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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/12867-0.txt b/12867-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f24c127 --- /dev/null +++ b/12867-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,8090 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 12867 *** + + IL CONVITO + + THE BANQUET + + OF + + DANTE ALIGHIERI + + + Translated By + + Elizabeth Price Sayer + + With An Introduction By Henry Morely +LL.D., Professor Of English Literature At + University College, London + + + 1887 + + + + +INTRODUCTION. + + +This translation of Dante's Convito--the first in English--is from the +hand of a lady whose enthusiasm for the genius of Dante has made it a +chief pleasure of her life to dwell on it by translating, not his +Divine Comedy only, but also the whole body of his other works. Among +those works the Vita Nuova and the Convito have a distinct place, as +leading up to the great masterpiece. In the New Life, Man starts on +his career with human love that points to the divine. In the Banquet, +he passes to mature life and to love of knowledge that declares the +power and the love of God in the material and moral world about us and +within us. In the Divine Comedy, the Poet passes to the world to come, +and rises to the final union of the love for Beatrice, the beatifier, +with the glory of the Love of God. Of this great series, the crowning +work has, of course, had many translators, and there have been +translators also of the book that shows the youth of love. But the +noble fragment of the Convito that unites these two has, I believe, +never yet been placed within reach of the English reader, except by a +translation of its poems only into unrhymed measure in Mr. Charles +Lyell's "Poems of the Vita Nuova and the Convito," published in 1835. + +The Convito is a fragment. There are four books where fifteen were +designed, including three only of the intended fourteen songs. But the +plan is clear, and one or two glances forward to the matter of the +last book, which would have had Justice for its theme, show that all +was to have been brought to a high spiritual close. + +Its aim was no less than the lifting of men's minds by knowledge of +the world without them and within them, bound together in creation, +showing forth the Mind of the Creator. The reader of this volume must +not flinch from the ingenious dialectics of the mediæval reasoner on +Man and Nature. Dante's knowledge is the knowledge of his time. +Science had made little advance since Aristotle--who is "the +Philosopher" taken by Dante for his human guide--first laid its +foundations. It is useful, no doubt, to be able in a book like this, +shaped by a noble mind, to study at their best the forms of reasoning +that made the science of the Middle Ages. But the reader is not called +upon to make his mind unhappy with endeavours to seize all the points, +say, of a theory of the heavens that was most ingenious, but in no +part true. The main thing is to observe how the mistaken reasoning +joins each of the seven sciences to one of the seven heavens, and here +as everywhere joins earth to heaven, and bids man lift his head and +look up, Godward, to the source of light. If spiritual truth could +only come from right and perfect knowledge, this would have been a +world of dead souls from the first till now; for future centuries, in +looking back at us, will wonder at the little faulty knowledge that we +think so much. But let the known be what it may, the true soul rises +from it to a sense of the divine mysteries of Wisdom and of Love. +Dante's knowledge may be full of ignorance, and so is ours. But he +fills it as he can with the Spirit of God. He is not content that men +should be as sheep, and look downward to earth for all the food they +need. He bids them to a Banquet of another kind, whose dishes are of +knowledge for the mind and heavenward aspiration for the soul. + +Dante's Convito--of which the name was, no doubt, suggested by the +Banquets of Plato and Xenophon--was written at the close of his life, +after the Divine Comedy, and no trace has been found of more of its +songs than the three which may have been written and made known some +time before he began work on their Commentary. Death stayed his hand, +and the completion passed into a song that joined the voice of Dante +to the praise in heaven. + +H.M. + +_April_ 1887. + + + + +THE + +BANQUET OF DANTE ALIGHIERI + + * * * * * + + + + +The First Treatise. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + + +As the Philosopher says in the beginning of the first Philosophy, "All +men naturally desire Knowledge." The reason of which may be, that each +thing, impelled by the intuition of its own nature, tends towards its +perfection, hence, forasmuch as Knowledge is the final perfection of +our Soul, in which our ultimate happiness consists, we are all +naturally subject to the desire for it. + +Verily, many are deprived of this most noble perfection, by divers +causes within the man and without him, which remove him from the use +of Knowledge. + +Within the man there may be two defects or impediments, the one on the +part of the Body, the other on the part of the Soul. On the part of +the Body it is, when the parts are unfitly disposed, so that it can +receive nothing as with the deaf and dumb, and their like. On the part +of the Soul it is, when evil triumphs in it, so that it becomes the +follower of vicious pleasures, through which it is so much deceived, +that on account of them it holds everything in contempt. + +Without the man, two causes may in like manner be understood, of which +one comes of necessity, the other of stagnation. The first is the +management of the family and conduct of civil affairs, which fitly +draws to itself the greater number of men, so that they cannot live in +the quietness of speculation. The other is the fault of the place +where a person is born and reared, which will ofttimes be not only +without any School whatever, but may be far distant from studious +people. The two first of these causes--the first of the hindrance from +within, and the first of the hindrance from without--are not deserving +of blame, but of excuse and pardon; the two others, although the one +more than the other, deserve blame and are to be detested. + +Hence, he who reflects well, can manifestly see that they are few who +can attain to the enjoyment of Knowledge, though it is desired by all, +and almost innumerable are the fettered ones who live for ever +famished of this food. + +Oh, blessed are those few who sit at that table where the Bread of +Angels is eaten, and wretched those who can feed only as the Sheep. +But because each man is naturally friendly to each man, and each +friend grieves for the fault of him whom he loves; they who are fed at +that high table are full of mercy towards those whom they see straying +in one pasture with the creatures who eat grass and acorns. + +And forasmuch as Mercy is the Mother of Benevolence, those who know +how, do always liberally offer their good wealth to the true poor, and +are like a living stream, whose water cools the before-named natural +thirst. I, then, who sit not at the blessed table, but having fled +from the pasture of the common herd, lie at the feet of those who sit +there and gather up what falls from them, by the sweetness which I +find in that which I collect little by little, I know the wretched +life of those whom I have left behind me; and moved mercifully for the +unhappy ones, not forgetting myself, I have reserved something which I +have shown to their eyes long ago, and for this I have made them +greatly desirous. Wherefore, now wishing to prepare for them, I mean +to make a common Banquet of this which I have shown to them, and of +that needed bread without which food such as this could not be eaten +by them at their feast; bread fit for such meat, which I know, without +it, would be furnished forth in vain. And therefore I desire that no +one should sit at this Banquet whose members are so unfitly disposed +that he has neither teeth, nor tongue, nor palate: nor any follower of +vice; inasmuch as his stomach is full of venomous and hurtful humours, +so that it will retain no food whatever. But let those come to us, +whosoever they be, who, pressed by the management of civil and +domestic life, have felt this human hunger, and at one table with +others who have been in like bondage, let them sit. But at their feet +let us place all those who have been the slaves of sloth, and who are +not worthy to sit higher: and then let these and those eat of my dish, +with the bread which I will cause them to taste and to digest. + +The meat at this repast will be prepared in fourteen different ways, +that is, in fourteen Songs, some of whose themes will be of Love and +some of Virtue: which, without the present bread, might have some +shadow of obscurity, so that to many they might be acceptable more on +account of their form than because of their spirit. But this bread is +the present Exposition. It will be the Light whereby each colour of +their design will be made visible. + +And if in the present work, which is named "Convito"--the Banquet, the +glad Life Together--I desire that the subject should be discussed more +maturely than in the Vita Nuova--the New Life--I do not therefore mean +in any degree to undervalue that Fresh Life, but greatly to enhance +it; seeing how reasonable it is for that age to be fervid and +passionate, and for this to be mature and temperate. At one age it is +fit to speak and work in one way, and at another age in another way; +because certain manners are fit and praiseworthy at one age which are +improper and blameable at another, as will be demonstrated with +suitable argument in the fourth treatise of this Book. In that first +Book (Vita Nuova) at the entrance into my youth I spoke; and in this +latter I speak after my youth has already passed away. And since my +true meaning may be other than that which the aforesaid songs show +forth, I mean by an allegoric exposition to explain these after the +literal argument shall have been reasoned out: so that the one +argument with the other shall give a relish to those who are the +guests invited to this Banquet. And of them all I pray that if the +feast be not so splendid as befits the proclamation thereof, let them +impute each defect, not to my will but to my means, since my will here +is to a full and loving Liberality. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + + +In preparing for every well-ordered Banquet the servants are wont to +take the proper bread, and see that it is clean from all blemish; +wherefore I, who in the present writing stand in servant's place, +intend firstly to remove two spots from this exposition which at my +repast stands in the place of bread. + +The one is, that it appears to be unlawful for any one to speak of +himself; the other, that it seems to be unreasonable to speak too +deeply when giving explanations. Let the knife of my judgment pare +away from the present treatise the unlawful and the unreasonable. One +does not permit any Rhetorician to speak of himself without a +necessary cause. And from this is the man removed, because he can +speak of no one without praise or blame of those of whom he speaks; +which two causes commonly induce a man to speak of himself. And in +order to remove a doubt which here arises, I say that it is worse for +any one to blame than to praise himself, although neither may have to +be done. The reason is, that anything which is essentially wrong is +worse than that which is wrong through accident. For a man openly to +bring contempt on himself is essentially wrong to his friend, because +a man owes it to take account of his fault secretly, and no one is +more friendly to himself than the man himself. In the chamber of his +thoughts, therefore, he should reprove himself and weep over his +faults, and not before the world. Again, a man is but seldom blamed +when he has not the power or the knowledge requisite to guide himself +aright: but he is always blamed when weak of will, because our good or +evil dispositions are measured by the strength of will. Wherefore he +who blames himself proves that he knows his fault, while he reveals +his want of goodness; if, therefore, he know his fault, let him no +more speak evil of himself. If a man praise himself it is to avoid +evil, as it were; inasmuch as it cannot be done except such +self-laudation become in excess dishonour; it is praise in appearance, +it is infamy in substance. For the words are spoken to prove that of +which he has not inward assurance. Hence, he who lauds himself proves +his belief that he is not esteemed to be a good man, and this befalls +him not unless he have an evil conscience, which he reveals by +self-praise, and in so revealing it he blames himself. + +And, again, self-praise and self-blame are to be shunned equally, for +this reason, that it is false witnessing. Because there is no man who +can be a true and just judge of himself, so much will self-love +deceive him. Hence it happens that every man has in his own judgment +the measures of the false merchant, who sells with the one, and buys +with the other. Every man weights the scales against his own +wrong-doing, and adds weight to his good deeds; so that the number and +the quantity and the weight of the good deeds appear to him to be +greater than if they were tried in a just balance; and in like manner +the evil appears less. Wherefore speaking of himself with praise or +with blame, either he speaks falsely with regard to the thing of which +he speaks, or he speaks falsely by the fault of his judgment; and as +the one is untruth, so is the other. And therefore, since to acquiesce +is to admit, he is wrong who praises or who blames before the face of +any man; because the man thus appraised can neither acquiesce nor deny +without falling into the error of either praising or blaming himself. +Reserve the way of due correction, which cannot be taken without +reproof of error, and which corrects if understood. Reserve also the +way of due honour and glory, which cannot be taken without mention of +virtuous works, or of dignities that have been worthily acquired. + +And in truth, returning to the main argument, I say, as before, that +it is permitted to a man for requisite reasons to speak of himself. +And amongst the several requisite reasons two are most evident: the +one is when a man cannot avoid great danger and infamy, unless he +discourse of himself; and then it is conceded for the reason, that to +take the less objectionable of the only two paths, is to take as it +were a good one. And this necessity moved Boethius to speak of +himself, in order that under pretext of Consolation he might excuse +the perpetual shame of his imprisonment, by showing that imprisonment +to be unjust; since no other man arose to justify him. And this reason +moved St. Augustine to speak of himself in his Confessions; that, by +the progress of his life, which was from bad to good, and from good to +better, and from better to best, he might give example and +instruction, which, from truer testimony, no one could receive. +Therefore, if either of these reasons excuse me, the bread of my +moulding is sufficiently cleared from its first impurity. + +The fear of shame moves me; and I am moved by the desire to give +instruction which others truly are unable to give. I fear shame for +having followed passion so ardently, as he may conceive who reads the +afore-named Songs, and sees how greatly I was ruled by it; which shame +ceases entirely by the present speech of myself, which proves that not +passion but virtue may have been the moving cause. + +I intend also to demonstrate the true meaning of those Poems, which +some could not perceive unless I relate it, because it is concealed +under the veil of Allegory; and this it not only will give pleasure to +hear, but subtle instruction, both as to the diction and as to the +intention of the other writings. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + + +Much fault is in that thing which is appointed to remove some grave +evil, and yet encourages it; even as in the man who might be sent to +quell a tumult, and, before he had quelled it, should begin another. + +And forasmuch as my bread is made clean on one side, it behoves me to +cleanse it on the other, in order to shun this reproof: that my +writing, which one may term, as it were, a Commentary, is appointed to +remove obscurity from the before-mentioned Songs, and is, in fact, +itself at times a little hard to understand. This obscurity is here +intended, in order to avoid a greater defect, and does not occur +through ignorance. Alas! would that it might have pleased the +Dispenser of the Universe that the cause of my excuse might never have +been; that others might neither have sinned against me, nor I have +suffered punishment unjustly; the punishment, I say, of exile and +poverty! Since it was the pleasure of the citizens of the most +beautiful and the most famous daughter of Rome, Florence, to cast me +out from her most sweet bosom (wherein I was born and nourished even +to the height of my life, and in which, with her goodwill, I desire +with all my heart to repose my weary soul, and to end the time which +is given to me), I have gone through almost all the land in which this +language lives--a pilgrim, almost a mendicant--showing forth against +my will the wound of Fortune, with which the ruined man is often +unjustly reproached. Truly I have been a ship without a sail and +without a rudder, borne to divers ports and lands and shores by the +dry wind which blows from doleful poverty; and I have appeared vile in +the eyes of many, who perhaps through some report may have imaged me +in other form. In the sight of whom not only my person became vile, +but each work already completed was held to be of less value than that +might again be which remained yet to be done. + +The reason wherefore this happens (not only to me but to all), it now +pleases me here briefly to touch upon. And firstly, it is because +rumour goes beyond the truth; and then, what is beyond the truth +restricts and strangles it. Good report is the first born of kindly +thought in the mind of the friend; which the mind of the foe, although +it may receive the seed, conceives not. + +That mind which gives birth to it in the first place, so to make its +gift more fair, as by the charity of friendship, keeps not within +bounds of truth, but passes beyond them. When one does that to adorn a +tale, he speaks against his conscience; when it is charity that causes +him to pass the bounds, he speaks not against conscience. + +The second mind which receives this, not only is content with the +exaggeration of the first mind, but its own report adds its own effect +of endeavours to embellish, and so by this action, and by the +deception which it also receives from the goodwill generated in it, +good report is made more ample than it should be; either with the +consent or the dissent of the conscience; even as it was with the +first mind. And the third receiving mind does this; and the fourth; +and thus the exaggeration of good ever grows. And so, by turning the +aforesaid motives in the contrary direction, one can perceive why +ill-fame in like manner is made to grow. Wherefore Virgil says in the +fourth of the Æneid: "Let Fame live to be fickle, and grow as she +goes." Clearly, then, he who is willing may perceive that the image +generated by Fame alone is always larger, whatever it may be, than the +thing imaged is, in its true state. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + + +Having previously shown the reason why Fame magnifies the good and the +evil beyond due limit, it remains in this chapter to show forth those +reasons which make evident why the Presence restricts in the opposite +way, and having shown this I will return to the principal proposition. +I say, then, that for three causes his Presence makes a person of less +value than he is. The first is childishness, I do not say of age, but +of mind; the second is envy; and these are in the judge: the third is +human impurity; and this is in the person judged. The first, one can +briefly reason thus: the greater part of men live according to sense +and not according to reason, after the manner of children, and the +like of these judge things simply from without; and the goodness which +is ordained to a fit end they perceive not, because the eyes of +Reason, which they need in order to perceive it, are closed. Hence, +they soon see all that they can, and judge according to their sight. + +And forasmuch as any opinion they form on the good fame of others, +from hearsay, with which, in the presence of the person judged, their +imperfect judgment may dissent, they amend not according to reason, +because they judge merely according to sense, they will deem that +which they have first heard to be a lie as it were, and dispraise the +person who was previously praised. Hence, in such men, and such are +almost all, Presence restricts the one fame and the other. Such men as +these are inconstant and are soon cloyed; they are often gay and often +sad from brief joys and sorrows; speedy friends and speedy foes; each +thing they do like children, without the use of reason. + +The second observation from these reasons is, that due comparison is +cause for envy to the vicious; and envy is a cause of evil judgment, +because it does not permit Reason to argue for that which is envied, +and the judicial power is then like the judge who hears only one side. +Hence, when such men as these perceive a person to be famous, they are +immediately jealous, because they compare members and powers; and they +fear, on account of the excellence of such an one, to be themselves +accounted of less worth; and these passionate men, not only judge +evilly, but, by defamation, they cause others to judge evilly. +Wherefore with such men their apprehension restricts the +acknowledgment of good and evil in each person represented; and I say +this also of evil, because many who delight in evil deeds have envy +towards evil-doers. + +The third observation is of human frailty, which one accepts on the +part of him who is judged, and from which familiar conversation is not +altogether free. In evidence of this, it is to be known that man is +stained in many parts; and, as says St. Augustine, "none is without +spot." Now, the man is stained with some passion, which he cannot +always resist; now, he is blemished by some fault of limb; now, he is +bruised by some blow from Fortune; now, he is soiled by the ill-fame +of his parents, or of some near relation: things which Fame does not +bear with her, but which hang to the man, so that he reveals them by +his conversation; and these spots cast some shadow upon the brightness +of goodness, so that they cause it to appear less bright and less +excellent. And this is the reason why each prophet is less honoured in +his own country; and this is why the good man ought to give his +presence to few, and his familiarity to still fewer, in order that his +name may be received and not despised. And this third observation may +be the same for the evil as for the good, if we reverse the conditions +of the argument. Wherefore it is clearly evident that by +imperfections, from which no one is free, the seen Presence restricts +right perception of the good and of the evil in every one, more than +truth desires. Hence, since, as has been said above, I myself have +been, as it were, visibly present to all the Italians, by which I +perhaps am made more vile than truth desires, not only to those to +whom my repute had already run, but also to others, whereby I am made +the lighter; it behoves me that with a more lofty style I may give to +the present work a little gravity, through which it may show greater +authority. Let this suffice to excuse the difficulty of my commentary. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + + +Since this bread is now cleared of accidental spots, it remains to +excuse it from a substantial one, that is for being in my native +tongue and not in Latin; which by similitude one may term, of +barley-meal and not of wheaten flour. And from this it is briefly +excused by three reasons which moved me to choose the one rather than +the other. One springs from the avoidance of inconvenient Unfitness: +the second from the readiness of well-adjusted Liberality; the third +from the natural Love for one's own Native Tongue. And these things, +with the grounds for them, to the staying of all possible reproof, I +mean in due order to reason out in this form. + +That which most adorns and commends human actions, and which most +directly leads them to a good result, is the use of dispositions best +adapted to the end in view; as the end aimed at in knighthood is +courage of mind and strength of body. And thus he who is ordained to +the service of others, ought to have those dispositions which are +suited to that end; as submission, knowledge and obedience, without +which any one is unfit to serve well. Because if he is not subject to +each of these conditions, he proceeds in his service always with +fatigue and trouble, and but seldom continues in it. If he is not +obedient, he never serves except as in his wisdom he thinks fit, and +when he wills; which is rather the service of a friend than of a +servant. Hence, to escape this disorder, this commentary is fit, which +is made as a servant to the under-written Songs, in order to be +subject to these, and to each separate command of theirs. It must be +conscious of the wants of its lord, and obedient to him, which +dispositions would be all wanting to it if it were a Latin servant, +not a native, since the songs are all in the language of our people. +For, in the first place, if it had been a Latin servant he would be +not a subject but a sovereign, in nobility, in virtue, and in beauty; +in nobility, because the Latin is perpetual and incorruptible; the +language of the vulgar is unstable and corruptible. Hence we see in +the ancient writings of the Latin Comedies and Tragedies that they +cannot change, being the same Latin that we now have; this happens not +with our native tongue, which, being home-made, changes at pleasure. +Hence we see in the cities of Italy, if we will look carefully back +fifty years from the present time, many words to have become extinct, +and to have been born, and to have been altered. But if a little time +transforms them thus, a longer time changes them more. So that I say +that, if those who departed from this life a thousand years ago should +come back to their cities, they would believe those cities to be +inhabited by a strange people, who speak a tongue discordant from +their own. On this subject I will speak elsewhere more completely in a +book which I intend to write, God willing, on the "Language of the +People." + +Again, the Latin was not subject, but sovereign, through virtue. Each +thing has virtue in its nature, which does that to which it is +ordained; and the better it does it so much the more virtue it has: +hence we call that man virtuous who lives a life contemplative or +active, doing that for which he is best fitted; we ascribe his virtue +to the horse that runs swiftly and much, to which end he is ordained: +we see virtue of a sword that cuts through hard things well, since it +has been made to do so. Thus speech, which is ordained to express +human thought, has virtue when it does that; and most virtue is in the +speech which does it most. Hence, forasmuch as the Latin reveals many +things conceived in the mind which the vulgar tongue cannot express, +even as those know who have the use of either language, its virtue is +far greater than that of the vulgar tongue. + +Again, it was not subject, but sovereign, because of its beauty. That +thing man calls beautiful whose parts are duly proportionate, because +beauty results from their harmony; hence, man appears to be beautiful +when his limbs are duly proportioned; and we call a song beautiful +when the voices in it, according to the rule of art, are in harmony +with each other. Hence, that language is most beautiful in which the +words most fitly correspond, and this they do more in the Latin than +in the present Language of the People, since the beautiful vulgar +tongue follows use, and the Latin, Art. Hence, one concedes it to be +more beautiful, more virtuous and more noble. And so one concludes, as +first proposed; that is, that the Latin Commentary would have been the +Sovereign, not the Subject, of the Songs. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + + +Having shown how the present Commentary could not have been the +subject of Songs written in our native tongue, if it had been in the +Latin, it remains to show how it could not have been capable or +obedient to those Songs; and then it will be shown how, to avoid +unsuitable disorder, it was needful to speak in the native tongue. + +I say that Latin would not have been a capable servant for my Lord the +Vernacular, for this reason. The servant is required chiefly to know +two things perfectly: the one is the nature of his lord, because there +are lords of such an asinine nature that they command the opposite of +that which they desire; and there are others who, without speaking, +wish to be understood and served; and there are others who will not +let the servant move to do that which is needful, unless they have +ordered it. And because these variations are in men, I do not intend +in the present work to show, for the digression would be enlarged too +much, except as I speak in general, that such men as these are beasts, +as it were, to whom reason is of little worth. Wherefore, if the +servant know not the nature of his lord, it is evident that he cannot +serve him perfectly. The other thing is, that it is requisite for the +servant to know also the friends of his lord; for otherwise he could +not honour them, nor serve them, and thus he would not serve his lord +perfectly: forasmuch as the friends are the parts of a whole, as it +were, because their whole is one wish or its opposite. Neither would +the Latin Commentary have had such knowledge of those things as the +vulgar tongue itself has. That the Latin cannot be acquainted with the +Vulgar Tongue and with its friends, is thus proved. He who knows +anything in general knows not that thing perfectly; even as he who +knows from afar off one animal, knows not that animal perfectly, +because he knows not if it be a dog, a wolf, or a he-goat. The Latin +knows the Vulgar tongue in general, but not separately; for if it +should know it separately it would know all the Vulgar Tongues, +because it is not right that it should know one more than the other; +and thus, what man soever might possess the complete knowledge of the +Latin tongue, the use of that knowledge would show him all +distinctions of the Vulgar. But this is not so, for one used to the +Latin does not distinguish, if he be a native of Italy, the vulgar +tongue of Provence from the German, nor can the German distinguish the +vulgar Italian tongue from that of Provence: hence, it is evident that +the Latin is not cognizant of the Vulgar. Again, it is not cognizant +of its friends, because it is impossible to know the friends without +knowing the principal; hence, if the Latin does not know the Vulgar, +as it is proved above, it is impossible for it to know its friends. +Again, without conversation or familiarity, it is impossible to know +men; and the Latin has no conversation with so many in any language as +the Vulgar has, to which all are friends, and consequently cannot know +the friends of the Vulgar. + +And this, that it would be possible to say, is no contradiction; that +the Latin does converse with some friends of the Vulgar: but since it +is not familiar with all, it is not perfectly acquainted with its +friends, whereas perfect knowledge is required, and not defective. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + + +Having proved that the Latin Commentary could not have been a capable +servant, I will tell how it could not have been an obedient one. He is +obedient who has the good disposition which is called obedience. True +obedience must have three things, without which it cannot be: it +should be sweet, and not bitter; entirely under control, and not +impulsive; with due measure, and not excessive; which three things it +was impossible for the Latin Commentary to have; and, therefore, it +was impossible for it to be obedient. That to the Latin it would have +been impossible, as is said, is evident by such an argument as this: +each thing which proceeds by an inverse order is laborious, and +consequently is bitter, and not sweet; even as to sleep by day and to +wake by night, and to go backwards and not forwards. For the subject +to command the sovereign, is to proceed in the inverse order; because +the direct order is, for the sovereign to command the subject; and +thus it is bitter, and not sweet; and because to the bitter command it +is impossible to give sweet obedience, it is impossible, when the +subject commands, for the obedience of the sovereign to be sweet. +Hence if the Latin is the sovereign of the Vulgar Tongue, as is shown +above by many reasons, and the Songs, which are in place of +commanders, are in the Vulgar Tongue, it is impossible for the +argument to be sweet. Then is obedience entirely commanded, and in no +way spontaneous, when that which the obedient man does, he would not +have done of his own will, either in whole or in part, without +commandment. And, therefore, if it might be commanded to me to carry +two long robes upon my back, and if without commandment I should carry +one, I say that my obedience is not entirely commanded, but is in part +spontaneous; and such would have been that of the Latin Commentary, +and consequently it would not have been obedience entirely commanded. +What such might have been appears by this, that the Latin, without the +command of this Lord, the Vernacular, would have expounded many parts +of his argument (and it does expound, as he who searches well the +books written in Latin may perceive), which the Vulgar Tongue does +nowhere. + +Again, obedience is within bounds, and not excessive, when it goes to +the limit of the command, and no further; as Individual Nature is +obedient to Universal Nature when she makes thirty-two teeth in the +man, and no more and no less; and when she makes five fingers on the +hand, and no more and no less; and the man is obedient to Justice when +he does that which the Law commands, and no more and no less. + +Neither would the Latin have done this, but it would have sinned not +only in the defect, and not only in the excess, but in each one; and +thus its obedience would not have been within due limit, but +intemperate, and consequently it would not have been obedient. That +the Latin would not have been the executor of the commandment of his +Lord, and that neither would he have been a usurper, one can easily +prove. This Lord, namely, these Songs, to which this Commentary is +ordained for their servant, commands and desires that they shall be +explained to all those whose mind is so far intelligent that when they +hear speech they can understand, and when they speak they can be +understood. And no one doubts, that if the Songs should command by +word of mouth, this would be their commandment. But the Latin would +not have explained them, except to the learned men: and so that the +rest could not have understood. Hence, forasmuch as the number of +unlearned men who desire to understand those Songs may be far greater +than the learned, it follows that it could not have fulfilled its +commandment so well as the Native Tongue, which is understood both by +the Learned and the Unlearned. Again, the Latin would have explained +them to people of another language, as to the Germans, to the English, +and to others; and here it would have exceeded their commandment. For +against their will, speaking freely, I say, their meaning would be +explained there where they could not convey it in all their beauty. + +And, therefore, let each one know, that nothing which is harmonized by +the bond of the Muse can be translated from its own language into +another, without breaking all its sweetness and harmony. And this is +the reason why Homer was not translated from Greek into Latin, like +the other writings that we have of the Greeks. And this is the reason +why the verses of the Psalms are without sweetness of music and +harmony; for they were translated from Hebrew into Greek, and from +Greek into Latin, and in the first translation all that sweetness +vanished. + +And, thus is concluded that which was proposed in the beginning of the +chapter immediately before this. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + + +Since it is proved by sufficient reasons that, in order to avoid +unsuitable confusion, it would be right that the above-named Songs be +opened and explained by a Commentary in our Native Tongue and not in +the Latin, I intend to show again how a ready Liberality makes me +select this way and leave the other. It is possible, then, to perceive +a ready Liberality in three things, which go with this Native Tongue, +and which would not have gone with the Latin. The first is to give to +many; the second is to give useful things; the third is to give the +gift without being asked for it. + +For to give to and to assist one person is good; but to give to and to +assist many is ready goodness, inasmuch as it has a similitude to the +good gifts of God, who is the Benefactor of the Universe. And again, +to give to many is impossible without giving to one, forasmuch as one +is included in many. But to give to one may be good without giving to +many, because he who assists many does good to one and to the other; +he who assists one does good to one only: hence, we see the imposers +of the laws, especially if they are for the common good, hold the eyes +fixed whilst compiling these laws. Again, to give useless things to +the receiver is also a good, inasmuch as he who gives, shows himself +at least to be a friend; but it is not a perfect good, and therefore +it is not ready: as if a knight should give to a doctor a shield, and +as if the doctor should give to a knight the written aphorisms of +Hippocrates, or rather the technics of Galen; because the wise men say +that "the face of the gift ought to be similar to that of the +receiver," that is, that it be suitable to him, and that it be useful; +and therein it is called ready liberality in him who thus +discriminates in giving. + +But forasmuch as moral discourses usually create a desire to see their +origin, in this chapter I intend briefly to demonstrate four reasons +why of necessity the gift (in order that it be ready liberality) +should be useful to him who receives. Firstly, because virtue must be +cheerful and not sad in every action: hence, if the gift be not +cheerful in the giving and in the receiving, in it there is not +perfect nor ready virtue. And this joy can spring only from the +utility, which resides in the giver through the giving, and which +comes to the receiver through the receiving. In the giver, then, there +must be the foresight, in doing this, that on his part there shall +remain the benefit of an inherent virtue which is above all other +advantages; and that to the receiver come the benefit of the use of +the thing given. Thus the one and the other will be cheerful, and +consequently it will be a ready liberality, that is, a liberality both +prompt and well considered. + +Secondly, because virtue ought always to move things forwards and +upwards. For even as it would be a blameable action to make a spade of +a beautiful sword, or to make a fair basin of a lovely lute; so it is +wrong to move anything from a place where it may be useful, and to +carry it into a place where it may be less useful. And since it is +blameable to work in vain, it is wrong not merely to put the thing in +a place where it may be less useful, but even in a place where it may +be equally useful. Hence, in order that the changing of the place of a +thing may be laudable, it must always be for the better, because it +ought to be especially praiseworthy; and this the gift cannot be, if +by transformation it become not more precious. Nor can it become more +precious, if it be not more useful to the receiver than to the giver. +Wherefore, one concludes that the gift must be useful to him who +receives it, in order that it may be in itself ready liberality. + +Thirdly, because the exercise of the virtue of itself ought to be the +acquirer of friends. For our life has need of these, and the end of +virtue is to make life happy. But that the gift may make the receiver +a friend, it must be useful to him, because utility stamps on the +memory the image of the gift, which is the food of friendship, and the +firmer the impression, so much the greater is the utility; hence, +Martino was wont to say, "Never will fade from my mind the gift +Giovanni made me." Wherefore, in order that in the gift there may be +its virtue, which is Liberality, and that it may be ready, it must be +useful to him who receives it. + +Finally, since the act of virtue should be free, not forced, it is +free action, when a person goes willingly to any place; which is shown +by his keeping the face turned thitherward; it is forced action, when +he goes against his will; which is shown by his not looking cheerfully +towards the place whither he goes: and thus the gift looks towards its +appointed place when it addresses itself to the need of the receiver. +And since it cannot address itself to that need except it be useful, +it follows, in order that it may be with free action, that the virtue +be free, and that the gift go freely to its object, which is the +receiver; and consequently the gift must be to the utility of the +receiver, in order that there may be a prompt and reasonable +Liberality therein. + +The third respect in which one can observe a ready Liberality, is +giving unasked; because, to give what is asked, is, on one side, not +virtue, but traffic; for, the receiver buys, although the giver may +not sell; and so Seneca says "that nothing is purchased more dearly +than that whereon prayers are expended." Hence, in order that in the +gift there be ready Liberality, and that one may perceive that to be +in it, there must be freedom from each act of traffic, and the gift +must be unasked. Wherefore that which is besought costs us so dear, I +do not mean to argue now, because it will be fully discussed in the +last treatise of this book. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + + +A Latin Commentary would be wanting in all the three above-mentioned +conditions, which must concur, in order that in the benefit conferred +there may be ready Liberality; and our Mother Tongue possesses all, as +it is possible to show thus manifestly. The Latin would not have +served many; for if we recall to memory that which is discoursed of +above, the learned men, without the Italian tongue, could not have had +this service. And those who know Latin, if we wish to see clearly who +they are, we shall find that, out of a thousand one only would have +been reasonably served by it, because they would not have received it, +so prompt are they to avarice, which removes them from each nobility +of soul that especially desires this food. And to the shame of them, I +say that they ought not to be called learned men: because they do not +acquire knowledge for the use of it, but forasmuch as they gain money +or dignity thereby; even as one ought not to call him a harper who +keeps a harp in his house to be lent out for a price, and not to use +it for its music. + +Returning, then, to the principal proposition, I say that one can see +clearly how the Latin would have given its good gift to few, but the +Mother Tongue will serve many. For the willingness of heart which +awaits this service, is in those who, through misuse of the world, +have left Literature to men who have made of her a harlot; and these +nobles are princes, barons, knights, and many other noble people, not +only men, but women, whose language is that of the people and +unlearned. Again, the Latin would not have been giver of a useful +gift, as the Mother Tongue will be; forasmuch as nothing is useful +except inasmuch as it is used; nor is there a perfect existence with +inactive goodness. Even so of gold, and pearls, and other treasures +which are subterranean, those which are in the hand of the miser are +in a lower place than is the earth wherein the treasure was concealed. +The gift truly of this Commentary is the explanation of the Songs, for +whose service it is made. It seeks especially to lead men to wisdom +and to virtue, as will be seen by the process of this treatise. This +design those only could have in use in whom true nobility is sown, +after the manner that will be described in the fourth treatise; and +these are almost all men of the people, as those are noble which in +this chapter are named above. And there is no contradiction, though +some learned man may be amongst them; for, as says my Master Aristotle +in the first book of the Ethics, "One swallow does not make the +Spring." It is, then, evident that the Mother Tongue will give the +useful thing where Latin would not have given it. Again, the Mother +Tongue will give that gift unasked, which the Latin would not have +given, because it will give itself in form of a Commentary which never +was asked for by any person. But this one cannot say of the Latin, +which for Commentary and for Expositions to many writings has often +been in request, as one can perceive clearly in the opening of many a +book. + +And thus it is evident that a ready Liberality moved me to use the +Mother Tongue rather than Latin. + + + + +CHAPTER X. + + +He greatly needs excuse who, at a feast so noble in its provisions, +and so honourable in its guests, sets bread of barley, not of wheaten +flour: and evident must be the reason which can make a man depart from +that which has long been the custom of others, as the use of Latin in +writing a Commentary. And, therefore, he would make the reason +evident; for the end of new things is not certain, because experience +of them has never been had before: hence, the ways used and observed +are estimated both in process and in the end. + +Reason, therefore, is moved to command that man should diligently look +about him when he enters a new path, saying, "that, in deliberating +about new things, that reason must be clear which can make a man +depart from an old custom." Let no one marvel, then, if the digression +touching my apology be long; but, as is necessary, let him bear its +length with patience. + +Continuing it, I say that, since it has been shown how, in order to +avoid unsuitable confusion and from readiness of liberality, I fixed +on the Commentary in the Mother Tongue and left the Latin, the order +of the entire apology requires that I now prove how I attached myself +to that through the natural love for my native tongue, which is the +third and last reason which moved me to this. I say that natural love +moves the lover principally to three things: the one is to exalt the +loved object, the second is to be jealous thereof, the third is to +defend it, as each one sees constantly to happen; and these three +things made me adopt it, that is, our Mother Tongue, which naturally +and accidentally I love and have loved. + +I was moved in the first place to exalt it. And that I do exalt it may +be seen by this reason: it happens that it is possible to magnify +things in many conditions of greatness, and nothing makes so great as +the greatness of that goodness which is the mother and preserver of +all other forms of greatness. And no greater goodness can a man have +than that of virtuous action, which is his own goodness, by which the +greatness of true dignity and of true honour, of true power, of true +riches, of true friends, of true and pure renown, are acquired and +preserved: and this greatness I give to this friend, inasmuch as that +which he had of goodness in latent power and hidden, I cause him to +have in action and revealed in its own operation, which is to declare +thought. + +Secondly, I was moved by jealousy of it. The jealousy of the friend +makes a man anxious to secure lasting provision; wherefore, thinking +that, from the desire to understand these Songs, some unlearned man +would have translated the Latin Commentary into the Mother Tongue; and +fearing that the Mother Tongue might have been employed by some one +who would have made it seem ugly, as he did who translated the Latin +of the "Ethics," I endeavoured to employ it, trusting in myself more +than in any other. Again, I was moved to defend it from its numerous +accusers, who depreciate it and commend others, especially the Langue +d'Oc, saying, that the latter is more beautiful and better than this, +therein deviating from the truth. For by this Commentary the great +excellence of our common Lingua di Si will appear, since through it, +most lofty and most original ideas may be as fitly, sufficiently, and +easily expressed as if it were by the Latin itself, which cannot show +its virtue in things rhymed because of accidental ornaments which are +connected therewith--that is, the rhyme and the rhythm, or the +regulated measure; as it is with the beauty of a lady when the +splendour of the jewels and of the garments excite more admiration +than she herself. He, therefore, who wishes to judge well of a lady +looks at her when she is alone and her natural beauty is with her, +free from all accidental ornament. So it will be with this Commentary, +in which will be seen the facility of the syllables, the propriety of +the conditions, and the sweet orations which are made in our Mother +Tongue, which a good observer will perceive to be full of most sweet +and most amiable beauty. But, since it is most determined in its +intention to show the error and the malice of the accuser, I will +tell, to the confusion of those who accuse the Italian language, +wherefore they are moved to do this; and this I shall do in a special +chapter, in order that their shame may be more notable. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + + +To the perpetual shame and abasement of the evil men of Italy who +commend the Mother Tongue of other nations and depreciate their own, I +say that their action proceeds from five abominable causes: the first +is blindness of discretion; the second, mischievous self-justification; +the third, greed of vainglory; the fourth, an invention of envy; the +fifth and last, vileness of mind, that is, cowardice. And each one of +these grave faults has a great following, for few are those who are +free from them. + +Of the first, one can reason thus. As the sensitive part of the soul +has its eyes, with which it learns the difference of things, inasmuch +as they are coloured externally; so the rational part has its eye with +which it learns the difference of things, inasmuch as each is ordained +to some end; and this is discretion. And as he who is blind with the +eyes of sense goes always according to the guidance of others judging +evil and good; so he who is blinded from the light of discretion, +always goes in his judgment according to the cry, right or wrong as it +may be. Hence, whenever the guide is blind, it must follow that what +blind man soever leans on him must come to a bad end. Therefore it is +written that, "If the blind lead the blind, both fall into the ditch." +This cry has been long raised against our Mother Tongue, for the +reasons which will be argued below. + +After this cry the blind men above mentioned, who are infinite, as it +were with one hand on the shoulder of these false witnesses, have +fallen into the ditch of false opinion, from which they know not how +to escape. From the use of the sight of discretion the mass of the +people are debarred, because each being occupied from the early years +of his life with some trade, he so directs his mind to that, by force +of necessity, that he understands nought else. And forasmuch as the +habit of virtue, moral as well as intellectual, cannot possibly be had +all on a sudden, but it must be acquired through long custom, and as +these people place their custom in some art, and care not to discern +other things, it is impossible to them to have discretion. Wherefore +it happens that often they cry aloud: "Long live Death!" and "Let Life +die!" because some one begins the cry. And this is the most dangerous +defect in their blindness. For this reason Boethius judges glory of +the people vain, because he sees it to be without discernment. These +persons are to be termed sheep and not men; for if a sheep should leap +over a precipice of a thousand feet, all the others would follow after +it; and if one sheep, for some cause or other, in crossing a road, +leaps, all the others leap, even when they see nothing to leap over. +And I once saw many leap into a well, because one had leapt into it, +believing perhaps that it was leaping a wall; notwithstanding that the +shepherd, weeping and shouting, with arms and breast set himself +against them. + +The second faction against our Mother Tongue springs from a malicious +self-justification. There are many who would rather be thought masters +than be such; and to avoid the opposite--that is, to be held not to be +such--they always cast blame on the material they work on, or upon the +instrument; as the clumsy smith blames the iron given to him, and the +bad harpist blames the harp, thinking to cast the blame of the bad +blade and of the bad music upon the iron and upon the harp, and to +lift it from themselves. Thus there are some, and not a few, who +desire that a man may hold them to be orators; and to excuse +themselves for not speaking, or for speaking badly, they accuse or +throw blame on the material, that is, their own Mother Tongue, and +praise that of other lands, which they are not required to employ. And +he who wishes to see wherefore this iron is to be blamed, let him look +at the work which good artificers make of it, and he will understand +the malice of those who, in casting blame upon it, think thereby to +excuse themselves. Against such as these, Tullius exclaims in the +beginning of his book, which he names the book "De Finibus," because +in his time they blamed the Roman Latin and praised the Greek grammar. +And thus I say, for like reasons, that these men vilify the Italian +tongue, and glorify that of Provence. + +The third faction against our Mother Tongue springs from greed of +vainglory. There are many who, by describing certain things in some +other language, and by praising that language, deem themselves to be +more worthy of admiration than if they described them in their own. +And undoubtedly to learn well a foreign tongue is deserving of some +praise for intellect; but it is a blameable thing to applaud that +language beyond truth, to glorify one's self for such an acquisition. + +The fourth springs from an invention of envy. So that, as it is said +above, envy is always where there is equality. Amongst the men of one +nation there is the equality of the native tongue; and because one +knows not how to use it like the other, therefrom springs envy. The +envious man then argues, not blaming himself for not knowing how to +speak like him who does speak as he should, but he blames that which +is the material of his work, in order to rob, by depreciating the work +on that side, him who does speak, of honour and fame; like him who +should find fault with the blade of a sword, not in order to throw +blame on the sword, but on the whole work of the master. + +The fifth and last faction springs from vileness of mind. The +magnanimous man always praises himself in his heart; and so the +pusillanimous man, on the contrary, always deems himself less than he +is. And because to magnify and to diminish always have respect to +something, by comparison with which the large-minded man makes himself +great and the small-minded man makes himself small, it results +therefrom that the magnanimous man always makes others less than they +are, and the pusillanimous makes others always greater. And therefore +with that measure wherewith a man measures himself, he measures his +own things, which are as it were a part of himself. It results that to +the magnanimous man his own things always appear better than they are, +and those of others less good; the pusillanimous man always believes +his things to be of little value, and those of others of much worth. +Wherefore many, on account of this vileness of mind, depreciate their +native tongue, and applaud that of others; and all such as these are +the abominable wicked men of Italy who hold this precious Mother +Tongue in vile contempt, which if it be vile in any case, is so only +inasmuch as it sounds in the evil mouth of these adulterers, under +whose guidance go those blind men of whom I spoke in the first +argument. + + + + +CHAPTER XII. + + +If flames of fire should issue visibly through the windows of a house, +and if any one should ask if there were fire within it, and if another +should answer "Yes" to him, one would not well know how to judge which +of those might be mocking the most. Not otherwise would the question +and the answer pass between me and that man who should ask me if love +for my own language is in me, and if I should answer "Yes" to him, +after the arguments propounded above. + +But, nevertheless, it has to be proved that not only love, but the +most perfect love for it exists in me, and again its adversaries must +be blamed. Whilst demonstrating this to him who will understand well, +I will tell how I became the friend of it, and then how my friendship +is confirmed. + +I say that (as Tullius writes in his book on Friendship, not +dissenting from the opinion of the Philosopher opened up in the eighth +and in the ninth of the Ethics) Neighbourhood and Goodness are, +naturally, the causes of the birth of Love: Benevolence, Study, and +Custom are the causes of the growth of Love. And there have been all +these causes to produce and to strengthen the love which I bear to my +Native Language, as I shall briefly demonstrate. A thing is so much +the nearer in proportion as it is most nearly allied to all the other +things of its own kind; wherefore, of all men the son is nearest to +the father, and of all the Arts, Medicine is nearest to the Doctor, +and Music to the Musician, because they are more allied to them than +the others. Of all parts of the earth the nearest is that whereon a +man lives, because he is most united to it. And thus his own Native +Language is nearest to him, inasmuch as he is most united to it; for +it, and it alone, is first in the mind before any other. And not only +of itself is it united, but by accident, inasmuch as it is united with +the persons nearest to him, as his parents, and his fellow-citizens, +and his own people. And this is his own Mother Tongue, which is not +only nearest, but especially the nearest to each man. Therefore, if +near neighbourhood be the seed of friendship, as is said above, it is +manifest that it has been one of the causes of the love which I bear +to my Native Language, which is nearer to me than the others. The +above-mentioned cause, whereby that alone which stands first in each +mind is most bound to it, gave rise to the custom of the people, that +the first-born sons should succeed to the inheritance solely as being +the nearest relatives; and because the nearest relatives, therefore +the most beloved. + +Again, Goodness made me a friend to it. And here it is to be known +that all goodness inherent in anything is loveable in that thing; as +in manhood to be well bearded, and in womanhood to be all over the +face quite free from hair; as in the setter to have good scent, and as +in the greyhound to be swift. And in proportion as it is native, so +much the more is it delightful. Hence, although each virtue is +loveable in man, that is the most loveable in him which is most human: +and this is Justice, which alone is in the rational part, or rather in +the intellectual, that is, in the Will. This is so loveable that as +says the Philosopher in the fifth book of the Ethics, its enemies love +it, such as thieves and robbers; and, therefore, we see that its +opposite, that is, Injustice, is especially hated; such as treachery, +ingratitude, falsehood, theft, rapine, deceit, and their like; the +which are such inhuman sins, that, in order to excuse himself from the +infamy of such, it is granted through long custom that a man may speak +of himself, as has been said above, and may say if he be faithful and +loyal. Of this virtue I shall speak hereafter more fully in the +fourteenth treatise; and here quitting it, I return to the +proposition. Having proved, then, that the goodness of a thing is +loved the more the more it is innate, the more it is to be loved and +commended for itself, it remains to see what that goodness is. And we +see that, in all speech, to express a thought well and clearly is the +thing most to be admired and commended. This, then, is its first +goodness. And forasmuch as this is in our Mother Tongue, as is made +evident in another chapter, it is manifest that it has been the cause +of the love which I bear to it; since, as has been said, "Goodness is +the producer of Love." + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + + +Having said how in the Mother Tongue there are those two things which +have made me its friend, that is, nearness to me and its innate +goodness, I will tell how by kindness and union in study, and through +the benevolence of long use, the friendship is confirmed and grows. +Firstly, I say that I for myself have received from it the greatest +benefits. And, therefore, it is to be known that, amongst all +benefits, that is the greatest which is most precious to him who +receives it; and nothing is so precious as that through which all +other things are wished; and all the other things are wished for the +perfection of him who wishes. Wherefore, inasmuch as a man may have +two perfections, one first and one second (the first causes him to be, +the second causes him to be good), if the Native Language has been to +me the cause of the one and of the other, I have received from it the +greatest benefit. And that it may have been the cause of this +condition in me can be shown briefly. The efficient cause for the +existence of things is not one only, but among many efficient causes +one is the chief of the others, hence the fire and the hammer are the +efficient causes of the sword-blade, although the workman is +especially so. This my Mother Tongue was the bond of union between my +forefathers, who spoke with it, even as the fire is the link between +the iron and the smith who makes the knife; therefore it is evident +that it co-operated in my birth, and so it was in some way the cause +of my being. Again, this my Mother Tongue was my introducer into the +path of knowledge, which is the ultimate perfection, inasmuch as with +it I entered into the Latin Language, and with it I was taught; the +which Latin was then the way of further advancement for me. And so it +is evident and known by me that this my language has been my great +benefactor. Also it has been engaged with me in one self-same study, +and this I can thus prove. Each thing naturally studies its +self-preservation; hence, if the Mother Tongue could seek anything of +itself, it would seek that; and that would be to secure for itself a +position of the greatest stability: but greater stability it could not +secure than by uniting itself with number and with rhyme. + +And this self-same study has been mine, as is so evident that it +requires no testimony; therefore its study and mine have been one and +the same, whereby the harmony of friendship is confirmed and +increased. Also between us there has been the benevolence of long use: +for from the beginning of my life I have had with it kind fellowship +and conversation, and have used it, when deliberating, interpreting, +and questioning; wherefore, if friendship increases through long use, +as in all reason appears, it is manifest that in me it has increased +especially, for with this my Mother Tongue I have spent all my time. +And thus one sees that to the shaping of this friendship there have +co-operated all causes of birth and growth. Therefore, let it be +concluded that not only Love, but the most Perfect Love, is that which +I have for it. So it is, and ought to be. + +Thus, casting the eyes backwards and gathering up the afore-stated +reasons, one can see that this Bread, with which the Meat of the +under-written Poems ought to be eaten, is made clear enough of +blemishes, and of fault in the nature of its grain. Wherefore, it is +time to attend to and serve up the viands. + +This will be that barley-bread with which a thousand will satisfy +themselves; and my full baskets shall overflow with it. This will be +that new Light, that new Sun, which shall rise when the sun of this +our day shall set, and shall give light to those who are in darkness +and in gloom because the sun of this our day gives light to them no +more. + + * * * * * + + + + +The Second Treatise. + + + Ye who the third Heaven move, intent of thought, + Hear reasoning that is within my heart, + Thoughts that to none but you I can impart: + Heaven, that is moved by you, my life has brought + To where it stands, therefore I pray you heed + What I shall say about the life I lead. + + To you I tell the heart's new cares: always + The sad Soul weeps within it, and there hears + Voice of a Spirit that condemns her tears, + A Spirit that descends in your star's rays. + Thought that once fed the grieving heart was sweet, + Thought that oft fled up to your Father's feet. + + There it beheld a Lady glorified, + Of whom so sweetly it discoursed to me + That the Soul said, "With her I long to be!" + Now One appears that drives the thought aside, + And masters me with so effectual might + That my heart quivers to the outward sight. + + This on a Lady fixes my regard + And says, "Who seeks where his salvation lies + Must gaze intently in this Lady's eyes, + Nor dread the sighs of anguish!" O, ill-starred! + Such opposite now breaks the humble dream + Of the crowned angel in the glory beam. + + Still, therefore, the Soul weeps, "The tender stir," + It says, "of thought that once consoled me flies!" + That troubled one asks, "When into thine eyes + Looked she? Why doubted they my words of her?" + I said, "Her eyes bear death to such as I: + Yet, vainly warned, I gaze on her and die. + + "Thou art not dead, but in a vain dismay, + Dear Soul of ours so lost in thy distress," + Whispers a spirit voice of tenderness. + "This Lady's beauty darkens all your day, + Vile fear possesses you; see, she is lowly + Pitiful, courteous, though so wise and holy. + + "Think thou to call her Mistress evermore: + Save thou delude thyself, then shall there shine + High miracles before thee, so divine + That thou shalt say, O Love, when I adore, + True Lord, behold the handmaid of the Lord, + Be it unto me according to thy Word!" + + My song, I do believe there will be few + Who toil to understand thy reasoning; + But if thou pass, perchance, to those who bring + No skill to give thee the attention due, + Then pray I, dear last-born, let them rejoice + To find at least a music in my voice. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + + +Since I, the servant, with preliminary discourse in the preceding +Treatise, have with all due care prepared my bread, the time now +summons, and requires my ship to leave the port: wherefore, having +trimmed the mizen-mast of reason to the wind of my desire, I enter the +ocean with the hope of an easy voyage, and a healthful happy haven to +be reached at the end of my supper. But in order that my food may be +more profitable, before the first dish comes on the table I wish to +show how it ought to be eaten. I say then, as is narrated in the first +chapter, that this exposition must be Literal and Allegorical; and to +make this explicit one should know that it is possible to understand a +book in four different ways, and that it ought to be explained chiefly +in this manner. + +The one is termed Literal, and this is that which does not extend +beyond the text itself, such as is the fit narration of that thing +whereof you are discoursing, an appropriate example of which is the +third Song, which discourses of Nobility. + +Another is termed Allegorical, and it is that which is concealed under +the veil of fables, and is a Truth concealed under a beautiful +Untruth; as when Ovid says that Orpheus with his lute made the wild +beasts tame, and made the trees and the stones to follow him, which +signifies that the wise man with the instrument of his voice makes +cruel hearts gentle and humble, and makes those follow his will who +have not the living force of knowledge and of art; who, having not the +reasoning life of any knowledge whatever, are as the stones. And in +order that this hidden thing should be discovered by the wise, it will +be demonstrated in the last Treatise. Verily the theologians take this +meaning otherwise than do the poets: but, because my intention here is +to follow the way of the poets, I shall take the Allegorical sense +according as it is used by the poets. + +The third sense is termed Moral; and this is that which the readers +ought intently to search for in books, for their own advantage and for +that of their descendants; as one can espy in the Gospel, when Christ +ascended the Mount for the Transfiguration, that, of the twelve +Apostles, He took with Him only three. From which one can understand +in the Moral sense that in the most secret things we ought to have but +little company. + +The fourth sense is termed Mystical, that is, above sense, +supernatural; and this it is, when spiritually one expounds a writing +which even in the Literal sense by the things signified bears express +reference to the Divine things of Eternal Glory; as one can see in +that Song of the Prophet which says that by the exodus of the people +of Israel from Egypt Judæa is made holy and free. That this happens to +be true according to the letter is evident. Not less true is that +which it means spiritually, that in the Soul's liberation from Sin (or +in the exodus of the Soul from Sin) it is made holy and free in its +powers. + +But in demonstrating these, the Literal must always go first, as that +in whose sense the others are included, and without which it would be +impossible and irrational to understand the others. Especially is it +impossible in the Allegorical, because, in each thing which has a +within and a without, it is impossible to come to the within if you do +not first come to the without. Wherefore, since in books the Literal +meaning is always external, it is impossible to reach the others, +especially the Allegorical, without first coming to the Literal. +Again, it is impossible, because in each thing, natural and +artificial, it is impossible to proceed to the form without having +first laid down the matter upon which the form should be. Thus, it is +impossible for the form of the gold to come, if the matter, that is, +its subject, is not first laid down and prepared; or for the form of +the ark to come, if the material, that is, the wood, be not first laid +down and prepared. Therefore, since the Literal meaning is always the +subject and the matter of the others, especially of the Allegorical, +it is impossible to come first to the meaning of the others before +coming to it. Again, it is impossible, because in each thing, natural +and artificial, it is impossible to proceed unless the foundation be +first laid, as in the house, so also in the mind. Therefore, since +demonstration must be the building up of Knowledge, and Literal +demonstration must be the foundation of the other methods of +interpreting, especially of the Allegorical, it is impossible to come +first to the others before coming to that. Again, if it were possible +that it could be so ordered, it would be irrational, that is, out of +order; and, therefore, one would proceed with, much fatigue and with +much error. Hence, as the Philosopher says in the first book of the +Physics, Nature desires that we proceed in due order in our search for +knowledge, that is, by proceeding from that which we know well to that +which we know not so well; so I say that Nature desires it, inasmuch +as this way to knowledge is innate in us; and therefore, if the other +meanings, apart from the Literal, are less understood--which they are, +as evidently appears--it would be irrational to demonstrate them if +the Literal had not first been demonstrated. + +I, then, for these reasons will discourse in due order of each Song, +firstly upon its Literal meaning, and after that I will discourse of +its Allegory, that is, the hidden Truth, and sometimes I will touch +incidentally on the other meanings as may be convenient to place and +time. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + + +Beginning, then, I say that the star of Venus had twice revolved in +that circle which causes the evening and the morning to appear, +according to the two varying seasons, since the death of that blessed +Beatrice, who lives in Heaven with the Angels, and on Earth with my +soul; when that gentle Lady, of whom I made mention at the end of the +"Vita Nuova," first appeared before my eyes, accompanied by Love, and +assumed a position in my mind. And, as has been stated by me in the +little book referred to, more because of her gentle goodness than from +choice of mine, it befell that I consented to be her servant. For she +appeared impassioned with such sorrow for my sad widowed life that the +spirits of my eyes became especially friendly to her; and, so +disposed, they then depicted her to be such that my good-will was +content to espouse itself to that image. But because Love is not born +suddenly, nor grows great nor comes to perfection in haste, but +desires time and food for thought, especially there where there are +antagonistic thoughts which impede it, there must needs be, before +this new Love could be perfect, a great battle between the thought of +its food and of that which was antagonistic to it, which still held +the fortress of my mind for that glorious Beatrice. For the one was +succoured on one side continually by the ever-present vision, and the +other on the opposite side by the memory of the past. And the help of +the ever-present sight increased each day, which memory could not do, +in opposing that which to a certain degree prevented me from turning +the face towards the past. Wherefore it seemed to me so wonderful, and +also so hard to endure, that I could not support it, and with a loud +cry (to excuse myself from the struggle, in which it seemed to me that +I had failed in courage) I lifted up my voice towards that part whence +came the victory of the new thought, which was full of virtuous power, +even the power of celestial virtue; and I began to say: "You! who the +third Heaven move, intent of thought." For the intelligent +understanding of which Song, one must first know its divisions well, +so that it will then be easy to perceive its meaning. + +In order that it may no longer be necessary to preface the +explanations of the others, I say that the order which will be taken +in this Treatise I intend to keep through all the others. I say, then, +that the proposed Song is contained within three principal parts. The +first is the first verse of that, in which certain Intelligences are +induced to listen to what I intend to say, or rather by a more usual +form of speech we should call them Angels, who are in the revolution +of the Heaven of Venus, as the movers thereof. The second is in the +lines which follow after the first, in which is made manifest that +which I felt spiritually amidst various thoughts. The third is in the +last lines, wherein the man begins to speak to the work itself, as if +to comfort it, as it were, and all these three parts are in due order +to be demonstrated, as has been said above. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + + +That we may more easily perceive the Literal meaning of the first +division, to which we now attend, it is requisite to know who and what +are those who are summoned to my audience, and what is that third +Heaven which I say is moved by them. And firstly I will speak of the +Heaven; then I will speak of those whom I address And although with +regard to the truth concerning those things it is possible to know but +little, yet so much as human reason can discern gives more delight +than the best known and most certain of the things judged by the +sense; according to the opinion of the Philosopher in his book on +Animals. + +I say, then, that concerning the number of the Heavens and their site, +different opinions are held by many, although the truth at last may be +found. Aristotle believed, following merely the ancient foolishness of +the Astrologers, that there might be only eight Heavens, of which the +last one, and which contained all, might be that where the fixed stars +are, that is, the eighth sphere, and that beyond it there could be no +other. Again, he believed that the Heaven of the Sun might be +immediate with that of the Moon, that is, second to us. And this +opinion of his, so erroneous, he who wishes can see in the second book +on Heaven and the World, which is in the second of the Books on +Natural History. In fact, he excuses himself for this in the twelfth +book of the Metaphysics, where he clearly proves himself to have +followed also another opinion where he was obliged to speak of +Astrology. Ptolemy, then, perceiving that the eighth sphere is moved +by many movements, seeing its circle to depart from the right circle, +which turns from East to West, constrained by the principles of +Philosophy, which of necessity desires a Primum Mobile, a most simple +one, supposed another Heaven to be outside the Heaven of the fixed +stars, which might make that revolution from East to West which I say +is completed in twenty-four hours nearly, that is, in twenty-three +hours, fourteen parts of the fifteen of another, counting roughly. +Therefore, according to him, and according to that which is held in +Astrology and in Philosophy since those movements were seen, there are +nine moveable Heavens; the site of which is evident and determined, +according to an Art which is termed Perspective, Arithmetical and +Geometrical, by which and by other sensible experiences it is visibly +and reasonably seen, as in the eclipses of the Sun it appears +sensibly, that the Moon is below the Sun; and as by the testimony of +Aristotle, who saw with his own eyes, according to what he says in the +second book on Heaven and the World, the Moon, being new, to enter +below Mars, on the side not shining, and Mars to remain concealed so +long that he re-appeared on the other bright side of the Moon, which +was towards the West. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + + +And the order of the houses is this, that the first that they +enumerate is that where the Moon is; the second is that where Mercury +is; the third is that where Venus is; the fourth is that where the Sun +is; the fifth is that where Mars is; the sixth is that where Jupiter +is; the seventh is that where Saturn is; the eighth is that of the +Stars; the ninth is that which is not visible except by that movement +which is mentioned above, which they designate the great Crystalline +sphere, diaphanous, or rather all transparent. Truly, beyond all +these, the Catholics place the Empyrean Heaven, which is as much as to +say, the Heaven of Flame, or rather the Luminous Heaven; and they +assign it to be immoveable, in order to have in itself, according to +each part, that which its material desires. And this is why that first +moved--the Primum Mobile--has such extremely rapid motion. For, +because of the most fervent appetite which each part of it has to be +united with each part of that most Divine Heaven of Peace, in which it +revolves with so much desire, its velocity is almost incomprehensible. +And this quiet and peaceful Heaven is the place of that Supreme Deity +who from above beholds the whole. This is the place of the blessed +Spirits, according as Holy Church teaches, which cannot speak falsely; +and even Aristotle seems to feel this, to him who understands him +well, in the first book of Heaven and the World. This is the highest +bound of the World, within which the whole World is included, and +beyond which there is nothing. And it is in no place, but was formed +alone in the First Mind, which the Greeks term Protonoe. This is that +magnificence of which the Psalmist spoke when he sang to God: "Thy +glory is raised above the Heavens." + +So, then, gathering together this which is discussed, it seems that +there may be ten Heavens, of which the Heaven of Venus may be the +third; whereof mention is made in that part which I intend to +demonstrate. And it is to be known that each Heaven below the +Crystalline has two firm poles as to itself; and the ninth has them +firm and fixed, and not mutable in any respect. And each one, the +ninth even as the others, has a circle, which one may term the equator +of its own Heaven; which equally, in each part of its revolution, is +remote from one pole and from the other, as he who rolls an apple or +any other round thing can sensibly perceive. And this circle has more +swiftness in its movement than any other part of its Heaven, in each +Heaven, as he may perceive who considers well. And each part, in +proportion as it is nearer to it, moves so much the more swiftly; so +much the slower in proportion as it is more remote and nearer to the +pole; since its revolution is less, and it must of necessity be in one +self-same time with the greater. I say again, that in proportion as +the Heaven is nearer to the equatorial circle, so much the more noble +is it in comparison to its poles; since it has more motion and more +actuality and more life and more form and more touch from that which +is above itself, and consequently has more virtue. Hence the stars in +the Heaven of the fixed stars are more full of power amongst +themselves in proportion as they are nearer to that circle. + +And upon the back of this circle in the Heaven of Venus, of which I +now speak, is a little sphere, which revolves by itself in this +Heaven, the circle of which Astrologers call Epicycle; and as the +great sphere revolves about two poles, so does this little sphere: and +so has this little sphere the equatorial circle; and so much the more +noble it is in proportion as it is nearer to those: and in the arc, or +rather back, of this circle is fixed the most brilliant star of Venus. +And, although it may be said that there are ten Heavens according to +strict Truth, this number does not comprehend them all: for that of +which mention is made, the Epicycle, in which the star is fixed, is a +Heaven by itself, or rather sphere; and it has not one essence with +that which bears it, although it may be more like to it than to the +others, and with it is called one Heaven, and they name the one and +the other from the star. How the other Heavens and the other stars may +be is not for present discussion; let it suffice that the nature of +the third Heaven, with which I am at present concerned, has been told, +and concerning which all that is at present needful has been shown. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + + +Since it has been shown in the preceding chapter what this third +Heaven is, and how it is ordered in itself, it remains to show who +those are who move it. It is then to be known, in the first place, +that the movers thereof are substances apart from material, that is, +Intelligences, which the common people term Angels: and of these +creatures, as of the Heavens, different persons have had different +ideas, although the truth may be found. There were certain +Philosophers, of whom Aristotle appears to be one in his Metaphysics, +although in the first book on Heaven and Earth incidentally he appears +to think otherwise, who only believed these to be so many as there are +revolutions in the Heavens, and no more; saying, that the others would +have been eternally in vain, without operation, which was impossible, +inasmuch as their being is their operation. There were others, like +Plato, a most excellent man, who place not only so many Intelligences +as there are movements in Heaven, but even as there are species of +things, that is, manners of things; as of one species are all mankind, +and of another all the gold, and of another all the silver, and so +with all: and they are of opinion that as the Intelligences of the +Heavens are generators of those movements each after his kind, so +these were generators of the other things, each one being a type of +its species: and Plato calls them _Ideas_, which is as much as to +say, so many universal forms and natures. + +The Gentiles called them Gods and Goddesses, although they could not +understand those so philosophically as Plato did; and they adored +their images, and built large temples to them, as to Juno, whom they +called the Goddess of Power; as to Vulcan, whom they called the God of +Fire; as to Pallas, or rather Minerva, whom they called the Goddess of +Wisdom; and to Ceres, whom they called the Goddess of Corn. Opinions +such as these the testimony of the Poets makes manifest, for they +describe to a certain extent the mode of the Gentiles both in their +sacrifices and in their faith; and it is testified also in many names, +remains of antiquity, or in names of places and ancient buildings, as +he who will can easily find. And although these opinions above +mentioned might be built upon a good foundation by human reason and by +no slight knowledge, yet the Truth was not seen by them, either from +defect of reason or from defect of instruction. Yet even by reason it +was possible to see that very numerous were the creatures above +mentioned who are not such as men can understand. And the one reason +is this: no one doubts, neither Philosopher, nor Gentile, nor Jew, nor +Christian, nor any one of any sect, that they are either the whole or +the greater part full of all Blessedness, and that those blessed ones +are in a most perfect state. Therefore, since that which is here Human +Nature may have not only one Beatitude, but two Beatitudes, as that of +the Civil Life and that of the Contemplative, it would be irrational +if we should see these Celestial Beings to have the Beatitude of the +Active Life, that is, the Civil, in the government of the World, and +not to have that of the Contemplative, which is the most excellent and +most Divine. + +But since that which has the Beatitude of the Civil government cannot +have the other, because their intellect is one and perpetual, there +must be others beyond this ministry, who live only in contemplation. +And because this latter life is more Divine--and in proportion as the +thing is more Divine so much the more is it in the image of God--it is +evident that this life is more beloved of God: and if it be more +beloved, so much the more vast has its Beatitude been; and if it has +been more vast, so much the more vivifying power has He given to it +rather than to the other; therefore one concludes that there may De a +much larger number of those creatures than the effects tend to show. +And this is not opposed to that which Aristotle seems to state in the +tenth book of the Ethics, that to the separate substances the +Contemplative Life must be requisite; as also the Active Life must be +imperative to them. Nevertheless, in the contemplation of certain +truths the revolution of the Heaven follows, which is the government +of the World; which is, as it were, a Civil government ordained and +comprehended in the contemplation of the movers, that is, the ruling +Intelligences. The other reason is, that no effect is greater than the +cause, because the cause cannot give that which it has not; wherefore, +since the Divine Intellect is the cause of all, especially of the +Human Intellect, it follows that the Human Intellect does not dominate +the Divine, but is dominated by it in proportion to the superior power +of the Divine. Hence, if we, by the reason above stated, and by many +others, understand God to have been able to create Spiritual Creatures +almost innumerable, it is quite evident that He has made them in this +great number. Many other reasons it were possible to see: but let +these suffice for the present. Nor let any one marvel if these and +other reasons which we could adduce concerning this are not fully +demonstrated; since likewise we ought to wonder at their excellence, +which overpowers the eyes of the Human Mind, as the Philosopher says +in the second book of the Metaphysics, and he affirms their existence. +Though we have not any perception of them from which our knowledge can +begin, yet some light from their most vivacious essence shines upon +our intellect, inasmuch as we perceive the above-mentioned reasons and +many others, even as he who has the eyes closed affirms the air to be +luminous, because of some little brightness or ray of light which +passes through the pupils; as it is with the bat, for not otherwise +are the eyes of the intellect closed, so long as the soul is bound and +prisoned by the organs of our body. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + + +It has been said that, through defective instruction, the ancients saw +not the Truth concerning the Spiritual Creatures, although the people +of Israel were in part instructed by their Prophets, through whom by +many modes of speech and in many ways God had spoken to them, as the +Apostle says. But we are therein instructed by Him who came from God, +by Him who made them, by Him who preserves them, that is, by the +Emperor of the Universe, who is Christ the Son of the Supreme God, and +the Son of the Virgin Mary, a woman truly, and the daughter of Joseph +and Anna--very Man, who was slain by us in order that He might bring +us Life; who was the Light which enlightens us in the Darkness, even +as John the Evangelist says; and He told us the Truth of those things +which we could not have known without Him, nor seen truly. The first +thing and the first secret which He showed us was one of the +before-mentioned Beings or creatures. This was that one, His great +Legate, the Angel Gabriel, who came to Mary, a young damsel of +thirteen years, on the part of the Heavenly Saviour. This our Saviour, +with His own mouth, said, that the Father could give Him many Legions +of Angels. This He denied not, when it was said to Him that the Father +had commanded His Angels that they should minister unto Him and should +serve Him. Wherefore, it is evident to us that these creatures are in +a very great number; since His Spouse and Secretary, Holy Church, of +whom Solomon says: "Who is this that cometh forth from the Desert, +full of those things which give delight, leaning upon her friend?" +says, believes, and preaches these most noble creatures to be almost +innumerable; and She divides them into three Hierarchies, that is to +say, three holy, or rather Divine, Principalities: and each Hierarchy +has three orders, so that nine orders of spiritual creatures the +Church holds and affirms. + +The first is that of the Angels, the second of the Archangels, the +third of the Thrones; and these three orders make the first +Hierarchy--not first as to nobility, nor as to creation, for the +others are more noble, and all were created together, but first in +degree, according to our perception of their exaltation. + +Then there are the Dominations; after them the Virtues; then the +Principalities; and these make the second Hierarchy. + +Above these are the Powers and the Cherubim, and above all are the +Seraphim; and these make the third Hierarchy. + +And the most potent reason for their contemplation is the number in +which the Hierarchies are, and that in which the orders are. For, +since the Divine Majesty is in Three Persons, which have one +substance, it is possible to contemplate them triply. For it is +possible to contemplate the Supreme Power of the Father, which the +first Hierarchy gazes upon, namely, that which is first by nobility, +and which we enumerate last. And it is possible to contemplate the +Supreme Wisdom of the Son; and upon this the second Hierarchy gazes. +And it is possible to contemplate the Supreme and most fervent Charity +of the Holy Spirit; and upon this the third Hierarchy gazes, which, +being nearest to us, gives of the gifts which it receives. + +And, since it is possible to regard each person in the Divine Trinity +triply, so in each Hierarchy there are three orders which contemplate +diversely. It is possible to consider the Father having regard to none +but Him; and this is the contemplation of the Seraphim, who see more +of the First Cause than any other Angelic Nature. It is possible to +consider the Father according as He has relation to the Son, that is, +how He is apart from Him, and how united with Him; and this is the +contemplation of the Cherubim. It is possible again to consider the +Father according as from Him proceeds the Holy Spirit, and how it is +apart from Him and how united with Him; and this is the contemplation +of the Powers. + +And in like way it is possible to contemplate the Son and the Holy +Spirit. + +Wherefore, there must be nine orders of contemplative Spirits to gaze +into the Light, which alone beholds itself completely. And this is not +the place to be silent so much as one word. I say, that of all these +orders some were lost as soon as they were created, perhaps in number +of the tenth part, to restore which Human Nature was created. The +numbers, the orders, the Hierarchies, declare the glory of the movable +Heavens, which are nine; and the tenth announces this Unity and +stability of God. And therefore the Psalmist says: "The Heavens +declare the glory of God, and the Firmament showeth His handiwork." +Wherefore it is reasonable to believe that the movers of the Heaven of +the Moon are of the order of the Angels, and those of Mercury may be +the Archangels, and those of Venus may be the Thrones, in whom the +Love of the Holy Spirit being innate, they do their work conformably +to it, which means that the revolution of that Heaven is full of Love. +The form of the said Heaven takes from this a virtue by whose glow +souls here below are kindled to love according to their disposition. + +And because the ancients perceived that Heaven to be here below the +cause of Love, they said that Love was the son of Venus, as Virgil +testifies in the first book of the Æneid, where Venus says to Love: +"Oh! son, my virtue, son of the great Father, who takest no heed of +the darts of Typhoeus." And Ovid so testifies in the fifth book of +his Metamorphoses, when he says that Venus said to Love: "Son, my +arms, my power." And there are Thrones which are ordered to the +government of this Heaven in number not great, concerning which the +Philosophers and the Astrologers have thought differently, according +as they held different opinions concerning its revolutions. But all +may be agreed, as many are, in this, as to how many movements it +makes. Of this, as abbreviated in the book of the Aggregation of the +Stars, you may find in the better demonstration of the Astrologers +that there are three: one, according as the star moves towards its +Epicycle; the other, according as the Epicycle moves with its whole +Heaven equally with that of the Sun; the third, according as the whole +of that Heaven moves, following the movement of the starry sphere from +West to East in one hundred years one degree. So that to these Three +Movements there are Three Movers. Again, if the whole of this Heaven +moves and turns with the Epicycle from East to West once in each +natural day, that movement, whether it be caused by some Intelligence +or whether it be through the rapid movement of the Primum Mobile, God +knows, for to me it seems presumptuous to judge. These Movers produce, +caring for that alone, the revolution proper to that sphere which each +one moves. The most noble form of the Heaven, which has in itself the +principle of this passive Nature, revolves, touched by the Moving +Power, which cares for this; and I say touched, not by a bodily touch, +but by a Power which directs itself to that operation. And these +Movers are those to whom I begin to speak and to whom I put my +inquiry. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + + +According to that which is said above in the third chapter of this +treatise, in order to understand well the first part of the Song I +comment on, it is requisite to discourse of those Heavens, and of +their Movers; and in the three preceding chapters this has been +discussed. I say, then, to those whom I proved to be Movers of the +Heaven of Venus: "Ye who, with thought intent" (_i.e._, with the +intellect alone, as is said above), "the third Heaven move, Hear +reasoning that is within my heart;" and I do not say "Hear" because +they hear any sound, for they have no sense of hearing; but I say +"Hear," meaning with that hearing which they have, which is of the +understanding through the intellect. I say, "Hear reasoning that is +within my heart," within me, which as yet has not appeared externally. +It is to be known that throughout this Song, according to the one +sense (the Literal), and the other sense (the Allegorical), the Heart +is concerned with the secret within, and not any other special part of +the soul or body. When I have called them to hear that which I wish to +say, I assign two reasons why I ought fitly to speak to them. One is +the novelty of my condition, which, from not having been experienced +by other men, would not be so understood by them as by those who +superintend such effects in their operation. And this reason I touch +upon when I say: "To you alone its new thoughts I impart." The other +reason is: when a man receives a benefit or injury, he ought first to +relate it to him who bestows or inflicts it, if he can, rather than to +others; in order that, if it be a benefit, he who receives it may show +himself grateful towards the benefactor, and, if it be an injury, let +him lead the doer thereof to gentle mercy with sweet words. And this +reason I touch upon when I say: "Heaven, that is moved by you, my life +has brought To where it stands;" that is to say, your operation, +namely, your revolution, is that which has drawn me into the present +condition; therefore I conclude and say that my speech ought to be to +them, such as is said; and I say here: "Therefore to you 'tis need +That I should speak about the life I lead." And after these reasons +assigned, I beseech them to listen when I speak. + +But, because in each manner of speech the speaker especially ought to +look to persuasion, that is, to the pleasing of the audience, as that +which is the beginning of all other persuasions, as do the +Rhetoricians, and the most powerful persuasion to render the audience +attentive is to promise to say new and wonderful things, I add to the +prayer made for attention, this persuasion, or embellishment, +announcing to them my intention to speak of new things, that is, the +division which is in my mind; and great things, namely, the power of +their star; and I say this in those last words of this first part: + + To you I'll tell the heart's new cares: always + The sad Soul weeps within it, and there hears + Voice of a Spirit that condemns her tears, + A Spirit that descends through your star's rays. + +And to the full understanding of these words, I say that this Spirit +is no other than a frequent thought how to commend and beautify this +new Lady. And this Soul is no other than another thought, accompanied +with acquiescence, which, repudiating that Spirit, commends and +beautifies the memory of that glorious Beatrice. But, again, because +the last sentiment of the mind, acquiescence, is held by that thought +which memory assisted, I call it the Soul, and the other the Spirit; +as we are accustomed to call the City those who hold it, and not those +who fight it, although the one and the other may be citizens. I say +also, that this Spirit comes on the rays of the star, because one +desires to know that the rays of each Heaven are the way by which +their virtue descends into things here below. And since the rays are +no other than a light which comes from the source of Light through the +air even to the thing illuminated, and the light has no source except +the star, because the other Heaven is transparent, I say not that this +Spirit, this thought, comes from their Heaven entirely, but from their +star. And their star, through the nobility of its Movers, is of such +virtue that in our souls, and in other things, it has very great +power, notwithstanding that it is so far from us, about one hundred +and sixty-seven times farther than it is to the centre of the Earth, +which is three thousand two hundred and fifty miles. And this is the +Literal exposition of the first part of the Song. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + + +What I have said shows clearly enough the Literal meaning of the first +part. In the second, there is to be understood how it makes manifest +what I experienced from the struggle within me; and this part has two +divisions. In the first place it describes the quality of these +oppositions, according as their cause was within me. Then I narrate +what the one and the other voice of opposition said; and upon that +firstly which described what was being lost, in the passage which is +the second of that part and the third of the Song. In evidence, then, +of the meaning of the first division, it is to be known that things +must be named by that part of their form which is the noblest and +best, as Man by Reason, and not by Sense, nor by aught else which is +less noble; therefore, when one speaks of the living man, one should +understand the man using Reason, which is his especial Life, and is +the action of his noblest part. And, therefore, whoso departs from +Reason and uses only the Senses is not a living man, but a living +beast, as says that most excellent Boethius, "Let the Ass live." + +Rightly I speak, because thought is the right act of reason, wherefore +the beasts who have it not do not think; and I speak not only of the +lesser beasts, but of those who have a human appearance with the +spirit of a sheep or of some other abominable beast. I say then: +"Thought that once fed my grieving heart"--thought, that is, of the +inner life--"was sweet" (sweet, insomuch as it is persuasive, that is, +pleasing, or beautiful, gentle, delightful); this thought often sped +away to the feet of the Father of those Spirits to whom I speak, that +is, God; that is to say, that I in thought contemplated the realm of +the Blessed. "Thought that once fled up to the Father's feet." And I +name the final cause immediately, because I ascended there above in +thought when I say, "There I beheld a Lady glorified," to let you +understand that I was certain, and am certain by its gracious +revelation, that she was in Heaven; wherefore I, thinking many times +how this was possible for me, went thither, rapt, as it were. Then +subsequently I speak of the effect of this thought, in order to let +you understand its sweetness, which was such that it made me desirous +of Death, that I also might go where she was gone. And of this I speak +there: "Of whom so sweetly it discoursed to me That the Soul said, +'With her would I might be!'" And this is the root of one of the +struggles which was in me. And it is to be known that here one terms +Thought, and not Soul, that which ascended to see that Blessed Spirit, +because it was an especial thought sent on that mission; the Soul is +understood, as is stated in the preceding chapter, as thought in +general, with acquiescence. + +Then, when I say, "Now One appears that drives the thought aside," I +touch the root of the other struggle, saying how that previous thought +was wont to be the life of me, even as another appears, which makes +that one cease to be. I say, "drives the thought aside," in order to +show that one to be antagonistic, for naturally the opposing one +drives aside the other, and that which is driven appears to yield +through want of power. And I say that this thought, which newly +appears, is powerful in taking hold of me and in subduing my Soul, +saying that it "masters me with such effectual might" that the heart, +that is, my inner life, trembles so much that my countenance shows it +in some new appearance. + +Subsequently I show the power of this new thought by its effect, +saying that it makes me "fix my regard" on a Lady, and speaks to me +words of allurement, that is to say, it reasons before the eyes of my +intelligent affection, in order the better to induce me, promising me +that the sight of her eyes is its salvation. And in order to make this +credible to the Soul experienced in love, it says that it is for no +one to gaze into the eyes of this woman who fears the anguish of +laboured sighs. And it is a beautiful mode of rhetoric when externally +it appears that you disembellish a thing, and yet really embellish it +within. This new thought of love could not induce my mind to consent, +except by discoursing of the virtue of the eyes of this fair Lady so +profoundly. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + + +Now that it is shown how and whereof Love is born, and the antagonist +that fought with me, I must proceed to open the meaning of that part +in which different thoughts contend within me. I say that, firstly, +one must speak on the part of the Soul, that is, of the former +thought, and then of the other; for this reason, that always that +which the speaker intends most especially to say he ought to reserve +in the background, because that which is said finally, remains most in +the mind of the hearer. Therefore, since I mean to speak further, and +to discourse of that which performs the work of those to whom I speak, +rather than of that which undoes this work, it was reasonable first to +mention and to discourse of the condition of the part which was +undone, and then of that which was generated by the other. + +But here arises a doubt, which is not to be passed over without +explanation. It would be possible for any one to say: Since Love is +the effect of these Intelligences, to whom I speak, and that of the +first Love might be the same as that of the new Love, why should their +virtue destroy the one, and produce the other? since it ought to +preserve the first, for the reason that each cause loves its effect, +and ought to protect what it loves. To this question one can easily +reply, that the effect of those Spirits, as has been said, is Love: +and since they could not save it except in those who are subject to +their revolution, they transfer it from that part which is beyond +their power to that which is within reach, from the soul departed out +of this life, into that which is yet living; as human nature transfers +in the human form its preservation of the father to the son, because +it cannot in this father preserve perpetually its effect: I say effect +in as far as soul and body are united, and not effect in as far as +that soul, which is divided from the body, lasts for ever, in a nature +more than human. And thus is the question solved. + +But since the immortality of the Soul is here touched upon, I will +make a digression upon that; because to discourse of that will make a +fit conclusion to the mention I have made of that living and blessed +Beatrice, of whom I do not intend to speak further in this book. + +For proposition I say that, amongst all the bestialities, that is the +most foolish, the most vile, and most damnable which believes no other +life to be after this life; wherefore, if we turn over all books, +whether of philosophers or of the other wise writers, all agree in +this, that in us there is some everlasting principle. And this +especially Aristotle seems to desire in that book on the Soul; this +especially each stoic seems to desire; this Tullius seems to desire, +especially in that book on Old Age. This each of the Poets who have +spoken according to the faith of the Gentiles seems to desire; this +the law seems to desire, among Jews, Saracens, and Tartars, and all +other people who live according to some civil law. And if all these +could be deceived, there would result an impossibility which even to +describe would be horrible. Each man is certain that human nature is +the most perfect of all natures here below. This no one denies: and +Aristotle affirms it when he says, in the twelfth book On Animals, +that man is the most perfect of all the animals. Therefore, since many +who live are entirely mortal, as are the brute animals, and all may +be, whilst they live, without that hope of the other life; if our hope +should be in vain, our want would be greater than that of any other +animal. There have been many who have given this life for that: and +thus it would follow that the most perfect animal, man, would be the +most imperfect, which is impossible; and that that part, namely, +reason, which is his chief perfection, would be in him the cause of +the chief defect: which seems strange to say of the whole. And again +it would follow that Nature, in contradiction to herself, could have +put this hope in the human mind; since it is said that many have +hastened to death of the body that they might live in the other life; +and this also is impossible. Again, we have continual experience of +our immortality in the divination of our dreams, which could not be if +there were no immortal part in us, since immortal must be the +revelation. This part may be either corporeal or incorporeal if one +think well and closely. I say corporeal or incorporeal, because of the +different opinions which I find concerning this. That which is moved, +or rather informed, by an immediate informer, ought to have proportion +to the informer; and between the mortal and the immortal there is no +proportion. Again, we are assured of it by the most truthful doctrine +of Christ, which is the Way, the Truth, and the Light: the Way, +because by it without impediment we go to the happiness of that +immortality; the Truth, because it endures no error; the Light, +because it enlightens us in the darkness of worldly ignorance. This +doctrine, I say, which above all other reasons makes us certain of it; +for it has been given to us by Him who sees and measures our +immortality, which we cannot perfectly see whilst our immortal is +mingled with the mortal. But we see it by faith perfectly; and by +reason we see it with the cloud of obscurity which grows from the +mixture of the mortal with the immortal. This ought to be the most +powerful argument that both are in us: and I thus believe, thus +affirm; and I am equally certain, after this life, to pass to that +other and better life--there where that glorious Lady lives, with whom +my soul was enamoured when it was struggling, as will be set forth in +the next chapter. + + + + +CHAPTER X. + + +Returning to the proposition, I say that in that verse which begins "A +foe so strong I find him that he destroys," I intend to make manifest +that which was discoursing in my Soul, the ancient thought against the +new; and first briefly I show the cause of its lamentation, when I +say: "This opposite now breaks the humble dream Of the crowned angel +in the glory-beam." This one is that especial thought of which it is +said above that it was wont to be the life of the sorrowing heart. +Then when I say, "Still, therefore, my Soul weeps," it is evident that +my Soul is still on its side, and speaks with sadness; and I say that +it speaks words of lamentation, as if it might wonder at the sudden +transformation, saying: "'The tender star,' It says, 'that once was my +consoler, flies.'" It can well say consoler, for in the great loss +which I sustained in the death of Beatrice this thought, which +ascended into Heaven, had given to my Soul much consolation. + +Then afterwards I say, that all my thought, my Soul, of which I say, +"That troubled one," turns in excuse of itself, and speaks against the +eyes; and this is made evident there: "That troubled one asked, 'When +into thine eyes Looked she?'" And I say that she speaks of them and +against them three things: the first is, she blasphemes the hour when +this woman saw them. And here you must know, that although many things +in one hour can come into the eyes, truly that which comes by a +straight line into the point of the pupil, that truly one sees, and +that only is sealed in the imaginative part. And this is, because the +nerve by which the visible spirit runs is directed to that part, and +thereupon truly one eye cannot look on the eye of another so that it +is not seen by it; for as that which looks receives the form of the +pupil by a right line, so by that same line its form passes into that +eye which gazes. And many times in the direction of that line a shaft +flies from the bow of Love, with whom each weapon is light. Therefore, +when I ask, "When first into mine eyes looked she?" it is as much as +to ask, "When did her eyes and mine look into each other?" + +The second point is in that which reproves their disobedience, when it +says, "Of her, why doubted they my words?" Then it proceeds to the +third thing and says that it is not right to reprove them for +precaution, but for their disobedience; for it says that, sometimes, +when speaking of this woman, it might be said, "Her eyes bear death to +such as I," if she could have opened the way of approach. And indeed +one ought to believe that my Soul knew of its own inclination ready to +receive the operation of this power, and therefore dreaded it; for the +act of the agent takes full effect in the patient who has the +inclination to receive it, as the Philosopher says in the second book +on the Soul. And, therefore, if wax could have the spirit of fear, it +would fear most to come into the rays of the Sun, which would not turn +it into stone, since its disposition is to yield to that strong +operation. + +Lastly, the Soul reveals in its speech that their presumption had been +dangerous when it says, "Yet vainly warned, I gazed on her and die." +And thus it closes its speech, to which the new thought replies, as +will be declared in the following chapter. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + + +The meaning of that part in which the Soul speaks, that is, the old +thought which is undone, has been shown. Now, in due order, the +meaning must be shown of the part in which the new antagonistic +thought speaks; and this part is contained entirely in the verse or +stanza which begins, "Thou art not dead," which part, in order to +understand it well, I will divide into two; that in the first part, +which begins "Thou art not dead," it then says, continuing its last +words, "It is not true that thou art dead; but the cause wherefore +thou to thyself seemest to be dead is a deadly dismay into which thou +art vilely fallen because of this woman who has appeared to thee." And +here it is to be observed that, as Boethius says in his Consolation, +each sudden change of things does not happen without some flurry of +mind. And this is expressed in the reproof of that thought which is +called "the spirit voice of tenderness," when it gave me to understand +that my consent was inclining towards it; and thus, one can easily +comprehend this, and recognize its victory, when it already says, +"Dear Soul of ours," therein making itself familiar. Then, as is +stated, it commands where it ought to rebuke that Soul, in order to +induce it to come to her; and therefore it says to her: "See, she is +lowly, Pitiful, courteous, though so wise and holy." + +These are two things which are a fit remedy for the fear with which +the Soul appeared impassioned; for, firmly united, they cause the +individual to hope well, and especially Pity, which causes all other +goodness to shine forth by its light. Wherefore Virgil, speaking of +Æneas, in his greater praise calls him compassionate, pitiful; and +that is not pity such as the common people understand it, which is to +lament over the misfortunes of others; nay, this is an especial effect +which is called Mercy, Pity, Compassion; and it is a passion. But +compassion is not a passion; rather a noble disposition of mind, +prepared to receive Love, Mercy, and other charitable passions. Then +it says: "See also how courteous, though so wise and holy." + +Here it says three things which, according as they can be acquired by +us, make the person especially pleasing. It says Wise. Now, what is +more beautiful in a woman than knowledge? It says Courteous. Nothing +in a woman can be more excellent than courtesy. And neither are the +wretched common people deceived even in this word, for they believe +that courtesy is no other than liberality; for liberality is an +especial, and not a general courtesy. Courtesy is all one with +honesty, modesty, decency; and because the virtues and good manners +were the custom in Courts anciently, as now the opposite is the +custom, this word was taken from the Courts; which word, if it should +now be taken from the Courts, especially of Italy, would and could +express no other than baseness. It says Holy. The greatness which is +here meant is especially well accompanied with the two afore-mentioned +virtues; because it is that light which reveals the good and the evil +of the person clearly. And how much knowledge and how much virtuous +custom does there not seem to be wanting by this light! How much +madness and how much vice are seen to be by this light! Better would +it be for the wretched madmen high in station, stupid and vicious, to +be of low estate, that neither in the world nor after this life they +should be so infamous. Truly for such Solomon says in Ecclesiastes: +"There is a sore evil that I have seen under the Sun; namely, riches +kept for the owners thereof to their hurt." + +Then subsequently it lays a command on it, that is, on my Soul, that +it should now call this one its Lady: "Think thou to call her Mistress +evermore," promising my Soul that it will be quite content with her +when it shall have clear perception of all her wonderful +accomplishments; and then this one says: "Save thou delude thyself, +then shall there shine High miracles before thee;" neither does it +speak otherwise even to the end of that stanza. And here ends the +Literal meaning of all that which I say in this Song, speaking to +these Celestial Intelligences. + + + + +CHAPTER XII. + + +Finally, according to that which the letter of this Commentary said +above, when I divided the principal parts of this Song, I turn back +with the face of my discourse to the same Song, and I speak to that. +And in order that this part may be understood more fully, I say that +generally in each Song there is what is called a Tornata, because the +Reciters, who originally were accustomed to compose it, so contrived +that when the song was sung, with a certain part of the song they +could return to it. But I have rarely done it with that intention; +and, in order that others may perceive, this I have seldom placed it +with the sequence of the Song, so long as it is in the rhythm which is +necessary to the measure. But I have used it when it was requisite to +express something independent of the meaning of the Song, and which +was needful for its embellishment, as it will be possible to perceive +in this and in the other Songs. + +And, therefore, I say at present, that the goodness and the beauty of +each discourse are parted and divided; for the goodness is in the +meaning, and the beauty in the ornament of the words. And the one and +the other are with delight, although the goodness is especially +delightful. Wherefore, since the goodness of this Song might be +difficult to perceive, because of the various persons who are led to +speak in it, where so many distinctions are required; and the beauty +would be easy to see, it seemed to me, of the nature of the Song that +by some men more attention might be paid to the beauty of the words +than to the goodness of matter. And this is what I say in that part. + +But, because it often happens that to admonish seems presumptuous in +certain conditions, it is usual for the Rhetorician to speak +indirectly to others, directing his words, not to him for whom he +speaks, but towards another. And truly this method is maintained here; +for to the Song the words go, and to the men the meaning of them. I +say then: "My Song, I do believe there will be few Who toil to +understand thy reasoning." And I state the cause, which is double. +First, because thou speakest with fatigue--with fatigue, I say, for +the reason which is stated; and then because thou speakest with +difficulty--with difficulty, I say, as to the novelty of the meaning. +Now afterwards I admonish it, and say: + + But if thou pass perchance by those who bring + No skill to give thee the attention due, + Then pray I, dear last-born, let them rejoice + At least to find a music in my voice. + +For in this I desire to say no other according to what is said above, +except "Oh, men, you who cannot see the meaning of this Song, do not +therefore refuse it; but pay attention to its beauty, which is great, +both for construction, which belongs to the Grammarians; and for the +order of the discourse, which belongs to the Rhetoricians; as well as +for the rhythm of its parts, which belongs to the Musicians." For +which things he who looks well can see that there may be beauty in it. +And this is the entire Literal meaning of the first Song which is +prepared for the first dish in my Banquet. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + + +Since the Literal meaning has been sufficiently explained, we must now +proceed to the Allegorical and true exposition. And, therefore, +beginning again from the first head, I say that when I had lost the +chief delight of my Soul in former time, I was left so stung with +sadness that no consolation whatever availed me. Nevertheless, after +some time, my mind, reasoning with itself to heal itself, took heed, +since neither my own nor that of another availed to comfort it, to +turn to the method which a certain disconsolate one had adopted when +he looked for Consolation. And I set myself to read that book of +Boethius, not known to many, in which, when a captive exile, he had +consoled himself. And, again, hearing that Tullius had written another +book, in which, treating of Friendship, he had spoken words for the +consolation of Lælius, a most excellent man, on the death of his +friend Scipio, I set myself to read it. And although at first it was +difficult to me to enter into their meaning, yet, finally, I entered +into it so much as the knowledge of grammar that I possessed, together +with some slight power of intellect, enabled me to do: by which power +of intellect I formerly beheld many things almost like a person in a +dream, as may be seen in the Vita Nuova. And as it is wont to be that +a man goes seeking for silver, and beyond his purpose he finds gold, +whose hidden cause appears not perhaps without the Divine Will; I, who +sought to console myself, found not only a remedy for my tears, but +words of authors and of sciences and of books; reflecting on which I +judged well that Philosophy, who was the Lady of these authors, of +these sciences, and of these books, might be a supreme thing. And I +imagined her in the form of a gentle Lady; and I could imagine her in +no other attitude than a compassionate one, because if willingly the +sense of Truth beheld her, hardly could it turn away from her. And +with this imagination I began to go where she is demonstrated +truthfully, that is, to the Schools of the Religious, and to the +disputations of the Philosophers; so that in a short time, perhaps of +thirty months, I began to feel her sweetness so much that my love for +her chased away and destroyed all other thought. Wherefore I, feeling +myself to rise from the thought of the first Love to the virtue of +this new one, as if wondering at myself, opened my mouth in the speech +of the proposed Song, showing my condition under the figure of other +things: for of the Lady with whom I was enamoured, no rhyme of any +Vernacular was worthy to speak openly, neither were the hearers so +well prepared that they could have easily understood the words without +figure: neither would faith have been given by them to the true +meaning, as to the figurative; since if the truth of the whole was +believed, that I was inclined to that love, it would not be believed +of this. I then begin to speak: "Ye who, intent of thought, the third +Heaven move." + +And because, as has been said, this Lady was the daughter of God, the +Queen of all, the most noble and most beautiful Philosophy, it remains +to be seen who these Movers were, and what this third Heaven. And +firstly of the third Heaven, according to the order which has been +gone through. And here it is not needful to proceed to division, and +to explanation of the letter, for, having turned the fictitious speech +away from that which it utters to that which it means, by the +exposition just gone through, this meaning is sufficiently made +evident. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. + + +In order to see what is meant by the "third Heaven," one has in the +first place to perceive what I desire to express by this word Heaven +alone: and then one will see how and why this third Heaven was needful +to us. I say that by Heaven I mean Science, and by the Heavens "the +Sciences," from three resemblances which the Heavens have with the +Sciences, especially by the order and number in which they must +appear; as will be seen by discussing that word Third. The first +similitude is the revolution of the one and the other round one fixed +centre. For each movable Heaven revolves round its centre, which, on +account of its movement, moves not; and thus each Science moves round +its subject, which itself moves not; for no Science demonstrates its +own foundation, but presupposes that. The second similitude is the +illumination of the one and the other. For each Heaven illuminates +visible things; and thus each Science illuminates the things +intelligible. And the third similitude is the inducing of perfection +in the things so inclined. Of which induction, as to the first +perfection, that is, of the substantial generation, all the +philosophers agree that the Heavens are the cause, although they +attribute this in different ways: some from the Movers, as Plato, +Avicenna, and Algazel; some from the stars themselves, especially the +human souls, as Socrates, and also Plato and Dionysius the +Academician; and some from celestial virtue which is in the natural +heat of the seed, as Aristotle and the other Peripatetics. Thus the +Sciences are the cause in us of the induction of the second +perfection; by the use of which we can speculate concerning the Truth, +which is our ultimate perfection, as the Philosopher says in the sixth +book of the Ethics, when he says that Truth is the good of the +intellect. Because of these and many other resemblances, it is +possible to call Science, Heaven. + +Now it remains to see why it is called the third Heaven. Here it is +requisite to reflect somewhat with regard to a comparison which exists +between the order of the Heavens and that of the Sciences Wherefore, +as has been previously described, the Seven Heavens next to us are +those of the Planets; then there are two Heavens above these, the +Mobile, and one above all, Quiet. To the Seven first correspond the +Seven Sciences of the _Trivium_ and of the _Quadrivium_, +namely, Grammar, Logic, Rhetoric, Arithmetic, Music, Geometry, and +Astrology. To the eighth Sphere, i.e., to the starry, correspond +Natural Science, which is termed Physics, and the first Science, which +is termed Metaphysics. To the ninth Sphere corresponds Moral Science; +and to the Quiet Heaven corresponds Divine Science, which is +designated Theology. + +And the reason why this is, remains briefly to be seen. I say that the +Heaven of the Moon is likened unto Grammar because it is possible to +find a comparison to it. For if you look at the Moon well, two things +are seen to be proper to it which are not seen in the other stars: the +one is the shadow which is in it, which is no other than the rarity of +its body, in which the rays of the Sun can find no end wherefrom to +strike back again as in the other parts; the other is the variation of +its brightness, which now shines on one side, and now on the other, +according as the Sun sees it. And these two properties Grammar has: +for, because of its infinity, the rays of reason can find no end in it +in parts, especially of the words; and it shines now on this side, now +on that, inasmuch as certain words, certain declensions, certain +constructions, are in use which were not formerly, and many formerly +were which again will be; as Horace says in the beginning of his book +on the art of Poetry, when he says: "Many words will spring up again +which have now fallen out of use." + +And the Heaven of Mercury may be compared to Logic because of two +properties: that Mercury is the smallest star in Heaven, that the +amount of its diameter is no more than two hundred and thirty-two +miles, according as Alfergano puts it, who says that it is one +twenty-eighth part of the diameter of the Earth, which is six thousand +five hundred miles; the other property is, that it is more concealed +by the rays of the Sun than any other star. And these two properties +are in Logic: for Logic is less in substance than any other Science, +for it is perfectly compiled and terminated in so much text as is +found in the old Art and the new; and it is more concealed than any +other Science, inasmuch as it proceeds with more sophistical and +probable arguments than any other. + +And the Heaven of Venus may be compared to Rhetoric because of two +properties: the one is the brightness of its aspect, which is most +sweet to behold, far more than any other star; the other is its +appearance, now in the morning, now in the evening. And these two +properties are in Rhetoric: for Rhetoric is the sweetest of all +Sciences, since it principally aims at sweetness. It appears in the +morning, when the Rhetorician speaks before the face of the hearer; it +appears in the evening, that is, afterwards, when it speaks by Letters +in distant parts. + +And the Heaven of the Sun may be compared to Arithmetic because of two +properties: the one is, that with his light all the other stars are +informed; the other is that the eye cannot gaze at it. And these two +properties are in Arithmetic, which with its light illuminates all its +Sciences: for their subjects are all considered under some Number, and +with Number one always proceeds in the consideration of these; as in +Natural Science the movable body is the subject, which movable body +has in itself three reasons of continuity, and this has in itself +reason of infinite number. And of Natural Science its first and +chiefest consideration is to consider the principles of natural +objects, which are three, that is, matter, privation, and form; in +which this Number is seen, and not only in all together, but again in +each one, as he who considers subtly may perceive. Wherefore, +Pythagoras, according to what Aristotle says in the first book of the +Physics, established as the principles of natural things, the equal +and the unequal; considering all things to be Number. The other +property of the Sun is again seen in Number, of which Number is the +Science of Arithmetic, that the eye of the intellect cannot gaze at +it. For Number, inasmuch as it is considered in itself, is infinite; +and this we cannot, understand. + +And the Heaven of Mars may be compared to Music because of two +properties. One is its most beautiful relative position; for, when +enumerating the movable Heavens, from which one soever you may begin, +either from the lowest or from the highest, this Heaven of Mars is the +fifth; it is the central one of all, that is, of the first, of the +second, of the third, and of the fourth. The other is, that this Mars +dries up and burns things, because his heat is like to that of fire; +and this is why it appears flaming in colour, sometimes more and +sometimes less, according to the density and rarity of the vapours +which follow it, which of themselves are often kindled, as is +determined in the first book on Meteors. And, therefore, Albumassar +says that the kindling of these vapours signifies the death of Kings +and the change of Kingdoms; for they are the effects of the dominion +of Mars. And, therefore, Seneca says that, on the death of Augustus, +he beheld on high a ball of fire. And in Florence, at the beginning of +its destruction, there was seen in the air, in the form of a cross, a +great quantity of these vapours following the planet Mars. And these +two properties are in Music, which is all relative, as is seen in +harmonized words and in songs, from which the sweeter harmony results +in proportion as the relation is more beautiful, which in this Science +is especially beautiful, because there is in it a special harmony. +Again, Music attracts to itself human spirits, which are as it were +chiefly vapours from the heart, so that they almost cease from all +labour; so is the whole soul when it hears it, and the power of all +those spirits flies as it were to the spirit of sense, which receives +the sound. + +And the Heaven of Jupiter can be compared to Geometry because of two +properties. The one is, that it moves between two Heavens, repugnant +to its good tempering, namely, that of Mars and that of Saturn. Hence +Ptolemy says, in the book alluded to, that Jupiter is a star of a +temperate complexion, midway between the cold of Saturn and the heat +of Mars. The other is, that amongst all the stars it appears white, as +if silvered. And these things are in the Science of Geometry. Geometry +moves between two things antagonistic to it; as between the point and +the circle, and I term circle freely anything that is round, either a +body or superfices; for, as Euclid says, the point is the beginning of +Geometry, and, according to what he says, the circle is the most +perfect figure in it, which must therefore have reason for its end; so +that between the point and the circle, as between the beginning and +the end, Geometry moves. And these two are antagonistic to its +certainty; for the point by its indivisibility is immeasurable, and +the circle, on account of its arc, it is impossible to square +perfectly, and therefore it is impossible to measure precisely. And +again, Geometry is most white, inasmuch as it is without spot of +error, and it is most certain in itself, and by its handmaid, called +Perspective. + +And the Heaven of Saturn has two properties because of which it can be +compared to Astrology. One is the slowness of its movement through the +twelve signs; for twenty-nine years and more, according to the +writings of the Astrologers, is the time that it requires in its +orbit. The other is, that above all the other planets it is highest. +And these two properties are in Astrology, for in completing its +circle, as in the acquirement of this Science, the greatest space of +time is revolved, because its demonstrations are more than any other +of the aforementioned Sciences, and long experience is requisite to +those who would acquire good judgment in it. And again, it is the +highest of all the others, because, as Aristotle says in the +commencement of his book on the Soul, the Science is high, because of +its nobility, and because of the nobleness of its subject and its +certainty. And this Science more than any other of those mentioned +above is noble and high, for noble and high is its subject, which is +the movement of the Heavens; and high and noble, because of its +certainty, which is without any defect, even as that which springs +from the most perfect and most regular principle. And if any one +believe that there is defect in it, it is not on the part of the +Science, but, as Ptolemy says, it is through our negligence, and to +that it must be imputed. + + + + +CHAPTER XV. + + +After the comparisons which I have made of the seven first Heavens, we +must now proceed to the others, which are three, as has been often +stated. + +I say that the Starry Heaven may be compared to Physics because of +three properties, and to Metaphysics because of three others. For it +shows us of itself two visible things, such as the multitude of stars +and such as the Galaxy, that white circle which the common people call +the Path of St. James. It shows to us also one of the poles, and keeps +the other hidden from us. And it shows to us one movement alone from +East to West; and another, which it makes from West to East, it keeps +almost, as it were, hidden from us. Therefore, in due order are to be +seen, first the comparison with the Physical and then that with the +Metaphysical. + +I say that the Starry Heaven shows us many stars; for, according to +what the wise men of Egypt have seen, even to the last star which +appeared to them in the Meridian, they place there twenty-two thousand +bodies of stars, of which I speak. And in this it has the greatest +similitude with Physics, if these three numbers, namely, Two, and +Twenty, and Thousand, are regarded well and subtly. For by the two is +meant the local movement, which is of necessity from one point to +another; and by the twenty is signified the movement of the +alteration, for, since from the ten upwards one advances not except by +altering this ten with the other nine and with itself; and the most +beautiful alteration which it receives is its own with itself, and the +first which it receives is the twenty; reasonably by this number the +said movement is signified. And by the thousand is signified the +movement of increase, which in name, that is, this thousand, is the +greater number, and to increase still more is not possible except by +multiplying this. And these three movements alone are observed in +Physics, as it is demonstrated in the fifth chapter of his first book. + +And because of the Milky Way, this Heaven has a great similitude with +Metaphysics. Wherefore, it is to be known that concerning this Galaxy +the Philosophers have had different opinions. For the followers of +Pythagoras said that the Sun at some time or other went astray from +his path, and, passing through other parts not suitable to his fervent +heat, he burnt the place through which he passed, and there remained +that appearance of the conflagration. And I believe that they were +moved by the fable of Phaeton, which Ovid relates in the beginning of +the second part of his Metamorphoses. Others said, such as Anaxagoras +and Democritus, that it was the light of the Sun reflected into that +part. And these opinions, with demonstrative reasons, they proved over +and over again. What Aristotle may have said of this is not so easy to +learn, because his opinion is not found to be the same in one +translation as in the other; and I believe that it might be due to the +error of the translators, for in the new one he seems to say that the +Galaxy is a collection of vapours under the stars of that part which +always attract them; and this does not seem to be the true reason. In +the old translation he says that the Galaxy is no other than a +multitude of fixed stars in that part, so small that we cannot +distinguish them from here below, but that they cause the whiteness +which we call the Milky Way. And it may be that the Heaven in that +part is more dense, and therefore retains and represents that light; +and this opinion Avicenna and Ptolemy seem to share with Aristotle. +Therefore, since the Galaxy is an effect of those stars which we +cannot see, if we understand those things by their effect alone, and +Metaphysics treats of the first substances, which we cannot similarly +understand except by their effects, it is evident that the Starry +Heaven has a great similitude to Metaphysics. + +Again, by the pole which we see is signified the things known to our +senses, concerning which, taking them universally, the Science of +Physics treats; and by the pole which we do not see is signified the +things which are without matter, which are not sensible, concerning +which Metaphysics treats; and therefore the said Heaven has a great +similitude with the one Science and with the other. + +Again, by the two movements it signifies these two Sciences: for by +the movement in which every day revolves, and makes a new revolution +from point to point, it signifies things natural and corruptible which +daily complete their path, and their material is changed from form to +form; and of this the Science of Physics treats. And by the almost +insensible movement which it makes from West to East by one degree in +a hundred years, it signifies things incorruptible, which received +from God the beginning of their creation, and will have no end; but of +these Metaphysics treats. Therefore I say that this movement signifies +those things, for it began this revolution which will have no end; the +end of the revolution being to return to one self-same point, to which +this Heaven will not return by this movement, which has revolved a +little more than the sixth part from the commencement of the world; +and we are now in the last age of the world, and verily we wait the +consummation of the celestial movement. Thus it is evident that the +Starry Heaven, on account of many properties, may be compared to the +Science of Physics and Metaphysics. + +The Crystalline Heaven, which, as the Primum Mobile, has been +previously counted, has a sufficiently evident comparison to Moral +Philosophy; for Moral Philosophy, according to what Tommaso says upon +the second book of the Ethics, teaches us method in the other +Sciences. + +For as the Philosopher says in the fifth book of the Ethics, legal +Justice requires the Sciences to be learnt, and commands, in order +that they may not be abandoned, that they be learnt and taught: thus, +the said Heaven rules with its movement the daily revolution of all +the others; from which revolution every day all those receive and send +below the virtues of their several parts. For, if the revolution of +this Heaven could not rule over that, but little of their power would +descend below, and little of their aspect. Wherefore we hold that, if +it could be possible for this ninth Heaven not to move, the third part +of the Heaven would not again be seen in any part from the Earth: +Saturn would be for fourteen years and a half concealed from any place +on the Earth, Jupiter would be hidden for six years, and Mars for +almost a whole year, and the Sun for one hundred and eighty-two days +and fourteen hours (I say days, meaning so much time as so many days +measure); and Venus and Mercury, almost like the Sun, would be hidden +and would reappear, and the Moon for the space of fourteen days and a +half would be hidden from all people. Verily, here below there would +be neither generation, nor the life of animals, nor of plants; there +would be no night, nor day, nor week, nor month, nor year; but the +whole Universe would be disordered, and the movement of the stars +would be in vain. Not otherwise, should Moral Philosophy cease to be, +would the other Sciences be hidden for some time, and there would be +no generation nor life of happiness, and all books would be in vain, +and all discoveries of old. Therefore it is sufficiently evident that +there is a comparison between this Heaven and Moral Philosophy. + +Again, the Empyrean Heaven, because of its Peace, bears a similitude +to the Divine Science, which is full of all Peace; which endures no +conflict of opinion or of sophistical arguments, on account of the +most excellent certainty of its subject, which is God. And of this He +Himself speaks to His disciples: "My peace I give to you: My peace I +leave unto you," giving and leaving to them His doctrine, which is +this Science whereof I speak. + +Solomon says of this Science: "Sixty are the queens, and eighty the +friendly concubines; and youthful virgins without number; but one is +my dove and my perfect one." All the Sciences he terms queens, and +friends, and virgins; and he calls this one dove, because it is +without blemish of strife; and he calls this one perfect, because it +causes us to see perfectly the Truth in which our Soul finds Peace. + +And therefore the comparison of the Heavens to the Sciences having +been thus reasoned out, it is easy to see that by the Third Heaven I +mean Rhetoric, which has been likened unto the Third Heaven, as +appears above. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI. + + +By the similitudes spoken of it is possible to see who these Movers +are to whom I speak; what are the Movers of that Heaven; even as +Boethius and Tullius, who by the sweetness of their speech sent me, as +has before been stated, to the Love, which is the study of that most +gentle Lady, Philosophy, by the rays of their star, which is the +written word of that fair one. Therefore in each Science the written +word is a star full of light, which that Science reveals And, this +being made manifest, it is easy to see the true meaning of the first +verse of the purposed Poem by means of the exposition, Figurative and +Literal. And by means of this self-same exposition one can +sufficiently understand the second verse, even to that part where it +says, This Spirit made me look on a fair Lady: where it should be +known that this Lady is Philosophy; which truly is a Lady full of +sweetness, adorned with modesty, wonderful for wisdom, the glory of +freedom, as in the Third Treatise, where her Nobility will be +described, it is made manifest. And then where it says: "Who seeks +where his Salvation lies, Must gaze intently in this Lady's eyes;" the +eyes of this Lady are her demonstrations, which look straight into the +eyes of the intellect, enamour the Soul, and set it free from the +trammels of circumstance. Oh, most sweet and ineffable forms, swift +stealers of the human mind, which appear in these demonstrations, that +is, in the eyes of Philosophy, when she discourses to her faithful +friends! Verily in you is Salvation, whereby he is made blessed who +looks at you, and is saved from the death of Ignorance and Vice. Where +it says, "Nor dread the sighs of anguish, joys debarred," the wish is +to signify, if he fear not the labour of study and the strife of +conflicting opinions, which flow forth ever multiplying from the +living Spring in the eyes of this Lady, and then her light still +continuing, they fall away, almost like little morning clouds before +the Sun. And now the intellect, become her friend, remains free and +full of certain Truth, even as the atmosphere is rendered pure and +bright by the shining of the midday Sun. + +The third passage again is explained by the Literal exposition as far +as to where it says, "Still therefore the Soul weeps." Here it is +desirable to attend to a certain moral sense which may be observed in +these words: that a man ought not for the sake of the greater friend +to forget the service received from the lesser; but if one must follow +the one and leave the other, the greater is to be followed, with +honest lamentation for desertion of the other, whereby he gives +occasion to the one whom he follows to bestow more love on him. Then +there where it says, "Of my eyes," has no other meaning except that +bitter was the hour when the first demonstration of this Lady entered +into the eyes of my intellect, which was the cause of this most close +attachment. And there where it says, "My peers," it means the Souls +set free from miserable and vile pleasures, and from vulgar habits, +endowed with understanding and memory. And then it says, "Her eyes +bear death," and then it says, "I gazed on her and die," which appears +contrary to that which is said above of Salvation by this Lady. And +therefore it is to be known that one Spirit speaks here on one side +and the other speaks there on the other; which two dispute +contrariwise, according to that which is made evident above. Wherefore +it is no wonder if here the one Spirit says Yes, and there the other +Spirit says No. Then in the stanza where it says, "A sweet voice of +tenderness," a thought is meant which was born of my deep +contemplation; wherefore it is to be known that by Love, in this +Allegory, is always meant that deep contemplation which is the earnest +application of the enamoured mind to that object wherewith it is +enamoured. Then when it says, "There shall shine High miracles before +thee," it announces that through her the adornments of the miracles +will be seen; and it speaks truly, that the adornment of the miracles +is to see the cause of the same, which she demonstrates; as in the +beginning of the book on Metaphysics the Philosopher seems to feel, +saying that, through the contemplation of these adornments, men began +to be enamoured with this Lady. And concerning this word, i.e., +miracle, in the following treatise I shall speak more fully. What then +follows of this Song is sufficiently explained by the other +exposition. + +And thus at the end of this Second Treatise, I say and affirm that the +Lady with whom I became enamoured after the first Love was the most +beautiful and most excellent daughter of the Ruler of the Universe, to +which daughter Pythagoras gave the name of Philosophy. And here ends +the Second Treatise, which is brought in for the first dish at my +Banquet. + + * * * * * + + + + +The Third Treatise. + + + Love, reasoning of my Lady in my mind + With constant pleasure, oft of her will say + Things over which the intellect may stray; + His words make music of so sweet a kind + That the Soul hears and feels, and cries, Ah, me, + That I want power to tell what thus I see! + + If I would tell of her what thus I hear, + First, all that Reason cannot make its own + I needs must leave; and of what may be known + Leave part, for want of words to make it clear. + If my Song fail, blame wit and words, whose force + Fails to tell all I hear in Love's discourse. + + The Sun sees not in travel round the earth, + Till it reach her abode, so fair a thing + As she of whom Love causes me to sing. + All minds of Heaven wonder at her worth; + Mortals, enamoured, find her in their thought + When Love his peace into their minds has brought. + + Her Maker saw that she was good, and poured, + Beyond our Nature, fulness of His Power + On her pure soul, whence shone this holy dower + Through all her frame, with beauty so adored + That from the eyes she touches heralds fly + Heartward with longings, heavenward with a sigh. + + On her fair frame Virtue Divine descends + As on the angel that beholds His face. + Fair one who doubt, go with her, mark the grace + In all her acts. Downward from Heaven bends + An angel when the speaks, who can attest + A power in her by none of us possessed. + + The graceful acts that she shows forth to all + Rival in calls to love that love must hear; + Fair in all like her, fairest she'll appear + Who is most like her. We, content to call + Her face a Miracle, have Faith made sure: + For that, He made her ever to endure. + + Her aspect shows delights of Paradise, + Seen in her eyes and in her smiling face; + Love brought them there as to his dwelling-place. + They dazzle reason, as the Sun the eyes; + And since I cannot fix on them my gaze + Words must suffice that little speak their praise. + + Rain from her beauty little flames of fire, + Made living with a spirit to create + Good thoughts, and crush the vices that innate + Make others vile. Fair one, who may desire + Escape from blame as one not calm or meek, + From her, who is God's thought, thy teaching seek. + + My Song, it seems you speak this to oppose + The saying of a sister Song of mine: + This lowly Lady whom you call divine, + Your sister called disdainful and morose. + Though Heaven, you know, is ever bright and pure, + Eyes may have cause to find a star obscure. + + So when your sister called this Lady proud + She judged not truly, by what seemed; but fear + Possessed her soul; and still, when I come near + Her glance, there's dread. Be such excuse allowed, + My Song, and when thou canst, approach her, say; + My Lady, take all homage I can pay. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + + +In the preceding treatise is described how my second Love took its +rise from the compassionate countenance of a Lady; which Love, finding +my Soul inclined to its ardour, after the manner of fire, was kindled +from a slight spark into a great flame; so that not only during my +waking hours, but during sleep, its light threw many a vision into my +mind. And how great the desire which Love excited to behold this Lady, +it would be impossible either to tell or to make understood. And not +only of her was I thus desirous, but of all those persons who had any +nearness to her, either as acquaintances or as relations. Oh! how many +were the nights, when the eyes of other persons were closed in sleep, +that mine, wide open, gazed fixedly upon the tabernacle of my Love. + +And as the rapidly increasing fire must of necessity be seen, it being +impossible for fire to remain hidden, the desire seized me to speak of +the Love that I could no longer restrain within me. And although I +could receive but little help from my own counsel, yet, inasmuch as, +either from the will of Love or from my own promptness, I drew nigh to +it many times, I deliberated, and I saw that, in speaking of Love, +there could be no more beautiful nor more profitable speech than that +which commends the beloved person. And in this deliberation three +reasons assisted me. One of them was self-love, which is the source of +all the rest, as every one sees. For there is no more lawful nor more +courteous way of doing honour to one's self than by doing honour to +one's friend; and, since friendship cannot exist between the unlike, +wherever one sees friendship, likeness is understood; and wherever +likeness is understood, thither runs public praise or blame. And from +this reason two great lessons may be learnt: the one is, never to wish +that any vicious man should seem your friend, for in that case a bad +opinion is formed of him who has made the evil man his friend; the +other is, that no one ought to blame his friend publicly, because, if +you consider well the aforesaid reason, he but points to himself with +his finger in his eye. + +The second reason was the desire for the duration of this friendship; +wherefore it is to be known, as the Philosopher says in the ninth book +of the Ethics, in the friendship of persons of unequal position it is +requisite, for the preservation of that friendship, for a certain +proportion to exist between them, which may reduce the dissimilarity +to a similarity, as between the master and the servant. For, although +the servant cannot render the same benefit to the master that is +conferred on him, yet he ought to render the best that he can, with so +much solicitude and freewill that that which is dissimilar in itself +may become similar through the evidence of good-will, which proves the +friendship, confirms and preserves it. Wherefore I, considering myself +lower than that Lady, and perceiving myself benefited by her, +endeavoured to praise her according to my ability. And, if it be not +similar of itself, my prompt freewill proves at least that if I could +I would do more, and thus it makes its friendship similar to that of +this gentle Lady. + +The third reason was an argument of prudence; for, as Boethius says, +"It is not sufficient to look only at that which is before the eyes, +that is, at the Present; and, therefore, Prudence, Foresight, is given +to us, which looks beyond to that which may happen." I say that I +thought that for a long time I might be reproached by many with levity +of mind, on hearing that I had turned from my first Love. Wherefore, +to remove this reproach, there was no better argument than to state +who the Lady was who had thus changed me; that, by her manifest +excellence, they might gain some perception of her virtue; and that, +by the comprehension of her most exalted virtue, they might be able to +see that all stability of mind could be in that mutability: and, +therefore, they should not judge me light and unstable. I then began +to praise this Lady, and if not in the most suitable manner, at least +as well as I could at first; and I began to say: "Love, reasoning of +my Lady in my mind." This Song chiefly has three parts. The first is +the whole of the first two stanzas, in which I speak in a preliminary +manner. The second is the whole of the six following stanzas, in which +is described that which is intended, i.e., the praise of that gentle +Lady; the first of which begins: "The Sun sees not in travel round the +earth." The third part is in the last two stanzas, in which, +addressing myself to the Song, I purify it from all doubtful +interpretation. And these three parts remain to be discussed now in +due order. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + + +Turning, then, to the First Part, which was composed as a Proem or +Preface to the Song or Poem, I say that it is fitly divided into three +parts. In the first place, it alludes to the ineffable condition of +this theme; secondly, it describes my insufficiency to speak of it in +a perfect manner; and this second part begins: "If I would tell of her +what thus I hear." Finally, I excuse myself for my insufficiency, for +which they ought not to lay blame to my charge; and I commence this +part when I say: "If my Song fail." + +I begin, then: "Love, reasoning of my Lady in my mind," where in the +first place it is to be seen who this speaker is, and what this place +is in which I say that he is speaking. Love, taking him in his true +sense, and considering him subtly, is no other than the spiritual +union of the Soul with the beloved object; into which union, of its +own nature, the Soul hastens sooner or later, according as it is free +or impeded. And the reason for that natural disposition may be this: +each substantial form proceeds from its First Cause, which is God, as +is written in the book of Causes; and they receive not diversity from +that First Cause, which is the most simple, but from the secondary +causes, and from the material into which it descends. Wherefore, in +the same book it is written, when treating of the infusion of the +Divine Goodness: "The bounties and good gifts make diverse things, +through the concurrence of that which receives them." Wherefore, since +each effect retains somewhat of the nature of its cause, as Alfarabio +says when he affirms that that which has been the first cause of a +round body has in some way an essentially round form, so each form in +some way has the essence of the Divine Nature in itself; not that the +Divine Nature can be divided and communicated to these, but +participated in by these, almost in the same way that the other stars +participate in the nature of the Sun. And the nobler the form, the +more does it retain of that Divine Nature. + +Wherefore the human Soul, which is the noblest form of all those which +are generated under Heaven, receives more from the Divine Nature than +any other. And since it is most natural to wish to be in God, for as +in the book quoted above one reads, the first thing is to exist, and +before that there is nothing, the human Soul desires to exist +naturally with all possible desire. And since its existence depends +upon God, and is preserved by Him, it naturally desires and longs to +be united to God, and so add strength to its own being. And since, in +the goodness of Human Nature, Reason gives us proof of the Divine, it +follows that, naturally, the Human Soul is united therewith by the +path of the spirit so much the sooner, and so much the more firmly, in +proportion as those good qualities appear more perfect; which +appearance of perfection is achieved according as the power of the +Soul to produce a good impression is strong and clear, or is +trammelled and obscure. And this union is that which we call Love, +whereby it is possible to know that which is within the Soul, by +looking at those whom it loves in the world without. This Love, which +is the union of my Soul with that gentle Lady in whom so much of the +Divine Light was revealed to me, is that speaker of whom I speak; +since from him continuous thoughts were born, whilst gazing at and +considering the wondrous power of this Lady who was spiritually made +one with my Soul. + +The place in which I say that he thus speaks is the Mind. But in +saying that it is the Mind, one does not attach more meaning to this +than before; and therefore it is to be seen what this Mind properly +signifies. I say, then, that the Philosopher, in the second book on +the Soul, when speaking of its powers, says that the Soul principally +has three powers, which are, to Live, to Feel, and to Reason: and he +says also to Move, but it is possible to make this one with feeling, +since every Soul moves that feels, either with all the senses or with +one alone; for the power to move is conjoined with feeling. And +according to that which he says, it is most evident that these powers +are so entwined that the one is a foundation of the other; and that +which is the foundation can of itself be divided; but the other, which +is built upon it, cannot be apart from its foundation. Therefore, the +Vegetative power, whereby one lives, is the foundation upon which one +feels, that is, sees, hears, tastes, smells, and touches; and this +vegetative power of itself can be the Soul, vegetative, as we see in +all the plants. The Sensitive cannot exist without that. We find +nothing that feels, and does not live. And this Sensitive power is the +foundation of the Intellectual, that is, of the Reason; so that, in +animate mortals, the Reasoning power is not found without the +Sensitive. But the Sensitive is found without Reason, as in the +beasts, and in the birds, and in the fishes, and in any brute animal, +as we see. And that Soul which contains all these powers is the most +perfect of all. And the Human Soul possessing the nobility of the +highest power, which is Reason, participates in the Divine Nature, +after the manner of an eternal Intelligence: for the Soul is ennobled +and denuded of matter by that Sovereign Power in proportion as the +Divine Light of Truth shines into it, as into an Angel; and Man is +therefore called by the Philosophers the Divine Animal. + +In this most noble part of the Soul are many virtues, as the +Philosopher says, especially in the third chapter of the Soul, where +he says that there is in it a virtue which is called Scientific, and +one which is called Ratiocinative, or rather deliberative; and with +this there are certain virtues, as Aristotle says in that same place, +such as the Inventive and the Judging. And all these most noble +virtues, and the others which are in that excellent power, are +designated by that one word, which we sought to understand, that is, +Mind. Wherefore it is evident that by Mind is meant the highest, +noblest part of a man's Soul. + +And it is seen to be so, for only of man and of the Divine substances +is this Mind predicated, as can plainly be seen in Boethius, who first +predicates it of men, where he says to Philosophy: "Thou, and God who +placed thee in the mind of men;" then he predicates it of God, when he +says: "Thou dost produce everything from the Divine Model, Thou most +beautiful One, bearing the beautiful World in Thy mind." Neither was +it ever predicated of brute animals; nay, of many men who appear +defective in the most perfect part, it does not seem that it ought to +be, or that it could be, predicated; and therefore such as these are +termed in the Latin Tongue _amenti_ and _dementi_, that is, +without mind. Hence one can now perceive that it is Mind which is the +perfect and most precious part of the Soul in which is God. + +And that is the place where I say that Love discourses to me of my +Lady. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + + +Not without cause do I say that this Love was at work in my mind; but +it is said reasonably, in order to explain what this Love is, by the +place in which it works. Wherefore, it is to be known that each thing, +as is said above, for the reason shown above, has its especial Love, +as the simple bodies have Love, innate, each in its proper place. +Therefore the Earth always descends to the centre, the fire to the +circumference above near the Heaven of the Moon, and always ascends +towards that. The bodies first composed, such as are the minerals, +have love for the place where their generation is ordained, and in +which they increase, and from which they have vigour and power. +Wherefore, we see the loadstone always receive power from the place of +its generation. Each of the plants which are first animated, that is, +first animated with a vegetative soul has most evident love for a +particular place, according as its nature may require; and therefore +we see certain plants almost always grow by the side of the streams, +and certain others upon the mountain tops, and certain others grow by +the sea-shore, or at the foot of hills, which, if they are +transplanted, either die entirely or live a sad life, as it were, like +a being separated from his friend. The brute beasts have a most +evident love, not only for places, but we see also their love towards +each other. Men have their own love for things perfect and excellent; +and since Man, although his Soul is one substance alone, because of +his nobility, partakes of the nature of each of these things, he can +possess all these affections, and he does possess them all. By his +part in the nature of the simple body, as earth, naturally it tends +downwards; therefore, when he moves his body upwards, he becomes more +weary. + +Because of the second nature, of the mixed body, it loves the place of +its generation, and even the time; and therefore each one naturally is +of more power in his own place and in his own time than in any other. +Wherefore, one reads in the History of Hercules, and in the greater +Ovid, and in Lucan, and in other Poets, that when fighting with the +Giant who was named Antæus, every time that the Giant was weary, and +laid his body down on the earth at full length, either by the will or +strength of Hercules, new strength and vigour then surged up in him, +drawn wholly from the Earth, in which and from which he was produced; +Hercules, perceiving this, at last seized him, and having compressed +and raised him above the Earth, he held him so tightly, without +allowing him to touch the Earth again, that he conquered Antæus by +excess of strength, and killed him. According to the testimony of the +books, this battle took place in Africa. + +And because of the third nature, that is, of the plants, Man has a +love for a certain food, not inasmuch as it affects the senses, but in +so much as it is nutritious; and that particular food does the work of +that most perfect Nature, while certain other food, dissimilar, acts +but imperfectly. And therefore we see that certain food will make men +handsome, and strong-limbed, and very brightly coloured, and certain +other food will do the opposite of this. + +And by the fourth nature, of the animals, that is, the sensitive, Man +has the other love, by which he loves according to the sensible +appearance, like the beasts; and this love in Man especially has need +of control, because of its excessive operation in the delights given, +especially through sight and touch. + +And because of the fifth and last nature, which is the true Human +Nature, and, to use a better phrase, the Angelic, namely, the +Rational, Man has by it the Love of Truth and Virtue; and from this +Love is born true and perfect friendship from the honest intercourse +of which the Philosopher speaks in the eighth book of the Ethics, when +he treats of Friendship. + +Wherefore, since this nature is termed Mind, as is proved above, I +spoke of Love as discoursing in my Mind in order to explain that this +Love was the Friendship which is born of that most noble nature, that +is, of Truth and Virtue, and to exclude each false opinion, by which +my Love might be suspected to spring from pleasure of the Senses. + +I then say, "With constant pleasure," to make people understand its +continuance and its fervour. And I say that it often whispers "Things +over which the intellect may stray." And I speak truth, because my +thoughts, when reasoning of her, often sought to draw conclusions of +her, which I could not comprehend, and I was alarmed, so that I seemed +almost like one dazed, even as he who, looking with the eye along a +direct line, sees first the nearest things clearly; then, proceeding, +it sees them less clearly; then, further on, doubtfully; then, +proceeding an immense way, the sight is divided from the object, and +sees nothing. And this is one unspeakable thing of that which I have +taken for a theme; and consequently I relate the other when I say: + + His words make music of so sweet a kind + That the Soul hears and feels, and cries, Ah, me, + That I want power to tell what thus I see! + +And because I know not how to tell it, I say that my soul laments, +saying, "Ah, me, that I want power." And this is the other unspeakable +thing, that the tongue is not a complete and perfect follower of all +that the intellect sees. And I say, "That the Soul hears and feels;" +hearing, as to the words, and feeling, as to the sweetness of the +sound. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + + +Now that the two ineffable parts of this matter have been discussed, +we must proceed to discuss words that describe my insufficiency. + +I say, then, that my insufficiency arises from a double cause, even as +in a twofold manner the exalted nature of my Lady surpasses all, in +the way which has been told. For I am compelled, by the poverty of my +intellect, to omit much of the truth concerning her which shone into +my mind like rays of light, but which my mind receives like a +transparent body, unable to gather up the ends thereof and reflect +them back. And this I express in that following part: "First, all that +Reason cannot make its own I needs must leave." Then, when I say, "And +of what can be known," I say that not even to that which I do +understand am I sufficient, because my tongue is not so eloquent that +it could tell that which is discoursed in my thoughts concerning her. +It may be seen, therefore, that, with respect to the Truth, it is very +little that I shall say; and this redounds to her great praise, if +well considered, in that which was the main intention. And it is +possible to say that this form of speech came indeed from the workshop +of Rhetoric, which on every side lays its hand upon the main +intention. Then, when it says, "If my Song fail," I excuse myself for +my fault, which ought not, then, to be blamed when others see that my +words are far below the dignity of this Lady. And I say that, if the +defect is in my rhymes, that is, in my words, which are appointed to +discourse of her, for this are to be blamed the weakness of the +intellect and the abruptness of our speech: "blame wit and words," +which are overpowered by the thought, so that they cannot follow it +entirely, especially there where the thought is born of love, because +there the Soul searches more deeply than elsewhere. It would be quite +possible for any one to say: Thou dost excuse and accuse thyself all +in one breath, which is a reason for blame, not for escape from blame, +inasmuch as the blame, which is mine, is cast on the intellect and on +the speech; for, if it be good, I ought to be praised for it in so +much as it is so; and if it be defective, I ought to be blamed. To +this it is possible to reply, briefly, that I do not accuse myself, +but that I excuse myself in truth. And therefore it is to be known, +according to the opinion of the Philosopher in the third book of the +Ethics, that man is worthy of praise or of blame only in those things +which it is in his power to do or not to do; but in those things over +which he has no power he deserves neither blame nor praise, since +either the praise or blame is to be attributed to some other, although +the things may be parts of the man himself. Therefore, we ought not to +blame the man because his body, from his birth, may be ugly, since it +was not in his power to make it beautiful; but our blame should fall +on the evil disposition of the matter whereof he is made, whose source +was a defect of Nature. And even so we ought not to praise the man for +the beauty of form which he may have from his birth, for he was not +the maker of it; but we ought to praise the artificer, that is, Human +Nature, who shapes her material into so much beauty when she is not +impeded. And therefore the priest said well to the Emperor who laughed +and scoffed at the ugliness of his body: "The Lord, He is God: It is +He that hath made us, and not we ourselves;" and these are the words +of the Prophet in a verse of the Psalms, written neither more nor less +than according to the reply of the Priest. + +And therefore let the wicked evil-born ones perceive that, if they put +their chief care in the adornment of their persons, it must be with +all modesty; for to do that is no other than to adorn the work of +another, that is, Nature, and to abandon their own proper work. + +Returning, then, to the proposition, I say that our intellect, through +defect of the power through which it sees organic power, that is, the +imagination, is not able to ascend to certain things, because the +imagination cannot help it and has not the wherewithal, such as are +the substances apart from matter, which (if we can have any knowledge +of them) we cannot fully comprehend. + +And the man is not to blame for this, because he was not the maker of +this defect; nay, Universal Nature did this, which is God, who wills +that in this life we be without this light. And because He was the +cause, it would be presumptuous to argue concerning it. So that if my +earnest thought transported me into a place where my imagination +failed my intellect, I was not to blame if I could not possibly +understand. + +Again, a bound is set to our understanding in each operation thereof; +but not by us, but by Universal Nature; and therefore it is to be +known that the bounds of the understanding are wider in thought than +in speech, and wider in speech than in signs. Hence, if our thought, +not only that which fails in a perfect intellect, but also that which +in a perfect intellect attains its end, is the conqueror of speech, we +are not to blame, because we are not the makers of it. And therefore I +prove that I do truthfully excuse myself when I say: "Blame wit and +words, whose force Fails to tell all that I hear Love discourse;" for, +sufficiently clear ought to appear the good-will, which alone we +should regard in respect to merits that are human. + +And thus is now explained the first principal part of this Song which +flows from my hand. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + + +Discourse on the first part of the Song has now made its meaning open +and clear, and it is needful to proceed to the second; for the clearer +perception of which, three divisions are desirable, according as it is +contained in three sections. For in the first part I praise that Lady +entirely and generally, as in the Soul so in the body; in the second +part I descend to especial commendation of the Soul; and in the third, +to especial praise of the body. The first part begins: "The Sun sees +not in travel round the earth;" the second begins: "Her Maker saw that +she was good;" the third begins: "Rain from her beauty little flames +of fire," and these parts or divisions in due order are to be +discussed. + +I say then: "The Sun sees not in travel round the earth;" where it is +to be known, in order to have perfect understanding thereof, how the +Earth is circled round by the Sun. In the first place, I say that by +the Earth I do not here mean the whole body of the Universe, but only +that part of the sea and land, following the common speech, which is +thus wont to designate it, whereupon some one exclaims, "This man has +seen all the World," meaning "this part of the sea and land." This +World Pythagoras and his followers asserted to be one of the stars, +and they also said that there was another opposite to it, similar to +it: and they called that one Antictona; and he said that both were in +one sphere which revolved from East to West, and by this revolution +the Sun was circled round us, and now he was seen, and now he was not +seen. And he said that the fire was in the centre of these, +considering the fire to be a more noble body than the water and than +the Earth, and giving the noblest centre to the four simple bodies; he +said that the fire, when it appeared to ascend, according to strict +truth descended to the centre. Then Plato was of another opinion, and +he wrote in a book of his, which he called Timæus, that the Earth with +the sea was indeed the centre of all, but that its whole sphere +revolved round its centre, following the first movement of the +Heavens, but much slower on account of its gross material, and because +of the immense distance from that first moved. These opinions are +confuted in the second chapter, Of Heaven and the World, by that +glorious Philosopher, to whom Nature opened her secrets most freely; +and by him it is therein proved that this World, the Earth, is of +itself stable and fixed to all eternity. And his reasons, which +Aristotle states in order to break those other opinions and to affirm +the truth, it is not my intention here to narrate; therefore, let it +be enough for those to whom I speak, to know, upon his great +authority, that this Earth is fixed, and does not revolve, and that +it, with the sea, is the centre of the Heavens. These Heavens revolve +round this centre continuously, even as we see; in which revolution +there must of necessity be two fixed Poles, and a circle equally +distant from these round which all especially revolves. Of these two +Poles, the one is visible to almost all the discovered Earth, that is, +the Northern Pole; the other is hidden from almost all the discovered +Earth, that is, the Southern Pole. The circle spread from them is that +part of Heaven under which the Sun revolves when it is in Aries and +Libra. Wherefore, it is to be known that if a stone could fall from +this Pole of ours, it would fall there beyond into the sea precisely +upon that surface of the sea, where, if a man could be, he would +always have the Sun above the middle of his head; and I believe that +from Rome to that place, going in a straight line to the North, the +distance may be almost two thousand seven hundred miles, or a little +more or less. Imagining, then, in order to understand better what I +say, that there is in that place a city, and that its name may be +Maria, I say again that if from the other Pole, that is, the Southern, +a stone could fall, that it would fall upon that part of the ocean +which is precisely on this ball opposite to Maria; and I believe that +from Rome to where this second stone would fall, going in a direct +line to the South, the distance may be seven thousand five hundred +miles, a little more or less. And here let us imagine another city, +which may have the name of Lucia; and the distance, from whatever part +one draws the line, is ten thousand two hundred miles between the one +and the other, that is, half the circumference of this ball, so that +the citizens of Maria hold the soles of the feet opposite the soles of +the feet of the citizens of Lucia. Let us imagine also a circle upon +this ball which is in every part equi-distant from Maria as from +Lucia. I believe that this circle, according to what I understand by +the assertions of the Astrologers, and by that of Albertus Magnus in +his book On the Nature of Places and on the Properties of the +Elements, and also by the testimony of Lucan in his ninth book, would +divide this Earth uncovered by the sea in the Meridian, almost through +all the extreme end of the first climate, where there are amongst the +other people the Garamanti, who are almost always naked; to whom came +Cato with the people of Rome when flying from the dominion of Cæsar. +Having marked out these three places upon this ball, one can easily +see how the Sun circles round it. + +I say, then, that the Heaven of the Sun revolves from West to East, +not directly against the diurnal movement, that is, of the day and +night, but obliquely against that, so that its mid-circle, which is +equally between its Poles, in which is the body of the Sun, cuts into +two opposite parts the circle of the two first Poles, in the beginning +of Aries and in the beginning of Libra; and it is divided by two arcs +from it, one towards the North and one towards the South; the points +of these two said arcs are equi-distant from the first circle in every +part by twenty-three degrees and one point more, and the one point is +the tropic of Cancer, and the other is the tropic of Capricorn; +therefore it must be that Maria in the sign of Aries can see, when the +Sun sinks below the mid-circle of the first Poles, this Sun to revolve +round the Earth below, or rather the sea, like a millstone, of which +only one half of its body appears, and can see this come rising up +after the manner of the screw of a vine-press, so much so that it +completes ninety-one rotations, or a little more. When these rotations +are completed, its ascension is to Maria almost as much in proportion +as it ascends to us in the half-third, that is, of the equal day and +night; and if a man could stand in Maria, with his face always turned +to the Sun, he would see that Sun pass by on the right. Then by the +same way it seems to descend another ninety-one rotations, or a little +more, so much so that it circles round below the Earth, or rather sea, +not showing the whole of itself; and then it is hidden, and Lucia +begins to see it, which, the same as Maria, then sees it to ascend and +to descend around itself with the same number of rotations. And if a +man could stand in Lucia, with his face always turned towards the Sun, +he would see it pass to the left. Therefore, it is possible to see +that these places have in the year one day of six months' duration, +and one night of the same length of time; and when one has the day the +other has the night. + +It must be also that the circle where the Garamanti are, as has been +said above, upon this ball, can see the Sun revolve precisely above +them, not after the fashion of a mill-stone, but of a wheel, which +cannot in any part be seen except the centre, when it goes under +Aries. And then it is seen to depart from its place immediately above +and go towards Maria ninety-one days, or a little more, and by so many +to return to its position; and then, when it has turned back, it goes +before Libra, and even so departs and goes towards Lucia ninety-one +days, or a little more, and in so many returns to its position. And +this place always has the day equal with the night, either on this +side or on that, as the Sun goes, and twice a year it has the summer +of intense heat, and two little winters. It must also be that the two +distances, which are midway from the two imaginary Cities and the +mid-circle, see the Sun variously, according as they are remote from, +and near to, these places. + +Now, by what has been said, this can be seen by him who has good +understanding, to which it is well to give a little fatigue. He can +now perceive that, by the Divine Providence, the World is so ordained +that the sphere of the Sun, being revolved and turned round to one +point, this ball whereon we are in every part receives an equal share +of light and darkness. Oh, ineffable Wisdom, Thou which didst thus +ordain! Oh, how poor and feeble is our mind when seeking to comprehend +Thee! And you, O men, for whose benefit and pleasure I write, in what +fearful blindness do you live if you never raise your eyes upwards to +these things, but keep them fixed in the mud of your foolishness. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + + +In the preceding chapter is shown after what manner the Sun travels +round the Earth; so that now one can proceed to demonstrate the +meaning of the part to which this thought belongs. I say, then, that +in that first part I begin to praise that Lady by comparison with +other things. And I say that the Sun, circling round the Earth, sees +nothing so gentle as that Lady; wherefore it follows that she is, +according to the letter, the most gentle of all things that the sun +shines upon. And it says: "Till the hour;" wherefore it is to be known +that "hour" is understood in two ways by the Astrologers. The one is, +that of the day and of the night they make twenty-four hours--twelve +of the day, twelve of the night, however long or short the day may be. +And these hours are short and long in the day and night according as +the day and night increase and diminish. And these hours the Church +uses when it says, Prima, Tertia, Sexta, and Nona--first, third, +sixth, and ninth; and these are termed hours temporal. The other mode +is, that, making of the day and of the night twenty-four hours, the +day sometimes has fifteen hours and the night nine; and sometimes the +night has sixteen and the day eight, according as the day and night +increase and diminish; and they term these hours equal at the +Equinox, and those that are termed temporal are always the same, +because, the day being equal to the night, it must happen thus. + +Then when I say, "All Minds of Heaven wonder at her worth," I praise +her, not having respect to any other thing. And I say that the +Intelligences of Heaven behold her, and that the people here below +think of that gentle Lady when they have more of that peace which +delights them. And here it is to be known that each Mind or Intellect +in Heaven above, according to that which is written in the book Of +Causes, knows that which is above itself and that which is below +itself; therefore it knows God as its Cause; therefore it knows that +which is below itself as its effect. + +And since God is the most universal cause of everything, to know Him +is to know all, according to the degree of the Intelligence; wherefore +all the Intelligences know the human form in as far as it is by +intention fixed or determined in the Divine Mind. The moving +Intelligences especially know it; since they are the most especial +causes of it, and of every kind of form; and they know the most +perfect, as far as they can know it, as their rule and pattern. + +And if this human form, copied and individualized, is not perfect, it +is not the fault of the said copy or image, but of the matter from +which the individual is formed. Therefore when I say, "All Minds in +Heaven wonder at her worth," I wish to express no other than that she +is thus made, even as the express image of the human form in the +Divine Mind. And each Mind there above beholds her by virtue of that +quality which exists especially in those angelic Minds which build up +and shape, with Heaven, things that exist below. And to confirm this, +I subjoin when I say, "Mortals, enamoured, find her in their thought +When Love his peace into their minds has brought," where it is to be +known that each thing especially desires its perfection, and in that +its every desire finds peace and calm, and for that peace each thing +is desired. + +And this is that desire which always makes every pleasure appear +incomplete, for there is no joy or pleasure so great in this life that +it can quench the thirst in our Soul, for always the desire for that +perfection remains in the Mind. And since this Lady is truly that +perfection, I say that people here below receive great delight when +they have most peace; for she abides then in their thoughts. For this +Lady, I say, is perfect in as high a degree as it is possible for +Human Nature to be. + +Then when I say, "Her Maker saw that she was good," I prove that not +only this Lady is the most perfect in the human race, but more than +the most perfect, inasmuch as she receives from the Divine Goodness +more than human dues. Wherefore one can reasonably believe that as +each Master loves most his best work far more than the other work, so +God loves the good human being far above the rest. And forasmuch as +His Bounty is of necessity not restricted by any limit, His love has +no regard to the amount due to him who receives, but it overflows in +gifts, and in the blessings of power and grace. Wherefore I say here, +that this God, who gave life or being to this Lady, through love or +charity for her perfection pours into her of His Bounty beyond the +limits of the amount due to our nature. + +Then when I say, "On her pure soul," I prove this that has been said +with reasonable testimony, which gives us to know that, as the +Philosopher says in the second chapter, On the Soul, the Soul is the +act of the Body; and if it be its act, it is its Cause; and as it is +written in the book before, quoted, On Causes, each Cause infuses into +its effect some of the goodness which it receives from its own Cause, +which is "God." Wherefore, since in her are seen wonderful things, so +much so on the part of the body that they make each beholder desirous +to see those things, it is evident that her form, which is her Soul, +guides it as its proper Cause and receives miraculously the gracious +goodness of God. + +And thus is proved, by that appearance, which exceeds the due +appointment of our nature, which in her is most perfect, as has been +said above, that this Lady is by God endowed with good gifts and made +a noble thing. And this is the whole Literal meaning of the first +section of the second principal part. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + + +Having commended this Lady generally, both according to the Soul and +according to the Body, I proceed to praise her specially according to +the Soul. + +And first I praise her Soul for its goodness, that is great in itself; +then I commend it for a goodness that is great in others, and useful +to the World. And that second part begins when I say, firstly, "On her +fair frame Virtue Divine descends;" where it is to be known that the +Divine Goodness descends into all things, and otherwise they could not +exist; but, although this goodness springs from the First Cause, it is +received diversely, according to the more or less of virtue in the +recipients. Wherefore it is written in the book Of Causes: "The First +Goodness sends His good gifts forth upon things in one stream. Verily +each thing receives from this stream according to the manner of its +virtue and its being." And we can have a sensible, living example of +this in the Sun. We see the light of the Sun, which is one thing, +derived from one fountain, to be variously received by material +substances; as Albertus Magnus says in his book On the Intellect, that +certain bodies, through having mixed in themselves an excess of +transparent brightness, so soon as the Sun sees them they become so +bright that, by the multiplication of light within them, their aspect +is hardly discernible, and from themselves they render back to others +great splendour or brilliancy, such as is gold and any gem. Sure I am +that by being entirely transparent, not only do they receive the +light, but that they do not intercept it; nay, they pass it on, like +stained glass, coloured with their own colour, to other things. And +there are certain other bodies so overpowering in the purity of the +transparency that they become so radiant as to overpower the +adjustments of the eye, and you cannot look at them without fatigue of +sight; such as are the mirrors. Certain others are so free from +transparency, that but little light can they receive; as is the Earth. +Thus the Goodness of God is received in sundrywise by the sundry +substances, that is, in one way by the Angels, who are without +grossness of matter, as if transparent through their purity of form; +and otherwise by the human Soul, which although on one side it may be +free from matter, on another side it is impeded: even as the man who +is all in the water but his head, of whom one cannot say that he is +entirely in the water, or entirely out of it. Again otherwise it is +received by the animals, whose soul is wholly comprised in matter; but +I say that the soul of animals receives of the Goodness of God in +proportion as it is ennobled. Again otherwise is it received by the +minerals; and otherwise by the Earth, than by the others, because the +Earth is most material, and therefore most remote, and most out of all +proportion to the First most simple and most high Cause, which is +alone Intellectual, that is to say, God. + +And although here below there may be placed general degrees of +excellence, nevertheless, singular degrees of excellence may also be +placed; that is to say, that amongst human Souls one Soul may receive +more bountifully than another. And since in the intellectual order of +the Universe one ascends and descends by degrees almost continuous +from the lowest form to the highest, and from the highest to the +lowest, as we see in the visible order of things; and between the +Angelic Nature, which is intellectual, and the Human Soul there may be +no step, but the one rise to the other as it were continuously through +the height of the degrees; and from the Human Soul and the most +perfect soul of the brute animals, again, there may not be any break +in the descent. For as we see many men so vile and of such low +condition that it seems almost that it can be no other than bestial, +so it is to be asserted and firmly believed that there may be some men +so noble and of a condition so exalted that it can be no other than +that of the Angel. Otherwise the human species could not be continued +on every side, which cannot be. Such as these Aristotle calls, in the +seventh book of the Ethics, Divine; and such a one I say that this +Lady is, so that the Divine Virtue, after the manner that it descends +into the Angel, descends into her. + +Then when I say, "Fair one who doubt," I prove this by the experience +that it is possible to have of it in those operations which are proper +to the rational Soul, wherein the Divine Light shines forth more +quickly, that is, in the speech and in the actions, which are wont to +be termed conduct and deportment. Wherefore it is to be known that +only man amongst the animals speaks, and has conduct and acts which +are called rational, because he alone has Reason in himself. And if +any one might wish to say, in contradiction, that a certain bird can +speak, as appears true, especially of the magpie and of the parrot; +and that some beast performs acts, or rather things, by rule, as +appears in the ape and in some other; I reply that it is not true that +they speak, nor that they have rules, because they have not Reason, +from which these things must proceed; neither is there in them the +principle of these operations; neither do they know what that is; +neither do they understand that by those acts something is intended; +but that only which they see and hear they represent, even as the +image of somebody may be reflected in a glass. Wherefore, as in the +mirror the corporal image which the mirror shows is not true, so the +image of Reason, in the acts and the speech which the brute soul +represents, or rather shows, is not true. I say that what gentle Lady +soever doubts should "go with her, mark the grace In all her acts." I +do not say man, because one can derive experience more modestly from +the woman than from the man; and I say she will find that "Downward +from Heaven bends An angel when she speaks." For her speech, because +of its exalted character and because of its sweetness, kindles in the +mind of him who hears it a thought of Love, which I call a celestial +Spirit; since from Heaven is the source and from Heaven the intention +thereof, as has been already narrated. From which thought I pass to a +firm opinion that this Lady is of miraculous power, that there is "A +power in her by none of us possessed." Her actions, by their suavity +and by their moderation, "Rival in calls to Love that Love must hear." +They cause Love to awaken and again to hear whenever he is sown by the +power of bountiful Nature. Which natural seed acts as in the next +treatise is shown. + +Then when I say, "Fair in all like her, fairest she'll appear Who is +most like her," I intend to narrate how the goodness and the power of +her soul are good and useful to others; and, firstly, how useful it is +to other women, saying that she is "Fair in all like her," where I +present a clear or bright example to the women, from gazing at which +they can make their beauty seem gentle in following the same. +Secondly, I relate how useful she is to all people, saying that her +aspect assists our faith, which is more useful to the whole Human Race +than all other things beside; for it is that by which we escape from +Eternal Death and acquire Eternal Life; and she assists our Faith, for +the first foundation of our Faith is on the miracles performed by Him +who was crucified, who created our Reason, and willed that it should +be less than His power. He performed these miracles, then, in His own +name for His saints; and many men are so obstinate that they are in +doubt of those miracles if there be the least mist or cloud around +them; and they cannot believe any miracle unless they have visible +experience of the same; and this Lady is a thing visibly miraculous, +of which the eyes of men daily can have experience, and which can make +the other miracles appear possible to us. Wherefore it is manifest +that this Lady, with her marvellous aspect, assists our Faith. And, +therefore, finally I say: + + We, content to call + Her face a Miracle, have Faith made sure: + For that God made her ever to endure. + +And thus ends the second section of the second principal part of the +Song according to its Literal meaning. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + + +Amongst the Works of Divine Wisdom, Man is the most wonderful, +considering how in one form the Divine Power joined three natures; and +in such a form how subtly harmonized his body must be. It is organized +for all his distinct powers; wherefore, because of the great concord +there must be, among so many organs, to secure their perfect response +to each other, in all the multitude of men but few are perfect. And if +this Creature is so wonderful, certainly it is a dread thing to +discourse of his conditions, not only in words, but even in thought. +So that to this apply those words of Ecclesiastes: "I beheld all the +Work of God, that a Man cannot find out the Work that is done under +the Sun." And those other words there, where he says: "Let not thine +heart be hasty to utter anything before God: for God is in Heaven, and +thou upon Earth: therefore let thy words be few." I, then, who in this +third section intend to speak of a certain condition of such a +creature, inasmuch as, through the goodness of the Soul, visible +beauty appears in his body, I begin timorously uncertain, intending, +if not fully, at least partially, to untie such a knot as this. I say, +then, that since the meaning of that section is clear, wherein this +Lady is praised on the part of the Soul, we are now to proceed and to +see how it is when I say: "Her aspect shows delights of Paradise." I +praise her on the part of the body, and I say that in her aspect +bright gleams appear which show us pleasant things, and amongst others +those of Paradise. + +The most noble state of all, and that which is the crown of every +good, is to be at peace within one's self; and this is to be happy. +And this content is truly (although in another manner) in her aspect; +so that, by looking at her, the people find peace, so sweetly does her +Beauty feed the eyes of the beholders; but in another way, for the +Peace that is perpetual in Paradise is not attainable by any man. + +And since some one might ask where this wonderful content appears in +this Lady, I distinguish in her person two parts, in which human +pleasure and displeasure most appear. Wherefore it is to be known that +in whatever part the Soul most fulfils its office, it strives most +earnestly to adorn that part, and there it does its work most subtly. +Wherefore we see that in the Face of Man, where it fulfils its office +more than in any other outward part, it works so subtly that, by +making itself subtle therein as much as its material permits, it +causes that no face is like another, because its utmost power over +matter, which is dissimilar in almost all, is there brought into +action; and because in the face the Soul works especially in two +places, as if in those two places all the three Natures of the Soul +had jurisdiction, that is, in the Eyes and in the Mouth, these it +chiefly adorns, and there it spends its care to make all beautiful if +it can. And in these two places I say that those pleasures of content +appear, saying: "Seen in her eyes and in her smiling face;" the which +two places, by means of a beautiful comparison, may be designated the +balconies of the woman who dwells in the house of the body, she being +the Soul; because there, although veiled, as it were, the Soul often +shows itself. The Soul shows itself so evidently in the eyes that it +is possible to know its present passion if you look attentively. + +Six passions are proper to the human Soul of which the Philosopher +makes mention in his Rhetoric, namely, Grace, Zeal, Mercy, Envy, Love, +and Shame; and with whichever of these the Soul is impassioned, there +comes into the window of the Eyes the semblance of it, unless it be +repressed within, and shut from view by great power of will. Wherefore +some one formerly plucked out his eyes that an inward shame should not +appear without, as Statius the Poet says of the Theban Oedipus when he +says that with eternal night he loosed his damnèd shame. + +It reveals itself in the Mouth, like colour behind glass as it were. +And what is a smile or a laugh except a coruscation of the Soul's +delight, a light shot outwardly from that which shines within? And +therefore it is right for a man to reveal his Soul by a well-tempered +cheerfulness, smiling moderately with a due restraint, and with slight +movement of the limbs; so that the Lady, that is, the Soul, which +then, as has been said, shows herself, may appear modest, and not +dissolute. Therefore the book on the Four Cardinal Virtues commands us +thus: "Let thy smile be without loud laughter, that is, without +cackling like a hen." + +Ah, the sweet wonder of my Lady's smile, which is never seen but in +the eyes! + +And I say of these delights seen in her eyes and smile: "Love brought +them there as to his dwelling place;" where it is possible to consider +Love in a twofold form. First, the Love of the Soul, peculiar or +proper to these places; secondly, universal Love, which inclines +things to love and to be loved, which ordains the Soul to rule these +parts. + +Then, when I say, "They dazzle Reason," I excuse myself for this, that +it appears of such exceeding beauty that I can tell but little, owing +to its overpowering force; and I say that I can say but little +concerning it for two reasons. The one is, that those things which +appear in her aspect overpower our intellect; and I tell how this +conquest is made: that "They dazzle Reason, as sunbeams our eyes," +when the Sun overpowers our feeble sight, if not also the healthy and +the strong. The other is, that the man cannot look fixedly at it, +because the Soul becomes inebriate therein; so that incontinently, +after gazing thereat, it fails in all its operations. + +Then, when I say, "Rain from her beauty little flames of fire," I +recur to discourse of its effect, since to discourse entirely of it is +not possible. Wherefore it is to be known that all those things which +subdue our intellect, so that it is unable to see what they are, are +most suitably to be discussed in their effects; wherefore of God, and +of His separate substances, and of the first matter we can thus have +some knowledge. And therefore I say that the beauty of that Lady rains +little flames of fire, meaning the ardour of Love and of Charity, +"Made living with a spirit," that is, Love informed by a gentle +spirit, which is direct desire, through which and from which "to +create Good thoughts;" and it not only does this, but it crushes and +destroys its opposite, the innate vices which are especially the foes +of all good thoughts. + +And here it is to be known that there are certain vices in the Man to +which he is naturally disposed; as certain men of a choleric +complexion are disposed to anger: and such vices as these are innate, +that is, natural. Others are the vices of habit, for which not the +complexion, but habit, or custom, is to blame; such as intemperance, +and especially intemperance in wine. But these vices are subdued and +put to flight by good habits, and the man is made virtuous thereby +without finding fatigue in his moderation, as the Philosopher says in +the second book of the Ethics. Truly there is this difference between +the natural passions and the habitual, that through use of good morals +the habitual entirely vanish, because their origin, the evil habit, is +destroyed by its opposite; but the natural, the source of which is in +the complexion of the passionate man, although they may be made much +lighter by good morals, yet they do not entirely disappear as far as +regards the first cause, but they almost wholly disappear in act, +because custom is not equal to nature, which is the source of such a +passion. And therefore the man is more praiseworthy who guides himself +and rules himself when he is of an evil disposition by nature, in +opposition to natural impulse, than he who, being gifted with a good +disposition by nature, carries himself naturally well; as it is more +praiseworthy to control a bad horse than one that is not troublesome. +I say, then, that those little flames which rain down from her beauty +destroy the innate, or the natural, vices, to make men understand that +her beauty has power to renew Nature in those who behold it, which is +a miraculous thing. And this confirms that which is observed above in +the other chapter when I say that she is the helper of our Faith. + +Finally, when I say, "Lady, who may desire Escape from blame," I +infer, under pretext of admonishing another, the end for which so much +beauty was made. And I say that what lady believes her beauty to be +open to blame through some defect, let her look on this most perfect +example; where it is understood that it is designed not only to +improve and raise the good, but also to convert evil to good. And, +finally, it is subjoined that she is "God's thought," that is, from +the Mind of God. And this to make men understand that, by design of +the Creator, Nature is made to produce such an effect. + +And thus ends the whole of the second chief part of the Song. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + + +The order of the present treatise requires, after these two parts of +the Song have been discussed, according to my intention, that we now +proceed to the third, in which I intend to purify the Song from a +reproof which might be unfavourable to it. + +And it is this, that before I composed it, this Lady seeming to me to +be somewhat fierce and haughty against me, I made a little ballad, in +which I called her proud and angry, which appears to be contrary to +that which is here reasoned; and therefore I turn to the Song, and, +under colour of teaching it how it is proper that it should excuse +itself, I make an excuse for that which came before. And this, when +one addresses inanimate things, is a figure which is called by +rhetoricians, Prosopopoeia, and the Poets often use it. "My Song, it +seems you speak this to oppose," The intention of which address, to +make it more easy of understanding, it behoves me to divide into three +sections: first, one affirms wherefore excuse is necessary; then, one +proceeds with the excuse, when I say, "Though Heaven, you know;" +finally, I speak to the Song as to a person well skilled in that which +it is right to do when I say, "Be such excuse allowed." + +I say, then, in the first place: "My Song, it seems you speak this to +oppose The saying of a sister Song of mine." For the sake of +similitude, I say sister; for as that woman is called a sister who is +born of the same father, so may a man call that work a sister which is +wrought by the same worker; for our work is in some degree a thing +begotten. And I say why it seems opposed or contrary to that sister +Song, saying: "This lovely Lady whom you count divine, Your sister +called disdainful and morose." This accusation being affirmed, I +proceed to the excuse, by quoting an example, wherein the Truth is +quite opposite to the appearance of Truth, and it is quite possible to +take the false semblance of Truth for Truth itself, regarding Truth +itself as Falsehood. I say: "Though Heaven, you know, is ever high and +pure, Men's eyes may fail, and find a star obscure;" where it is shown +that it is the property of colour and light to be visible, as +Aristotle affirms in the second book Of the Soul and in the book on +Sense and Sensation. Other things, indeed, are visible, but it is not +their property to be so, nor to be tangible, as in form, height, +number, motion, and rest, which are said to be subject to the Common +Sense, and which we comprehend by union of many senses; but of colour +and light it is the property to be visible, because with the sight +only we comprehend them. These visible things, both those of which it +is the property and those subject to the Common Sense, inasmuch as +they are visible, come within the eye; I do not say the things, but +their form; through the transparent medium, not really, but by +intention, as it were through transparent glass. And in the humour +which is in the pupil of the eye this current which makes the form +visible is completed, because that humour is closed behind like a +mirror which has its glass backed with lead; so that it cannot pass +farther on, but strikes there, after the manner of a ball, and stops; +so that the form which does not appear in the transparent medium, +having reached the disc behind, shines brightly thereon; and this is +the reason why the image appears only in the glass which has lead at +the back. + +From this pupil the visual spirit, which is continued from it to the +part of the Brain, the anterior, where the sensitive power is, +suddenly, without loss of time, depicts it as in the clear spring of a +fountain; and thus we see. Wherefore, in order that its vision be +truthful, that is, such as the visible thing is in itself, the medium +through which the form comes to the eye must be without any colour, +and so also the humour of the pupil; otherwise the visible form would +be stained of the colour of the medium and of that of the pupil. And +this is the reason why they who wish to make things appear of a +certain colour in a mirror interpose that colour between the glass and +the lead, the glass being pressed over it. + +Plato and other Philosophers said, indeed, that our sight was not +because the visible came into the eye, but because the visual virtue +went out to the visible form. And this opinion is confuted by the +Philosopher in that book of his on Sense and Sensation. Having thus +considered this law of vision, one can easily perceive how, although +the star is always in one way bright, clear, and resplendent, and +receives no change whatever except that of local movement, as is +proved in that book on Heaven and the World, yet from many causes it +may appear dim and obscure; since it may appear thus on account of the +medium, the atmosphere, that changes continually. This medium changes +from light to darkness, according to the presence or absence of the +Sun; and during the presence of the Sun the medium, which is +transparent, is so full of light that it overpowers the star, and +therefore it no longer appears brilliant. This medium also changes +from rare to dense, from dry to moist, because of the vapours of the +Earth which rise continually. The medium, thus changed, changes by its +density the image of the star, which passes through it, makes it +appear dim, and by its moisture or dryness changes it in colour. In +like manner it may thus appear through the visual organ, that is, the +eye, which on account of some infirmity, or because of fatigue, is +changed into some degree of dimness or into some degree of weakness. +So it happens very often, owing to the membrane of the pupil becoming +suffused with blood, on account of some corruption produced by +weakness, that things all appear of a red colour; and therefore the +star appears so coloured. And owing to the sight being weakened, there +results in it some dispersion of the spirit, so that things do not +appear united, but scattered, almost in the same way as our writing +does on a wet piece of paper. And this is the reason why many persons, +when they wish to read, remove the paper to some distance from the +eyes, in order that the image thereof may come within the eye more +easily and more subtly, and thereby the lettering is left impressed on +the sight more distinctly and connectedly. For like reason the star +also may appear blurred; and I had experience of this in the same year +in which this Song was born, for, by trying the eyes very much in the +labour of reading, the visual spirits were so weakened that the stars +all appeared to me to be blurred by some white mist: and by means of +long repose in shady and cool places, and by cooling the ball of the +eye with spring water, I re-united the scattered powers, which I +restored to their former good condition. + +And thus, for the reasons mentioned above, there are many visible +causes why the star can appear to us different to what it really is. + + + + +CHAPTER X. + + +Leaving this digression, which has been needful for seeing the Truth, +I return to the proposition, and I say that, as our eyes call, that +is, judge, the star other than it really is as to its true condition, +so this little ballad judged this Lady according to appearance, other +than the Truth, through infirmity of the Soul, which was impassioned +with too much desire. And this I make evident when I say that "fear +possessed her soul." For this which I saw in her presence appeared +fierce or proud to me. Where it is to be known that in proportion as +the agent is more closely united to the patient, so much the more +powerful is the passion, as may be understood from the opinion of the +Philosopher in his book On Generation. Wherefore in proportion as the +desired thing draws nigh to the person who desires it, so much the +greater is the desire; and the Soul, more impassioned, unites itself +more closely to the carnal part, and abandons reason more and more; so +that the individual no longer judges like a man, but almost like some +other animal, even according to appearance, not discerning the Truth. +And this is the reason why the countenance, modest according to the +truth, appears disdainful and proud in her. + +And that little ballad spoke, according to that judgment, as sensual +and irrational at once. And herein it is sufficiently understood that +this Song judges this Lady according to Truth, by the disagreement +which it has with that other Song of harmony between it and that +ballad. And not without reason I say, "When I come near to her +glance," and not when she comes within mine. But in this I wish to +express the great power which her eyes had over me; for, as if I had +been transparent, through every part their light shone through me. And +here it would be possible to assign reasons natural and supernatural, +but let it suffice here to have said as much as I have; elsewhere I +will discourse of it more suitably. Then when I say, "Be such excuse +allowed," I impose on the Song instruction how, by the assigned +reasons, it may excuse itself there where that is needful, namely, +where there may be any suspicion of this opposition; for there is no +more to say, except that whoever may feel doubtful as to the matter +wherein this Song differs from the other, let him look at the reason +which has been here stated. And such a figure as this is quite +laudable in Rhetoric, and even necessary when the words are to one +person and the intention is to another; because it is always +praiseworthy to admonish and necessary also; but it is not always +suitable in the mouth of every one. Wherefore, when the son is aware +of the vice of the father, and when the subject is aware of the vice +of the lord, and when the friend knows that the shame of his friend +would be increased to him by admonition from him, when he knows that +it would detract from his honour, or when he knows that his friend +would not be patient, but enraged at the admonition, this figure is +most beautiful and most useful. You may term it dissimulation; it is +similar to the work of that wise warrior who attacked the castle on +one side in order to draw off the defence from the other, for the +attack and the design of the commander are not aimed at one and the +same part. + +Also, I lay a command on this Song, that it ask permission of this +Lady to speak of her; whereby one may infer that a man ought not to be +presumptuous in praising another, ought not to take it for granted in +his own mind that it is pleasing to the person praised, because often, +when some one believes he is bestowing praise, it is taken as blame, +either through defect of the speaker or through defect of him who +hears. Wherefore it is requisite to have much discretion in this +matter; which discretion is tantamount to asking permission, in the +way in which I say that this Song or Poem should ask for it. + +And thus ends the whole Literal meaning of this treatise; wherefore +the order of the work now requires the Allegorical exposition, +following the Truth, to be proceeded with. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + + +Returning now, as the order requires, to the beginning of the Song, I +say that this Lady is that Lady of the Intellect who is called +Philosophy. But naturally praise excites a desire to know the person +praised; and to know the thing may be to know what it is considered to +be in itself, and in all that pertains to it, as the Philosopher says +in the beginning of the book On Physics; and the name may reveal this +when it bears some meaning, as he says in the fourth chapter of the +Metaphysics, where it is said that the definition is that reason which +the name signifies. Here, therefore, it is necessary, before +proceeding farther with her praises, to prove and to say what this is +that is called Philosophy, what this name signifies; and when this has +been demonstrated, the present Allegory will be more efficaciously +discussed. And first of all I will state who first gave this name; +then I shall proceed to its signification. + +I say, then, that anciently in Italy, almost from the beginning of the +foundation of Rome, which was seven hundred and fifty years, a little +more or less, before the advent of the Saviour, according as Paul +Orosius writes, about the time of Numa Pompilius, second king of the +Romans, there lived a most noble Philosopher, who was named +Pythagoras. And that he might be living about that time appears from +something to which Titus Livius alludes incidentally in the first part +of his History. And before him they were called the followers of +Science, not Philosophers but Wise Men such as were those Seven most +ancient Wise Men, who still live in popular fame. The first of them +had the name of Solon, the second Chilon, the third Periander, the +fourth Talus, the fifth Cleobulus, the sixth Bias, the seventh +Pittacus. Pythagoras, being asked if he were considered to be a Wise +Man, rejected this name, and stated himself to be not a Wise Man, but +a Lover of Wisdom. And from this circumstance it subsequently arose +that any man studious to acquire knowledge, was called a Lover of +Wisdom, that is, a Philosopher; for inasmuch as "Philo" in Greek is +equivalent to "Love" and "sophia" is equivalent to Wisdom, therefore, +"Philo and sophia" mean the same as Love of Wisdom. Wherefore it is +possible to see that those two words make that name Philosopher, which +is as much as to say Lover of Wisdom. Therefore it may be observed +that it is not a term of arrogance, but of humility. + +From this sprang naturally the word philosophy, as from the word +friend springs naturally the word friendship. Wherefore it is possible +to see, considering the signification of the first and second word, +that philosophy is no other than friendship to wisdom, or rather to +knowledge; wherefore to a certain degree it is possible to call every +man a philosopher, according to the natural love which generates a +desire for knowledge in each individual. + +But since the natural passions are common to all men, we do not +specify those passions by some distinctive word, applied to some +individual who shares our common nature, as when we say, John is the +friend of Martin, we do not mean to signify merely the natural love +which all men bear to all men, but we mean the friendship founded upon +the natural love which is distinct and peculiar to certain +individuals. Thus we do not term any one a philosopher because of the +love common to us all. It is the intention or meaning of Aristotle, in +the eighth book of the Ethics, that that man may be called a friend +whose friendship is not concealed from the person beloved, and to whom +also the beloved person is a friend, so that the attachment is mutual; +and this must be so either for mutual benefit, or for pleasure, or for +credit's sake. And thus, in order that a man may be a philosopher, it +must be love to Wisdom which makes one of the sides friendly; it must +be study and care which make the other side also friendly, so that +familiarity and manifestation of benevolence may spring up between +them; because without love and without study one cannot be called a +philosopher, but there must be both the one and the other. + +And as friendship for the sake of pleasure given or for profit is not +true friendship, but accidental, as the Ethics demonstrate, so +philosophy for delight or profit is not true philosophy, but +accidental. Wherefore one ought not to call him a true philosopher who +for some pleasure or other may be a friend of Wisdom in some degree; +even as there are many who take delight in repeating songs and in +studying the same, and who delight in studying Rhetoric and Music, and +who avoid and abandon the other Sciences, which are all members of +Wisdom's body. One ought not to call him a true philosopher who is the +friend of Wisdom for the sake of profit; such as are the Lawyers, +Doctors, and almost all the Religious Men, who do not study for the +sake of knowledge, but to acquire money or dignity; and if any one +would give them that which they seek to acquire, they would not +continue to study. And as amongst the various kinds of friendship, +that which is for profit may be called the meanest friendship, so such +men as these have less share in the name of Philosopher than any other +people. + +Wherefore as the friendship conceived through honest affection is true +and perfect and perpetual, so is that philosophy true and perfect +which is generated by upright desire for knowledge, without regard to +aught else, and by the goodness of the friendly soul; which is as much +as to say, by right appetite and right reason. And it is possible to +say here that as true friendship amongst men is, that each love each +entirely, so the true Philosopher loves each part of Wisdom, and +Wisdom each part of the Philosopher, so as to draw him wholly to +herself, and to allow no thought of his to stray away to other things. +Wherefore Wisdom herself says in the Proverbs of Solomon, "I love +those who love me." And as true friendship of the mind, considered in +itself alone, has for its subject the knowledge of good effects, and +for its form the desire for the same, even so Philosophy considered in +itself alone, apart from the Soul, has understanding for its subject, +and for its form an almost divine love to intellect. + +And as the efficient cause of true friendship is Virtue, so the +efficient cause of Philosophy is Truth. And as the end of true +friendship is true affection, which proceeds from the intercourse +proper to Humanity, that is, according to the dictates of Reason, as +Aristotle seems to think in the ninth book of the Ethics, so the end +of Philosophy is that most excellent affection which suffers no +intermission or defect, that is, the true happiness which is acquired +by the contemplation of Truth. + +And thus it is now possible to see who this my Lady is, in all her +causes and in her whole reason, and why she is called Philosophy; and +who is a true Philosopher, and who is one by accident. + +But in some fervour or heat of mind the one and the other end of the +acts and of the passions are called by the word for the act itself or +the passion; as Virgil does in the second book of the Æneid, where he +calls Hector, "Oh, light" (which was the act) "and hope" (which is the +passion) "of the Trojans:" for he was neither the light nor the hope, +but he was the end whence came to them their light in council, and he +was the end in which was reposed their hope of safety; as Statius +writes in the fifth book of the Thebaid, when Hypsipyle says to +Archemorus, "Oh, consolation of things and of the lost country! oh, +honour of my servitude!" even as we say daily, showing the friend, +"See my friendship;" and the father says to the son, "My love;" and so +it is that, through long custom, the Sciences, in which most fervently +Philosophy finds the end to which she looks, are called by her name, +such as the Natural Science, the Moral Science, and the Metaphysical +Science, which last, because most necessarily she looks to her end in +that chiefly and most fervently, is called the First Philosophy. + +Now, therefore, since it has been seen what the true Philosophy is in +its essence; which is that Lady of whom I speak; how her noble name +through custom is communicated to the Sciences, and the first science +is called the First Philosophy, I may proceed further with her praise. + + + + +CHAPTER XII. + + +In the first chapter of this treatise the reason which moved me to +this Song is so fully discussed that it is no longer necessary to +discuss it further, for one can easily enough recall to mind what has +been said in this exposition: and therefore, following the divisions +made for the Literal meaning, I shall run through the Song, turning +back to the sense of the letter where it may be needful. I say, "Love, +reasoning of my Lady in my mind." By Love I mean the labour and pains +I took to acquire the love of this Lady. If one wishes to know what +labour, it can be here considered in two ways. There is one study +which leads the man to the daily use of Art and Science; there is +another study which he will employ in the acquired use. The first is +that which I call Love, which fills my mind continually with new and +most exalted ideas of this Lady: even as the anxious pains which one +takes to acquire a friendship are wont to do; for, when desiring that +friendship, a man is wont to take anxious thought concerning it. This +is that study and that affection which usually precedes in men the +begetting of the friendship, when already on one side Love is born, +and desires and strives that it may be on the other; for, as is said +above, Philosophy is born when the Soul and Wisdom have become +friends, so that the one is loved by the other. + +Neither is it again needful to discuss that first stanza in the +present explanation, which was reasoned out as the Proem in the +Literal exposition; since, from the first argument thereof, it is easy +enough to make out the meaning in this the second one. + +We may proceed, then, to the second part, which begins the treatise, +and to that place where I say, "The Sun sees not in travel round the +Earth." Here it is to be known that as, when discoursing of a sensible +thing, one handles it suitably by means of an insensible thing, so of +an intelligible thing, one fitly argues by means of an unintelligible. +In the Literal sense one speaks of the Sun as a substantial and +sensible body; so now it is fit, by image of the Sun, to discourse of +the Spiritual and Unintelligible, that is, God. + +There is no visible thing in all the world more worthy to serve as a +type of God than the Sun, which illuminates with visible light itself +first, and then all the celestial and elemental bodies. Thus, God +illuminates Himself first with intellectual light, and then the +celestial and other intelligible beings. The Sun vivifies all things +with his heat, and if anything is destroyed thereby, it is not by the +intention of the cause, but it is an accidental effect: thus God +vivifies all things in His Goodness, and, if any suffer evil, it is +not by the Divine intention, but the effect is accidental. For, if God +made the Angels good and evil, He did not make both by intention, but +He made the good only; there followed afterwards, beyond His +intention, the wickedness of the evil ones; but not so far beyond His +intention that God could not foreknow in Himself their wickedness; but +so great was the loving desire to produce the Spiritual creature that +the foreknowledge that some would come to a bad end neither could nor +should prevent God from continuing the production; as it would not be +to the praise of Nature if, knowing of herself that the flowers of a +tree in a certain part must perish, she should refuse to produce +flowers on that tree, and should abandon the production of +fruit-bearing trees as vain and useless. I say, then, that God, who +encircles and understands all, in His encircling and His understanding +sees nothing so gentle, so noble, as He sees when He shines on this +Philosophy. For, although God Himself, beholding, may see all things +together, inasmuch as the distinction of things is in Him in the same +way as the effect is in the cause, yet He sees those things also apart +and distinct. He sees, then, this Lady the most noble of all +absolutely, inasmuch as most perfectly He sees her in Himself and in +her essence. If what has been said above be recalled to mind, +Philosophy is a loving use of Wisdom; which especially is in God, +because in Him is Supreme Wisdom, and Supreme Love, and Supreme +Action; which cannot be elsewhere except inasmuch as it proceeds from +Him. It is, then, the Divine Philosophy of the Divine Being, since in +Him nothing can be that is not part of His Essence; and it is most +noble, because the Divine Essence is most noble, and it is in Him in a +manner perfect and true, as if by eternal wedlock; it is in the other +Intelligences in a less degree, as if platonic, as if a virgin love +from whom no lover receives full and complete joy, but contents +himself by gazing on the beauty of her countenance. Wherefore it is +possible to say that God sees not, that He does not intently regard, +anything so noble as this Lady; I say anything, inasmuch as He sees +and distinguishes the other things, as has been said, seeing Himself +to be the cause of all. Oh, most noble and most excellent heart, which +is at peace in the bride of the Ruler of Heaven; and not bride only, +but sister, and the daughter beloved above all others. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + + +Having seen in the beginning of the praises of this Lady how subtly it +is said that she is of the Divine Substance, as was first to be +considered, we proceed now to consider her as she is in the +Intelligences that proceed thence. "All minds of Heaven wonder at her +worth," where it is to be known that I say, "minds of Heaven," making +that allusion to God which has been mentioned above; and from this one +excludes the Intelligences who are exiled from the eternal country, +who can never study Philosophy, because love in them is entirely +extinct, and for the study of Philosophy, as has been already said, +Love is necessary. One sees, therefore, that the spirits of Hell are +deprived of the sight of this most beautiful Lady; and, since she is +the blessing of the intellect, the deprivation of her is most bitter +and full of every sadness. + +Then, when I say, "Mortals, enamoured, find her in their thought," I +descend to show how she also may come into the Human Intelligence in a +secondary degree; with which Human Philosophy I then proceed through +the treatise, praising it. I say, then, that the mortals who "find her +in their thought" in this life do not always find her there, but only +"When Love his peace into their hearts has brought;" wherein there are +to be seen three points which are alluded to in this text. + +The first is when one says, "Mortals, enamoured," because it seems to +make a distinction in the human race, and of necessity it must be +made; for, according to what manifestly appears, and which in the +following treatise will be specially reasoned out, the greatest part +of men live more according to the Sense than according to Reason; and +those who live according to the Sense can never be enamoured of this +Lady, since of her they can have no apprehension whatever. + +The second point is when it says, "When Love his peace into their +minds has brought," where it appears to make a distinction of time. +And that is necessary; for, although the separate Intelligences gaze +at this Lady continually, the Human Intelligence cannot do so; since +Human Nature, besides that which gives delight to the Intellect and +the Reason, has need of many things requisite for its support which +contemplation cannot furnish forth. Therefore our Wisdom is sometimes +habitual only, and not actual; and this does not happen to the other +Intelligences, which alone are perfect in their intellectual nature. +And so, when our soul is not in the act of contemplation, one cannot +truly say that it is in Philosophy, except inasmuch as it has the +habit of it, and the power of being able to arouse it; sometimes, +therefore, she is with the people who are enamoured of her here below, +and sometimes not. + +The third point is, when it speaks of the time when those people are +with her, namely, when Love has brought into their minds his peace; +which means no other than when the man is in the act of contemplation, +since he does not strive to feel the peace of that Lady except in the +act of contemplation. + +And thus one sees how this Lady is firstly in the Mind of God, +secondly in the other separate Intelligences through continual +contemplation, and afterwards in the human intellect through +interpreted contemplation. But the man who has her for his Lady is +ever to be termed a Philosopher, notwithstanding that he may not be +always in the final act of Philosophy, for it is usual to name other +men after their habits. Wherefore we call any man virtuous, not merely +when performing virtuous actions, but from having the habit or custom +of virtue. And we call a man eloquent, even when he is not speaking, +from his habit of eloquence, that is, of speaking well. + +And of this Philosophy, in which Human Intelligence has part, there +will now be the following encomiums to prove how great a part of her +good gifts is bestowed on Human Nature. I say, then, afterwards: + + Her Maker saw that she was good, and poured, + Beyond our Nature, fulness of His Power + On her pure Soul, whence shone this holy dower + Through all her frame. + +For the capacity of our Nature is subdued by it, which it makes +beautiful and virtuous. Wherefore, although into the habit of that +Lady one may somewhat come, it is not possible to say that any one who +enters thereinto properly has that habit; since the first study, that +whereby the habit is begotten, cannot perfectly acquire that +philosophy. And here one sees her lowly praise; for, perfect or +imperfect, she never loses the name of perfection. And because of this +her surpassing excellence, it says that the Soul of Philosophy "shone +Through all her frame," that is, that God ever imparts to her of His +Light. + +Here we may recall to mind what is said above, that Love is a form of +Philosophy, and therefore here is called her Soul; which Love is +manifest in the use of Wisdom, and such use brings with it a wonderful +beauty, that is to say, contentment under any condition of the time, +and contempt for those things which other men make their masters. + +Wherefore it happens that those other unhappy ones who gaze thereon, +and think over their own defects from the desire for perfection, fall +into the weariness of sighs; and this is meant where it says: "That +from the eyes she touches heralds fly Heartward with longings, +heavenward with a sigh." + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. + + +As in the Literal exposition, after the general praises one descends +to the especial, firstly on the part of the Soul, then on the part of +the body, so now the text proceeds after the general encomium to +descend to the especial commendation. As it is said above, Philosophy +here has Wisdom for its material subject and Love for its form, and +the habit of contemplation for the union of the two. Wherefore in this +passage which subsequently begins, "On her fair form Virtue Divine +descends," I mean to praise Love, which is part of Philosophy. Here it +is to be known that for a virtue to descend from one thing into +another there is no other way than to reduce that thing into its own +similitude; as we see evidently in the natural agents, for their +virtue descending into the things that are the patients, they bring +those things into their similitude as far as they are able to attain +it. + +We see that the Sun, pouring his rays down on this Earth, reduces the +things thereon to his own similitude of light in proportion as they by +their own disposition are able to receive light of his light. Thus, I +say that God reduces this Love to His own Similitude as much as it is +possible for it to bear likeness to Him. And it alludes to the nature +of the creative act, saying, "As on the Angel that beholds His face." +Where again it is to be known that the first Agent, who is God, paints +His Virtue on some things by means of direct radiance, and on some +things by means of reflected splendour; wherefore into the separate +Intelligences the Divine Light shines without any interposing medium; +into the others it is reflected from those Intelligences which were +first illumined. + +But since mention is here made of Light and Splendour, for the more +perfect understanding thereof I will show the difference between those +words, according to the opinion of Avicenna. I say that it is the +custom of Philosophers to speak of Heaven as Light, inasmuch as Light +is there in its primeval Spring, or its first origin. They speak of it +as a ray of Light while it passes through the medium from its source +into the first body in which it has its end; they call it Splendour +where it is reflected back from some part that has received +illumination. I say, then, that the Divine Virtue or Power draws this +Love into Its Own Similitude without any interposing medium. + +And it is possible to make this evident, especially in this, that as +the Divine Love is Eternal, so must its object of necessity be +eternal, so that those things are eternal which He loves. And thus it +makes this Love to love, for the Wisdom into which this Love strikes +is eternal. Wherefore it is written of her: "From the beginning, +before Time was created, I am: and in the Time to come I shall not +fail." And in the Proverbs of Solomon this Wisdom says: "I am +established for ever." And in the beginning of the Gospel of John, her +eternity is openly alluded to, as it is possible to observe. And +therefore it results that there, where this Love shines, all the other +Loves become obscure and almost extinct, since its eternal object +subdues and overpowers all other objects in a manner beyond all +comparison; and therefore the most excellent Philosophers in their +actions openly demonstrate it, whereby we know that they have treated +all other things with indifference except Wisdom. Wherefore +Democritus, neglecting all care of his own person, trimmed neither his +beard, nor the hair of his head, nor his nails. Plato, indifferent to +the riches of this world, despised the royal dignity, for he was the +son of a king. Aristotle, caring for no other friend, combated with +his own best friend, even with the above-named Plato, his dearest +friend after Philosophy. And why do we speak of these, when we find +others who, for these thoughts, held their life in contempt, such as +Zeno, Socrates, Seneca, and many more? It is evident, therefore, that +in this Love the Divine Power, after the manner of an Angel, descends +into men; and to give proof of this, the text presently exclaims: +"Fair one who doubt, go with her, mark the grace In all her acts." By +"Fair one" is meant the noble soul of judgment, free in its own power, +which is Reason; hence the other souls cannot be called Ladies, but +handmaids, since they are not for themselves, but for others; and the +Philosopher says, in the first book of Metaphysics, that that thing is +free which is a cause of itself and not for others. It says, "go with +her, mark the grace In all her acts," that is, make thyself the +companion of this Love, and look at that which will be found within +it; and in part it alludes to this, saying, "Downward from Heaven +bends An Angel when she speaks," meaning that where Philosophy is in +action a celestial thought stoops down, in which this being reasons or +discourses beyond the power of Human Nature. + +The Song says "from Heaven," to give people to understand that not +only Philosophy, but the thoughts friendly to it, are abstracted from +all low and earthly things. Then afterwards it says how she +strengthens and kindles love wherever she appears with the sweet +persuasions of her actions, which are in all her aspects modest, +gentle, and without any domineering assumption. And subsequently, by +still greater persuasion to induce a desire for her company, it says: +"Fair in all like her, fairest she'll appear Who is most like her." +Again it adds: "We, content to call Her face a Miracle," find help in +it, where it is to be known that the regard of this Lady was freely +ordained to arouse a desire in us for its acquisition, not only in her +countenance, which she reveals to sight, but also in the things which +she keeps hidden. Wherefore as, through her, much of that which is +hidden is seen by means of Reason (and consequently to see by Reason +without her seems a miracle), so, through her, one believes each +miracle in the action of a higher intellectual Power to have reason, +and therefore to be possible. From whence true Faith has its origin, +from which comes the Hope to desire the Future, and from that are born +the works of Charity, by which three Virtues we mount to become +Philosophers in that celestial Athens where Stoics, Peripatetics, and +Epicureans, by the practice of Eternal Truth, concur harmoniously in +one desire. + + + + +CHAPTER XV. + + +In the preceding chapter this glorious Lady is praised according to +one of her component parts, that is, Love. In this chapter I intend to +explain that passage which begins, "Her aspect shows delights of +Paradise," and here it is requisite to discuss and praise her other +part, Wisdom. + +The text then says that in the face of this Lady things appear which +show us joys of Paradise; and it distinguishes the place where this +appears, namely, in the eyes and the smile. And here it must be known +that the eyes of Wisdom are her demonstrations, whereby one sees the +Truth most certainly; but her persuasions are in her smile, in which +persuasions the inner Light of Wisdom reveals itself without any veil +or concealment. And in these two is felt that most exalted joy which +is the supreme good in Paradise. This joy cannot be in any other thing +here below, except in gazing into these eyes and upon that smile. And +the reason is this, that since each thing naturally desires its +perfection, without which it cannot be at peace, to have that is to be +blessed. For although it might possess all other things, yet, being +without that, there would remain in it desire, which cannot consist +with perfect happiness, since perfect happiness is a perfect thing, +and desire is a defective thing. For one desires not that which he +has, but that which he has not, and here is a manifest defect. And in +this form solely can human perfection be acquired, as the perfection +of Reason, on which, as on its principal part, our essential being all +depends. All our other actions, as to feel or hear, to take food, and +the rest, are through this one alone; and this is for itself, and not +for others. So that, if that be perfect, it is so perfect that the +man, inasmuch as he is a man, sees each desire fulfilled, and thus he +is happy. And therefore it is said in the Book of Wisdom: "Whoso +casteth away Wisdom and Knowledge is unhappy," that is to say, he +suffers the privation of happiness. From the habit of Wisdom it +follows that a man learns to be happy and content, according to the +opinion of the Philosopher. One sees, then, how in the aspect of this +Lady joys of Paradise appear, and therefore one reads in the Book of +Wisdom quoted above, when speaking of her, "She is a shining whiteness +of the Eternal Light; a Mirror without blemish, of the Majesty of +God." Then when it says, "Things over which the intellect may stray," +I excuse myself, saying that I can say but little concerning these, on +account of their overpowering influence. Where it is to be known that +in any way these things dazzle our intellect, inasmuch as they affirm +certain things to be, which our intellect is unable to comprehend, +that is, God and Eternity, and the first Matter which most certainly +they do not see, and with all faith they believe to be. And even what +they are we cannot understand; and so, by not denying things, it is +possible to draw near to some knowledge of them, but not otherwise. + +Truly here it is possible to have some very strong doubt how it is +that Wisdom can make the man completely happy without being able to +show him certain things perfectly; since the natural desire for +knowledge is in the man, and without fulfilment of the desire he +cannot be fully happy. To this it is possible to reply clearly, that +the natural desire in each thing is in proportion to the possibility +of reaching to the thing desired; otherwise it would pass into +opposition to itself, which is impossible; and Nature would have +worked in vain, which also is impossible. + +It would pass into opposition, for, desiring its perfection, it would +desire its imperfection, since he would desire always to desire, and +never fulfil his desire. And into this error the cursed miser falls, +and does not perceive that he desires always to desire, going +backwards to reach to an impossible amount. + +Nature also would have worked in vain, since it would not be ordained +to any end; and, in fact, human desire is proportioned in this life to +that knowledge which it is possible to have here. One cannot pass that +point except through error, which is outside the natural intention. +And thus it is proportioned in the Angelic, and it is limited in Human +Nature, and it finds its end in that Wisdom in proportion as the +nature of each can apprehend it. + +And this is the reason why the Saints have no envy amongst themselves, +since each one attains the end of his desire, and the desire of each +is in due proportion to the nature of his goodness. Wherefore, since +to know God and certain other things, as Eternity and the first +Matter, is not possible to our Nature, naturally we have no desire for +that knowledge, and hereby is this doubtful question solved. + +Then when I say, "Rain from her beauty little flames of fire," I +proceed to another joy of Paradise, that is, from the secondary +felicity, happiness, to this first one, which proceeds from her +beauty, where it is to be known that Morality is the beauty of +Philosophy. For as the beauty of the body is the result of its members +in proportion as they are fitly ordered, so the beauty of Wisdom, +which is the body of Philosophy, as has been said, results from the +order of the Moral Virtues which visibly make that joy. And therefore +I say that her beauty, which is Morality, rains down little flames of +fire, meaning direct desire, which is begotten in the pleasure of the +Moral Doctrine; which desire removes it again from the natural vices, +and not only from the others. And thence springs that happiness which +Aristotle defined in the first book of Ethics, saying, that it is Work +according to Virtue in the Perfect Life. + +And when it says, "Fair one, who may desire Escape from blame," it +proceeds in praise of Philosophy. I cry aloud to the people that they +should follow her, telling them of her good gifts, that is to say, +that by following her each one may become good. Therefore it says to +each Soul, that feels its beauty is to blame because it does not +appear what it ought to appear, let her look at this example. Where it +is to be known that the Morals are the beauty of the Soul, that is to +say, the most excellent virtues, which sometimes through vanity or +through pride are made less beautiful or less agreeable, as in the +last treatise it was possible to perceive. And therefore I say that, +in order to shun this, one looks at that Lady, Philosophy, there where +she is the example of Humility, namely, in that part of herself which +is called Moral Philosophy. And I subjoin that by gazing at her (I +say, at Wisdom) in that part, every vicious man will become upright +and good. And therefore I say she has "a spirit to create Good +thoughts, and crush the vices." She turns gently back him who has gone +astray from the right course. + +Finally, in highest praise of Wisdom, I say of her that she is the +Mother of every good Principle, saying that she is "God's thought," +who began the World, and especially the movement of the Heaven by +which all things are generated, and wherein each movement has its +origin, that is to say, that the Divine Thought is Wisdom. She was, +when God made the World; whence it follows that she could make it, and +therefore Solomon said in the Book of Proverbs, in the person of +Wisdom: "When He prepared the Heavens, I was there: when He set a +compass upon the face of the depth; when He established the clouds +above; when He strengthened the fountains of the deep; when He gave to +the sea His decree, that the waters should not pass His commandment; +when He appointed the foundations of the Earth: then I was by Him, as +one brought up with Him, and I was daily His delight, rejoicing always +before Him." O, ye Men, worse than dead, who fly from the friendship +of Wisdom, open your eyes, and see that before you were she was the +Lover of you, preparing and ordaining the process of your being! Since +you were made she came that she might guide you, came to you in your +own likeness; and, if all of you cannot come into her presence, honour +her in her friends, and follow their counsels, as of them who announce +to you the will of this eternal Empress! Close not your ears to +Solomon, who tells you "the path of the Just is as a shining Light, +which goeth forth and increaseth even to the day of salvation." Follow +after them, behold their works, which ought to be to you as a beacon +of light for guidance in the path of this most brief life. + +And here we may close the Commentary on the true meaning of the +present Song. The last stanza, which is intended for a refrain, can be +explained easily enough by the Literal exposition, except inasmuch as +it says that I there called this Lady "disdainful and morose." Where +it is to be known that at the beginning this Philosophy appeared to me +on the part of her body, which is Wisdom, morose, for she smiled not +on me, insomuch that as yet I did not understand her persuasions; and +she seemed to me disdainful, for she turned not her glance to me, that +is to say, I could not see her demonstrations. But the defect was +altogether on my side. From this, and from that which is given in the +explanation of the Literal meaning of the Song, the Allegory of the +refrain is evident. It is time, therefore, that we proceed farther, +and this treatise end. + + * * * * * + + + + +The Fourth Treatise + + + Soft rhymes of love I used to find + Within my thought, I now must leave, + Not without hope to turn to them again; + But signs of a disdainful mind + That in my Lady I perceive + Have closed the way to my accustomed strain. + + And since time suits me now to wait, + I put away the softer style + Proper to love; rhyme subtle and severe + Shall tell how Nobleman's estate + Is won by worth, hold false and vile + The judgment that from wealth derives a Peer. + + First calling on that Lord + Who dwells within her eyes, + Containing whom, my Lady learnt + Herself to love and prize. + + One raised to Empire held, + As far as he could see, + Descent of wealth, and generous ways, + To make Nobility. + + Another, lightly wise, + That saying turned aside, + Perchance for want of generous ways + The second source denied. + + And followers of him + Are all the men who rate + Those noble in whose families + The wealth has long been great. + + And so long among us + The falsehood has had sway, + That men call him a Nobleman, + Though worthless, who can say. + + I nephew am, or son, + Of one worth such a sum; + But he who sees the Truth may know + How vile he has become + + To whom the Truth was shown, + Who from the Truth has fled, + And though he walks upon the earth + Is counted with the dead: + + Whoever shall define + The man a living tree + Will speak untruth and less than truth, + Though more he may not see. + + The Emperor so erred; + First set the false in view, + Proceeding, on the other side, + To what was less than true. + + For riches make not worth + Although they can defile: + Nor can their want take worth away: + They are by nature vile. + + No painter gives a form + That is not of his knowing; + No tower leans above a stream + That far away is flowing. + + How vile and incomplete + Wealth is, let this declare + However great the heap may be + It brings no peace, but care. + + And hence the upright mind, + To its own purpose true, + Stands firm although the flood of wealth + Sweep onward out of view + + They will not have the vile + Turn noble, nor descent + From parent vile produce a race + For ever eminent. + + Yet this, they say, can be, + Their reason halts behind, + Since time they suit to noble birth + By course of time defined. + + It follows then from this + That all are high or base, + Or that in Time there never was + Beginning to our race. + + But that I cannot hold, + Nor yet, if Christians, they; + Sound intellect reproves their words + As false, and turns away. + + And now I seek to tell, + As it appears to me, + What is, whence comes, what signs attest + A true Nobility. + + I say that from one root + Each Virtue firstly springs, + Virtue, I mean, that Happiness + To man, by action, brings. + + This, as the Ethics teach, + Is habit of right choice + That holds the means between extremes, + So spake that noble voice. + + Nobility by right + No other sense has had + Than to import its subject's good, + As vileness makes him bad. + + Such virtue shows its good + To others' intellect, + For when two things agree in one, + Producing one effect. + + One must from other come, + Or each one from a third, + If each be as each, and more, then one + From the other is inferred. + + Where Virtue is, there is + A Nobleman, although + Not where there is a Nobleman + Must Virtue be also. + + So likewise that is Heaven + Wherein a star is hung, + But Heaven may be starless; so + In women and the young + + A modesty is seen, + Not virtue, noble yet; + Comes virtue from what's noble, as + From black comes violet; + + Or from the parent root + It springs, as said before, + And so let no one vaunt that him. + A noble mother bore. + + They are as Gods whom Grace + Has placed beyond all sin: + God only gives it to the Soul + That He finds pure within. + + That seed of Happiness + Falls in the hearts of few, + Planted by God within the Souls + Spread to receive His dew. + + Souls whom this Grace adorns + Declare it in each breath, + From birth that joins the flesh and soul + They show it until death. + + In Childhood they obey, + Are gentle, modest, heed + To furnish Virtue's person with + The graces it may need. + + Are temperate in Youth, + And resolutely strong, + Love much, win praise for courtesy, + Are loyal, hating wrong. + + Are prudent in their Age, + And generous and just, + And glad at heart to hear and speak + When good to man's discussed. + + The fourth part of their life + Weds them again to God, + They wait, and contemplate the end, + And bless the paths they trod. + + How many are deceived! My Song, + Against the strayers: when you reach + Our Lady, hide not from her that your end + Is labour that would lessen wrong, + And tell her too, in trusty speech, + I travel ever talking of your Friend. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + + +Love, according to the unanimous opinion of the wise men who discourse +of him, and as by experience we see continually, is that which brings +together and unites the lover with the beloved; wherefore Pythagoras +says, "In friendship many become one." + +And the things which are united naturally communicate their qualities +to each other, insomuch that sometimes it happens that one is wholly +changed into the nature of the other, the result being that the +passions of the beloved person enter into the person of the lover, so +that the love of the one is communicated to the other, and so likewise +hatred, desire, and every other passion; wherefore the friends of the +one are beloved by the other, and the enemies hated; and so in the +Greek proverb it is said: "With friends all things ought to be in +common." + +Wherefore I, having made a friend of this Lady, mentioned above in the +truthful exposition, began to love and to hate according to her love +and her hatred. I then began to love the followers of Truth, and to +hate the followers of Error and Falsehood, even as she does. But since +each thing is to be loved for itself and none are to be hated except +for excess of evil, it is reasonable and upright to hate not the +things, but the evil in the things, and to endeavour to distinguish +between these. And if any person has this intention, my most excellent +Lady understands especially how to distinguish the evil in anything, +which is the cause of hate; since in her is all Reason, and in her is +the fountain-head of all uprightness. + +I, following her as much as I could in her work as in her love, +abominated and despised the errors of the people with infamy or +reproach, not cast on those lost in error, but on the errors +themselves; by blaming which, I thought to create displeasure and to +separate the displeased ones from those faults in them which were +hated by me. Amongst which errors one especially I reproved, which, +because it is hurtful and dangerous not only to those who remain in +it, but also to others who reprove it, I separate it from them and +condemn. + +This is the error concerning Human Goodness, which, inasmuch as it is +sown in us by Nature, ought to be termed Nobility; which error was so +strongly entrenched by evil custom and by weak intellect that the +opinion of almost all people was falsified or deceived by it; and from +the false opinion sprang false judgments, and from false judgments +sprang unjust reverence and unjust contempt; wherefore the good were +held in vile disdain, and the evil were honoured and exalted. This was +the worst confusion in the world; even as he can see who looks subtly +at that which may result from it. And though it seemed that this my +Lady had somewhat changed her sweet countenance towards me, especially +where I gazed and sought to discover whether the first Matter of the +Elements was created by God, for which reason I strengthened myself to +frequent her presence a little, as if remaining there with her assent, +I began to consider in my mind the fault of man concerning the said +error. And to shun sloth, which is an especial enemy of this Lady, and +to describe or state this error very clearly, this error which robs +her of so many friends, I proposed to cry aloud to the people who are +walking in the path of evil, in order that they might direct their +steps to the right road; and I began a Song, in the beginning of which +I said, "Soft rhymes of love I used to find," wherein I intend to lead +the people back into the right path, the path of right knowledge +concerning true Nobility, as by the knowledge of its text, to the +explanation of which I now turn my attention, any one will be able to +perceive. + +And since the intention of this Song is directed to a remedy so +requisite, it was not well to speak under any figure of speech; but it +was needful to prepare this medicine speedily, that speedy might be +the restoration to health, which, being so corrupted, hastened to a +hideous death. It will not, then, be requisite in the exposition of +this Song to unveil any allegory, but simply to discuss its meaning +according to the letter. By my Lady I always mean her who is spoken of +in the preceding Song, that is to say, that Light of supreme virtue, +Philosophy, whose rays cause the flowers of true Nobility to blossom +forth in mankind and to bear fruit in the sons of men; concerning +which true Nobility the proposed Song fully intends to treat. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + + +In the beginning of the explanation now undertaken, in order to render +the meaning of the proposed Song more clear and distinct, it is +requisite to divide that first part into two parts, for in the first +part one speaks in the manner of a Proem or Preface; in the second, +the subject under discussion is continued; and the second part begins +in the commencement of the stanza, where it says: + + One raised to Empire held, + As far as he could see, + Descent of wealth, and generous ways, + To make Nobility. + +The first part, again, can be comprehended in three divisions or +members. In the first it states why I depart from my usual mode of +speech; in the second, I say of what it is my intention to discourse; +in the third, I call upon that Helper who most can aid me to establish +Truth. The second member, clause, or division begins: "And since time +suits me now." The third begins: "First calling on that Lord." I say +then that I was compelled to abandon the soft rhymes of Love which I +was accustomed to search for in my thoughts, and I assign the reason +or cause; wherefore I say that it is not because I have given up all +intention of making rhymes of Love, but because new aspects have +appeared in my Lady which have deprived me of material for present +speech of Love. Where it is to be known that it does not here say that +the gestures of this Lady are disdainful and angry according to +appearance only, as may be seen in the tenth chapter of the preceding +treatise; for at another time I say that the appearance is contrary to +the Truth; and how this can be, how one self-same thing can be sweet +and appear bitter, or rather be clear and appear obscure, may there be +seen clearly enough. + +Afterwards when I say, "And since time suits," I say, even as has been +said, what that is whereof I intend to discourse. And that which it +says in the words "time suits" is not here to be passed over with a +dry foot, because there is a most powerful reason for my action; but +it is to be seen how reasonably time must wait on all our acts, and +especially on speech. + +Time, according to what Aristotle says in the fourth chapter of +Physics, is the number of movement, first, second, and onwards; and +the number of the celestial movement, which prepares the things here +below to receive in various ways any informing power. For the Earth is +prepared in one way in the beginning of Spring to receive into itself +the informing power of the herbs and flowers, and the Winter +otherwise; and in one manner is one season prepared to receive the +seed, differing from another. And even so our Mind, inasmuch as it is +founded upon the temper of the body, which has to follow the +revolution of the Heaven, at one time is disposed in one way, at +another time in another way; wherefore words, which are, as it were, +the seeds of actions, ought very discreetly to be withheld or uttered; +they should be spoken with such sound judgment that they may be well +received, and good fruit follow from them; not withheld or spent so +sparingly that barrenness is the result of their defective utterance. +And therefore a suitable time should be chosen, both for him who +speaks and for him who must hear: for if the speaker is badly +prepared, very often his words are injurious or hurtful; and if the +hearer is ill-disposed, those words which are good are ill received. +And therefore Solomon says in Ecclesiastes: "There is a time to speak, +and a time to be silent." Wherefore I, feeling within myself that my +disposition to speak of Love was disturbed, for the cause which has +been mentioned in the preceding chapter, it seemed to me that the time +might suit me now, time which bears with it the fulfilment of every +desire, and appears in the guise of a generous giver to those who +grudge not to await him patiently. Wherefore St. James says in his +Epistle, in the fifth chapter: "Behold, the husbandman waiteth for the +precious fruit of the Earth, and hath long patience for it, until he +receive the early and the latter rain." For all our sorrows, or cares, +or vexations, if we inquire diligently into their origin, proceed, as +it were, from not knowing the use of time. I say, "since the time +suits," I will leave my pen alone, that is to say, the sweet or gentle +style I used when I sang of Love; and I say that I will speak of that +worth whereby a man is truly noble. + +And as it is possible to understand worth in many ways, here I intend +to assume worth to be a power of Nature, or rather a goodness bestowed +by her, as will be seen in what follows; and I promise to discourse on +this subject with a "rhyme subtle and severe." + +Wherefore it is requisite to know that rhyme may be considered in a +double sense, that is to say, in a wide and in a narrow sense. In the +narrow sense, it is understood as that concordance which in the last +and in the penultimate syllable it is usual to make. In the wide +sense, it is understood for all that language which, with numbers and +regulated time, falls into rhymed consonance; and thus it is desired +that it should be taken and understood in this Proem. And therefore it +says "severe," with reference to the sound of the style, which to such +a subject must not be sweet and pleasing; and it says "subtle," with +regard to the meaning of the words, which proceed with subtle argument +and disputation. + +And I subjoin: "hold false and vile The judgment;" where again it is +promised to confute the judgment of the people full of error: false, +that is, removed from the Truth; and vile, that is to say, affirmed +and fortified by vileness of mind. And it is to be observed that in +this Proem I promise, firstly, to treat of the Truth, and then to +confute the False; and in the treatise the opposite is done, for, in +the first place, I confute the False, and then treat of the Truth, +which does not appear rightly according to the promise. And therefore +it is to be known that, although the intention is to speak of both, +the principal intention is to handle the Truth; and the intention is +to reprove the False or Untrue, in so far as by so doing I make the +Truth appear more excellent. + +And here, in the first place, the promise is to speak of the Truth +according to the chief intention, which creates in the minds of the +hearers a desire to hear; for in the first treatise I reprove the +False of Untrue in order that, the false opinions being chased away, +the Truth may be received more freely. And this method was adopted by +the master of human argument, Aristotle, who always in the first place +fought with the adversaries of Truth, and then, having vanquished +them, revealed or demonstrated Truth itself. + +Finally, when I say, "First calling on that Lord," I appeal to Truth +to be with me, Truth being that Lord who dwells in the eyes of +Philosophy, that is to say, in her demonstrations. And indeed Truth is +that Lord; for the Soul espoused to Truth is the bride of Truth, and +otherwise it is a slave or servant deprived of all liberty. + +And it says, "my Lady learnt Herself to love and prize," because this +Philosophy, which has been said in the preceding treatise to be a +loving use of Wisdom, beholds herself when the beauty of her eyes +appears to her. And what else is there to be said, except that the +Philosophic Soul not only contemplates this Truth, but again +contemplates her own contemplation and the beauty of that, again +revolving upon herself, and being enamoured with herself on account of +the beauty of her first glance? + +And thus ends this which, as a Proem or Preface in three divisions, +heads the present treatise. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + + +Having seen the meaning of the Proem, we must now follow the treatise, +and, to demonstrate it clearly, it must be divided into its chief +parts, which are three. + +In the first, one treats of Nobility according to the opinion of other +men; in the second, one treats of it according to the true opinion; in +the third, one addresses speech to the Song by way of ornament to that +which has been said. The second part begins: "I say that from one root +Each Virtue firstly springs." The third begins: "How many are +deceived! My Song, Against the strayers." And after these general +parts, it will be right to make other divisions, in order to make the +meaning of the demonstration clear. Therefore, let no one marvel if it +proceed with many divisions, since a great and high work is now on my +hands, and one that is but little entered upon by authors; the +treatise must be long and subtle into which the reader now enters with +me, if I am to unfold perfectly the text according to the meaning +which it bears. + +I say, then, that this first part is now divided into two: for in the +first, the opinions of others are placed; in the second, those +opinions are confuted; and this second part begins: "Whoever shall +define The man a living tree." Again, the first part which remains has +two clauses: the first is the variation of the opinion of the Emperor; +the second is the variation of the opinion of the Common People, which +is naked or void of all reason; and this second clause or division +begins: "Another, lightly wise." I say then, "One raised to Empire," +that is to say, such an one made use of the Imperial Office. Where it +is to be known that Frederick of Suabia, the last Emperor of the +Romans (I say last with respect to the present time, notwithstanding +that Rudolf, and Adolphus, and Albert were elected after his death and +from his descendants), being asked what Nobility might be, replied +that "it was ancient wealth, and good manners." + +And I say that there was another of less wisdom, who, pondering and +revolving this definition in every part, removed the last particle, +that is, the good manners, and held to the first, that is, to the +ancient riches. And as he seems to have doubted the text, perhaps +through not having good manners, and not wishing to lose the title of +Nobility, he defined it according to that which made himself noble, +namely, possession of ancient wealth. + +And I say that this opinion is that of almost all, saying that after +it go all the people who make those men noble who have a long +pedigree, and who have been rich through many generations; since in +this cry do almost all men bark. + +These two opinions (although one, as has been said, is of no +consequence whatever) seem to have two very grave arguments in support +of them. The first is, that the Philosopher says that whatever appears +true to the greatest number cannot be entirely false. The second is, +the authority of the definition by an Emperor. And that one may the +better see the power of the Truth, which conquers all other authority, +I intend to argue with the one reason as with the other, to which it +is a strong helper and powerful aid. + +And, firstly, one cannot understand Imperial authority until the roots +of it are found. It is our intention to treat or discourse of them in +an especial chapter. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + + +The radical foundation of Imperial Majesty, according to the Truth, is +the necessity of Human Civilization, which is ordained to one end, +that is, to a Happy Life. Nothing is of itself sufficient to attain +this without some external help, since man has need of many things +which one person alone is unable to obtain. And therefore the +Philosopher says that man is naturally a companionable animal. And as +a man requires for his sufficient comfort the domestic companionship +of a family, so a house requires for its sufficient comfort a +neighbourhood; otherwise there would be many wants to endure which +would be an obstacle to happiness. And since a neighbourhood cannot +satisfy all requirements, there must for the satisfaction of men be +the City. Again, the City requires for its Arts and Manufactures to +have an environment, as also for its defence, and to have brotherly +intercourse with the circumjacent or adjacent Cities, and thence the +Kingdom. + +But since the human mind in restricted possession of the Earth finds +no peace, but always desires to acquire Glory, as we see by +experience, discords and wars must arise between realm and realm. +These are the tribulation of Cities; and through the Cities, of the +neighbourhoods; and through the neighbourhoods, of the houses; and +through the houses, of men; and thus is the happiness of man prevented +or obstructed. Wherefore, in order to prevent these wars, and to +remove the causes of them through all the Earth, so far as it is given +to the Human Race to possess it, there must of necessity be Monarchy, +that is to say, one sole principality; and there must be one Prince, +who, possessing all, and not being able to desire more, holds the +Kings content within the limits of the kingdoms, so that peace may be +between them, wherein the Cities may repose, and in this rest the +neighbouring hamlets may dwell together in mutual love; in this love +the houses obtain all they need, which, being obtained, men can live +happily, which is that end for which man was born. And to these +reasons might be applied the words of the Philosopher, for he says, in +the book On Politics, that when many things are ordained to one end, +one of those must be the ruling power, and all the others must be +governed by that. Even as we see in a ship that the different offices +and the different means to different ends in that ship are ordained to +one end alone, that is to say, to reach the desired port by a safe +voyage, where as each officer orders his own work to the proper end, +even so there is one who considers all these ends, and ordains those +to the final one; and this is the Pilot, whose voice all must obey. + +We see this also in the religious bodies and in the military bodies, +in all those things which are ordained to one end, as has been said. +Wherefore it can plainly be seen that to attain the perfection of the +Universal Union of the Human Race there must be one Pilot, as it were, +who, considering the different conditions of the World, and ordaining +the different and needful offices, may hold or possess over the whole +the universal and incontestable office of Command. And this office is +well designated Empire, without any addition, because it is of all +other governments the government; and so he who is appointed to this +office is designated Emperor, because of all Governors he is the +Governor, and what he says is Law to all, and ought by all to be +obeyed; and every other government derives vigour and authority from +the government of this man. And thus it is evident that the Imperial +Majesty and Authority is the most exalted in the Human Family. + +No doubt it would be possible for some one to cavil, saying, that +although the office of Empire may be required in the World, that does +not make the authority of the Roman Prince rationally supreme, which +it is the intention of the treatise to prove; since the Roman Power +was acquired, not by Reason nor by decree of Universal Election, but +by Force, which seems to be opposed to Reason. To this one can easily +reply, that the election of this Supreme Official must primarily +proceed from that Council which foresees all things, that is, God; +otherwise the election would not have been of equal benefit for all +the people, since, before the pre-ordained Official, there was none +who had the good of all at heart. + +And since a gentler nature in ruling, and a stronger in maintaining, +and a more subtle in acquiring never was and never will be than that +of the Latin People, as one can see by experience, and especially that +of the Holy People, in whom was blended the noble Trojan blood; to +that office it was elected by God. Wherefore, since, to obtain it, not +without very great power could it be approached, and to employ it a +most exalted and most humane benignity was required, this was the +people which was most fitly prepared for it. Hence not by Force was it +assumed in the first place by the Roman People but by Divine +Ordinance, which is above all Reason. And Virgil is in harmony with +this in the first book of the Æneid, when he says, speaking in the +person of God: "On these [that is, on the Romans] I impose no limits +to their possessions, nor to their duration; to them I have given +boundless Empire." Force, then, was not the moving cause, as he +believed who was cavilling; but there was an instrumental cause even +as the blows of the hammer are the cause of the knife, and the soul of +the workman is the moving and the efficient cause; and thus, not +force, but a cause, even a Divine Cause, has been the origin of the +Roman Empire. + +And that this is so it is possible to see by two most evident reasons, +which prove that City to be the Empress, and to have from God an +especial birth, and to have from God an especial success. But since in +this chapter without too great length it would not be possible to +discuss this subject, and long chapters are the enemies of Memory, I +will again make a digression in another chapter in order to prove the +reasons here alluded to, which are not without and may give great +pleasure. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + + +It is no cause for wonder if the Divine Providence, which surpasses +beyond measure all angelic and human foresight, often appears to us to +proceed mysteriously, since many times human actions conceal their +motives from men. But there is great cause for wonder when the +execution of the Eternal Counsel proceeds so evidently that our reason +can discern it. And therefore in the beginning of this chapter I can +speak with the mouth of Solomon, who, in the person of Wisdom, says in +his Proverbs: "Hear, for I will speak of excellent things!" + +The Divine Goodness unmeasureable, desiring to conform again to Itself +the Human Creature, which, through the sin of the prevarication of the +first Man, was separated from God and deformed thereby, it was +decided, in that most exalted and most united Divine Consistory of the +Trinity, that the Son of God should descend to the Earth to accomplish +this union. And since at His advent into the world, not only Heaven, +but Earth, must be in the best disposition; and the best disposition +of the Earth is when it is a Monarchy, that is to say, all subject to +one Prince, as has been said above, by Divine Providence it was +ordained what people and what city should fulfil this, and that people +was the Roman nation, and that city was glorious Rome. And since the +Inn also wherein the Heavenly King must enter must of necessity be +most cleanly and most pure, there was ordained a most Holy Race, from +which, after many excellent or just ancestors, there should be born a +Woman more perfect than all others, who should be the abode of the Son +of God. And this race was the Race of David, from which was born the +glory and honour of the Human Race, that is to say, Mary. And +therefore it is written in Isaiah: "A virgin shall be born of the stem +of Jesse, and a branch shall grow out of his roots." And Jesse was the +father of the aforesaid David. And it happened at one period of time +that when David was born, Rome was born, that is to say, Æneas then +came from Troy to Italy, which was the origin of the most noble Roman +City, even as the written word bears witness. Evident enough, +therefore, is the Divine election of the Roman Empire by the birth of +the Holy City, which was contemporaneous with the root of the race +from which Mary sprang. + +And incidentally it is to be mentioned that, since this Heaven began +to revolve, it never was in a better disposition than when He +descended from on high, He who had made it and who is its Ruler, even +as again by virtue of their arts the Mathematicians may be able to +discover. The World never was nor ever will be so perfectly prepared +as then, when it was governed by the voice of one man alone, Prince +and Commander of the Roman people, even as Luke the Evangelist bears +witness. And therefore there was Universal Peace, which never was +again nor ever will be, for the Ship of the Human Family rightly by a +sweet pathway was hastening to its rightful haven. Oh, ineffable and +incomprehensible Wisdom of God, which in Heaven above didst prepare, +so long beforehand, for Thy advent into Syria and here in Italy at the +same time! And oh, most foolish and vile beasts who pasture in the +guise of men--you who presume to speak against our Faith, and profess +to know, as ye spin and dig, what God has ordained with so much +forethought--curses be on you and your presumption, and on him who +believes in you! + +And, as has been said above, at the end of the preceding chapter, the +Roman People had from God not only an especial birth, but an especial +success; for, briefly, from Romulus, who was the first father of Rome, +even to its most perfect era, that is, to the time of its predicted +Emperor, its success was achieved not only by human, but by Divine +means. For if we consider the Seven Kings who first governed +it--Romulus, Numa, Tullus, Ancus Martius, Servius Tullius, and the +Tarquins, who were, as it were, the nurses and tutors of its +Childhood--we shall be able to find, by the written word of Roman +History, especially by Titus Livius, those to have been of different +natures, according to the opportunity of the advancing tract of time. +If we consider, then, its Adolescence, when it was emancipated from +the regal tutorship by Brutus, the first Consul, even to Cæsar, its +first supreme Prince, we shall find it exalted, not with human, but +with Divine citizens, into whom, not human, but Divine love was +inspired in loving Rome; and this neither could be nor ought to be, +except for an especial end intended by God through such infusion of a +heavenly spirit. And who will say that there was no Divine inspiration +in Fabricius when he rejected an almost infinite amount of gold +because he was unwilling to abandon his country? or in Curius, whom +the Samnites attempted to corrupt, who said, when refusing a very +large quantity of gold for love of his country, that the Roman +citizens did not desire to possess gold, but the possessors of the +gold? Who will say there was no Divine inspiration in Mutius burning +his own hand because it had failed in the blow wherewith he had +thought to deliver Rome? Who will say of Torquatus, who sentenced his +own son to death from love to the Public Good, that he could have +endured this without a Divine Helper? Who will say this of the Brutus +before mentioned? Who will say it of the Decii and of the Drusi, who +laid down their lives for their country? Who will say of the captive +Regulus of Carthage, sent to Rome to exchange the Carthaginian +prisoners for Roman prisoners of war, who, after having explained the +object of his embassy, gave counsel against himself; through pure love +to Rome, that he was moved to do this by the impulse of Human Nature +alone? Who will say it of Quinctius Cincinnatus, who, taken from the +plough and made dictator, after the time of office had expired, +spontaneously refusing its continuance, followed his plough again? Who +will say of Camillus, banished and chased into exile, who, having come +to deliver Rome from her enemies, and having accomplished her +liberation, spontaneously returned into exile in order not to offend +against the authority of the Senate, that he was without Divine +inspiration? O, most sacred heart of Cato, who shall presume to speak +of thee? Truly, to speak freely of thee is not possible; it were +better to be silent and to follow Jerome, when, in the Preface of the +Bible where he alludes to Paul, he says that it were better to be +silent than say little. Certainly it must be evident, remembering the +lives of these men and of the other Divine citizens, that such wonders +could not have been without some light of the Divine Goodness, added +to their own goodness of nature. And it must be evident that these +most excellent men were instruments with which Divine Providence +worked in the building up of the Roman Empire, wherein many times the +arm of God appeared to be present. And did not God put His own hand to +the battle wherein the Albans fought with the Romans in the beginning +for the chief dominion, when one Roman alone held in his hands the +liberty of Rome? And did not God interfere with His own hands when the +Franks, having taken all Rome, attacked by stealth the Capitol by +night, and the voice alone of a goose caused this to be known? And did +not God interfere with His own hands when, in the war with Hannibal, +having lost so many citizens that three bushels of rings were carried +into Africa, the Romans wished to abandon the land, if the blessed +Scipio the younger had not undertaken his expedition into Africa for +the recovery of freedom? And did not God interfere with His own hands +when a new citizen of humble station, Tullius, defended, against such +a citizen as Catiline, the Roman liberty? Yes, surely. Wherefore one +should not need to inquire further to see that an especial birth and +an especial success were in the Mind of God decreed to that holy City. +And certainly I am of a firm opinion that the stones which remain in +her walls are worthy of reverence; and it is asserted and proved that +the ground whereon she stands is worthy beyond all other that is +occupied by man. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + + +Above, in the third chapter of this treatise, a promise was made to +discourse of the supremacy of the Imperial Authority and of the +Philosophic Authority. And since the Imperial Authority has been +discussed, my digression must now proceed further in order to consider +that of the Philosopher, according to the promise made. + +And here we must first see what is the meaning of this word; since +here there is a greater necessity to understand it than there was +above in the argument on the Imperial Authority, which, on account of +its Majesty, does not seem to be doubted. It is then to be known that +Authority is no other than the act of the Author. + +This word, that is to say, Auctore, without this third letter, +_c_, can be derived from two roots. One is from a verb, whose use +in grammar is much abandoned, which signifies to bind or to tie words +together, that is, A U I E O; and whoso looks well at it in its first +vowel or syllable will clearly perceive that it demonstrates it +itself, for it is constituted solely of a tie of words, that is, of +five vowels alone, which are the soul and bond of every word, and +composed of them in a twisted way, to figure the image of a ligature; +for beginning with the A, then it twists round into the U, and comes +straight through the I into the E, then it revolves and turns round +into the O: so that truly this figure represents A, E, I, O, U, which +is the figure or form of a tie; and how much _Autore_ (Author) +derives its origin from this word, one learns from the poets alone, +who have bound their words together with the art of harmony; but on +this signification we do not at present dwell. The other root from +which the word "Autore" (Author) is derived, as Uguccione testifies in +the beginning of his Derivations, is a Greek word, "Autentim," which +in Latin means "worthy of faith and obedience." And thus "Autore" +(Author), derived from this, is taken for any person worthy to be +believed and obeyed; and thence comes this word, of which one treats +at the present moment, that is to say, Authority. Wherefore one can +see that Authority is equivalent to an act worthy of faith and +obedience. + +[Here is a small break in the original, containing some such words +as--Worthy, nay, most worthy, of obedience and of faith is Aristotle:] +hence it is evident that his words are a supreme and chief Authority. +That Aristotle is most worthy of faith and obedience, one can thus +prove. Amongst workmen and artificers of different Arts and +Manufactures, which are all directed to one final work of Art, or to +one building, the Artificer or Designer of that work must be +completely believed in, and implicitly obeyed by all, as the man who +alone beholds the ultimate end of all the other ends. Hence the +sword-cutler must believe in the knight, so must the bridle-maker and +saddle-maker and the shield-maker, and all those trades which are +appointed to the profession of knighthood. And since all human actions +require an aim, which is that of human life, to which man is appointed +inasmuch as he is man, the master and artificer who considers that aim +and demonstrates it ought especially to be believed in and obeyed; and +he is Aristotle; wherefore he is most worthy of faith and obedience. +And in order to see how Aristotle is the master and leader of Human +Reason in so far as it aims at its final operation, it is requisite to +know that this our aim of life, which each one naturally desires, in +most ancient times was searched for by the Wise Men; and since those +who desire this end are so numerous, and their desires are as it were +all singularly different, although they exist in us universally, it +was nevertheless very difficult to discern that end whereon rightly +each human appetite or desire might repose. + +There were then many ancient philosophers, the first and the chief of +whom was Zeno, who saw and believed this end of human life to be +solely a rigid honesty, that is to say, rigid without regard to any +one in following Truth and Justice, to show no sorrow, to show no joy, +to have no sense of any passion whatever. And they defined thus this +honest uprightness, as that which, without bearing fruit, is to be +praised for reason of itself. And these men and their sect were called +Stoics; and that glorious Cato was one of them, of whom in the +previous chapter I had not courage enough to speak. + +Other philosophers there were who saw and believed otherwise; and of +these the first and chief was a philosopher, who was named Epicurus, +who, seeing that each animal as soon as it is born is as it were +directed by Nature to its right end, which shuns pain and seeks for +pleasure, said that this end or aim of ours was enjoyment. I do not +say greedy enjoyment, voluntade, but I write it with a _p_, +voluptate, that is, delight or pleasure free from pain; and therefore +between pleasure and pain no mean was placed. He said that pleasure +was no other than no pain; as Tullius seems to say in the first +chapter De Finibus. And of these, who from Epicurus are named +Epicureans, was Torquatus, a noble Roman, descended from the blood of +the glorious Torquatus mention of whom I made above. There were +others, and they had their rise from Socrates, and then from his +successor, Plato, who, looking more subtly, and seeing that in our +actions it was possible to sin, and that one sinned in too much and in +too little, said that our action, without excess and without defect, +measured to the due mean of our own choice, is virtue, and virtue is +the aim of man; and they called it action with virtue. And these were +called Academicians, as was Plato and Speusippus, his nephew; they +were thus called from the place where Plato taught, that is, the +Academy; neither from Socrates did they take or assume any word, +because in his Philosophy nothing was affirmed. Truly Aristotle, who +had his surname from Stagira, and Xenocrates of Chalcedon, his +companion, through the genius, almost Divine, which Nature had put +into Aristotle, knowing this end by means of the Socratic method, with +the Academic file, as it were, reduced Moral Philosophy to perfection, +and especially Aristotle. And since Aristotle began to reason while +walking hither and thither, they were called, he, I say, and his +companions, Peripatetics, which means the same as walkers about. And +since the perfection of this Morality by Aristotle was attained, the +name of Academician became extinct, and all those who attached +themselves to this sect are called Peripatetics, and these people hold +the doctrine of the government of the World through all its parts: and +it may be termed a catholic opinion, as it were. Wherefore it is +possible to see that Aristotle was the Indicator and the Leader of the +people to this mark. And this is what I wished to prove. + +Wherefore, collecting all together, the principal intention is +manifest, that is to say, that the authority of him whom we understand +to be the supreme Philosopher is full of complete vigour, and in no +way repugnant to Imperial Authority. But the Imperial without the +Philosopher is dangerous; and this without that is weak, not of +itself, but through the disorder of the people: but when one is united +with the other they are together most useful and full of all vigour; +and therefore it is written in that Book of Wisdom: "Love the Light of +Wisdom, all you who are before the people," that is to say, unite +Philosophic Authority with the Imperial, in order to rule well and +perfectly. O, you miserable ones, who rule at the present time! and O, +most miserable ones, you who are ruled! For no Philosophic Authority +is united with your governments, neither through suitable study nor by +counsel; so that to all it is possible to repeat those words from +Ecclesiastes: "Woe to thee, O land, when thy King is a child, and thy +Princes eat in the morning;" and to no land is it possible to say that +which follows: "Blessed art thou, O land, when thy King is the son of +nobles, and thy Princes eat in due season, for strength and not for +drunkenness." + +Ye enemies of God, look to your flanks, ye who have seized the +sceptres of the kingdoms of Italy. And I say to you, Charles, and to +you, Frederick, Kings, and to you, ye other Princes and Tyrants, see +who sits by the side of you in council, and count how many times a day +this aim of human life is indicated to you by your councillors. Better +would it be for you, like swallows, to fly low down than, like kites, +to make lofty circles over carrion. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + + +Since it is seen how much the Imperial Authority and the Philosophic +are to be revered, which must support the opinions propounded, it is +now for us to return into the straight path to the intended goal. I +say, then, that this last opinion of the Common People has continued +so long that without other cause, without inquiry into any reason, +every man is termed Noble who may be the son or nephew of any brave +man, although he himself is nothing. And this is what the Song says: + + And so long among us + This falsehood has had sway, + That men call him a Nobleman, + Though worthless, who can say, + + I nephew am, or son, + Of one worth such a sum. + +Wherefore it is to be observed that it is most dangerous negligence to +allow this evil opinion to take root; for even as weeds multiply in +the uncultivated field, and surmount and cover the ear of the corn, so +that, looking at it from a distance, the wheat appears not, and +finally the corn is lost; so the evil opinion in the mind, neither +chastised nor corrected, increases and multiplies, so that the ear of +Reason, that is, the true opinion, is concealed and buried as it were, +and so it is lost. O, how great is my undertaking in this Song, for I +wish now to weed the field so full of wild and woody plants as is this +field of the common opinion so long bereft of tillage! Certainly I do +not intend to cleanse all, but only those parts where the ears of +Reason are not entirely overcome; that is, I intend to lift up again +those in whom some little light of Reason still lives through the +goodness of their nature; the others need only as much care as the +brute beasts: wherefore it seems to me that it would not be a less +miracle to lead back to Reason him in whom it is entirely extinct than +to bring back to Life him who has been four days in the grave. + +Then the evil quality of this popular opinion is narrated suddenly, as +if it were a horrible thing; it strikes at that, springing forth from +the order of the confutation, saying, "But he who sees the Truth will +know How vile he has become," in order to make people understand its +intolerable wickedness, saying, that those men lie especially, for not +only is the man vile, that is, not Noble, who, although descended from +good people, is himself wicked, but also he is most vile; and I quote +the example of the right path being indicated, where, to prove this, +it is fit for me to propound a question, and to reply to that question +in this way. + +There is a plain with certain paths, a field with hedges, with +ditches, with rocks, with tanglewood, with all kinds of obstacles; +with the exception of its two straight paths. And it has snowed so +much that the snow covers everything, and presents one smooth +appearance on every side, so that no trace of any path is to be seen. +Here comes a man from one part of the country, and he wishes to go to +a house which is on the other side; and by his industry, that is, +through prudent foresight and through the goodness of genius, guided +solely by himself, he goes through the right path whither he meant to +go, leaving the prints of his footsteps behind him. Another comes +after this man, and he wishes to go to that mansion, and to him it is +only needful to follow the footprints left there; but through his own +fault this man strays from the path, which the first man without a +guide has known how to keep; this man, though it is pointed out to +him, loses his way through the brambles and the rocks, and he goes not +to the place whither he is bound. + +Which of these men ought to be termed excellent, brave, or worthy? I +reply: He who went first. How would you designate that other man? I +reply: "As most vile." Why is he not called unworthy or cowardly, that +is to say, vile? I reply: Because unworthy, that is, vile, he should +be called who, having no guide, might have failed to walk +straightforward; but since this man had a guide, his error and his +fault can rise higher; and therefore he is to be called, not vile, but +most vile. And likewise he who, by his father or by some elder of his +race is ennobled, and does not continue in a noble course, not only is +he vile, but he is most vile, and deserving of as much contempt and +infamy as any other villain, if not of more. And because a man may +preserve himself from this vile baseness, Solomon lays this command on +him who has had a brave and excellent ancestor, in the twenty-second +chapter of Proverbs: "Remove not the ancient landmark, which thy +fathers have set," And previously he says, in the fourth chapter of +the said book: "The path of the Just," that is, of the worthy men, "is +as the shining light, that shineth more and more unto the perfect day; +the way of the wicked is as darkness, and they know not at what they +stumble." + +Finally, when it says, "And though he walks upon the earth Is counted +with the dead," to his greater disgrace I say that this most +worthless man is dead, seeming still alive. Where it is to be known +that the wicked man may be truly said to be dead, and especially he +who goes astray from the path trodden by his good ancestor. And this +it is possible to prove thus: as Aristotle says in the second book On +the Soul, to live is to be with the living; and since there are many +ways of living--as in the plants to vegetate; in the animals to +vegetate and to feel and to move; in men to vegetate, to feel, to +move, and to reason, or rather to understand; and since things ought +to be denominated by the noblest part, it is evident that in animals +to live is to feel--in the brute animals, I say; in man, to live is to +use reason. Wherefore, if to live is the life or existence of man, and +if thus to depart from the use of Reason, which is his life, is to +depart from life or existence, even thus is that man dead. + +And does he not depart from the use of Reason who does not reason or +think concerning the aim of his life? And does he not depart from the +use of Reason who does not reason or think concerning the path which +he ought to take? Certainly he does so depart; and this is evident +especially in him who has the footprints before him, and looks not at +them; and therefore Solomon says in the fifth chapter of Proverbs: "He +shall die without instruction; and in the greatness of his folly he +shall go astray," that is to say, he is dead who becomes a disciple, +and who does not follow his master; and such an one is most vile. + +And of him it would be possible for some one to say: How is he dead +and yet he walks? I reply, that as a man he is dead, but as a beast he +has remained alive; for as the Philosopher says in the second book On +the Soul, the powers of the Soul stand upon itself, as the figure of +the quadrangle stands upon the triangle, and the pentagon stands upon +the quadrangle; so the sensitive stands upon the vegetative, and the +intellectual stands upon the sensitive. Wherefore, as, by removing the +last side of the pentagon, the quadrangle remains, so by removing the +last power of the Soul, that is, Reason, the man no longer remains, +but a thing with a sensitive soul only, that is, the brute animal. + +And this is the meaning or intention of the second part of the devised +Song, in which are placed the opinions of others. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + + +The most beautiful branch which grows up from the root of Reason is +Discretion. For as St. Thomas says thereupon in the prologue to the +book of Ethics, to know the order of one thing to another is the +proper act of Reason; and this is Discretion. One of the most +beautiful and sweetest fruits of this branch is the reverence which +the lesser owes to the greater. Wherefore Tullius, in the first +chapter of the Offices, when speaking of the beauty which shines forth +in Uprightness, says that reverence is part of that beauty; and thus +as this reverence is the beauty of Uprightness, so its opposite is +baseness and want of uprightness; which opposite quality it is +possible to term irreverence, or rather as impudent boldness, in our +Vulgar Tongue. + +And therefore this Tullius in the same place says: "To treat with +contemptuous indifference that which others think of one, not only is +the act of an arrogant, but also of a dissolute person," which means +no other except that arrogance and dissolute conduct show want of +self-knowledge, which is the beginning of the capacity for all +reverence. Wherefore I, desiring (and bearing meanwhile all reverence +both to the Prince and to the Philosopher) to remove the infirmity +from the minds of some men, in order afterwards to build up thereupon +the light of truth, before I proceed to confute the opinions +propounded, will show how, whilst confuting those opinions, I argue +with irreverence neither against the Imperial Majesty nor against the +Philosopher. For if in any part of this entire book I should appear +irreverent, it would not be so bad as in this treatise; in which, +whilst treating of Nobility, I ought to appear Noble, and not vile. + +And firstly I will prove that I do not presume against the authority +of the Philosopher; then I will prove that I do not presume against +Imperial Majesty. + +I say, then, that when the Philosopher says, "that which appears to +the most is impossible to be entirely false," I do not mean to speak +of the external appearance, that is, the sensual, but of that which +appears within, the rational; since the sensual appearance, according +to most people, is many times most false, especially in the common +things appreciable by the senses, wherein the sense is often deceived. +Thus we know that to most people the Sun appears of the width of a +foot in diameter; and this is most false, for, according to the +inquiry and the discovery which human reason has made with its skill, +the diameter of the body of the Sun is five times as much as that of +the Earth and also one-half time more, since the Earth in its diameter +is six thousand five hundred miles, the diameter of the Sun, which to +the sense of sight presents the appearance of the width of one foot, +is thirty-five thousand seven hundred and fifty miles. Wherefore it is +evident that Aristotle did not understand or judge it by the +appearance which it presents to the sense of sight. And therefore, if +I intend only to oppose false trust in appearance according to the +senses, that is not done against the intention of the Philosopher, and +therefore I do not offend against the reverence which is due to him. + +And that I intend to confute the appearance according to the sense is +manifest; for those people who judge thus, judge only by what they +feel or think of those things which fortune can give and take away. +For, because they see great alliances made and high marriages to take +place, and the wonderful palaces, the large possessions, great +lordships, they believe that all those things are the causes of +Nobility--nay, they believe them to be Nobility itself. For if they +could judge with any appearance of reason, they would say the +contrary, that is, that Nobility is the cause of these things, as will +be seen in the sequel of this treatise. And even as it may be seen +that I speak not against the reverence due to the Philosopher whilst +confuting this error, so I speak not against the reverence due to the +Empire; and the reason I intend to show. But when he reasons or argues +before the adversary, the Rhetorician ought to use much caution in his +speech, in order that the adversary may not derive thence material +wherewith to disturb the Truth. I, who speak in this treatise in the +presence of so many adversaries, cannot speak briefly; wherefore, if +my digressions should be long, let no one marvel. + +I say, then, that, in order to prove that I am not irreverent to the +Majesty of the Empire, it is requisite, in the first place, to see +what reverence is. I say that reverence is no other than a confession +of due submission by an evident sign; and, having seen this, it +remains to distinguish between them. Irreverent expresses privation, +not reverent expresses negation; and, therefore, irreverence is to +disavow the due submission by a manifest sign. The want of reverence +is to refuse submission as not due. A man can deny or refuse a thing +in a double sense. In one way, the man can deny offending against the +Truth when he abstains from the due confession, and this properly is +to disavow. In another way, the man can deny offending against the +Truth when he does not confess that which is not, and this is proper +negation; even as for the man to deny that he is entirely mortal is to +deny properly speaking. Wherefore, if I deny or refuse reverence due +to the Imperial Authority, I am not irreverent, but I am not reverent; +which is not against reverence, forasmuch as it offends not that +Imperial Authority; even as not to live does not offend Life, but +Death, which is privation of that Life, offends; wherefore, to die is +one thing and not to live is another thing, for not to live is in the +stones. And since Death expresses privation, which cannot be except in +decease of the subject, and the stones are not the subject of Life, +they should not be called dead, but not living. In like manner, I, who +in this case ought not to have reverence to the Imperial Authority, am +not irreverent if I deny or refuse it, but I am not reverent, which is +neither boldness, nor presumption, nor a thing to be blamed. But it +would be presumption to be reverent, if it could be called reverence, +since it would fall into greater and more true irreverence, that is, +into irreverence of Nature and of Truth, as will be seen in the +sequel. Against this error that Master of Philosophers, Aristotle, +guards, in the beginning of the book of Ethics, when he says: "If the +friends are two, and one is the Truth, their one mind is the Truth's." +If I have said that I am not reverent, that is, to deny reverence, or +by a manifest sign to deny or refuse a submission not due. It is to be +seen how this is to deny and not to disavow, that is to say, it +remains to be seen how, in this case, I am not rightfully subject to +the Imperial Majesty. It must be a long argument wherewith I intend to +prove this in the chapter next following. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + + +To see how in this case, that is, in approving or in not approving the +opinion of the Emperor, I am not held in subjection to him, it is +necessary to recall to mind that which has been argued previously +concerning the Imperial Office, in the fourth chapter of this +treatise, namely, that to promote the perfection of human Life, +Imperial Authority was designed; and that it is the director and ruler +of all our operations, and justly so, for however far our operations +extend themselves, so far the Imperial Majesty has jurisdiction, and +beyond those limits it does not reach. But as each Art and Office of +mankind is restricted by the Imperial Office within certain limits, so +this Imperial Office is confined by God within certain bounds. And it +is not to be wondered at, for the Office and the Arts of Nature in all +her operations we see to be limited. For if we wish to take Universal +Nature, it has jurisdiction as far as the whole World, I say as far as +Heaven and Earth extend; and this within a certain limit, as is proved +by the third chapter of the book on Physics, and by the first chapter, +of Heaven and the World. Then the jurisdiction of Universal Nature is +limited within a certain boundary, and consequently the individual; of +which also He is the Limiter who is limited by nothing, that is, the +First Goodness, that is, God, who alone with infinite capacity +comprehends the Infinite. And, that we may see the limits of our +operations, it is to be known that those alone are our operations +which are subject to Reason and to Will; for, if in us there is the +digestive operation, that is not human, but natural. And it is to be +known that our Reason is ordained to four operations, separately to be +considered; for those are operations which Reason only considers and +does not produce, neither can produce, any one of them, such as are +the Natural facts and the Supernatural and the Mathematics. And those +are operations which it considers and does in its own proper act which +are called rational, such as are the arts of speech. And those are +operations which it considers and does in material beyond itself, such +as are the Mechanical Arts. And all these operations, although the +considering them is subject to our will, they in their essential form +are not subject to our will; for although we might will that heavy +things should mount upwards naturally, they would not be able to +ascend; and although we might will that the syllogism with false +premisses should conclude with demonstration of the Truth, it could +not so conclude; and although we might will that the house should +stand as firmly when leaning forward as when upright, it could not be; +since of those operations we are not properly the factors, we are +their discoverers; Another ordained them and made them, the great +Maker, who alone can Will and Do All--God. + +There also are operations which our Reason considers and which lie in +the act of the Will, such as to offend and to rejoice; such as to +stand firm in the battle and to fly from it; such as to be chaste and +to be lewd; these are entirely subject to our will, and therefore we +are called from them good and evil, because such acts are entirely our +own; for so far as our will can obtain power, so far do our operations +extend. And since in all these voluntary operations there is some +equity to preserve and some iniquity to shun--which equity may be lost +through two causes, either through not knowing what it is, or through +not wishing to follow it--the written Reason, the Law, was invented, +both to point it out to us and to command its observance. Wherefore +Augustine says: "If men could know this, that is, Equity, and knowing +it would obey it, the written Reason, the Law, would not be needful." +And therefore it is written in the beginning of the old Digests or +Books of the Civil Law: "The written Reason is the Art of Goodness and +of Equity." To write this, to show forth and to enforce this, is the +business of that Official Post of which one speaks, that of the +Emperor, to whom, as has been said, in so far as our own operations +extend, we are subject, and no farther. For this reason in each Art +and in each trade the artificers and the scholars are and ought to be +subject to the chief and to the master of their trades and Art: beyond +their callings the subjection ceases, because the superiority ceases. +So that it is possible to speak of the Emperor in this manner, if we +will represent his office figuratively, and say that he may be the +rider of the Human Will, of which horse how it goes without its rider +through the field is evident enough, and especially in miserable +Italy, left without any means for its right government. And it is to +be considered that in proportion as a thing is more fit for the +Master's art, so much the greater is the subjection; for the cause +being multiplied, so is the effect multiplied. Wherefore it is to be +known that there are things which are such pure or simple Arts that +Nature is their instrument; even as rowing with an oar, where the Art +makes its instrument by impulsion, which is a natural movement; as in +the threshing of the corn, where the Art makes its instrument, which +is a natural quality. And in this especially a man ought to be subject +to the chief and master of the Art. And there are things in which Art +is the instrument of Nature, and these are lesser Arts; and in these +the artificers are less subject to their chief, as in giving the seed +to the Earth, where one must await the will of Nature; as to sail out +of the harbour or port, where one must await the natural disposition +of the weather; and therefore we often see in these things contention +amongst the artificers, and the greater to ask counsel of the lesser. +And there are other things which are not Arts, but appear to have some +relationship with them; and therefore men are often deceived; and in +these the scholars are not subject to a master, neither are they bound +to believe in him so far as regards the Art. Thus, to fish seems to +have some relationship with navigation; and to know the virtue of the +herb or grass seems to have some relationship with agriculture; for +these Arts have no general rule, since fishing may be below the Art of +hunting, and beneath its command; to know the virtue of the herb may +be below the science of medicine, or rather below its most noble +teaching. + +Those things which have been argued concerning the other Arts in like +manner may be seen in the Imperial Art, for there are rules in those +Arts which are pure or simple Arts, as are the laws of marriage, of +servants, of armies, of successors in offices of dignity; and in all +these we may be entirely subject to the Emperor without doubt and +without any suspicion whatever. There are other laws which are the +followers of Nature, such as to constitute a man of sufficient age to +fill some office in the administration; and to such a law as this we +are entirely subject; there are many others which appear to have some +relationship with the Imperial Art; and here he was and is deceived +who believes that the Imperial judgment in this part may be authentic, +as of youth, whose nature is laid down by no Imperial judgment, as it +were, of the Emperor. Render, therefore, unto God that which is God's. +Wherefore it is not to be believed, nor to be allowed, because it was +said by Nero the Emperor that youth is beauty and strength of body; +but credit would be given to the philosopher who should say that youth +is the crown or summit of the natural life. And therefore it is +evident that to define Nobility is not the function of the Art +Imperial; and if it is not in the nature of the Art, when we are +treating of Nobility we are not subject to it; and if we are not +subject, we are not bound to yield reverence therein; and this is the +conclusion we have sought. + +Now, therefore, with all freedom, with all liberty of mind, it remains +to strike to the heart the vicious opinions, thereby causing them to +fall to earth, in order that the Truth by means of this my victory may +hold the field in the mind of him for whom it is good that this Light +should shine clear. + + + + +CHAPTER X. + + +Since the opinions of others concerning Nobility have now been brought +forward, and since it has been shown that it is lawful for me to +confute those opinions, I shall now proceed to discourse concerning +that part of the Song which confutes those opinions, beginning, as has +been said above: "Whoever shall define The man a living tree." And +therefore it is to be known that in the opinion of the Emperor, +although it states it defectively in one part, that is, where he spoke +of "generous ways," he alluded to the manners of the Nobility; and +therefore the Song does not intend to reprove that part: the other +part, which is entirely opposed to the nature of Nobility, it does +intend to confute, which cites two things when it says: "Descent of +wealth," "The wealth has long been great," that is, time and riches, +which are entirely apart from Nobility, as has been said, and as will +be shown farther on; and, therefore, in this confutation two divisions +are made: in the first we deny the Nobility of riches, then confute +the idea that time can cause Nobility. The second part begins: "They +will not have the vile Turn noble." + +It is to be known that, riches being reproved, not only is the opinion +of the Emperor reproved in that part which alludes to the riches, but +also entirely that opinion of the common people, which was founded +solely upon riches. The first part is divided into two: in the first +it says in a general way that the Emperor was erroneous in his +definition of Nobility; secondly, it shows the reason why or how that +is; and this begins that second part, "For riches make no Nobleman." + +I say, then, "Whoever shall define The man a living tree," that, +firstly, he will speak untruth, inasmuch as he says "tree," and "less +than truth," inasmuch as he says "living," and does not say rational, +which is the difference whereby Man is distinguished from the Beast. +Then I say that in this way he was erroneous in his definition, he who +held Imperial Office, not saying Emperor, but "one raised to Empire," +to indicate, as has been said above, that this question is beyond the +bounds of the Imperial Office. In like manner I say that he errs who +places a false subject under Nobility, that is, "descent of wealth," +and then proceeds to a defective form, or rather difference, that is, +"generous ways," which do not contain any essential part of Nobility, +but only a small part, as will appear below. And it is not to be +omitted, although the text may be silent, that my Lord the Emperor in +this part did not err in the parts of the definition, but only in the +mode of the definition, although, according to what fame reports of +him, he was a logician and a great scholar; that is to say, the +definition of Nobility can be made more sufficiently by the effects +than by the principles or premisses, since it appears to have the +place of a first principle or premiss, which it is not possible to +notify by first things, but by subsequent things. Then, when I say, +"For riches make not worth," I show how they cannot possibly be the +cause of Nobility, because they are vile. And I prove that they have +not the power to take it away, because they are disjoined so much from +Nobility. And I prove these to be vile by an especial and most evident +defect; and I do this when I say, "How vile and incomplete." Finally, +I conclude, by virtue of that which is said above: + + And hence the upright mind, + To its own purpose true, + Stands firm although the flood of wealth + Sweep onward out of view; + +which proves that which is said above, that those riches are disunited +from Nobility by not following the effect of union with it. Where it +is to be known that, as the Philosopher expresses it, all the things +which make anything must first exist perfectly within the being of the +thing out of which that other thing is made. Wherefore he says in the +seventh chapter of the Metaphysics: "When one thing is generated from +another, it is generated of that thing by being in that Being." + +Again, it is to be known that each thing which becomes corrupt is thus +corrupted by some change or alteration, and each thing which is +changed or altered must be conjoined with the cause of the change, +even as the Philosopher expresses it in the seventh chapter of the +book on Physics and in the first chapter on Generation. These things +being propounded, I proceed thus, and I say that riches, as another +man believed, cannot possibly bestow Nobility, and to prove how great +is the difference between them I say that they are unable to take +Nobility away from him who possesses it. To bestow it they have not +the power, since by nature they are vile, and because of their +vileness they are opposed to Nobility. And here by vileness one means +baseness, through degeneracy, which is directly opposite to Nobility: +for the one opposite thing cannot be the maker of the other, neither +is it possible to be, for the reason given above, which is briefly +added to the text, saying, "No painter gives a form That is not of his +knowing." Wherefore no painter would be able to depict any figure or +form if he could not first design what such figure or form ought to +be. + +Again, riches cannot take it away, because they are so far from +Nobility; and, for the reason previously narrated, that which alters +or corrupts anything must be conjoined with that thing, and therefore +it is subjoined: "No tower leans above a stream That far away is +flowing," which means nothing more than to accord with that which has +been previously said, that riches cannot take Nobility away, saying +that Nobility is, as it were, an upright tower and riches a river +flowing swiftly in the distance. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + + +It now remains only to prove how vile riches are, and how disjoined +and far apart they are from Nobility; and this is proved in two little +parts of the text, to which at present it is requisite to pay +attention, and then, those being explained, what I have said will be +evident, namely, that riches are vile and far apart from Nobility, and +hereby the reasons stated above against riches will be perfectly +proved. + +I say then, "How vile and incomplete Wealth is," and to make evident +what I intend to say it is to be known that the vileness or baseness +of each thing is derived from the imperfection of that thing, and +Nobility from its perfection: wherefore in proportion as a thing is +perfect, it is noble in its nature; in proportion as it is imperfect, +it is vile. And therefore, if riches are imperfect, it is evident that +they are vile or base. And that they are imperfect, the text briefly +proves when it says: "However great the heap may be, It brings no +peace, but care;" in which it is evident, not only that they are +imperfect, but most imperfect, and therefore they are most vile; and +Lucan bears witness to this when he says, speaking of those same +riches: "Without strife or contention or opposition, the Laws would +perish, and you, Riches, the basest part of things, you move or are +the cause of Battles." It is possible briefly to see their +imperfection in three things quite clearly: firstly, in the +indiscriminate manner in which they fall to a person's lot; secondly, +in their dangerous increase; thirdly, in their hurtful possession. + +And, firstly, that which I demonstrate concerning this is to clear up +a doubt which seems to arise, for, since gold, pearls, and lands, may +have in their essential being perfect form and act, it does not seem +true to say that they are imperfect. And therefore one must +distinguish that inasmuch as by themselves, of them it is considered, +they are perfect things, and they are not riches, but gold and pearls; +but inasmuch as they are appointed to the possession of man they are +riches, and in this way they are full of imperfection; which is not an +unbecoming or impossible thing, considered from different points of +view, to be perfect and imperfect. I say that their imperfection +firstly may be observed in the indiscretion, or unwisdom, or folly, of +their arrival, in which no distributive Justice shines forth, but +complete iniquity almost always; which iniquity is the proper effect +of imperfection. For if the methods or ways by which they come are +considered, all may be gathered together in three methods, or kinds of +ways: for, either they come by simple chance, as when without +intention or hope they come upon some discovery not thought of; or +they come by fortune which is aided by law or right, as by will, or +testament, or succession; or they come by fortune, the helper of the +Law, as by lawful or unlawful provision; lawful, I say, when by art, +or skill, or by trade, or deserved kindness; unlawful, I say, when +either by theft or rapine. And in each one of these three ways, one +sees that inequitable character of which I speak, for more often to +the wicked than to the good the hidden treasures which are discovered +present themselves; and this is so evident, that it has no need of +proof. I saw the place in the side of a hill, or mountain, in Tuscany, +which is called Falterona, where the most vile peasant of all the +country, whilst digging, found more than a bushel of the finest +Santèlena silver, which had awaited him perhaps for more than a +thousand years. And in order to see this iniquity, Aristotle said that +in proportion as the Man is subject to the Intellect, so much the less +is he the slave of Fortune. And I say that oftener to the wicked than +to the good befall legal inheritance and property by succession; and +concerning this I do not wish to bring forward any proof, but let each +one turn his eyes round his own immediate neighbourhood, and he will +see that concerning which I am silent that I may not offend or bring +shame to some one. Would to God that might be which was demanded by +the Man of Provence, namely, that the man who is not the heir of +goodness should lose the inheritance of wealth. And I say that many +times to the wicked more than to the good comes rich provision, for +the unlawful never comes to the good, because they refuse it; and what +good man ever would endeavour to enrich himself by force or fraud? +That would be impossible, for by the mere choice of the enterprise he +would no more be good. And the lawful gains of wealth but rarely fall +to the lot of the good, because, since much anxiety or anxious care is +required therein, and the solicitude of the good is directed to +greater things, the good man is rarely solicitous enough to seek them. +Wherefore it is evident that in each way these riches fall unjustly or +inequitably; and therefore our Lord called them wicked or unrighteous +when He said, "Make to yourselves friends of the Mammon of +unrighteousness," inviting and encouraging men to be liberal with good +gifts, which are the begetters of friends. And what a beautiful +exchange he makes who gives freely of these most imperfect things in +order to have and to acquire perfect things, such as are the hearts of +good and worthy men! This exchange it is possible to make every day. +Certainly this is a new commerce, different from the others, which, +thinking to win one man by generosity, has won thereby thousands and +thousands. Who lives not again in the heart of Alexander because of +his royal beneficence? Who lives not again in the good King of +Castile, or Saladin, or the good Marquis of Monferrat, or the good +Count of Toulouse, or Beltramo dal Bornio, or Galasso da Montefeltro, +when mention is made of their noble acts of courtesy and liberality? +Certainly not only those who would do the same willingly, had they the +power, but those even who would die before they would do it, bear love +to the memory of these good men. + + + + +CHAPTER XII. + + +As has been said, it is possible to see the imperfection of riches not +only in their indiscriminate advent, but also in their dangerous +increase; and that in this we may perceive their defect more clearly, +the text makes mention of it, saying of those riches, "However great +the heap may be It brings no peace, but care;" they create more thirst +and render increase more defective and insufficient. And here it is +requisite to know that defective things may fail in such a way that on +the surface they appear complete, but, under pretext of perfection, +the shortcoming is concealed. But they may have those defects so +entirely revealed that the imperfection is seen openly on the surface. +And those things which do not reveal their defects in the first place +are the most dangerous, since very often it is not possible to be on +guard against them; even as we see in the traitor who, before our +face, shows himself friendly, so that he causes us to have faith in +him, and under pretext of friendship, hides the defect of his +hostility. And in this way riches, in their increase, are dangerously +imperfect, for, submitting to our eyes this that they promise, they +bring just the contrary. The treacherous gains always promise that, if +collected up to a certain amount, they will make the collector full of +every satisfaction; and with this promise they lead the Human Will +into the vice of Avarice. And, for this reason, Boethius calls them, +in his book of Consolations, dangerous, saying, "Oh, alas! who was +that first man who dug up the precious stones that wished to hide +themselves, and who dug out the loads of gold once covered by the +hills, dangerous treasures?" + +The treacherous ones promise, if we will but look, to remove every +want, to quench all thirst, to bring satisfaction and sufficiency; and +this they do to every man in the beginning, confirming promise to a +certain point in their increase, and then, as soon as their pile +rises, in place of contentment and refreshment they bring on an +intolerable fever-thirst; and beyond sufficiency, they extend their +limit, create a desire to amass more, and, with this, fear and anxiety +far in excess of the new gain. + +Then, truly, they bring no peace, but more care, more trouble, than a +man had in the first place when he was without them. And therefore +Tullius says, in that book on Paradoxes, when execrating riches: "I at +no time firmly believed the money of those men, or magnificent +mansions, or riches, or lordships, or voluptuous joys, with which +especially they are shackled, to be amongst things good or desirable, +since I saw certain men in the abundance of them especially desire +those wherein they abounded; because at no time is the thirst of +cupidity quenched; not only are they tormented by the desire for the +increase of those things which they possess, but also they have +torment in the fear of losing them." And all these are the words of +Tullius, and even thus they stand in that book which has been +mentioned. + +And, as a stronger witness to this imperfection, hear Boethius, +speaking in his book of Consolation: "If the Goddess of Riches were to +expand and multiply riches till they were as numerous as the sands +thrown up by the sea when tost by the tempest, or countless as the +stars that shine, still Man would weep." + +And because still further testimony is needful to reduce this to a +proof, note how much Solomon and his father David exclaim against +them, how much against them is Seneca, especially when writing to +Lucilius, how much Horace, how much Juvenal, and, briefly, how much +every writer, every poet, and how much Divine Scripture. All Truthful +cries aloud against these false enticers to sin, full of all defect. +Call to mind also, in aid of faith, what your own eyes have seen, what +is the life of those men who follow after riches, how far they live +securely when they have piled them up, what their contentment is, how +peacefully they rest. + +What else daily endangers and destroys cities, countries, individual +persons, so much as the fresh heaping up of wealth in the possession +of some man? His accumulation wakens new desires, to the fulfilment of +which it is not possible to attain without injury to some one. + +And what else does the Law, both Canonical and Civil, intend to +rectify except cupidity or avarice, which grows with its heaps of +riches, and which the Law seeks to resist or prevent. Truly, the +Canonical and the Civil Law make it sufficiently clear, if the first +sections of their written word are read. How evident it is, nay, I say +it is most evident, that these riches are, in their increase, entirely +imperfect; when, being amassed, naught else but imperfection can +possibly spring forth from them. And this is what the text says. + +But here arises a doubtful question, which is not to be passed over +without being put and answered. Some calumniator of the Truth might be +able to say that if, by increasing desire in their acquisition, riches +are imperfect and therefore vile, for this reason science or knowledge +is imperfect and vile, in the acquisition of which the desire steadily +increases, wherefore Seneca says, "If I should have one foot in the +grave, I should still wish to learn." + +But it is not true that knowledge is vile through imperfection. By +distinction of the consequences, increase of desire is not in +knowledge the cause of vileness. That it is perfect is evident, for +the Philosopher, in the sixth book of the Ethics, says that science or +knowledge is the perfect reason of certain things. To this question +one has to reply briefly; but in the first place it is to be seen +whether in the acquisition of Knowledge the desire for it is enlarged +in the way suggested by the question, and whether the argument be +rational. Wherefore I say that not only in the acquisition of +knowledge and riches, but in each and every acquisition, human desire +expands, although in different ways; and the reason is this: that the +supreme desire of each thing bestowed by Nature in the first place is +to return to its first source. And since God is the First Cause of our +Souls, and the Maker of them after His Own Image, as it is written, +"Let us make Man in Our Image, after Our likeness," the Soul +especially desires to return to that First Cause. As a pilgrim, who +goes along a path where he never journeyed before, may believe every +house that he sees in the distance to be his inn, and, not finding it +to be so, may direct his belief to the next, and so travel on from +house to house until he reach the inn, even so our Soul, as soon as it +enters the untrodden path of this life, directs its eyes to its +supreme good, the sum of its day's travel to good; and therefore +whatever thing it sees which seems to have in itself some goodness, it +thinks to be the supreme good. And because its knowledge at first is +imperfect, owing to want of experience and want of instruction, good +things that are but little appear great to it; and therefore in the +first place it begins to desire those. So we see little children +desire above all things an apple; and then, growing older, they desire +a little bird; and then, being older, desire a beautiful garment; and +then a horse, and then a wife, and then moderate wealth, and then +greater wealth, and then still more. And this happens because in none +of these things that is found for which search is made, and as we live +on we seek further. Wherefore it is possible to see that one desirable +thing stands under the other in the eyes of our Soul in a way almost +pyramidal, for the least first covers the whole, and is as it were the +point of the desirable good, which is God, at the basis of all; so +that the farther it proceeds from the point towards the basis, so much +the greater do the desirable good things appear; and this is the +reason why, by acquisition, human desires become broader the one after +the other. + +But, thus this pathway is lost through error, even as in the roads of +the earth; for as from one city to another there is of necessity an +excellent direct road, and often another which branches from that, the +branch road goes into another part, and of many others some do not go +all the way, and some go farther round; so in Human Life there are +different roads, of which one is the truest, and another the most +misleading, and some are less right, and some less wrong. And as we +see that the straightest road to the city satisfies desire and gives +rest after toil, and that which goes in the opposite direction never +satisfies and never can give rest, so it happens in our Life. The man +who follows the right path attains his end, and gains his rest. The +man who follows the wrong path never attains it, but with much fatigue +of mind and greedy eyes looks always before him. + +Wherefore, although this argument does not entirely reply to the +question asked above, at least it opens the way to the reply, which +causes us to see that each desire of ours does not proceed in its +expansion in one way alone. But because this chapter is somewhat +prolonged, we will reply in a new chapter to the question, wherein may +be ended the whole disputation which it is our intention to make +against riches. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + + +In reply to the question, I say that it is not possible to affirm +properly that the desire for knowledge does increase, although, as has +been said, it does expand in a certain way. For that which properly +increases is always one; the desire for knowledge is not always one, +but is many; and one desire fulfilled, another comes; so that, +properly speaking, its expansion is not its increase, but it is +advance of a succession of smaller things into great things. For if I +desire to know the principles of natural things, as soon as I know +these, that desire is satisfied and there is an end of it. If I then +desire to know the why and the wherefore of each one of these +principles, this is a new desire altogether. Nor by the advent of that +new desire am I deprived of the perfection to which the other might +lead me. Such an expansion as that is not the cause of imperfection, +but of new perfection. That expansion of riches, however, is properly +increased which is always one, so that no succession is seen therein, +and therefore no end and no perfection. + +And if the adversary would say, that if the desire to know the first +principles of natural things is one thing, and the desire to know what +they are is another, so is the desire for a hundred marks one thing, +and the desire for a thousand marks is another, I reply that it is not +true; for the hundred is part of the thousand and is related to it, as +part of a line to the whole of the line along which one proceeds by +one impulse alone; and there is no succession there, nor completion of +motion in any part. But to know what the principles of natural things +are is not the same as to know what each one of them is; the one is +not part of the other, and they are related to each other as diverging +lines along which one does not proceed by one impulse, but the +completed movement of the one succeeds the completed movement of the +other. And thus it appears that, because of the desire for knowledge, +knowledge is not to be called imperfect in the same way as riches are +to be called imperfect, on account of the desire for them, as the +question put it; for in the desire for knowledge the desires terminate +successively with the attainment of their aims; and in the desire for +riches, NO; so that the question is solved. + +Again, the adversary may calumniate, saying that, although many +desires are fulfilled in the acquisition of knowledge, the last is +never attained, which is the imperfection of that one desire, which +does not gain its end; and that will be both one and imperfect. + +Again one here replies that it is not a truth which is brought forward +in opposition, that is, that the last desire is never attained; for +our natural desires, as is proved in the third treatise of this book, +are all tending to a certain end; and the desire for knowledge is +natural, so that this desire compasses a certain end, although but +few, since they walk in the wrong path, accomplish the day's journey. +And he who understands the Commentator in the third chapter, On the +Soul, learns this of him; and therefore Aristotle says, in the tenth +chapter of the Ethics, against Simonides the Poet, that man ought to +draw near to Divine things as much as is possible; wherein he shows +that our power tends towards a certain end. And in the first book of +the Ethics he says that the disciplined Mind demands certainty in its +knowledge of things in proportion as their nature received certainty, +in which he proves that not only on the side of the man desiring +knowledge, but on the side of the desired object of knowledge, +attention ought to be given; and therefore St. Paul says: "Not much +knowledge, but right knowledge in moderation." So that in whatever way +the desire for knowledge is considered, either generally or +particularly, it comes to perfection. + +And since knowledge is a noble perfection, and through the desire for +it its perfection is not lost, as is the case with the accursed +riches, we must note briefly how injurious they are when possessed, +and this is the third notice of their imperfection. It is possible to +see that the possession of them is injurious for two reasons: one, +that it is the cause of evil; the other, that it is the privation of +good. It is the cause of evil, which makes the timid possessor +wakeful, watchful, and suspicious or hateful. + +How great is the fear of that man who knows he carries wealth about +him, when walking abroad, when dwelling at home, when not only wakeful +or watching, but when sleeping, not only the fear that he may lose his +property, but fear for his life because he possesses these riches! +Well do the miserable merchants know, who travel through the World, +that the leaves which the wind stirs on the trees cause them to +tremble when they are bearing their wealth with them; and when they +are without it, full of confidence they go singing and talking, and +thus make their journey shorter! Therefore the Wise Man says: "If the +traveller enters on his road empty, he can sing in the presence of +thieves." And this Lucan desires to express in the fifth book, when he +praises the safety of poverty: "O, the safe and secure liberty of the +poor Life! O, narrow dwelling-places and thrift! O, not again deem +riches to be of the Gods! In what temples and within what palace walls +could this be, that is to have no fear, in some tumult or other, of +striking the hand of Cæsar?" + +And Lucan says this when he depicts how Cæsar came by night to the +little house of the fisher Amyclas to cross the Adriatic Sea. And how +great is the hatred that each man bears to the possessor of riches, +either through envy, or from the desire to take possession of his +wealth! So true it is, that often and often, contrary to due filial +piety, the son meditates the death of the father; and most great and +most evident experience of this the Italians can have, both on the +banks of the Po and on the banks of the Tiber. And therefore Boethius +in the second chapter of his Consolations says: "Certainly Avarice +makes men hateful." + +Nay, their possession is privation of good, for, possessing those +riches, a man does not give freely with generosity, which is a virtue, +which is a perfect good, and which makes men magnificent and beloved; +which does not lie in possession of those riches, but in ceasing to +possess them. Wherefore Boethius in the same book says: "Then money is +good when, bartered for other things, by the use of generosity one no +longer possesses it." Wherefore the baseness of riches is sufficiently +proved by all these remarks of his; and therefore the man with an +upright desire and true knowledge never loves them; and, not loving +them, he does not unite himself to them, but always desires them to be +far from himself, except inasmuch as they are appointed to some +necessary service; and it is a reasonable thing, since the perfect +cannot be united with the imperfect. So we see that the curved line +never joins the straight line, and if there be any conjunction, it is +not of line to line, but of point to point. And thus it follows that +the Mind which is upright in desire, and truthful in knowledge, is not +disheartened at the loss of wealth: as the text asserts at the end of +that part. And by this the text intends to prove that riches are as a +river flowing in the distance past the upright tower of Reason, or +rather of Nobility; and that these riches cannot take Nobility away +from him who has it. And in this manner in the present Song it is +argued against riches. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. + + +Having confuted the error of other men in that part wherein it was +advanced in support of riches, it remains now to confute it in that +part where Time is said to be a cause of Nobility, saying, "Descent of +wealth;" and this reproof or confutation is made in that part which +begins: "They will not have the vile Turn noble." And in the first +place one confutes this by means of an argument taken from those men +themselves who err in this way; then, to their greater confusion, this +their argument is also destroyed; and it does this when it says, "It +follows then from this." Finally it concludes, their error being +evident, and it being therefore time to attend to the Truth; and it +does this when it says, "Sound intellect reproves." + +I say, then, "They will not have the vile Turn noble." Where it is to +be known that the opinion of these erroneous persons is, that a man +who is a peasant in the first place can never possibly be called a +Nobleman; and the man who is the son of a peasant in like manner can +never be Noble; and this breaks or destroys their own argument when +they say that Time is requisite to Nobility, adding that word +"descent." For it is impossible by process of Time to come to the +generation of Nobility in this way of theirs, which declares it to be +impossible for the humble peasant to become Noble by any work that he +may do, or through any accident; and declares the mutation of a +peasant father into a Noble son to be impossible. For if the son of +the peasant is also a peasant, and his son again is also a peasant, +and so always, it will never be possible to discover the place where +Nobility can begin to be established by process of Time. + +And if the adversary, wishing to defend himself, should say that +Nobility will begin at that period of Time when the low estate of the +ancestors will be forgotten, I reply that this goes against +themselves, for even of necessity there will be a transmutation of +peasant into Noble, from one man into another, or from father to son, +which is against that which they propound. + +And if the adversary should defend himself pertinaciously, saying that +indeed they do desire that it should be possible for this +transmutation to take place when the low estate of the ancestors +passes into oblivion, although the text takes no notice of this, it is +right that the Commentary should reply to it. And therefore I reply +thus: that from this which they say there follow four very great +difficulties, so that it cannot possibly be a good argument. One is, +that in proportion as Human Nature might become better, the slower +would be the generation of Nobility, which is a very great +inconvenience; since in proportion as a thing is honoured for its +excellence, so much the more is it the cause of goodness; and Nobility +is reckoned amongst the good. What this means is shown thus: If +Nobility, which I understand as a good thing, should be generated by +oblivion, Nobility would be generated in proportion to the speediness +with which men might be forgotten, for so much the sooner would +oblivion descend upon all. Hence, in proportion as men might be +forgotten, so much the sooner would they be Noble; and, on the +contrary, in proportion to the length of time during which they were +held in remembrance, so much the longer it would be before they could +be ennobled. + +The second difficulty is, that in nothing apart from men would it be +possible to make this distinction, that is to say, Noble or Vile, +which is very inconvenient; since, in each species of things we see +the image of Nobility or of Baseness, wherefore we often call one +horse noble and one vile; and one falcon noble and one vile; and one +pearl noble and one vile. And that it would not be possible to make +this distinction is thus proved; if the oblivion of the humble +ancestors is the cause of Nobility, or rather the baseness of the +ancestors never was, it is not possible for oblivion of them to be, +since oblivion is a destruction of remembrance, and in those other +animals, and in plants, and in minerals, lowness and loftiness are not +observed, since in one they are natural or innate and in an equal +state, and Nobility cannot possibly be in their generation, and +likewise neither can vileness nor baseness; since one regards the one +and the other as habit and privation, which are possible to occur in +the same subject; and therefore in them it would not be possible for a +distinction to exist between the one and the other. + +And if the adversary should wish to say, that in other things Nobility +is represented by the goodness of the thing, but in a man it is +understood because there is no remembrance of his humble or base +condition, one would wish to reply not with words, but with the sword, +to such bestiality as it would be to give to other things goodness as +a cause for Nobility, and to found the Nobility of men upon +forgetfulness or oblivion as a first cause. + +The third difficulty is, that often the person or thing generated +would come before the generator, which is quite impossible; and it is +possible to prove this thus: Let us suppose that Gherardo da Cammino +might have been the grandson of the most vile peasant who ever drank +of the Sile or of the Cagnano, and that oblivion had not yet overtaken +his grandfather; who will be bold enough to say that Gherardo da +Cammino was a vile man? and who will not agree with me in saying that +he was Noble? Certainly no one, however presumptuous he may wish to +be, for he was so, and his memory will always be treasured. If +oblivion had not yet overtaken his ancestor, as is proposed in +opposition, so that he might be great through Nobility, and the +Nobility in him might be seen so clearly, even as one does see it, +then it would have been first in him before the founder of his +Nobility could have existed; and this is impossible in the extreme. + +The fourth difficulty is, that such a man, the supposed grandfather, +would have been held Noble after he was dead who was not Noble whilst +alive; and a more inconvenient thing could not be. One proves it thus: +Let us suppose that in the age of Dardanus there might be a +remembrance of his low ancestors, and let us suppose that in the age +of Laomedon this memory might have passed away, and that oblivion had +overtaken it. According to the adverse opinion, Laomedon was Noble and +Dardanus was vile, each in his lifetime. We, to whom the remembrance +of the ancestors of Dardanus has not come, shall we say that Dardanus +living was vile, and dead a Noble? And is not this contrary to the +legend which says that Dardanus was the son of Jupiter (for such is +the fable, which one ought not to regard whilst disputing +philosophically); and yet if the adversary might wish to find support +in the fable, certainly that which the fable veils destroys his +arguments. And thus it is proved that the argument, which asserted +that oblivion is the cause of Nobility, is false. + + + + +CHAPTER XV. + + +Since, by their own argument, the Song has confuted them, and proved +that Time is not requisite to Nobility, it proceeds immediately to +confound their premisses, since of their false arguments no rust +remains in the mind which is disposed towards Truth; and this it does +when it says, "It follows then from this." Where it is to be known +that if it is not possible for a peasant to become a Noble, or for a +Noble son to be born of a humble father, as is advanced in their +opinion, of two difficulties one must follow. + +The first is, that there can be no Nobility; the other is, that the +World may have been always full of men, so that from one alone the +Human Race cannot be descended; and this it is possible to prove. + +If Nobility is not generated afresh, and it has been stated many times +that such is the basis of their opinion, the peasant man not being +able to beget it in himself, or the humble father to pass it on to his +son, the man always is the same as he was born; and such as the father +was born, so is the son born; and so this process from one condition +onwards is reached even by the first parent; for such as was the first +father, that is, Adam, so must the whole Human Race be, because from +him to the modern nations it will not be possible to find, according +to that argument, any change whatever. Then, if Adam himself was +Noble, we are all Noble; if he was vile, we are all vile or base; +which is no other than to remove the distinction between these +conditions, and thus it is to remove the conditions. + +And the Song states this, which follows from what is advanced, saying, +"That all are high or base." And if this is not so, then any nation is +to be called Noble, and any is to be called vile, of necessity. +Transmutation from vileness into Nobility being thus taken away, the +Human Race must be descended from different ancestors, that is, some +from Nobles and some from vile persons, and so the Song says, "Or that +in Time there never was Beginning to our race," that is to say, one +beginning; it does not say beginnings. And this is most false +according to the Philosopher, according to our Faith, which cannot +lie, according to the Law and ancient belief of the Gentiles. For +although the Philosopher does not assert the succession from one first +man, yet he would have one essential being to be in all men, which +cannot possibly have different origins. And Plato would have that all +men depend upon one idea alone, and not on more or many, which is to +give them only one beginning. And undoubtedly Aristotle would laugh +very loudly if he heard of two species to be made out of the Human +Race, as of horses and asses; and (may Aristotle forgive me) one might +call those men asses who think in this way. For according to our Faith +(which is to be preserved in its entirety) it is most false, as +Solomon makes evident where he draws a distinction between men and the +brute animals, for he calls men "all the sons of Adam," and this he +does when he says: "Who knows if the spirits of the sons of Adam mount +upwards, and if those of the beasts go downwards?" And that it is +false according to the Gentiles, let the testimony of Ovid in the +first chapter of his Metamorphoses prove, where he treats of the +constitution of the World according to the Pagan belief, or rather +belief of the Gentiles, saying: "Man is born "--he did not say "Men;" +he said, "Man is born," or rather, "that the Artificer of all things +made him from Divine seed, or that the new earth, but lately parted +from the noble ether, retained seeds of the kindred Heaven, which, +mingled with the water of the river, formed the son of Japhet into an +image of the Gods, who govern all." Where evidently he asserts the +first man to have been one alone; and therefore the Song says, "But +that I cannot hold," that is, to the opinion that man had not one +beginning; and the Song subjoins, "Nor yet if Christians they." And it +says Christians, not Philosophers, or rather Gentiles, whose opinion +also is adverse, because the Christian opinion is of greater force, +and is the destroyer of all calumny, thanks to the supreme light of +Heaven, which illuminates it. + +Then when I say, "Sound intellect reproves their words As false, and +turns away," I conclude this error to be confuted, and I say that it +is time to open the eyes to the Truth; and this is expressed when I +say, "And now I seek to tell, As it appears to me." It is now evident +to sound minds that the words of those men are vain, that is, without +a crumb or particle of Truth; and I say sound not without cause. Our +intellect may be said to be sound or unsound. And I say intellect for +the noble part of our Soul, which it is possible to designate by the +common word "Mind." It may be called sound or healthy, when it is not +obstructed in its action by sickness of mind or body, which is to know +what things are, as Aristotle expresses it in the third chapter on the +Soul. + +For, owing to the sickness of the Soul, I have seen three horrible +infirmities in the minds of men. + +One is caused by natural vanity, for many men are so presumptuous that +they believe they know everything, and, owing to this, they assert +things to be facts which are not facts. Tullius especially execrates +this vice in the first chapter of the Offices, and St. Thomas in his +book against the Gentiles, saying: "There are many men, so +presumptuous in their conceit, who believe that they can compass all +things with their intellect, deeming all that appears to them to be +true, and count as false that which does not appear to them." Hence it +arises that they never attain to any knowledge; believing themselves +to be sufficiently learned, they never inquire, they never listen; +they desire to be inquired of, and when a question is put, bad enough +is their reply. Of those men Solomon speaks in Proverbs: "Seest thou a +man that is hasty in his words? there is more hope of a fool than of +him." + +Another infirmity of mind is caused by natural weakness or smallness, +for many men are so vilely obstinate or stubborn that they cannot +believe that it is possible either for them or for others to know +things; and such men as these never of themselves seek knowledge, nor +ever reason; for what other men say, they care not at all. And against +these men Aristotle speaks in the first book of the Ethics, declaring +those men to be insufficient or unsatisfactory hearers of Moral +Philosophy. Those men always live, like beasts, a life of grossness, +the despair of all learning. + +The third infirmity of mind is caused by the levity of nature; for +many men are of such light fancy that in all their arguments they go +astray, and even when they make a syllogism and have concluded, from +that conclusion they fly off into another, and it seems to them most +subtle argument. They start not from any true beginning, and truly +they see nothing true in their imagination. Of those men the +Philosopher says that it is not right to trouble about them, or to +have business with them, saying, in the first book of Physics, that +against him who denies the first postulate it is not right to dispute. +And of such men as these are many idiots, who may not know their A B +C, and who would wish to dispute in Geometry, in Astrology, and in the +Science of Physics. + +Also through sickness or defect of body, it is possible for the Mind +to be unsound or sick; even as through some primal defect at birth, as +with those who are born fools, or through alteration in the brain, as +with the madmen. And of this mental infirmity the Law speaks when it +says: "In him who makes a Will or Testament, at the time when he makes +the Will or Testament, health of mind, not health of body, is +required." + +But to those intellects which from sickness of mind or body are not +infirm, but are free, diligent, and whole in the light of Truth, I say +it must be evident that the opinion of the people, which has been +stated above, is vain, that is, without any value whatever, worthless. + +Afterwards the Song subjoins that I thus judge them to be false and +vain; and this it does when it says, "Sound intellect reproves their +words As false, and turns away." And afterwards I say that it is time +to demonstrate or prove the Truth; and I say that it is now right to +state what kind of thing true Nobility is, and how it is possible to +know the man in whom it exists; and I speak of this where I say: + + And now I seek to tell + As it appears to me, + What is, whence comes, what signs attest + A true Nobility. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI. + + +"The King shall rejoice in God, and all those shall be praised who +swear by him, for closed is the mouth of those who speak wicked +things." These words I can here propound in all truth; because each +true King ought especially to love the Truth. Wherefore it is written +in the Book of Wisdom, "Love the Light of Wisdom, you, who stand +before, the people," and the Light of Wisdom is this same Truth. I +say, then, every King shall rejoice that the most false and most +injurious opinion of the wicked and deceitful men who have up to this +time spoken iniquitously of Nobility is confuted. + +It is now requisite to proceed to the discussion of the Truth +according to the division made above, in the third chapter of the +present treatise. This second part, then, which begins, "I say that +from one root Each Virtue firstly springs," intends to describe this +Nobility according to the Truth, and this part is divided into two: +for in the first the intention is to prove what this Nobility is; and +in the second how it is possible to recognize him in whom it dwells, +and this second part begins, "Such virtue shows its good." The first +part, again, has two parts; for in the first certain things are sought +for which are needful in order to perceive the definition of Nobility; +in the second, one looks for its definition, and this second part +begins, "Where virtue is, there is A Nobleman." + +That we may enter perfectly into the treatise, two things are to be +considered in the first place. The one is, what is meant by this word +Nobility, taken alone, in its simple meaning; the other is, in what +path it is needful to walk in order to search out the before-named +definition. I say, then, that, if we will pay attention to the common +use of speech, by this word Nobility is understood the perfection of +its own nature in each thing; wherefore it is predicated not only of +the man, but also of all things; for the man calls a stone noble, a +plant or tree noble, a horse noble, a falcon noble, whatever is seen +to be perfect in its nature. And therefore Solomon says in +Ecclesiastes, "Blessed is the land whose King is Noble;" which is no +other than saying, whose King is perfect according to the perfection +of the mind and body; and he thus makes this evident by that which he +says previously, when he writes, "Woe unto the land whose King is a +child." For that is not a perfect man, and a man is a child, if not by +age, yet by his disordered manners and by the evil or defect of his +life, as the Philosopher teaches in the first book of the Ethics. + +There are some foolish people who believe that by this word Noble is +meant that which is to be named and known by many men; and they say +that it comes from a verb which stands for _to know_, that is, +_nosco_. But this is most false, for, if this could be, those +things which were most named and best known in their species would in +their species be the most noble. Thus the obelisk of St. Peter would +be the most noble stone in the world; and Asdente, the shoemaker of +Parma, would be more Noble than any one of his fellow-citizens; and +Albuino della Scala would be more Noble than Guido da Castello di +Reggio. Each one of those things is most false, and therefore it is +most false that _nobile_ (noble) can come from _cognoscere_, +to know. It comes from _non vile_ (not vile); wherefore +_nobile_ (noble) is as it were _non vile_ (not vile). + +This perfection the Philosopher means in the seventh chapter of +Physics, when he says: "Each thing is especially perfect when it +touches and joins its own proper or relative virtue; and then it is +especially perfect according to its nature. It is, then, possible to +call the circle perfect when it is truly a circle, that is, when it is +joined with its own proper or relative virtue, it is then complete in +its nature, and it may then be called a noble circle." This is when +there is a point in it which is equally distant from the +circumference. That circle which has the figure of an egg loses its +virtue and it is not Noble, nor that circle which has the form of an +almost full moon, because in that its nature is not perfect. And thus +evidently it is possible to see that commonly, or in a general sense, +this word Nobility, expresses in all things perfection of their +nature, and this is that for which one seeks primarily in order to +enter more clearly into the discussion of that part which it is +intended to explain. + +Secondly, it remains to be seen how one must proceed in order to find +the definition of Human Nobility to which the present argument leads. +I say, then, that since in those things which are of one species, as +are all men, it is not possible by essential first principles to +define their highest perfection, it is necessary to know and to define +that by their effects. Therefore one reads in the Gospel of St. +Matthew, when Christ speaks, "Beware of false prophets: by their +fruits ye shall know them." And in a direct way the definition we seek +is to be seen by the fruits, which are the moral and intellectual +virtues of which this Nobility is the seed, as in its definition will +be fully evident. + +And these are those two things we must see before one can proceed to +the others, as is said in the previous part of this chapter. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII. + + +Since those two things which it seemed needful to understand before +the text could be proceeded with have been seen and understood, it now +remains to proceed with the text and to explain it, and the text then +begins: + + I say that from one root + Each Virtue firstly springs, + Virtue, I mean, that Happiness + To man, by action, brings + +And I subjoin: + + This, as the Ethics teach, + Is habit of right choice; + +placing the whole definition of the Moral Virtues as it is defined by +the Philosopher in the second book of Ethics, in which two things +principally are understood. One is, that each Virtue comes from one +first principle or original cause; the other is, that by "Each Virtue" +I mean the Moral Virtues, and this is evident from the words, "This, +as the Ethics teach" + +Hence it is to be known that our most right and proper fruits are the +Moral Virtues, since on every side they are in our power; and these +are differently distinguished and enumerated by different +philosophers. But it seems to me right to omit the opinion of other +men in that part where the divine opinion of Aristotle is stated by +word of mouth, and therefore, wishing to describe what those Moral +Virtues are, I will pass on, briefly discoursing of them according to +his opinion. + +There are eleven Virtues named by the said Philosopher. The first is +called Courage, which is sword and bridle to moderate our boldness and +timidity in things which are the ruin of our life. The second is +Temperance, which is the law and bridle of our gluttony and of our +undue abstinence in those things requisite for the preservation of our +life. The third is Liberality, which is the moderator of our giving +and of our receiving things temporal. The fourth is Magnificence, +which is the moderator of great expenditures, making and supporting +those within certain limits. The fifth is Magnanimity, which is the +moderator and acquirer of great honours and fame. The sixth is the +Love of Honour, which is the moderator and regulator to us of the +honours of this World. The seventh is Mildness, which moderates our +anger and our excessive or undue patience against our external +misfortunes. The eighth is Affability, which makes us live on good +terms with other men. The ninth is called Truth, which makes us +moderate in boasting ourselves over and above what we are, and in +depreciating ourselves below what we are in our speech. The tenth is +called Eutrapelia, pleasantness of intercourse, which makes us +moderate in joys or pleasures, causing us to use them in due measure. +The eleventh is Justice, which teaches us to love and to act with +uprightness in all things. + +And each of these Virtues has two collateral enemies, that is to say, +vices; one in excess and one in defect. And these Moral Virtues are +the centres or middle stations between them, and those Virtues all +spring from one root or principle, that is to say, from the habit of +our own good choice. Wherefore, in a general sense, it is possible to +say of all, that they are a habit of choice standing firm in due +moderation; and these are those which make a man happy in their active +operation, as the Philosopher says in the first book of the Ethics +when he defines Happiness, saying that Happiness is virtuous action in +a perfect life. + +By many, Prudence, that is, good, judgment or wisdom, is well asserted +to be a Moral Virtue. But Aristotle numbers that amongst the +Intellectual Virtues, although it is the guide of the moral, and +points out the way by which they are formed, and without it they could +not be. Verily, it is to be known that we can have in this life two +happinesses or felicities by following two different roads, both good +and excellent, which lead us to them: the one is the Active Life and +the other is the Contemplative Life, which (although by the Active +Life one may attain, as has been said, to a good state of Happiness) +leads us to supreme Happiness, even as the Philosopher proves in the +tenth book of the Ethics; and Christ affirms it with His own Lips in +the Gospel of Luke, speaking to Martha, when replying to her: "Martha, +Martha, thou art anxious and troubled about many things: verily, one +thing alone is needful," meaning, that which thou hast in hand; and He +adds: "Mary has chosen the better part, which shall not be taken away +from her." And Mary, according to that which is previously written in +the Gospel, sitting at the feet of Christ, showed no care for the +service of the house, but listened only to the words of the Saviour. + +For if we will explain this in the moral sense, our Lord wished to +show thereby that the Contemplative Life was supremely good, although +the Active Life might be good; this is evident to him who will give +his mind to the words of the Gospel. + +It would be possible, however, for any one to say, in argument against +me: Since the happiness of the Contemplative Life is more excellent +than that of the Active Life, and both may be, and are, the fruit and +end of Nobility, why not rather have proceeded in the argument along +the line of the Intellectual Virtues than of the Moral? To this it is +possible to reply briefly, that in all instruction it is desirable to +have regard to the capability of the learner, and to lead him by that +path which is easiest to him. Wherefore, since the Moral Virtues +appear to be, and are, more general and more required than the others, +and are more seen in outward appearances, it was more convenient and +more useful to proceed along that path than by the other; for thus +indeed we shall attain to the knowledge of the bees by arguing of +profit from the wax, as well as by arguing of profit from the honey, +for both the one and the other proceed from them. + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII. + + +In the preceding chapter has been determined how each Moral Virtue +comes from one root, or first principle, that is, a good habit of +choice; and the present text bears upon that, until the part which +begins: "Nobility by right." In this part, then, it proceeds, by a way +that is allowable, to teach that each Virtue mentioned above, taken +singly, or otherwise generally, proceeds from Nobility as an effect +from its cause, and it is founded upon a philosophical proposition, +which says that, when two things are found to meet in one, both these +things must be reduced to a third, or one to the other, as an effect +to a cause: because one thing having stood first and of itself, it +cannot exist except it be from one; and if those two could not be both +the effect of a third, or else one the effect of the other, each would +have had a separate first cause, which is impossible. It says, then, +that + + Such virtue shows its good + To others' intellect, + For when two things agree in one, + Producing one effect, + + One must from other come, + Or each one from a third, + If each be as each, and more, then one + From the other is inferred. + +Where it is to be known that here one does not proceed by an evident +demonstration; as it would be to say that the cold is the generative +principle of water, when we see the clouds; but certainly by a +beautiful and suitable induction. For if there are many laudable +things in us, and one is the principle or first cause of them all, +reason requires each to be reduced to that first cause, which +comprehends more things; and this ought more reasonably to be called +the principle of those things than that which comprehends in itself +less of their principle. For as the trunk of a tree, which contains or +encloses all the other branches, ought to be called the first +beginning and cause of those branches, and not those branches the +cause of the trunk, so Nobility, which comprehends each and every +Virtue (as the cause contains the effect) and many other actions or +operations of ours which are praiseworthy, it ought to be held for +such; that the Virtue may be reduced to it, rather than to the other +third which is in us. Finally it says that the position taken (namely, +that each Moral Virtue comes from one root, and that such Virtue and +Nobility unite in one thing, as is stated above, and that therefore it +is requisite to reduce the one to the other, or both to a third; and +that if the one contains the value of the other and more, from that it +proceeds rather than from the other third) may be considered as a rule +established and set forth, as was before intended. + +And thus ends this passage and this present part. + + + + +CHAPTER XIX. + + +Since in the preceding part are discussed three certain definite +things which were necessary to be seen before we define, if possible, +this good thing of which we speak, it is right to proceed to the +following part, which begins: "Where Virtue is, there is A Nobleman." +And it is desirable to reduce this into two parts. In the first a +certain thing is proved, which before has been touched upon and left +unproved; in the second, concluding, the definition sought is found; +and this second part begins; "Comes virtue from what's noble, as From +black comes violet." + +In evidence of the first part, it is to be recalled to mind that it +says previously that, if Nobility is worth more and extends farther +than Virtue, Virtue rather will proceed from it, which this part now +proves, namely, that Nobility extends farther, and produces a copy of +Heaven, saying that wherever there is Virtue there is Nobility. And +here it is to be known that (as it is written in the Books of the Law, +and is held as a Rule of the Law) in those things which of themselves +are evident there is no need of proof; and nothing is more evident +than that Nobility exists wherever there is Virtue, and each thing, +commonly speaking, that we see perfect according to its nature is +worthy to be called Noble. It says then: "So likewise that is Heaven +Wherein a star is hung, But Heaven may be starless." So there is +Nobility wherever there is Virtue, and not Virtue wherever there is +Nobility. And with a beautiful and suitable example; for truly it is a +Heaven in which many and various stars shine. In this Nobility there +shine the Moral and the Intellectual Virtues: there shine in it the +good dispositions bestowed by nature, piety, and religion; the +praiseworthy passions, as Modesty and Mercy and many others; there +shine in it the good gifts of the body, that is to say, beauty, +strength, and almost perpetual health; and so many are the stars which +stud its Heaven that certainly it is not to be wondered at if they +produce many and divers effects in Human Nobility; such are the +natures and the powers of those stars, assembled and contained within +one simple substance, through the medium of which stars, as through +different branches, it bears fruit in various ways. Certainly, with +all earnestness, I make bold to say that Human Nobility, so far as +many of its fruits are considered, excels that of the Angel, although +the Angelic may be more Divine in its unity. + +Of this Nobility of ours, which fructifies into such fruits and so +numerous, the Psalmist had perception when he composed that Psalm +which begins: "O Lord our God, how admirable is Thy Name through all +the Earth!" where he praises man, as if wondering at the Divine +affection for this Human Creature, saying: "What is man, that Thou, +God, dost visit him? Thou hast made him a little lower than the +Angels; Thou hast crowned him with glory and honour, and placed him +over the works of Thy hands." Then, truly, it was a beautiful and +suitable comparison to compare Heaven with Human Nobility. + +Then, when the Song says, "In women and the young A modesty is seen, +Not virtue, noble yet," it proves that Nobility extends into parts +where Virtue is not; and it says, "noble yet," alluding to Nobility as +indeed a true safeguard, being where there is shame or modesty, that +is to say, fear of dishonour, as it is in maidens and youths, where +shame or modesty is good and praiseworthy; which shame or modesty is +not virtue, but a certain good passion. And it says, "In women and the +young," that is to say, in youths; because, as the Philosopher +expresses it in the fourth book of the Ethics, shame, bashfulness, +modesty, is not praiseworthy nor good in the old nor in men of +studious habits, because to them it is fit that they beware of those +things which would lead them to shame. In youths and maidens such +caution is not so much required, and therefore in them the fear of +receiving dishonour through some fault is praiseworthy. It springs +from Nobility, and it is possible to account their timid bashfulness +to be Nobility. Baseness and ignoble ways produce impudence: wherefore +it is a good and excellent sign of Nobility in children and persons of +tender years when, after some fault, their shame is painted in their +face, which blush of shame is then the fruit of true Nobility. + + + + +CHAPTER XX. + + +When it proceeds to say, "Comes virtue from what's noble, as From +black comes violet," the text advances to the desired definition of +Nobility, by which one may see what this Nobility is of which so many +people speak erroneously. It says then, drawing a conclusion from that +which has been said before, that each Virtue, or rather its generator, +that is to say, the habit of right choice, which stands firm in due +moderation, will spring forth from this, that is, Nobility. And it +gives an example in the colours, saying, as from the black the violet, +so this Virtue springs from Nobility. The violet is a mixed colour of +purple and black, but the black prevails, and the colour is named from +it. And thus the Virtue is a mixed thing of Nobility and Passion; but, +because Nobility prevails, the Virtue takes its name from it, and is +called Goodness. Then afterwards it argues, by that which has been +said, that no man ought to say boastfully, "I am of such and such a +race or family;" nor ought he to believe that he is of this Nobility +unless the fruits of it are in him. And immediately it renders a +reason, saying that those who have this Grace, that is to say, this +Divine thing, are almost Gods as it were, without spot of vice, and no +one has the power to bestow this except God alone, with whom there is +no respect of persons, even as Divine Scripture makes manifest. And it +does not appear too extravagant when it says, "They are as Gods," for +as it is argued previously in the seventh chapter of the third +treatise, even as there are men most vile and bestial so are men most +Noble and Divine. And this Aristotle proves in the seventh chapter of +Ethics by the text of Homer the poet; therefore, let not those men who +are of the Uberti of Florence, nor those of the Visconti of Milan, +say, "Because I am of such a family or race, I am Noble," for the +Divine seed falls not into a race of men, that is, into a family; but +it falls into individual persons, and, as will be proved below, the +family does not make individual persons Noble, but the individual +persons make the family Noble. + +Then when it says, "God only gives it to the Soul," the argument is of +the susceptive, that is, of the subject whereon this Divine gift +descends, which is indeed a Divine gift, according to the word of the +Apostle: "Every good gift and every perfect gift comes from above, +proceeding from the Father of Light." It says then that God alone +imparts this Grace to the Soul that He sees pure, within the Soul of +that man whom He sees to be perfectly prepared and fit to receive in +his own proper person this Divine action; for, according as the +Philosopher says in the second chapter Of the Soul, things must be +prepared for their agents and qualified to receive their acts; +wherefore if the Soul is imperfectly prepared, it is not qualified to +receive this blessed and Divine infusion, even as a precious stone, if +it is badly cut or prepared, wherever it is imperfect, cannot receive +the celestial virtue; even as that noble Guido Guinizzelli said, in a +Song of his which begins: "To gentle hearts Love ever will repair." It +is possible for the Soul to be unqualified through some defect of +temper, or perhaps through some sinister circumstances of the time in +which the person lives, and into a Soul so unhappy as this the Divine +radiance never shines. And it may be said of such men as these, whose +Souls are deprived of this Light, that they are as deep valleys turned +towards the North, or rather subterranean caves wherein the light of +the Sun never enters unless it be reflected from another part which +has caught its rays. + +Finally, it deduces, from that which has been previously said, that +the Virtues are the fruit of Nobility, and that God places that +Nobility in the Soul which has a good foundation. For to some, that +is, to those who have intellect, who are but few, it is evident that +human Nobility is no other than the seed of Happiness + + That seed of Happiness + Falls in the hearts of few, + Planted by God within the Souls + Spread to receive His dew; + +that is to say, whose body is in every part perfectly prepared, +ordered, or qualified. + +For if the Virtues are the fruit of Nobility, and Happiness is +pleasure or sweetness acquired through or by them, it is evident that +this Nobility is the seed of Happiness, as has been said. And if one +considers well, this definition comprehends all the four arguments, +that is to say, the material, the formal, the efficient, and the +final: material, inasmuch as it says, "to the Soul spread to receive," +which is the material and subject of Nobility; formal, inasmuch as it +says, "That seed;" efficient, inasmuch as it says, "Planted by God +within the Soul;" final, inasmuch as it says, "of Happiness," Heaven's +blessing. And thus is defined this our good gift, which descends into +us in like manner from the Supreme and Spiritual Power, as virtue into +a precious stone from a most noble celestial body. + + + + +CHAPTER XXI. + + +That we may have more perfect knowledge of Human Goodness, as it is +the original cause in us of all good that can be called Nobility, it +is requisite to explain clearly in this especial chapter how this +Goodness descends into us. + +In the first place, it comes by the Natural way, and then by the +Theological way, that is to say, the Divine and Spiritual. In the +first place, it is to be known that man is composed of Soul and body; +but that Goodness or Nobility is of the Soul, as has been said, and is +after the manner of seed from the Divine Virtue. By different +philosophers it has been differently argued concerning the difference +in our Souls; for Avicenna and Algazel were of opinion that Souls of +themselves and from their beginning were Noble or Base. Plato and some +others were of opinion that they proceeded by the stars, and were +Noble more or less according to the nobility of the star. Pythagoras +was of opinion that all were of one nobility, not only human Souls, +but with human Souls those of the brute animals and of the trees and +the forms of minerals; and he said that all the difference in the +bodies is form. If each one were to defend his opinion, it might be +that Truth would be seen to be in all. But since on the surface they +seem somewhat distant from the Truth, one must not proceed according +to those opinions, but according to the opinion of Aristotle and of +the Peripatetics. And therefore I say that when the human seed falls +into its receptacle, that is, into the matrix, it bears with it the +virtue or power of the generative Soul, and the virtue or power of +Heaven, and the virtue or power of the aliments united or bound +together, that is the involution or complex nature of the seed. It +matures and prepares the material for the formative power or virtue +which the generating Soul bestows; and the formative power or virtue +prepares the organs for the celestial virtue or power, which produces, +from the power of the seed, the Soul in life; which, as soon as +produced, receives from the power of the Mover of the Heaven the +passive intellect or mind, which potentially brings together in itself +all the universal forms according as they are in its producer, and so +much the less in proportion as it is farther removed from the first +Intelligence. + +Let no one marvel if I speak what seems difficult to understand; for +to myself it seems a miracle how it is possible even to arrive at a +conclusion concerning it, and to perceive it with the intellect. It is +not a thing to reveal in language, especially the language of the +Vulgar Tongue; wherefore I will say, even as did the Apostle: "Oh, +great is the depth of the riches of Wisdom of God: how incomprehensible +are Thy judgments, and Thy ways past finding out!" And since the +complex nature of the seed may be better and less good, and the +disposition of the receiver of the seed may be better and less good, +and the disposition of the dominant Heaven to this effect may be good +and better and best, which varies in the constellations, which are +continually transformed; it befalls that from the human seed and from +these virtues or powers the Soul is produced more or less pure; and +according to its purity there descends into it the virtue or power of +the possible or passive intellect, as it is called, and as it has been +spoken of. And if it happen that through the purity of the receptive +Soul the intellectual power is indeed separate and absolute, free from +all corporeal shadow, the Divine Goodness multiplies in it, as in a +thing sufficient to receive that good gift; and then it multiplies in +the Soul of this intelligent being, according as it can receive it; +and this is that seed of Happiness of which we speak at present. And +this is in harmony with the opinion of Tullius in that book on Old Age +when, speaking personally of Cato, he says: "For this reason a +celestial spirit descended into us from the highest habitation, having +come into a place which is adverse to the Divine Nature and to +Eternity." And in such a Soul as this there is its own individual +power, and the intellectual power, and the Divine power; that is to +say, that influence which has been mentioned. Therefore it is written +in the book On Causes: "Each Noble Soul has three operations, that is +to say, the animal, the intellectual, and the Divine." And there are +some men who hold such opinions that they say, if all the preceding +powers were to unite in the production of a Soul in their best +disposition, arrangement, order, that into that Soul would descend so +much of the Deity that it would be as it were another God Incarnate; +and this is almost all that it is possible to say concerning the +Natural way. + +By the Theological way it is possible to say that, when the Supreme +Deity, that is, God, sees His creature prepared to receive His good +gift, so freely He imparts it to His creature in proportion as it is +prepared or qualified to receive it. And because these gifts proceed +from ineffable Love, and the Divine Love is appropriate to the Holy +Spirit, therefore it is that they are called the gifts of the Holy +Spirit, which, even as the Prophet Isaiah distinguishes them, are +seven, namely, Wisdom, Intelligence, Counsel, Courage, Knowledge, +Pity, and the Fear of God. O, good green blades, and good and +wonderful the seed! + +And O, admirable and benign Sower of the seed, who dost only wait for +human nature to prepare the ground for Thee wherein to sow! O, blessed +are those who till the land to fit it to receive such seed! + +Here it is to be known that the first noble shoot which germinates +from this seed that it may be fruitful, is the desire or appetite of +the mind, which in Greek is called "hormen;" and if this is not well +cultivated and held upright by good habits, the seed is of little +worth, and it would be better if it had not been sown. + +And therefore St. Augustine urges, and Aristotle also in the second +book of Ethics, that man should accustom himself to do good, and to +bridle in his passions, in order that this shoot which has been +mentioned may grow strong through good habits, and be confirmed in its +uprightness, so that it may fructify, and from its fruit may issue the +sweetness of Human Happiness. + + + + +CHAPTER XXII. + + +It is the commandment of the Moral Philosophers that, of the good +gifts whereof they have spoken, Man ought to put his thought and his +anxious care into the effort to make them as useful as possible to the +receiver. Wherefore I, wishing to be obedient to such a mandate, +intend to render this my BANQUET [Convito] as useful as possible in +each one of its parts. And because in this part it occurs to me to be +able to reason somewhat concerning the sweetness of Human Happiness, I +consider that there could not be a more useful discourse, especially +to those who know it not; for as the Philosopher says in the first +book of Ethics, and Tullius in that book Of the Ends of Good and Evil, +he shoots badly at the mark who sees it not. Even thus a man can but +ill advance towards this sweet joy who does not begin with a +perception of it. Wherefore, since it is our final rest for which we +live and labour as we can, most useful and most necessary it is to see +this mark in order to aim at it the bow of this our work. And it is +most essential to make it inviting to those who do not see the mark +when simply pointed out. Leaving alone, then, the opinion which +Epicurus the philosopher had concerning it, and that which Zeno +likewise had, I intend to come summarily to the true opinion of +Aristotle and of the other Peripatetics. As it is said above, of the +Divine Goodness sown and infused in us, from the original cause of our +production, there springs up a shoot, which the Greeks term "hormen," +that is to say, the natural appetite of the soul. + +And as it is with the blades of corn which, when they first shoot +forth, have in the beginning one similar appearance, being in the +grass-like stage, and then, by process of time, they become unlike, so +this Natural appetite, which springs from the Divine Grace, in the +beginning appears as it were not unlike that which comes nakedly from +Nature; but with it, even as the herbage born of various grains of +corn, it has the same appearance, as it were: and not only in the +blades of corn, but in men and in beasts there is the same similitude. +And it appears that every animal, as soon as it is born, both rational +and brute beast, loves itself, and fears and flies from those things +which are adverse to it, and hates them, then proceeding as has been +said. And there begins a difference between them in the progress of +this Natural appetite, for the one keeps to one road, and the other to +another; even as the Apostle says: "Many run to the goal, but there is +but one who reaches it." Even thus these Human appetites from the +beginning run through different paths, and there is one path alone +which leads us to our peace; and therefore, leaving all the others +alone, it is for the treatise to follow the course of that one who +begins well. + +I say, then, that from the beginning a man loves himself, although +indistinctly; then comes the distinguishing of those things which to +him are more or less; to be more or less loved or hated; and he +follows after and flies from either more or less according as the +right habit distinguishes, not only in the other things which he loves +in a secondary manner, for he even distinguishes in himself which +thing he loves principally; and perceiving in himself divers parts, +those which are the noblest in him he loves most. But, since the +noblest part of man is the Mind, he loves that more than the Body; and +thus, loving himself principally, and through himself other things, +and of himself loving the better part most, it is evident that he +loves the Mind more than the Body or any other thing; and the Mind it +is that, naturally, more than any other thing he ought to love. + +Then, if the Mind always delights in the use of the beloved thing, +which is the fruit of love, the use of that thing which is especially +beloved is especially delightful: the use of our Mind is especially +delightful to us, and that which is especially delightful to us +becomes our Happiness and our Beatitude, beyond which there is no +greater delight or pleasure, nor any equal to it, as may be seen by +him who looks well at the preceding argument. + +And no one ought to say that every appetite is Mind; for here one +understands Mind solely as that which belongs to the Rational part, +that is, the Will and the Intellect; so that if any one should wish to +call Mind the appetite of the Senses, here it has no place, nor can it +have any abiding; for no one doubts that the Rational appetite is more +noble than the Sensual, and therefore more to be loved; and so is this +of which we are now speaking. + +The use of our Mind is double, that is to say, Practical and +Speculative (it is Practical insomuch as it has the power of acting); +both the one and the other are delightful in their use, but that of +Contemplation is the most pleasing, as has been said above. The use of +the Practical is to act in or through us virtuously, that is to say, +honestly or uprightly, with Prudence, with Temperance, with Courage, +and with Justice. The use of the Speculative is not to work or act +through us, but to consider the works of God and of Nature. This and +the other form our Beatitude and Supreme Happiness, which is the +sweetness of the before-mentioned seed, as now clearly appears. To +this often such seed does not attain, through being ill cultivated, or +through its tender growing shoots being perverted. In like manner it +is quite possible, by much correction and cultivation of him into whom +this seed does not fall primarily, to induce it by the process of +steady endeavour after goodness, so that it may attain to the power of +bearing this fruit. And it is, as it were, a method of grafting the +nature of another upon a different stock. + +No man, therefore, can hold himself excused; for if from his natural +root the man does not produce sweet fruit, it is possible for him to +have it by the process of grafting; and in fact there would be as many +who should be grafted as those are who, sprung from a good root, allow +themselves to grow degenerate. + +Of the two ways of goodness, one is more full of bliss than the other, +as is the Speculative, which is the use of our noblest part without +any alloy, and which, for the root, Love, as has been said, is +especially to be loved as the intellect. And in this life it is not +possible to have the use of this part perfectly, which is to see God, +who is the Supreme Being to be comprehended by the Mind, except +inasmuch as the intellect considers Him and beholds Him through His +effects, His Works. And that we may seek this Beatitude as the +supreme, and not the other, that is, that of the Active Life, the +Gospel of St. Mark teaches us, if we will look at it well. + +Mark says that Mary Magdalene, and Mary the mother of James, and Mary +Salome went to find the Saviour in the Tomb, and they found Him not, +but they found a youth clothed in white, who said to them: "You seek +the Saviour, and I tell you that He is not here; and therefore be not +affrighted, but go and tell His disciples and Peter that He goeth +before you into Galilee; and there ye shall see Him, as He said unto +you." By these three women may be understood the three sects of the +Active Life, that is to say, the Epicureans, the Stoics, and the +Peripatetics, who go to the Tomb, that is to say, to the present +World, which is the receptacle of corruptible things, and seek for the +Saviour, that is, Beatitude, and they find it not; but they find a +youth in white garments, who, according to the testimony of Matthew, +and also of the other Evangelists, was an Angel of God. And therefore +Matthew said: "The Angel of the Lord descended from Heaven, and came +and rolled back the stone from the door, and sat upon it. His +countenance was like lightning, and his raiment white as snow." The +Angel is this Nobility of ours which comes from God, as it has been +said, of which our argument speaks, and says to each one of these +sects, that is, to whoever seeks perfect Happiness in the Active Life, +that it is not here; but go and tell the disciples and Peter, that is, +tell those who seek for it and those who are gone astray like Peter, +who had denied Him, that He will go before them into Galilee; meaning +that the Beatitude or Happiness will go before us into Galilee, that +is, into Contemplation; Galilee is as much as to say, Whiteness. +Whiteness is a colour full of material light, more so than any other; +and thus, Contemplation is more full of Spiritual light than any other +thing which is below. + +And it says, "He will go before you," but it does not say, "He will be +with you," to make us understand that in our contemplation God always +goes before. Nor is it ever possible to us to attain to Him here, to +Him, our Supreme Bliss. And it says, "There shall ye see Him, as He +said unto you;" that is to say, there you will receive of His +Sweetness, that is, of the Happiness as it is promised to you here, as +it is established that you may receive it. + +And thus it appears that our Beatitude, this Happiness of which we +speak, first we are able to find imperfect in the Active Life, that +is, in the operations of the Moral Virtues, and then almost perfect in +the operations of the Intellectual Virtues; which two operations are +speedy and most direct ways to lead to the Supreme Bliss, which it is +not possible to have here below, even as appears by that which has +been said. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIII. + + +Since the definition of Nobility is sufficiently demonstrated, and +since in all its parts it has been made as explicit as possible, so +that we can now see who is the Nobleman, it seems right to proceed to +the part of the text which begins, "Souls whom this Grace adorns," in +whom appear the signs by which it is possible to know the Noble Man. + +This part is divided into two. In the first it affirms that this +Nobility is resplendent, and that it shines forth manifestly during +the whole life of the Noble Man; in the second it appears specifically +in its glory, and this second part begins, "In Childhood they obey." +With regard to the first part, it is to be known that this Divine +seed, which has been previously spoken of, germinates immediately in +our Soul, combining with and changing its form with each form of the +Soul, according to the exigency of that power. It germinates, then, as +the Vegetative, as the Sensitive, and as the Rational, and it branches +out through the virtues or powers of all of them, guiding all those to +their perfection, and sustaining itself in them always, even to the +point when, with that part of our Soul which never dies, it returns to +the highest and the most glorious Sower of the seed in Heaven; and it +expresses this in that first part which has been mentioned. Then when +it says, "In Childhood they obey, Are gentle, modest," it shows how we +can recognize the Noble Man by the apparent signs, which are the +Divine operation of this goodness. And this part is divided into four, +as it is made to represent four different ages, such as Adolescence, +Youth, Old Age, and Extreme Old Age. The second part begins, "Are +temperate in Youth;" the third begins, "Are prudent in their Age;" the +fourth begins, "The fourth part of their life." Herein is contained +the purpose of this part in general, with regard to which it is +desirable to know that each effect, inasmuch as it is an effect, +receives the likeness of its cause in proportion as it is capable of +retaining it. + +Wherefore, since our life, as has been said, and also the life of +every living creature here below, is caused by Heaven, Heaven is +revealed in all such effects as these, not, indeed, with the complete +circle, but with part of it, in them. Thus its movement must be not +only with them, but beyond them, and as one arch of life retains (and +I say retains, not only of men, but also of other living creatures) +almost all the lives, ascending and descending, they must be, as it +were, similar in appearance to the form of the arch. Returning, then, +to our course of life which at present we are seeking to understand, I +say that it proceeds after the manner of this arch, ascending and +descending. And it is to be known that the ascent of this arch should +be equal to its descent, if the material of the seed from which we +spring, so complex in its nature, did not impede the law of Human +Nature. But since the humid root is of better quality more or less, +and stronger to endure in one effect more than in another, being +subject to the nutriment of the heat, which is our life, it happens +that the arch of the life of one man is of less or of greater extent +than that of another, life being shortened by a violent death or by +some accidental injury; but that which is called natural by the people +is that span of which it is said by the Psalmist, "Thou settest up a +boundary which it is not possible to pass." And since the Master among +those here living, Aristotle, had perception of this arch of which we +now speak, and seems to be of opinion that our life should be no other +than one ascent and one descent, therefore he says, in that chapter +where he treats of Youth and of Old Age, that Youth is no other than +an increase of life. Where the top of this arch may be, it is +difficult to know, on account of the inequality which has been spoken +of above, but for the most part I believe between the thirtieth and +the fortieth year, and I believe that in the perfectly natural man it +is at the thirty-fifth year. And this reason has weight with me: that +our Saviour Jesus Christ was a perfect natural man, who chose to die +in the thirty-fourth year of His age; for it was not suitable for the +Deity to have place in the descending segment; neither is it to be +believed that He would not wish to dwell in this life of ours even to +the summit of it, since He had been in the lower part even from +childhood. And the hour of the day of His death makes this evident, +for He willed that to conform with His life; wherefore Luke says that +it was about the sixth hour when He died, that is to say, the height +or supreme point of the day; wherefore it is possible to comprehend by +that, as it were, that at the thirty-fifth year of Christ was the +height or supreme point of His age. Truly this arch is not half +distinguished in the Scriptures, but if we follow the four connecting +links of the differing qualities which are in our composition, to each +one of which appears to be appropriated one part of our age, it is +divided into four parts, and they are called the four ages. The first +is Adolescence, which is appropriated to the hot and moist; the second +is Youth, which is appropriated to the hot and dry; the third is Old +Age, which is appropriated to the cold and dry; the fourth is Extreme +Old Age, which is appropriated to the cold and moist, as Albertus +Magnus writes in the fourth chapter of the Metaura. And these parts or +divisions are made in a similar manner in the year--in Spring, in +Summer, in Autumn, and in Winter. And it is the same in the day even +to the third hour, and then even to the ninth, leaving the sixth in +the middle of this part, or division, for the reason which is +understood, and then even to vespers, and from vespers onwards. And +therefore the Gentiles said that the chariot of the Sun had four +horses; they called the first Eoo, the second Piroi, the third Eton, +the fourth Phlegon, even as Ovid writes in the second book of the +Metamorphoses concerning the parts or divisions of the day. + +And, briefly, it is to be known that, as it has been said above in the +sixth chapter of the third treatise, the Church makes use of the hours +temporal in the division of the day, which hours are twelve in each +day, long or short according to the amount of sunlight; and because +the sixth hour, that is, the midday, is the most noble of the whole +day, and has in it the most virtue, the Offices of the Church are +approximated thereto in each side, that is, from the prime, and thence +onwards as much as possible; and therefore the Office of prime, that +is, the tertius, is said at the end of that part, and that of the +third part and of the fourth is said at the beginning; and therefore, +before the clock strikes in a division of the day, it is termed +half-third or mid-tertius; or mid-nones, when in that division the +clock has struck, and thus mid-vespers. + +And, therefore, let each one know that the right and lawful nones +ought always to strike or sound at the beginning of the seventh hour +of the day, and let this suffice to the present digression. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIV. + + +Returning to the proposition, I say that Human Life is divided into +four ages or stages. The first is called Adolescence, that is, the +growth or increase of life; the second is called Youth, that is, the +age which can give perfection, and for this reason one understands +this Youth to be perfect, because no man can give except of that which +he has; the third is called Old Age; the fourth is called Senility, +Extreme Old Age, as has been said above. + +Of the first no one doubts, but each wise man agrees that it lasts +even to the twenty-fifth year; and up to that time our Soul waits for +the increase and the embellishment of the body. While there are many +and very great changes in the person, the rational part cannot possess +perfectly the power of discretion; wherefore, the Civil Law wills +that, previous to that age, a man cannot do certain things without a +guardian of perfect age. + +Of the second, which is the height of our life, the time is variously +taken by many. But leaving that which philosophers and medical men +write concerning it, and returning to the proper argument, we may say +that, in most men in whom one can and ought to be guided by natural +judgment, that age lasts for twenty years. And the reason which leads +me to this conclusion is, that the height or supreme point of our arc +or bow is in the thirty-fifth year; just so much as this age has of +ascent, so much it ought to have of descent; and this ascent passes +into descent, as it were, at the point, the centre, where one would +hold the bow in the hand, at which place a slight flexion may be +discerned. We are of opinion, then, that Youth is completed in the +forty-fifth year. + +And as Adolescence is in the twenty-five years which proceed mounting +upwards to Youth: so the descent, that is, Old Age, is an equal amount +of time which succeeds to Youth; and thus Old Age terminates in the +seventieth year. + +But because Adolescence does not begin at the beginning of +life--taking it in the way which has been said--but about eight months +from birth; and because our life strives to ascend, and curbs itself +in the descent; because the natural heat is lessened and can do +little, and the moist humour is increased, not in quantity, but in +quality, so that it is less able to evaporate and be consumed; it +happens that beyond Old Age there remains of our life an amount, +perhaps, of about ten years, a little more or a little less; and this +time of life is termed Extreme Old Age, or Senility. Wherefore we know +of Plato (of whom one may well say that he was a son of Nature, both +because of his perfection and because of his countenance, which caused +Socrates to love him when first he saw him), that he lived eighty and +one years, according to the testimony of Tullius in that book On Old +Age. And I believe that if Christ had not been crucified, and if He +might have lived the length of time which His life according to nature +could have passed over, at eighty and one years He would have been +transformed from the mortal body into the eternal. + +Truly, as has been said above, these ages may be longer or shorter +according to our complexion or temper and our constitution or +composition; but, as they are, it seems to me that I observe this +proportion in all men, as has been said, that is to say, that in such +men the ages may be made longer or shorter according to the integrity +of the whole term of the natural life. + +Throughout all these ages this Nobility of which we speak manifests +its effects in different ways in the ennobled Soul; and it is that +which this part of the Song, concerning which we write at present, +intends to demonstrate. Where it is to be known that our good and +upright nature makes forward progress in us in the reasoning powers, +as we see the nature of the plants make forward progress; and +therefore it is that different manners and different deportment are to +be held reasonable at one age rather than at another. The ennobled +Soul proceeds in due order along a single path, employing each of its +powers in its time and season, or even as they are all ordained to the +final production of the perfect fruit. And Tullius is in harmony with +this in his book On Old Age. And putting aside the figurative sense +which Virgil holds in the Æneid concerning this different progress of +the ages, and letting that be which Egidius the hermit mentions in the +first part On the Government of Princes, and letting that be to which +Tullius alludes in his book Of Offices, and following that alone which +Reason can see of herself, I say that this first age is the door and +the path through which and along which we enter into our good life, +And this entrance must of necessity have certain things which the good +Nature, which fails not in things necessary, gives to us; as we see +that she gives to the vine the leaves for the protection of the fruit, +and the little tendrils which enable it to twine round its supports, +and thus bind up its weakness, so that it can sustain the weight of +its fruit. Beneficent Nature gives, then, to this age four things +necessary to the entrance into the City of the Good Life. The first is +Obedience, the second Suavity, the third Modesty, the fourth Beauty of +the Body, even as the Song says in the first section of this part. It +is, then, to be known that like one who has never been in a city, who +would not know how to find his way about the streets without +instruction from one who is accustomed to them, even so the adolescent +who enters into the Wood of Error of this life would not know how to +keep to the good path if it were not pointed out to him by his elders. +Neither would the instruction avail if he were not obedient to their +commands, and therefore at this age obedience is necessary. Here it +might be possible for some one to speak thus: Then, is that man to be +called obedient who shall follow evil guidance as well as he who shall +believe the good? I reply that this would not be obedience, but +transgression. For if the King should issue a command in one way and +the servant give forth the command in another, it would not be right +to obey the servant, for that would be to disobey the King; and thus +it would be transgression. And therefore Solomon says, when he intends +to correct his son, and this is his first commandment: "Listen, my +son, to the instruction of thy father." And then he seeks to remove +him immediately from the counsel and teaching of the wicked man, +saying, "My son, if sinners entice thee, consent thou not." + +Wherefore, as soon as he is born, the son clings to the breast of the +mother; even so soon as some light of the Mind appears in him, he +ought to turn to the correction of the father, and the father to +instruction. And let the father take heed that he himself does not set +him an example in work or action that is contrary to the words of the +correction; for naturally we see each son look more to the footprints +of the paternal feet than to those of other men. And therefore the +Law, which provides for this, says and commands that the life of the +father should appear to his sons always honourable and upright. Thus +it appears that obedience was necessary in this age; and therefore +Solomon writes in the Book of Proverbs, that he who humbly and +obediently sustains his just reproofs from the corrector shall be +glorious. And he says "shall be," to cause men to understand that he +speaks to the adolescent, who cannot be so in his present age. And if +any one should reflect on me because I have said obedience is due to +the father and not to other men, I say that to the father all other +obedience ought to be referred; wherefore the Apostle says to the +Colossians: "Sons, obey your fathers in all things, for such is the +will of God." And if the father be not in this life, the son ought to +refer to that which is said by the father in his last Will as a +father; and if the father die intestate, the son ought to refer to him +to whom the Law commits his authority; and then ought the masters and +elders to be obeyed, for this appears to be a reasonable charge laid +upon the son by the father, or by him who stands in the father's +place. + +But because this present chapter has been long, on account of the +useful digressions which it contains, in another chapter other things +shall be discussed. + + + + +CHAPTER XXV. + + +Not only this Soul, naturally good in Adolescence, is obedient, but +also gentle; which is the other thing necessary in this age to make a +good entrance through the portal of Youth. + +It is necessary, since we cannot have a perfect life without friends, +as Aristotle expresses it in the eighth book of Ethics; and the seed +of the greater number of friendships seems to be sown in the first age +of life, because in it a man begins to be gracious or the contrary. +Such graciousness is acquired by gentle rules of conduct, as are sweet +and courteous speech, gentle service courteously rendered, and actions +kindly done or performed. And therefore Solomon says to the adolescent +son: "Surely God scorneth the scorners; but He giveth grace unto the +lowly." And elsewhere he says: "Put away from thee a forward mouth, +and perverse lips put far from thee." Wherefore it appears that, as +has been said, this suavity or affability is necessary. + +Likewise to this age the passion of modesty is necessary; and +therefore the nature which is good and noble shows it in this age, +even as the Song says. And since modesty is the clearest sign, in +Adolescence, of Nobility, because there it is especially necessary to +the good foundation of our life, at which the noble nature aims, it is +right to speak of it somewhat. By modesty I mean three passions or +strong feelings necessary to the foundation of our good life: the one +is wonder, the next is modesty, the third is shame, although the +common people do not discern this distinction. And all three of these +are necessary to this life, for this reason: at this age it is +requisite to be reverent and desirous for knowledge; at this age it is +necessary or requisite to be self-controlled, so as not to transgress +or pass beyond due bounds; at this age it is necessary to be penitent +for a fault, so as not to grow accustomed to doing wrong. And all +these things the aforesaid passions or strong feelings do, which +vulgarly are called shame; for wonder is an amazement of the mind at +beholding great and wonderful things, at hearing them, or feeling them +in some way or other; for, inasmuch as they appear great, they excite +reverence in him who sees them; inasmuch as they appear wonderful, +they make him who perceives them desirous of knowledge concerning +them. And therefore the ancient Kings in their palaces or habitations +set up magnificent works in gold and in marble and works of art, in +order that those who should see them should become astonished, and +therefore reverent inquirers into the honourable conditions of the +King. Therefore Statius, the sweet Poet, in the first part of the +Theban History, says that, when Adrastus, King of the Argives, saw +Polynices covered with the skin of a lion, and saw Tydeus covered with +the hide of a wild boar, and recalled to mind the reply that Apollo +had given concerning his daughters, he became amazed, and therefore +more reverent and more desirous for knowledge. Modesty is a shrinking, +a drawing-back of the mind from unseemly things, with the fear of +falling into them; even as we see in virgins and in good women, and in +adolescent or young men, who are so modest that not only when they are +tempted to do wrong, and urged to do so, but even when some fancied +joy flashes across the mind, the feeling is depicted in the face, +which either grows pale with fear, or flushes rosy-red. Wherefore the +before-mentioned poet, in the first book of the Thebaid already +quoted, says that when Acesta the nurse of Argia and Deiphile, the +daughters of King Adrastus, led them before the eyes of their holy +father into the presence of the two pilgrims, that is to say, +Polynices and Tydeus, the virgins grew pale and blushed rosy-red, and +their eyes shunned the glance of any other person, and they kept them +fixed on the paternal face alone, as if there were safety. This +modesty--how many errors does it bridle in, or repress? On how many +immodest questions and impure things does it impose silence! How much +dishonest greed does it repress! In the chaste woman, against how many +evil temptations does it rouse mistrust, not only in her, but also in +him who watches over her! How many unseemly words does it restrain! +for, as Tullius says in the first chapter of the Offices: "No action +is unseemly which is not unseemly in the naming." And furthermore, the +Modest and Noble Man never could speak in such a manner that to a +woman his words would not be decent and such as she could hear. Alas, +how great is the evil in every man who seeks for honour, to mention +things which would be deemed evil in the mouth of any woman! + +Shame is a fear of dishonour through fault committed, and from this +fear there springs up a penitence for the fault, which has in itself a +bitter sorrow or grief, which is a chastisement and preservative +against future wrong-doing. Wherefore this same poet says, in that +same part, that when Polynices was questioned by King Adrastus +concerning his life, he hesitated at first through shame to speak of +the crime which he had committed against his father, and also for the +sins of Oedipus, his father, which appeared to remain in the shame of +the son; therefore he named not his father, but his ancestors, and his +country, and his mother; and therefore it does indeed appear that +shame is necessary to that age. And the noble nature reveals in this +age, not only obedience, gentleness, affability, and modesty, but it +shows beauty and agility of body, even as the Song expresses: "To +furnish Virtue's person with The graces it may need." Here it is to be +known that this work of beneficent Nature is also necessary to our +good life, for our Soul must work in the greater part of all its +operations with a bodily organ; and then it works well when the body +through all its parts is well proportioned and appointed. And when it +is well proportioned and appointed, then it is beautiful throughout +and in all its parts; for the due ordering or proportion of our limbs +produces a pleasing impression of I know not what of wonderful +harmony; and the good disposition, that is to say, the health of mind +and body, throws over all a colouring sweet to behold. And thus to say +that the noble nature takes heed for the graces of the body, and makes +it fair and harmonious, is tantamount to saying that it prepares it +and renders it fit to attain the perfection ordained for it: and those +other things which have been discussed seem to be requisite to +Adolescence, which the noble Mind, that is to say, the noble Nature, +furnishes forth to it in the first years of life, as growth of the +seed sown therein by the Divine Providence. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVI. + + +Since the first section of this part, which shows how we can recognize +the Noble Man by apparent signs, is reasoned out, it is right to +proceed to the second section, which begins: "Are temperate in Youth, +And resolutely strong." + +It says, then, that as the noble Nature in Adolescence or the +Spring-time of Youth appears obedient, gentle, and modest, the +beautifier of its person, so in Youth it is temperate, strong, and +loving, courteous and loyal; which five things appear to be, and are, +necessary to our perfection, inasmuch as we have respect unto +ourselves. And with regard to this it is desirable to know that just +as the noble Nature prepares in the first age, it is prepared and +ordained by the care or foresight of Universal Nature, which ordains +and appoints the particular Nature where-ever existing, to attain its +perfection. + +This perfection of ours may be considered in a double sense. It is +possible to consider it as it has respect to ourselves, and we ought +to possess this in our Youth, which is the culminating point of our +life. It is possible to consider it as it has respect to others, and +since in the first place it is necessary to be perfect, and then to +communicate the perfection to others, it is requisite to possess this +secondary perfection after this age, that is to say, in Old Age, as +will be said subsequently. Here, then, it is needful to recall to mind +that which was argued in the twenty-second chapter of this treatise +concerning the appetite or impulse which is born in us. This appetite +or impulse never does aught else but to pursue and to flee, and +whenever it pursues that which is to be pursued, and as far as is +right, and flies from that which is to be fled from, and as much as is +right, then is the man within the limits of his perfection. Truly, +this appetite or natural impulse must have Reason for its rider; for +as a horse at liberty, however noble it may be by nature, by itself +without the good rider does not conduct itself well, even thus this +appetite, however noble it may be, must obey Reason, which guides it +with the bridle and spur, as the good knight uses the bridle when he +hunts. And that bridle is termed Temperance, which marks the limit up +to which it is lawful to pursue; he uses the spur in flight to turn +the horse away from the place from which he would flee away; and this +spur is called Courage, or rather Magnanimity, a Virtue that points +out the place at which it is right to stop, and to resist evil even to +mortal combat. And thus Virgil, our greatest Poet, represents Æneas as +under the influence of powerful self control in that part of the Æneid +wherein this age is typified, which part comprehends the fourth and +the fifth and the sixth books of the Æneid. And what self-restraint +was that when, having received from Dido so much pleasure, as will be +spoken of in the seventh treatise, and enjoying so much delectation +with her, he departed, in order to follow the upright and praiseworthy +path fruitful of good works, even as it is written in the fourth book +of the Æneid! What impetus was that when Æneas had the fortitude alone +with Sybilla to enter into Hades, to search for the Soul of his father +Anchises, in the face of so many dangers, as it is shown in the sixth +book of the Æneid. Wherefore it appears that in our Youth, in order to +be in our perfection, we must be Temperate and Brave. The good +disposition secures this for us, even as the Song expressly states. + +Again, at this age it is necessary to its perfection to be Loving; +because at this age it is requisite to look behind and before, as +being midway over the arch. The youth ought to love his elders, from +whom he has received his being, and his nutriment, and his +instruction, so that he may not appear ungrateful. He ought to love +his juniors, since, in loving them, he gives them of his good gifts, +for which in after-years, when the younger friends are prospering, he +may be supported and honoured by them. And the poet named above, in +the fifth book before-mentioned, makes it evident that Æneas possessed +this loving disposition, when he left the aged Trojans in Sicily, +recommended to Acestes, and set them free from the fatigues of the +voyage; and when he instructed, in the same place, Ascanius his son, +with the other young men, in jousting or in feats of arms; wherefore +it appears that to this age Love is necessary, even as the Song says. + +Again, to this age Courtesy is necessary, for, although to every age +it is right or beautiful to be possessed of courteous manners, to this +age it is especially necessary, because, on the contrary, Old Age, +with its gravity and its severity, cannot possess courtesy, if it has +been wanting in this youthful period of life; and with Extreme Old Age +it is the same in a greater degree. And that most noble poet, in the +sixth book before-mentioned, proves that Æneas possessed this +courtesy, when he says that Æneas, then King, in order to pay honour +to the dead body of Misenus, who had been the trumpeter of Hector, and +afterwards accompanied Æneas, made himself ready and took the axe to +assist in cutting the logs for the fire which must burn the dead body, +as was their custom. Wherefore this courtesy does indeed appear to be +necessary to Youth; and therefore the noble Soul reveals it in that +age, as has been said. + +Again, it is necessary to this age to be Loyal. Loyalty is to follow +and to put in operation that which the Laws command, and this +especially is necessary in the young man; because the adolescent, as +it has been said, on account of his minority, merits ready pardon; the +old man, on account of greater experience, ought to be just, but not a +follower of the Law except inasmuch as his upright judgment and the +Law are at one as it were; and almost without any Law he ought to be +able to follow the dictates of his own just mind. The young man is not +able to do this, and it is sufficient that he should obey the Law, and +take delight in that obedience; even as the before-said poet says, in +the fifth book previously mentioned, that Æneas did when he instituted +the games in Sicily on the anniversary of his father's death, for what +he promised for the victories he loyally gave to each victor, +according to their ancient custom, which was their Law. + +Wherefore, it is evident that, to this age, Loyalty, Courtesy, Love, +Courage, and Temperance are necessary, even as the Song says, which at +present I have reasoned out; and therefore the noble Soul reveals them +all. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVII. + + +That section which the text puts forward having been reasoned out and +made sufficiently clear, showing the qualities of uprightness which +the noble Soul puts into Youth, we go on to pay attention to the third +part, which begins, "Are prudent in their Age," in which the Song +intends to show those qualities which the noble Nature reveals and +ought to possess in the third age, that is to say, Old Age. And it +says that the noble Soul in Old Age is prudent, is just, is liberal +and cheerful, willing to speak kindly and for the good of others, and +ready to listen for the same reason, that is to say, that it is +affable. And truly these four Virtues are most suitable to this age. +And, in order to perceive this, it is to be known that, as Tullius +says in his book On Old Age, "Our life has a certain course, and one +simple path, that of natural moral goodness; and to each part of our +age there is given a season for certain things." Wherefore, as to +Adolescence is given, as has been said above, that by means of which +it may attain perfection and maturity, so to youth is given perfection +and maturity in order that the sweetness of its perfect fruit may be +profitable to the man himself and to others; for, as Aristotle says, +man is a civil or polite animal, because it is required of him to be +useful, not only to himself, but to others as well. Wherefore one +reads of Cato, that he believed himself to be born not only to +himself, but to his country and to all the world. Then after our own +perfection, which is acquired in Youth, there must follow that which +may give light not only to one's self, but to others as well; and a +man ought to open and broaden like a rose as it were, which can no +longer remain closed, and spread abroad the sweet odour which is bred +within; and this ought to be the case in that third age which we have +now in hand. + +Then it must be Prudent, that is to say, Wise. And, in order to be +this, a good memory of the things which have been seen is requisite, +and a good knowledge of present things, and good foresight for things +of the future. And, as the Philosopher says in the sixth book of +Ethics, it is impossible for the man who is not good to be wise; and +therefore he is not to be called a wise man who acts with cunning and +with deception, but he is to be called an astute man. As no one would +call him a wise man who might indeed know how to draw with the point +of a knife in the pupil of the eye, even so he is not to be called a +wise man who knows how to do a bad thing well, in the doing of which +he must always first injure some other person. If we consider well, +good counsel springs from Prudence, which leads or guides a man, and +other men, to a good end in human affairs. And this is that gift which +Solomon, perceiving himself to be placed as ruler over the people, +asked of God, even as it is written in the Third Book of Kings; nor +does the prudent man wait for counsel to be asked of him; but of +himself, foreseeing the need for it, unasked he gives counsel or +advice; like the rose, which not only to him who goes to her for her +sweet odour freely gives it, but also to any one who passes near. + +Here it would be possible for any doctor or lawyer to say: Then shall +I carry my counsel or advice, and shall I give it even before it be +asked of me, and shall I not reap fruit from my art or skill? I reply +in the words of our Saviour: "Freely ye have received, freely give." I +say, then, Master Lawyer, that those counsels which have no respect to +thine art, and which proceed alone from that good sense or wisdom +which God gave thee (which is the prudence of which we speak), thou +oughtest not to sell to the sons or children of Him who has given it +to thee. But those counsels which belong to the art which thou hast +purchased, thou mayst sell; but not in such a way but that at any time +the tenth part of them may be fitly set apart and given unto God, that +is, to those unhappy ones to whom the Divine protection is all that is +left. + +Likewise at this age it is right to be Just, in order that the +judgments and the authority of the man may be a light and a law to +other men. And because this particular Virtue, that is to say, +Justice, was seen by the ancient philosophers to appear perfect in men +of this age, they entrusted the government of the cities to those men +who had attained that age; and therefore the college of Rectors was +called the Senate. Oh, my unhappy, unhappy country! how my heart is +wrung with pity for thee whenever I read, whenever I write, anything +which may have reference to Civil Government! But since in the last +treatise of this book Justice will be discussed, to the present let +this slight notice of it suffice. + +Also at this age a man ought to be liberal, because a thing is then +most suitable when it gives most satisfaction to the due requirements +of its nature: nor to the due requirements of Liberality is it ever +possible to give more satisfaction than at this age. For if we will +look well at the argument of Aristotle in the fourth book of Ethics, +and at that of Tullius in his book Of Offices, Liberality desires to +be seasonable in place and time; so that the liberal man may not +injure himself nor other men; which thing it is not possible to have +without Prudence and without Justice, Virtues that previous to this +age it is impossible to have or possess in perfection in the Natural +way. + +Alas! ye base-born ones, born under evil stars, ye who rob the widows +and orphans, who ravish or despoil those who possess least, who steal +from and occupy or usurp the homes of other men, and with that spoil +you furnish forth feasts, women, horses, arms, robes, money; you wear +wonderful garments, you build marvellous palaces; and you believe that +you do deeds of great liberality: and this is no other than to take +the cloth from the altar and to cover therewith the thief and his +table! Not otherwise one ought to laugh, O tyrants, at your bounteous +liberality than at the thief who should lead the invited guests into +his house to his feast, and place upon his table the cloth stolen from +the altar, with the ecclesiastical signs inwoven, and should not +believe that other men might perceive the sacrilege. Hear, O ye +obstinate men, what Tullius says against you in the book Of Offices: +"Certainly there are many, desirous of being great and glorious, who +rob some that they may give to others, believing themselves to be +esteemed good men if they enrich their friends with what the Law +allows. But this is so opposite or contrary to that which ought to be +done, that nothing is more wrong." + +At this age also a man ought to be Affable, to speak for the good of +others, and to listen to such speech willingly, since it is good for a +man to discourse kindly at an age when he is listened to. And this age +also has with it a shadow of authority, for which reason it appears +that the aged man is more likely to be listened to than a person in a +younger period of life. And of most good and beautiful Truths it seems +that a man ought to have knowledge after the long experience of life. +Wherefore Tullius says, in that book On Old Age, in the person of Cato +the elder: "To me is increased the desire and the delight to remain in +conversation longer than I am wont." And that all four of these things +are right and proper to this age, Ovid teaches, in the seventh chapter +of Metamorphoses, in that fable where he writes how Cephalus of Athens +came to Æacus the King for help in the war which Athens had with the +Cretans. He shows that Æacus, an old man, was prudent when, having, +through pestilence caused by corruption of the air, lost almost all +his people, he wisely had recourse to God, and besought of Him the +restoration of the dead; and for his wisdom, which in patience +possessed him and caused him to turn to God, his people were restored +to him in greater number than before. He shows that he was just, when +he says that Æacus was the divider and the distributor of his deserted +land to his new people. He shows that Æacus was generous or liberal +when he said to Cephalus, after his request for aid: "O Athens! ask me +not to render assistance, but take it yourself; doubt not the strength +of the forces which this island possesses, nor the power of my state +and realm; troops are not wanting to us, nay, we have them in excess +for offence and defence; it is indeed a happy time to give you aid, +and without excuse." + +Alas, how many things are to be observed in this reply! but to a good, +intelligent man it is sufficient for it to be placed here, even as +Ovid puts it. He shows that Æacus was affable when he described, in a +long speech to Cephalus, the history of the pestilence which destroyed +his people, and the restoration of the same, which he tells readily. + +It is clear enough, then, that to this age four things are suitable, +because the noble Nature reveals them in it, even as the Song says. +And that the example given may be the more memorable, Æacus says that +he was the father of Telamon and Peleus and of Phocus, from which +Telamon sprang Ajax and from Peleus Achilles. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVIII. + + +Following the section which has been discussed, we have now to proceed +to the last, that is, to that which begins, "The fourth part of their +life Weds them again to God," by which the text intends to show what +the noble Soul does in the last age, that is, in Extreme Old Age, that +is, Senility. And it says that it does two things: the one, that it +returns to God as to that port or haven whence it departed when it +issued forth to enter into the sea of this life; the other is, that it +blesses the voyage which it has made, because it has been upright, +straight, and good, and without the bitterness of storm and tempest. + +And here it is to be known that, even as Tullius says in that book On +Old Age, the natural death is, as it were, a port or haven to us after +our long voyage and a place of rest. And the Virtuous Man who dies +thus is like the good mariner; for, as he approaches the port or +haven, he strikes his sails, and gently, with feeble steering, enters +port. Even thus we ought to strike the sails of our worldly affairs, +and turn to God with all our heart and mind, so that one may come into +that haven with all sweetness and all peace. + +And in this we have from our own proper nature great instruction in +gentleness, for in such a death as this there is no pain nor +bitterness, but even as a ripe apple easily and without violence +detaches itself from its branch, so our Soul without grief separates +itself from the body wherein it has dwelt. + +Aristotle, in his book On Youth and Old Age, says that the death which +overtakes us in old age is without sadness. And as to him who comes +from a long journey, before he enters into the gate of his city, the +citizens thereof go forth to meet him, so do those citizens of the +Eternal Life go forth to meet the noble Soul; and they do thus because +of his good works and acts of contemplation, which were of old +rendered unto God and withdrawn from worldly affairs and thoughts. +Hear what Tullius says in the person of Cato the elder: "It seems to +me that already I see, and I uplift myself in the greatest desire to +see, your fathers, whom I loved, and not only those whom I knew +myself, but also those of whom I have heard spoken." In this age, +then, the noble Soul renders itself unto God, and awaits the end of +this life with much desire; and to itself it seems that it goes out +from the Inn to return home to the Father's mansion; to itself it +seems to have reached the end of a long journey and to have reached +the City; to itself it seems to have crossed the wide sea and returned +into the port. O, miserable men and vile, who run into this port with +sails unfurled; and there where you should find rest, are broken by +the fury of the wind and wrecked in the harbour. Truly the Knight +Lancelot chose not to enter it with sails unfurled, nor our most noble +Italian Guido da Montefeltro. These noble Spirits indeed furled the +sails after the voyage of this World, whose cares were rendered to +Religion in their long old age, when they had laid down each earthly +joy and labour. And it is not possible to excuse any man because of +the bond of matrimony, which may hold him in his old age, from turning +to Religion, even as he who adopts the habit of St. Benedict and St. +Augustine and St. Francis and St. Dominic and the like mode of life, +but also it is possible to turn to a good and true Religion whilst +remaining in the bonds of matrimony, for God asks of us no more than +the religious heart. And therefore St. Paul says to the Romans: "For +he is not a Jew which is one outwardly; neither is that circumcision +which is outward in the flesh. But he is a Jew which is one inwardly; +and circumcision is that of the heart, in the spirit, and not in the +letter; whose praise is not of men, but of God." + +And the Noble Soul in this age blesses likewise the time that is past, +and it may well bless it; because when Memory turns back to them, the +Noble Soul remembers her upright deeds, without which it were not +possible for her to come to the port whither she is hastening with +such wealth nor with such gain. And the Noble Soul does like the good +merchant, who, when he draws near to his port, examines his cargo, and +says: "If I had not passed along such a highway as that, I should not +possess this treasure, and I should not have wherewith to rejoice in +my city, to which I am approaching;" and therefore he blesses the +voyage he has made. + +And that these two things are suitable to this age that great poet +Lucan represents to us in the second book of his Pharsalia, when he +says that Marcia returned to Cato, and entreated him that he would +take her back in his fourth and Extreme Old Age, by which Marcia the +Noble Soul is meant, and we can thus depict the symbol of it in all +Truth. Marcia was a virgin, and in that state typifies Adolescence; +she then espoused Cato, and in that state typifies Youth; she then +bore sons, by whom are typified the Virtues which are becoming to +young men, as previously described; and she departed from Cato and +espoused Hortensius, by which it is typified that she quitted Youth +and came to Old Age. She bore sons to this man also, by whom are +typified the Virtues which befit Old Age, as previously said. +Hortensius died, by which is typified the end of Old Age, and Marcia, +made a widow, by which widowhood is typified Extreme Old Age, returned +in the early days of her widowhood to Cato, whereby is typified the +Noble Soul turning to God in the beginning of Extreme Old Age. And +what earthly man was more worthy to typify God than Cato? None, of a +certainty. And what does Marcia say to Cato? "Whilst there was blood +in me [that is to say, Youth], whilst the maternal power was in me +[that is, Age, which is indeed the Mother of all other Virtues or +Powers, as has been previously shown or proved], I," says Marcia, +"fulfilled all thy commandments [that is to say, that the Soul stood +firm in obedience to the Civil Laws]." She says: "And I took two +husbands," that is to say, I have been in two fruitful periods of +life. "Now," says Marcia, "that I am weary, and that I am void and +empty, I return to thee, being no longer able to give happiness to the +other husband;" that is to say, that the Noble Soul, knowing well that +it has no longer the power to produce, that is, feeling all its +members to have grown feeble, turns to God, that is, to Him who has no +need of members of the body. And Marcia says, "Give me the ancient +covenanted privileges of the beds; give me the name alone of the +Marriage Tie;" that is to say, the Noble Soul says to God, "O my Lord, +give me now repose and rest;" the Soul says, "Give me at least +whatsoever I may have called Thine in a life so long." And Marcia +says, "Two reasons move or urge me to say this; the one is, that they +may say of me, after I am dead, that I was the wife of Cato; the other +is, that it may be said after me that thou didst not drive me away, +but didst espouse me heartily." By these two causes the Noble Soul is +stirred and desires to depart from this life as the spouse of God, and +wishes to show that God was gracious to the creature that He made. O +unhappy and baseborn men! you who prefer to depart from this life +under the name of Hortensius rather than of Cato! + +From Cato's name a grace comes into the close of the discourse which +it was fit to make touching the signs of Nobility; because in him +Nobility reveals them all, through all the ages of his life. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIX. + + +Since the Song has demonstrated those signs which in each age or +period of life appear in the Noble Man, and by which it is possible to +know him, and without which he cannot be, even as the Sun cannot be +without light or the fire without heat, the text cries aloud to the +People in the concluding part of this treatise on Nobility, and it +says: "How many are deceived!" They are deceived who, because they are +of ancient and famous lineage, and because they are descended of +excellent and Noble fathers, believe themselves to be Noble, yet have +in themselves no Nobility. And here arise two questions, to which it +is right to attend at the end of this treatise. It would be possible +for Manfredi da Vico, who but now is called Praetor and Prefect, to +say: "Whatever I may be, I recall to mind and I represent my elders, +who deserved the Office of Prefecture because of their Nobility, and +they merited the honour of investiture at the coronation of the +Emperor, and they merited the honour of receiving the Rose of Gold +from the Roman Pontiff: I ought to receive from the People honour and +reverence." And this is one question. The other is, that it would be +possible for the scions of the families of San Nazzaro di Pavia and of +the Piscitelli of Naples to say: "If Nobility is that which has been +described, that is, that it is Divine seed graciously cast into the +human Soul, and the progeny, or offshoots, have, as is evident, no +Soul, it would not be possible to term any of its progeny or offshoots +Noble; but this is opposed to the opinion of those who assert that our +race is the most Noble in these cities." + +To the first question Juvenal replies in the eighth Satire, when he +begins with exclaiming, as it were: "What is the use of all these +honours and of this glory which remain from the past, except that they +serve as a mantle or cloak to him who may wish to cover himself with +them, badly as he may live; except for him who talks of his ancestors, +and points out their great and wonderful works, giving his own mind to +miserable and vile actions?" And this satirical poet asks: "Who will +call that man Noble, because of his good race, who is not worthy of +his race? It is no other than to call the Dwarf a Giant." Then +afterwards he says to such an one as this: "Between thee and the +statue erected in memory of thine ancestor there is no other +dissimilarity except that its head is of marble and thine is alive." +And in this (with reverence I say it) I disagree with the poet, for +the statue of marble or of wood or of metal, which has remained in +memory of some worthy brave man, differs much in effect from the +wicked descendant: because the statue always confirms a good opinion +in those who have heard of the good renown or fame of him whose statue +it is, and it begets good opinion in others. But the wicked son or +nephew does quite the contrary: he weakens the good opinion of those +who have heard of the goodness of his ancestors. For some one says to +himself in his thought: "It cannot possibly be true, all this that has +been said about this man's ancestors, since from their seed one sees +an offshoot such as that." Wherefore he ought to receive not honour, +but dishonour, who bears false or evil witness against the good. And +therefore Tullius says that the son of the brave man ought to strive +to bear good witness to the father. Wherefore, in my judgment, even as +he who defames an excellent man deserves to be shunned by all people +and not listened to, even so the vile man descended from good +ancestors deserves to be banned by all; and the good man ought to +close his eyes in order not to see that infamous man casting infamy +upon the goodness which remains in Memory alone. And let this suffice +at present to the first question that was moved. + +To the second question it is possible to reply that a race of itself +has no Soul; and indeed it is true that it is called Noble, but it is +in a certain way. Wherefore it is to be known that every whole is +composed of its parts, and there is a certain whole which has a simple +essence in its parts, as in one man there is one essence in all and in +each individual part; and this which is said to be in the part is said +in the same way to be in the whole. There is another whole which has +not a common essential form or essence with the parts, as a heap of +corn; but there is a secondary essence which results from many grains, +which possess in themselves a true and primary essence. And in such a +whole as this they are said to be the qualities of the parts in a +secondary way; wherefore it is called a white heap, because the grains +whereof the heap is made are white. Truly this white appearance is +more in the grains in the first place, and in the second place it +results in the whole heap, and thus secondarily it is possible to call +it white; and in such a way it is possible to call a race Noble. +Wherefore it is to be known, that as in order to make a white heap the +white grains must be most numerous, so to make a Noble race the Noble +Men must be more numerous than the others, so that their goodness, +with its good fame or renown, may cover the opposite quality which is +within. And as from a white heap of corn it would be possible to pick +up the wheat grain by grain, and substitute, grain by grain, red +maize, till, finally, the whole heap or mass would change colour, so +would it be possible for the good men of the Noble race to die out one +by one, and the wicked ones to spring up therein, who would so change +the name or fame thereof, that it would have to be called, not Noble, +but vile, or base. + +And let this be a sufficient answer to the second question. + + + + +CHAPTER XXX. + + +As it has been shown previously in the third chapter of this treatise, +this Song has three principal parts, whereof two have been reasoned or +argued out, the first of which begins in the aforesaid chapter, and +the second in the sixteenth (so that the first through thirteen, and +the second through fourteen chapters, passes on to an end, without +counting the Proem of the treatise on the Song, which is comprised in +two chapters), in this thirtieth and last chapter we must briefly +discuss the third principal part, which was made as a refrain and as a +species of ornament for this Song; and it begins: "My Song, Against +the strayers." + +Here it is chiefly to be known that every good workman, at the end of +his work, ought to ennoble and embellish it as much as possible, that +it may leave his hands so much the more precious, and more worthy of +fame. And this I endeavour to do in this part, not as a good workman, +but as the follower of one. + +I say, then, "My Song, Against the strayers." "Against the strayers" +is a phrase, as, for example, from the good friar, Thomas of Aquinas, +who, to a book of his, which he wrote to the confusion of all those +who go astray from our Faith, gave the title "Contra Gentili," Against +the Heathen. I say, then, that thou shalt go, which is as much as to +say: "Thou art now perfect, and it is now time, not to stand still, +but to go forward, for thy enterprise is great. And 'when you reach +Our Lady, hide not from her that your end Is labour that would lessen +wrong.'" Where it is to be observed that, as our Lord says, "We ought +not to cast pearls before swine," because it is not to their +advantage, and it is injury to the pearls; and, as Aesop the poet says +in the first fable, a little grain of corn is of far more worth to a +cock than a pearl, and therefore he leaves the pearl and picks up the +grain of corn: reflecting on this, as a caution, I speak and give +command to the Song that it reveal its high office where this Lady, +that is, where Philosophy, will be found. And that most noble Lady +will be found when her dwelling-place is found, that is, the Soul in +which she finds her Inn. And this Philosophy dwells not in wise men +alone, but likewise, as is proved above in another treatise, wherever +the love for her inhabits, she is there. "And to such as these," I say +to the Song, "thou mayst reveal thine office, because to them the +purpose thereof will be useful, and by them its thoughts will be +gathered in." + +And I bid it say to this Lady, "I travel ever talking of your Friend." + +Nobility is her Friend. For so much does the one love the other, that +Nobility always seeks her, and Philosophy does not turn aside her most +sweet glance to any other. + +O, what a great and beautiful ornament is this which is given to her +in the last part of this Song, by giving to her the title of Friend, +the Friend of her whose own abode is in the most secret depths of the +Divine Mind. + + * * * * * + + + + +NOTE + +ON THE DATE OF THE CONVITO + + +It is natural to suppose that Dante's death at Ravenna in 1321 caused +the Convito, a work of his latter years, to be left unfinished. But +there are arguments that have been especially dwelt upon by writers +who regard the Convito as a work begun before the conception of the +Divine Comedy, and dropped when the Poet's mind became intent upon +that masterpiece. + +One argument is that the Divine Comedy is nowhere mentioned or alluded +to in the Convito. But as the place designed for the Convito is midway +between the Vita Nuova, which preceded it, and the Divine Comedy, +which was to follow, references to the poem which was not yet before +the reader would have been a fault in art. + +Another argument is drawn from the fourteenth chapter of the Second +Treatise, where (on page 84 in this volume) the shadow in the Moon is +ascribed to "the rarity of its body, in which the rays of the Sun can +find no end wherefrom to strike back again as in the other parts." In +the second canto of the Purgatorio, Beatrice opposes that opinion, +whence it may be inferred that Dante had learnt better, and he speaks +of this again in a later canto (the twenty-second) as a former +opinion. This leads to an inference that the Second Treatise was +written before 1300. + +Attention is due also to a passage in the third chapter of the First +Treatise (on pages 16 and 17 in this volume), in which Dante speaks of +his long exile and poverty. The exile and the wanderings of Dante +began after the year 1300. He was befriended by Guido da Polenta in +Ravenna, by Uguccione della Faggiola in Lucca, by Malaspina in the +Lunigiana, by Can Grande della Scala in Verona, by Bosone de' +Raffaelli in Gubbio, by the Patriarch Pagano della Torre in Udine. In +1311, when the Emperor Henry of Luxembourg went to Italy, Dante had +some hope of return, which passed away in 1313 when that Emperor died +in Buonconvento. Dante remained in exile. In 1321 his patron, Guido +Novello da Polenta, sent him on an embassy to Venice, in which he was +unsuccessful. The sea way being blocked, he had to return by land, and +he was struck by the malaria which caused his death by fever on the +14th of September in that year, 1321. This reference to long exile +leads to an inference that the First Treatise was written much later +than 1300. + +But, again, there is a passage in the third chapter of the Fourth +Treatise (on page 171 of this volume) that points to an earlier date. +Frederick of Suabia is named as the Emperor who + + held, + As far as he could see, + Descent of wealth, and generous ways, + To make Nobility. + +Dante calls him "the last Emperor of the Romans," and adds, "I say +last with respect to the present time, notwithstanding that Rudolf, +and Adolphus, and Albert were elected after his death and from his +descendants." This last of the Romans was that famous Frederick II., +who died in 1250, and of whom Dante said in his Treatise on the +Language of the People: "The illustrious heroes, Frederick Caesar and +his son Manfredi, followed after elegance and scorned what was mean; +so that all the best compositions of the time came out of their Court. +Thus, because their royal throne was in Sicily, all the poems of our +predecessors in the Vulgar Tongue were called Sicilian." Rudolf I. of +Hapsburg, founder of the Imperial House of Austria, was elected +Emperor in 1273, after a time of confusion and nominal rule. He died +in 1291, and, instead of his son Albert, Adolphus of Nassau was next +elected Emperor. But in June 1298 Albert obtained election; Adolphus +was deposed, and was soon afterwards killed in battle with his rival. +Albert was murdered on the 6th of May, 1308, and, after an interregnum +of seven months, he was succeeded by Henry VII. of Luxembourg. Now, +Dante's list does not go on from Albert to Henry. It is assumed, +therefore, that this passage must have been written before the end of +the year 1308. + +There is another passage at the close of chapter vi. of the Fourth +Treatise (on page 186 in this volume) that points to a like inference +of date. Dante writes: "Ye enemies of God, look to your flanks, ye who +have seized the sceptres of the kingdoms of Italy. And I say to you, +Charles, and to you, Frederick, Kings, and to you, ye other Princes +and Tyrants, see who sits by the side of you in council." The Charles +and Frederick here addressed were Charles II. of Anjou, King of +Naples, and Frederick of Aragon, King of Sicily; and King Charles died +in the year 1310. + +It has been inferred, therefore, that the four treatises of the +Convito were not written consecutively. The Second Treatise may have +been begun some time after the death of Beatrice, in 1290, time being +allowed after 1290 for the completion of the Vita Nuova and a period +of devotion to philosophic studies. That Second Treatise having been +first written, the Treatise on Nobility, the Fourth, may have next +followed; and this may have been written before the end of the year +1298. The Third Treatise may have been written later, and made to +connect the Second and the Fourth. The First Treatise, or General +Introduction, which has in it clear indication of a later date, may +have been written last, when the whole design was brought into shape. +Various reasons have been used for dating this final arrangement of +the plan for an Ethical survey of human knowledge in fifteen +treatises, and the suggested date is the year 1314. The whole work +seems to have been planned. Besides the references to the Fifteenth +Treatise, there is a glance forward to the matter of the Seventh +Treatise in the twenty-sixth chapter of the Fourth. + +The question of date is not of great importance, and this may console +us though we know that it can never be settled. Here it is only +touched upon to show the significance of one or two historical +allusions in the book. + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Banquet (Il Convito), by Dante Alighieri + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 12867 *** diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Banquet (Il Convito) + +Author: Dante Alighieri + +Release Date: July 9, 2004 [EBook #12867] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BANQUET (IL CONVITO) *** + + + + +Produced by Paul Murray, Marc André Selig and PG Distributed Proofreaders + + + + + + + + + IL CONVITO + + THE BANQUET + + OF + + DANTE ALIGHIERI + + + Translated By + + Elizabeth Price Sayer + + With An Introduction By Henry Morely +LL.D., Professor Of English Literature At + University College, London + + + 1887 + + + + +INTRODUCTION. + + +This translation of Dante's Convito--the first in English--is from the +hand of a lady whose enthusiasm for the genius of Dante has made it a +chief pleasure of her life to dwell on it by translating, not his +Divine Comedy only, but also the whole body of his other works. Among +those works the Vita Nuova and the Convito have a distinct place, as +leading up to the great masterpiece. In the New Life, Man starts on +his career with human love that points to the divine. In the Banquet, +he passes to mature life and to love of knowledge that declares the +power and the love of God in the material and moral world about us and +within us. In the Divine Comedy, the Poet passes to the world to come, +and rises to the final union of the love for Beatrice, the beatifier, +with the glory of the Love of God. Of this great series, the crowning +work has, of course, had many translators, and there have been +translators also of the book that shows the youth of love. But the +noble fragment of the Convito that unites these two has, I believe, +never yet been placed within reach of the English reader, except by a +translation of its poems only into unrhymed measure in Mr. Charles +Lyell's "Poems of the Vita Nuova and the Convito," published in 1835. + +The Convito is a fragment. There are four books where fifteen were +designed, including three only of the intended fourteen songs. But the +plan is clear, and one or two glances forward to the matter of the +last book, which would have had Justice for its theme, show that all +was to have been brought to a high spiritual close. + +Its aim was no less than the lifting of men's minds by knowledge of +the world without them and within them, bound together in creation, +showing forth the Mind of the Creator. The reader of this volume must +not flinch from the ingenious dialectics of the mediæval reasoner on +Man and Nature. Dante's knowledge is the knowledge of his time. +Science had made little advance since Aristotle--who is "the +Philosopher" taken by Dante for his human guide--first laid its +foundations. It is useful, no doubt, to be able in a book like this, +shaped by a noble mind, to study at their best the forms of reasoning +that made the science of the Middle Ages. But the reader is not called +upon to make his mind unhappy with endeavours to seize all the points, +say, of a theory of the heavens that was most ingenious, but in no +part true. The main thing is to observe how the mistaken reasoning +joins each of the seven sciences to one of the seven heavens, and here +as everywhere joins earth to heaven, and bids man lift his head and +look up, Godward, to the source of light. If spiritual truth could +only come from right and perfect knowledge, this would have been a +world of dead souls from the first till now; for future centuries, in +looking back at us, will wonder at the little faulty knowledge that we +think so much. But let the known be what it may, the true soul rises +from it to a sense of the divine mysteries of Wisdom and of Love. +Dante's knowledge may be full of ignorance, and so is ours. But he +fills it as he can with the Spirit of God. He is not content that men +should be as sheep, and look downward to earth for all the food they +need. He bids them to a Banquet of another kind, whose dishes are of +knowledge for the mind and heavenward aspiration for the soul. + +Dante's Convito--of which the name was, no doubt, suggested by the +Banquets of Plato and Xenophon--was written at the close of his life, +after the Divine Comedy, and no trace has been found of more of its +songs than the three which may have been written and made known some +time before he began work on their Commentary. Death stayed his hand, +and the completion passed into a song that joined the voice of Dante +to the praise in heaven. + +H.M. + +_April_ 1887. + + + + +THE + +BANQUET OF DANTE ALIGHIERI + + * * * * * + + + + +The First Treatise. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + + +As the Philosopher says in the beginning of the first Philosophy, "All +men naturally desire Knowledge." The reason of which may be, that each +thing, impelled by the intuition of its own nature, tends towards its +perfection, hence, forasmuch as Knowledge is the final perfection of +our Soul, in which our ultimate happiness consists, we are all +naturally subject to the desire for it. + +Verily, many are deprived of this most noble perfection, by divers +causes within the man and without him, which remove him from the use +of Knowledge. + +Within the man there may be two defects or impediments, the one on the +part of the Body, the other on the part of the Soul. On the part of +the Body it is, when the parts are unfitly disposed, so that it can +receive nothing as with the deaf and dumb, and their like. On the part +of the Soul it is, when evil triumphs in it, so that it becomes the +follower of vicious pleasures, through which it is so much deceived, +that on account of them it holds everything in contempt. + +Without the man, two causes may in like manner be understood, of which +one comes of necessity, the other of stagnation. The first is the +management of the family and conduct of civil affairs, which fitly +draws to itself the greater number of men, so that they cannot live in +the quietness of speculation. The other is the fault of the place +where a person is born and reared, which will ofttimes be not only +without any School whatever, but may be far distant from studious +people. The two first of these causes--the first of the hindrance from +within, and the first of the hindrance from without--are not deserving +of blame, but of excuse and pardon; the two others, although the one +more than the other, deserve blame and are to be detested. + +Hence, he who reflects well, can manifestly see that they are few who +can attain to the enjoyment of Knowledge, though it is desired by all, +and almost innumerable are the fettered ones who live for ever +famished of this food. + +Oh, blessed are those few who sit at that table where the Bread of +Angels is eaten, and wretched those who can feed only as the Sheep. +But because each man is naturally friendly to each man, and each +friend grieves for the fault of him whom he loves; they who are fed at +that high table are full of mercy towards those whom they see straying +in one pasture with the creatures who eat grass and acorns. + +And forasmuch as Mercy is the Mother of Benevolence, those who know +how, do always liberally offer their good wealth to the true poor, and +are like a living stream, whose water cools the before-named natural +thirst. I, then, who sit not at the blessed table, but having fled +from the pasture of the common herd, lie at the feet of those who sit +there and gather up what falls from them, by the sweetness which I +find in that which I collect little by little, I know the wretched +life of those whom I have left behind me; and moved mercifully for the +unhappy ones, not forgetting myself, I have reserved something which I +have shown to their eyes long ago, and for this I have made them +greatly desirous. Wherefore, now wishing to prepare for them, I mean +to make a common Banquet of this which I have shown to them, and of +that needed bread without which food such as this could not be eaten +by them at their feast; bread fit for such meat, which I know, without +it, would be furnished forth in vain. And therefore I desire that no +one should sit at this Banquet whose members are so unfitly disposed +that he has neither teeth, nor tongue, nor palate: nor any follower of +vice; inasmuch as his stomach is full of venomous and hurtful humours, +so that it will retain no food whatever. But let those come to us, +whosoever they be, who, pressed by the management of civil and +domestic life, have felt this human hunger, and at one table with +others who have been in like bondage, let them sit. But at their feet +let us place all those who have been the slaves of sloth, and who are +not worthy to sit higher: and then let these and those eat of my dish, +with the bread which I will cause them to taste and to digest. + +The meat at this repast will be prepared in fourteen different ways, +that is, in fourteen Songs, some of whose themes will be of Love and +some of Virtue: which, without the present bread, might have some +shadow of obscurity, so that to many they might be acceptable more on +account of their form than because of their spirit. But this bread is +the present Exposition. It will be the Light whereby each colour of +their design will be made visible. + +And if in the present work, which is named "Convito"--the Banquet, the +glad Life Together--I desire that the subject should be discussed more +maturely than in the Vita Nuova--the New Life--I do not therefore mean +in any degree to undervalue that Fresh Life, but greatly to enhance +it; seeing how reasonable it is for that age to be fervid and +passionate, and for this to be mature and temperate. At one age it is +fit to speak and work in one way, and at another age in another way; +because certain manners are fit and praiseworthy at one age which are +improper and blameable at another, as will be demonstrated with +suitable argument in the fourth treatise of this Book. In that first +Book (Vita Nuova) at the entrance into my youth I spoke; and in this +latter I speak after my youth has already passed away. And since my +true meaning may be other than that which the aforesaid songs show +forth, I mean by an allegoric exposition to explain these after the +literal argument shall have been reasoned out: so that the one +argument with the other shall give a relish to those who are the +guests invited to this Banquet. And of them all I pray that if the +feast be not so splendid as befits the proclamation thereof, let them +impute each defect, not to my will but to my means, since my will here +is to a full and loving Liberality. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + + +In preparing for every well-ordered Banquet the servants are wont to +take the proper bread, and see that it is clean from all blemish; +wherefore I, who in the present writing stand in servant's place, +intend firstly to remove two spots from this exposition which at my +repast stands in the place of bread. + +The one is, that it appears to be unlawful for any one to speak of +himself; the other, that it seems to be unreasonable to speak too +deeply when giving explanations. Let the knife of my judgment pare +away from the present treatise the unlawful and the unreasonable. One +does not permit any Rhetorician to speak of himself without a +necessary cause. And from this is the man removed, because he can +speak of no one without praise or blame of those of whom he speaks; +which two causes commonly induce a man to speak of himself. And in +order to remove a doubt which here arises, I say that it is worse for +any one to blame than to praise himself, although neither may have to +be done. The reason is, that anything which is essentially wrong is +worse than that which is wrong through accident. For a man openly to +bring contempt on himself is essentially wrong to his friend, because +a man owes it to take account of his fault secretly, and no one is +more friendly to himself than the man himself. In the chamber of his +thoughts, therefore, he should reprove himself and weep over his +faults, and not before the world. Again, a man is but seldom blamed +when he has not the power or the knowledge requisite to guide himself +aright: but he is always blamed when weak of will, because our good or +evil dispositions are measured by the strength of will. Wherefore he +who blames himself proves that he knows his fault, while he reveals +his want of goodness; if, therefore, he know his fault, let him no +more speak evil of himself. If a man praise himself it is to avoid +evil, as it were; inasmuch as it cannot be done except such +self-laudation become in excess dishonour; it is praise in appearance, +it is infamy in substance. For the words are spoken to prove that of +which he has not inward assurance. Hence, he who lauds himself proves +his belief that he is not esteemed to be a good man, and this befalls +him not unless he have an evil conscience, which he reveals by +self-praise, and in so revealing it he blames himself. + +And, again, self-praise and self-blame are to be shunned equally, for +this reason, that it is false witnessing. Because there is no man who +can be a true and just judge of himself, so much will self-love +deceive him. Hence it happens that every man has in his own judgment +the measures of the false merchant, who sells with the one, and buys +with the other. Every man weights the scales against his own +wrong-doing, and adds weight to his good deeds; so that the number and +the quantity and the weight of the good deeds appear to him to be +greater than if they were tried in a just balance; and in like manner +the evil appears less. Wherefore speaking of himself with praise or +with blame, either he speaks falsely with regard to the thing of which +he speaks, or he speaks falsely by the fault of his judgment; and as +the one is untruth, so is the other. And therefore, since to acquiesce +is to admit, he is wrong who praises or who blames before the face of +any man; because the man thus appraised can neither acquiesce nor deny +without falling into the error of either praising or blaming himself. +Reserve the way of due correction, which cannot be taken without +reproof of error, and which corrects if understood. Reserve also the +way of due honour and glory, which cannot be taken without mention of +virtuous works, or of dignities that have been worthily acquired. + +And in truth, returning to the main argument, I say, as before, that +it is permitted to a man for requisite reasons to speak of himself. +And amongst the several requisite reasons two are most evident: the +one is when a man cannot avoid great danger and infamy, unless he +discourse of himself; and then it is conceded for the reason, that to +take the less objectionable of the only two paths, is to take as it +were a good one. And this necessity moved Boethius to speak of +himself, in order that under pretext of Consolation he might excuse +the perpetual shame of his imprisonment, by showing that imprisonment +to be unjust; since no other man arose to justify him. And this reason +moved St. Augustine to speak of himself in his Confessions; that, by +the progress of his life, which was from bad to good, and from good to +better, and from better to best, he might give example and +instruction, which, from truer testimony, no one could receive. +Therefore, if either of these reasons excuse me, the bread of my +moulding is sufficiently cleared from its first impurity. + +The fear of shame moves me; and I am moved by the desire to give +instruction which others truly are unable to give. I fear shame for +having followed passion so ardently, as he may conceive who reads the +afore-named Songs, and sees how greatly I was ruled by it; which shame +ceases entirely by the present speech of myself, which proves that not +passion but virtue may have been the moving cause. + +I intend also to demonstrate the true meaning of those Poems, which +some could not perceive unless I relate it, because it is concealed +under the veil of Allegory; and this it not only will give pleasure to +hear, but subtle instruction, both as to the diction and as to the +intention of the other writings. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + + +Much fault is in that thing which is appointed to remove some grave +evil, and yet encourages it; even as in the man who might be sent to +quell a tumult, and, before he had quelled it, should begin another. + +And forasmuch as my bread is made clean on one side, it behoves me to +cleanse it on the other, in order to shun this reproof: that my +writing, which one may term, as it were, a Commentary, is appointed to +remove obscurity from the before-mentioned Songs, and is, in fact, +itself at times a little hard to understand. This obscurity is here +intended, in order to avoid a greater defect, and does not occur +through ignorance. Alas! would that it might have pleased the +Dispenser of the Universe that the cause of my excuse might never have +been; that others might neither have sinned against me, nor I have +suffered punishment unjustly; the punishment, I say, of exile and +poverty! Since it was the pleasure of the citizens of the most +beautiful and the most famous daughter of Rome, Florence, to cast me +out from her most sweet bosom (wherein I was born and nourished even +to the height of my life, and in which, with her goodwill, I desire +with all my heart to repose my weary soul, and to end the time which +is given to me), I have gone through almost all the land in which this +language lives--a pilgrim, almost a mendicant--showing forth against +my will the wound of Fortune, with which the ruined man is often +unjustly reproached. Truly I have been a ship without a sail and +without a rudder, borne to divers ports and lands and shores by the +dry wind which blows from doleful poverty; and I have appeared vile in +the eyes of many, who perhaps through some report may have imaged me +in other form. In the sight of whom not only my person became vile, +but each work already completed was held to be of less value than that +might again be which remained yet to be done. + +The reason wherefore this happens (not only to me but to all), it now +pleases me here briefly to touch upon. And firstly, it is because +rumour goes beyond the truth; and then, what is beyond the truth +restricts and strangles it. Good report is the first born of kindly +thought in the mind of the friend; which the mind of the foe, although +it may receive the seed, conceives not. + +That mind which gives birth to it in the first place, so to make its +gift more fair, as by the charity of friendship, keeps not within +bounds of truth, but passes beyond them. When one does that to adorn a +tale, he speaks against his conscience; when it is charity that causes +him to pass the bounds, he speaks not against conscience. + +The second mind which receives this, not only is content with the +exaggeration of the first mind, but its own report adds its own effect +of endeavours to embellish, and so by this action, and by the +deception which it also receives from the goodwill generated in it, +good report is made more ample than it should be; either with the +consent or the dissent of the conscience; even as it was with the +first mind. And the third receiving mind does this; and the fourth; +and thus the exaggeration of good ever grows. And so, by turning the +aforesaid motives in the contrary direction, one can perceive why +ill-fame in like manner is made to grow. Wherefore Virgil says in the +fourth of the Æneid: "Let Fame live to be fickle, and grow as she +goes." Clearly, then, he who is willing may perceive that the image +generated by Fame alone is always larger, whatever it may be, than the +thing imaged is, in its true state. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + + +Having previously shown the reason why Fame magnifies the good and the +evil beyond due limit, it remains in this chapter to show forth those +reasons which make evident why the Presence restricts in the opposite +way, and having shown this I will return to the principal proposition. +I say, then, that for three causes his Presence makes a person of less +value than he is. The first is childishness, I do not say of age, but +of mind; the second is envy; and these are in the judge: the third is +human impurity; and this is in the person judged. The first, one can +briefly reason thus: the greater part of men live according to sense +and not according to reason, after the manner of children, and the +like of these judge things simply from without; and the goodness which +is ordained to a fit end they perceive not, because the eyes of +Reason, which they need in order to perceive it, are closed. Hence, +they soon see all that they can, and judge according to their sight. + +And forasmuch as any opinion they form on the good fame of others, +from hearsay, with which, in the presence of the person judged, their +imperfect judgment may dissent, they amend not according to reason, +because they judge merely according to sense, they will deem that +which they have first heard to be a lie as it were, and dispraise the +person who was previously praised. Hence, in such men, and such are +almost all, Presence restricts the one fame and the other. Such men as +these are inconstant and are soon cloyed; they are often gay and often +sad from brief joys and sorrows; speedy friends and speedy foes; each +thing they do like children, without the use of reason. + +The second observation from these reasons is, that due comparison is +cause for envy to the vicious; and envy is a cause of evil judgment, +because it does not permit Reason to argue for that which is envied, +and the judicial power is then like the judge who hears only one side. +Hence, when such men as these perceive a person to be famous, they are +immediately jealous, because they compare members and powers; and they +fear, on account of the excellence of such an one, to be themselves +accounted of less worth; and these passionate men, not only judge +evilly, but, by defamation, they cause others to judge evilly. +Wherefore with such men their apprehension restricts the +acknowledgment of good and evil in each person represented; and I say +this also of evil, because many who delight in evil deeds have envy +towards evil-doers. + +The third observation is of human frailty, which one accepts on the +part of him who is judged, and from which familiar conversation is not +altogether free. In evidence of this, it is to be known that man is +stained in many parts; and, as says St. Augustine, "none is without +spot." Now, the man is stained with some passion, which he cannot +always resist; now, he is blemished by some fault of limb; now, he is +bruised by some blow from Fortune; now, he is soiled by the ill-fame +of his parents, or of some near relation: things which Fame does not +bear with her, but which hang to the man, so that he reveals them by +his conversation; and these spots cast some shadow upon the brightness +of goodness, so that they cause it to appear less bright and less +excellent. And this is the reason why each prophet is less honoured in +his own country; and this is why the good man ought to give his +presence to few, and his familiarity to still fewer, in order that his +name may be received and not despised. And this third observation may +be the same for the evil as for the good, if we reverse the conditions +of the argument. Wherefore it is clearly evident that by +imperfections, from which no one is free, the seen Presence restricts +right perception of the good and of the evil in every one, more than +truth desires. Hence, since, as has been said above, I myself have +been, as it were, visibly present to all the Italians, by which I +perhaps am made more vile than truth desires, not only to those to +whom my repute had already run, but also to others, whereby I am made +the lighter; it behoves me that with a more lofty style I may give to +the present work a little gravity, through which it may show greater +authority. Let this suffice to excuse the difficulty of my commentary. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + + +Since this bread is now cleared of accidental spots, it remains to +excuse it from a substantial one, that is for being in my native +tongue and not in Latin; which by similitude one may term, of +barley-meal and not of wheaten flour. And from this it is briefly +excused by three reasons which moved me to choose the one rather than +the other. One springs from the avoidance of inconvenient Unfitness: +the second from the readiness of well-adjusted Liberality; the third +from the natural Love for one's own Native Tongue. And these things, +with the grounds for them, to the staying of all possible reproof, I +mean in due order to reason out in this form. + +That which most adorns and commends human actions, and which most +directly leads them to a good result, is the use of dispositions best +adapted to the end in view; as the end aimed at in knighthood is +courage of mind and strength of body. And thus he who is ordained to +the service of others, ought to have those dispositions which are +suited to that end; as submission, knowledge and obedience, without +which any one is unfit to serve well. Because if he is not subject to +each of these conditions, he proceeds in his service always with +fatigue and trouble, and but seldom continues in it. If he is not +obedient, he never serves except as in his wisdom he thinks fit, and +when he wills; which is rather the service of a friend than of a +servant. Hence, to escape this disorder, this commentary is fit, which +is made as a servant to the under-written Songs, in order to be +subject to these, and to each separate command of theirs. It must be +conscious of the wants of its lord, and obedient to him, which +dispositions would be all wanting to it if it were a Latin servant, +not a native, since the songs are all in the language of our people. +For, in the first place, if it had been a Latin servant he would be +not a subject but a sovereign, in nobility, in virtue, and in beauty; +in nobility, because the Latin is perpetual and incorruptible; the +language of the vulgar is unstable and corruptible. Hence we see in +the ancient writings of the Latin Comedies and Tragedies that they +cannot change, being the same Latin that we now have; this happens not +with our native tongue, which, being home-made, changes at pleasure. +Hence we see in the cities of Italy, if we will look carefully back +fifty years from the present time, many words to have become extinct, +and to have been born, and to have been altered. But if a little time +transforms them thus, a longer time changes them more. So that I say +that, if those who departed from this life a thousand years ago should +come back to their cities, they would believe those cities to be +inhabited by a strange people, who speak a tongue discordant from +their own. On this subject I will speak elsewhere more completely in a +book which I intend to write, God willing, on the "Language of the +People." + +Again, the Latin was not subject, but sovereign, through virtue. Each +thing has virtue in its nature, which does that to which it is +ordained; and the better it does it so much the more virtue it has: +hence we call that man virtuous who lives a life contemplative or +active, doing that for which he is best fitted; we ascribe his virtue +to the horse that runs swiftly and much, to which end he is ordained: +we see virtue of a sword that cuts through hard things well, since it +has been made to do so. Thus speech, which is ordained to express +human thought, has virtue when it does that; and most virtue is in the +speech which does it most. Hence, forasmuch as the Latin reveals many +things conceived in the mind which the vulgar tongue cannot express, +even as those know who have the use of either language, its virtue is +far greater than that of the vulgar tongue. + +Again, it was not subject, but sovereign, because of its beauty. That +thing man calls beautiful whose parts are duly proportionate, because +beauty results from their harmony; hence, man appears to be beautiful +when his limbs are duly proportioned; and we call a song beautiful +when the voices in it, according to the rule of art, are in harmony +with each other. Hence, that language is most beautiful in which the +words most fitly correspond, and this they do more in the Latin than +in the present Language of the People, since the beautiful vulgar +tongue follows use, and the Latin, Art. Hence, one concedes it to be +more beautiful, more virtuous and more noble. And so one concludes, as +first proposed; that is, that the Latin Commentary would have been the +Sovereign, not the Subject, of the Songs. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + + +Having shown how the present Commentary could not have been the +subject of Songs written in our native tongue, if it had been in the +Latin, it remains to show how it could not have been capable or +obedient to those Songs; and then it will be shown how, to avoid +unsuitable disorder, it was needful to speak in the native tongue. + +I say that Latin would not have been a capable servant for my Lord the +Vernacular, for this reason. The servant is required chiefly to know +two things perfectly: the one is the nature of his lord, because there +are lords of such an asinine nature that they command the opposite of +that which they desire; and there are others who, without speaking, +wish to be understood and served; and there are others who will not +let the servant move to do that which is needful, unless they have +ordered it. And because these variations are in men, I do not intend +in the present work to show, for the digression would be enlarged too +much, except as I speak in general, that such men as these are beasts, +as it were, to whom reason is of little worth. Wherefore, if the +servant know not the nature of his lord, it is evident that he cannot +serve him perfectly. The other thing is, that it is requisite for the +servant to know also the friends of his lord; for otherwise he could +not honour them, nor serve them, and thus he would not serve his lord +perfectly: forasmuch as the friends are the parts of a whole, as it +were, because their whole is one wish or its opposite. Neither would +the Latin Commentary have had such knowledge of those things as the +vulgar tongue itself has. That the Latin cannot be acquainted with the +Vulgar Tongue and with its friends, is thus proved. He who knows +anything in general knows not that thing perfectly; even as he who +knows from afar off one animal, knows not that animal perfectly, +because he knows not if it be a dog, a wolf, or a he-goat. The Latin +knows the Vulgar tongue in general, but not separately; for if it +should know it separately it would know all the Vulgar Tongues, +because it is not right that it should know one more than the other; +and thus, what man soever might possess the complete knowledge of the +Latin tongue, the use of that knowledge would show him all +distinctions of the Vulgar. But this is not so, for one used to the +Latin does not distinguish, if he be a native of Italy, the vulgar +tongue of Provence from the German, nor can the German distinguish the +vulgar Italian tongue from that of Provence: hence, it is evident that +the Latin is not cognizant of the Vulgar. Again, it is not cognizant +of its friends, because it is impossible to know the friends without +knowing the principal; hence, if the Latin does not know the Vulgar, +as it is proved above, it is impossible for it to know its friends. +Again, without conversation or familiarity, it is impossible to know +men; and the Latin has no conversation with so many in any language as +the Vulgar has, to which all are friends, and consequently cannot know +the friends of the Vulgar. + +And this, that it would be possible to say, is no contradiction; that +the Latin does converse with some friends of the Vulgar: but since it +is not familiar with all, it is not perfectly acquainted with its +friends, whereas perfect knowledge is required, and not defective. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + + +Having proved that the Latin Commentary could not have been a capable +servant, I will tell how it could not have been an obedient one. He is +obedient who has the good disposition which is called obedience. True +obedience must have three things, without which it cannot be: it +should be sweet, and not bitter; entirely under control, and not +impulsive; with due measure, and not excessive; which three things it +was impossible for the Latin Commentary to have; and, therefore, it +was impossible for it to be obedient. That to the Latin it would have +been impossible, as is said, is evident by such an argument as this: +each thing which proceeds by an inverse order is laborious, and +consequently is bitter, and not sweet; even as to sleep by day and to +wake by night, and to go backwards and not forwards. For the subject +to command the sovereign, is to proceed in the inverse order; because +the direct order is, for the sovereign to command the subject; and +thus it is bitter, and not sweet; and because to the bitter command it +is impossible to give sweet obedience, it is impossible, when the +subject commands, for the obedience of the sovereign to be sweet. +Hence if the Latin is the sovereign of the Vulgar Tongue, as is shown +above by many reasons, and the Songs, which are in place of +commanders, are in the Vulgar Tongue, it is impossible for the +argument to be sweet. Then is obedience entirely commanded, and in no +way spontaneous, when that which the obedient man does, he would not +have done of his own will, either in whole or in part, without +commandment. And, therefore, if it might be commanded to me to carry +two long robes upon my back, and if without commandment I should carry +one, I say that my obedience is not entirely commanded, but is in part +spontaneous; and such would have been that of the Latin Commentary, +and consequently it would not have been obedience entirely commanded. +What such might have been appears by this, that the Latin, without the +command of this Lord, the Vernacular, would have expounded many parts +of his argument (and it does expound, as he who searches well the +books written in Latin may perceive), which the Vulgar Tongue does +nowhere. + +Again, obedience is within bounds, and not excessive, when it goes to +the limit of the command, and no further; as Individual Nature is +obedient to Universal Nature when she makes thirty-two teeth in the +man, and no more and no less; and when she makes five fingers on the +hand, and no more and no less; and the man is obedient to Justice when +he does that which the Law commands, and no more and no less. + +Neither would the Latin have done this, but it would have sinned not +only in the defect, and not only in the excess, but in each one; and +thus its obedience would not have been within due limit, but +intemperate, and consequently it would not have been obedient. That +the Latin would not have been the executor of the commandment of his +Lord, and that neither would he have been a usurper, one can easily +prove. This Lord, namely, these Songs, to which this Commentary is +ordained for their servant, commands and desires that they shall be +explained to all those whose mind is so far intelligent that when they +hear speech they can understand, and when they speak they can be +understood. And no one doubts, that if the Songs should command by +word of mouth, this would be their commandment. But the Latin would +not have explained them, except to the learned men: and so that the +rest could not have understood. Hence, forasmuch as the number of +unlearned men who desire to understand those Songs may be far greater +than the learned, it follows that it could not have fulfilled its +commandment so well as the Native Tongue, which is understood both by +the Learned and the Unlearned. Again, the Latin would have explained +them to people of another language, as to the Germans, to the English, +and to others; and here it would have exceeded their commandment. For +against their will, speaking freely, I say, their meaning would be +explained there where they could not convey it in all their beauty. + +And, therefore, let each one know, that nothing which is harmonized by +the bond of the Muse can be translated from its own language into +another, without breaking all its sweetness and harmony. And this is +the reason why Homer was not translated from Greek into Latin, like +the other writings that we have of the Greeks. And this is the reason +why the verses of the Psalms are without sweetness of music and +harmony; for they were translated from Hebrew into Greek, and from +Greek into Latin, and in the first translation all that sweetness +vanished. + +And, thus is concluded that which was proposed in the beginning of the +chapter immediately before this. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + + +Since it is proved by sufficient reasons that, in order to avoid +unsuitable confusion, it would be right that the above-named Songs be +opened and explained by a Commentary in our Native Tongue and not in +the Latin, I intend to show again how a ready Liberality makes me +select this way and leave the other. It is possible, then, to perceive +a ready Liberality in three things, which go with this Native Tongue, +and which would not have gone with the Latin. The first is to give to +many; the second is to give useful things; the third is to give the +gift without being asked for it. + +For to give to and to assist one person is good; but to give to and to +assist many is ready goodness, inasmuch as it has a similitude to the +good gifts of God, who is the Benefactor of the Universe. And again, +to give to many is impossible without giving to one, forasmuch as one +is included in many. But to give to one may be good without giving to +many, because he who assists many does good to one and to the other; +he who assists one does good to one only: hence, we see the imposers +of the laws, especially if they are for the common good, hold the eyes +fixed whilst compiling these laws. Again, to give useless things to +the receiver is also a good, inasmuch as he who gives, shows himself +at least to be a friend; but it is not a perfect good, and therefore +it is not ready: as if a knight should give to a doctor a shield, and +as if the doctor should give to a knight the written aphorisms of +Hippocrates, or rather the technics of Galen; because the wise men say +that "the face of the gift ought to be similar to that of the +receiver," that is, that it be suitable to him, and that it be useful; +and therein it is called ready liberality in him who thus +discriminates in giving. + +But forasmuch as moral discourses usually create a desire to see their +origin, in this chapter I intend briefly to demonstrate four reasons +why of necessity the gift (in order that it be ready liberality) +should be useful to him who receives. Firstly, because virtue must be +cheerful and not sad in every action: hence, if the gift be not +cheerful in the giving and in the receiving, in it there is not +perfect nor ready virtue. And this joy can spring only from the +utility, which resides in the giver through the giving, and which +comes to the receiver through the receiving. In the giver, then, there +must be the foresight, in doing this, that on his part there shall +remain the benefit of an inherent virtue which is above all other +advantages; and that to the receiver come the benefit of the use of +the thing given. Thus the one and the other will be cheerful, and +consequently it will be a ready liberality, that is, a liberality both +prompt and well considered. + +Secondly, because virtue ought always to move things forwards and +upwards. For even as it would be a blameable action to make a spade of +a beautiful sword, or to make a fair basin of a lovely lute; so it is +wrong to move anything from a place where it may be useful, and to +carry it into a place where it may be less useful. And since it is +blameable to work in vain, it is wrong not merely to put the thing in +a place where it may be less useful, but even in a place where it may +be equally useful. Hence, in order that the changing of the place of a +thing may be laudable, it must always be for the better, because it +ought to be especially praiseworthy; and this the gift cannot be, if +by transformation it become not more precious. Nor can it become more +precious, if it be not more useful to the receiver than to the giver. +Wherefore, one concludes that the gift must be useful to him who +receives it, in order that it may be in itself ready liberality. + +Thirdly, because the exercise of the virtue of itself ought to be the +acquirer of friends. For our life has need of these, and the end of +virtue is to make life happy. But that the gift may make the receiver +a friend, it must be useful to him, because utility stamps on the +memory the image of the gift, which is the food of friendship, and the +firmer the impression, so much the greater is the utility; hence, +Martino was wont to say, "Never will fade from my mind the gift +Giovanni made me." Wherefore, in order that in the gift there may be +its virtue, which is Liberality, and that it may be ready, it must be +useful to him who receives it. + +Finally, since the act of virtue should be free, not forced, it is +free action, when a person goes willingly to any place; which is shown +by his keeping the face turned thitherward; it is forced action, when +he goes against his will; which is shown by his not looking cheerfully +towards the place whither he goes: and thus the gift looks towards its +appointed place when it addresses itself to the need of the receiver. +And since it cannot address itself to that need except it be useful, +it follows, in order that it may be with free action, that the virtue +be free, and that the gift go freely to its object, which is the +receiver; and consequently the gift must be to the utility of the +receiver, in order that there may be a prompt and reasonable +Liberality therein. + +The third respect in which one can observe a ready Liberality, is +giving unasked; because, to give what is asked, is, on one side, not +virtue, but traffic; for, the receiver buys, although the giver may +not sell; and so Seneca says "that nothing is purchased more dearly +than that whereon prayers are expended." Hence, in order that in the +gift there be ready Liberality, and that one may perceive that to be +in it, there must be freedom from each act of traffic, and the gift +must be unasked. Wherefore that which is besought costs us so dear, I +do not mean to argue now, because it will be fully discussed in the +last treatise of this book. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + + +A Latin Commentary would be wanting in all the three above-mentioned +conditions, which must concur, in order that in the benefit conferred +there may be ready Liberality; and our Mother Tongue possesses all, as +it is possible to show thus manifestly. The Latin would not have +served many; for if we recall to memory that which is discoursed of +above, the learned men, without the Italian tongue, could not have had +this service. And those who know Latin, if we wish to see clearly who +they are, we shall find that, out of a thousand one only would have +been reasonably served by it, because they would not have received it, +so prompt are they to avarice, which removes them from each nobility +of soul that especially desires this food. And to the shame of them, I +say that they ought not to be called learned men: because they do not +acquire knowledge for the use of it, but forasmuch as they gain money +or dignity thereby; even as one ought not to call him a harper who +keeps a harp in his house to be lent out for a price, and not to use +it for its music. + +Returning, then, to the principal proposition, I say that one can see +clearly how the Latin would have given its good gift to few, but the +Mother Tongue will serve many. For the willingness of heart which +awaits this service, is in those who, through misuse of the world, +have left Literature to men who have made of her a harlot; and these +nobles are princes, barons, knights, and many other noble people, not +only men, but women, whose language is that of the people and +unlearned. Again, the Latin would not have been giver of a useful +gift, as the Mother Tongue will be; forasmuch as nothing is useful +except inasmuch as it is used; nor is there a perfect existence with +inactive goodness. Even so of gold, and pearls, and other treasures +which are subterranean, those which are in the hand of the miser are +in a lower place than is the earth wherein the treasure was concealed. +The gift truly of this Commentary is the explanation of the Songs, for +whose service it is made. It seeks especially to lead men to wisdom +and to virtue, as will be seen by the process of this treatise. This +design those only could have in use in whom true nobility is sown, +after the manner that will be described in the fourth treatise; and +these are almost all men of the people, as those are noble which in +this chapter are named above. And there is no contradiction, though +some learned man may be amongst them; for, as says my Master Aristotle +in the first book of the Ethics, "One swallow does not make the +Spring." It is, then, evident that the Mother Tongue will give the +useful thing where Latin would not have given it. Again, the Mother +Tongue will give that gift unasked, which the Latin would not have +given, because it will give itself in form of a Commentary which never +was asked for by any person. But this one cannot say of the Latin, +which for Commentary and for Expositions to many writings has often +been in request, as one can perceive clearly in the opening of many a +book. + +And thus it is evident that a ready Liberality moved me to use the +Mother Tongue rather than Latin. + + + + +CHAPTER X. + + +He greatly needs excuse who, at a feast so noble in its provisions, +and so honourable in its guests, sets bread of barley, not of wheaten +flour: and evident must be the reason which can make a man depart from +that which has long been the custom of others, as the use of Latin in +writing a Commentary. And, therefore, he would make the reason +evident; for the end of new things is not certain, because experience +of them has never been had before: hence, the ways used and observed +are estimated both in process and in the end. + +Reason, therefore, is moved to command that man should diligently look +about him when he enters a new path, saying, "that, in deliberating +about new things, that reason must be clear which can make a man +depart from an old custom." Let no one marvel, then, if the digression +touching my apology be long; but, as is necessary, let him bear its +length with patience. + +Continuing it, I say that, since it has been shown how, in order to +avoid unsuitable confusion and from readiness of liberality, I fixed +on the Commentary in the Mother Tongue and left the Latin, the order +of the entire apology requires that I now prove how I attached myself +to that through the natural love for my native tongue, which is the +third and last reason which moved me to this. I say that natural love +moves the lover principally to three things: the one is to exalt the +loved object, the second is to be jealous thereof, the third is to +defend it, as each one sees constantly to happen; and these three +things made me adopt it, that is, our Mother Tongue, which naturally +and accidentally I love and have loved. + +I was moved in the first place to exalt it. And that I do exalt it may +be seen by this reason: it happens that it is possible to magnify +things in many conditions of greatness, and nothing makes so great as +the greatness of that goodness which is the mother and preserver of +all other forms of greatness. And no greater goodness can a man have +than that of virtuous action, which is his own goodness, by which the +greatness of true dignity and of true honour, of true power, of true +riches, of true friends, of true and pure renown, are acquired and +preserved: and this greatness I give to this friend, inasmuch as that +which he had of goodness in latent power and hidden, I cause him to +have in action and revealed in its own operation, which is to declare +thought. + +Secondly, I was moved by jealousy of it. The jealousy of the friend +makes a man anxious to secure lasting provision; wherefore, thinking +that, from the desire to understand these Songs, some unlearned man +would have translated the Latin Commentary into the Mother Tongue; and +fearing that the Mother Tongue might have been employed by some one +who would have made it seem ugly, as he did who translated the Latin +of the "Ethics," I endeavoured to employ it, trusting in myself more +than in any other. Again, I was moved to defend it from its numerous +accusers, who depreciate it and commend others, especially the Langue +d'Oc, saying, that the latter is more beautiful and better than this, +therein deviating from the truth. For by this Commentary the great +excellence of our common Lingua di Si will appear, since through it, +most lofty and most original ideas may be as fitly, sufficiently, and +easily expressed as if it were by the Latin itself, which cannot show +its virtue in things rhymed because of accidental ornaments which are +connected therewith--that is, the rhyme and the rhythm, or the +regulated measure; as it is with the beauty of a lady when the +splendour of the jewels and of the garments excite more admiration +than she herself. He, therefore, who wishes to judge well of a lady +looks at her when she is alone and her natural beauty is with her, +free from all accidental ornament. So it will be with this Commentary, +in which will be seen the facility of the syllables, the propriety of +the conditions, and the sweet orations which are made in our Mother +Tongue, which a good observer will perceive to be full of most sweet +and most amiable beauty. But, since it is most determined in its +intention to show the error and the malice of the accuser, I will +tell, to the confusion of those who accuse the Italian language, +wherefore they are moved to do this; and this I shall do in a special +chapter, in order that their shame may be more notable. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + + +To the perpetual shame and abasement of the evil men of Italy who +commend the Mother Tongue of other nations and depreciate their own, I +say that their action proceeds from five abominable causes: the first +is blindness of discretion; the second, mischievous self-justification; +the third, greed of vainglory; the fourth, an invention of envy; the +fifth and last, vileness of mind, that is, cowardice. And each one of +these grave faults has a great following, for few are those who are +free from them. + +Of the first, one can reason thus. As the sensitive part of the soul +has its eyes, with which it learns the difference of things, inasmuch +as they are coloured externally; so the rational part has its eye with +which it learns the difference of things, inasmuch as each is ordained +to some end; and this is discretion. And as he who is blind with the +eyes of sense goes always according to the guidance of others judging +evil and good; so he who is blinded from the light of discretion, +always goes in his judgment according to the cry, right or wrong as it +may be. Hence, whenever the guide is blind, it must follow that what +blind man soever leans on him must come to a bad end. Therefore it is +written that, "If the blind lead the blind, both fall into the ditch." +This cry has been long raised against our Mother Tongue, for the +reasons which will be argued below. + +After this cry the blind men above mentioned, who are infinite, as it +were with one hand on the shoulder of these false witnesses, have +fallen into the ditch of false opinion, from which they know not how +to escape. From the use of the sight of discretion the mass of the +people are debarred, because each being occupied from the early years +of his life with some trade, he so directs his mind to that, by force +of necessity, that he understands nought else. And forasmuch as the +habit of virtue, moral as well as intellectual, cannot possibly be had +all on a sudden, but it must be acquired through long custom, and as +these people place their custom in some art, and care not to discern +other things, it is impossible to them to have discretion. Wherefore +it happens that often they cry aloud: "Long live Death!" and "Let Life +die!" because some one begins the cry. And this is the most dangerous +defect in their blindness. For this reason Boethius judges glory of +the people vain, because he sees it to be without discernment. These +persons are to be termed sheep and not men; for if a sheep should leap +over a precipice of a thousand feet, all the others would follow after +it; and if one sheep, for some cause or other, in crossing a road, +leaps, all the others leap, even when they see nothing to leap over. +And I once saw many leap into a well, because one had leapt into it, +believing perhaps that it was leaping a wall; notwithstanding that the +shepherd, weeping and shouting, with arms and breast set himself +against them. + +The second faction against our Mother Tongue springs from a malicious +self-justification. There are many who would rather be thought masters +than be such; and to avoid the opposite--that is, to be held not to be +such--they always cast blame on the material they work on, or upon the +instrument; as the clumsy smith blames the iron given to him, and the +bad harpist blames the harp, thinking to cast the blame of the bad +blade and of the bad music upon the iron and upon the harp, and to +lift it from themselves. Thus there are some, and not a few, who +desire that a man may hold them to be orators; and to excuse +themselves for not speaking, or for speaking badly, they accuse or +throw blame on the material, that is, their own Mother Tongue, and +praise that of other lands, which they are not required to employ. And +he who wishes to see wherefore this iron is to be blamed, let him look +at the work which good artificers make of it, and he will understand +the malice of those who, in casting blame upon it, think thereby to +excuse themselves. Against such as these, Tullius exclaims in the +beginning of his book, which he names the book "De Finibus," because +in his time they blamed the Roman Latin and praised the Greek grammar. +And thus I say, for like reasons, that these men vilify the Italian +tongue, and glorify that of Provence. + +The third faction against our Mother Tongue springs from greed of +vainglory. There are many who, by describing certain things in some +other language, and by praising that language, deem themselves to be +more worthy of admiration than if they described them in their own. +And undoubtedly to learn well a foreign tongue is deserving of some +praise for intellect; but it is a blameable thing to applaud that +language beyond truth, to glorify one's self for such an acquisition. + +The fourth springs from an invention of envy. So that, as it is said +above, envy is always where there is equality. Amongst the men of one +nation there is the equality of the native tongue; and because one +knows not how to use it like the other, therefrom springs envy. The +envious man then argues, not blaming himself for not knowing how to +speak like him who does speak as he should, but he blames that which +is the material of his work, in order to rob, by depreciating the work +on that side, him who does speak, of honour and fame; like him who +should find fault with the blade of a sword, not in order to throw +blame on the sword, but on the whole work of the master. + +The fifth and last faction springs from vileness of mind. The +magnanimous man always praises himself in his heart; and so the +pusillanimous man, on the contrary, always deems himself less than he +is. And because to magnify and to diminish always have respect to +something, by comparison with which the large-minded man makes himself +great and the small-minded man makes himself small, it results +therefrom that the magnanimous man always makes others less than they +are, and the pusillanimous makes others always greater. And therefore +with that measure wherewith a man measures himself, he measures his +own things, which are as it were a part of himself. It results that to +the magnanimous man his own things always appear better than they are, +and those of others less good; the pusillanimous man always believes +his things to be of little value, and those of others of much worth. +Wherefore many, on account of this vileness of mind, depreciate their +native tongue, and applaud that of others; and all such as these are +the abominable wicked men of Italy who hold this precious Mother +Tongue in vile contempt, which if it be vile in any case, is so only +inasmuch as it sounds in the evil mouth of these adulterers, under +whose guidance go those blind men of whom I spoke in the first +argument. + + + + +CHAPTER XII. + + +If flames of fire should issue visibly through the windows of a house, +and if any one should ask if there were fire within it, and if another +should answer "Yes" to him, one would not well know how to judge which +of those might be mocking the most. Not otherwise would the question +and the answer pass between me and that man who should ask me if love +for my own language is in me, and if I should answer "Yes" to him, +after the arguments propounded above. + +But, nevertheless, it has to be proved that not only love, but the +most perfect love for it exists in me, and again its adversaries must +be blamed. Whilst demonstrating this to him who will understand well, +I will tell how I became the friend of it, and then how my friendship +is confirmed. + +I say that (as Tullius writes in his book on Friendship, not +dissenting from the opinion of the Philosopher opened up in the eighth +and in the ninth of the Ethics) Neighbourhood and Goodness are, +naturally, the causes of the birth of Love: Benevolence, Study, and +Custom are the causes of the growth of Love. And there have been all +these causes to produce and to strengthen the love which I bear to my +Native Language, as I shall briefly demonstrate. A thing is so much +the nearer in proportion as it is most nearly allied to all the other +things of its own kind; wherefore, of all men the son is nearest to +the father, and of all the Arts, Medicine is nearest to the Doctor, +and Music to the Musician, because they are more allied to them than +the others. Of all parts of the earth the nearest is that whereon a +man lives, because he is most united to it. And thus his own Native +Language is nearest to him, inasmuch as he is most united to it; for +it, and it alone, is first in the mind before any other. And not only +of itself is it united, but by accident, inasmuch as it is united with +the persons nearest to him, as his parents, and his fellow-citizens, +and his own people. And this is his own Mother Tongue, which is not +only nearest, but especially the nearest to each man. Therefore, if +near neighbourhood be the seed of friendship, as is said above, it is +manifest that it has been one of the causes of the love which I bear +to my Native Language, which is nearer to me than the others. The +above-mentioned cause, whereby that alone which stands first in each +mind is most bound to it, gave rise to the custom of the people, that +the first-born sons should succeed to the inheritance solely as being +the nearest relatives; and because the nearest relatives, therefore +the most beloved. + +Again, Goodness made me a friend to it. And here it is to be known +that all goodness inherent in anything is loveable in that thing; as +in manhood to be well bearded, and in womanhood to be all over the +face quite free from hair; as in the setter to have good scent, and as +in the greyhound to be swift. And in proportion as it is native, so +much the more is it delightful. Hence, although each virtue is +loveable in man, that is the most loveable in him which is most human: +and this is Justice, which alone is in the rational part, or rather in +the intellectual, that is, in the Will. This is so loveable that as +says the Philosopher in the fifth book of the Ethics, its enemies love +it, such as thieves and robbers; and, therefore, we see that its +opposite, that is, Injustice, is especially hated; such as treachery, +ingratitude, falsehood, theft, rapine, deceit, and their like; the +which are such inhuman sins, that, in order to excuse himself from the +infamy of such, it is granted through long custom that a man may speak +of himself, as has been said above, and may say if he be faithful and +loyal. Of this virtue I shall speak hereafter more fully in the +fourteenth treatise; and here quitting it, I return to the +proposition. Having proved, then, that the goodness of a thing is +loved the more the more it is innate, the more it is to be loved and +commended for itself, it remains to see what that goodness is. And we +see that, in all speech, to express a thought well and clearly is the +thing most to be admired and commended. This, then, is its first +goodness. And forasmuch as this is in our Mother Tongue, as is made +evident in another chapter, it is manifest that it has been the cause +of the love which I bear to it; since, as has been said, "Goodness is +the producer of Love." + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + + +Having said how in the Mother Tongue there are those two things which +have made me its friend, that is, nearness to me and its innate +goodness, I will tell how by kindness and union in study, and through +the benevolence of long use, the friendship is confirmed and grows. +Firstly, I say that I for myself have received from it the greatest +benefits. And, therefore, it is to be known that, amongst all +benefits, that is the greatest which is most precious to him who +receives it; and nothing is so precious as that through which all +other things are wished; and all the other things are wished for the +perfection of him who wishes. Wherefore, inasmuch as a man may have +two perfections, one first and one second (the first causes him to be, +the second causes him to be good), if the Native Language has been to +me the cause of the one and of the other, I have received from it the +greatest benefit. And that it may have been the cause of this +condition in me can be shown briefly. The efficient cause for the +existence of things is not one only, but among many efficient causes +one is the chief of the others, hence the fire and the hammer are the +efficient causes of the sword-blade, although the workman is +especially so. This my Mother Tongue was the bond of union between my +forefathers, who spoke with it, even as the fire is the link between +the iron and the smith who makes the knife; therefore it is evident +that it co-operated in my birth, and so it was in some way the cause +of my being. Again, this my Mother Tongue was my introducer into the +path of knowledge, which is the ultimate perfection, inasmuch as with +it I entered into the Latin Language, and with it I was taught; the +which Latin was then the way of further advancement for me. And so it +is evident and known by me that this my language has been my great +benefactor. Also it has been engaged with me in one self-same study, +and this I can thus prove. Each thing naturally studies its +self-preservation; hence, if the Mother Tongue could seek anything of +itself, it would seek that; and that would be to secure for itself a +position of the greatest stability: but greater stability it could not +secure than by uniting itself with number and with rhyme. + +And this self-same study has been mine, as is so evident that it +requires no testimony; therefore its study and mine have been one and +the same, whereby the harmony of friendship is confirmed and +increased. Also between us there has been the benevolence of long use: +for from the beginning of my life I have had with it kind fellowship +and conversation, and have used it, when deliberating, interpreting, +and questioning; wherefore, if friendship increases through long use, +as in all reason appears, it is manifest that in me it has increased +especially, for with this my Mother Tongue I have spent all my time. +And thus one sees that to the shaping of this friendship there have +co-operated all causes of birth and growth. Therefore, let it be +concluded that not only Love, but the most Perfect Love, is that which +I have for it. So it is, and ought to be. + +Thus, casting the eyes backwards and gathering up the afore-stated +reasons, one can see that this Bread, with which the Meat of the +under-written Poems ought to be eaten, is made clear enough of +blemishes, and of fault in the nature of its grain. Wherefore, it is +time to attend to and serve up the viands. + +This will be that barley-bread with which a thousand will satisfy +themselves; and my full baskets shall overflow with it. This will be +that new Light, that new Sun, which shall rise when the sun of this +our day shall set, and shall give light to those who are in darkness +and in gloom because the sun of this our day gives light to them no +more. + + * * * * * + + + + +The Second Treatise. + + + Ye who the third Heaven move, intent of thought, + Hear reasoning that is within my heart, + Thoughts that to none but you I can impart: + Heaven, that is moved by you, my life has brought + To where it stands, therefore I pray you heed + What I shall say about the life I lead. + + To you I tell the heart's new cares: always + The sad Soul weeps within it, and there hears + Voice of a Spirit that condemns her tears, + A Spirit that descends in your star's rays. + Thought that once fed the grieving heart was sweet, + Thought that oft fled up to your Father's feet. + + There it beheld a Lady glorified, + Of whom so sweetly it discoursed to me + That the Soul said, "With her I long to be!" + Now One appears that drives the thought aside, + And masters me with so effectual might + That my heart quivers to the outward sight. + + This on a Lady fixes my regard + And says, "Who seeks where his salvation lies + Must gaze intently in this Lady's eyes, + Nor dread the sighs of anguish!" O, ill-starred! + Such opposite now breaks the humble dream + Of the crowned angel in the glory beam. + + Still, therefore, the Soul weeps, "The tender stir," + It says, "of thought that once consoled me flies!" + That troubled one asks, "When into thine eyes + Looked she? Why doubted they my words of her?" + I said, "Her eyes bear death to such as I: + Yet, vainly warned, I gaze on her and die. + + "Thou art not dead, but in a vain dismay, + Dear Soul of ours so lost in thy distress," + Whispers a spirit voice of tenderness. + "This Lady's beauty darkens all your day, + Vile fear possesses you; see, she is lowly + Pitiful, courteous, though so wise and holy. + + "Think thou to call her Mistress evermore: + Save thou delude thyself, then shall there shine + High miracles before thee, so divine + That thou shalt say, O Love, when I adore, + True Lord, behold the handmaid of the Lord, + Be it unto me according to thy Word!" + + My song, I do believe there will be few + Who toil to understand thy reasoning; + But if thou pass, perchance, to those who bring + No skill to give thee the attention due, + Then pray I, dear last-born, let them rejoice + To find at least a music in my voice. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + + +Since I, the servant, with preliminary discourse in the preceding +Treatise, have with all due care prepared my bread, the time now +summons, and requires my ship to leave the port: wherefore, having +trimmed the mizen-mast of reason to the wind of my desire, I enter the +ocean with the hope of an easy voyage, and a healthful happy haven to +be reached at the end of my supper. But in order that my food may be +more profitable, before the first dish comes on the table I wish to +show how it ought to be eaten. I say then, as is narrated in the first +chapter, that this exposition must be Literal and Allegorical; and to +make this explicit one should know that it is possible to understand a +book in four different ways, and that it ought to be explained chiefly +in this manner. + +The one is termed Literal, and this is that which does not extend +beyond the text itself, such as is the fit narration of that thing +whereof you are discoursing, an appropriate example of which is the +third Song, which discourses of Nobility. + +Another is termed Allegorical, and it is that which is concealed under +the veil of fables, and is a Truth concealed under a beautiful +Untruth; as when Ovid says that Orpheus with his lute made the wild +beasts tame, and made the trees and the stones to follow him, which +signifies that the wise man with the instrument of his voice makes +cruel hearts gentle and humble, and makes those follow his will who +have not the living force of knowledge and of art; who, having not the +reasoning life of any knowledge whatever, are as the stones. And in +order that this hidden thing should be discovered by the wise, it will +be demonstrated in the last Treatise. Verily the theologians take this +meaning otherwise than do the poets: but, because my intention here is +to follow the way of the poets, I shall take the Allegorical sense +according as it is used by the poets. + +The third sense is termed Moral; and this is that which the readers +ought intently to search for in books, for their own advantage and for +that of their descendants; as one can espy in the Gospel, when Christ +ascended the Mount for the Transfiguration, that, of the twelve +Apostles, He took with Him only three. From which one can understand +in the Moral sense that in the most secret things we ought to have but +little company. + +The fourth sense is termed Mystical, that is, above sense, +supernatural; and this it is, when spiritually one expounds a writing +which even in the Literal sense by the things signified bears express +reference to the Divine things of Eternal Glory; as one can see in +that Song of the Prophet which says that by the exodus of the people +of Israel from Egypt Judæa is made holy and free. That this happens to +be true according to the letter is evident. Not less true is that +which it means spiritually, that in the Soul's liberation from Sin (or +in the exodus of the Soul from Sin) it is made holy and free in its +powers. + +But in demonstrating these, the Literal must always go first, as that +in whose sense the others are included, and without which it would be +impossible and irrational to understand the others. Especially is it +impossible in the Allegorical, because, in each thing which has a +within and a without, it is impossible to come to the within if you do +not first come to the without. Wherefore, since in books the Literal +meaning is always external, it is impossible to reach the others, +especially the Allegorical, without first coming to the Literal. +Again, it is impossible, because in each thing, natural and +artificial, it is impossible to proceed to the form without having +first laid down the matter upon which the form should be. Thus, it is +impossible for the form of the gold to come, if the matter, that is, +its subject, is not first laid down and prepared; or for the form of +the ark to come, if the material, that is, the wood, be not first laid +down and prepared. Therefore, since the Literal meaning is always the +subject and the matter of the others, especially of the Allegorical, +it is impossible to come first to the meaning of the others before +coming to it. Again, it is impossible, because in each thing, natural +and artificial, it is impossible to proceed unless the foundation be +first laid, as in the house, so also in the mind. Therefore, since +demonstration must be the building up of Knowledge, and Literal +demonstration must be the foundation of the other methods of +interpreting, especially of the Allegorical, it is impossible to come +first to the others before coming to that. Again, if it were possible +that it could be so ordered, it would be irrational, that is, out of +order; and, therefore, one would proceed with, much fatigue and with +much error. Hence, as the Philosopher says in the first book of the +Physics, Nature desires that we proceed in due order in our search for +knowledge, that is, by proceeding from that which we know well to that +which we know not so well; so I say that Nature desires it, inasmuch +as this way to knowledge is innate in us; and therefore, if the other +meanings, apart from the Literal, are less understood--which they are, +as evidently appears--it would be irrational to demonstrate them if +the Literal had not first been demonstrated. + +I, then, for these reasons will discourse in due order of each Song, +firstly upon its Literal meaning, and after that I will discourse of +its Allegory, that is, the hidden Truth, and sometimes I will touch +incidentally on the other meanings as may be convenient to place and +time. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + + +Beginning, then, I say that the star of Venus had twice revolved in +that circle which causes the evening and the morning to appear, +according to the two varying seasons, since the death of that blessed +Beatrice, who lives in Heaven with the Angels, and on Earth with my +soul; when that gentle Lady, of whom I made mention at the end of the +"Vita Nuova," first appeared before my eyes, accompanied by Love, and +assumed a position in my mind. And, as has been stated by me in the +little book referred to, more because of her gentle goodness than from +choice of mine, it befell that I consented to be her servant. For she +appeared impassioned with such sorrow for my sad widowed life that the +spirits of my eyes became especially friendly to her; and, so +disposed, they then depicted her to be such that my good-will was +content to espouse itself to that image. But because Love is not born +suddenly, nor grows great nor comes to perfection in haste, but +desires time and food for thought, especially there where there are +antagonistic thoughts which impede it, there must needs be, before +this new Love could be perfect, a great battle between the thought of +its food and of that which was antagonistic to it, which still held +the fortress of my mind for that glorious Beatrice. For the one was +succoured on one side continually by the ever-present vision, and the +other on the opposite side by the memory of the past. And the help of +the ever-present sight increased each day, which memory could not do, +in opposing that which to a certain degree prevented me from turning +the face towards the past. Wherefore it seemed to me so wonderful, and +also so hard to endure, that I could not support it, and with a loud +cry (to excuse myself from the struggle, in which it seemed to me that +I had failed in courage) I lifted up my voice towards that part whence +came the victory of the new thought, which was full of virtuous power, +even the power of celestial virtue; and I began to say: "You! who the +third Heaven move, intent of thought." For the intelligent +understanding of which Song, one must first know its divisions well, +so that it will then be easy to perceive its meaning. + +In order that it may no longer be necessary to preface the +explanations of the others, I say that the order which will be taken +in this Treatise I intend to keep through all the others. I say, then, +that the proposed Song is contained within three principal parts. The +first is the first verse of that, in which certain Intelligences are +induced to listen to what I intend to say, or rather by a more usual +form of speech we should call them Angels, who are in the revolution +of the Heaven of Venus, as the movers thereof. The second is in the +lines which follow after the first, in which is made manifest that +which I felt spiritually amidst various thoughts. The third is in the +last lines, wherein the man begins to speak to the work itself, as if +to comfort it, as it were, and all these three parts are in due order +to be demonstrated, as has been said above. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + + +That we may more easily perceive the Literal meaning of the first +division, to which we now attend, it is requisite to know who and what +are those who are summoned to my audience, and what is that third +Heaven which I say is moved by them. And firstly I will speak of the +Heaven; then I will speak of those whom I address And although with +regard to the truth concerning those things it is possible to know but +little, yet so much as human reason can discern gives more delight +than the best known and most certain of the things judged by the +sense; according to the opinion of the Philosopher in his book on +Animals. + +I say, then, that concerning the number of the Heavens and their site, +different opinions are held by many, although the truth at last may be +found. Aristotle believed, following merely the ancient foolishness of +the Astrologers, that there might be only eight Heavens, of which the +last one, and which contained all, might be that where the fixed stars +are, that is, the eighth sphere, and that beyond it there could be no +other. Again, he believed that the Heaven of the Sun might be +immediate with that of the Moon, that is, second to us. And this +opinion of his, so erroneous, he who wishes can see in the second book +on Heaven and the World, which is in the second of the Books on +Natural History. In fact, he excuses himself for this in the twelfth +book of the Metaphysics, where he clearly proves himself to have +followed also another opinion where he was obliged to speak of +Astrology. Ptolemy, then, perceiving that the eighth sphere is moved +by many movements, seeing its circle to depart from the right circle, +which turns from East to West, constrained by the principles of +Philosophy, which of necessity desires a Primum Mobile, a most simple +one, supposed another Heaven to be outside the Heaven of the fixed +stars, which might make that revolution from East to West which I say +is completed in twenty-four hours nearly, that is, in twenty-three +hours, fourteen parts of the fifteen of another, counting roughly. +Therefore, according to him, and according to that which is held in +Astrology and in Philosophy since those movements were seen, there are +nine moveable Heavens; the site of which is evident and determined, +according to an Art which is termed Perspective, Arithmetical and +Geometrical, by which and by other sensible experiences it is visibly +and reasonably seen, as in the eclipses of the Sun it appears +sensibly, that the Moon is below the Sun; and as by the testimony of +Aristotle, who saw with his own eyes, according to what he says in the +second book on Heaven and the World, the Moon, being new, to enter +below Mars, on the side not shining, and Mars to remain concealed so +long that he re-appeared on the other bright side of the Moon, which +was towards the West. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + + +And the order of the houses is this, that the first that they +enumerate is that where the Moon is; the second is that where Mercury +is; the third is that where Venus is; the fourth is that where the Sun +is; the fifth is that where Mars is; the sixth is that where Jupiter +is; the seventh is that where Saturn is; the eighth is that of the +Stars; the ninth is that which is not visible except by that movement +which is mentioned above, which they designate the great Crystalline +sphere, diaphanous, or rather all transparent. Truly, beyond all +these, the Catholics place the Empyrean Heaven, which is as much as to +say, the Heaven of Flame, or rather the Luminous Heaven; and they +assign it to be immoveable, in order to have in itself, according to +each part, that which its material desires. And this is why that first +moved--the Primum Mobile--has such extremely rapid motion. For, +because of the most fervent appetite which each part of it has to be +united with each part of that most Divine Heaven of Peace, in which it +revolves with so much desire, its velocity is almost incomprehensible. +And this quiet and peaceful Heaven is the place of that Supreme Deity +who from above beholds the whole. This is the place of the blessed +Spirits, according as Holy Church teaches, which cannot speak falsely; +and even Aristotle seems to feel this, to him who understands him +well, in the first book of Heaven and the World. This is the highest +bound of the World, within which the whole World is included, and +beyond which there is nothing. And it is in no place, but was formed +alone in the First Mind, which the Greeks term Protonoe. This is that +magnificence of which the Psalmist spoke when he sang to God: "Thy +glory is raised above the Heavens." + +So, then, gathering together this which is discussed, it seems that +there may be ten Heavens, of which the Heaven of Venus may be the +third; whereof mention is made in that part which I intend to +demonstrate. And it is to be known that each Heaven below the +Crystalline has two firm poles as to itself; and the ninth has them +firm and fixed, and not mutable in any respect. And each one, the +ninth even as the others, has a circle, which one may term the equator +of its own Heaven; which equally, in each part of its revolution, is +remote from one pole and from the other, as he who rolls an apple or +any other round thing can sensibly perceive. And this circle has more +swiftness in its movement than any other part of its Heaven, in each +Heaven, as he may perceive who considers well. And each part, in +proportion as it is nearer to it, moves so much the more swiftly; so +much the slower in proportion as it is more remote and nearer to the +pole; since its revolution is less, and it must of necessity be in one +self-same time with the greater. I say again, that in proportion as +the Heaven is nearer to the equatorial circle, so much the more noble +is it in comparison to its poles; since it has more motion and more +actuality and more life and more form and more touch from that which +is above itself, and consequently has more virtue. Hence the stars in +the Heaven of the fixed stars are more full of power amongst +themselves in proportion as they are nearer to that circle. + +And upon the back of this circle in the Heaven of Venus, of which I +now speak, is a little sphere, which revolves by itself in this +Heaven, the circle of which Astrologers call Epicycle; and as the +great sphere revolves about two poles, so does this little sphere: and +so has this little sphere the equatorial circle; and so much the more +noble it is in proportion as it is nearer to those: and in the arc, or +rather back, of this circle is fixed the most brilliant star of Venus. +And, although it may be said that there are ten Heavens according to +strict Truth, this number does not comprehend them all: for that of +which mention is made, the Epicycle, in which the star is fixed, is a +Heaven by itself, or rather sphere; and it has not one essence with +that which bears it, although it may be more like to it than to the +others, and with it is called one Heaven, and they name the one and +the other from the star. How the other Heavens and the other stars may +be is not for present discussion; let it suffice that the nature of +the third Heaven, with which I am at present concerned, has been told, +and concerning which all that is at present needful has been shown. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + + +Since it has been shown in the preceding chapter what this third +Heaven is, and how it is ordered in itself, it remains to show who +those are who move it. It is then to be known, in the first place, +that the movers thereof are substances apart from material, that is, +Intelligences, which the common people term Angels: and of these +creatures, as of the Heavens, different persons have had different +ideas, although the truth may be found. There were certain +Philosophers, of whom Aristotle appears to be one in his Metaphysics, +although in the first book on Heaven and Earth incidentally he appears +to think otherwise, who only believed these to be so many as there are +revolutions in the Heavens, and no more; saying, that the others would +have been eternally in vain, without operation, which was impossible, +inasmuch as their being is their operation. There were others, like +Plato, a most excellent man, who place not only so many Intelligences +as there are movements in Heaven, but even as there are species of +things, that is, manners of things; as of one species are all mankind, +and of another all the gold, and of another all the silver, and so +with all: and they are of opinion that as the Intelligences of the +Heavens are generators of those movements each after his kind, so +these were generators of the other things, each one being a type of +its species: and Plato calls them _Ideas_, which is as much as to +say, so many universal forms and natures. + +The Gentiles called them Gods and Goddesses, although they could not +understand those so philosophically as Plato did; and they adored +their images, and built large temples to them, as to Juno, whom they +called the Goddess of Power; as to Vulcan, whom they called the God of +Fire; as to Pallas, or rather Minerva, whom they called the Goddess of +Wisdom; and to Ceres, whom they called the Goddess of Corn. Opinions +such as these the testimony of the Poets makes manifest, for they +describe to a certain extent the mode of the Gentiles both in their +sacrifices and in their faith; and it is testified also in many names, +remains of antiquity, or in names of places and ancient buildings, as +he who will can easily find. And although these opinions above +mentioned might be built upon a good foundation by human reason and by +no slight knowledge, yet the Truth was not seen by them, either from +defect of reason or from defect of instruction. Yet even by reason it +was possible to see that very numerous were the creatures above +mentioned who are not such as men can understand. And the one reason +is this: no one doubts, neither Philosopher, nor Gentile, nor Jew, nor +Christian, nor any one of any sect, that they are either the whole or +the greater part full of all Blessedness, and that those blessed ones +are in a most perfect state. Therefore, since that which is here Human +Nature may have not only one Beatitude, but two Beatitudes, as that of +the Civil Life and that of the Contemplative, it would be irrational +if we should see these Celestial Beings to have the Beatitude of the +Active Life, that is, the Civil, in the government of the World, and +not to have that of the Contemplative, which is the most excellent and +most Divine. + +But since that which has the Beatitude of the Civil government cannot +have the other, because their intellect is one and perpetual, there +must be others beyond this ministry, who live only in contemplation. +And because this latter life is more Divine--and in proportion as the +thing is more Divine so much the more is it in the image of God--it is +evident that this life is more beloved of God: and if it be more +beloved, so much the more vast has its Beatitude been; and if it has +been more vast, so much the more vivifying power has He given to it +rather than to the other; therefore one concludes that there may De a +much larger number of those creatures than the effects tend to show. +And this is not opposed to that which Aristotle seems to state in the +tenth book of the Ethics, that to the separate substances the +Contemplative Life must be requisite; as also the Active Life must be +imperative to them. Nevertheless, in the contemplation of certain +truths the revolution of the Heaven follows, which is the government +of the World; which is, as it were, a Civil government ordained and +comprehended in the contemplation of the movers, that is, the ruling +Intelligences. The other reason is, that no effect is greater than the +cause, because the cause cannot give that which it has not; wherefore, +since the Divine Intellect is the cause of all, especially of the +Human Intellect, it follows that the Human Intellect does not dominate +the Divine, but is dominated by it in proportion to the superior power +of the Divine. Hence, if we, by the reason above stated, and by many +others, understand God to have been able to create Spiritual Creatures +almost innumerable, it is quite evident that He has made them in this +great number. Many other reasons it were possible to see: but let +these suffice for the present. Nor let any one marvel if these and +other reasons which we could adduce concerning this are not fully +demonstrated; since likewise we ought to wonder at their excellence, +which overpowers the eyes of the Human Mind, as the Philosopher says +in the second book of the Metaphysics, and he affirms their existence. +Though we have not any perception of them from which our knowledge can +begin, yet some light from their most vivacious essence shines upon +our intellect, inasmuch as we perceive the above-mentioned reasons and +many others, even as he who has the eyes closed affirms the air to be +luminous, because of some little brightness or ray of light which +passes through the pupils; as it is with the bat, for not otherwise +are the eyes of the intellect closed, so long as the soul is bound and +prisoned by the organs of our body. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + + +It has been said that, through defective instruction, the ancients saw +not the Truth concerning the Spiritual Creatures, although the people +of Israel were in part instructed by their Prophets, through whom by +many modes of speech and in many ways God had spoken to them, as the +Apostle says. But we are therein instructed by Him who came from God, +by Him who made them, by Him who preserves them, that is, by the +Emperor of the Universe, who is Christ the Son of the Supreme God, and +the Son of the Virgin Mary, a woman truly, and the daughter of Joseph +and Anna--very Man, who was slain by us in order that He might bring +us Life; who was the Light which enlightens us in the Darkness, even +as John the Evangelist says; and He told us the Truth of those things +which we could not have known without Him, nor seen truly. The first +thing and the first secret which He showed us was one of the +before-mentioned Beings or creatures. This was that one, His great +Legate, the Angel Gabriel, who came to Mary, a young damsel of +thirteen years, on the part of the Heavenly Saviour. This our Saviour, +with His own mouth, said, that the Father could give Him many Legions +of Angels. This He denied not, when it was said to Him that the Father +had commanded His Angels that they should minister unto Him and should +serve Him. Wherefore, it is evident to us that these creatures are in +a very great number; since His Spouse and Secretary, Holy Church, of +whom Solomon says: "Who is this that cometh forth from the Desert, +full of those things which give delight, leaning upon her friend?" +says, believes, and preaches these most noble creatures to be almost +innumerable; and She divides them into three Hierarchies, that is to +say, three holy, or rather Divine, Principalities: and each Hierarchy +has three orders, so that nine orders of spiritual creatures the +Church holds and affirms. + +The first is that of the Angels, the second of the Archangels, the +third of the Thrones; and these three orders make the first +Hierarchy--not first as to nobility, nor as to creation, for the +others are more noble, and all were created together, but first in +degree, according to our perception of their exaltation. + +Then there are the Dominations; after them the Virtues; then the +Principalities; and these make the second Hierarchy. + +Above these are the Powers and the Cherubim, and above all are the +Seraphim; and these make the third Hierarchy. + +And the most potent reason for their contemplation is the number in +which the Hierarchies are, and that in which the orders are. For, +since the Divine Majesty is in Three Persons, which have one +substance, it is possible to contemplate them triply. For it is +possible to contemplate the Supreme Power of the Father, which the +first Hierarchy gazes upon, namely, that which is first by nobility, +and which we enumerate last. And it is possible to contemplate the +Supreme Wisdom of the Son; and upon this the second Hierarchy gazes. +And it is possible to contemplate the Supreme and most fervent Charity +of the Holy Spirit; and upon this the third Hierarchy gazes, which, +being nearest to us, gives of the gifts which it receives. + +And, since it is possible to regard each person in the Divine Trinity +triply, so in each Hierarchy there are three orders which contemplate +diversely. It is possible to consider the Father having regard to none +but Him; and this is the contemplation of the Seraphim, who see more +of the First Cause than any other Angelic Nature. It is possible to +consider the Father according as He has relation to the Son, that is, +how He is apart from Him, and how united with Him; and this is the +contemplation of the Cherubim. It is possible again to consider the +Father according as from Him proceeds the Holy Spirit, and how it is +apart from Him and how united with Him; and this is the contemplation +of the Powers. + +And in like way it is possible to contemplate the Son and the Holy +Spirit. + +Wherefore, there must be nine orders of contemplative Spirits to gaze +into the Light, which alone beholds itself completely. And this is not +the place to be silent so much as one word. I say, that of all these +orders some were lost as soon as they were created, perhaps in number +of the tenth part, to restore which Human Nature was created. The +numbers, the orders, the Hierarchies, declare the glory of the movable +Heavens, which are nine; and the tenth announces this Unity and +stability of God. And therefore the Psalmist says: "The Heavens +declare the glory of God, and the Firmament showeth His handiwork." +Wherefore it is reasonable to believe that the movers of the Heaven of +the Moon are of the order of the Angels, and those of Mercury may be +the Archangels, and those of Venus may be the Thrones, in whom the +Love of the Holy Spirit being innate, they do their work conformably +to it, which means that the revolution of that Heaven is full of Love. +The form of the said Heaven takes from this a virtue by whose glow +souls here below are kindled to love according to their disposition. + +And because the ancients perceived that Heaven to be here below the +cause of Love, they said that Love was the son of Venus, as Virgil +testifies in the first book of the Æneid, where Venus says to Love: +"Oh! son, my virtue, son of the great Father, who takest no heed of +the darts of Typhoeus." And Ovid so testifies in the fifth book of +his Metamorphoses, when he says that Venus said to Love: "Son, my +arms, my power." And there are Thrones which are ordered to the +government of this Heaven in number not great, concerning which the +Philosophers and the Astrologers have thought differently, according +as they held different opinions concerning its revolutions. But all +may be agreed, as many are, in this, as to how many movements it +makes. Of this, as abbreviated in the book of the Aggregation of the +Stars, you may find in the better demonstration of the Astrologers +that there are three: one, according as the star moves towards its +Epicycle; the other, according as the Epicycle moves with its whole +Heaven equally with that of the Sun; the third, according as the whole +of that Heaven moves, following the movement of the starry sphere from +West to East in one hundred years one degree. So that to these Three +Movements there are Three Movers. Again, if the whole of this Heaven +moves and turns with the Epicycle from East to West once in each +natural day, that movement, whether it be caused by some Intelligence +or whether it be through the rapid movement of the Primum Mobile, God +knows, for to me it seems presumptuous to judge. These Movers produce, +caring for that alone, the revolution proper to that sphere which each +one moves. The most noble form of the Heaven, which has in itself the +principle of this passive Nature, revolves, touched by the Moving +Power, which cares for this; and I say touched, not by a bodily touch, +but by a Power which directs itself to that operation. And these +Movers are those to whom I begin to speak and to whom I put my +inquiry. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + + +According to that which is said above in the third chapter of this +treatise, in order to understand well the first part of the Song I +comment on, it is requisite to discourse of those Heavens, and of +their Movers; and in the three preceding chapters this has been +discussed. I say, then, to those whom I proved to be Movers of the +Heaven of Venus: "Ye who, with thought intent" (_i.e._, with the +intellect alone, as is said above), "the third Heaven move, Hear +reasoning that is within my heart;" and I do not say "Hear" because +they hear any sound, for they have no sense of hearing; but I say +"Hear," meaning with that hearing which they have, which is of the +understanding through the intellect. I say, "Hear reasoning that is +within my heart," within me, which as yet has not appeared externally. +It is to be known that throughout this Song, according to the one +sense (the Literal), and the other sense (the Allegorical), the Heart +is concerned with the secret within, and not any other special part of +the soul or body. When I have called them to hear that which I wish to +say, I assign two reasons why I ought fitly to speak to them. One is +the novelty of my condition, which, from not having been experienced +by other men, would not be so understood by them as by those who +superintend such effects in their operation. And this reason I touch +upon when I say: "To you alone its new thoughts I impart." The other +reason is: when a man receives a benefit or injury, he ought first to +relate it to him who bestows or inflicts it, if he can, rather than to +others; in order that, if it be a benefit, he who receives it may show +himself grateful towards the benefactor, and, if it be an injury, let +him lead the doer thereof to gentle mercy with sweet words. And this +reason I touch upon when I say: "Heaven, that is moved by you, my life +has brought To where it stands;" that is to say, your operation, +namely, your revolution, is that which has drawn me into the present +condition; therefore I conclude and say that my speech ought to be to +them, such as is said; and I say here: "Therefore to you 'tis need +That I should speak about the life I lead." And after these reasons +assigned, I beseech them to listen when I speak. + +But, because in each manner of speech the speaker especially ought to +look to persuasion, that is, to the pleasing of the audience, as that +which is the beginning of all other persuasions, as do the +Rhetoricians, and the most powerful persuasion to render the audience +attentive is to promise to say new and wonderful things, I add to the +prayer made for attention, this persuasion, or embellishment, +announcing to them my intention to speak of new things, that is, the +division which is in my mind; and great things, namely, the power of +their star; and I say this in those last words of this first part: + + To you I'll tell the heart's new cares: always + The sad Soul weeps within it, and there hears + Voice of a Spirit that condemns her tears, + A Spirit that descends through your star's rays. + +And to the full understanding of these words, I say that this Spirit +is no other than a frequent thought how to commend and beautify this +new Lady. And this Soul is no other than another thought, accompanied +with acquiescence, which, repudiating that Spirit, commends and +beautifies the memory of that glorious Beatrice. But, again, because +the last sentiment of the mind, acquiescence, is held by that thought +which memory assisted, I call it the Soul, and the other the Spirit; +as we are accustomed to call the City those who hold it, and not those +who fight it, although the one and the other may be citizens. I say +also, that this Spirit comes on the rays of the star, because one +desires to know that the rays of each Heaven are the way by which +their virtue descends into things here below. And since the rays are +no other than a light which comes from the source of Light through the +air even to the thing illuminated, and the light has no source except +the star, because the other Heaven is transparent, I say not that this +Spirit, this thought, comes from their Heaven entirely, but from their +star. And their star, through the nobility of its Movers, is of such +virtue that in our souls, and in other things, it has very great +power, notwithstanding that it is so far from us, about one hundred +and sixty-seven times farther than it is to the centre of the Earth, +which is three thousand two hundred and fifty miles. And this is the +Literal exposition of the first part of the Song. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + + +What I have said shows clearly enough the Literal meaning of the first +part. In the second, there is to be understood how it makes manifest +what I experienced from the struggle within me; and this part has two +divisions. In the first place it describes the quality of these +oppositions, according as their cause was within me. Then I narrate +what the one and the other voice of opposition said; and upon that +firstly which described what was being lost, in the passage which is +the second of that part and the third of the Song. In evidence, then, +of the meaning of the first division, it is to be known that things +must be named by that part of their form which is the noblest and +best, as Man by Reason, and not by Sense, nor by aught else which is +less noble; therefore, when one speaks of the living man, one should +understand the man using Reason, which is his especial Life, and is +the action of his noblest part. And, therefore, whoso departs from +Reason and uses only the Senses is not a living man, but a living +beast, as says that most excellent Boethius, "Let the Ass live." + +Rightly I speak, because thought is the right act of reason, wherefore +the beasts who have it not do not think; and I speak not only of the +lesser beasts, but of those who have a human appearance with the +spirit of a sheep or of some other abominable beast. I say then: +"Thought that once fed my grieving heart"--thought, that is, of the +inner life--"was sweet" (sweet, insomuch as it is persuasive, that is, +pleasing, or beautiful, gentle, delightful); this thought often sped +away to the feet of the Father of those Spirits to whom I speak, that +is, God; that is to say, that I in thought contemplated the realm of +the Blessed. "Thought that once fled up to the Father's feet." And I +name the final cause immediately, because I ascended there above in +thought when I say, "There I beheld a Lady glorified," to let you +understand that I was certain, and am certain by its gracious +revelation, that she was in Heaven; wherefore I, thinking many times +how this was possible for me, went thither, rapt, as it were. Then +subsequently I speak of the effect of this thought, in order to let +you understand its sweetness, which was such that it made me desirous +of Death, that I also might go where she was gone. And of this I speak +there: "Of whom so sweetly it discoursed to me That the Soul said, +'With her would I might be!'" And this is the root of one of the +struggles which was in me. And it is to be known that here one terms +Thought, and not Soul, that which ascended to see that Blessed Spirit, +because it was an especial thought sent on that mission; the Soul is +understood, as is stated in the preceding chapter, as thought in +general, with acquiescence. + +Then, when I say, "Now One appears that drives the thought aside," I +touch the root of the other struggle, saying how that previous thought +was wont to be the life of me, even as another appears, which makes +that one cease to be. I say, "drives the thought aside," in order to +show that one to be antagonistic, for naturally the opposing one +drives aside the other, and that which is driven appears to yield +through want of power. And I say that this thought, which newly +appears, is powerful in taking hold of me and in subduing my Soul, +saying that it "masters me with such effectual might" that the heart, +that is, my inner life, trembles so much that my countenance shows it +in some new appearance. + +Subsequently I show the power of this new thought by its effect, +saying that it makes me "fix my regard" on a Lady, and speaks to me +words of allurement, that is to say, it reasons before the eyes of my +intelligent affection, in order the better to induce me, promising me +that the sight of her eyes is its salvation. And in order to make this +credible to the Soul experienced in love, it says that it is for no +one to gaze into the eyes of this woman who fears the anguish of +laboured sighs. And it is a beautiful mode of rhetoric when externally +it appears that you disembellish a thing, and yet really embellish it +within. This new thought of love could not induce my mind to consent, +except by discoursing of the virtue of the eyes of this fair Lady so +profoundly. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + + +Now that it is shown how and whereof Love is born, and the antagonist +that fought with me, I must proceed to open the meaning of that part +in which different thoughts contend within me. I say that, firstly, +one must speak on the part of the Soul, that is, of the former +thought, and then of the other; for this reason, that always that +which the speaker intends most especially to say he ought to reserve +in the background, because that which is said finally, remains most in +the mind of the hearer. Therefore, since I mean to speak further, and +to discourse of that which performs the work of those to whom I speak, +rather than of that which undoes this work, it was reasonable first to +mention and to discourse of the condition of the part which was +undone, and then of that which was generated by the other. + +But here arises a doubt, which is not to be passed over without +explanation. It would be possible for any one to say: Since Love is +the effect of these Intelligences, to whom I speak, and that of the +first Love might be the same as that of the new Love, why should their +virtue destroy the one, and produce the other? since it ought to +preserve the first, for the reason that each cause loves its effect, +and ought to protect what it loves. To this question one can easily +reply, that the effect of those Spirits, as has been said, is Love: +and since they could not save it except in those who are subject to +their revolution, they transfer it from that part which is beyond +their power to that which is within reach, from the soul departed out +of this life, into that which is yet living; as human nature transfers +in the human form its preservation of the father to the son, because +it cannot in this father preserve perpetually its effect: I say effect +in as far as soul and body are united, and not effect in as far as +that soul, which is divided from the body, lasts for ever, in a nature +more than human. And thus is the question solved. + +But since the immortality of the Soul is here touched upon, I will +make a digression upon that; because to discourse of that will make a +fit conclusion to the mention I have made of that living and blessed +Beatrice, of whom I do not intend to speak further in this book. + +For proposition I say that, amongst all the bestialities, that is the +most foolish, the most vile, and most damnable which believes no other +life to be after this life; wherefore, if we turn over all books, +whether of philosophers or of the other wise writers, all agree in +this, that in us there is some everlasting principle. And this +especially Aristotle seems to desire in that book on the Soul; this +especially each stoic seems to desire; this Tullius seems to desire, +especially in that book on Old Age. This each of the Poets who have +spoken according to the faith of the Gentiles seems to desire; this +the law seems to desire, among Jews, Saracens, and Tartars, and all +other people who live according to some civil law. And if all these +could be deceived, there would result an impossibility which even to +describe would be horrible. Each man is certain that human nature is +the most perfect of all natures here below. This no one denies: and +Aristotle affirms it when he says, in the twelfth book On Animals, +that man is the most perfect of all the animals. Therefore, since many +who live are entirely mortal, as are the brute animals, and all may +be, whilst they live, without that hope of the other life; if our hope +should be in vain, our want would be greater than that of any other +animal. There have been many who have given this life for that: and +thus it would follow that the most perfect animal, man, would be the +most imperfect, which is impossible; and that that part, namely, +reason, which is his chief perfection, would be in him the cause of +the chief defect: which seems strange to say of the whole. And again +it would follow that Nature, in contradiction to herself, could have +put this hope in the human mind; since it is said that many have +hastened to death of the body that they might live in the other life; +and this also is impossible. Again, we have continual experience of +our immortality in the divination of our dreams, which could not be if +there were no immortal part in us, since immortal must be the +revelation. This part may be either corporeal or incorporeal if one +think well and closely. I say corporeal or incorporeal, because of the +different opinions which I find concerning this. That which is moved, +or rather informed, by an immediate informer, ought to have proportion +to the informer; and between the mortal and the immortal there is no +proportion. Again, we are assured of it by the most truthful doctrine +of Christ, which is the Way, the Truth, and the Light: the Way, +because by it without impediment we go to the happiness of that +immortality; the Truth, because it endures no error; the Light, +because it enlightens us in the darkness of worldly ignorance. This +doctrine, I say, which above all other reasons makes us certain of it; +for it has been given to us by Him who sees and measures our +immortality, which we cannot perfectly see whilst our immortal is +mingled with the mortal. But we see it by faith perfectly; and by +reason we see it with the cloud of obscurity which grows from the +mixture of the mortal with the immortal. This ought to be the most +powerful argument that both are in us: and I thus believe, thus +affirm; and I am equally certain, after this life, to pass to that +other and better life--there where that glorious Lady lives, with whom +my soul was enamoured when it was struggling, as will be set forth in +the next chapter. + + + + +CHAPTER X. + + +Returning to the proposition, I say that in that verse which begins "A +foe so strong I find him that he destroys," I intend to make manifest +that which was discoursing in my Soul, the ancient thought against the +new; and first briefly I show the cause of its lamentation, when I +say: "This opposite now breaks the humble dream Of the crowned angel +in the glory-beam." This one is that especial thought of which it is +said above that it was wont to be the life of the sorrowing heart. +Then when I say, "Still, therefore, my Soul weeps," it is evident that +my Soul is still on its side, and speaks with sadness; and I say that +it speaks words of lamentation, as if it might wonder at the sudden +transformation, saying: "'The tender star,' It says, 'that once was my +consoler, flies.'" It can well say consoler, for in the great loss +which I sustained in the death of Beatrice this thought, which +ascended into Heaven, had given to my Soul much consolation. + +Then afterwards I say, that all my thought, my Soul, of which I say, +"That troubled one," turns in excuse of itself, and speaks against the +eyes; and this is made evident there: "That troubled one asked, 'When +into thine eyes Looked she?'" And I say that she speaks of them and +against them three things: the first is, she blasphemes the hour when +this woman saw them. And here you must know, that although many things +in one hour can come into the eyes, truly that which comes by a +straight line into the point of the pupil, that truly one sees, and +that only is sealed in the imaginative part. And this is, because the +nerve by which the visible spirit runs is directed to that part, and +thereupon truly one eye cannot look on the eye of another so that it +is not seen by it; for as that which looks receives the form of the +pupil by a right line, so by that same line its form passes into that +eye which gazes. And many times in the direction of that line a shaft +flies from the bow of Love, with whom each weapon is light. Therefore, +when I ask, "When first into mine eyes looked she?" it is as much as +to ask, "When did her eyes and mine look into each other?" + +The second point is in that which reproves their disobedience, when it +says, "Of her, why doubted they my words?" Then it proceeds to the +third thing and says that it is not right to reprove them for +precaution, but for their disobedience; for it says that, sometimes, +when speaking of this woman, it might be said, "Her eyes bear death to +such as I," if she could have opened the way of approach. And indeed +one ought to believe that my Soul knew of its own inclination ready to +receive the operation of this power, and therefore dreaded it; for the +act of the agent takes full effect in the patient who has the +inclination to receive it, as the Philosopher says in the second book +on the Soul. And, therefore, if wax could have the spirit of fear, it +would fear most to come into the rays of the Sun, which would not turn +it into stone, since its disposition is to yield to that strong +operation. + +Lastly, the Soul reveals in its speech that their presumption had been +dangerous when it says, "Yet vainly warned, I gazed on her and die." +And thus it closes its speech, to which the new thought replies, as +will be declared in the following chapter. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + + +The meaning of that part in which the Soul speaks, that is, the old +thought which is undone, has been shown. Now, in due order, the +meaning must be shown of the part in which the new antagonistic +thought speaks; and this part is contained entirely in the verse or +stanza which begins, "Thou art not dead," which part, in order to +understand it well, I will divide into two; that in the first part, +which begins "Thou art not dead," it then says, continuing its last +words, "It is not true that thou art dead; but the cause wherefore +thou to thyself seemest to be dead is a deadly dismay into which thou +art vilely fallen because of this woman who has appeared to thee." And +here it is to be observed that, as Boethius says in his Consolation, +each sudden change of things does not happen without some flurry of +mind. And this is expressed in the reproof of that thought which is +called "the spirit voice of tenderness," when it gave me to understand +that my consent was inclining towards it; and thus, one can easily +comprehend this, and recognize its victory, when it already says, +"Dear Soul of ours," therein making itself familiar. Then, as is +stated, it commands where it ought to rebuke that Soul, in order to +induce it to come to her; and therefore it says to her: "See, she is +lowly, Pitiful, courteous, though so wise and holy." + +These are two things which are a fit remedy for the fear with which +the Soul appeared impassioned; for, firmly united, they cause the +individual to hope well, and especially Pity, which causes all other +goodness to shine forth by its light. Wherefore Virgil, speaking of +Æneas, in his greater praise calls him compassionate, pitiful; and +that is not pity such as the common people understand it, which is to +lament over the misfortunes of others; nay, this is an especial effect +which is called Mercy, Pity, Compassion; and it is a passion. But +compassion is not a passion; rather a noble disposition of mind, +prepared to receive Love, Mercy, and other charitable passions. Then +it says: "See also how courteous, though so wise and holy." + +Here it says three things which, according as they can be acquired by +us, make the person especially pleasing. It says Wise. Now, what is +more beautiful in a woman than knowledge? It says Courteous. Nothing +in a woman can be more excellent than courtesy. And neither are the +wretched common people deceived even in this word, for they believe +that courtesy is no other than liberality; for liberality is an +especial, and not a general courtesy. Courtesy is all one with +honesty, modesty, decency; and because the virtues and good manners +were the custom in Courts anciently, as now the opposite is the +custom, this word was taken from the Courts; which word, if it should +now be taken from the Courts, especially of Italy, would and could +express no other than baseness. It says Holy. The greatness which is +here meant is especially well accompanied with the two afore-mentioned +virtues; because it is that light which reveals the good and the evil +of the person clearly. And how much knowledge and how much virtuous +custom does there not seem to be wanting by this light! How much +madness and how much vice are seen to be by this light! Better would +it be for the wretched madmen high in station, stupid and vicious, to +be of low estate, that neither in the world nor after this life they +should be so infamous. Truly for such Solomon says in Ecclesiastes: +"There is a sore evil that I have seen under the Sun; namely, riches +kept for the owners thereof to their hurt." + +Then subsequently it lays a command on it, that is, on my Soul, that +it should now call this one its Lady: "Think thou to call her Mistress +evermore," promising my Soul that it will be quite content with her +when it shall have clear perception of all her wonderful +accomplishments; and then this one says: "Save thou delude thyself, +then shall there shine High miracles before thee;" neither does it +speak otherwise even to the end of that stanza. And here ends the +Literal meaning of all that which I say in this Song, speaking to +these Celestial Intelligences. + + + + +CHAPTER XII. + + +Finally, according to that which the letter of this Commentary said +above, when I divided the principal parts of this Song, I turn back +with the face of my discourse to the same Song, and I speak to that. +And in order that this part may be understood more fully, I say that +generally in each Song there is what is called a Tornata, because the +Reciters, who originally were accustomed to compose it, so contrived +that when the song was sung, with a certain part of the song they +could return to it. But I have rarely done it with that intention; +and, in order that others may perceive, this I have seldom placed it +with the sequence of the Song, so long as it is in the rhythm which is +necessary to the measure. But I have used it when it was requisite to +express something independent of the meaning of the Song, and which +was needful for its embellishment, as it will be possible to perceive +in this and in the other Songs. + +And, therefore, I say at present, that the goodness and the beauty of +each discourse are parted and divided; for the goodness is in the +meaning, and the beauty in the ornament of the words. And the one and +the other are with delight, although the goodness is especially +delightful. Wherefore, since the goodness of this Song might be +difficult to perceive, because of the various persons who are led to +speak in it, where so many distinctions are required; and the beauty +would be easy to see, it seemed to me, of the nature of the Song that +by some men more attention might be paid to the beauty of the words +than to the goodness of matter. And this is what I say in that part. + +But, because it often happens that to admonish seems presumptuous in +certain conditions, it is usual for the Rhetorician to speak +indirectly to others, directing his words, not to him for whom he +speaks, but towards another. And truly this method is maintained here; +for to the Song the words go, and to the men the meaning of them. I +say then: "My Song, I do believe there will be few Who toil to +understand thy reasoning." And I state the cause, which is double. +First, because thou speakest with fatigue--with fatigue, I say, for +the reason which is stated; and then because thou speakest with +difficulty--with difficulty, I say, as to the novelty of the meaning. +Now afterwards I admonish it, and say: + + But if thou pass perchance by those who bring + No skill to give thee the attention due, + Then pray I, dear last-born, let them rejoice + At least to find a music in my voice. + +For in this I desire to say no other according to what is said above, +except "Oh, men, you who cannot see the meaning of this Song, do not +therefore refuse it; but pay attention to its beauty, which is great, +both for construction, which belongs to the Grammarians; and for the +order of the discourse, which belongs to the Rhetoricians; as well as +for the rhythm of its parts, which belongs to the Musicians." For +which things he who looks well can see that there may be beauty in it. +And this is the entire Literal meaning of the first Song which is +prepared for the first dish in my Banquet. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + + +Since the Literal meaning has been sufficiently explained, we must now +proceed to the Allegorical and true exposition. And, therefore, +beginning again from the first head, I say that when I had lost the +chief delight of my Soul in former time, I was left so stung with +sadness that no consolation whatever availed me. Nevertheless, after +some time, my mind, reasoning with itself to heal itself, took heed, +since neither my own nor that of another availed to comfort it, to +turn to the method which a certain disconsolate one had adopted when +he looked for Consolation. And I set myself to read that book of +Boethius, not known to many, in which, when a captive exile, he had +consoled himself. And, again, hearing that Tullius had written another +book, in which, treating of Friendship, he had spoken words for the +consolation of Lælius, a most excellent man, on the death of his +friend Scipio, I set myself to read it. And although at first it was +difficult to me to enter into their meaning, yet, finally, I entered +into it so much as the knowledge of grammar that I possessed, together +with some slight power of intellect, enabled me to do: by which power +of intellect I formerly beheld many things almost like a person in a +dream, as may be seen in the Vita Nuova. And as it is wont to be that +a man goes seeking for silver, and beyond his purpose he finds gold, +whose hidden cause appears not perhaps without the Divine Will; I, who +sought to console myself, found not only a remedy for my tears, but +words of authors and of sciences and of books; reflecting on which I +judged well that Philosophy, who was the Lady of these authors, of +these sciences, and of these books, might be a supreme thing. And I +imagined her in the form of a gentle Lady; and I could imagine her in +no other attitude than a compassionate one, because if willingly the +sense of Truth beheld her, hardly could it turn away from her. And +with this imagination I began to go where she is demonstrated +truthfully, that is, to the Schools of the Religious, and to the +disputations of the Philosophers; so that in a short time, perhaps of +thirty months, I began to feel her sweetness so much that my love for +her chased away and destroyed all other thought. Wherefore I, feeling +myself to rise from the thought of the first Love to the virtue of +this new one, as if wondering at myself, opened my mouth in the speech +of the proposed Song, showing my condition under the figure of other +things: for of the Lady with whom I was enamoured, no rhyme of any +Vernacular was worthy to speak openly, neither were the hearers so +well prepared that they could have easily understood the words without +figure: neither would faith have been given by them to the true +meaning, as to the figurative; since if the truth of the whole was +believed, that I was inclined to that love, it would not be believed +of this. I then begin to speak: "Ye who, intent of thought, the third +Heaven move." + +And because, as has been said, this Lady was the daughter of God, the +Queen of all, the most noble and most beautiful Philosophy, it remains +to be seen who these Movers were, and what this third Heaven. And +firstly of the third Heaven, according to the order which has been +gone through. And here it is not needful to proceed to division, and +to explanation of the letter, for, having turned the fictitious speech +away from that which it utters to that which it means, by the +exposition just gone through, this meaning is sufficiently made +evident. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. + + +In order to see what is meant by the "third Heaven," one has in the +first place to perceive what I desire to express by this word Heaven +alone: and then one will see how and why this third Heaven was needful +to us. I say that by Heaven I mean Science, and by the Heavens "the +Sciences," from three resemblances which the Heavens have with the +Sciences, especially by the order and number in which they must +appear; as will be seen by discussing that word Third. The first +similitude is the revolution of the one and the other round one fixed +centre. For each movable Heaven revolves round its centre, which, on +account of its movement, moves not; and thus each Science moves round +its subject, which itself moves not; for no Science demonstrates its +own foundation, but presupposes that. The second similitude is the +illumination of the one and the other. For each Heaven illuminates +visible things; and thus each Science illuminates the things +intelligible. And the third similitude is the inducing of perfection +in the things so inclined. Of which induction, as to the first +perfection, that is, of the substantial generation, all the +philosophers agree that the Heavens are the cause, although they +attribute this in different ways: some from the Movers, as Plato, +Avicenna, and Algazel; some from the stars themselves, especially the +human souls, as Socrates, and also Plato and Dionysius the +Academician; and some from celestial virtue which is in the natural +heat of the seed, as Aristotle and the other Peripatetics. Thus the +Sciences are the cause in us of the induction of the second +perfection; by the use of which we can speculate concerning the Truth, +which is our ultimate perfection, as the Philosopher says in the sixth +book of the Ethics, when he says that Truth is the good of the +intellect. Because of these and many other resemblances, it is +possible to call Science, Heaven. + +Now it remains to see why it is called the third Heaven. Here it is +requisite to reflect somewhat with regard to a comparison which exists +between the order of the Heavens and that of the Sciences Wherefore, +as has been previously described, the Seven Heavens next to us are +those of the Planets; then there are two Heavens above these, the +Mobile, and one above all, Quiet. To the Seven first correspond the +Seven Sciences of the _Trivium_ and of the _Quadrivium_, +namely, Grammar, Logic, Rhetoric, Arithmetic, Music, Geometry, and +Astrology. To the eighth Sphere, i.e., to the starry, correspond +Natural Science, which is termed Physics, and the first Science, which +is termed Metaphysics. To the ninth Sphere corresponds Moral Science; +and to the Quiet Heaven corresponds Divine Science, which is +designated Theology. + +And the reason why this is, remains briefly to be seen. I say that the +Heaven of the Moon is likened unto Grammar because it is possible to +find a comparison to it. For if you look at the Moon well, two things +are seen to be proper to it which are not seen in the other stars: the +one is the shadow which is in it, which is no other than the rarity of +its body, in which the rays of the Sun can find no end wherefrom to +strike back again as in the other parts; the other is the variation of +its brightness, which now shines on one side, and now on the other, +according as the Sun sees it. And these two properties Grammar has: +for, because of its infinity, the rays of reason can find no end in it +in parts, especially of the words; and it shines now on this side, now +on that, inasmuch as certain words, certain declensions, certain +constructions, are in use which were not formerly, and many formerly +were which again will be; as Horace says in the beginning of his book +on the art of Poetry, when he says: "Many words will spring up again +which have now fallen out of use." + +And the Heaven of Mercury may be compared to Logic because of two +properties: that Mercury is the smallest star in Heaven, that the +amount of its diameter is no more than two hundred and thirty-two +miles, according as Alfergano puts it, who says that it is one +twenty-eighth part of the diameter of the Earth, which is six thousand +five hundred miles; the other property is, that it is more concealed +by the rays of the Sun than any other star. And these two properties +are in Logic: for Logic is less in substance than any other Science, +for it is perfectly compiled and terminated in so much text as is +found in the old Art and the new; and it is more concealed than any +other Science, inasmuch as it proceeds with more sophistical and +probable arguments than any other. + +And the Heaven of Venus may be compared to Rhetoric because of two +properties: the one is the brightness of its aspect, which is most +sweet to behold, far more than any other star; the other is its +appearance, now in the morning, now in the evening. And these two +properties are in Rhetoric: for Rhetoric is the sweetest of all +Sciences, since it principally aims at sweetness. It appears in the +morning, when the Rhetorician speaks before the face of the hearer; it +appears in the evening, that is, afterwards, when it speaks by Letters +in distant parts. + +And the Heaven of the Sun may be compared to Arithmetic because of two +properties: the one is, that with his light all the other stars are +informed; the other is that the eye cannot gaze at it. And these two +properties are in Arithmetic, which with its light illuminates all its +Sciences: for their subjects are all considered under some Number, and +with Number one always proceeds in the consideration of these; as in +Natural Science the movable body is the subject, which movable body +has in itself three reasons of continuity, and this has in itself +reason of infinite number. And of Natural Science its first and +chiefest consideration is to consider the principles of natural +objects, which are three, that is, matter, privation, and form; in +which this Number is seen, and not only in all together, but again in +each one, as he who considers subtly may perceive. Wherefore, +Pythagoras, according to what Aristotle says in the first book of the +Physics, established as the principles of natural things, the equal +and the unequal; considering all things to be Number. The other +property of the Sun is again seen in Number, of which Number is the +Science of Arithmetic, that the eye of the intellect cannot gaze at +it. For Number, inasmuch as it is considered in itself, is infinite; +and this we cannot, understand. + +And the Heaven of Mars may be compared to Music because of two +properties. One is its most beautiful relative position; for, when +enumerating the movable Heavens, from which one soever you may begin, +either from the lowest or from the highest, this Heaven of Mars is the +fifth; it is the central one of all, that is, of the first, of the +second, of the third, and of the fourth. The other is, that this Mars +dries up and burns things, because his heat is like to that of fire; +and this is why it appears flaming in colour, sometimes more and +sometimes less, according to the density and rarity of the vapours +which follow it, which of themselves are often kindled, as is +determined in the first book on Meteors. And, therefore, Albumassar +says that the kindling of these vapours signifies the death of Kings +and the change of Kingdoms; for they are the effects of the dominion +of Mars. And, therefore, Seneca says that, on the death of Augustus, +he beheld on high a ball of fire. And in Florence, at the beginning of +its destruction, there was seen in the air, in the form of a cross, a +great quantity of these vapours following the planet Mars. And these +two properties are in Music, which is all relative, as is seen in +harmonized words and in songs, from which the sweeter harmony results +in proportion as the relation is more beautiful, which in this Science +is especially beautiful, because there is in it a special harmony. +Again, Music attracts to itself human spirits, which are as it were +chiefly vapours from the heart, so that they almost cease from all +labour; so is the whole soul when it hears it, and the power of all +those spirits flies as it were to the spirit of sense, which receives +the sound. + +And the Heaven of Jupiter can be compared to Geometry because of two +properties. The one is, that it moves between two Heavens, repugnant +to its good tempering, namely, that of Mars and that of Saturn. Hence +Ptolemy says, in the book alluded to, that Jupiter is a star of a +temperate complexion, midway between the cold of Saturn and the heat +of Mars. The other is, that amongst all the stars it appears white, as +if silvered. And these things are in the Science of Geometry. Geometry +moves between two things antagonistic to it; as between the point and +the circle, and I term circle freely anything that is round, either a +body or superfices; for, as Euclid says, the point is the beginning of +Geometry, and, according to what he says, the circle is the most +perfect figure in it, which must therefore have reason for its end; so +that between the point and the circle, as between the beginning and +the end, Geometry moves. And these two are antagonistic to its +certainty; for the point by its indivisibility is immeasurable, and +the circle, on account of its arc, it is impossible to square +perfectly, and therefore it is impossible to measure precisely. And +again, Geometry is most white, inasmuch as it is without spot of +error, and it is most certain in itself, and by its handmaid, called +Perspective. + +And the Heaven of Saturn has two properties because of which it can be +compared to Astrology. One is the slowness of its movement through the +twelve signs; for twenty-nine years and more, according to the +writings of the Astrologers, is the time that it requires in its +orbit. The other is, that above all the other planets it is highest. +And these two properties are in Astrology, for in completing its +circle, as in the acquirement of this Science, the greatest space of +time is revolved, because its demonstrations are more than any other +of the aforementioned Sciences, and long experience is requisite to +those who would acquire good judgment in it. And again, it is the +highest of all the others, because, as Aristotle says in the +commencement of his book on the Soul, the Science is high, because of +its nobility, and because of the nobleness of its subject and its +certainty. And this Science more than any other of those mentioned +above is noble and high, for noble and high is its subject, which is +the movement of the Heavens; and high and noble, because of its +certainty, which is without any defect, even as that which springs +from the most perfect and most regular principle. And if any one +believe that there is defect in it, it is not on the part of the +Science, but, as Ptolemy says, it is through our negligence, and to +that it must be imputed. + + + + +CHAPTER XV. + + +After the comparisons which I have made of the seven first Heavens, we +must now proceed to the others, which are three, as has been often +stated. + +I say that the Starry Heaven may be compared to Physics because of +three properties, and to Metaphysics because of three others. For it +shows us of itself two visible things, such as the multitude of stars +and such as the Galaxy, that white circle which the common people call +the Path of St. James. It shows to us also one of the poles, and keeps +the other hidden from us. And it shows to us one movement alone from +East to West; and another, which it makes from West to East, it keeps +almost, as it were, hidden from us. Therefore, in due order are to be +seen, first the comparison with the Physical and then that with the +Metaphysical. + +I say that the Starry Heaven shows us many stars; for, according to +what the wise men of Egypt have seen, even to the last star which +appeared to them in the Meridian, they place there twenty-two thousand +bodies of stars, of which I speak. And in this it has the greatest +similitude with Physics, if these three numbers, namely, Two, and +Twenty, and Thousand, are regarded well and subtly. For by the two is +meant the local movement, which is of necessity from one point to +another; and by the twenty is signified the movement of the +alteration, for, since from the ten upwards one advances not except by +altering this ten with the other nine and with itself; and the most +beautiful alteration which it receives is its own with itself, and the +first which it receives is the twenty; reasonably by this number the +said movement is signified. And by the thousand is signified the +movement of increase, which in name, that is, this thousand, is the +greater number, and to increase still more is not possible except by +multiplying this. And these three movements alone are observed in +Physics, as it is demonstrated in the fifth chapter of his first book. + +And because of the Milky Way, this Heaven has a great similitude with +Metaphysics. Wherefore, it is to be known that concerning this Galaxy +the Philosophers have had different opinions. For the followers of +Pythagoras said that the Sun at some time or other went astray from +his path, and, passing through other parts not suitable to his fervent +heat, he burnt the place through which he passed, and there remained +that appearance of the conflagration. And I believe that they were +moved by the fable of Phaeton, which Ovid relates in the beginning of +the second part of his Metamorphoses. Others said, such as Anaxagoras +and Democritus, that it was the light of the Sun reflected into that +part. And these opinions, with demonstrative reasons, they proved over +and over again. What Aristotle may have said of this is not so easy to +learn, because his opinion is not found to be the same in one +translation as in the other; and I believe that it might be due to the +error of the translators, for in the new one he seems to say that the +Galaxy is a collection of vapours under the stars of that part which +always attract them; and this does not seem to be the true reason. In +the old translation he says that the Galaxy is no other than a +multitude of fixed stars in that part, so small that we cannot +distinguish them from here below, but that they cause the whiteness +which we call the Milky Way. And it may be that the Heaven in that +part is more dense, and therefore retains and represents that light; +and this opinion Avicenna and Ptolemy seem to share with Aristotle. +Therefore, since the Galaxy is an effect of those stars which we +cannot see, if we understand those things by their effect alone, and +Metaphysics treats of the first substances, which we cannot similarly +understand except by their effects, it is evident that the Starry +Heaven has a great similitude to Metaphysics. + +Again, by the pole which we see is signified the things known to our +senses, concerning which, taking them universally, the Science of +Physics treats; and by the pole which we do not see is signified the +things which are without matter, which are not sensible, concerning +which Metaphysics treats; and therefore the said Heaven has a great +similitude with the one Science and with the other. + +Again, by the two movements it signifies these two Sciences: for by +the movement in which every day revolves, and makes a new revolution +from point to point, it signifies things natural and corruptible which +daily complete their path, and their material is changed from form to +form; and of this the Science of Physics treats. And by the almost +insensible movement which it makes from West to East by one degree in +a hundred years, it signifies things incorruptible, which received +from God the beginning of their creation, and will have no end; but of +these Metaphysics treats. Therefore I say that this movement signifies +those things, for it began this revolution which will have no end; the +end of the revolution being to return to one self-same point, to which +this Heaven will not return by this movement, which has revolved a +little more than the sixth part from the commencement of the world; +and we are now in the last age of the world, and verily we wait the +consummation of the celestial movement. Thus it is evident that the +Starry Heaven, on account of many properties, may be compared to the +Science of Physics and Metaphysics. + +The Crystalline Heaven, which, as the Primum Mobile, has been +previously counted, has a sufficiently evident comparison to Moral +Philosophy; for Moral Philosophy, according to what Tommaso says upon +the second book of the Ethics, teaches us method in the other +Sciences. + +For as the Philosopher says in the fifth book of the Ethics, legal +Justice requires the Sciences to be learnt, and commands, in order +that they may not be abandoned, that they be learnt and taught: thus, +the said Heaven rules with its movement the daily revolution of all +the others; from which revolution every day all those receive and send +below the virtues of their several parts. For, if the revolution of +this Heaven could not rule over that, but little of their power would +descend below, and little of their aspect. Wherefore we hold that, if +it could be possible for this ninth Heaven not to move, the third part +of the Heaven would not again be seen in any part from the Earth: +Saturn would be for fourteen years and a half concealed from any place +on the Earth, Jupiter would be hidden for six years, and Mars for +almost a whole year, and the Sun for one hundred and eighty-two days +and fourteen hours (I say days, meaning so much time as so many days +measure); and Venus and Mercury, almost like the Sun, would be hidden +and would reappear, and the Moon for the space of fourteen days and a +half would be hidden from all people. Verily, here below there would +be neither generation, nor the life of animals, nor of plants; there +would be no night, nor day, nor week, nor month, nor year; but the +whole Universe would be disordered, and the movement of the stars +would be in vain. Not otherwise, should Moral Philosophy cease to be, +would the other Sciences be hidden for some time, and there would be +no generation nor life of happiness, and all books would be in vain, +and all discoveries of old. Therefore it is sufficiently evident that +there is a comparison between this Heaven and Moral Philosophy. + +Again, the Empyrean Heaven, because of its Peace, bears a similitude +to the Divine Science, which is full of all Peace; which endures no +conflict of opinion or of sophistical arguments, on account of the +most excellent certainty of its subject, which is God. And of this He +Himself speaks to His disciples: "My peace I give to you: My peace I +leave unto you," giving and leaving to them His doctrine, which is +this Science whereof I speak. + +Solomon says of this Science: "Sixty are the queens, and eighty the +friendly concubines; and youthful virgins without number; but one is +my dove and my perfect one." All the Sciences he terms queens, and +friends, and virgins; and he calls this one dove, because it is +without blemish of strife; and he calls this one perfect, because it +causes us to see perfectly the Truth in which our Soul finds Peace. + +And therefore the comparison of the Heavens to the Sciences having +been thus reasoned out, it is easy to see that by the Third Heaven I +mean Rhetoric, which has been likened unto the Third Heaven, as +appears above. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI. + + +By the similitudes spoken of it is possible to see who these Movers +are to whom I speak; what are the Movers of that Heaven; even as +Boethius and Tullius, who by the sweetness of their speech sent me, as +has before been stated, to the Love, which is the study of that most +gentle Lady, Philosophy, by the rays of their star, which is the +written word of that fair one. Therefore in each Science the written +word is a star full of light, which that Science reveals And, this +being made manifest, it is easy to see the true meaning of the first +verse of the purposed Poem by means of the exposition, Figurative and +Literal. And by means of this self-same exposition one can +sufficiently understand the second verse, even to that part where it +says, This Spirit made me look on a fair Lady: where it should be +known that this Lady is Philosophy; which truly is a Lady full of +sweetness, adorned with modesty, wonderful for wisdom, the glory of +freedom, as in the Third Treatise, where her Nobility will be +described, it is made manifest. And then where it says: "Who seeks +where his Salvation lies, Must gaze intently in this Lady's eyes;" the +eyes of this Lady are her demonstrations, which look straight into the +eyes of the intellect, enamour the Soul, and set it free from the +trammels of circumstance. Oh, most sweet and ineffable forms, swift +stealers of the human mind, which appear in these demonstrations, that +is, in the eyes of Philosophy, when she discourses to her faithful +friends! Verily in you is Salvation, whereby he is made blessed who +looks at you, and is saved from the death of Ignorance and Vice. Where +it says, "Nor dread the sighs of anguish, joys debarred," the wish is +to signify, if he fear not the labour of study and the strife of +conflicting opinions, which flow forth ever multiplying from the +living Spring in the eyes of this Lady, and then her light still +continuing, they fall away, almost like little morning clouds before +the Sun. And now the intellect, become her friend, remains free and +full of certain Truth, even as the atmosphere is rendered pure and +bright by the shining of the midday Sun. + +The third passage again is explained by the Literal exposition as far +as to where it says, "Still therefore the Soul weeps." Here it is +desirable to attend to a certain moral sense which may be observed in +these words: that a man ought not for the sake of the greater friend +to forget the service received from the lesser; but if one must follow +the one and leave the other, the greater is to be followed, with +honest lamentation for desertion of the other, whereby he gives +occasion to the one whom he follows to bestow more love on him. Then +there where it says, "Of my eyes," has no other meaning except that +bitter was the hour when the first demonstration of this Lady entered +into the eyes of my intellect, which was the cause of this most close +attachment. And there where it says, "My peers," it means the Souls +set free from miserable and vile pleasures, and from vulgar habits, +endowed with understanding and memory. And then it says, "Her eyes +bear death," and then it says, "I gazed on her and die," which appears +contrary to that which is said above of Salvation by this Lady. And +therefore it is to be known that one Spirit speaks here on one side +and the other speaks there on the other; which two dispute +contrariwise, according to that which is made evident above. Wherefore +it is no wonder if here the one Spirit says Yes, and there the other +Spirit says No. Then in the stanza where it says, "A sweet voice of +tenderness," a thought is meant which was born of my deep +contemplation; wherefore it is to be known that by Love, in this +Allegory, is always meant that deep contemplation which is the earnest +application of the enamoured mind to that object wherewith it is +enamoured. Then when it says, "There shall shine High miracles before +thee," it announces that through her the adornments of the miracles +will be seen; and it speaks truly, that the adornment of the miracles +is to see the cause of the same, which she demonstrates; as in the +beginning of the book on Metaphysics the Philosopher seems to feel, +saying that, through the contemplation of these adornments, men began +to be enamoured with this Lady. And concerning this word, i.e., +miracle, in the following treatise I shall speak more fully. What then +follows of this Song is sufficiently explained by the other +exposition. + +And thus at the end of this Second Treatise, I say and affirm that the +Lady with whom I became enamoured after the first Love was the most +beautiful and most excellent daughter of the Ruler of the Universe, to +which daughter Pythagoras gave the name of Philosophy. And here ends +the Second Treatise, which is brought in for the first dish at my +Banquet. + + * * * * * + + + + +The Third Treatise. + + + Love, reasoning of my Lady in my mind + With constant pleasure, oft of her will say + Things over which the intellect may stray; + His words make music of so sweet a kind + That the Soul hears and feels, and cries, Ah, me, + That I want power to tell what thus I see! + + If I would tell of her what thus I hear, + First, all that Reason cannot make its own + I needs must leave; and of what may be known + Leave part, for want of words to make it clear. + If my Song fail, blame wit and words, whose force + Fails to tell all I hear in Love's discourse. + + The Sun sees not in travel round the earth, + Till it reach her abode, so fair a thing + As she of whom Love causes me to sing. + All minds of Heaven wonder at her worth; + Mortals, enamoured, find her in their thought + When Love his peace into their minds has brought. + + Her Maker saw that she was good, and poured, + Beyond our Nature, fulness of His Power + On her pure soul, whence shone this holy dower + Through all her frame, with beauty so adored + That from the eyes she touches heralds fly + Heartward with longings, heavenward with a sigh. + + On her fair frame Virtue Divine descends + As on the angel that beholds His face. + Fair one who doubt, go with her, mark the grace + In all her acts. Downward from Heaven bends + An angel when the speaks, who can attest + A power in her by none of us possessed. + + The graceful acts that she shows forth to all + Rival in calls to love that love must hear; + Fair in all like her, fairest she'll appear + Who is most like her. We, content to call + Her face a Miracle, have Faith made sure: + For that, He made her ever to endure. + + Her aspect shows delights of Paradise, + Seen in her eyes and in her smiling face; + Love brought them there as to his dwelling-place. + They dazzle reason, as the Sun the eyes; + And since I cannot fix on them my gaze + Words must suffice that little speak their praise. + + Rain from her beauty little flames of fire, + Made living with a spirit to create + Good thoughts, and crush the vices that innate + Make others vile. Fair one, who may desire + Escape from blame as one not calm or meek, + From her, who is God's thought, thy teaching seek. + + My Song, it seems you speak this to oppose + The saying of a sister Song of mine: + This lowly Lady whom you call divine, + Your sister called disdainful and morose. + Though Heaven, you know, is ever bright and pure, + Eyes may have cause to find a star obscure. + + So when your sister called this Lady proud + She judged not truly, by what seemed; but fear + Possessed her soul; and still, when I come near + Her glance, there's dread. Be such excuse allowed, + My Song, and when thou canst, approach her, say; + My Lady, take all homage I can pay. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + + +In the preceding treatise is described how my second Love took its +rise from the compassionate countenance of a Lady; which Love, finding +my Soul inclined to its ardour, after the manner of fire, was kindled +from a slight spark into a great flame; so that not only during my +waking hours, but during sleep, its light threw many a vision into my +mind. And how great the desire which Love excited to behold this Lady, +it would be impossible either to tell or to make understood. And not +only of her was I thus desirous, but of all those persons who had any +nearness to her, either as acquaintances or as relations. Oh! how many +were the nights, when the eyes of other persons were closed in sleep, +that mine, wide open, gazed fixedly upon the tabernacle of my Love. + +And as the rapidly increasing fire must of necessity be seen, it being +impossible for fire to remain hidden, the desire seized me to speak of +the Love that I could no longer restrain within me. And although I +could receive but little help from my own counsel, yet, inasmuch as, +either from the will of Love or from my own promptness, I drew nigh to +it many times, I deliberated, and I saw that, in speaking of Love, +there could be no more beautiful nor more profitable speech than that +which commends the beloved person. And in this deliberation three +reasons assisted me. One of them was self-love, which is the source of +all the rest, as every one sees. For there is no more lawful nor more +courteous way of doing honour to one's self than by doing honour to +one's friend; and, since friendship cannot exist between the unlike, +wherever one sees friendship, likeness is understood; and wherever +likeness is understood, thither runs public praise or blame. And from +this reason two great lessons may be learnt: the one is, never to wish +that any vicious man should seem your friend, for in that case a bad +opinion is formed of him who has made the evil man his friend; the +other is, that no one ought to blame his friend publicly, because, if +you consider well the aforesaid reason, he but points to himself with +his finger in his eye. + +The second reason was the desire for the duration of this friendship; +wherefore it is to be known, as the Philosopher says in the ninth book +of the Ethics, in the friendship of persons of unequal position it is +requisite, for the preservation of that friendship, for a certain +proportion to exist between them, which may reduce the dissimilarity +to a similarity, as between the master and the servant. For, although +the servant cannot render the same benefit to the master that is +conferred on him, yet he ought to render the best that he can, with so +much solicitude and freewill that that which is dissimilar in itself +may become similar through the evidence of good-will, which proves the +friendship, confirms and preserves it. Wherefore I, considering myself +lower than that Lady, and perceiving myself benefited by her, +endeavoured to praise her according to my ability. And, if it be not +similar of itself, my prompt freewill proves at least that if I could +I would do more, and thus it makes its friendship similar to that of +this gentle Lady. + +The third reason was an argument of prudence; for, as Boethius says, +"It is not sufficient to look only at that which is before the eyes, +that is, at the Present; and, therefore, Prudence, Foresight, is given +to us, which looks beyond to that which may happen." I say that I +thought that for a long time I might be reproached by many with levity +of mind, on hearing that I had turned from my first Love. Wherefore, +to remove this reproach, there was no better argument than to state +who the Lady was who had thus changed me; that, by her manifest +excellence, they might gain some perception of her virtue; and that, +by the comprehension of her most exalted virtue, they might be able to +see that all stability of mind could be in that mutability: and, +therefore, they should not judge me light and unstable. I then began +to praise this Lady, and if not in the most suitable manner, at least +as well as I could at first; and I began to say: "Love, reasoning of +my Lady in my mind." This Song chiefly has three parts. The first is +the whole of the first two stanzas, in which I speak in a preliminary +manner. The second is the whole of the six following stanzas, in which +is described that which is intended, i.e., the praise of that gentle +Lady; the first of which begins: "The Sun sees not in travel round the +earth." The third part is in the last two stanzas, in which, +addressing myself to the Song, I purify it from all doubtful +interpretation. And these three parts remain to be discussed now in +due order. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + + +Turning, then, to the First Part, which was composed as a Proem or +Preface to the Song or Poem, I say that it is fitly divided into three +parts. In the first place, it alludes to the ineffable condition of +this theme; secondly, it describes my insufficiency to speak of it in +a perfect manner; and this second part begins: "If I would tell of her +what thus I hear." Finally, I excuse myself for my insufficiency, for +which they ought not to lay blame to my charge; and I commence this +part when I say: "If my Song fail." + +I begin, then: "Love, reasoning of my Lady in my mind," where in the +first place it is to be seen who this speaker is, and what this place +is in which I say that he is speaking. Love, taking him in his true +sense, and considering him subtly, is no other than the spiritual +union of the Soul with the beloved object; into which union, of its +own nature, the Soul hastens sooner or later, according as it is free +or impeded. And the reason for that natural disposition may be this: +each substantial form proceeds from its First Cause, which is God, as +is written in the book of Causes; and they receive not diversity from +that First Cause, which is the most simple, but from the secondary +causes, and from the material into which it descends. Wherefore, in +the same book it is written, when treating of the infusion of the +Divine Goodness: "The bounties and good gifts make diverse things, +through the concurrence of that which receives them." Wherefore, since +each effect retains somewhat of the nature of its cause, as Alfarabio +says when he affirms that that which has been the first cause of a +round body has in some way an essentially round form, so each form in +some way has the essence of the Divine Nature in itself; not that the +Divine Nature can be divided and communicated to these, but +participated in by these, almost in the same way that the other stars +participate in the nature of the Sun. And the nobler the form, the +more does it retain of that Divine Nature. + +Wherefore the human Soul, which is the noblest form of all those which +are generated under Heaven, receives more from the Divine Nature than +any other. And since it is most natural to wish to be in God, for as +in the book quoted above one reads, the first thing is to exist, and +before that there is nothing, the human Soul desires to exist +naturally with all possible desire. And since its existence depends +upon God, and is preserved by Him, it naturally desires and longs to +be united to God, and so add strength to its own being. And since, in +the goodness of Human Nature, Reason gives us proof of the Divine, it +follows that, naturally, the Human Soul is united therewith by the +path of the spirit so much the sooner, and so much the more firmly, in +proportion as those good qualities appear more perfect; which +appearance of perfection is achieved according as the power of the +Soul to produce a good impression is strong and clear, or is +trammelled and obscure. And this union is that which we call Love, +whereby it is possible to know that which is within the Soul, by +looking at those whom it loves in the world without. This Love, which +is the union of my Soul with that gentle Lady in whom so much of the +Divine Light was revealed to me, is that speaker of whom I speak; +since from him continuous thoughts were born, whilst gazing at and +considering the wondrous power of this Lady who was spiritually made +one with my Soul. + +The place in which I say that he thus speaks is the Mind. But in +saying that it is the Mind, one does not attach more meaning to this +than before; and therefore it is to be seen what this Mind properly +signifies. I say, then, that the Philosopher, in the second book on +the Soul, when speaking of its powers, says that the Soul principally +has three powers, which are, to Live, to Feel, and to Reason: and he +says also to Move, but it is possible to make this one with feeling, +since every Soul moves that feels, either with all the senses or with +one alone; for the power to move is conjoined with feeling. And +according to that which he says, it is most evident that these powers +are so entwined that the one is a foundation of the other; and that +which is the foundation can of itself be divided; but the other, which +is built upon it, cannot be apart from its foundation. Therefore, the +Vegetative power, whereby one lives, is the foundation upon which one +feels, that is, sees, hears, tastes, smells, and touches; and this +vegetative power of itself can be the Soul, vegetative, as we see in +all the plants. The Sensitive cannot exist without that. We find +nothing that feels, and does not live. And this Sensitive power is the +foundation of the Intellectual, that is, of the Reason; so that, in +animate mortals, the Reasoning power is not found without the +Sensitive. But the Sensitive is found without Reason, as in the +beasts, and in the birds, and in the fishes, and in any brute animal, +as we see. And that Soul which contains all these powers is the most +perfect of all. And the Human Soul possessing the nobility of the +highest power, which is Reason, participates in the Divine Nature, +after the manner of an eternal Intelligence: for the Soul is ennobled +and denuded of matter by that Sovereign Power in proportion as the +Divine Light of Truth shines into it, as into an Angel; and Man is +therefore called by the Philosophers the Divine Animal. + +In this most noble part of the Soul are many virtues, as the +Philosopher says, especially in the third chapter of the Soul, where +he says that there is in it a virtue which is called Scientific, and +one which is called Ratiocinative, or rather deliberative; and with +this there are certain virtues, as Aristotle says in that same place, +such as the Inventive and the Judging. And all these most noble +virtues, and the others which are in that excellent power, are +designated by that one word, which we sought to understand, that is, +Mind. Wherefore it is evident that by Mind is meant the highest, +noblest part of a man's Soul. + +And it is seen to be so, for only of man and of the Divine substances +is this Mind predicated, as can plainly be seen in Boethius, who first +predicates it of men, where he says to Philosophy: "Thou, and God who +placed thee in the mind of men;" then he predicates it of God, when he +says: "Thou dost produce everything from the Divine Model, Thou most +beautiful One, bearing the beautiful World in Thy mind." Neither was +it ever predicated of brute animals; nay, of many men who appear +defective in the most perfect part, it does not seem that it ought to +be, or that it could be, predicated; and therefore such as these are +termed in the Latin Tongue _amenti_ and _dementi_, that is, +without mind. Hence one can now perceive that it is Mind which is the +perfect and most precious part of the Soul in which is God. + +And that is the place where I say that Love discourses to me of my +Lady. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + + +Not without cause do I say that this Love was at work in my mind; but +it is said reasonably, in order to explain what this Love is, by the +place in which it works. Wherefore, it is to be known that each thing, +as is said above, for the reason shown above, has its especial Love, +as the simple bodies have Love, innate, each in its proper place. +Therefore the Earth always descends to the centre, the fire to the +circumference above near the Heaven of the Moon, and always ascends +towards that. The bodies first composed, such as are the minerals, +have love for the place where their generation is ordained, and in +which they increase, and from which they have vigour and power. +Wherefore, we see the loadstone always receive power from the place of +its generation. Each of the plants which are first animated, that is, +first animated with a vegetative soul has most evident love for a +particular place, according as its nature may require; and therefore +we see certain plants almost always grow by the side of the streams, +and certain others upon the mountain tops, and certain others grow by +the sea-shore, or at the foot of hills, which, if they are +transplanted, either die entirely or live a sad life, as it were, like +a being separated from his friend. The brute beasts have a most +evident love, not only for places, but we see also their love towards +each other. Men have their own love for things perfect and excellent; +and since Man, although his Soul is one substance alone, because of +his nobility, partakes of the nature of each of these things, he can +possess all these affections, and he does possess them all. By his +part in the nature of the simple body, as earth, naturally it tends +downwards; therefore, when he moves his body upwards, he becomes more +weary. + +Because of the second nature, of the mixed body, it loves the place of +its generation, and even the time; and therefore each one naturally is +of more power in his own place and in his own time than in any other. +Wherefore, one reads in the History of Hercules, and in the greater +Ovid, and in Lucan, and in other Poets, that when fighting with the +Giant who was named Antæus, every time that the Giant was weary, and +laid his body down on the earth at full length, either by the will or +strength of Hercules, new strength and vigour then surged up in him, +drawn wholly from the Earth, in which and from which he was produced; +Hercules, perceiving this, at last seized him, and having compressed +and raised him above the Earth, he held him so tightly, without +allowing him to touch the Earth again, that he conquered Antæus by +excess of strength, and killed him. According to the testimony of the +books, this battle took place in Africa. + +And because of the third nature, that is, of the plants, Man has a +love for a certain food, not inasmuch as it affects the senses, but in +so much as it is nutritious; and that particular food does the work of +that most perfect Nature, while certain other food, dissimilar, acts +but imperfectly. And therefore we see that certain food will make men +handsome, and strong-limbed, and very brightly coloured, and certain +other food will do the opposite of this. + +And by the fourth nature, of the animals, that is, the sensitive, Man +has the other love, by which he loves according to the sensible +appearance, like the beasts; and this love in Man especially has need +of control, because of its excessive operation in the delights given, +especially through sight and touch. + +And because of the fifth and last nature, which is the true Human +Nature, and, to use a better phrase, the Angelic, namely, the +Rational, Man has by it the Love of Truth and Virtue; and from this +Love is born true and perfect friendship from the honest intercourse +of which the Philosopher speaks in the eighth book of the Ethics, when +he treats of Friendship. + +Wherefore, since this nature is termed Mind, as is proved above, I +spoke of Love as discoursing in my Mind in order to explain that this +Love was the Friendship which is born of that most noble nature, that +is, of Truth and Virtue, and to exclude each false opinion, by which +my Love might be suspected to spring from pleasure of the Senses. + +I then say, "With constant pleasure," to make people understand its +continuance and its fervour. And I say that it often whispers "Things +over which the intellect may stray." And I speak truth, because my +thoughts, when reasoning of her, often sought to draw conclusions of +her, which I could not comprehend, and I was alarmed, so that I seemed +almost like one dazed, even as he who, looking with the eye along a +direct line, sees first the nearest things clearly; then, proceeding, +it sees them less clearly; then, further on, doubtfully; then, +proceeding an immense way, the sight is divided from the object, and +sees nothing. And this is one unspeakable thing of that which I have +taken for a theme; and consequently I relate the other when I say: + + His words make music of so sweet a kind + That the Soul hears and feels, and cries, Ah, me, + That I want power to tell what thus I see! + +And because I know not how to tell it, I say that my soul laments, +saying, "Ah, me, that I want power." And this is the other unspeakable +thing, that the tongue is not a complete and perfect follower of all +that the intellect sees. And I say, "That the Soul hears and feels;" +hearing, as to the words, and feeling, as to the sweetness of the +sound. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + + +Now that the two ineffable parts of this matter have been discussed, +we must proceed to discuss words that describe my insufficiency. + +I say, then, that my insufficiency arises from a double cause, even as +in a twofold manner the exalted nature of my Lady surpasses all, in +the way which has been told. For I am compelled, by the poverty of my +intellect, to omit much of the truth concerning her which shone into +my mind like rays of light, but which my mind receives like a +transparent body, unable to gather up the ends thereof and reflect +them back. And this I express in that following part: "First, all that +Reason cannot make its own I needs must leave." Then, when I say, "And +of what can be known," I say that not even to that which I do +understand am I sufficient, because my tongue is not so eloquent that +it could tell that which is discoursed in my thoughts concerning her. +It may be seen, therefore, that, with respect to the Truth, it is very +little that I shall say; and this redounds to her great praise, if +well considered, in that which was the main intention. And it is +possible to say that this form of speech came indeed from the workshop +of Rhetoric, which on every side lays its hand upon the main +intention. Then, when it says, "If my Song fail," I excuse myself for +my fault, which ought not, then, to be blamed when others see that my +words are far below the dignity of this Lady. And I say that, if the +defect is in my rhymes, that is, in my words, which are appointed to +discourse of her, for this are to be blamed the weakness of the +intellect and the abruptness of our speech: "blame wit and words," +which are overpowered by the thought, so that they cannot follow it +entirely, especially there where the thought is born of love, because +there the Soul searches more deeply than elsewhere. It would be quite +possible for any one to say: Thou dost excuse and accuse thyself all +in one breath, which is a reason for blame, not for escape from blame, +inasmuch as the blame, which is mine, is cast on the intellect and on +the speech; for, if it be good, I ought to be praised for it in so +much as it is so; and if it be defective, I ought to be blamed. To +this it is possible to reply, briefly, that I do not accuse myself, +but that I excuse myself in truth. And therefore it is to be known, +according to the opinion of the Philosopher in the third book of the +Ethics, that man is worthy of praise or of blame only in those things +which it is in his power to do or not to do; but in those things over +which he has no power he deserves neither blame nor praise, since +either the praise or blame is to be attributed to some other, although +the things may be parts of the man himself. Therefore, we ought not to +blame the man because his body, from his birth, may be ugly, since it +was not in his power to make it beautiful; but our blame should fall +on the evil disposition of the matter whereof he is made, whose source +was a defect of Nature. And even so we ought not to praise the man for +the beauty of form which he may have from his birth, for he was not +the maker of it; but we ought to praise the artificer, that is, Human +Nature, who shapes her material into so much beauty when she is not +impeded. And therefore the priest said well to the Emperor who laughed +and scoffed at the ugliness of his body: "The Lord, He is God: It is +He that hath made us, and not we ourselves;" and these are the words +of the Prophet in a verse of the Psalms, written neither more nor less +than according to the reply of the Priest. + +And therefore let the wicked evil-born ones perceive that, if they put +their chief care in the adornment of their persons, it must be with +all modesty; for to do that is no other than to adorn the work of +another, that is, Nature, and to abandon their own proper work. + +Returning, then, to the proposition, I say that our intellect, through +defect of the power through which it sees organic power, that is, the +imagination, is not able to ascend to certain things, because the +imagination cannot help it and has not the wherewithal, such as are +the substances apart from matter, which (if we can have any knowledge +of them) we cannot fully comprehend. + +And the man is not to blame for this, because he was not the maker of +this defect; nay, Universal Nature did this, which is God, who wills +that in this life we be without this light. And because He was the +cause, it would be presumptuous to argue concerning it. So that if my +earnest thought transported me into a place where my imagination +failed my intellect, I was not to blame if I could not possibly +understand. + +Again, a bound is set to our understanding in each operation thereof; +but not by us, but by Universal Nature; and therefore it is to be +known that the bounds of the understanding are wider in thought than +in speech, and wider in speech than in signs. Hence, if our thought, +not only that which fails in a perfect intellect, but also that which +in a perfect intellect attains its end, is the conqueror of speech, we +are not to blame, because we are not the makers of it. And therefore I +prove that I do truthfully excuse myself when I say: "Blame wit and +words, whose force Fails to tell all that I hear Love discourse;" for, +sufficiently clear ought to appear the good-will, which alone we +should regard in respect to merits that are human. + +And thus is now explained the first principal part of this Song which +flows from my hand. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + + +Discourse on the first part of the Song has now made its meaning open +and clear, and it is needful to proceed to the second; for the clearer +perception of which, three divisions are desirable, according as it is +contained in three sections. For in the first part I praise that Lady +entirely and generally, as in the Soul so in the body; in the second +part I descend to especial commendation of the Soul; and in the third, +to especial praise of the body. The first part begins: "The Sun sees +not in travel round the earth;" the second begins: "Her Maker saw that +she was good;" the third begins: "Rain from her beauty little flames +of fire," and these parts or divisions in due order are to be +discussed. + +I say then: "The Sun sees not in travel round the earth;" where it is +to be known, in order to have perfect understanding thereof, how the +Earth is circled round by the Sun. In the first place, I say that by +the Earth I do not here mean the whole body of the Universe, but only +that part of the sea and land, following the common speech, which is +thus wont to designate it, whereupon some one exclaims, "This man has +seen all the World," meaning "this part of the sea and land." This +World Pythagoras and his followers asserted to be one of the stars, +and they also said that there was another opposite to it, similar to +it: and they called that one Antictona; and he said that both were in +one sphere which revolved from East to West, and by this revolution +the Sun was circled round us, and now he was seen, and now he was not +seen. And he said that the fire was in the centre of these, +considering the fire to be a more noble body than the water and than +the Earth, and giving the noblest centre to the four simple bodies; he +said that the fire, when it appeared to ascend, according to strict +truth descended to the centre. Then Plato was of another opinion, and +he wrote in a book of his, which he called Timæus, that the Earth with +the sea was indeed the centre of all, but that its whole sphere +revolved round its centre, following the first movement of the +Heavens, but much slower on account of its gross material, and because +of the immense distance from that first moved. These opinions are +confuted in the second chapter, Of Heaven and the World, by that +glorious Philosopher, to whom Nature opened her secrets most freely; +and by him it is therein proved that this World, the Earth, is of +itself stable and fixed to all eternity. And his reasons, which +Aristotle states in order to break those other opinions and to affirm +the truth, it is not my intention here to narrate; therefore, let it +be enough for those to whom I speak, to know, upon his great +authority, that this Earth is fixed, and does not revolve, and that +it, with the sea, is the centre of the Heavens. These Heavens revolve +round this centre continuously, even as we see; in which revolution +there must of necessity be two fixed Poles, and a circle equally +distant from these round which all especially revolves. Of these two +Poles, the one is visible to almost all the discovered Earth, that is, +the Northern Pole; the other is hidden from almost all the discovered +Earth, that is, the Southern Pole. The circle spread from them is that +part of Heaven under which the Sun revolves when it is in Aries and +Libra. Wherefore, it is to be known that if a stone could fall from +this Pole of ours, it would fall there beyond into the sea precisely +upon that surface of the sea, where, if a man could be, he would +always have the Sun above the middle of his head; and I believe that +from Rome to that place, going in a straight line to the North, the +distance may be almost two thousand seven hundred miles, or a little +more or less. Imagining, then, in order to understand better what I +say, that there is in that place a city, and that its name may be +Maria, I say again that if from the other Pole, that is, the Southern, +a stone could fall, that it would fall upon that part of the ocean +which is precisely on this ball opposite to Maria; and I believe that +from Rome to where this second stone would fall, going in a direct +line to the South, the distance may be seven thousand five hundred +miles, a little more or less. And here let us imagine another city, +which may have the name of Lucia; and the distance, from whatever part +one draws the line, is ten thousand two hundred miles between the one +and the other, that is, half the circumference of this ball, so that +the citizens of Maria hold the soles of the feet opposite the soles of +the feet of the citizens of Lucia. Let us imagine also a circle upon +this ball which is in every part equi-distant from Maria as from +Lucia. I believe that this circle, according to what I understand by +the assertions of the Astrologers, and by that of Albertus Magnus in +his book On the Nature of Places and on the Properties of the +Elements, and also by the testimony of Lucan in his ninth book, would +divide this Earth uncovered by the sea in the Meridian, almost through +all the extreme end of the first climate, where there are amongst the +other people the Garamanti, who are almost always naked; to whom came +Cato with the people of Rome when flying from the dominion of Cæsar. +Having marked out these three places upon this ball, one can easily +see how the Sun circles round it. + +I say, then, that the Heaven of the Sun revolves from West to East, +not directly against the diurnal movement, that is, of the day and +night, but obliquely against that, so that its mid-circle, which is +equally between its Poles, in which is the body of the Sun, cuts into +two opposite parts the circle of the two first Poles, in the beginning +of Aries and in the beginning of Libra; and it is divided by two arcs +from it, one towards the North and one towards the South; the points +of these two said arcs are equi-distant from the first circle in every +part by twenty-three degrees and one point more, and the one point is +the tropic of Cancer, and the other is the tropic of Capricorn; +therefore it must be that Maria in the sign of Aries can see, when the +Sun sinks below the mid-circle of the first Poles, this Sun to revolve +round the Earth below, or rather the sea, like a millstone, of which +only one half of its body appears, and can see this come rising up +after the manner of the screw of a vine-press, so much so that it +completes ninety-one rotations, or a little more. When these rotations +are completed, its ascension is to Maria almost as much in proportion +as it ascends to us in the half-third, that is, of the equal day and +night; and if a man could stand in Maria, with his face always turned +to the Sun, he would see that Sun pass by on the right. Then by the +same way it seems to descend another ninety-one rotations, or a little +more, so much so that it circles round below the Earth, or rather sea, +not showing the whole of itself; and then it is hidden, and Lucia +begins to see it, which, the same as Maria, then sees it to ascend and +to descend around itself with the same number of rotations. And if a +man could stand in Lucia, with his face always turned towards the Sun, +he would see it pass to the left. Therefore, it is possible to see +that these places have in the year one day of six months' duration, +and one night of the same length of time; and when one has the day the +other has the night. + +It must be also that the circle where the Garamanti are, as has been +said above, upon this ball, can see the Sun revolve precisely above +them, not after the fashion of a mill-stone, but of a wheel, which +cannot in any part be seen except the centre, when it goes under +Aries. And then it is seen to depart from its place immediately above +and go towards Maria ninety-one days, or a little more, and by so many +to return to its position; and then, when it has turned back, it goes +before Libra, and even so departs and goes towards Lucia ninety-one +days, or a little more, and in so many returns to its position. And +this place always has the day equal with the night, either on this +side or on that, as the Sun goes, and twice a year it has the summer +of intense heat, and two little winters. It must also be that the two +distances, which are midway from the two imaginary Cities and the +mid-circle, see the Sun variously, according as they are remote from, +and near to, these places. + +Now, by what has been said, this can be seen by him who has good +understanding, to which it is well to give a little fatigue. He can +now perceive that, by the Divine Providence, the World is so ordained +that the sphere of the Sun, being revolved and turned round to one +point, this ball whereon we are in every part receives an equal share +of light and darkness. Oh, ineffable Wisdom, Thou which didst thus +ordain! Oh, how poor and feeble is our mind when seeking to comprehend +Thee! And you, O men, for whose benefit and pleasure I write, in what +fearful blindness do you live if you never raise your eyes upwards to +these things, but keep them fixed in the mud of your foolishness. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + + +In the preceding chapter is shown after what manner the Sun travels +round the Earth; so that now one can proceed to demonstrate the +meaning of the part to which this thought belongs. I say, then, that +in that first part I begin to praise that Lady by comparison with +other things. And I say that the Sun, circling round the Earth, sees +nothing so gentle as that Lady; wherefore it follows that she is, +according to the letter, the most gentle of all things that the sun +shines upon. And it says: "Till the hour;" wherefore it is to be known +that "hour" is understood in two ways by the Astrologers. The one is, +that of the day and of the night they make twenty-four hours--twelve +of the day, twelve of the night, however long or short the day may be. +And these hours are short and long in the day and night according as +the day and night increase and diminish. And these hours the Church +uses when it says, Prima, Tertia, Sexta, and Nona--first, third, +sixth, and ninth; and these are termed hours temporal. The other mode +is, that, making of the day and of the night twenty-four hours, the +day sometimes has fifteen hours and the night nine; and sometimes the +night has sixteen and the day eight, according as the day and night +increase and diminish; and they term these hours equal at the +Equinox, and those that are termed temporal are always the same, +because, the day being equal to the night, it must happen thus. + +Then when I say, "All Minds of Heaven wonder at her worth," I praise +her, not having respect to any other thing. And I say that the +Intelligences of Heaven behold her, and that the people here below +think of that gentle Lady when they have more of that peace which +delights them. And here it is to be known that each Mind or Intellect +in Heaven above, according to that which is written in the book Of +Causes, knows that which is above itself and that which is below +itself; therefore it knows God as its Cause; therefore it knows that +which is below itself as its effect. + +And since God is the most universal cause of everything, to know Him +is to know all, according to the degree of the Intelligence; wherefore +all the Intelligences know the human form in as far as it is by +intention fixed or determined in the Divine Mind. The moving +Intelligences especially know it; since they are the most especial +causes of it, and of every kind of form; and they know the most +perfect, as far as they can know it, as their rule and pattern. + +And if this human form, copied and individualized, is not perfect, it +is not the fault of the said copy or image, but of the matter from +which the individual is formed. Therefore when I say, "All Minds in +Heaven wonder at her worth," I wish to express no other than that she +is thus made, even as the express image of the human form in the +Divine Mind. And each Mind there above beholds her by virtue of that +quality which exists especially in those angelic Minds which build up +and shape, with Heaven, things that exist below. And to confirm this, +I subjoin when I say, "Mortals, enamoured, find her in their thought +When Love his peace into their minds has brought," where it is to be +known that each thing especially desires its perfection, and in that +its every desire finds peace and calm, and for that peace each thing +is desired. + +And this is that desire which always makes every pleasure appear +incomplete, for there is no joy or pleasure so great in this life that +it can quench the thirst in our Soul, for always the desire for that +perfection remains in the Mind. And since this Lady is truly that +perfection, I say that people here below receive great delight when +they have most peace; for she abides then in their thoughts. For this +Lady, I say, is perfect in as high a degree as it is possible for +Human Nature to be. + +Then when I say, "Her Maker saw that she was good," I prove that not +only this Lady is the most perfect in the human race, but more than +the most perfect, inasmuch as she receives from the Divine Goodness +more than human dues. Wherefore one can reasonably believe that as +each Master loves most his best work far more than the other work, so +God loves the good human being far above the rest. And forasmuch as +His Bounty is of necessity not restricted by any limit, His love has +no regard to the amount due to him who receives, but it overflows in +gifts, and in the blessings of power and grace. Wherefore I say here, +that this God, who gave life or being to this Lady, through love or +charity for her perfection pours into her of His Bounty beyond the +limits of the amount due to our nature. + +Then when I say, "On her pure soul," I prove this that has been said +with reasonable testimony, which gives us to know that, as the +Philosopher says in the second chapter, On the Soul, the Soul is the +act of the Body; and if it be its act, it is its Cause; and as it is +written in the book before, quoted, On Causes, each Cause infuses into +its effect some of the goodness which it receives from its own Cause, +which is "God." Wherefore, since in her are seen wonderful things, so +much so on the part of the body that they make each beholder desirous +to see those things, it is evident that her form, which is her Soul, +guides it as its proper Cause and receives miraculously the gracious +goodness of God. + +And thus is proved, by that appearance, which exceeds the due +appointment of our nature, which in her is most perfect, as has been +said above, that this Lady is by God endowed with good gifts and made +a noble thing. And this is the whole Literal meaning of the first +section of the second principal part. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + + +Having commended this Lady generally, both according to the Soul and +according to the Body, I proceed to praise her specially according to +the Soul. + +And first I praise her Soul for its goodness, that is great in itself; +then I commend it for a goodness that is great in others, and useful +to the World. And that second part begins when I say, firstly, "On her +fair frame Virtue Divine descends;" where it is to be known that the +Divine Goodness descends into all things, and otherwise they could not +exist; but, although this goodness springs from the First Cause, it is +received diversely, according to the more or less of virtue in the +recipients. Wherefore it is written in the book Of Causes: "The First +Goodness sends His good gifts forth upon things in one stream. Verily +each thing receives from this stream according to the manner of its +virtue and its being." And we can have a sensible, living example of +this in the Sun. We see the light of the Sun, which is one thing, +derived from one fountain, to be variously received by material +substances; as Albertus Magnus says in his book On the Intellect, that +certain bodies, through having mixed in themselves an excess of +transparent brightness, so soon as the Sun sees them they become so +bright that, by the multiplication of light within them, their aspect +is hardly discernible, and from themselves they render back to others +great splendour or brilliancy, such as is gold and any gem. Sure I am +that by being entirely transparent, not only do they receive the +light, but that they do not intercept it; nay, they pass it on, like +stained glass, coloured with their own colour, to other things. And +there are certain other bodies so overpowering in the purity of the +transparency that they become so radiant as to overpower the +adjustments of the eye, and you cannot look at them without fatigue of +sight; such as are the mirrors. Certain others are so free from +transparency, that but little light can they receive; as is the Earth. +Thus the Goodness of God is received in sundrywise by the sundry +substances, that is, in one way by the Angels, who are without +grossness of matter, as if transparent through their purity of form; +and otherwise by the human Soul, which although on one side it may be +free from matter, on another side it is impeded: even as the man who +is all in the water but his head, of whom one cannot say that he is +entirely in the water, or entirely out of it. Again otherwise it is +received by the animals, whose soul is wholly comprised in matter; but +I say that the soul of animals receives of the Goodness of God in +proportion as it is ennobled. Again otherwise is it received by the +minerals; and otherwise by the Earth, than by the others, because the +Earth is most material, and therefore most remote, and most out of all +proportion to the First most simple and most high Cause, which is +alone Intellectual, that is to say, God. + +And although here below there may be placed general degrees of +excellence, nevertheless, singular degrees of excellence may also be +placed; that is to say, that amongst human Souls one Soul may receive +more bountifully than another. And since in the intellectual order of +the Universe one ascends and descends by degrees almost continuous +from the lowest form to the highest, and from the highest to the +lowest, as we see in the visible order of things; and between the +Angelic Nature, which is intellectual, and the Human Soul there may be +no step, but the one rise to the other as it were continuously through +the height of the degrees; and from the Human Soul and the most +perfect soul of the brute animals, again, there may not be any break +in the descent. For as we see many men so vile and of such low +condition that it seems almost that it can be no other than bestial, +so it is to be asserted and firmly believed that there may be some men +so noble and of a condition so exalted that it can be no other than +that of the Angel. Otherwise the human species could not be continued +on every side, which cannot be. Such as these Aristotle calls, in the +seventh book of the Ethics, Divine; and such a one I say that this +Lady is, so that the Divine Virtue, after the manner that it descends +into the Angel, descends into her. + +Then when I say, "Fair one who doubt," I prove this by the experience +that it is possible to have of it in those operations which are proper +to the rational Soul, wherein the Divine Light shines forth more +quickly, that is, in the speech and in the actions, which are wont to +be termed conduct and deportment. Wherefore it is to be known that +only man amongst the animals speaks, and has conduct and acts which +are called rational, because he alone has Reason in himself. And if +any one might wish to say, in contradiction, that a certain bird can +speak, as appears true, especially of the magpie and of the parrot; +and that some beast performs acts, or rather things, by rule, as +appears in the ape and in some other; I reply that it is not true that +they speak, nor that they have rules, because they have not Reason, +from which these things must proceed; neither is there in them the +principle of these operations; neither do they know what that is; +neither do they understand that by those acts something is intended; +but that only which they see and hear they represent, even as the +image of somebody may be reflected in a glass. Wherefore, as in the +mirror the corporal image which the mirror shows is not true, so the +image of Reason, in the acts and the speech which the brute soul +represents, or rather shows, is not true. I say that what gentle Lady +soever doubts should "go with her, mark the grace In all her acts." I +do not say man, because one can derive experience more modestly from +the woman than from the man; and I say she will find that "Downward +from Heaven bends An angel when she speaks." For her speech, because +of its exalted character and because of its sweetness, kindles in the +mind of him who hears it a thought of Love, which I call a celestial +Spirit; since from Heaven is the source and from Heaven the intention +thereof, as has been already narrated. From which thought I pass to a +firm opinion that this Lady is of miraculous power, that there is "A +power in her by none of us possessed." Her actions, by their suavity +and by their moderation, "Rival in calls to Love that Love must hear." +They cause Love to awaken and again to hear whenever he is sown by the +power of bountiful Nature. Which natural seed acts as in the next +treatise is shown. + +Then when I say, "Fair in all like her, fairest she'll appear Who is +most like her," I intend to narrate how the goodness and the power of +her soul are good and useful to others; and, firstly, how useful it is +to other women, saying that she is "Fair in all like her," where I +present a clear or bright example to the women, from gazing at which +they can make their beauty seem gentle in following the same. +Secondly, I relate how useful she is to all people, saying that her +aspect assists our faith, which is more useful to the whole Human Race +than all other things beside; for it is that by which we escape from +Eternal Death and acquire Eternal Life; and she assists our Faith, for +the first foundation of our Faith is on the miracles performed by Him +who was crucified, who created our Reason, and willed that it should +be less than His power. He performed these miracles, then, in His own +name for His saints; and many men are so obstinate that they are in +doubt of those miracles if there be the least mist or cloud around +them; and they cannot believe any miracle unless they have visible +experience of the same; and this Lady is a thing visibly miraculous, +of which the eyes of men daily can have experience, and which can make +the other miracles appear possible to us. Wherefore it is manifest +that this Lady, with her marvellous aspect, assists our Faith. And, +therefore, finally I say: + + We, content to call + Her face a Miracle, have Faith made sure: + For that God made her ever to endure. + +And thus ends the second section of the second principal part of the +Song according to its Literal meaning. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + + +Amongst the Works of Divine Wisdom, Man is the most wonderful, +considering how in one form the Divine Power joined three natures; and +in such a form how subtly harmonized his body must be. It is organized +for all his distinct powers; wherefore, because of the great concord +there must be, among so many organs, to secure their perfect response +to each other, in all the multitude of men but few are perfect. And if +this Creature is so wonderful, certainly it is a dread thing to +discourse of his conditions, not only in words, but even in thought. +So that to this apply those words of Ecclesiastes: "I beheld all the +Work of God, that a Man cannot find out the Work that is done under +the Sun." And those other words there, where he says: "Let not thine +heart be hasty to utter anything before God: for God is in Heaven, and +thou upon Earth: therefore let thy words be few." I, then, who in this +third section intend to speak of a certain condition of such a +creature, inasmuch as, through the goodness of the Soul, visible +beauty appears in his body, I begin timorously uncertain, intending, +if not fully, at least partially, to untie such a knot as this. I say, +then, that since the meaning of that section is clear, wherein this +Lady is praised on the part of the Soul, we are now to proceed and to +see how it is when I say: "Her aspect shows delights of Paradise." I +praise her on the part of the body, and I say that in her aspect +bright gleams appear which show us pleasant things, and amongst others +those of Paradise. + +The most noble state of all, and that which is the crown of every +good, is to be at peace within one's self; and this is to be happy. +And this content is truly (although in another manner) in her aspect; +so that, by looking at her, the people find peace, so sweetly does her +Beauty feed the eyes of the beholders; but in another way, for the +Peace that is perpetual in Paradise is not attainable by any man. + +And since some one might ask where this wonderful content appears in +this Lady, I distinguish in her person two parts, in which human +pleasure and displeasure most appear. Wherefore it is to be known that +in whatever part the Soul most fulfils its office, it strives most +earnestly to adorn that part, and there it does its work most subtly. +Wherefore we see that in the Face of Man, where it fulfils its office +more than in any other outward part, it works so subtly that, by +making itself subtle therein as much as its material permits, it +causes that no face is like another, because its utmost power over +matter, which is dissimilar in almost all, is there brought into +action; and because in the face the Soul works especially in two +places, as if in those two places all the three Natures of the Soul +had jurisdiction, that is, in the Eyes and in the Mouth, these it +chiefly adorns, and there it spends its care to make all beautiful if +it can. And in these two places I say that those pleasures of content +appear, saying: "Seen in her eyes and in her smiling face;" the which +two places, by means of a beautiful comparison, may be designated the +balconies of the woman who dwells in the house of the body, she being +the Soul; because there, although veiled, as it were, the Soul often +shows itself. The Soul shows itself so evidently in the eyes that it +is possible to know its present passion if you look attentively. + +Six passions are proper to the human Soul of which the Philosopher +makes mention in his Rhetoric, namely, Grace, Zeal, Mercy, Envy, Love, +and Shame; and with whichever of these the Soul is impassioned, there +comes into the window of the Eyes the semblance of it, unless it be +repressed within, and shut from view by great power of will. Wherefore +some one formerly plucked out his eyes that an inward shame should not +appear without, as Statius the Poet says of the Theban Oedipus when he +says that with eternal night he loosed his damnèd shame. + +It reveals itself in the Mouth, like colour behind glass as it were. +And what is a smile or a laugh except a coruscation of the Soul's +delight, a light shot outwardly from that which shines within? And +therefore it is right for a man to reveal his Soul by a well-tempered +cheerfulness, smiling moderately with a due restraint, and with slight +movement of the limbs; so that the Lady, that is, the Soul, which +then, as has been said, shows herself, may appear modest, and not +dissolute. Therefore the book on the Four Cardinal Virtues commands us +thus: "Let thy smile be without loud laughter, that is, without +cackling like a hen." + +Ah, the sweet wonder of my Lady's smile, which is never seen but in +the eyes! + +And I say of these delights seen in her eyes and smile: "Love brought +them there as to his dwelling place;" where it is possible to consider +Love in a twofold form. First, the Love of the Soul, peculiar or +proper to these places; secondly, universal Love, which inclines +things to love and to be loved, which ordains the Soul to rule these +parts. + +Then, when I say, "They dazzle Reason," I excuse myself for this, that +it appears of such exceeding beauty that I can tell but little, owing +to its overpowering force; and I say that I can say but little +concerning it for two reasons. The one is, that those things which +appear in her aspect overpower our intellect; and I tell how this +conquest is made: that "They dazzle Reason, as sunbeams our eyes," +when the Sun overpowers our feeble sight, if not also the healthy and +the strong. The other is, that the man cannot look fixedly at it, +because the Soul becomes inebriate therein; so that incontinently, +after gazing thereat, it fails in all its operations. + +Then, when I say, "Rain from her beauty little flames of fire," I +recur to discourse of its effect, since to discourse entirely of it is +not possible. Wherefore it is to be known that all those things which +subdue our intellect, so that it is unable to see what they are, are +most suitably to be discussed in their effects; wherefore of God, and +of His separate substances, and of the first matter we can thus have +some knowledge. And therefore I say that the beauty of that Lady rains +little flames of fire, meaning the ardour of Love and of Charity, +"Made living with a spirit," that is, Love informed by a gentle +spirit, which is direct desire, through which and from which "to +create Good thoughts;" and it not only does this, but it crushes and +destroys its opposite, the innate vices which are especially the foes +of all good thoughts. + +And here it is to be known that there are certain vices in the Man to +which he is naturally disposed; as certain men of a choleric +complexion are disposed to anger: and such vices as these are innate, +that is, natural. Others are the vices of habit, for which not the +complexion, but habit, or custom, is to blame; such as intemperance, +and especially intemperance in wine. But these vices are subdued and +put to flight by good habits, and the man is made virtuous thereby +without finding fatigue in his moderation, as the Philosopher says in +the second book of the Ethics. Truly there is this difference between +the natural passions and the habitual, that through use of good morals +the habitual entirely vanish, because their origin, the evil habit, is +destroyed by its opposite; but the natural, the source of which is in +the complexion of the passionate man, although they may be made much +lighter by good morals, yet they do not entirely disappear as far as +regards the first cause, but they almost wholly disappear in act, +because custom is not equal to nature, which is the source of such a +passion. And therefore the man is more praiseworthy who guides himself +and rules himself when he is of an evil disposition by nature, in +opposition to natural impulse, than he who, being gifted with a good +disposition by nature, carries himself naturally well; as it is more +praiseworthy to control a bad horse than one that is not troublesome. +I say, then, that those little flames which rain down from her beauty +destroy the innate, or the natural, vices, to make men understand that +her beauty has power to renew Nature in those who behold it, which is +a miraculous thing. And this confirms that which is observed above in +the other chapter when I say that she is the helper of our Faith. + +Finally, when I say, "Lady, who may desire Escape from blame," I +infer, under pretext of admonishing another, the end for which so much +beauty was made. And I say that what lady believes her beauty to be +open to blame through some defect, let her look on this most perfect +example; where it is understood that it is designed not only to +improve and raise the good, but also to convert evil to good. And, +finally, it is subjoined that she is "God's thought," that is, from +the Mind of God. And this to make men understand that, by design of +the Creator, Nature is made to produce such an effect. + +And thus ends the whole of the second chief part of the Song. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + + +The order of the present treatise requires, after these two parts of +the Song have been discussed, according to my intention, that we now +proceed to the third, in which I intend to purify the Song from a +reproof which might be unfavourable to it. + +And it is this, that before I composed it, this Lady seeming to me to +be somewhat fierce and haughty against me, I made a little ballad, in +which I called her proud and angry, which appears to be contrary to +that which is here reasoned; and therefore I turn to the Song, and, +under colour of teaching it how it is proper that it should excuse +itself, I make an excuse for that which came before. And this, when +one addresses inanimate things, is a figure which is called by +rhetoricians, Prosopopoeia, and the Poets often use it. "My Song, it +seems you speak this to oppose," The intention of which address, to +make it more easy of understanding, it behoves me to divide into three +sections: first, one affirms wherefore excuse is necessary; then, one +proceeds with the excuse, when I say, "Though Heaven, you know;" +finally, I speak to the Song as to a person well skilled in that which +it is right to do when I say, "Be such excuse allowed." + +I say, then, in the first place: "My Song, it seems you speak this to +oppose The saying of a sister Song of mine." For the sake of +similitude, I say sister; for as that woman is called a sister who is +born of the same father, so may a man call that work a sister which is +wrought by the same worker; for our work is in some degree a thing +begotten. And I say why it seems opposed or contrary to that sister +Song, saying: "This lovely Lady whom you count divine, Your sister +called disdainful and morose." This accusation being affirmed, I +proceed to the excuse, by quoting an example, wherein the Truth is +quite opposite to the appearance of Truth, and it is quite possible to +take the false semblance of Truth for Truth itself, regarding Truth +itself as Falsehood. I say: "Though Heaven, you know, is ever high and +pure, Men's eyes may fail, and find a star obscure;" where it is shown +that it is the property of colour and light to be visible, as +Aristotle affirms in the second book Of the Soul and in the book on +Sense and Sensation. Other things, indeed, are visible, but it is not +their property to be so, nor to be tangible, as in form, height, +number, motion, and rest, which are said to be subject to the Common +Sense, and which we comprehend by union of many senses; but of colour +and light it is the property to be visible, because with the sight +only we comprehend them. These visible things, both those of which it +is the property and those subject to the Common Sense, inasmuch as +they are visible, come within the eye; I do not say the things, but +their form; through the transparent medium, not really, but by +intention, as it were through transparent glass. And in the humour +which is in the pupil of the eye this current which makes the form +visible is completed, because that humour is closed behind like a +mirror which has its glass backed with lead; so that it cannot pass +farther on, but strikes there, after the manner of a ball, and stops; +so that the form which does not appear in the transparent medium, +having reached the disc behind, shines brightly thereon; and this is +the reason why the image appears only in the glass which has lead at +the back. + +From this pupil the visual spirit, which is continued from it to the +part of the Brain, the anterior, where the sensitive power is, +suddenly, without loss of time, depicts it as in the clear spring of a +fountain; and thus we see. Wherefore, in order that its vision be +truthful, that is, such as the visible thing is in itself, the medium +through which the form comes to the eye must be without any colour, +and so also the humour of the pupil; otherwise the visible form would +be stained of the colour of the medium and of that of the pupil. And +this is the reason why they who wish to make things appear of a +certain colour in a mirror interpose that colour between the glass and +the lead, the glass being pressed over it. + +Plato and other Philosophers said, indeed, that our sight was not +because the visible came into the eye, but because the visual virtue +went out to the visible form. And this opinion is confuted by the +Philosopher in that book of his on Sense and Sensation. Having thus +considered this law of vision, one can easily perceive how, although +the star is always in one way bright, clear, and resplendent, and +receives no change whatever except that of local movement, as is +proved in that book on Heaven and the World, yet from many causes it +may appear dim and obscure; since it may appear thus on account of the +medium, the atmosphere, that changes continually. This medium changes +from light to darkness, according to the presence or absence of the +Sun; and during the presence of the Sun the medium, which is +transparent, is so full of light that it overpowers the star, and +therefore it no longer appears brilliant. This medium also changes +from rare to dense, from dry to moist, because of the vapours of the +Earth which rise continually. The medium, thus changed, changes by its +density the image of the star, which passes through it, makes it +appear dim, and by its moisture or dryness changes it in colour. In +like manner it may thus appear through the visual organ, that is, the +eye, which on account of some infirmity, or because of fatigue, is +changed into some degree of dimness or into some degree of weakness. +So it happens very often, owing to the membrane of the pupil becoming +suffused with blood, on account of some corruption produced by +weakness, that things all appear of a red colour; and therefore the +star appears so coloured. And owing to the sight being weakened, there +results in it some dispersion of the spirit, so that things do not +appear united, but scattered, almost in the same way as our writing +does on a wet piece of paper. And this is the reason why many persons, +when they wish to read, remove the paper to some distance from the +eyes, in order that the image thereof may come within the eye more +easily and more subtly, and thereby the lettering is left impressed on +the sight more distinctly and connectedly. For like reason the star +also may appear blurred; and I had experience of this in the same year +in which this Song was born, for, by trying the eyes very much in the +labour of reading, the visual spirits were so weakened that the stars +all appeared to me to be blurred by some white mist: and by means of +long repose in shady and cool places, and by cooling the ball of the +eye with spring water, I re-united the scattered powers, which I +restored to their former good condition. + +And thus, for the reasons mentioned above, there are many visible +causes why the star can appear to us different to what it really is. + + + + +CHAPTER X. + + +Leaving this digression, which has been needful for seeing the Truth, +I return to the proposition, and I say that, as our eyes call, that +is, judge, the star other than it really is as to its true condition, +so this little ballad judged this Lady according to appearance, other +than the Truth, through infirmity of the Soul, which was impassioned +with too much desire. And this I make evident when I say that "fear +possessed her soul." For this which I saw in her presence appeared +fierce or proud to me. Where it is to be known that in proportion as +the agent is more closely united to the patient, so much the more +powerful is the passion, as may be understood from the opinion of the +Philosopher in his book On Generation. Wherefore in proportion as the +desired thing draws nigh to the person who desires it, so much the +greater is the desire; and the Soul, more impassioned, unites itself +more closely to the carnal part, and abandons reason more and more; so +that the individual no longer judges like a man, but almost like some +other animal, even according to appearance, not discerning the Truth. +And this is the reason why the countenance, modest according to the +truth, appears disdainful and proud in her. + +And that little ballad spoke, according to that judgment, as sensual +and irrational at once. And herein it is sufficiently understood that +this Song judges this Lady according to Truth, by the disagreement +which it has with that other Song of harmony between it and that +ballad. And not without reason I say, "When I come near to her +glance," and not when she comes within mine. But in this I wish to +express the great power which her eyes had over me; for, as if I had +been transparent, through every part their light shone through me. And +here it would be possible to assign reasons natural and supernatural, +but let it suffice here to have said as much as I have; elsewhere I +will discourse of it more suitably. Then when I say, "Be such excuse +allowed," I impose on the Song instruction how, by the assigned +reasons, it may excuse itself there where that is needful, namely, +where there may be any suspicion of this opposition; for there is no +more to say, except that whoever may feel doubtful as to the matter +wherein this Song differs from the other, let him look at the reason +which has been here stated. And such a figure as this is quite +laudable in Rhetoric, and even necessary when the words are to one +person and the intention is to another; because it is always +praiseworthy to admonish and necessary also; but it is not always +suitable in the mouth of every one. Wherefore, when the son is aware +of the vice of the father, and when the subject is aware of the vice +of the lord, and when the friend knows that the shame of his friend +would be increased to him by admonition from him, when he knows that +it would detract from his honour, or when he knows that his friend +would not be patient, but enraged at the admonition, this figure is +most beautiful and most useful. You may term it dissimulation; it is +similar to the work of that wise warrior who attacked the castle on +one side in order to draw off the defence from the other, for the +attack and the design of the commander are not aimed at one and the +same part. + +Also, I lay a command on this Song, that it ask permission of this +Lady to speak of her; whereby one may infer that a man ought not to be +presumptuous in praising another, ought not to take it for granted in +his own mind that it is pleasing to the person praised, because often, +when some one believes he is bestowing praise, it is taken as blame, +either through defect of the speaker or through defect of him who +hears. Wherefore it is requisite to have much discretion in this +matter; which discretion is tantamount to asking permission, in the +way in which I say that this Song or Poem should ask for it. + +And thus ends the whole Literal meaning of this treatise; wherefore +the order of the work now requires the Allegorical exposition, +following the Truth, to be proceeded with. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + + +Returning now, as the order requires, to the beginning of the Song, I +say that this Lady is that Lady of the Intellect who is called +Philosophy. But naturally praise excites a desire to know the person +praised; and to know the thing may be to know what it is considered to +be in itself, and in all that pertains to it, as the Philosopher says +in the beginning of the book On Physics; and the name may reveal this +when it bears some meaning, as he says in the fourth chapter of the +Metaphysics, where it is said that the definition is that reason which +the name signifies. Here, therefore, it is necessary, before +proceeding farther with her praises, to prove and to say what this is +that is called Philosophy, what this name signifies; and when this has +been demonstrated, the present Allegory will be more efficaciously +discussed. And first of all I will state who first gave this name; +then I shall proceed to its signification. + +I say, then, that anciently in Italy, almost from the beginning of the +foundation of Rome, which was seven hundred and fifty years, a little +more or less, before the advent of the Saviour, according as Paul +Orosius writes, about the time of Numa Pompilius, second king of the +Romans, there lived a most noble Philosopher, who was named +Pythagoras. And that he might be living about that time appears from +something to which Titus Livius alludes incidentally in the first part +of his History. And before him they were called the followers of +Science, not Philosophers but Wise Men such as were those Seven most +ancient Wise Men, who still live in popular fame. The first of them +had the name of Solon, the second Chilon, the third Periander, the +fourth Talus, the fifth Cleobulus, the sixth Bias, the seventh +Pittacus. Pythagoras, being asked if he were considered to be a Wise +Man, rejected this name, and stated himself to be not a Wise Man, but +a Lover of Wisdom. And from this circumstance it subsequently arose +that any man studious to acquire knowledge, was called a Lover of +Wisdom, that is, a Philosopher; for inasmuch as "Philo" in Greek is +equivalent to "Love" and "sophia" is equivalent to Wisdom, therefore, +"Philo and sophia" mean the same as Love of Wisdom. Wherefore it is +possible to see that those two words make that name Philosopher, which +is as much as to say Lover of Wisdom. Therefore it may be observed +that it is not a term of arrogance, but of humility. + +From this sprang naturally the word philosophy, as from the word +friend springs naturally the word friendship. Wherefore it is possible +to see, considering the signification of the first and second word, +that philosophy is no other than friendship to wisdom, or rather to +knowledge; wherefore to a certain degree it is possible to call every +man a philosopher, according to the natural love which generates a +desire for knowledge in each individual. + +But since the natural passions are common to all men, we do not +specify those passions by some distinctive word, applied to some +individual who shares our common nature, as when we say, John is the +friend of Martin, we do not mean to signify merely the natural love +which all men bear to all men, but we mean the friendship founded upon +the natural love which is distinct and peculiar to certain +individuals. Thus we do not term any one a philosopher because of the +love common to us all. It is the intention or meaning of Aristotle, in +the eighth book of the Ethics, that that man may be called a friend +whose friendship is not concealed from the person beloved, and to whom +also the beloved person is a friend, so that the attachment is mutual; +and this must be so either for mutual benefit, or for pleasure, or for +credit's sake. And thus, in order that a man may be a philosopher, it +must be love to Wisdom which makes one of the sides friendly; it must +be study and care which make the other side also friendly, so that +familiarity and manifestation of benevolence may spring up between +them; because without love and without study one cannot be called a +philosopher, but there must be both the one and the other. + +And as friendship for the sake of pleasure given or for profit is not +true friendship, but accidental, as the Ethics demonstrate, so +philosophy for delight or profit is not true philosophy, but +accidental. Wherefore one ought not to call him a true philosopher who +for some pleasure or other may be a friend of Wisdom in some degree; +even as there are many who take delight in repeating songs and in +studying the same, and who delight in studying Rhetoric and Music, and +who avoid and abandon the other Sciences, which are all members of +Wisdom's body. One ought not to call him a true philosopher who is the +friend of Wisdom for the sake of profit; such as are the Lawyers, +Doctors, and almost all the Religious Men, who do not study for the +sake of knowledge, but to acquire money or dignity; and if any one +would give them that which they seek to acquire, they would not +continue to study. And as amongst the various kinds of friendship, +that which is for profit may be called the meanest friendship, so such +men as these have less share in the name of Philosopher than any other +people. + +Wherefore as the friendship conceived through honest affection is true +and perfect and perpetual, so is that philosophy true and perfect +which is generated by upright desire for knowledge, without regard to +aught else, and by the goodness of the friendly soul; which is as much +as to say, by right appetite and right reason. And it is possible to +say here that as true friendship amongst men is, that each love each +entirely, so the true Philosopher loves each part of Wisdom, and +Wisdom each part of the Philosopher, so as to draw him wholly to +herself, and to allow no thought of his to stray away to other things. +Wherefore Wisdom herself says in the Proverbs of Solomon, "I love +those who love me." And as true friendship of the mind, considered in +itself alone, has for its subject the knowledge of good effects, and +for its form the desire for the same, even so Philosophy considered in +itself alone, apart from the Soul, has understanding for its subject, +and for its form an almost divine love to intellect. + +And as the efficient cause of true friendship is Virtue, so the +efficient cause of Philosophy is Truth. And as the end of true +friendship is true affection, which proceeds from the intercourse +proper to Humanity, that is, according to the dictates of Reason, as +Aristotle seems to think in the ninth book of the Ethics, so the end +of Philosophy is that most excellent affection which suffers no +intermission or defect, that is, the true happiness which is acquired +by the contemplation of Truth. + +And thus it is now possible to see who this my Lady is, in all her +causes and in her whole reason, and why she is called Philosophy; and +who is a true Philosopher, and who is one by accident. + +But in some fervour or heat of mind the one and the other end of the +acts and of the passions are called by the word for the act itself or +the passion; as Virgil does in the second book of the Æneid, where he +calls Hector, "Oh, light" (which was the act) "and hope" (which is the +passion) "of the Trojans:" for he was neither the light nor the hope, +but he was the end whence came to them their light in council, and he +was the end in which was reposed their hope of safety; as Statius +writes in the fifth book of the Thebaid, when Hypsipyle says to +Archemorus, "Oh, consolation of things and of the lost country! oh, +honour of my servitude!" even as we say daily, showing the friend, +"See my friendship;" and the father says to the son, "My love;" and so +it is that, through long custom, the Sciences, in which most fervently +Philosophy finds the end to which she looks, are called by her name, +such as the Natural Science, the Moral Science, and the Metaphysical +Science, which last, because most necessarily she looks to her end in +that chiefly and most fervently, is called the First Philosophy. + +Now, therefore, since it has been seen what the true Philosophy is in +its essence; which is that Lady of whom I speak; how her noble name +through custom is communicated to the Sciences, and the first science +is called the First Philosophy, I may proceed further with her praise. + + + + +CHAPTER XII. + + +In the first chapter of this treatise the reason which moved me to +this Song is so fully discussed that it is no longer necessary to +discuss it further, for one can easily enough recall to mind what has +been said in this exposition: and therefore, following the divisions +made for the Literal meaning, I shall run through the Song, turning +back to the sense of the letter where it may be needful. I say, "Love, +reasoning of my Lady in my mind." By Love I mean the labour and pains +I took to acquire the love of this Lady. If one wishes to know what +labour, it can be here considered in two ways. There is one study +which leads the man to the daily use of Art and Science; there is +another study which he will employ in the acquired use. The first is +that which I call Love, which fills my mind continually with new and +most exalted ideas of this Lady: even as the anxious pains which one +takes to acquire a friendship are wont to do; for, when desiring that +friendship, a man is wont to take anxious thought concerning it. This +is that study and that affection which usually precedes in men the +begetting of the friendship, when already on one side Love is born, +and desires and strives that it may be on the other; for, as is said +above, Philosophy is born when the Soul and Wisdom have become +friends, so that the one is loved by the other. + +Neither is it again needful to discuss that first stanza in the +present explanation, which was reasoned out as the Proem in the +Literal exposition; since, from the first argument thereof, it is easy +enough to make out the meaning in this the second one. + +We may proceed, then, to the second part, which begins the treatise, +and to that place where I say, "The Sun sees not in travel round the +Earth." Here it is to be known that as, when discoursing of a sensible +thing, one handles it suitably by means of an insensible thing, so of +an intelligible thing, one fitly argues by means of an unintelligible. +In the Literal sense one speaks of the Sun as a substantial and +sensible body; so now it is fit, by image of the Sun, to discourse of +the Spiritual and Unintelligible, that is, God. + +There is no visible thing in all the world more worthy to serve as a +type of God than the Sun, which illuminates with visible light itself +first, and then all the celestial and elemental bodies. Thus, God +illuminates Himself first with intellectual light, and then the +celestial and other intelligible beings. The Sun vivifies all things +with his heat, and if anything is destroyed thereby, it is not by the +intention of the cause, but it is an accidental effect: thus God +vivifies all things in His Goodness, and, if any suffer evil, it is +not by the Divine intention, but the effect is accidental. For, if God +made the Angels good and evil, He did not make both by intention, but +He made the good only; there followed afterwards, beyond His +intention, the wickedness of the evil ones; but not so far beyond His +intention that God could not foreknow in Himself their wickedness; but +so great was the loving desire to produce the Spiritual creature that +the foreknowledge that some would come to a bad end neither could nor +should prevent God from continuing the production; as it would not be +to the praise of Nature if, knowing of herself that the flowers of a +tree in a certain part must perish, she should refuse to produce +flowers on that tree, and should abandon the production of +fruit-bearing trees as vain and useless. I say, then, that God, who +encircles and understands all, in His encircling and His understanding +sees nothing so gentle, so noble, as He sees when He shines on this +Philosophy. For, although God Himself, beholding, may see all things +together, inasmuch as the distinction of things is in Him in the same +way as the effect is in the cause, yet He sees those things also apart +and distinct. He sees, then, this Lady the most noble of all +absolutely, inasmuch as most perfectly He sees her in Himself and in +her essence. If what has been said above be recalled to mind, +Philosophy is a loving use of Wisdom; which especially is in God, +because in Him is Supreme Wisdom, and Supreme Love, and Supreme +Action; which cannot be elsewhere except inasmuch as it proceeds from +Him. It is, then, the Divine Philosophy of the Divine Being, since in +Him nothing can be that is not part of His Essence; and it is most +noble, because the Divine Essence is most noble, and it is in Him in a +manner perfect and true, as if by eternal wedlock; it is in the other +Intelligences in a less degree, as if platonic, as if a virgin love +from whom no lover receives full and complete joy, but contents +himself by gazing on the beauty of her countenance. Wherefore it is +possible to say that God sees not, that He does not intently regard, +anything so noble as this Lady; I say anything, inasmuch as He sees +and distinguishes the other things, as has been said, seeing Himself +to be the cause of all. Oh, most noble and most excellent heart, which +is at peace in the bride of the Ruler of Heaven; and not bride only, +but sister, and the daughter beloved above all others. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + + +Having seen in the beginning of the praises of this Lady how subtly it +is said that she is of the Divine Substance, as was first to be +considered, we proceed now to consider her as she is in the +Intelligences that proceed thence. "All minds of Heaven wonder at her +worth," where it is to be known that I say, "minds of Heaven," making +that allusion to God which has been mentioned above; and from this one +excludes the Intelligences who are exiled from the eternal country, +who can never study Philosophy, because love in them is entirely +extinct, and for the study of Philosophy, as has been already said, +Love is necessary. One sees, therefore, that the spirits of Hell are +deprived of the sight of this most beautiful Lady; and, since she is +the blessing of the intellect, the deprivation of her is most bitter +and full of every sadness. + +Then, when I say, "Mortals, enamoured, find her in their thought," I +descend to show how she also may come into the Human Intelligence in a +secondary degree; with which Human Philosophy I then proceed through +the treatise, praising it. I say, then, that the mortals who "find her +in their thought" in this life do not always find her there, but only +"When Love his peace into their hearts has brought;" wherein there are +to be seen three points which are alluded to in this text. + +The first is when one says, "Mortals, enamoured," because it seems to +make a distinction in the human race, and of necessity it must be +made; for, according to what manifestly appears, and which in the +following treatise will be specially reasoned out, the greatest part +of men live more according to the Sense than according to Reason; and +those who live according to the Sense can never be enamoured of this +Lady, since of her they can have no apprehension whatever. + +The second point is when it says, "When Love his peace into their +minds has brought," where it appears to make a distinction of time. +And that is necessary; for, although the separate Intelligences gaze +at this Lady continually, the Human Intelligence cannot do so; since +Human Nature, besides that which gives delight to the Intellect and +the Reason, has need of many things requisite for its support which +contemplation cannot furnish forth. Therefore our Wisdom is sometimes +habitual only, and not actual; and this does not happen to the other +Intelligences, which alone are perfect in their intellectual nature. +And so, when our soul is not in the act of contemplation, one cannot +truly say that it is in Philosophy, except inasmuch as it has the +habit of it, and the power of being able to arouse it; sometimes, +therefore, she is with the people who are enamoured of her here below, +and sometimes not. + +The third point is, when it speaks of the time when those people are +with her, namely, when Love has brought into their minds his peace; +which means no other than when the man is in the act of contemplation, +since he does not strive to feel the peace of that Lady except in the +act of contemplation. + +And thus one sees how this Lady is firstly in the Mind of God, +secondly in the other separate Intelligences through continual +contemplation, and afterwards in the human intellect through +interpreted contemplation. But the man who has her for his Lady is +ever to be termed a Philosopher, notwithstanding that he may not be +always in the final act of Philosophy, for it is usual to name other +men after their habits. Wherefore we call any man virtuous, not merely +when performing virtuous actions, but from having the habit or custom +of virtue. And we call a man eloquent, even when he is not speaking, +from his habit of eloquence, that is, of speaking well. + +And of this Philosophy, in which Human Intelligence has part, there +will now be the following encomiums to prove how great a part of her +good gifts is bestowed on Human Nature. I say, then, afterwards: + + Her Maker saw that she was good, and poured, + Beyond our Nature, fulness of His Power + On her pure Soul, whence shone this holy dower + Through all her frame. + +For the capacity of our Nature is subdued by it, which it makes +beautiful and virtuous. Wherefore, although into the habit of that +Lady one may somewhat come, it is not possible to say that any one who +enters thereinto properly has that habit; since the first study, that +whereby the habit is begotten, cannot perfectly acquire that +philosophy. And here one sees her lowly praise; for, perfect or +imperfect, she never loses the name of perfection. And because of this +her surpassing excellence, it says that the Soul of Philosophy "shone +Through all her frame," that is, that God ever imparts to her of His +Light. + +Here we may recall to mind what is said above, that Love is a form of +Philosophy, and therefore here is called her Soul; which Love is +manifest in the use of Wisdom, and such use brings with it a wonderful +beauty, that is to say, contentment under any condition of the time, +and contempt for those things which other men make their masters. + +Wherefore it happens that those other unhappy ones who gaze thereon, +and think over their own defects from the desire for perfection, fall +into the weariness of sighs; and this is meant where it says: "That +from the eyes she touches heralds fly Heartward with longings, +heavenward with a sigh." + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. + + +As in the Literal exposition, after the general praises one descends +to the especial, firstly on the part of the Soul, then on the part of +the body, so now the text proceeds after the general encomium to +descend to the especial commendation. As it is said above, Philosophy +here has Wisdom for its material subject and Love for its form, and +the habit of contemplation for the union of the two. Wherefore in this +passage which subsequently begins, "On her fair form Virtue Divine +descends," I mean to praise Love, which is part of Philosophy. Here it +is to be known that for a virtue to descend from one thing into +another there is no other way than to reduce that thing into its own +similitude; as we see evidently in the natural agents, for their +virtue descending into the things that are the patients, they bring +those things into their similitude as far as they are able to attain +it. + +We see that the Sun, pouring his rays down on this Earth, reduces the +things thereon to his own similitude of light in proportion as they by +their own disposition are able to receive light of his light. Thus, I +say that God reduces this Love to His own Similitude as much as it is +possible for it to bear likeness to Him. And it alludes to the nature +of the creative act, saying, "As on the Angel that beholds His face." +Where again it is to be known that the first Agent, who is God, paints +His Virtue on some things by means of direct radiance, and on some +things by means of reflected splendour; wherefore into the separate +Intelligences the Divine Light shines without any interposing medium; +into the others it is reflected from those Intelligences which were +first illumined. + +But since mention is here made of Light and Splendour, for the more +perfect understanding thereof I will show the difference between those +words, according to the opinion of Avicenna. I say that it is the +custom of Philosophers to speak of Heaven as Light, inasmuch as Light +is there in its primeval Spring, or its first origin. They speak of it +as a ray of Light while it passes through the medium from its source +into the first body in which it has its end; they call it Splendour +where it is reflected back from some part that has received +illumination. I say, then, that the Divine Virtue or Power draws this +Love into Its Own Similitude without any interposing medium. + +And it is possible to make this evident, especially in this, that as +the Divine Love is Eternal, so must its object of necessity be +eternal, so that those things are eternal which He loves. And thus it +makes this Love to love, for the Wisdom into which this Love strikes +is eternal. Wherefore it is written of her: "From the beginning, +before Time was created, I am: and in the Time to come I shall not +fail." And in the Proverbs of Solomon this Wisdom says: "I am +established for ever." And in the beginning of the Gospel of John, her +eternity is openly alluded to, as it is possible to observe. And +therefore it results that there, where this Love shines, all the other +Loves become obscure and almost extinct, since its eternal object +subdues and overpowers all other objects in a manner beyond all +comparison; and therefore the most excellent Philosophers in their +actions openly demonstrate it, whereby we know that they have treated +all other things with indifference except Wisdom. Wherefore +Democritus, neglecting all care of his own person, trimmed neither his +beard, nor the hair of his head, nor his nails. Plato, indifferent to +the riches of this world, despised the royal dignity, for he was the +son of a king. Aristotle, caring for no other friend, combated with +his own best friend, even with the above-named Plato, his dearest +friend after Philosophy. And why do we speak of these, when we find +others who, for these thoughts, held their life in contempt, such as +Zeno, Socrates, Seneca, and many more? It is evident, therefore, that +in this Love the Divine Power, after the manner of an Angel, descends +into men; and to give proof of this, the text presently exclaims: +"Fair one who doubt, go with her, mark the grace In all her acts." By +"Fair one" is meant the noble soul of judgment, free in its own power, +which is Reason; hence the other souls cannot be called Ladies, but +handmaids, since they are not for themselves, but for others; and the +Philosopher says, in the first book of Metaphysics, that that thing is +free which is a cause of itself and not for others. It says, "go with +her, mark the grace In all her acts," that is, make thyself the +companion of this Love, and look at that which will be found within +it; and in part it alludes to this, saying, "Downward from Heaven +bends An Angel when she speaks," meaning that where Philosophy is in +action a celestial thought stoops down, in which this being reasons or +discourses beyond the power of Human Nature. + +The Song says "from Heaven," to give people to understand that not +only Philosophy, but the thoughts friendly to it, are abstracted from +all low and earthly things. Then afterwards it says how she +strengthens and kindles love wherever she appears with the sweet +persuasions of her actions, which are in all her aspects modest, +gentle, and without any domineering assumption. And subsequently, by +still greater persuasion to induce a desire for her company, it says: +"Fair in all like her, fairest she'll appear Who is most like her." +Again it adds: "We, content to call Her face a Miracle," find help in +it, where it is to be known that the regard of this Lady was freely +ordained to arouse a desire in us for its acquisition, not only in her +countenance, which she reveals to sight, but also in the things which +she keeps hidden. Wherefore as, through her, much of that which is +hidden is seen by means of Reason (and consequently to see by Reason +without her seems a miracle), so, through her, one believes each +miracle in the action of a higher intellectual Power to have reason, +and therefore to be possible. From whence true Faith has its origin, +from which comes the Hope to desire the Future, and from that are born +the works of Charity, by which three Virtues we mount to become +Philosophers in that celestial Athens where Stoics, Peripatetics, and +Epicureans, by the practice of Eternal Truth, concur harmoniously in +one desire. + + + + +CHAPTER XV. + + +In the preceding chapter this glorious Lady is praised according to +one of her component parts, that is, Love. In this chapter I intend to +explain that passage which begins, "Her aspect shows delights of +Paradise," and here it is requisite to discuss and praise her other +part, Wisdom. + +The text then says that in the face of this Lady things appear which +show us joys of Paradise; and it distinguishes the place where this +appears, namely, in the eyes and the smile. And here it must be known +that the eyes of Wisdom are her demonstrations, whereby one sees the +Truth most certainly; but her persuasions are in her smile, in which +persuasions the inner Light of Wisdom reveals itself without any veil +or concealment. And in these two is felt that most exalted joy which +is the supreme good in Paradise. This joy cannot be in any other thing +here below, except in gazing into these eyes and upon that smile. And +the reason is this, that since each thing naturally desires its +perfection, without which it cannot be at peace, to have that is to be +blessed. For although it might possess all other things, yet, being +without that, there would remain in it desire, which cannot consist +with perfect happiness, since perfect happiness is a perfect thing, +and desire is a defective thing. For one desires not that which he +has, but that which he has not, and here is a manifest defect. And in +this form solely can human perfection be acquired, as the perfection +of Reason, on which, as on its principal part, our essential being all +depends. All our other actions, as to feel or hear, to take food, and +the rest, are through this one alone; and this is for itself, and not +for others. So that, if that be perfect, it is so perfect that the +man, inasmuch as he is a man, sees each desire fulfilled, and thus he +is happy. And therefore it is said in the Book of Wisdom: "Whoso +casteth away Wisdom and Knowledge is unhappy," that is to say, he +suffers the privation of happiness. From the habit of Wisdom it +follows that a man learns to be happy and content, according to the +opinion of the Philosopher. One sees, then, how in the aspect of this +Lady joys of Paradise appear, and therefore one reads in the Book of +Wisdom quoted above, when speaking of her, "She is a shining whiteness +of the Eternal Light; a Mirror without blemish, of the Majesty of +God." Then when it says, "Things over which the intellect may stray," +I excuse myself, saying that I can say but little concerning these, on +account of their overpowering influence. Where it is to be known that +in any way these things dazzle our intellect, inasmuch as they affirm +certain things to be, which our intellect is unable to comprehend, +that is, God and Eternity, and the first Matter which most certainly +they do not see, and with all faith they believe to be. And even what +they are we cannot understand; and so, by not denying things, it is +possible to draw near to some knowledge of them, but not otherwise. + +Truly here it is possible to have some very strong doubt how it is +that Wisdom can make the man completely happy without being able to +show him certain things perfectly; since the natural desire for +knowledge is in the man, and without fulfilment of the desire he +cannot be fully happy. To this it is possible to reply clearly, that +the natural desire in each thing is in proportion to the possibility +of reaching to the thing desired; otherwise it would pass into +opposition to itself, which is impossible; and Nature would have +worked in vain, which also is impossible. + +It would pass into opposition, for, desiring its perfection, it would +desire its imperfection, since he would desire always to desire, and +never fulfil his desire. And into this error the cursed miser falls, +and does not perceive that he desires always to desire, going +backwards to reach to an impossible amount. + +Nature also would have worked in vain, since it would not be ordained +to any end; and, in fact, human desire is proportioned in this life to +that knowledge which it is possible to have here. One cannot pass that +point except through error, which is outside the natural intention. +And thus it is proportioned in the Angelic, and it is limited in Human +Nature, and it finds its end in that Wisdom in proportion as the +nature of each can apprehend it. + +And this is the reason why the Saints have no envy amongst themselves, +since each one attains the end of his desire, and the desire of each +is in due proportion to the nature of his goodness. Wherefore, since +to know God and certain other things, as Eternity and the first +Matter, is not possible to our Nature, naturally we have no desire for +that knowledge, and hereby is this doubtful question solved. + +Then when I say, "Rain from her beauty little flames of fire," I +proceed to another joy of Paradise, that is, from the secondary +felicity, happiness, to this first one, which proceeds from her +beauty, where it is to be known that Morality is the beauty of +Philosophy. For as the beauty of the body is the result of its members +in proportion as they are fitly ordered, so the beauty of Wisdom, +which is the body of Philosophy, as has been said, results from the +order of the Moral Virtues which visibly make that joy. And therefore +I say that her beauty, which is Morality, rains down little flames of +fire, meaning direct desire, which is begotten in the pleasure of the +Moral Doctrine; which desire removes it again from the natural vices, +and not only from the others. And thence springs that happiness which +Aristotle defined in the first book of Ethics, saying, that it is Work +according to Virtue in the Perfect Life. + +And when it says, "Fair one, who may desire Escape from blame," it +proceeds in praise of Philosophy. I cry aloud to the people that they +should follow her, telling them of her good gifts, that is to say, +that by following her each one may become good. Therefore it says to +each Soul, that feels its beauty is to blame because it does not +appear what it ought to appear, let her look at this example. Where it +is to be known that the Morals are the beauty of the Soul, that is to +say, the most excellent virtues, which sometimes through vanity or +through pride are made less beautiful or less agreeable, as in the +last treatise it was possible to perceive. And therefore I say that, +in order to shun this, one looks at that Lady, Philosophy, there where +she is the example of Humility, namely, in that part of herself which +is called Moral Philosophy. And I subjoin that by gazing at her (I +say, at Wisdom) in that part, every vicious man will become upright +and good. And therefore I say she has "a spirit to create Good +thoughts, and crush the vices." She turns gently back him who has gone +astray from the right course. + +Finally, in highest praise of Wisdom, I say of her that she is the +Mother of every good Principle, saying that she is "God's thought," +who began the World, and especially the movement of the Heaven by +which all things are generated, and wherein each movement has its +origin, that is to say, that the Divine Thought is Wisdom. She was, +when God made the World; whence it follows that she could make it, and +therefore Solomon said in the Book of Proverbs, in the person of +Wisdom: "When He prepared the Heavens, I was there: when He set a +compass upon the face of the depth; when He established the clouds +above; when He strengthened the fountains of the deep; when He gave to +the sea His decree, that the waters should not pass His commandment; +when He appointed the foundations of the Earth: then I was by Him, as +one brought up with Him, and I was daily His delight, rejoicing always +before Him." O, ye Men, worse than dead, who fly from the friendship +of Wisdom, open your eyes, and see that before you were she was the +Lover of you, preparing and ordaining the process of your being! Since +you were made she came that she might guide you, came to you in your +own likeness; and, if all of you cannot come into her presence, honour +her in her friends, and follow their counsels, as of them who announce +to you the will of this eternal Empress! Close not your ears to +Solomon, who tells you "the path of the Just is as a shining Light, +which goeth forth and increaseth even to the day of salvation." Follow +after them, behold their works, which ought to be to you as a beacon +of light for guidance in the path of this most brief life. + +And here we may close the Commentary on the true meaning of the +present Song. The last stanza, which is intended for a refrain, can be +explained easily enough by the Literal exposition, except inasmuch as +it says that I there called this Lady "disdainful and morose." Where +it is to be known that at the beginning this Philosophy appeared to me +on the part of her body, which is Wisdom, morose, for she smiled not +on me, insomuch that as yet I did not understand her persuasions; and +she seemed to me disdainful, for she turned not her glance to me, that +is to say, I could not see her demonstrations. But the defect was +altogether on my side. From this, and from that which is given in the +explanation of the Literal meaning of the Song, the Allegory of the +refrain is evident. It is time, therefore, that we proceed farther, +and this treatise end. + + * * * * * + + + + +The Fourth Treatise + + + Soft rhymes of love I used to find + Within my thought, I now must leave, + Not without hope to turn to them again; + But signs of a disdainful mind + That in my Lady I perceive + Have closed the way to my accustomed strain. + + And since time suits me now to wait, + I put away the softer style + Proper to love; rhyme subtle and severe + Shall tell how Nobleman's estate + Is won by worth, hold false and vile + The judgment that from wealth derives a Peer. + + First calling on that Lord + Who dwells within her eyes, + Containing whom, my Lady learnt + Herself to love and prize. + + One raised to Empire held, + As far as he could see, + Descent of wealth, and generous ways, + To make Nobility. + + Another, lightly wise, + That saying turned aside, + Perchance for want of generous ways + The second source denied. + + And followers of him + Are all the men who rate + Those noble in whose families + The wealth has long been great. + + And so long among us + The falsehood has had sway, + That men call him a Nobleman, + Though worthless, who can say. + + I nephew am, or son, + Of one worth such a sum; + But he who sees the Truth may know + How vile he has become + + To whom the Truth was shown, + Who from the Truth has fled, + And though he walks upon the earth + Is counted with the dead: + + Whoever shall define + The man a living tree + Will speak untruth and less than truth, + Though more he may not see. + + The Emperor so erred; + First set the false in view, + Proceeding, on the other side, + To what was less than true. + + For riches make not worth + Although they can defile: + Nor can their want take worth away: + They are by nature vile. + + No painter gives a form + That is not of his knowing; + No tower leans above a stream + That far away is flowing. + + How vile and incomplete + Wealth is, let this declare + However great the heap may be + It brings no peace, but care. + + And hence the upright mind, + To its own purpose true, + Stands firm although the flood of wealth + Sweep onward out of view + + They will not have the vile + Turn noble, nor descent + From parent vile produce a race + For ever eminent. + + Yet this, they say, can be, + Their reason halts behind, + Since time they suit to noble birth + By course of time defined. + + It follows then from this + That all are high or base, + Or that in Time there never was + Beginning to our race. + + But that I cannot hold, + Nor yet, if Christians, they; + Sound intellect reproves their words + As false, and turns away. + + And now I seek to tell, + As it appears to me, + What is, whence comes, what signs attest + A true Nobility. + + I say that from one root + Each Virtue firstly springs, + Virtue, I mean, that Happiness + To man, by action, brings. + + This, as the Ethics teach, + Is habit of right choice + That holds the means between extremes, + So spake that noble voice. + + Nobility by right + No other sense has had + Than to import its subject's good, + As vileness makes him bad. + + Such virtue shows its good + To others' intellect, + For when two things agree in one, + Producing one effect. + + One must from other come, + Or each one from a third, + If each be as each, and more, then one + From the other is inferred. + + Where Virtue is, there is + A Nobleman, although + Not where there is a Nobleman + Must Virtue be also. + + So likewise that is Heaven + Wherein a star is hung, + But Heaven may be starless; so + In women and the young + + A modesty is seen, + Not virtue, noble yet; + Comes virtue from what's noble, as + From black comes violet; + + Or from the parent root + It springs, as said before, + And so let no one vaunt that him. + A noble mother bore. + + They are as Gods whom Grace + Has placed beyond all sin: + God only gives it to the Soul + That He finds pure within. + + That seed of Happiness + Falls in the hearts of few, + Planted by God within the Souls + Spread to receive His dew. + + Souls whom this Grace adorns + Declare it in each breath, + From birth that joins the flesh and soul + They show it until death. + + In Childhood they obey, + Are gentle, modest, heed + To furnish Virtue's person with + The graces it may need. + + Are temperate in Youth, + And resolutely strong, + Love much, win praise for courtesy, + Are loyal, hating wrong. + + Are prudent in their Age, + And generous and just, + And glad at heart to hear and speak + When good to man's discussed. + + The fourth part of their life + Weds them again to God, + They wait, and contemplate the end, + And bless the paths they trod. + + How many are deceived! My Song, + Against the strayers: when you reach + Our Lady, hide not from her that your end + Is labour that would lessen wrong, + And tell her too, in trusty speech, + I travel ever talking of your Friend. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + + +Love, according to the unanimous opinion of the wise men who discourse +of him, and as by experience we see continually, is that which brings +together and unites the lover with the beloved; wherefore Pythagoras +says, "In friendship many become one." + +And the things which are united naturally communicate their qualities +to each other, insomuch that sometimes it happens that one is wholly +changed into the nature of the other, the result being that the +passions of the beloved person enter into the person of the lover, so +that the love of the one is communicated to the other, and so likewise +hatred, desire, and every other passion; wherefore the friends of the +one are beloved by the other, and the enemies hated; and so in the +Greek proverb it is said: "With friends all things ought to be in +common." + +Wherefore I, having made a friend of this Lady, mentioned above in the +truthful exposition, began to love and to hate according to her love +and her hatred. I then began to love the followers of Truth, and to +hate the followers of Error and Falsehood, even as she does. But since +each thing is to be loved for itself and none are to be hated except +for excess of evil, it is reasonable and upright to hate not the +things, but the evil in the things, and to endeavour to distinguish +between these. And if any person has this intention, my most excellent +Lady understands especially how to distinguish the evil in anything, +which is the cause of hate; since in her is all Reason, and in her is +the fountain-head of all uprightness. + +I, following her as much as I could in her work as in her love, +abominated and despised the errors of the people with infamy or +reproach, not cast on those lost in error, but on the errors +themselves; by blaming which, I thought to create displeasure and to +separate the displeased ones from those faults in them which were +hated by me. Amongst which errors one especially I reproved, which, +because it is hurtful and dangerous not only to those who remain in +it, but also to others who reprove it, I separate it from them and +condemn. + +This is the error concerning Human Goodness, which, inasmuch as it is +sown in us by Nature, ought to be termed Nobility; which error was so +strongly entrenched by evil custom and by weak intellect that the +opinion of almost all people was falsified or deceived by it; and from +the false opinion sprang false judgments, and from false judgments +sprang unjust reverence and unjust contempt; wherefore the good were +held in vile disdain, and the evil were honoured and exalted. This was +the worst confusion in the world; even as he can see who looks subtly +at that which may result from it. And though it seemed that this my +Lady had somewhat changed her sweet countenance towards me, especially +where I gazed and sought to discover whether the first Matter of the +Elements was created by God, for which reason I strengthened myself to +frequent her presence a little, as if remaining there with her assent, +I began to consider in my mind the fault of man concerning the said +error. And to shun sloth, which is an especial enemy of this Lady, and +to describe or state this error very clearly, this error which robs +her of so many friends, I proposed to cry aloud to the people who are +walking in the path of evil, in order that they might direct their +steps to the right road; and I began a Song, in the beginning of which +I said, "Soft rhymes of love I used to find," wherein I intend to lead +the people back into the right path, the path of right knowledge +concerning true Nobility, as by the knowledge of its text, to the +explanation of which I now turn my attention, any one will be able to +perceive. + +And since the intention of this Song is directed to a remedy so +requisite, it was not well to speak under any figure of speech; but it +was needful to prepare this medicine speedily, that speedy might be +the restoration to health, which, being so corrupted, hastened to a +hideous death. It will not, then, be requisite in the exposition of +this Song to unveil any allegory, but simply to discuss its meaning +according to the letter. By my Lady I always mean her who is spoken of +in the preceding Song, that is to say, that Light of supreme virtue, +Philosophy, whose rays cause the flowers of true Nobility to blossom +forth in mankind and to bear fruit in the sons of men; concerning +which true Nobility the proposed Song fully intends to treat. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + + +In the beginning of the explanation now undertaken, in order to render +the meaning of the proposed Song more clear and distinct, it is +requisite to divide that first part into two parts, for in the first +part one speaks in the manner of a Proem or Preface; in the second, +the subject under discussion is continued; and the second part begins +in the commencement of the stanza, where it says: + + One raised to Empire held, + As far as he could see, + Descent of wealth, and generous ways, + To make Nobility. + +The first part, again, can be comprehended in three divisions or +members. In the first it states why I depart from my usual mode of +speech; in the second, I say of what it is my intention to discourse; +in the third, I call upon that Helper who most can aid me to establish +Truth. The second member, clause, or division begins: "And since time +suits me now." The third begins: "First calling on that Lord." I say +then that I was compelled to abandon the soft rhymes of Love which I +was accustomed to search for in my thoughts, and I assign the reason +or cause; wherefore I say that it is not because I have given up all +intention of making rhymes of Love, but because new aspects have +appeared in my Lady which have deprived me of material for present +speech of Love. Where it is to be known that it does not here say that +the gestures of this Lady are disdainful and angry according to +appearance only, as may be seen in the tenth chapter of the preceding +treatise; for at another time I say that the appearance is contrary to +the Truth; and how this can be, how one self-same thing can be sweet +and appear bitter, or rather be clear and appear obscure, may there be +seen clearly enough. + +Afterwards when I say, "And since time suits," I say, even as has been +said, what that is whereof I intend to discourse. And that which it +says in the words "time suits" is not here to be passed over with a +dry foot, because there is a most powerful reason for my action; but +it is to be seen how reasonably time must wait on all our acts, and +especially on speech. + +Time, according to what Aristotle says in the fourth chapter of +Physics, is the number of movement, first, second, and onwards; and +the number of the celestial movement, which prepares the things here +below to receive in various ways any informing power. For the Earth is +prepared in one way in the beginning of Spring to receive into itself +the informing power of the herbs and flowers, and the Winter +otherwise; and in one manner is one season prepared to receive the +seed, differing from another. And even so our Mind, inasmuch as it is +founded upon the temper of the body, which has to follow the +revolution of the Heaven, at one time is disposed in one way, at +another time in another way; wherefore words, which are, as it were, +the seeds of actions, ought very discreetly to be withheld or uttered; +they should be spoken with such sound judgment that they may be well +received, and good fruit follow from them; not withheld or spent so +sparingly that barrenness is the result of their defective utterance. +And therefore a suitable time should be chosen, both for him who +speaks and for him who must hear: for if the speaker is badly +prepared, very often his words are injurious or hurtful; and if the +hearer is ill-disposed, those words which are good are ill received. +And therefore Solomon says in Ecclesiastes: "There is a time to speak, +and a time to be silent." Wherefore I, feeling within myself that my +disposition to speak of Love was disturbed, for the cause which has +been mentioned in the preceding chapter, it seemed to me that the time +might suit me now, time which bears with it the fulfilment of every +desire, and appears in the guise of a generous giver to those who +grudge not to await him patiently. Wherefore St. James says in his +Epistle, in the fifth chapter: "Behold, the husbandman waiteth for the +precious fruit of the Earth, and hath long patience for it, until he +receive the early and the latter rain." For all our sorrows, or cares, +or vexations, if we inquire diligently into their origin, proceed, as +it were, from not knowing the use of time. I say, "since the time +suits," I will leave my pen alone, that is to say, the sweet or gentle +style I used when I sang of Love; and I say that I will speak of that +worth whereby a man is truly noble. + +And as it is possible to understand worth in many ways, here I intend +to assume worth to be a power of Nature, or rather a goodness bestowed +by her, as will be seen in what follows; and I promise to discourse on +this subject with a "rhyme subtle and severe." + +Wherefore it is requisite to know that rhyme may be considered in a +double sense, that is to say, in a wide and in a narrow sense. In the +narrow sense, it is understood as that concordance which in the last +and in the penultimate syllable it is usual to make. In the wide +sense, it is understood for all that language which, with numbers and +regulated time, falls into rhymed consonance; and thus it is desired +that it should be taken and understood in this Proem. And therefore it +says "severe," with reference to the sound of the style, which to such +a subject must not be sweet and pleasing; and it says "subtle," with +regard to the meaning of the words, which proceed with subtle argument +and disputation. + +And I subjoin: "hold false and vile The judgment;" where again it is +promised to confute the judgment of the people full of error: false, +that is, removed from the Truth; and vile, that is to say, affirmed +and fortified by vileness of mind. And it is to be observed that in +this Proem I promise, firstly, to treat of the Truth, and then to +confute the False; and in the treatise the opposite is done, for, in +the first place, I confute the False, and then treat of the Truth, +which does not appear rightly according to the promise. And therefore +it is to be known that, although the intention is to speak of both, +the principal intention is to handle the Truth; and the intention is +to reprove the False or Untrue, in so far as by so doing I make the +Truth appear more excellent. + +And here, in the first place, the promise is to speak of the Truth +according to the chief intention, which creates in the minds of the +hearers a desire to hear; for in the first treatise I reprove the +False of Untrue in order that, the false opinions being chased away, +the Truth may be received more freely. And this method was adopted by +the master of human argument, Aristotle, who always in the first place +fought with the adversaries of Truth, and then, having vanquished +them, revealed or demonstrated Truth itself. + +Finally, when I say, "First calling on that Lord," I appeal to Truth +to be with me, Truth being that Lord who dwells in the eyes of +Philosophy, that is to say, in her demonstrations. And indeed Truth is +that Lord; for the Soul espoused to Truth is the bride of Truth, and +otherwise it is a slave or servant deprived of all liberty. + +And it says, "my Lady learnt Herself to love and prize," because this +Philosophy, which has been said in the preceding treatise to be a +loving use of Wisdom, beholds herself when the beauty of her eyes +appears to her. And what else is there to be said, except that the +Philosophic Soul not only contemplates this Truth, but again +contemplates her own contemplation and the beauty of that, again +revolving upon herself, and being enamoured with herself on account of +the beauty of her first glance? + +And thus ends this which, as a Proem or Preface in three divisions, +heads the present treatise. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + + +Having seen the meaning of the Proem, we must now follow the treatise, +and, to demonstrate it clearly, it must be divided into its chief +parts, which are three. + +In the first, one treats of Nobility according to the opinion of other +men; in the second, one treats of it according to the true opinion; in +the third, one addresses speech to the Song by way of ornament to that +which has been said. The second part begins: "I say that from one root +Each Virtue firstly springs." The third begins: "How many are +deceived! My Song, Against the strayers." And after these general +parts, it will be right to make other divisions, in order to make the +meaning of the demonstration clear. Therefore, let no one marvel if it +proceed with many divisions, since a great and high work is now on my +hands, and one that is but little entered upon by authors; the +treatise must be long and subtle into which the reader now enters with +me, if I am to unfold perfectly the text according to the meaning +which it bears. + +I say, then, that this first part is now divided into two: for in the +first, the opinions of others are placed; in the second, those +opinions are confuted; and this second part begins: "Whoever shall +define The man a living tree." Again, the first part which remains has +two clauses: the first is the variation of the opinion of the Emperor; +the second is the variation of the opinion of the Common People, which +is naked or void of all reason; and this second clause or division +begins: "Another, lightly wise." I say then, "One raised to Empire," +that is to say, such an one made use of the Imperial Office. Where it +is to be known that Frederick of Suabia, the last Emperor of the +Romans (I say last with respect to the present time, notwithstanding +that Rudolf, and Adolphus, and Albert were elected after his death and +from his descendants), being asked what Nobility might be, replied +that "it was ancient wealth, and good manners." + +And I say that there was another of less wisdom, who, pondering and +revolving this definition in every part, removed the last particle, +that is, the good manners, and held to the first, that is, to the +ancient riches. And as he seems to have doubted the text, perhaps +through not having good manners, and not wishing to lose the title of +Nobility, he defined it according to that which made himself noble, +namely, possession of ancient wealth. + +And I say that this opinion is that of almost all, saying that after +it go all the people who make those men noble who have a long +pedigree, and who have been rich through many generations; since in +this cry do almost all men bark. + +These two opinions (although one, as has been said, is of no +consequence whatever) seem to have two very grave arguments in support +of them. The first is, that the Philosopher says that whatever appears +true to the greatest number cannot be entirely false. The second is, +the authority of the definition by an Emperor. And that one may the +better see the power of the Truth, which conquers all other authority, +I intend to argue with the one reason as with the other, to which it +is a strong helper and powerful aid. + +And, firstly, one cannot understand Imperial authority until the roots +of it are found. It is our intention to treat or discourse of them in +an especial chapter. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + + +The radical foundation of Imperial Majesty, according to the Truth, is +the necessity of Human Civilization, which is ordained to one end, +that is, to a Happy Life. Nothing is of itself sufficient to attain +this without some external help, since man has need of many things +which one person alone is unable to obtain. And therefore the +Philosopher says that man is naturally a companionable animal. And as +a man requires for his sufficient comfort the domestic companionship +of a family, so a house requires for its sufficient comfort a +neighbourhood; otherwise there would be many wants to endure which +would be an obstacle to happiness. And since a neighbourhood cannot +satisfy all requirements, there must for the satisfaction of men be +the City. Again, the City requires for its Arts and Manufactures to +have an environment, as also for its defence, and to have brotherly +intercourse with the circumjacent or adjacent Cities, and thence the +Kingdom. + +But since the human mind in restricted possession of the Earth finds +no peace, but always desires to acquire Glory, as we see by +experience, discords and wars must arise between realm and realm. +These are the tribulation of Cities; and through the Cities, of the +neighbourhoods; and through the neighbourhoods, of the houses; and +through the houses, of men; and thus is the happiness of man prevented +or obstructed. Wherefore, in order to prevent these wars, and to +remove the causes of them through all the Earth, so far as it is given +to the Human Race to possess it, there must of necessity be Monarchy, +that is to say, one sole principality; and there must be one Prince, +who, possessing all, and not being able to desire more, holds the +Kings content within the limits of the kingdoms, so that peace may be +between them, wherein the Cities may repose, and in this rest the +neighbouring hamlets may dwell together in mutual love; in this love +the houses obtain all they need, which, being obtained, men can live +happily, which is that end for which man was born. And to these +reasons might be applied the words of the Philosopher, for he says, in +the book On Politics, that when many things are ordained to one end, +one of those must be the ruling power, and all the others must be +governed by that. Even as we see in a ship that the different offices +and the different means to different ends in that ship are ordained to +one end alone, that is to say, to reach the desired port by a safe +voyage, where as each officer orders his own work to the proper end, +even so there is one who considers all these ends, and ordains those +to the final one; and this is the Pilot, whose voice all must obey. + +We see this also in the religious bodies and in the military bodies, +in all those things which are ordained to one end, as has been said. +Wherefore it can plainly be seen that to attain the perfection of the +Universal Union of the Human Race there must be one Pilot, as it were, +who, considering the different conditions of the World, and ordaining +the different and needful offices, may hold or possess over the whole +the universal and incontestable office of Command. And this office is +well designated Empire, without any addition, because it is of all +other governments the government; and so he who is appointed to this +office is designated Emperor, because of all Governors he is the +Governor, and what he says is Law to all, and ought by all to be +obeyed; and every other government derives vigour and authority from +the government of this man. And thus it is evident that the Imperial +Majesty and Authority is the most exalted in the Human Family. + +No doubt it would be possible for some one to cavil, saying, that +although the office of Empire may be required in the World, that does +not make the authority of the Roman Prince rationally supreme, which +it is the intention of the treatise to prove; since the Roman Power +was acquired, not by Reason nor by decree of Universal Election, but +by Force, which seems to be opposed to Reason. To this one can easily +reply, that the election of this Supreme Official must primarily +proceed from that Council which foresees all things, that is, God; +otherwise the election would not have been of equal benefit for all +the people, since, before the pre-ordained Official, there was none +who had the good of all at heart. + +And since a gentler nature in ruling, and a stronger in maintaining, +and a more subtle in acquiring never was and never will be than that +of the Latin People, as one can see by experience, and especially that +of the Holy People, in whom was blended the noble Trojan blood; to +that office it was elected by God. Wherefore, since, to obtain it, not +without very great power could it be approached, and to employ it a +most exalted and most humane benignity was required, this was the +people which was most fitly prepared for it. Hence not by Force was it +assumed in the first place by the Roman People but by Divine +Ordinance, which is above all Reason. And Virgil is in harmony with +this in the first book of the Æneid, when he says, speaking in the +person of God: "On these [that is, on the Romans] I impose no limits +to their possessions, nor to their duration; to them I have given +boundless Empire." Force, then, was not the moving cause, as he +believed who was cavilling; but there was an instrumental cause even +as the blows of the hammer are the cause of the knife, and the soul of +the workman is the moving and the efficient cause; and thus, not +force, but a cause, even a Divine Cause, has been the origin of the +Roman Empire. + +And that this is so it is possible to see by two most evident reasons, +which prove that City to be the Empress, and to have from God an +especial birth, and to have from God an especial success. But since in +this chapter without too great length it would not be possible to +discuss this subject, and long chapters are the enemies of Memory, I +will again make a digression in another chapter in order to prove the +reasons here alluded to, which are not without and may give great +pleasure. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + + +It is no cause for wonder if the Divine Providence, which surpasses +beyond measure all angelic and human foresight, often appears to us to +proceed mysteriously, since many times human actions conceal their +motives from men. But there is great cause for wonder when the +execution of the Eternal Counsel proceeds so evidently that our reason +can discern it. And therefore in the beginning of this chapter I can +speak with the mouth of Solomon, who, in the person of Wisdom, says in +his Proverbs: "Hear, for I will speak of excellent things!" + +The Divine Goodness unmeasureable, desiring to conform again to Itself +the Human Creature, which, through the sin of the prevarication of the +first Man, was separated from God and deformed thereby, it was +decided, in that most exalted and most united Divine Consistory of the +Trinity, that the Son of God should descend to the Earth to accomplish +this union. And since at His advent into the world, not only Heaven, +but Earth, must be in the best disposition; and the best disposition +of the Earth is when it is a Monarchy, that is to say, all subject to +one Prince, as has been said above, by Divine Providence it was +ordained what people and what city should fulfil this, and that people +was the Roman nation, and that city was glorious Rome. And since the +Inn also wherein the Heavenly King must enter must of necessity be +most cleanly and most pure, there was ordained a most Holy Race, from +which, after many excellent or just ancestors, there should be born a +Woman more perfect than all others, who should be the abode of the Son +of God. And this race was the Race of David, from which was born the +glory and honour of the Human Race, that is to say, Mary. And +therefore it is written in Isaiah: "A virgin shall be born of the stem +of Jesse, and a branch shall grow out of his roots." And Jesse was the +father of the aforesaid David. And it happened at one period of time +that when David was born, Rome was born, that is to say, Æneas then +came from Troy to Italy, which was the origin of the most noble Roman +City, even as the written word bears witness. Evident enough, +therefore, is the Divine election of the Roman Empire by the birth of +the Holy City, which was contemporaneous with the root of the race +from which Mary sprang. + +And incidentally it is to be mentioned that, since this Heaven began +to revolve, it never was in a better disposition than when He +descended from on high, He who had made it and who is its Ruler, even +as again by virtue of their arts the Mathematicians may be able to +discover. The World never was nor ever will be so perfectly prepared +as then, when it was governed by the voice of one man alone, Prince +and Commander of the Roman people, even as Luke the Evangelist bears +witness. And therefore there was Universal Peace, which never was +again nor ever will be, for the Ship of the Human Family rightly by a +sweet pathway was hastening to its rightful haven. Oh, ineffable and +incomprehensible Wisdom of God, which in Heaven above didst prepare, +so long beforehand, for Thy advent into Syria and here in Italy at the +same time! And oh, most foolish and vile beasts who pasture in the +guise of men--you who presume to speak against our Faith, and profess +to know, as ye spin and dig, what God has ordained with so much +forethought--curses be on you and your presumption, and on him who +believes in you! + +And, as has been said above, at the end of the preceding chapter, the +Roman People had from God not only an especial birth, but an especial +success; for, briefly, from Romulus, who was the first father of Rome, +even to its most perfect era, that is, to the time of its predicted +Emperor, its success was achieved not only by human, but by Divine +means. For if we consider the Seven Kings who first governed +it--Romulus, Numa, Tullus, Ancus Martius, Servius Tullius, and the +Tarquins, who were, as it were, the nurses and tutors of its +Childhood--we shall be able to find, by the written word of Roman +History, especially by Titus Livius, those to have been of different +natures, according to the opportunity of the advancing tract of time. +If we consider, then, its Adolescence, when it was emancipated from +the regal tutorship by Brutus, the first Consul, even to Cæsar, its +first supreme Prince, we shall find it exalted, not with human, but +with Divine citizens, into whom, not human, but Divine love was +inspired in loving Rome; and this neither could be nor ought to be, +except for an especial end intended by God through such infusion of a +heavenly spirit. And who will say that there was no Divine inspiration +in Fabricius when he rejected an almost infinite amount of gold +because he was unwilling to abandon his country? or in Curius, whom +the Samnites attempted to corrupt, who said, when refusing a very +large quantity of gold for love of his country, that the Roman +citizens did not desire to possess gold, but the possessors of the +gold? Who will say there was no Divine inspiration in Mutius burning +his own hand because it had failed in the blow wherewith he had +thought to deliver Rome? Who will say of Torquatus, who sentenced his +own son to death from love to the Public Good, that he could have +endured this without a Divine Helper? Who will say this of the Brutus +before mentioned? Who will say it of the Decii and of the Drusi, who +laid down their lives for their country? Who will say of the captive +Regulus of Carthage, sent to Rome to exchange the Carthaginian +prisoners for Roman prisoners of war, who, after having explained the +object of his embassy, gave counsel against himself; through pure love +to Rome, that he was moved to do this by the impulse of Human Nature +alone? Who will say it of Quinctius Cincinnatus, who, taken from the +plough and made dictator, after the time of office had expired, +spontaneously refusing its continuance, followed his plough again? Who +will say of Camillus, banished and chased into exile, who, having come +to deliver Rome from her enemies, and having accomplished her +liberation, spontaneously returned into exile in order not to offend +against the authority of the Senate, that he was without Divine +inspiration? O, most sacred heart of Cato, who shall presume to speak +of thee? Truly, to speak freely of thee is not possible; it were +better to be silent and to follow Jerome, when, in the Preface of the +Bible where he alludes to Paul, he says that it were better to be +silent than say little. Certainly it must be evident, remembering the +lives of these men and of the other Divine citizens, that such wonders +could not have been without some light of the Divine Goodness, added +to their own goodness of nature. And it must be evident that these +most excellent men were instruments with which Divine Providence +worked in the building up of the Roman Empire, wherein many times the +arm of God appeared to be present. And did not God put His own hand to +the battle wherein the Albans fought with the Romans in the beginning +for the chief dominion, when one Roman alone held in his hands the +liberty of Rome? And did not God interfere with His own hands when the +Franks, having taken all Rome, attacked by stealth the Capitol by +night, and the voice alone of a goose caused this to be known? And did +not God interfere with His own hands when, in the war with Hannibal, +having lost so many citizens that three bushels of rings were carried +into Africa, the Romans wished to abandon the land, if the blessed +Scipio the younger had not undertaken his expedition into Africa for +the recovery of freedom? And did not God interfere with His own hands +when a new citizen of humble station, Tullius, defended, against such +a citizen as Catiline, the Roman liberty? Yes, surely. Wherefore one +should not need to inquire further to see that an especial birth and +an especial success were in the Mind of God decreed to that holy City. +And certainly I am of a firm opinion that the stones which remain in +her walls are worthy of reverence; and it is asserted and proved that +the ground whereon she stands is worthy beyond all other that is +occupied by man. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + + +Above, in the third chapter of this treatise, a promise was made to +discourse of the supremacy of the Imperial Authority and of the +Philosophic Authority. And since the Imperial Authority has been +discussed, my digression must now proceed further in order to consider +that of the Philosopher, according to the promise made. + +And here we must first see what is the meaning of this word; since +here there is a greater necessity to understand it than there was +above in the argument on the Imperial Authority, which, on account of +its Majesty, does not seem to be doubted. It is then to be known that +Authority is no other than the act of the Author. + +This word, that is to say, Auctore, without this third letter, +_c_, can be derived from two roots. One is from a verb, whose use +in grammar is much abandoned, which signifies to bind or to tie words +together, that is, A U I E O; and whoso looks well at it in its first +vowel or syllable will clearly perceive that it demonstrates it +itself, for it is constituted solely of a tie of words, that is, of +five vowels alone, which are the soul and bond of every word, and +composed of them in a twisted way, to figure the image of a ligature; +for beginning with the A, then it twists round into the U, and comes +straight through the I into the E, then it revolves and turns round +into the O: so that truly this figure represents A, E, I, O, U, which +is the figure or form of a tie; and how much _Autore_ (Author) +derives its origin from this word, one learns from the poets alone, +who have bound their words together with the art of harmony; but on +this signification we do not at present dwell. The other root from +which the word "Autore" (Author) is derived, as Uguccione testifies in +the beginning of his Derivations, is a Greek word, "Autentim," which +in Latin means "worthy of faith and obedience." And thus "Autore" +(Author), derived from this, is taken for any person worthy to be +believed and obeyed; and thence comes this word, of which one treats +at the present moment, that is to say, Authority. Wherefore one can +see that Authority is equivalent to an act worthy of faith and +obedience. + +[Here is a small break in the original, containing some such words +as--Worthy, nay, most worthy, of obedience and of faith is Aristotle:] +hence it is evident that his words are a supreme and chief Authority. +That Aristotle is most worthy of faith and obedience, one can thus +prove. Amongst workmen and artificers of different Arts and +Manufactures, which are all directed to one final work of Art, or to +one building, the Artificer or Designer of that work must be +completely believed in, and implicitly obeyed by all, as the man who +alone beholds the ultimate end of all the other ends. Hence the +sword-cutler must believe in the knight, so must the bridle-maker and +saddle-maker and the shield-maker, and all those trades which are +appointed to the profession of knighthood. And since all human actions +require an aim, which is that of human life, to which man is appointed +inasmuch as he is man, the master and artificer who considers that aim +and demonstrates it ought especially to be believed in and obeyed; and +he is Aristotle; wherefore he is most worthy of faith and obedience. +And in order to see how Aristotle is the master and leader of Human +Reason in so far as it aims at its final operation, it is requisite to +know that this our aim of life, which each one naturally desires, in +most ancient times was searched for by the Wise Men; and since those +who desire this end are so numerous, and their desires are as it were +all singularly different, although they exist in us universally, it +was nevertheless very difficult to discern that end whereon rightly +each human appetite or desire might repose. + +There were then many ancient philosophers, the first and the chief of +whom was Zeno, who saw and believed this end of human life to be +solely a rigid honesty, that is to say, rigid without regard to any +one in following Truth and Justice, to show no sorrow, to show no joy, +to have no sense of any passion whatever. And they defined thus this +honest uprightness, as that which, without bearing fruit, is to be +praised for reason of itself. And these men and their sect were called +Stoics; and that glorious Cato was one of them, of whom in the +previous chapter I had not courage enough to speak. + +Other philosophers there were who saw and believed otherwise; and of +these the first and chief was a philosopher, who was named Epicurus, +who, seeing that each animal as soon as it is born is as it were +directed by Nature to its right end, which shuns pain and seeks for +pleasure, said that this end or aim of ours was enjoyment. I do not +say greedy enjoyment, voluntade, but I write it with a _p_, +voluptate, that is, delight or pleasure free from pain; and therefore +between pleasure and pain no mean was placed. He said that pleasure +was no other than no pain; as Tullius seems to say in the first +chapter De Finibus. And of these, who from Epicurus are named +Epicureans, was Torquatus, a noble Roman, descended from the blood of +the glorious Torquatus mention of whom I made above. There were +others, and they had their rise from Socrates, and then from his +successor, Plato, who, looking more subtly, and seeing that in our +actions it was possible to sin, and that one sinned in too much and in +too little, said that our action, without excess and without defect, +measured to the due mean of our own choice, is virtue, and virtue is +the aim of man; and they called it action with virtue. And these were +called Academicians, as was Plato and Speusippus, his nephew; they +were thus called from the place where Plato taught, that is, the +Academy; neither from Socrates did they take or assume any word, +because in his Philosophy nothing was affirmed. Truly Aristotle, who +had his surname from Stagira, and Xenocrates of Chalcedon, his +companion, through the genius, almost Divine, which Nature had put +into Aristotle, knowing this end by means of the Socratic method, with +the Academic file, as it were, reduced Moral Philosophy to perfection, +and especially Aristotle. And since Aristotle began to reason while +walking hither and thither, they were called, he, I say, and his +companions, Peripatetics, which means the same as walkers about. And +since the perfection of this Morality by Aristotle was attained, the +name of Academician became extinct, and all those who attached +themselves to this sect are called Peripatetics, and these people hold +the doctrine of the government of the World through all its parts: and +it may be termed a catholic opinion, as it were. Wherefore it is +possible to see that Aristotle was the Indicator and the Leader of the +people to this mark. And this is what I wished to prove. + +Wherefore, collecting all together, the principal intention is +manifest, that is to say, that the authority of him whom we understand +to be the supreme Philosopher is full of complete vigour, and in no +way repugnant to Imperial Authority. But the Imperial without the +Philosopher is dangerous; and this without that is weak, not of +itself, but through the disorder of the people: but when one is united +with the other they are together most useful and full of all vigour; +and therefore it is written in that Book of Wisdom: "Love the Light of +Wisdom, all you who are before the people," that is to say, unite +Philosophic Authority with the Imperial, in order to rule well and +perfectly. O, you miserable ones, who rule at the present time! and O, +most miserable ones, you who are ruled! For no Philosophic Authority +is united with your governments, neither through suitable study nor by +counsel; so that to all it is possible to repeat those words from +Ecclesiastes: "Woe to thee, O land, when thy King is a child, and thy +Princes eat in the morning;" and to no land is it possible to say that +which follows: "Blessed art thou, O land, when thy King is the son of +nobles, and thy Princes eat in due season, for strength and not for +drunkenness." + +Ye enemies of God, look to your flanks, ye who have seized the +sceptres of the kingdoms of Italy. And I say to you, Charles, and to +you, Frederick, Kings, and to you, ye other Princes and Tyrants, see +who sits by the side of you in council, and count how many times a day +this aim of human life is indicated to you by your councillors. Better +would it be for you, like swallows, to fly low down than, like kites, +to make lofty circles over carrion. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + + +Since it is seen how much the Imperial Authority and the Philosophic +are to be revered, which must support the opinions propounded, it is +now for us to return into the straight path to the intended goal. I +say, then, that this last opinion of the Common People has continued +so long that without other cause, without inquiry into any reason, +every man is termed Noble who may be the son or nephew of any brave +man, although he himself is nothing. And this is what the Song says: + + And so long among us + This falsehood has had sway, + That men call him a Nobleman, + Though worthless, who can say, + + I nephew am, or son, + Of one worth such a sum. + +Wherefore it is to be observed that it is most dangerous negligence to +allow this evil opinion to take root; for even as weeds multiply in +the uncultivated field, and surmount and cover the ear of the corn, so +that, looking at it from a distance, the wheat appears not, and +finally the corn is lost; so the evil opinion in the mind, neither +chastised nor corrected, increases and multiplies, so that the ear of +Reason, that is, the true opinion, is concealed and buried as it were, +and so it is lost. O, how great is my undertaking in this Song, for I +wish now to weed the field so full of wild and woody plants as is this +field of the common opinion so long bereft of tillage! Certainly I do +not intend to cleanse all, but only those parts where the ears of +Reason are not entirely overcome; that is, I intend to lift up again +those in whom some little light of Reason still lives through the +goodness of their nature; the others need only as much care as the +brute beasts: wherefore it seems to me that it would not be a less +miracle to lead back to Reason him in whom it is entirely extinct than +to bring back to Life him who has been four days in the grave. + +Then the evil quality of this popular opinion is narrated suddenly, as +if it were a horrible thing; it strikes at that, springing forth from +the order of the confutation, saying, "But he who sees the Truth will +know How vile he has become," in order to make people understand its +intolerable wickedness, saying, that those men lie especially, for not +only is the man vile, that is, not Noble, who, although descended from +good people, is himself wicked, but also he is most vile; and I quote +the example of the right path being indicated, where, to prove this, +it is fit for me to propound a question, and to reply to that question +in this way. + +There is a plain with certain paths, a field with hedges, with +ditches, with rocks, with tanglewood, with all kinds of obstacles; +with the exception of its two straight paths. And it has snowed so +much that the snow covers everything, and presents one smooth +appearance on every side, so that no trace of any path is to be seen. +Here comes a man from one part of the country, and he wishes to go to +a house which is on the other side; and by his industry, that is, +through prudent foresight and through the goodness of genius, guided +solely by himself, he goes through the right path whither he meant to +go, leaving the prints of his footsteps behind him. Another comes +after this man, and he wishes to go to that mansion, and to him it is +only needful to follow the footprints left there; but through his own +fault this man strays from the path, which the first man without a +guide has known how to keep; this man, though it is pointed out to +him, loses his way through the brambles and the rocks, and he goes not +to the place whither he is bound. + +Which of these men ought to be termed excellent, brave, or worthy? I +reply: He who went first. How would you designate that other man? I +reply: "As most vile." Why is he not called unworthy or cowardly, that +is to say, vile? I reply: Because unworthy, that is, vile, he should +be called who, having no guide, might have failed to walk +straightforward; but since this man had a guide, his error and his +fault can rise higher; and therefore he is to be called, not vile, but +most vile. And likewise he who, by his father or by some elder of his +race is ennobled, and does not continue in a noble course, not only is +he vile, but he is most vile, and deserving of as much contempt and +infamy as any other villain, if not of more. And because a man may +preserve himself from this vile baseness, Solomon lays this command on +him who has had a brave and excellent ancestor, in the twenty-second +chapter of Proverbs: "Remove not the ancient landmark, which thy +fathers have set," And previously he says, in the fourth chapter of +the said book: "The path of the Just," that is, of the worthy men, "is +as the shining light, that shineth more and more unto the perfect day; +the way of the wicked is as darkness, and they know not at what they +stumble." + +Finally, when it says, "And though he walks upon the earth Is counted +with the dead," to his greater disgrace I say that this most +worthless man is dead, seeming still alive. Where it is to be known +that the wicked man may be truly said to be dead, and especially he +who goes astray from the path trodden by his good ancestor. And this +it is possible to prove thus: as Aristotle says in the second book On +the Soul, to live is to be with the living; and since there are many +ways of living--as in the plants to vegetate; in the animals to +vegetate and to feel and to move; in men to vegetate, to feel, to +move, and to reason, or rather to understand; and since things ought +to be denominated by the noblest part, it is evident that in animals +to live is to feel--in the brute animals, I say; in man, to live is to +use reason. Wherefore, if to live is the life or existence of man, and +if thus to depart from the use of Reason, which is his life, is to +depart from life or existence, even thus is that man dead. + +And does he not depart from the use of Reason who does not reason or +think concerning the aim of his life? And does he not depart from the +use of Reason who does not reason or think concerning the path which +he ought to take? Certainly he does so depart; and this is evident +especially in him who has the footprints before him, and looks not at +them; and therefore Solomon says in the fifth chapter of Proverbs: "He +shall die without instruction; and in the greatness of his folly he +shall go astray," that is to say, he is dead who becomes a disciple, +and who does not follow his master; and such an one is most vile. + +And of him it would be possible for some one to say: How is he dead +and yet he walks? I reply, that as a man he is dead, but as a beast he +has remained alive; for as the Philosopher says in the second book On +the Soul, the powers of the Soul stand upon itself, as the figure of +the quadrangle stands upon the triangle, and the pentagon stands upon +the quadrangle; so the sensitive stands upon the vegetative, and the +intellectual stands upon the sensitive. Wherefore, as, by removing the +last side of the pentagon, the quadrangle remains, so by removing the +last power of the Soul, that is, Reason, the man no longer remains, +but a thing with a sensitive soul only, that is, the brute animal. + +And this is the meaning or intention of the second part of the devised +Song, in which are placed the opinions of others. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + + +The most beautiful branch which grows up from the root of Reason is +Discretion. For as St. Thomas says thereupon in the prologue to the +book of Ethics, to know the order of one thing to another is the +proper act of Reason; and this is Discretion. One of the most +beautiful and sweetest fruits of this branch is the reverence which +the lesser owes to the greater. Wherefore Tullius, in the first +chapter of the Offices, when speaking of the beauty which shines forth +in Uprightness, says that reverence is part of that beauty; and thus +as this reverence is the beauty of Uprightness, so its opposite is +baseness and want of uprightness; which opposite quality it is +possible to term irreverence, or rather as impudent boldness, in our +Vulgar Tongue. + +And therefore this Tullius in the same place says: "To treat with +contemptuous indifference that which others think of one, not only is +the act of an arrogant, but also of a dissolute person," which means +no other except that arrogance and dissolute conduct show want of +self-knowledge, which is the beginning of the capacity for all +reverence. Wherefore I, desiring (and bearing meanwhile all reverence +both to the Prince and to the Philosopher) to remove the infirmity +from the minds of some men, in order afterwards to build up thereupon +the light of truth, before I proceed to confute the opinions +propounded, will show how, whilst confuting those opinions, I argue +with irreverence neither against the Imperial Majesty nor against the +Philosopher. For if in any part of this entire book I should appear +irreverent, it would not be so bad as in this treatise; in which, +whilst treating of Nobility, I ought to appear Noble, and not vile. + +And firstly I will prove that I do not presume against the authority +of the Philosopher; then I will prove that I do not presume against +Imperial Majesty. + +I say, then, that when the Philosopher says, "that which appears to +the most is impossible to be entirely false," I do not mean to speak +of the external appearance, that is, the sensual, but of that which +appears within, the rational; since the sensual appearance, according +to most people, is many times most false, especially in the common +things appreciable by the senses, wherein the sense is often deceived. +Thus we know that to most people the Sun appears of the width of a +foot in diameter; and this is most false, for, according to the +inquiry and the discovery which human reason has made with its skill, +the diameter of the body of the Sun is five times as much as that of +the Earth and also one-half time more, since the Earth in its diameter +is six thousand five hundred miles, the diameter of the Sun, which to +the sense of sight presents the appearance of the width of one foot, +is thirty-five thousand seven hundred and fifty miles. Wherefore it is +evident that Aristotle did not understand or judge it by the +appearance which it presents to the sense of sight. And therefore, if +I intend only to oppose false trust in appearance according to the +senses, that is not done against the intention of the Philosopher, and +therefore I do not offend against the reverence which is due to him. + +And that I intend to confute the appearance according to the sense is +manifest; for those people who judge thus, judge only by what they +feel or think of those things which fortune can give and take away. +For, because they see great alliances made and high marriages to take +place, and the wonderful palaces, the large possessions, great +lordships, they believe that all those things are the causes of +Nobility--nay, they believe them to be Nobility itself. For if they +could judge with any appearance of reason, they would say the +contrary, that is, that Nobility is the cause of these things, as will +be seen in the sequel of this treatise. And even as it may be seen +that I speak not against the reverence due to the Philosopher whilst +confuting this error, so I speak not against the reverence due to the +Empire; and the reason I intend to show. But when he reasons or argues +before the adversary, the Rhetorician ought to use much caution in his +speech, in order that the adversary may not derive thence material +wherewith to disturb the Truth. I, who speak in this treatise in the +presence of so many adversaries, cannot speak briefly; wherefore, if +my digressions should be long, let no one marvel. + +I say, then, that, in order to prove that I am not irreverent to the +Majesty of the Empire, it is requisite, in the first place, to see +what reverence is. I say that reverence is no other than a confession +of due submission by an evident sign; and, having seen this, it +remains to distinguish between them. Irreverent expresses privation, +not reverent expresses negation; and, therefore, irreverence is to +disavow the due submission by a manifest sign. The want of reverence +is to refuse submission as not due. A man can deny or refuse a thing +in a double sense. In one way, the man can deny offending against the +Truth when he abstains from the due confession, and this properly is +to disavow. In another way, the man can deny offending against the +Truth when he does not confess that which is not, and this is proper +negation; even as for the man to deny that he is entirely mortal is to +deny properly speaking. Wherefore, if I deny or refuse reverence due +to the Imperial Authority, I am not irreverent, but I am not reverent; +which is not against reverence, forasmuch as it offends not that +Imperial Authority; even as not to live does not offend Life, but +Death, which is privation of that Life, offends; wherefore, to die is +one thing and not to live is another thing, for not to live is in the +stones. And since Death expresses privation, which cannot be except in +decease of the subject, and the stones are not the subject of Life, +they should not be called dead, but not living. In like manner, I, who +in this case ought not to have reverence to the Imperial Authority, am +not irreverent if I deny or refuse it, but I am not reverent, which is +neither boldness, nor presumption, nor a thing to be blamed. But it +would be presumption to be reverent, if it could be called reverence, +since it would fall into greater and more true irreverence, that is, +into irreverence of Nature and of Truth, as will be seen in the +sequel. Against this error that Master of Philosophers, Aristotle, +guards, in the beginning of the book of Ethics, when he says: "If the +friends are two, and one is the Truth, their one mind is the Truth's." +If I have said that I am not reverent, that is, to deny reverence, or +by a manifest sign to deny or refuse a submission not due. It is to be +seen how this is to deny and not to disavow, that is to say, it +remains to be seen how, in this case, I am not rightfully subject to +the Imperial Majesty. It must be a long argument wherewith I intend to +prove this in the chapter next following. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + + +To see how in this case, that is, in approving or in not approving the +opinion of the Emperor, I am not held in subjection to him, it is +necessary to recall to mind that which has been argued previously +concerning the Imperial Office, in the fourth chapter of this +treatise, namely, that to promote the perfection of human Life, +Imperial Authority was designed; and that it is the director and ruler +of all our operations, and justly so, for however far our operations +extend themselves, so far the Imperial Majesty has jurisdiction, and +beyond those limits it does not reach. But as each Art and Office of +mankind is restricted by the Imperial Office within certain limits, so +this Imperial Office is confined by God within certain bounds. And it +is not to be wondered at, for the Office and the Arts of Nature in all +her operations we see to be limited. For if we wish to take Universal +Nature, it has jurisdiction as far as the whole World, I say as far as +Heaven and Earth extend; and this within a certain limit, as is proved +by the third chapter of the book on Physics, and by the first chapter, +of Heaven and the World. Then the jurisdiction of Universal Nature is +limited within a certain boundary, and consequently the individual; of +which also He is the Limiter who is limited by nothing, that is, the +First Goodness, that is, God, who alone with infinite capacity +comprehends the Infinite. And, that we may see the limits of our +operations, it is to be known that those alone are our operations +which are subject to Reason and to Will; for, if in us there is the +digestive operation, that is not human, but natural. And it is to be +known that our Reason is ordained to four operations, separately to be +considered; for those are operations which Reason only considers and +does not produce, neither can produce, any one of them, such as are +the Natural facts and the Supernatural and the Mathematics. And those +are operations which it considers and does in its own proper act which +are called rational, such as are the arts of speech. And those are +operations which it considers and does in material beyond itself, such +as are the Mechanical Arts. And all these operations, although the +considering them is subject to our will, they in their essential form +are not subject to our will; for although we might will that heavy +things should mount upwards naturally, they would not be able to +ascend; and although we might will that the syllogism with false +premisses should conclude with demonstration of the Truth, it could +not so conclude; and although we might will that the house should +stand as firmly when leaning forward as when upright, it could not be; +since of those operations we are not properly the factors, we are +their discoverers; Another ordained them and made them, the great +Maker, who alone can Will and Do All--God. + +There also are operations which our Reason considers and which lie in +the act of the Will, such as to offend and to rejoice; such as to +stand firm in the battle and to fly from it; such as to be chaste and +to be lewd; these are entirely subject to our will, and therefore we +are called from them good and evil, because such acts are entirely our +own; for so far as our will can obtain power, so far do our operations +extend. And since in all these voluntary operations there is some +equity to preserve and some iniquity to shun--which equity may be lost +through two causes, either through not knowing what it is, or through +not wishing to follow it--the written Reason, the Law, was invented, +both to point it out to us and to command its observance. Wherefore +Augustine says: "If men could know this, that is, Equity, and knowing +it would obey it, the written Reason, the Law, would not be needful." +And therefore it is written in the beginning of the old Digests or +Books of the Civil Law: "The written Reason is the Art of Goodness and +of Equity." To write this, to show forth and to enforce this, is the +business of that Official Post of which one speaks, that of the +Emperor, to whom, as has been said, in so far as our own operations +extend, we are subject, and no farther. For this reason in each Art +and in each trade the artificers and the scholars are and ought to be +subject to the chief and to the master of their trades and Art: beyond +their callings the subjection ceases, because the superiority ceases. +So that it is possible to speak of the Emperor in this manner, if we +will represent his office figuratively, and say that he may be the +rider of the Human Will, of which horse how it goes without its rider +through the field is evident enough, and especially in miserable +Italy, left without any means for its right government. And it is to +be considered that in proportion as a thing is more fit for the +Master's art, so much the greater is the subjection; for the cause +being multiplied, so is the effect multiplied. Wherefore it is to be +known that there are things which are such pure or simple Arts that +Nature is their instrument; even as rowing with an oar, where the Art +makes its instrument by impulsion, which is a natural movement; as in +the threshing of the corn, where the Art makes its instrument, which +is a natural quality. And in this especially a man ought to be subject +to the chief and master of the Art. And there are things in which Art +is the instrument of Nature, and these are lesser Arts; and in these +the artificers are less subject to their chief, as in giving the seed +to the Earth, where one must await the will of Nature; as to sail out +of the harbour or port, where one must await the natural disposition +of the weather; and therefore we often see in these things contention +amongst the artificers, and the greater to ask counsel of the lesser. +And there are other things which are not Arts, but appear to have some +relationship with them; and therefore men are often deceived; and in +these the scholars are not subject to a master, neither are they bound +to believe in him so far as regards the Art. Thus, to fish seems to +have some relationship with navigation; and to know the virtue of the +herb or grass seems to have some relationship with agriculture; for +these Arts have no general rule, since fishing may be below the Art of +hunting, and beneath its command; to know the virtue of the herb may +be below the science of medicine, or rather below its most noble +teaching. + +Those things which have been argued concerning the other Arts in like +manner may be seen in the Imperial Art, for there are rules in those +Arts which are pure or simple Arts, as are the laws of marriage, of +servants, of armies, of successors in offices of dignity; and in all +these we may be entirely subject to the Emperor without doubt and +without any suspicion whatever. There are other laws which are the +followers of Nature, such as to constitute a man of sufficient age to +fill some office in the administration; and to such a law as this we +are entirely subject; there are many others which appear to have some +relationship with the Imperial Art; and here he was and is deceived +who believes that the Imperial judgment in this part may be authentic, +as of youth, whose nature is laid down by no Imperial judgment, as it +were, of the Emperor. Render, therefore, unto God that which is God's. +Wherefore it is not to be believed, nor to be allowed, because it was +said by Nero the Emperor that youth is beauty and strength of body; +but credit would be given to the philosopher who should say that youth +is the crown or summit of the natural life. And therefore it is +evident that to define Nobility is not the function of the Art +Imperial; and if it is not in the nature of the Art, when we are +treating of Nobility we are not subject to it; and if we are not +subject, we are not bound to yield reverence therein; and this is the +conclusion we have sought. + +Now, therefore, with all freedom, with all liberty of mind, it remains +to strike to the heart the vicious opinions, thereby causing them to +fall to earth, in order that the Truth by means of this my victory may +hold the field in the mind of him for whom it is good that this Light +should shine clear. + + + + +CHAPTER X. + + +Since the opinions of others concerning Nobility have now been brought +forward, and since it has been shown that it is lawful for me to +confute those opinions, I shall now proceed to discourse concerning +that part of the Song which confutes those opinions, beginning, as has +been said above: "Whoever shall define The man a living tree." And +therefore it is to be known that in the opinion of the Emperor, +although it states it defectively in one part, that is, where he spoke +of "generous ways," he alluded to the manners of the Nobility; and +therefore the Song does not intend to reprove that part: the other +part, which is entirely opposed to the nature of Nobility, it does +intend to confute, which cites two things when it says: "Descent of +wealth," "The wealth has long been great," that is, time and riches, +which are entirely apart from Nobility, as has been said, and as will +be shown farther on; and, therefore, in this confutation two divisions +are made: in the first we deny the Nobility of riches, then confute +the idea that time can cause Nobility. The second part begins: "They +will not have the vile Turn noble." + +It is to be known that, riches being reproved, not only is the opinion +of the Emperor reproved in that part which alludes to the riches, but +also entirely that opinion of the common people, which was founded +solely upon riches. The first part is divided into two: in the first +it says in a general way that the Emperor was erroneous in his +definition of Nobility; secondly, it shows the reason why or how that +is; and this begins that second part, "For riches make no Nobleman." + +I say, then, "Whoever shall define The man a living tree," that, +firstly, he will speak untruth, inasmuch as he says "tree," and "less +than truth," inasmuch as he says "living," and does not say rational, +which is the difference whereby Man is distinguished from the Beast. +Then I say that in this way he was erroneous in his definition, he who +held Imperial Office, not saying Emperor, but "one raised to Empire," +to indicate, as has been said above, that this question is beyond the +bounds of the Imperial Office. In like manner I say that he errs who +places a false subject under Nobility, that is, "descent of wealth," +and then proceeds to a defective form, or rather difference, that is, +"generous ways," which do not contain any essential part of Nobility, +but only a small part, as will appear below. And it is not to be +omitted, although the text may be silent, that my Lord the Emperor in +this part did not err in the parts of the definition, but only in the +mode of the definition, although, according to what fame reports of +him, he was a logician and a great scholar; that is to say, the +definition of Nobility can be made more sufficiently by the effects +than by the principles or premisses, since it appears to have the +place of a first principle or premiss, which it is not possible to +notify by first things, but by subsequent things. Then, when I say, +"For riches make not worth," I show how they cannot possibly be the +cause of Nobility, because they are vile. And I prove that they have +not the power to take it away, because they are disjoined so much from +Nobility. And I prove these to be vile by an especial and most evident +defect; and I do this when I say, "How vile and incomplete." Finally, +I conclude, by virtue of that which is said above: + + And hence the upright mind, + To its own purpose true, + Stands firm although the flood of wealth + Sweep onward out of view; + +which proves that which is said above, that those riches are disunited +from Nobility by not following the effect of union with it. Where it +is to be known that, as the Philosopher expresses it, all the things +which make anything must first exist perfectly within the being of the +thing out of which that other thing is made. Wherefore he says in the +seventh chapter of the Metaphysics: "When one thing is generated from +another, it is generated of that thing by being in that Being." + +Again, it is to be known that each thing which becomes corrupt is thus +corrupted by some change or alteration, and each thing which is +changed or altered must be conjoined with the cause of the change, +even as the Philosopher expresses it in the seventh chapter of the +book on Physics and in the first chapter on Generation. These things +being propounded, I proceed thus, and I say that riches, as another +man believed, cannot possibly bestow Nobility, and to prove how great +is the difference between them I say that they are unable to take +Nobility away from him who possesses it. To bestow it they have not +the power, since by nature they are vile, and because of their +vileness they are opposed to Nobility. And here by vileness one means +baseness, through degeneracy, which is directly opposite to Nobility: +for the one opposite thing cannot be the maker of the other, neither +is it possible to be, for the reason given above, which is briefly +added to the text, saying, "No painter gives a form That is not of his +knowing." Wherefore no painter would be able to depict any figure or +form if he could not first design what such figure or form ought to +be. + +Again, riches cannot take it away, because they are so far from +Nobility; and, for the reason previously narrated, that which alters +or corrupts anything must be conjoined with that thing, and therefore +it is subjoined: "No tower leans above a stream That far away is +flowing," which means nothing more than to accord with that which has +been previously said, that riches cannot take Nobility away, saying +that Nobility is, as it were, an upright tower and riches a river +flowing swiftly in the distance. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + + +It now remains only to prove how vile riches are, and how disjoined +and far apart they are from Nobility; and this is proved in two little +parts of the text, to which at present it is requisite to pay +attention, and then, those being explained, what I have said will be +evident, namely, that riches are vile and far apart from Nobility, and +hereby the reasons stated above against riches will be perfectly +proved. + +I say then, "How vile and incomplete Wealth is," and to make evident +what I intend to say it is to be known that the vileness or baseness +of each thing is derived from the imperfection of that thing, and +Nobility from its perfection: wherefore in proportion as a thing is +perfect, it is noble in its nature; in proportion as it is imperfect, +it is vile. And therefore, if riches are imperfect, it is evident that +they are vile or base. And that they are imperfect, the text briefly +proves when it says: "However great the heap may be, It brings no +peace, but care;" in which it is evident, not only that they are +imperfect, but most imperfect, and therefore they are most vile; and +Lucan bears witness to this when he says, speaking of those same +riches: "Without strife or contention or opposition, the Laws would +perish, and you, Riches, the basest part of things, you move or are +the cause of Battles." It is possible briefly to see their +imperfection in three things quite clearly: firstly, in the +indiscriminate manner in which they fall to a person's lot; secondly, +in their dangerous increase; thirdly, in their hurtful possession. + +And, firstly, that which I demonstrate concerning this is to clear up +a doubt which seems to arise, for, since gold, pearls, and lands, may +have in their essential being perfect form and act, it does not seem +true to say that they are imperfect. And therefore one must +distinguish that inasmuch as by themselves, of them it is considered, +they are perfect things, and they are not riches, but gold and pearls; +but inasmuch as they are appointed to the possession of man they are +riches, and in this way they are full of imperfection; which is not an +unbecoming or impossible thing, considered from different points of +view, to be perfect and imperfect. I say that their imperfection +firstly may be observed in the indiscretion, or unwisdom, or folly, of +their arrival, in which no distributive Justice shines forth, but +complete iniquity almost always; which iniquity is the proper effect +of imperfection. For if the methods or ways by which they come are +considered, all may be gathered together in three methods, or kinds of +ways: for, either they come by simple chance, as when without +intention or hope they come upon some discovery not thought of; or +they come by fortune which is aided by law or right, as by will, or +testament, or succession; or they come by fortune, the helper of the +Law, as by lawful or unlawful provision; lawful, I say, when by art, +or skill, or by trade, or deserved kindness; unlawful, I say, when +either by theft or rapine. And in each one of these three ways, one +sees that inequitable character of which I speak, for more often to +the wicked than to the good the hidden treasures which are discovered +present themselves; and this is so evident, that it has no need of +proof. I saw the place in the side of a hill, or mountain, in Tuscany, +which is called Falterona, where the most vile peasant of all the +country, whilst digging, found more than a bushel of the finest +Santèlena silver, which had awaited him perhaps for more than a +thousand years. And in order to see this iniquity, Aristotle said that +in proportion as the Man is subject to the Intellect, so much the less +is he the slave of Fortune. And I say that oftener to the wicked than +to the good befall legal inheritance and property by succession; and +concerning this I do not wish to bring forward any proof, but let each +one turn his eyes round his own immediate neighbourhood, and he will +see that concerning which I am silent that I may not offend or bring +shame to some one. Would to God that might be which was demanded by +the Man of Provence, namely, that the man who is not the heir of +goodness should lose the inheritance of wealth. And I say that many +times to the wicked more than to the good comes rich provision, for +the unlawful never comes to the good, because they refuse it; and what +good man ever would endeavour to enrich himself by force or fraud? +That would be impossible, for by the mere choice of the enterprise he +would no more be good. And the lawful gains of wealth but rarely fall +to the lot of the good, because, since much anxiety or anxious care is +required therein, and the solicitude of the good is directed to +greater things, the good man is rarely solicitous enough to seek them. +Wherefore it is evident that in each way these riches fall unjustly or +inequitably; and therefore our Lord called them wicked or unrighteous +when He said, "Make to yourselves friends of the Mammon of +unrighteousness," inviting and encouraging men to be liberal with good +gifts, which are the begetters of friends. And what a beautiful +exchange he makes who gives freely of these most imperfect things in +order to have and to acquire perfect things, such as are the hearts of +good and worthy men! This exchange it is possible to make every day. +Certainly this is a new commerce, different from the others, which, +thinking to win one man by generosity, has won thereby thousands and +thousands. Who lives not again in the heart of Alexander because of +his royal beneficence? Who lives not again in the good King of +Castile, or Saladin, or the good Marquis of Monferrat, or the good +Count of Toulouse, or Beltramo dal Bornio, or Galasso da Montefeltro, +when mention is made of their noble acts of courtesy and liberality? +Certainly not only those who would do the same willingly, had they the +power, but those even who would die before they would do it, bear love +to the memory of these good men. + + + + +CHAPTER XII. + + +As has been said, it is possible to see the imperfection of riches not +only in their indiscriminate advent, but also in their dangerous +increase; and that in this we may perceive their defect more clearly, +the text makes mention of it, saying of those riches, "However great +the heap may be It brings no peace, but care;" they create more thirst +and render increase more defective and insufficient. And here it is +requisite to know that defective things may fail in such a way that on +the surface they appear complete, but, under pretext of perfection, +the shortcoming is concealed. But they may have those defects so +entirely revealed that the imperfection is seen openly on the surface. +And those things which do not reveal their defects in the first place +are the most dangerous, since very often it is not possible to be on +guard against them; even as we see in the traitor who, before our +face, shows himself friendly, so that he causes us to have faith in +him, and under pretext of friendship, hides the defect of his +hostility. And in this way riches, in their increase, are dangerously +imperfect, for, submitting to our eyes this that they promise, they +bring just the contrary. The treacherous gains always promise that, if +collected up to a certain amount, they will make the collector full of +every satisfaction; and with this promise they lead the Human Will +into the vice of Avarice. And, for this reason, Boethius calls them, +in his book of Consolations, dangerous, saying, "Oh, alas! who was +that first man who dug up the precious stones that wished to hide +themselves, and who dug out the loads of gold once covered by the +hills, dangerous treasures?" + +The treacherous ones promise, if we will but look, to remove every +want, to quench all thirst, to bring satisfaction and sufficiency; and +this they do to every man in the beginning, confirming promise to a +certain point in their increase, and then, as soon as their pile +rises, in place of contentment and refreshment they bring on an +intolerable fever-thirst; and beyond sufficiency, they extend their +limit, create a desire to amass more, and, with this, fear and anxiety +far in excess of the new gain. + +Then, truly, they bring no peace, but more care, more trouble, than a +man had in the first place when he was without them. And therefore +Tullius says, in that book on Paradoxes, when execrating riches: "I at +no time firmly believed the money of those men, or magnificent +mansions, or riches, or lordships, or voluptuous joys, with which +especially they are shackled, to be amongst things good or desirable, +since I saw certain men in the abundance of them especially desire +those wherein they abounded; because at no time is the thirst of +cupidity quenched; not only are they tormented by the desire for the +increase of those things which they possess, but also they have +torment in the fear of losing them." And all these are the words of +Tullius, and even thus they stand in that book which has been +mentioned. + +And, as a stronger witness to this imperfection, hear Boethius, +speaking in his book of Consolation: "If the Goddess of Riches were to +expand and multiply riches till they were as numerous as the sands +thrown up by the sea when tost by the tempest, or countless as the +stars that shine, still Man would weep." + +And because still further testimony is needful to reduce this to a +proof, note how much Solomon and his father David exclaim against +them, how much against them is Seneca, especially when writing to +Lucilius, how much Horace, how much Juvenal, and, briefly, how much +every writer, every poet, and how much Divine Scripture. All Truthful +cries aloud against these false enticers to sin, full of all defect. +Call to mind also, in aid of faith, what your own eyes have seen, what +is the life of those men who follow after riches, how far they live +securely when they have piled them up, what their contentment is, how +peacefully they rest. + +What else daily endangers and destroys cities, countries, individual +persons, so much as the fresh heaping up of wealth in the possession +of some man? His accumulation wakens new desires, to the fulfilment of +which it is not possible to attain without injury to some one. + +And what else does the Law, both Canonical and Civil, intend to +rectify except cupidity or avarice, which grows with its heaps of +riches, and which the Law seeks to resist or prevent. Truly, the +Canonical and the Civil Law make it sufficiently clear, if the first +sections of their written word are read. How evident it is, nay, I say +it is most evident, that these riches are, in their increase, entirely +imperfect; when, being amassed, naught else but imperfection can +possibly spring forth from them. And this is what the text says. + +But here arises a doubtful question, which is not to be passed over +without being put and answered. Some calumniator of the Truth might be +able to say that if, by increasing desire in their acquisition, riches +are imperfect and therefore vile, for this reason science or knowledge +is imperfect and vile, in the acquisition of which the desire steadily +increases, wherefore Seneca says, "If I should have one foot in the +grave, I should still wish to learn." + +But it is not true that knowledge is vile through imperfection. By +distinction of the consequences, increase of desire is not in +knowledge the cause of vileness. That it is perfect is evident, for +the Philosopher, in the sixth book of the Ethics, says that science or +knowledge is the perfect reason of certain things. To this question +one has to reply briefly; but in the first place it is to be seen +whether in the acquisition of Knowledge the desire for it is enlarged +in the way suggested by the question, and whether the argument be +rational. Wherefore I say that not only in the acquisition of +knowledge and riches, but in each and every acquisition, human desire +expands, although in different ways; and the reason is this: that the +supreme desire of each thing bestowed by Nature in the first place is +to return to its first source. And since God is the First Cause of our +Souls, and the Maker of them after His Own Image, as it is written, +"Let us make Man in Our Image, after Our likeness," the Soul +especially desires to return to that First Cause. As a pilgrim, who +goes along a path where he never journeyed before, may believe every +house that he sees in the distance to be his inn, and, not finding it +to be so, may direct his belief to the next, and so travel on from +house to house until he reach the inn, even so our Soul, as soon as it +enters the untrodden path of this life, directs its eyes to its +supreme good, the sum of its day's travel to good; and therefore +whatever thing it sees which seems to have in itself some goodness, it +thinks to be the supreme good. And because its knowledge at first is +imperfect, owing to want of experience and want of instruction, good +things that are but little appear great to it; and therefore in the +first place it begins to desire those. So we see little children +desire above all things an apple; and then, growing older, they desire +a little bird; and then, being older, desire a beautiful garment; and +then a horse, and then a wife, and then moderate wealth, and then +greater wealth, and then still more. And this happens because in none +of these things that is found for which search is made, and as we live +on we seek further. Wherefore it is possible to see that one desirable +thing stands under the other in the eyes of our Soul in a way almost +pyramidal, for the least first covers the whole, and is as it were the +point of the desirable good, which is God, at the basis of all; so +that the farther it proceeds from the point towards the basis, so much +the greater do the desirable good things appear; and this is the +reason why, by acquisition, human desires become broader the one after +the other. + +But, thus this pathway is lost through error, even as in the roads of +the earth; for as from one city to another there is of necessity an +excellent direct road, and often another which branches from that, the +branch road goes into another part, and of many others some do not go +all the way, and some go farther round; so in Human Life there are +different roads, of which one is the truest, and another the most +misleading, and some are less right, and some less wrong. And as we +see that the straightest road to the city satisfies desire and gives +rest after toil, and that which goes in the opposite direction never +satisfies and never can give rest, so it happens in our Life. The man +who follows the right path attains his end, and gains his rest. The +man who follows the wrong path never attains it, but with much fatigue +of mind and greedy eyes looks always before him. + +Wherefore, although this argument does not entirely reply to the +question asked above, at least it opens the way to the reply, which +causes us to see that each desire of ours does not proceed in its +expansion in one way alone. But because this chapter is somewhat +prolonged, we will reply in a new chapter to the question, wherein may +be ended the whole disputation which it is our intention to make +against riches. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + + +In reply to the question, I say that it is not possible to affirm +properly that the desire for knowledge does increase, although, as has +been said, it does expand in a certain way. For that which properly +increases is always one; the desire for knowledge is not always one, +but is many; and one desire fulfilled, another comes; so that, +properly speaking, its expansion is not its increase, but it is +advance of a succession of smaller things into great things. For if I +desire to know the principles of natural things, as soon as I know +these, that desire is satisfied and there is an end of it. If I then +desire to know the why and the wherefore of each one of these +principles, this is a new desire altogether. Nor by the advent of that +new desire am I deprived of the perfection to which the other might +lead me. Such an expansion as that is not the cause of imperfection, +but of new perfection. That expansion of riches, however, is properly +increased which is always one, so that no succession is seen therein, +and therefore no end and no perfection. + +And if the adversary would say, that if the desire to know the first +principles of natural things is one thing, and the desire to know what +they are is another, so is the desire for a hundred marks one thing, +and the desire for a thousand marks is another, I reply that it is not +true; for the hundred is part of the thousand and is related to it, as +part of a line to the whole of the line along which one proceeds by +one impulse alone; and there is no succession there, nor completion of +motion in any part. But to know what the principles of natural things +are is not the same as to know what each one of them is; the one is +not part of the other, and they are related to each other as diverging +lines along which one does not proceed by one impulse, but the +completed movement of the one succeeds the completed movement of the +other. And thus it appears that, because of the desire for knowledge, +knowledge is not to be called imperfect in the same way as riches are +to be called imperfect, on account of the desire for them, as the +question put it; for in the desire for knowledge the desires terminate +successively with the attainment of their aims; and in the desire for +riches, NO; so that the question is solved. + +Again, the adversary may calumniate, saying that, although many +desires are fulfilled in the acquisition of knowledge, the last is +never attained, which is the imperfection of that one desire, which +does not gain its end; and that will be both one and imperfect. + +Again one here replies that it is not a truth which is brought forward +in opposition, that is, that the last desire is never attained; for +our natural desires, as is proved in the third treatise of this book, +are all tending to a certain end; and the desire for knowledge is +natural, so that this desire compasses a certain end, although but +few, since they walk in the wrong path, accomplish the day's journey. +And he who understands the Commentator in the third chapter, On the +Soul, learns this of him; and therefore Aristotle says, in the tenth +chapter of the Ethics, against Simonides the Poet, that man ought to +draw near to Divine things as much as is possible; wherein he shows +that our power tends towards a certain end. And in the first book of +the Ethics he says that the disciplined Mind demands certainty in its +knowledge of things in proportion as their nature received certainty, +in which he proves that not only on the side of the man desiring +knowledge, but on the side of the desired object of knowledge, +attention ought to be given; and therefore St. Paul says: "Not much +knowledge, but right knowledge in moderation." So that in whatever way +the desire for knowledge is considered, either generally or +particularly, it comes to perfection. + +And since knowledge is a noble perfection, and through the desire for +it its perfection is not lost, as is the case with the accursed +riches, we must note briefly how injurious they are when possessed, +and this is the third notice of their imperfection. It is possible to +see that the possession of them is injurious for two reasons: one, +that it is the cause of evil; the other, that it is the privation of +good. It is the cause of evil, which makes the timid possessor +wakeful, watchful, and suspicious or hateful. + +How great is the fear of that man who knows he carries wealth about +him, when walking abroad, when dwelling at home, when not only wakeful +or watching, but when sleeping, not only the fear that he may lose his +property, but fear for his life because he possesses these riches! +Well do the miserable merchants know, who travel through the World, +that the leaves which the wind stirs on the trees cause them to +tremble when they are bearing their wealth with them; and when they +are without it, full of confidence they go singing and talking, and +thus make their journey shorter! Therefore the Wise Man says: "If the +traveller enters on his road empty, he can sing in the presence of +thieves." And this Lucan desires to express in the fifth book, when he +praises the safety of poverty: "O, the safe and secure liberty of the +poor Life! O, narrow dwelling-places and thrift! O, not again deem +riches to be of the Gods! In what temples and within what palace walls +could this be, that is to have no fear, in some tumult or other, of +striking the hand of Cæsar?" + +And Lucan says this when he depicts how Cæsar came by night to the +little house of the fisher Amyclas to cross the Adriatic Sea. And how +great is the hatred that each man bears to the possessor of riches, +either through envy, or from the desire to take possession of his +wealth! So true it is, that often and often, contrary to due filial +piety, the son meditates the death of the father; and most great and +most evident experience of this the Italians can have, both on the +banks of the Po and on the banks of the Tiber. And therefore Boethius +in the second chapter of his Consolations says: "Certainly Avarice +makes men hateful." + +Nay, their possession is privation of good, for, possessing those +riches, a man does not give freely with generosity, which is a virtue, +which is a perfect good, and which makes men magnificent and beloved; +which does not lie in possession of those riches, but in ceasing to +possess them. Wherefore Boethius in the same book says: "Then money is +good when, bartered for other things, by the use of generosity one no +longer possesses it." Wherefore the baseness of riches is sufficiently +proved by all these remarks of his; and therefore the man with an +upright desire and true knowledge never loves them; and, not loving +them, he does not unite himself to them, but always desires them to be +far from himself, except inasmuch as they are appointed to some +necessary service; and it is a reasonable thing, since the perfect +cannot be united with the imperfect. So we see that the curved line +never joins the straight line, and if there be any conjunction, it is +not of line to line, but of point to point. And thus it follows that +the Mind which is upright in desire, and truthful in knowledge, is not +disheartened at the loss of wealth: as the text asserts at the end of +that part. And by this the text intends to prove that riches are as a +river flowing in the distance past the upright tower of Reason, or +rather of Nobility; and that these riches cannot take Nobility away +from him who has it. And in this manner in the present Song it is +argued against riches. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. + + +Having confuted the error of other men in that part wherein it was +advanced in support of riches, it remains now to confute it in that +part where Time is said to be a cause of Nobility, saying, "Descent of +wealth;" and this reproof or confutation is made in that part which +begins: "They will not have the vile Turn noble." And in the first +place one confutes this by means of an argument taken from those men +themselves who err in this way; then, to their greater confusion, this +their argument is also destroyed; and it does this when it says, "It +follows then from this." Finally it concludes, their error being +evident, and it being therefore time to attend to the Truth; and it +does this when it says, "Sound intellect reproves." + +I say, then, "They will not have the vile Turn noble." Where it is to +be known that the opinion of these erroneous persons is, that a man +who is a peasant in the first place can never possibly be called a +Nobleman; and the man who is the son of a peasant in like manner can +never be Noble; and this breaks or destroys their own argument when +they say that Time is requisite to Nobility, adding that word +"descent." For it is impossible by process of Time to come to the +generation of Nobility in this way of theirs, which declares it to be +impossible for the humble peasant to become Noble by any work that he +may do, or through any accident; and declares the mutation of a +peasant father into a Noble son to be impossible. For if the son of +the peasant is also a peasant, and his son again is also a peasant, +and so always, it will never be possible to discover the place where +Nobility can begin to be established by process of Time. + +And if the adversary, wishing to defend himself, should say that +Nobility will begin at that period of Time when the low estate of the +ancestors will be forgotten, I reply that this goes against +themselves, for even of necessity there will be a transmutation of +peasant into Noble, from one man into another, or from father to son, +which is against that which they propound. + +And if the adversary should defend himself pertinaciously, saying that +indeed they do desire that it should be possible for this +transmutation to take place when the low estate of the ancestors +passes into oblivion, although the text takes no notice of this, it is +right that the Commentary should reply to it. And therefore I reply +thus: that from this which they say there follow four very great +difficulties, so that it cannot possibly be a good argument. One is, +that in proportion as Human Nature might become better, the slower +would be the generation of Nobility, which is a very great +inconvenience; since in proportion as a thing is honoured for its +excellence, so much the more is it the cause of goodness; and Nobility +is reckoned amongst the good. What this means is shown thus: If +Nobility, which I understand as a good thing, should be generated by +oblivion, Nobility would be generated in proportion to the speediness +with which men might be forgotten, for so much the sooner would +oblivion descend upon all. Hence, in proportion as men might be +forgotten, so much the sooner would they be Noble; and, on the +contrary, in proportion to the length of time during which they were +held in remembrance, so much the longer it would be before they could +be ennobled. + +The second difficulty is, that in nothing apart from men would it be +possible to make this distinction, that is to say, Noble or Vile, +which is very inconvenient; since, in each species of things we see +the image of Nobility or of Baseness, wherefore we often call one +horse noble and one vile; and one falcon noble and one vile; and one +pearl noble and one vile. And that it would not be possible to make +this distinction is thus proved; if the oblivion of the humble +ancestors is the cause of Nobility, or rather the baseness of the +ancestors never was, it is not possible for oblivion of them to be, +since oblivion is a destruction of remembrance, and in those other +animals, and in plants, and in minerals, lowness and loftiness are not +observed, since in one they are natural or innate and in an equal +state, and Nobility cannot possibly be in their generation, and +likewise neither can vileness nor baseness; since one regards the one +and the other as habit and privation, which are possible to occur in +the same subject; and therefore in them it would not be possible for a +distinction to exist between the one and the other. + +And if the adversary should wish to say, that in other things Nobility +is represented by the goodness of the thing, but in a man it is +understood because there is no remembrance of his humble or base +condition, one would wish to reply not with words, but with the sword, +to such bestiality as it would be to give to other things goodness as +a cause for Nobility, and to found the Nobility of men upon +forgetfulness or oblivion as a first cause. + +The third difficulty is, that often the person or thing generated +would come before the generator, which is quite impossible; and it is +possible to prove this thus: Let us suppose that Gherardo da Cammino +might have been the grandson of the most vile peasant who ever drank +of the Sile or of the Cagnano, and that oblivion had not yet overtaken +his grandfather; who will be bold enough to say that Gherardo da +Cammino was a vile man? and who will not agree with me in saying that +he was Noble? Certainly no one, however presumptuous he may wish to +be, for he was so, and his memory will always be treasured. If +oblivion had not yet overtaken his ancestor, as is proposed in +opposition, so that he might be great through Nobility, and the +Nobility in him might be seen so clearly, even as one does see it, +then it would have been first in him before the founder of his +Nobility could have existed; and this is impossible in the extreme. + +The fourth difficulty is, that such a man, the supposed grandfather, +would have been held Noble after he was dead who was not Noble whilst +alive; and a more inconvenient thing could not be. One proves it thus: +Let us suppose that in the age of Dardanus there might be a +remembrance of his low ancestors, and let us suppose that in the age +of Laomedon this memory might have passed away, and that oblivion had +overtaken it. According to the adverse opinion, Laomedon was Noble and +Dardanus was vile, each in his lifetime. We, to whom the remembrance +of the ancestors of Dardanus has not come, shall we say that Dardanus +living was vile, and dead a Noble? And is not this contrary to the +legend which says that Dardanus was the son of Jupiter (for such is +the fable, which one ought not to regard whilst disputing +philosophically); and yet if the adversary might wish to find support +in the fable, certainly that which the fable veils destroys his +arguments. And thus it is proved that the argument, which asserted +that oblivion is the cause of Nobility, is false. + + + + +CHAPTER XV. + + +Since, by their own argument, the Song has confuted them, and proved +that Time is not requisite to Nobility, it proceeds immediately to +confound their premisses, since of their false arguments no rust +remains in the mind which is disposed towards Truth; and this it does +when it says, "It follows then from this." Where it is to be known +that if it is not possible for a peasant to become a Noble, or for a +Noble son to be born of a humble father, as is advanced in their +opinion, of two difficulties one must follow. + +The first is, that there can be no Nobility; the other is, that the +World may have been always full of men, so that from one alone the +Human Race cannot be descended; and this it is possible to prove. + +If Nobility is not generated afresh, and it has been stated many times +that such is the basis of their opinion, the peasant man not being +able to beget it in himself, or the humble father to pass it on to his +son, the man always is the same as he was born; and such as the father +was born, so is the son born; and so this process from one condition +onwards is reached even by the first parent; for such as was the first +father, that is, Adam, so must the whole Human Race be, because from +him to the modern nations it will not be possible to find, according +to that argument, any change whatever. Then, if Adam himself was +Noble, we are all Noble; if he was vile, we are all vile or base; +which is no other than to remove the distinction between these +conditions, and thus it is to remove the conditions. + +And the Song states this, which follows from what is advanced, saying, +"That all are high or base." And if this is not so, then any nation is +to be called Noble, and any is to be called vile, of necessity. +Transmutation from vileness into Nobility being thus taken away, the +Human Race must be descended from different ancestors, that is, some +from Nobles and some from vile persons, and so the Song says, "Or that +in Time there never was Beginning to our race," that is to say, one +beginning; it does not say beginnings. And this is most false +according to the Philosopher, according to our Faith, which cannot +lie, according to the Law and ancient belief of the Gentiles. For +although the Philosopher does not assert the succession from one first +man, yet he would have one essential being to be in all men, which +cannot possibly have different origins. And Plato would have that all +men depend upon one idea alone, and not on more or many, which is to +give them only one beginning. And undoubtedly Aristotle would laugh +very loudly if he heard of two species to be made out of the Human +Race, as of horses and asses; and (may Aristotle forgive me) one might +call those men asses who think in this way. For according to our Faith +(which is to be preserved in its entirety) it is most false, as +Solomon makes evident where he draws a distinction between men and the +brute animals, for he calls men "all the sons of Adam," and this he +does when he says: "Who knows if the spirits of the sons of Adam mount +upwards, and if those of the beasts go downwards?" And that it is +false according to the Gentiles, let the testimony of Ovid in the +first chapter of his Metamorphoses prove, where he treats of the +constitution of the World according to the Pagan belief, or rather +belief of the Gentiles, saying: "Man is born "--he did not say "Men;" +he said, "Man is born," or rather, "that the Artificer of all things +made him from Divine seed, or that the new earth, but lately parted +from the noble ether, retained seeds of the kindred Heaven, which, +mingled with the water of the river, formed the son of Japhet into an +image of the Gods, who govern all." Where evidently he asserts the +first man to have been one alone; and therefore the Song says, "But +that I cannot hold," that is, to the opinion that man had not one +beginning; and the Song subjoins, "Nor yet if Christians they." And it +says Christians, not Philosophers, or rather Gentiles, whose opinion +also is adverse, because the Christian opinion is of greater force, +and is the destroyer of all calumny, thanks to the supreme light of +Heaven, which illuminates it. + +Then when I say, "Sound intellect reproves their words As false, and +turns away," I conclude this error to be confuted, and I say that it +is time to open the eyes to the Truth; and this is expressed when I +say, "And now I seek to tell, As it appears to me." It is now evident +to sound minds that the words of those men are vain, that is, without +a crumb or particle of Truth; and I say sound not without cause. Our +intellect may be said to be sound or unsound. And I say intellect for +the noble part of our Soul, which it is possible to designate by the +common word "Mind." It may be called sound or healthy, when it is not +obstructed in its action by sickness of mind or body, which is to know +what things are, as Aristotle expresses it in the third chapter on the +Soul. + +For, owing to the sickness of the Soul, I have seen three horrible +infirmities in the minds of men. + +One is caused by natural vanity, for many men are so presumptuous that +they believe they know everything, and, owing to this, they assert +things to be facts which are not facts. Tullius especially execrates +this vice in the first chapter of the Offices, and St. Thomas in his +book against the Gentiles, saying: "There are many men, so +presumptuous in their conceit, who believe that they can compass all +things with their intellect, deeming all that appears to them to be +true, and count as false that which does not appear to them." Hence it +arises that they never attain to any knowledge; believing themselves +to be sufficiently learned, they never inquire, they never listen; +they desire to be inquired of, and when a question is put, bad enough +is their reply. Of those men Solomon speaks in Proverbs: "Seest thou a +man that is hasty in his words? there is more hope of a fool than of +him." + +Another infirmity of mind is caused by natural weakness or smallness, +for many men are so vilely obstinate or stubborn that they cannot +believe that it is possible either for them or for others to know +things; and such men as these never of themselves seek knowledge, nor +ever reason; for what other men say, they care not at all. And against +these men Aristotle speaks in the first book of the Ethics, declaring +those men to be insufficient or unsatisfactory hearers of Moral +Philosophy. Those men always live, like beasts, a life of grossness, +the despair of all learning. + +The third infirmity of mind is caused by the levity of nature; for +many men are of such light fancy that in all their arguments they go +astray, and even when they make a syllogism and have concluded, from +that conclusion they fly off into another, and it seems to them most +subtle argument. They start not from any true beginning, and truly +they see nothing true in their imagination. Of those men the +Philosopher says that it is not right to trouble about them, or to +have business with them, saying, in the first book of Physics, that +against him who denies the first postulate it is not right to dispute. +And of such men as these are many idiots, who may not know their A B +C, and who would wish to dispute in Geometry, in Astrology, and in the +Science of Physics. + +Also through sickness or defect of body, it is possible for the Mind +to be unsound or sick; even as through some primal defect at birth, as +with those who are born fools, or through alteration in the brain, as +with the madmen. And of this mental infirmity the Law speaks when it +says: "In him who makes a Will or Testament, at the time when he makes +the Will or Testament, health of mind, not health of body, is +required." + +But to those intellects which from sickness of mind or body are not +infirm, but are free, diligent, and whole in the light of Truth, I say +it must be evident that the opinion of the people, which has been +stated above, is vain, that is, without any value whatever, worthless. + +Afterwards the Song subjoins that I thus judge them to be false and +vain; and this it does when it says, "Sound intellect reproves their +words As false, and turns away." And afterwards I say that it is time +to demonstrate or prove the Truth; and I say that it is now right to +state what kind of thing true Nobility is, and how it is possible to +know the man in whom it exists; and I speak of this where I say: + + And now I seek to tell + As it appears to me, + What is, whence comes, what signs attest + A true Nobility. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI. + + +"The King shall rejoice in God, and all those shall be praised who +swear by him, for closed is the mouth of those who speak wicked +things." These words I can here propound in all truth; because each +true King ought especially to love the Truth. Wherefore it is written +in the Book of Wisdom, "Love the Light of Wisdom, you, who stand +before, the people," and the Light of Wisdom is this same Truth. I +say, then, every King shall rejoice that the most false and most +injurious opinion of the wicked and deceitful men who have up to this +time spoken iniquitously of Nobility is confuted. + +It is now requisite to proceed to the discussion of the Truth +according to the division made above, in the third chapter of the +present treatise. This second part, then, which begins, "I say that +from one root Each Virtue firstly springs," intends to describe this +Nobility according to the Truth, and this part is divided into two: +for in the first the intention is to prove what this Nobility is; and +in the second how it is possible to recognize him in whom it dwells, +and this second part begins, "Such virtue shows its good." The first +part, again, has two parts; for in the first certain things are sought +for which are needful in order to perceive the definition of Nobility; +in the second, one looks for its definition, and this second part +begins, "Where virtue is, there is A Nobleman." + +That we may enter perfectly into the treatise, two things are to be +considered in the first place. The one is, what is meant by this word +Nobility, taken alone, in its simple meaning; the other is, in what +path it is needful to walk in order to search out the before-named +definition. I say, then, that, if we will pay attention to the common +use of speech, by this word Nobility is understood the perfection of +its own nature in each thing; wherefore it is predicated not only of +the man, but also of all things; for the man calls a stone noble, a +plant or tree noble, a horse noble, a falcon noble, whatever is seen +to be perfect in its nature. And therefore Solomon says in +Ecclesiastes, "Blessed is the land whose King is Noble;" which is no +other than saying, whose King is perfect according to the perfection +of the mind and body; and he thus makes this evident by that which he +says previously, when he writes, "Woe unto the land whose King is a +child." For that is not a perfect man, and a man is a child, if not by +age, yet by his disordered manners and by the evil or defect of his +life, as the Philosopher teaches in the first book of the Ethics. + +There are some foolish people who believe that by this word Noble is +meant that which is to be named and known by many men; and they say +that it comes from a verb which stands for _to know_, that is, +_nosco_. But this is most false, for, if this could be, those +things which were most named and best known in their species would in +their species be the most noble. Thus the obelisk of St. Peter would +be the most noble stone in the world; and Asdente, the shoemaker of +Parma, would be more Noble than any one of his fellow-citizens; and +Albuino della Scala would be more Noble than Guido da Castello di +Reggio. Each one of those things is most false, and therefore it is +most false that _nobile_ (noble) can come from _cognoscere_, +to know. It comes from _non vile_ (not vile); wherefore +_nobile_ (noble) is as it were _non vile_ (not vile). + +This perfection the Philosopher means in the seventh chapter of +Physics, when he says: "Each thing is especially perfect when it +touches and joins its own proper or relative virtue; and then it is +especially perfect according to its nature. It is, then, possible to +call the circle perfect when it is truly a circle, that is, when it is +joined with its own proper or relative virtue, it is then complete in +its nature, and it may then be called a noble circle." This is when +there is a point in it which is equally distant from the +circumference. That circle which has the figure of an egg loses its +virtue and it is not Noble, nor that circle which has the form of an +almost full moon, because in that its nature is not perfect. And thus +evidently it is possible to see that commonly, or in a general sense, +this word Nobility, expresses in all things perfection of their +nature, and this is that for which one seeks primarily in order to +enter more clearly into the discussion of that part which it is +intended to explain. + +Secondly, it remains to be seen how one must proceed in order to find +the definition of Human Nobility to which the present argument leads. +I say, then, that since in those things which are of one species, as +are all men, it is not possible by essential first principles to +define their highest perfection, it is necessary to know and to define +that by their effects. Therefore one reads in the Gospel of St. +Matthew, when Christ speaks, "Beware of false prophets: by their +fruits ye shall know them." And in a direct way the definition we seek +is to be seen by the fruits, which are the moral and intellectual +virtues of which this Nobility is the seed, as in its definition will +be fully evident. + +And these are those two things we must see before one can proceed to +the others, as is said in the previous part of this chapter. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII. + + +Since those two things which it seemed needful to understand before +the text could be proceeded with have been seen and understood, it now +remains to proceed with the text and to explain it, and the text then +begins: + + I say that from one root + Each Virtue firstly springs, + Virtue, I mean, that Happiness + To man, by action, brings + +And I subjoin: + + This, as the Ethics teach, + Is habit of right choice; + +placing the whole definition of the Moral Virtues as it is defined by +the Philosopher in the second book of Ethics, in which two things +principally are understood. One is, that each Virtue comes from one +first principle or original cause; the other is, that by "Each Virtue" +I mean the Moral Virtues, and this is evident from the words, "This, +as the Ethics teach" + +Hence it is to be known that our most right and proper fruits are the +Moral Virtues, since on every side they are in our power; and these +are differently distinguished and enumerated by different +philosophers. But it seems to me right to omit the opinion of other +men in that part where the divine opinion of Aristotle is stated by +word of mouth, and therefore, wishing to describe what those Moral +Virtues are, I will pass on, briefly discoursing of them according to +his opinion. + +There are eleven Virtues named by the said Philosopher. The first is +called Courage, which is sword and bridle to moderate our boldness and +timidity in things which are the ruin of our life. The second is +Temperance, which is the law and bridle of our gluttony and of our +undue abstinence in those things requisite for the preservation of our +life. The third is Liberality, which is the moderator of our giving +and of our receiving things temporal. The fourth is Magnificence, +which is the moderator of great expenditures, making and supporting +those within certain limits. The fifth is Magnanimity, which is the +moderator and acquirer of great honours and fame. The sixth is the +Love of Honour, which is the moderator and regulator to us of the +honours of this World. The seventh is Mildness, which moderates our +anger and our excessive or undue patience against our external +misfortunes. The eighth is Affability, which makes us live on good +terms with other men. The ninth is called Truth, which makes us +moderate in boasting ourselves over and above what we are, and in +depreciating ourselves below what we are in our speech. The tenth is +called Eutrapelia, pleasantness of intercourse, which makes us +moderate in joys or pleasures, causing us to use them in due measure. +The eleventh is Justice, which teaches us to love and to act with +uprightness in all things. + +And each of these Virtues has two collateral enemies, that is to say, +vices; one in excess and one in defect. And these Moral Virtues are +the centres or middle stations between them, and those Virtues all +spring from one root or principle, that is to say, from the habit of +our own good choice. Wherefore, in a general sense, it is possible to +say of all, that they are a habit of choice standing firm in due +moderation; and these are those which make a man happy in their active +operation, as the Philosopher says in the first book of the Ethics +when he defines Happiness, saying that Happiness is virtuous action in +a perfect life. + +By many, Prudence, that is, good, judgment or wisdom, is well asserted +to be a Moral Virtue. But Aristotle numbers that amongst the +Intellectual Virtues, although it is the guide of the moral, and +points out the way by which they are formed, and without it they could +not be. Verily, it is to be known that we can have in this life two +happinesses or felicities by following two different roads, both good +and excellent, which lead us to them: the one is the Active Life and +the other is the Contemplative Life, which (although by the Active +Life one may attain, as has been said, to a good state of Happiness) +leads us to supreme Happiness, even as the Philosopher proves in the +tenth book of the Ethics; and Christ affirms it with His own Lips in +the Gospel of Luke, speaking to Martha, when replying to her: "Martha, +Martha, thou art anxious and troubled about many things: verily, one +thing alone is needful," meaning, that which thou hast in hand; and He +adds: "Mary has chosen the better part, which shall not be taken away +from her." And Mary, according to that which is previously written in +the Gospel, sitting at the feet of Christ, showed no care for the +service of the house, but listened only to the words of the Saviour. + +For if we will explain this in the moral sense, our Lord wished to +show thereby that the Contemplative Life was supremely good, although +the Active Life might be good; this is evident to him who will give +his mind to the words of the Gospel. + +It would be possible, however, for any one to say, in argument against +me: Since the happiness of the Contemplative Life is more excellent +than that of the Active Life, and both may be, and are, the fruit and +end of Nobility, why not rather have proceeded in the argument along +the line of the Intellectual Virtues than of the Moral? To this it is +possible to reply briefly, that in all instruction it is desirable to +have regard to the capability of the learner, and to lead him by that +path which is easiest to him. Wherefore, since the Moral Virtues +appear to be, and are, more general and more required than the others, +and are more seen in outward appearances, it was more convenient and +more useful to proceed along that path than by the other; for thus +indeed we shall attain to the knowledge of the bees by arguing of +profit from the wax, as well as by arguing of profit from the honey, +for both the one and the other proceed from them. + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII. + + +In the preceding chapter has been determined how each Moral Virtue +comes from one root, or first principle, that is, a good habit of +choice; and the present text bears upon that, until the part which +begins: "Nobility by right." In this part, then, it proceeds, by a way +that is allowable, to teach that each Virtue mentioned above, taken +singly, or otherwise generally, proceeds from Nobility as an effect +from its cause, and it is founded upon a philosophical proposition, +which says that, when two things are found to meet in one, both these +things must be reduced to a third, or one to the other, as an effect +to a cause: because one thing having stood first and of itself, it +cannot exist except it be from one; and if those two could not be both +the effect of a third, or else one the effect of the other, each would +have had a separate first cause, which is impossible. It says, then, +that + + Such virtue shows its good + To others' intellect, + For when two things agree in one, + Producing one effect, + + One must from other come, + Or each one from a third, + If each be as each, and more, then one + From the other is inferred. + +Where it is to be known that here one does not proceed by an evident +demonstration; as it would be to say that the cold is the generative +principle of water, when we see the clouds; but certainly by a +beautiful and suitable induction. For if there are many laudable +things in us, and one is the principle or first cause of them all, +reason requires each to be reduced to that first cause, which +comprehends more things; and this ought more reasonably to be called +the principle of those things than that which comprehends in itself +less of their principle. For as the trunk of a tree, which contains or +encloses all the other branches, ought to be called the first +beginning and cause of those branches, and not those branches the +cause of the trunk, so Nobility, which comprehends each and every +Virtue (as the cause contains the effect) and many other actions or +operations of ours which are praiseworthy, it ought to be held for +such; that the Virtue may be reduced to it, rather than to the other +third which is in us. Finally it says that the position taken (namely, +that each Moral Virtue comes from one root, and that such Virtue and +Nobility unite in one thing, as is stated above, and that therefore it +is requisite to reduce the one to the other, or both to a third; and +that if the one contains the value of the other and more, from that it +proceeds rather than from the other third) may be considered as a rule +established and set forth, as was before intended. + +And thus ends this passage and this present part. + + + + +CHAPTER XIX. + + +Since in the preceding part are discussed three certain definite +things which were necessary to be seen before we define, if possible, +this good thing of which we speak, it is right to proceed to the +following part, which begins: "Where Virtue is, there is A Nobleman." +And it is desirable to reduce this into two parts. In the first a +certain thing is proved, which before has been touched upon and left +unproved; in the second, concluding, the definition sought is found; +and this second part begins; "Comes virtue from what's noble, as From +black comes violet." + +In evidence of the first part, it is to be recalled to mind that it +says previously that, if Nobility is worth more and extends farther +than Virtue, Virtue rather will proceed from it, which this part now +proves, namely, that Nobility extends farther, and produces a copy of +Heaven, saying that wherever there is Virtue there is Nobility. And +here it is to be known that (as it is written in the Books of the Law, +and is held as a Rule of the Law) in those things which of themselves +are evident there is no need of proof; and nothing is more evident +than that Nobility exists wherever there is Virtue, and each thing, +commonly speaking, that we see perfect according to its nature is +worthy to be called Noble. It says then: "So likewise that is Heaven +Wherein a star is hung, But Heaven may be starless." So there is +Nobility wherever there is Virtue, and not Virtue wherever there is +Nobility. And with a beautiful and suitable example; for truly it is a +Heaven in which many and various stars shine. In this Nobility there +shine the Moral and the Intellectual Virtues: there shine in it the +good dispositions bestowed by nature, piety, and religion; the +praiseworthy passions, as Modesty and Mercy and many others; there +shine in it the good gifts of the body, that is to say, beauty, +strength, and almost perpetual health; and so many are the stars which +stud its Heaven that certainly it is not to be wondered at if they +produce many and divers effects in Human Nobility; such are the +natures and the powers of those stars, assembled and contained within +one simple substance, through the medium of which stars, as through +different branches, it bears fruit in various ways. Certainly, with +all earnestness, I make bold to say that Human Nobility, so far as +many of its fruits are considered, excels that of the Angel, although +the Angelic may be more Divine in its unity. + +Of this Nobility of ours, which fructifies into such fruits and so +numerous, the Psalmist had perception when he composed that Psalm +which begins: "O Lord our God, how admirable is Thy Name through all +the Earth!" where he praises man, as if wondering at the Divine +affection for this Human Creature, saying: "What is man, that Thou, +God, dost visit him? Thou hast made him a little lower than the +Angels; Thou hast crowned him with glory and honour, and placed him +over the works of Thy hands." Then, truly, it was a beautiful and +suitable comparison to compare Heaven with Human Nobility. + +Then, when the Song says, "In women and the young A modesty is seen, +Not virtue, noble yet," it proves that Nobility extends into parts +where Virtue is not; and it says, "noble yet," alluding to Nobility as +indeed a true safeguard, being where there is shame or modesty, that +is to say, fear of dishonour, as it is in maidens and youths, where +shame or modesty is good and praiseworthy; which shame or modesty is +not virtue, but a certain good passion. And it says, "In women and the +young," that is to say, in youths; because, as the Philosopher +expresses it in the fourth book of the Ethics, shame, bashfulness, +modesty, is not praiseworthy nor good in the old nor in men of +studious habits, because to them it is fit that they beware of those +things which would lead them to shame. In youths and maidens such +caution is not so much required, and therefore in them the fear of +receiving dishonour through some fault is praiseworthy. It springs +from Nobility, and it is possible to account their timid bashfulness +to be Nobility. Baseness and ignoble ways produce impudence: wherefore +it is a good and excellent sign of Nobility in children and persons of +tender years when, after some fault, their shame is painted in their +face, which blush of shame is then the fruit of true Nobility. + + + + +CHAPTER XX. + + +When it proceeds to say, "Comes virtue from what's noble, as From +black comes violet," the text advances to the desired definition of +Nobility, by which one may see what this Nobility is of which so many +people speak erroneously. It says then, drawing a conclusion from that +which has been said before, that each Virtue, or rather its generator, +that is to say, the habit of right choice, which stands firm in due +moderation, will spring forth from this, that is, Nobility. And it +gives an example in the colours, saying, as from the black the violet, +so this Virtue springs from Nobility. The violet is a mixed colour of +purple and black, but the black prevails, and the colour is named from +it. And thus the Virtue is a mixed thing of Nobility and Passion; but, +because Nobility prevails, the Virtue takes its name from it, and is +called Goodness. Then afterwards it argues, by that which has been +said, that no man ought to say boastfully, "I am of such and such a +race or family;" nor ought he to believe that he is of this Nobility +unless the fruits of it are in him. And immediately it renders a +reason, saying that those who have this Grace, that is to say, this +Divine thing, are almost Gods as it were, without spot of vice, and no +one has the power to bestow this except God alone, with whom there is +no respect of persons, even as Divine Scripture makes manifest. And it +does not appear too extravagant when it says, "They are as Gods," for +as it is argued previously in the seventh chapter of the third +treatise, even as there are men most vile and bestial so are men most +Noble and Divine. And this Aristotle proves in the seventh chapter of +Ethics by the text of Homer the poet; therefore, let not those men who +are of the Uberti of Florence, nor those of the Visconti of Milan, +say, "Because I am of such a family or race, I am Noble," for the +Divine seed falls not into a race of men, that is, into a family; but +it falls into individual persons, and, as will be proved below, the +family does not make individual persons Noble, but the individual +persons make the family Noble. + +Then when it says, "God only gives it to the Soul," the argument is of +the susceptive, that is, of the subject whereon this Divine gift +descends, which is indeed a Divine gift, according to the word of the +Apostle: "Every good gift and every perfect gift comes from above, +proceeding from the Father of Light." It says then that God alone +imparts this Grace to the Soul that He sees pure, within the Soul of +that man whom He sees to be perfectly prepared and fit to receive in +his own proper person this Divine action; for, according as the +Philosopher says in the second chapter Of the Soul, things must be +prepared for their agents and qualified to receive their acts; +wherefore if the Soul is imperfectly prepared, it is not qualified to +receive this blessed and Divine infusion, even as a precious stone, if +it is badly cut or prepared, wherever it is imperfect, cannot receive +the celestial virtue; even as that noble Guido Guinizzelli said, in a +Song of his which begins: "To gentle hearts Love ever will repair." It +is possible for the Soul to be unqualified through some defect of +temper, or perhaps through some sinister circumstances of the time in +which the person lives, and into a Soul so unhappy as this the Divine +radiance never shines. And it may be said of such men as these, whose +Souls are deprived of this Light, that they are as deep valleys turned +towards the North, or rather subterranean caves wherein the light of +the Sun never enters unless it be reflected from another part which +has caught its rays. + +Finally, it deduces, from that which has been previously said, that +the Virtues are the fruit of Nobility, and that God places that +Nobility in the Soul which has a good foundation. For to some, that +is, to those who have intellect, who are but few, it is evident that +human Nobility is no other than the seed of Happiness + + That seed of Happiness + Falls in the hearts of few, + Planted by God within the Souls + Spread to receive His dew; + +that is to say, whose body is in every part perfectly prepared, +ordered, or qualified. + +For if the Virtues are the fruit of Nobility, and Happiness is +pleasure or sweetness acquired through or by them, it is evident that +this Nobility is the seed of Happiness, as has been said. And if one +considers well, this definition comprehends all the four arguments, +that is to say, the material, the formal, the efficient, and the +final: material, inasmuch as it says, "to the Soul spread to receive," +which is the material and subject of Nobility; formal, inasmuch as it +says, "That seed;" efficient, inasmuch as it says, "Planted by God +within the Soul;" final, inasmuch as it says, "of Happiness," Heaven's +blessing. And thus is defined this our good gift, which descends into +us in like manner from the Supreme and Spiritual Power, as virtue into +a precious stone from a most noble celestial body. + + + + +CHAPTER XXI. + + +That we may have more perfect knowledge of Human Goodness, as it is +the original cause in us of all good that can be called Nobility, it +is requisite to explain clearly in this especial chapter how this +Goodness descends into us. + +In the first place, it comes by the Natural way, and then by the +Theological way, that is to say, the Divine and Spiritual. In the +first place, it is to be known that man is composed of Soul and body; +but that Goodness or Nobility is of the Soul, as has been said, and is +after the manner of seed from the Divine Virtue. By different +philosophers it has been differently argued concerning the difference +in our Souls; for Avicenna and Algazel were of opinion that Souls of +themselves and from their beginning were Noble or Base. Plato and some +others were of opinion that they proceeded by the stars, and were +Noble more or less according to the nobility of the star. Pythagoras +was of opinion that all were of one nobility, not only human Souls, +but with human Souls those of the brute animals and of the trees and +the forms of minerals; and he said that all the difference in the +bodies is form. If each one were to defend his opinion, it might be +that Truth would be seen to be in all. But since on the surface they +seem somewhat distant from the Truth, one must not proceed according +to those opinions, but according to the opinion of Aristotle and of +the Peripatetics. And therefore I say that when the human seed falls +into its receptacle, that is, into the matrix, it bears with it the +virtue or power of the generative Soul, and the virtue or power of +Heaven, and the virtue or power of the aliments united or bound +together, that is the involution or complex nature of the seed. It +matures and prepares the material for the formative power or virtue +which the generating Soul bestows; and the formative power or virtue +prepares the organs for the celestial virtue or power, which produces, +from the power of the seed, the Soul in life; which, as soon as +produced, receives from the power of the Mover of the Heaven the +passive intellect or mind, which potentially brings together in itself +all the universal forms according as they are in its producer, and so +much the less in proportion as it is farther removed from the first +Intelligence. + +Let no one marvel if I speak what seems difficult to understand; for +to myself it seems a miracle how it is possible even to arrive at a +conclusion concerning it, and to perceive it with the intellect. It is +not a thing to reveal in language, especially the language of the +Vulgar Tongue; wherefore I will say, even as did the Apostle: "Oh, +great is the depth of the riches of Wisdom of God: how incomprehensible +are Thy judgments, and Thy ways past finding out!" And since the +complex nature of the seed may be better and less good, and the +disposition of the receiver of the seed may be better and less good, +and the disposition of the dominant Heaven to this effect may be good +and better and best, which varies in the constellations, which are +continually transformed; it befalls that from the human seed and from +these virtues or powers the Soul is produced more or less pure; and +according to its purity there descends into it the virtue or power of +the possible or passive intellect, as it is called, and as it has been +spoken of. And if it happen that through the purity of the receptive +Soul the intellectual power is indeed separate and absolute, free from +all corporeal shadow, the Divine Goodness multiplies in it, as in a +thing sufficient to receive that good gift; and then it multiplies in +the Soul of this intelligent being, according as it can receive it; +and this is that seed of Happiness of which we speak at present. And +this is in harmony with the opinion of Tullius in that book on Old Age +when, speaking personally of Cato, he says: "For this reason a +celestial spirit descended into us from the highest habitation, having +come into a place which is adverse to the Divine Nature and to +Eternity." And in such a Soul as this there is its own individual +power, and the intellectual power, and the Divine power; that is to +say, that influence which has been mentioned. Therefore it is written +in the book On Causes: "Each Noble Soul has three operations, that is +to say, the animal, the intellectual, and the Divine." And there are +some men who hold such opinions that they say, if all the preceding +powers were to unite in the production of a Soul in their best +disposition, arrangement, order, that into that Soul would descend so +much of the Deity that it would be as it were another God Incarnate; +and this is almost all that it is possible to say concerning the +Natural way. + +By the Theological way it is possible to say that, when the Supreme +Deity, that is, God, sees His creature prepared to receive His good +gift, so freely He imparts it to His creature in proportion as it is +prepared or qualified to receive it. And because these gifts proceed +from ineffable Love, and the Divine Love is appropriate to the Holy +Spirit, therefore it is that they are called the gifts of the Holy +Spirit, which, even as the Prophet Isaiah distinguishes them, are +seven, namely, Wisdom, Intelligence, Counsel, Courage, Knowledge, +Pity, and the Fear of God. O, good green blades, and good and +wonderful the seed! + +And O, admirable and benign Sower of the seed, who dost only wait for +human nature to prepare the ground for Thee wherein to sow! O, blessed +are those who till the land to fit it to receive such seed! + +Here it is to be known that the first noble shoot which germinates +from this seed that it may be fruitful, is the desire or appetite of +the mind, which in Greek is called "hormen;" and if this is not well +cultivated and held upright by good habits, the seed is of little +worth, and it would be better if it had not been sown. + +And therefore St. Augustine urges, and Aristotle also in the second +book of Ethics, that man should accustom himself to do good, and to +bridle in his passions, in order that this shoot which has been +mentioned may grow strong through good habits, and be confirmed in its +uprightness, so that it may fructify, and from its fruit may issue the +sweetness of Human Happiness. + + + + +CHAPTER XXII. + + +It is the commandment of the Moral Philosophers that, of the good +gifts whereof they have spoken, Man ought to put his thought and his +anxious care into the effort to make them as useful as possible to the +receiver. Wherefore I, wishing to be obedient to such a mandate, +intend to render this my BANQUET [Convito] as useful as possible in +each one of its parts. And because in this part it occurs to me to be +able to reason somewhat concerning the sweetness of Human Happiness, I +consider that there could not be a more useful discourse, especially +to those who know it not; for as the Philosopher says in the first +book of Ethics, and Tullius in that book Of the Ends of Good and Evil, +he shoots badly at the mark who sees it not. Even thus a man can but +ill advance towards this sweet joy who does not begin with a +perception of it. Wherefore, since it is our final rest for which we +live and labour as we can, most useful and most necessary it is to see +this mark in order to aim at it the bow of this our work. And it is +most essential to make it inviting to those who do not see the mark +when simply pointed out. Leaving alone, then, the opinion which +Epicurus the philosopher had concerning it, and that which Zeno +likewise had, I intend to come summarily to the true opinion of +Aristotle and of the other Peripatetics. As it is said above, of the +Divine Goodness sown and infused in us, from the original cause of our +production, there springs up a shoot, which the Greeks term "hormen," +that is to say, the natural appetite of the soul. + +And as it is with the blades of corn which, when they first shoot +forth, have in the beginning one similar appearance, being in the +grass-like stage, and then, by process of time, they become unlike, so +this Natural appetite, which springs from the Divine Grace, in the +beginning appears as it were not unlike that which comes nakedly from +Nature; but with it, even as the herbage born of various grains of +corn, it has the same appearance, as it were: and not only in the +blades of corn, but in men and in beasts there is the same similitude. +And it appears that every animal, as soon as it is born, both rational +and brute beast, loves itself, and fears and flies from those things +which are adverse to it, and hates them, then proceeding as has been +said. And there begins a difference between them in the progress of +this Natural appetite, for the one keeps to one road, and the other to +another; even as the Apostle says: "Many run to the goal, but there is +but one who reaches it." Even thus these Human appetites from the +beginning run through different paths, and there is one path alone +which leads us to our peace; and therefore, leaving all the others +alone, it is for the treatise to follow the course of that one who +begins well. + +I say, then, that from the beginning a man loves himself, although +indistinctly; then comes the distinguishing of those things which to +him are more or less; to be more or less loved or hated; and he +follows after and flies from either more or less according as the +right habit distinguishes, not only in the other things which he loves +in a secondary manner, for he even distinguishes in himself which +thing he loves principally; and perceiving in himself divers parts, +those which are the noblest in him he loves most. But, since the +noblest part of man is the Mind, he loves that more than the Body; and +thus, loving himself principally, and through himself other things, +and of himself loving the better part most, it is evident that he +loves the Mind more than the Body or any other thing; and the Mind it +is that, naturally, more than any other thing he ought to love. + +Then, if the Mind always delights in the use of the beloved thing, +which is the fruit of love, the use of that thing which is especially +beloved is especially delightful: the use of our Mind is especially +delightful to us, and that which is especially delightful to us +becomes our Happiness and our Beatitude, beyond which there is no +greater delight or pleasure, nor any equal to it, as may be seen by +him who looks well at the preceding argument. + +And no one ought to say that every appetite is Mind; for here one +understands Mind solely as that which belongs to the Rational part, +that is, the Will and the Intellect; so that if any one should wish to +call Mind the appetite of the Senses, here it has no place, nor can it +have any abiding; for no one doubts that the Rational appetite is more +noble than the Sensual, and therefore more to be loved; and so is this +of which we are now speaking. + +The use of our Mind is double, that is to say, Practical and +Speculative (it is Practical insomuch as it has the power of acting); +both the one and the other are delightful in their use, but that of +Contemplation is the most pleasing, as has been said above. The use of +the Practical is to act in or through us virtuously, that is to say, +honestly or uprightly, with Prudence, with Temperance, with Courage, +and with Justice. The use of the Speculative is not to work or act +through us, but to consider the works of God and of Nature. This and +the other form our Beatitude and Supreme Happiness, which is the +sweetness of the before-mentioned seed, as now clearly appears. To +this often such seed does not attain, through being ill cultivated, or +through its tender growing shoots being perverted. In like manner it +is quite possible, by much correction and cultivation of him into whom +this seed does not fall primarily, to induce it by the process of +steady endeavour after goodness, so that it may attain to the power of +bearing this fruit. And it is, as it were, a method of grafting the +nature of another upon a different stock. + +No man, therefore, can hold himself excused; for if from his natural +root the man does not produce sweet fruit, it is possible for him to +have it by the process of grafting; and in fact there would be as many +who should be grafted as those are who, sprung from a good root, allow +themselves to grow degenerate. + +Of the two ways of goodness, one is more full of bliss than the other, +as is the Speculative, which is the use of our noblest part without +any alloy, and which, for the root, Love, as has been said, is +especially to be loved as the intellect. And in this life it is not +possible to have the use of this part perfectly, which is to see God, +who is the Supreme Being to be comprehended by the Mind, except +inasmuch as the intellect considers Him and beholds Him through His +effects, His Works. And that we may seek this Beatitude as the +supreme, and not the other, that is, that of the Active Life, the +Gospel of St. Mark teaches us, if we will look at it well. + +Mark says that Mary Magdalene, and Mary the mother of James, and Mary +Salome went to find the Saviour in the Tomb, and they found Him not, +but they found a youth clothed in white, who said to them: "You seek +the Saviour, and I tell you that He is not here; and therefore be not +affrighted, but go and tell His disciples and Peter that He goeth +before you into Galilee; and there ye shall see Him, as He said unto +you." By these three women may be understood the three sects of the +Active Life, that is to say, the Epicureans, the Stoics, and the +Peripatetics, who go to the Tomb, that is to say, to the present +World, which is the receptacle of corruptible things, and seek for the +Saviour, that is, Beatitude, and they find it not; but they find a +youth in white garments, who, according to the testimony of Matthew, +and also of the other Evangelists, was an Angel of God. And therefore +Matthew said: "The Angel of the Lord descended from Heaven, and came +and rolled back the stone from the door, and sat upon it. His +countenance was like lightning, and his raiment white as snow." The +Angel is this Nobility of ours which comes from God, as it has been +said, of which our argument speaks, and says to each one of these +sects, that is, to whoever seeks perfect Happiness in the Active Life, +that it is not here; but go and tell the disciples and Peter, that is, +tell those who seek for it and those who are gone astray like Peter, +who had denied Him, that He will go before them into Galilee; meaning +that the Beatitude or Happiness will go before us into Galilee, that +is, into Contemplation; Galilee is as much as to say, Whiteness. +Whiteness is a colour full of material light, more so than any other; +and thus, Contemplation is more full of Spiritual light than any other +thing which is below. + +And it says, "He will go before you," but it does not say, "He will be +with you," to make us understand that in our contemplation God always +goes before. Nor is it ever possible to us to attain to Him here, to +Him, our Supreme Bliss. And it says, "There shall ye see Him, as He +said unto you;" that is to say, there you will receive of His +Sweetness, that is, of the Happiness as it is promised to you here, as +it is established that you may receive it. + +And thus it appears that our Beatitude, this Happiness of which we +speak, first we are able to find imperfect in the Active Life, that +is, in the operations of the Moral Virtues, and then almost perfect in +the operations of the Intellectual Virtues; which two operations are +speedy and most direct ways to lead to the Supreme Bliss, which it is +not possible to have here below, even as appears by that which has +been said. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIII. + + +Since the definition of Nobility is sufficiently demonstrated, and +since in all its parts it has been made as explicit as possible, so +that we can now see who is the