggs, -size and color of eggs, rapid growth, ready fattening powers, -quality of meat and general characteristics, are all matters of -inheritance, and if proper means are taken to select the desirable -individuals all such characteristics can be changed at the will of -the breeder. - -It is a fact, however, often overlooked, that the more traits for -which one selects, the slower will be progress. For illustration: If -in breeding for egg production, one-half the good layers are -discarded for lack of fancy points, the progress will be just half -as rapid. - -A discussion of the work in breeding for egg production at the Maine -Experiment Station is taken up in the next chapter. - - - - -CHAPTER XV - -EXPERIMENT STATION WORK - - -Our entire scheme of agricultural education and experimentation is -new. The poultry work at experiment stations is very new. Ten years -will about cover everything worthy of a permanent record in the -poultry experiment station files. - - -Stations Leading in Poultry Work. - -Among the earliest stations to begin poultry work in this country -were Rhode Island, Massachusetts, Connecticut and Maine. Rhode -Island conducted the first school of poultry culture. The two -stations of New York State were also early in the work, and Cornell -now has the leading school of poultry culture in this country. - -West Virginia has always maintained a considerable poultry plant. -Outside of the states east of the Appalachians, the first poultry -work to be heard of was that of Prof. Dryden at the Experiment -Station of Utah. Prof. Dryden's work was of a demonstrative nature. -His early bulletins were forceful and well illustrated, and did much -to call attention to poultry work. - -In all this early work the great Mississippi Valley, where -four-fifths of the nation's poultry is produced, entirely ignored -the hen. The writer began his work with poultry at the Kansas -Station in 1902, but his chickens were housed in a discarded hog -house, and no funds being available, little was accomplished. In the -last three or four years these experiment stations are rapidly -falling into line and a number of poultry bulletins have recently -been issued from these younger schools. - -A few of the early landmarks in experiment station work was as -follows: - -The Utah Station clearly found that hens laid about 65 per cent. as -many eggs in the second as in the first year, and that to keep hens -for egg production beyond the second year, was unprofitable. - -Massachusetts proved that corn was a better food for layers than -wheat, and that the prejudice against it was founded on a misapplied -theory. - -The New York Station at Geneva demonstrated that poultry generally, -and ducks in particular, are not vegetarians, and must have meat to -thrive and that vegetable protein will not make good the deficiency. - -The Maine Station was chiefly instrumental in introducing -trap-nests, curtain front houses and dry feeding. The breeding work -at Maine will be discussed at length in the last section of this -chapter. - -The United States Department of Agriculture did not take up poultry -work until 1906. The publications issued by the department before -that time were written by outsiders and printed by the Government. - -The following is the list of the addresses of the experiment -stations who have taken a leading interest in poultry work. It is -not worth while giving a list of poultry bulletins, as many of them -are out of print and can only be consulted in a library. - - Maine--Orono. - Mass.--Amherst. - Conn.--Storrs. - Rhode Is.--Kingston. - New York--Ithaca. - New York--Geneva. - Maryland--College Park. - West. Va.--Morgantown. - Iowa--Ames. - Kansas--Manhattan. - Utah--Logan. - Calif.--Berkeley. - Oregon--Corvalis. - U.S. Gov.--Washington, D.C. - Ontario--Guelph (Canada). - -Many foreign governments have us out-distanced in the encouragement -of the poultry industry. Our Canadian neighbors have done much more -practical work in getting out among the farmers and improving the -stock and methods along commercial lines. As a result the Canadians -have built up a nice British trade with which we have thus far not -been able to compete. The work by the Ontario Station on the subject -of incubation is discussed in the Chapter on Incubation. - -Australia, like Canada, has given much practical assistance in -marketing the poultry products, the government maintaining packing -stations, where the poultry is packed for export. The Australian -laying contests are quoted in the present volume. They outclass -anything else in the world along that line. - -In England, Ireland and especially in Denmark, the government, or -societies encouraged by the Government, have done a great deal to -develop the poultry industry. Depots for marketing and grading are -maintained and the stock of the farmers is improved by fowls from -the government breeding farms. - - -The Story of the "Big Coon." - -With apologies to Joel Chandler Harris, I will tell a little story. - -Uncle Remus was telling the little boy about the "big coon." It -seems that the "big coon" had been seen on numerous occasions, but -all efforts at his capture had failed. One night they saw the "big -coon" up in the 'simmon tree, in the middle of the ten-acre lot. All -hands and the dogs were summoned. To be sure of bagging the game, -the tree was cut down. The dogs rushed in but there was no coon. - -"But, Uncle Remus," said the little boy, "I thought you said you saw -the big coon in the tree." - -"Laws, chile," replied Uncle Remus, "doesn't youse know dat it am -mighty easy for folks to see something dat ain't dar, when dey are -lookin' fer it?" - -When scientific experimenters entered the poultry field about -fifteen years ago, they found it swarming with old ladies' notions. -For everything a reason was given, but these reasons were derived -from the kind of dreams where that which pleases the human mind is -seized upon and search is made to find ideas to back it, not because -it is true, but because it "listens good" to the dreamer. The first -duty of the scientist was to banish these will-o'-the-wisp ideas -that lead to no practical results. - -For illustration Round eggs were supposed to hatch pullets and long -ones cockerels. Eggs will not hatch if it thunders. Shipped eggs -must be allowed to rest before hatching, the drug store was the -universal source of relief when the chickens became sick, and red -pepper and patent foods were the egg foods par excellence. These -things, thanks to the scientist, are no longer believed or regarded -by well read poultrymen, and instead his attention has been turned -to matters having a more happy relation to his bank account. - -In clearing away the useless popular notions, the scientists -themselves have not been free from their influence, especially when -they seemed to agree with accepted scientific theory. Many, indeed, -are the 'coons in poultry science that have been seen because they -were being looked for. - -As a partial explanation it should be said that men available for -scientific poultry work are very scarce. Poultry keepers schooled in -the University of the Poultry Yard have no conception of scientific -methods, and would explain experimental results by a theory that -would fail to fit elsewhere. The available scientists on the other -hand are seldom poultrymen. - -Among the first men to take up animal husbandry work of all kinds, -were the veterinarians. For years the only poultry publications put -out by the U.S. Government were by veterinarians. These dust covered -volumes with their five color plates of the fifty-seven varieties of -tapeworms, still rest on the shelves of public libraries, a monument -to the time when the practical poultryman knew only things that -weren't so, and the scientific poultryman knew only things that were -useless. - -The first general law that all experimenters should know and the -ignorance of which has caused and still causes the waste of the -major portion of experimental brains and money, we will call the -"Law of Chance." Let the reader who is not familiar with such things -take two pennies and toss them upon the table. They are both heads -up. He tosses them again, one comes heads, the other tails. The -third time repeats the second. The fourth both come tails. The law -of chance says this is correct. Heads should appear 25 per cent., -tails 25 per cent., and mixed 50 per cent. of the time. Now let the -reader try this in a lot of twelve tosses. Does it prove the law? -Try it again. Are all lots alike? Now pitch a hundred times, then -pitch pennies all day. By night the law will be so near proven that -the experimenter will be willing to concede its validity. - -Now suppose the lots of twelve tosses, each were lots of twelve -hens, one Plymouth Rocks, the other Wyandottes, or one fed corn and -the other wheat. The law of chance clearly proves that the larger -number of unites, the nearer the theoretical truths will be the -experimental results. Note, however, that small lots may by chance -be as near the truth as large lots. - -In practice two grave errors are made: First, conclusions are drawn -from small lots compared with each other; second, conclusions are -drawn from large lots compared with small lots. In the first case -both may be off; in the latter case the small one may be off. -Examples of the first error are to be found in the scores of -contradicting breed and feed tests, that were published in the early -days of poultry research. The second error is exemplified in the -Ontario experiments in incubation, to which reference has already -been made. - -Here is a further example of this error. From the fifth egg laying -competition at the Hawkesbury Agricultural College in Australia, I -copy the following: - - No. of Hens. Variety. Ave. Egg Yield. - - 6 Cuckoo Leghorn 190.16 - 30 S.C. Brown Leghorn 177.00 - 138 S.C. White Leghorn 174.93 - 12 R.C. Brown Leghorn 173.50 - 12 R.C. White Leghorn 172.66 - 18 Buff Leghorn 160.55 - 6 Black Leghorn 138.33 - -The ranking of Cuckoo Leghorns as first is a chance happening due to -the small number; likewise the Black Leghorns had a streak of bad -luck and received lowest place. To one not familiar with such work, -the real significance of the table is that the S.C.W. Leghorns did -the best work. A totaling of all other varieties gives 84 fowls with -an average egg production of 170.5, which bears out the conclusion. -As these birds were all kept in pens of six, we would expect to find -the highest single pen to be White Leghorns, because, when compared -with all other Leghorns, they have both the highest average and the -greatest number. This accords with the fact that as the highest -single pen is found to be White Leghorns with an egg yield of 239 -eggs. - -The above illustrates another important phase of the laws of chance, -which says that not only is the average likely to be nearer the -theoretical average sought when the number is increased, but that -the individual extremes will be more removed. - - - -Important Experimental Results at the Illinois Station. - -From an Illinois Experiment Station report, the following is quoted: - -"The stock used was Barred Plymouth Rock pullets. These pullets were -a very uniform Barred Rock stock that had been bred as an individual -strain for many years. They were practically the same age, and -except for the factors mentioned were treated as uniformly as -possible. - - First Year's Results. - - No. Hens. Diet. Ave. Egg Yield. - - 10 Nitrogenous Diet 132.9 - 10 Carbonaceous Diet 128.4 - 10 Wet Wash 155.8 - 10 Dry Wash 111.4 - -"The results of the first test are somewhat surprising for it is -generally believed that the nitrogenous diet is best for laying -hens. The difference indicated in the first year's results was so -light that it was decided to repeat the experiment the second year. - -"As the wet wash is clearly proven to be superior, these hens were -used the second year to compare meat meal with fresh cut bone. - - Second Year's Result. - - No. Hens. Diet. Ave. Egg Yield. - - 10 Nitrogenous 142.2 - 10 Carbonaceous 134.5 - - 10 Meat Meal 102.2 - 10 Green Cut Bone 128.9 - -"The results of the second year clearly indicate the great -superiority of green cut bone as compared with the dry unpalatable -meat meal. The comparison of a highly nitrogenous ration with that -of a ration consisting largely of corn, while showing the advantages -of the nitrogenous rations, does not show the contrast expected. - -"Some visiting poultrymen expressed the opinion that corn is a -better poultry food than commonly supposed. Considering this fact -and the great fundamental importance of the question at issue, it -was decided to repeat the experiment a third year, and feed a large -number of birds on each ration. - - No. Hens. Diet. Ave. Egg Yield. - - 100 Nitrogenous 126.9 - 100 Carbonaceous 127.2" - -I will leave the last without comment, for the whole thing is a -hoax. The Illinois Experiment Station has never owned a chicken. -These "Illinois" experiments were planned and executed in a few -minutes of the writer's spare time. The basis of the experiments was -a pack of cards containing the individual records of the Maine -Experiment Station hens, shuffling the cards and averaging the -desired number of records as they come in the pack, made the -distinction between the various diets. - - -Experimental Bias. - -Pet ideas consciously or unconsciously mold practice. A bias toward -an idea may show itself in the planning and conducting of an -experiment, or it may come out in the later interpretation. - -An illustration of the first kind is found in the early work of the -West Virginia Station (Bulletin 60). With the preconceived notion -that hens should have a nitrogenous diet an experiment was planned -and conducted as follows: - -One lot of hens was fed corn, potatoes, oats and corn meal. A -contrasted lot reveled in corn, potatoes, hominy feed, oat meal, -corn meal and fresh cut bone. The results were in favor of the -latter ration by a doubled egg yield. - -To any experienced poultryman the reason is evident. The variety of -the diet and the meat food are what made the showing. - -About the same time the Massachusetts Station planned a similar -experiment. The bias was the same, but it took a fairer form. The -hens were both given a decent variety of food and some form of meat. -The bulk of the grain was corn in the carbonaceous, and wheat in the -nitrogenous ration. The results were in favor of the corn. This -astonished the experimenter. He tried it again and again tests came -out in favor of corn. At last the old theory was revoked, and the -fallacy of wheat being essential to egg production was exploded. If -by an irony of fate in the shuffling of the hens, the wheat pen had -the first time showed an advantage, the experimenter might have been -satisfied and the waste of feeding high priced feed when a better -and a cheaper is at hand, might have gone on indefinitely. - -Of bias in the interpretation of results all publications are more -or less saturated. A reading of the Chapter on Incubation will -illustrate this. A common error of this kind is the omission of -facts necessary to fully explain results. Items of costs are -invariably omitted or minimized. Food cost alone is usually -mentioned in figuring experimenting station poultry profits, which -statement will undoubtedly cause a sad smile to creep over the face -of many a "has-been" poultryman. - -The writer remembers an incident from his college days which -illustrates the point in hand. Let it first be remarked that this -was on the new lands of the trans-Missouri Country, where manure had -no more commercial value than soil, and is freely given to those -who will haul it away. - -The professor at the blackboard had been figuring up handsome -profits on a type of dairying towards which he wits very partial. -The figures showed a goodly profit, but the biggest expense -item--that of labor--was omitted. One of the students held up his -hand and inquired after the labor bill. - -"Oh," said the smiling professor, "The manure will pay for the -labor." - -When the class adjourned, the student remarked: "They say figures -won't lie, but a liar will figure." - -The third way in which experiments are made worthless is by the -introduction of factors other than the one being tested. This may be -done by chance, and the conductor not realize the presence of the -other factor, or the varying factors may be introduced intentionally -under the belief that they are negligible. Of the first case an -instance may be cited of the placing of two flocks in a house, one -end of which is damper than the other, the accidental introduction -into one flock of a contagious disease, or one flock being thrown -off feed by an excessive feed of greens, etc., etc. These factors -that influence pens of birds greatly add to the error of the law of -chance. In fact it amounts to the same thing on a larger scale. For -this reason not only are many individuals, but many flocks, many -locations, and many years needed to prove the superiority of the -contrasted methods. - -The criticisms in the following section will amply illustrate the -case of foreign factors being unwisely introduced into an -experiment. - - -The Egg Breeding Work at the Maine Station. - -As is well known the Maine Station was for years considered by all -poultrymen to be doing a great and beneficial work in breeding for -increased egg production. Up until the fall of 1907, the poultrymen -of the country were of the opinion that this work was in every way -successful, and a large number of private breeders had taken up the -use of trap-nests in an effort to build up the egg production of -their fowls. - -When early in 1908 Bulletin 157 of the Maine Experiment Station was -published, it showed by averages as given in the table on page 202 -that the egg yield at the station was for the entire period on the -decline. In Bulletin 157, the statement was made that "arithmetical -mistakes" and "faulty statistical methods" accounted for the -discrepancies between the former publications and the criticised -data. The further explanation that "the experiment was a success as -an experiment," etc., only appeared to the public mind as a graceful -way of explaining what was, to the practical man, an utter failure -of the entire work. - -The unfortunate death of Professor Gowell, together with the fact -that he had equipped a private poultry farm with station stock, -added to the confusion, and the result of the bulletin was the -precipitation of a general "pow-wow" in which the poultry editors -were about equally divided between those who were casting -insinuations upon the personnel of the station, and those who -decried the whole effort toward improving the egg yield. - -After going over the publications of Professor Gowell, visiting the -station and meeting the present force, I came to the following -conclusions regarding the matter: - -Professor Gowell's work is open to severe criticism. Errors have -been made in conducting the work at Maine which have made it -possible for a mathematical biologist to take the data and seemingly -prove that selection, as practiced by Professor Gowell, actually -resulted in lowering inherent egg capacity of the strain of Plymouth -Rock hens under experimentation. Had Professor Gowell's successor -been a practical poultryman, it is my candid opinion that the public -would have been given a radically different explanation of the -results. - -Professor Gowell is the author of the following statement: "The -small chicken grower is earnestly urged to use an incubator for -hatching." This opinion is not in accord with that of the majority -of breeders and the more progressive experiment station workers. The -opinion has been expressed by Professor Graham and others, that the -particular results at the Maine Station may have been due to the -decrease of vitality caused by continued artificial hatching. This -view may be wholly without foundation. Nevertheless, as the common -type of incubator is under heavy criticism, and it is pretty well -proven that chicks so hatched have not the vitality of naturally -hatched chicks, surely a series of breeding experiments would carry -more weight if the replenishing of the flock had been accomplished -by natural means. - -For the first few years of the breeding work the house used was the -old-fashioned double walled and warmed pattern. The last few years -of this work were conducted in curtain front houses. That the cool -house is an improvement over the warm house is generally conceded, -but there are many poultrymen who are still of the opinion that the -warm house will give a larger egg yield, though at a greater expense -and less profit. - -In the early years of the work the method of feeding was also a -time-honored one, and included a warm mash. About the middle of the -experimental period Professor Gowell brought out the system of -feeding dry mash from hoppers. This custom became a great fad and -Professor Gowell and Director Woods have preached it far and wide. -Perhaps it is an improvement, but it is to-day much more popular -with novices than with established egg farms. Many old line -poultrymen have tried dry mash only to go back to wet mash, by which -method the hens can be induced to eat more which is conducive to -high egg yields. Whether these changes in housing and feeding have -been improvements as claimed by those who introduced them, or -whether their popularity may be explained in part at least by the -psychology of fads, is a point in question, but certainly the -marring of a breeding experiment by introducing radical changes in -the factors of production is at best unfortunate. - -A much more serious criticism than any of the foregoing is to be -found in a change of the size of flocks and amount of floor space -per fowl. I have gone over carefully the published records of -Professor Gowell, and the review of Dr. Pearl, and the following -table represents, as near as I can determine, these factors for the -series of years. In the year 1903 I find no clear statement as to -the manner in which the birds were housed, and I may be in error in -this case. Otherwise the table gives the facts. - - Year Hens in Flock Per Hen Egg Yield - 1900 20 8. sq. ft. 136.36 - 1901 20 8. sq. ft. 143.44 - 1902 20 8. sq. ft. 155.58 - 1903 20 8. sq. ft. 135.42 - 1904 50 4.4 sq. ft. 117.90 - 1905 50 4.4 sq. ft. 134.07 - 1906 50 4.4 sq. ft. 140.14 - 1907 50 4.4 sq. ft. 113.24 - -Certainly this oversight is a serious one, and one especially -remarkable considering the fact that the comparison of different -size flocks formed a prominent part of the Maine Station work during -the last three years of the breeding test. The results of the work -at the Maine Station on testing flock size, conducted without -relation to the breeding work, gave the following results: - - No. of Hens Sq. ft. per Hen Egg Yield - 150 3.2 111.68 - 100 4.8 123.21 - 50 4.8 129.69 - -No comparisons of 50 and 20 bird flocks in the same year are -available, but by extending the comparisons of the 50, 100 and 150 -flocks into the 20 flock size, we can get some idea of the error -that has been here introduced. The result of the Australian egg -laying contest in which the flocks were composed of six hens, shows -a yield of about one and one-half times as heavy as the Maine -records, which certainly seems to substantiate the ideas here -brought out. - -It is a well established fact in poultry circles that many men who -succeed with a few hundred hens, fail when the number is increased -to as many thousands. When the breeding experiments under discussion -were started, Professor Gowell had under his supervision about three -hundred hens. When the work was closed the experiment station plant -had been increased to four or five times its capacity, and Professor -Gowell had a large private poultry plant of his own in addition. - -It is interesting to note in this connection that the last four -years of the records are explained by Professor Gowell as being low, -due to various "accidents" (?) It is unreasonable to suppose the -true explanation of these "accidents" would be found in connection -with the increased responsibility and size of the plant. - -The breeding stock sent out by Professor Gowell has given general -satisfaction, and was found by Professor Graham of the Ontario -Station, as well as by a number of private individuals, to be of -superior laying quality to that of the average Barred Rock. - -Clearly there is only one way to prove whether Professor Gowell's -work has been a wasted effort, and that is for flocks of his strain -to be tested at other experiment stations against birds of -miscellaneous origin. - -That much has been lost to the poultrymen of the country by the -recent upheaval at the Maine Station, I believe to be the case, but -that does not mean that the men now in charge will not in the future -be of great value to the poultry interests. They are, however, in -the class of pure scientists rather than applied scientists, but if -let alone they will dig out something sooner or later which they or -others can apply to the benefit of the industry. - -Upon the whole, I think that the present case of the trap-nest -method of increasing egg production stands very much as it is has -always stood, being a commendable thing for small breeders who could -afford the time, but not practical in a large way, except at -experiment stations. On a large commercial scale the system of -selecting sires by the collective work of his first year's offspring -would probably get the quickest results. - -The best use of the funds of the people in the promotion of -agricultural industries is in the permanent endorsement on the one -hand of a few high grade research stations where the deeper theories -may be worked out, and on the other the teaching of such good -principles and practices as are already known. - -The greatest opportunity for Government effort lies in the -development demonstration farm work in poultry Just as it is doing -with the corn and cotton in the South. - - - - - -CHAPTER XVI - -POULTRY ON THE GENERAL FARM - - -This chapter will be devoted to specific directions for the -profitable keeping of chickens on the typical American farm. By -typical American farm I mean the farm west of Ohio, north of -Tennessee and east of Colorado. Farms outside this section present -different problems. In the region mentioned about three-quarters of -the American poultry and egg crop is produced, and in this section -poultry keeping is more profitable when conducted as a part of -general farm operations than as an exclusive business. - -There is no reason why a farmer should not be a poultry fancier if -he desires, but in that case his special interest in his chickens -would throw him out of the class we are at present considering. -Likewise, I do not doubt that in many instances where the farmer or -members of his family took special interest in poultry work, it -would be profitable to increase the size of operations beyond those -herein advised, using incubators and keeping Leghorns. Of these -exceptions the farmer himself must judge. The rules I lay down are -for those farmers who wish to keep chickens for profit, but do not -care to devote any larger share of their time and study to them than -they do to the cows, hogs, orchard or garden. - -The advice herein given in this chapter will differ from much of the -advice given to farmers by poultry writers. The average poultry -editor is afraid to give specific advice concerning breeds, -incubators, etc., because he fears to offend his advertisers. The -reader, left to judge for himself, is liable to pick out some fancy -impractical variety or method. - - -Best Breeds for the Farm. - -Keep only one variety of chickens. Do not bother with other -varieties of poultry unless it is turkeys. Whether it will pay to -raise turkeys will depend upon your success with the little turks, -and on the freedom of the community from the disease called -Black-head. - -The kind of chicken you should keep should be picked from the three -following breeds: Barred Plymouth Rock, White Wyandotte, Rhode -Island Reds. If you go outside of these three breeds be sure you -have a very good reason for doing so. - -Then get a start with a new breed, buy at least four sittings of -eggs in a single season, paying not over $2.00 per sitting. Keep all -the pullets and a half dozen of the best cockerels. The next spring -pen these pullets up with the best cockerels, and use none but eggs -from this pen for hatching. That fall sell all of the young -cockerels and all the old scrub hens. The second spring the two old -roosters from the original purchased eggs are used with the general -flock. From this time on the entire flock is pure bred and should -remain so. - -Each year when the chicks are about six or eight weeks old pick out -the largest, most vigorous male chick from each brood. Mark these by -clipping the web of the foot or putting on leg bands. From those so -marked the breeding cockerels for the next season are later -selected. When you pick the good cockerels pick out all runty -looking pullets and cut off the last joint of the hind toe. These -runts are later to be eaten or sold. The more surplus chicks raised, -the more strictly can the selection be made. - -This system of picking the best cockerel from each brood and -discarding the poorest pullets is the most practical method known of -building up a vigorous, quick growing and early laying strain. - -When we allow the entire flock of many different ages to grow up -before the selection is made it is impossible to select -intelligently. - -Every third or fourth year an extra cock bird may be purchased -provided you are sure you are getting a specimen from a better flock -than your own. Swapping roosters or eggs every year is poor policy. -If your neighbor has better stock than you, get his blood pure and -sell off your own, but do not keep a barnyard full of scrubs who can -trace their ancestry to every flock in the neighborhood. - - -Keep Only Workers. - -On many farms few eggs are gathered from October to January. This is -a season when eggs bring the best prices. To secure eggs at this -season, the first requisite is that the pullets be hatched between -the first of March and the middle of May, or, in the case of -Leghorns, between the first of April and the first of June. Pullets -hatched later than these dates are a source of expense during the -fall and early winter. On the other hand, it is an unnecessary waste -of effort to hatch pullets before the dates mentioned, because, if -hatched too early, they will molt in the fall and stop laying the -same as old hens. - -Pullets must be well fed and cared for if expected to develop in the -time allowed. As they begin to show signs of maturity they should be -gotten into permanent quarters. If allowed to begin laying while -roosting in coops or in trees they will be liable to quit when -changed to new quarters. If possible the coops should be gradually -moved toward the hen-house and the pullets gotten into quarters -without excitement or confinement. The poultry-house should have an -ample circulation of fresh air. Young stock that have been roosting -in open coops are liable to catch cold if confined in tight houses. - -A common mistake is to allow a large troop of young roosters to -overrun the premises in the early fall. Not only is money lost in -the decrease in price that can be obtained for these cockerels, but -the pullets are greatly annoyed, to the detriment of the egg yield. - -Any chicken that is not paying for its food in growth or in egg -production is a source of loss. As soon as the hatching season is -over old roosters should be sent to market. Through June and August -egg production is not very profitable, and a thorough culling of the -hens should be made. Market all hens two years or more of age. Send -with these all the yearling hens that appear fat and lazy. By the -time the young pullets are ready to be moved into quarters--the -latter part of August--these hens should be reduced to about -one-half the original number. Some time during September a final -culling of the old stock should be made. Those that have not yet -begun to molt should be sold, as they will not be laying again -before the warm days of the following February. This system of -culling will leave the best portion of the yearling hens, which, -together with the early-hatched pullets, will make a profitable -flock of layers. - - -Hatching Chicks With Hens. - -The eggs for hatching should be stored in a cool, dry location at a -temperature between forty and seventy degrees Fahrenheit. A good -rule is not to set eggs over two weeks old. - -The two chief losses with sitting-hens are due to lice and -interference of other hens. The practice of setting hens in the -chicken-house makes both these difficulties more troublesome. Almost -all farms will have some outbuilding situated apart from the regular -chicken-house that can be used for sitting-hens. The most convenient -arrangement will be to use boxes, and have these open at the top. -They may be placed in rows and a plank somewhat narrower than the -boxes used as a cover. The nests should be made by throwing a shovel -of earth into the box and then shaping a nest of clean straw. Make -the nest roomy enough so that as the hen steps into the nest the -eggs will spread apart readily and not be broken. When a hen shows -signs of broodiness remove her to the sitting-room. This should be -done in the evening, so that the hen becomes accustomed to her -position by daylight. Place the hen upon the nest-eggs and confine -her to the nest. If all is well the next evening give her a full -setting of eggs. - -A practical method to arrange for sitting-hens is to build the nests -out of doors, allowing each hen a little yard, so that she may have -liberty to leave her nest as she chooses. These nests may be built -by using twelve-inch boards set on edge, so as to form a series of -small runways about one by six feet. In one end are built the nests, -which are covered by a broad board, while the remainder of the -arrangement is covered with lath or netting. The food, grit and -water should be placed at the opposite end of the runway. Care -should be taken to locate these nests on well-drained ground. -Arrangements should be made to close the front of the nest during -hatching so that the chicks will not drop out. A contrivance of this -kind furnishes a very convenient method of handling sitting-hens, -and if no separate building is available would be the best method to -use. - - -Incubators on the Farm. - -My candid advice to the farmer who is in doubt as whether to buy -an incubator or not, is to let it alone. If the farmer reads the -chapter on artificial incubation, he will see that he is dealing -with a very complex problem, and one in which his chances of success -are not very great. - -In order to learn the facts concerning incubators on the farms the -writer made a special investigation on the subject while poultryman -at the Kansas Experiment Station. Replies received from 111 Kansas -farmers, report 21 as having tried incubators. Of these, 6 reported -the incubators as being an improvement over hatching with hens; 10 -reported the incubator as being successful, but not better than -hens, while the remaining 5 declared the incubator to be a failure. -The results of this inquiry, and of personal visits to farms, led -the writer to believe that about one-tenth of the farmers of Kansas -had tried incubators, and that about as many failed as succeeded -with artificial hatching. - -The argument for the incubator on the farm is certainly not one of -better hatching, but there is an argument, and a good one for the -farm incubator. The argument is this: Hens will not set early enough -and in sufficient quantities to get out as large a number of chicks -as the farmer may desire. Now, each hen will not hatch over 10 -chicks, but is capable of caring for at least 30. Here the incubator -comes into good use, for the farmer can set a half dozen hens along -with the incubator, and give all the chicks to the hens. This is the -method I recommend where an incubator is to be used. The development -of the public hatchery would supply these other 20 chicks more -economically and more certainly than the farm incubator, but until -that institution becomes established the more ambitious farm poultry -raisers are justified in trying an incubator. - -The best known incubators in the market are the Cyphers, the Model -and the Prairie State. Cheaper machines are liable to do poor work. -The following points may help the farmer in deciding whether or not -to buy an incubator and in picking out a good machine. - -The person to run the incubator is the first condition of its -success. A good incubator requires attention twice a day. One person -should give this attention, and must give it regularly and -carefully. The farmer's wife or some younger member of the family -can often give more time and interest to this work than can the -farmer. The likelihood of a person's success with artificial -hatchers can best be determined by himself. - -The best location for an incubator is a moderately damp cellar. The -next choice would be a room in the house away from the fire or from -windows. Drafts of air blowing on the machine are especially to be -avoided. Not only do they affect the temperature directly, but cause -the lamp to burn irregularly, and this may result in fire. - -The objects in view in building an incubator are: (1) To keep the -eggs at a proper temperature (103 degrees on a level with the top of -the eggs). (2) To cause the evaporation of moisture from the eggs at -a normal rate. (3) To prevent the eggs from resting too long in one -position. - -The case of the incubator should be built double, or triple-walled, -to withstand variation in the outside temperature. The doors should -fit neatly and be made of double glass. The lamp should be made of -the best material, and the wick of sufficient width that the -temperature may be maintained with a low blaze. The most -satisfactory place for the lamp is at the end of the machine, -outside the case. - -Regulators composed of two metals, such as aluminum and steel, are -best. Wafers filled with ether or similar liquid are more sensitive -but weaker in action. Hard-rubber bars are frequently used. - -The most practical system of controlling evaporation is a system of -forced ventilation, in which the air is heated around the lamp-flue -and passes through the egg-chamber at a rate determined by -ventilators in the bottom of the machine. With the outside air cold -and dry only slight current is required, but as the outer air -becomes warmer or damper more circulation is needed. - -Turning the egg is not the work that many imagine it to be. It is -not necessary that the egg be turned with absolute precision and -regularity. An elaborate device for this work is useless. The trays -will need frequently to be removed and turned around or shifted, and -the eggs can be turned at this time by lifting out a few on one side -of the tray and rolling the others over. - -Two other points to be considered in the incubator are: A suitable -nursery or place for the newly hatched chick, and a good -thermometer. - - -Rearing Chicks. - -If it is very early in the spring, and the ground is damp, it is -best to put the hen and her brood in some building. During the most -of the season the best thing is an outdoor coop. The first -consideration in making a chicken-coop is to see that it is -rain-proof and rat-tight. The next thing to look for is that the -coop is not air-tight. Let the front be of rat-tight netting or -heavy screen. The same general plan may be used for small coops for -hens, or for larger coops to be used as colony-houses for growing -chickens. The essentials are: A movable floor raided on cleats, a -sliding front covered with rat-tight netting, and a hood over the -front to keep the rain from beating in. If used late in the fall or -early in the spring a piece of cloth should be tacked on the sliding -front. - -The chicken-coops should not be bunched up, but scattered out over -as much ground as is convenient. Neither should they remain long in -one spot, but should be shifted a few feet each day. At first water -should be provided at each coop, but as the chickens grow older they -may be required to come to a few central water pans. - -As before suggested, rearing chicks with hens is the only suitable -method for general farm practice. The brooder on the farm is an -expensive nuisance. - -For brooder raised chicks it is necessary to provide means for the -little chick to exercise. But in the season when the great majority -of farm chicks are raised they may be placed out of doors from the -start and the trouble will now be to keep them from getting too much -exercise, i.e.: to keep the hens from chasing around with them -especially in the wet grass. This is properly prevented by keeping -the brood coops in plowed ground, and keeping the hens confined by a -slatted door, until the chicks are strong enough to follow her -readily. - -The chick should not be fed until 48 to 72 hours old. It may then be -started on the same kind of food as is to form its diet in after -life. The hard boiled egg and bread and milk diets are wholly -unnecessary and are only a waste of time. - -I recommend the same system of chick feeding for the general farm as -is used on commercial plants, and I especially insist that it will -pay the farmer to provide meat food of some sort for his growing -chicks. The amount eaten will not be large, nor need the farmer fear -that supplying the chicks with meat food will prevent their -consuming all the bugs and worms that come their way. - -Besides comfortable quarters, the chick to thrive, must have: -Exercise, water, grit, a variety of grain food, green or succulent -food, and meat food. - -Water should be provided in shallow dishes. This can best be -arranged by having a dish with an inverted can or bottle which -allows only a little water to stand in the drinking basin. - -Chicks running at large on gravelly ground need no provision for -grit. Chicks on board floors or clay soils must be provided with -either coarse sand or chick grit, such as is sold for the purpose. - -Grain is the principal, and, too often, the only food of the chick. -The common farm way of feeding grain to young chickens is to mix -corn-meal and water and feed in a trough or on the ground. There is -no particular advantage in this way of feeding, and there are -several disadvantages. The feed is all in a bunch, and the weaker -chicks are crowded out, while if wet feed is thrown on the ground or -in a dirty trough the chicks must swallow the adhering filth, and if -any food is left over it quickly sours and becomes a menace to -health. Some people mix dough with sour milk and soda and bake this -into a bread. The better way is to feed all of the grain in a -natural dry condition. - -There are foods in the market known as chick foods. The commercial -foods contain various grains and seeds, together with meat and grit. -Their use renders chick feeding quite a simple matter, it being -necessary to supply in addition only water and green foods. For -those who wish to prepare their own chick foods the following -suggestions are given: - -Oatmeal is probably the best grain food for chicks. Oats cannot be -suitably prepared, however, in a common feed-mill. The hulled oats -are what is wanted. They can be purchased as the common rolled oats, -or sometimes as cut or pin-head oatmeal. The latter form would be -preferred, but either of these is an excellent chick feed. Oats in -these forms are expensive and should be purchased in bulk, not in -packages. If too expensive, oats should be used only for a few days, -when they may be replaced by cheaper grains. Cracked corn is the -best and cheapest chick food. Flaxseed could be used in small -quantities. Kaffir-corn, wheat, cow-peas--in fact any wholesome -grain--may be used, the more variety the better. Farmers possessing -feed-mills have no excuse for feeding chicks exclusively on one kind -of grain. If there is no way of grinding corn on the farm, oatmeal, -millet seed and corn chop can be purchased. At about one week of age -whole Kaffir-corn, and, a little later whole wheat, can be used to -replace the more expensive feeds. - -Green or bulky food of some kind is necessary to the healthy growth -of young chickens. Chickens fed in litter from clover or alfalfa -will pick up many bits of leaves. This answers the purpose fairly -well, but it is advisable to feed some leafy vegetable, as kale or -lettuce. The chicks should be gotten on some growing green crop as -soon as possible. - -Chickens are not by nature vegetarians. They require some meat to -thrive. It has been proven in several experiments that young -chickens with an allowance of meat foods make much better growth -than chickens with a vegetable diet, even when the chemical -constituents and the variety of the two rations are practically the -same. - -Very few farmers feed any meat whatever. They rely on insects to -supply the deficiency. This would be all right if the insects were -plentiful and lasted throughout the year, but as conditions are it -will pay the farmer to supplement this source of food with the -commercial meat foods. - -Fresh bone, cut by bone-cutters, is an excellent source of the meat -and mineral matter needed by growing chicks. If one is handy to a -butcher shop that will agree to furnish fresh bones at little or no -cost, it will pay to get a bone-mill, but the cost of the mill and -labor of grinding are considerable items, and unless the supply of -bones is reliable and convenient this source of meat foods is not to -be depended upon. - -The best way to feed beef-scrap is to keep a supply in the hopper so -the chickens may help themselves. In case meat food is given, -bone-meal, fed in small quantities, will form a valuable addition to -their ration. Infertile eggs from incubators, as well as by-products -of the dairy, can be used to help out in the animal-food portion of -the ration. Chickens may be given all the milk they will drink. It -is generally recommended that this be given clabbered. - - -Feeding Laying Hens. - -The food requirements of a laying hen are very like those of a -growing chicken. One addition to the list is, however, required for -egg production, which is lime, of which the shell of the egg is -formed. In the summer-time hens on the range will find sufficient -lime to supply their needs. In the winter-time they should be -supplied with more lime than the food contains. Crushed oyster shell -answers the purpose admirably. - -A supply of green food is one of the requisites of successful winter -feeding. Every farmer should see that a patch of rye, crimson -clover, or some other winter green crop is grown near his -chicken-house. Vegetables and refuse from the kitchen help out in -this matter, but seldom furnish a sufficient supply. Vegetables may -be grown for this purpose. Mangels and sugar-beets are excellent. -Cabbage, potatoes and turnips answer the purpose fairly well. -Mangels are fed by splitting in halves and sticking to nails driven -in the wall. - -Clover and alfalfa are excellent chicken feeds and should be used in -regions where winter crops will not keep green. The leaves that -shatter off in the mow are the choicest portion for chicken feeding, -and may be fed by scalding with hot water and mixing in a mash. Hens -will eat good green alfalfa if fed dry in a box. - -The feeding of sprouted oats should be practiced when no other green -food is available. Oats may be prepared for this purpose by -thoroughly soaking in warm water and being kept in a warm, damp -place for a few days. Feed when the sprouts are a couple of inches -long. - -Almost all grains are suitable foods for hens. Corn, on account of -its cheapness and general distribution, is the best. The general -prejudice against corn feeding should be directed rather against -feeding one grain alone without the other forms of food. If hens are -supplied with green foods, with mineral matter, some form of meat -food, and are forced to take sufficient amount of exercise, the -danger from overfatness, due to the feeding of a reasonable amount -of corn, need not be feared. - -As has already been emphasized, the variety of food given is more -essential than the kind. Do not feed one grain all the time. The -more variety fed the better. Corn and Kaffir-corn, being cheap -grains, will form the major portion of the ration, but, even if much -higher in price, it will pay to add a portion of such grain as -wheat, barley, oats or buckwheat. - - -Cleanliness. - -The advice commonly given in poultry papers would require one to -exercise nearly as much pains in the cleaning of a chicken house as -in the cleaning of a kitchen. Such advice may be suitable for the -city poultry fanciers, but it is out of place when given to the -farmer. Poultry raising, the same as other farm work, must pay for -the labor put into it, and this will not be the case if attempt is -made to follow all the suggestions of the theoretical poultry -writer. - -The ease with which the premises may be kept reasonably free from -litter and filth is largely a matter of convenient arrangement. The -handiest plan from this view-point is the colony system. In this the -houses are moved to new locations when the ground becomes soiled. If -the chicken-house is a stationary structure it should be built away -from other buildings, scrap-piles, fence corners, etc., so that the -ground can be frequently freshened by plowing and sowing in oats, -rye or rape. The ground should be well sloped, so that the water -draining from the surface may wash away much of the filth that on -level ground would accumulate. - -Cleanliness indoors can be simplified by proper arrangement. First, -the house must be dry. Poultry droppings, when dry, are not a source -of danger if kept out of the feed. They should be removed often -enough to prevent foul odors. Drinking vessels should be rinsed out -when refilled and not allowed to accumulate a coat of slime. If a -mash is fed, feed-boards should be scraped off and dried in the sun. -Sunshine is a cheap and efficient disinfectant. - -The advice on the control of lice and the method of handling sick -chickens that has been given in the main section of the book, will -apply as well on the farm as on the commercial poultry plant. -Certainly the farmer's time is too valuable to fool with the details -of poultry therapeutics. - - -Farm Chicken Houses. - -The following notes on poultry houses apply to Iowa and Nebraska, -where the winters are severe, and similar climates. Farther south -and east the farmer should use the same style of houses as -recommended for egg farms. A chicken house just high enough for a -man to walk erectly and a floor space of about 3 square feet per hen -is advisable. This requires a house 12 by 24 for 100 hens, or 10 by -16 for 50. - -Lands sloping to south or southeast, and that which dries quickly -after a rain, will prove the most suitable for chickens. A gumbo -patch should not be selected as a location for poultry. Hogs and -hens should not occupy the same quarters, in fact, should be some -distance apart, especially if heavy breeds of chickens are kept. -Hens should be removed from the garden, but may be near an orchard. -Chicken-houses should be separated from tool-houses, stables, and -other outbuildings. - -Grading for chicken-houses is not commonly practiced, but this is -the easiest means of preventing dampness in the house and is -necessary in heavy soils. The ground-level may be raised with a plow -and scraper, or the foundation of the house may be built and filled -with dirt. - -A stone foundation is best, but where stone is expensive may be -replaced by cedar, hemlock or Osage orange posts, deeply set in the -ground. Small houses can be built on runners as described for colony -houses for an egg farm. - -Floors are commonly constructed of earth, boards or cement. Cement -floors are perfectly sanitary and easy to keep clean. The objections -to their common use is the first cost of good cement floors. Cheaply -constructed floors will not last. Board floors are very common and -are preferred by many poultrymen, but if close to the ground they -harbor rats, while if open underneath they make the house cold. -Covering wet ground by a board floor does not remedy the fault of -dampness nearly so effectually as would a similar expenditure spent -in raising the floor and surrounding ground by grading. All things -considered, the dirt floor is the most suitable. This should be made -by filling in above the outside ground-level. The drainage will be -facilitated if the first layer of this floor be of cinders, small -rocks or other coarse material. Above this layer should be placed a -layer of clay, wet and packed hard, so the hens cannot scratch it -up, or a different plan may be used and the floor constructed of a -sandy or loamy soil of which the top layer can be renewed each year. - -The walls of a chicken-house must first of all be wind-tight. This -may be attained in several ways. Upright boards with cracks battened -is the cheapest method. Various kinds of lap-siding give similar -results. The single-board wall may be greatly improved by lining -with building-paper. This should be put on between the studding and -siding. Lath should also be used to prevent the paper bagging out -from the wall. The double-board wall is the best where a warm house -is desired. - -It should be made by siding up outside the studding with cheap -lumber. On this is placed a layer of roofing paper and over it the -ordinary siding. The windows of a chicken-house should furnish -sufficient light that the hens may find grain in the litter on -cloudy days. Too much glass in a poultry house makes the house cold -at night, and it is a needless expenditure. - -The subject of roofing farm buildings may be summarized in this -advice: Use patent roofing if you know of a variety that will last; -if not, use shingles. Shingle roofs require a steeper pitch than do -roofs of prepared roofing. A shingle roof can be made much warmer by -using tightly laid sheathing covered with building-paper. Especial -care should be taken that the joints at the eaves of the house are -tightly fitted. - -The object of ventilating a chicken-house is to supply a reasonable -amount of fresh air, and, equally important, to keep the house dry. -Ventilation should not be by cracks or open cupolas. Direct drafts -of air are injurious, and ventilation by such means is always the -greatest when the least needed. - -Schemes of ventilation by a system of pipes are expensive and -unnecessary. The latest, best and cheapest plan for providing -ventilation is the curtain front house for the north, and the open -front house for the more southerly sections. The curtain front house -is giving way to the open front with a somewhat smaller opening in -sections, as far north as Connecticut. - -Make all roosts on the same level. The ladder arrangement is a -nuisance and offers no advantage. Arrange the roosts so that they -may be readily removed for cleaning. Do not fill the chicken-house -full of roosts. Put in only enough to accommodate the hens, and let -these be on one side of the house. The floor under the roosts should -be separated from the feeding floor by a board set on edge. - -For laying flocks the nests must be clean, secluded and plentiful. -Boxes under the roost-platform will answer, but a better plan is to -have the nest upon a shelf along a side wall so arranged as to allow -the hen to enter from the rear side. Nests should be constructed so -that all parts are accessible to a white-wash brush. The less -contrivances in a chicken-house, the better. - -The farmer can get along very well without any chicken-yard at all. -It will, however, prove a very convenient arrangement if a small -yard is attached to the chicken-house. The house should be arranged -to open either into the yard or out into the range. This yard may be -used for fattening chickens or confining cockerels, or perhaps to -enclose the flock during the ripening of a favorite tomato or berry -crop. - - -THE END. - - - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Dollar Hen, by Milo M. 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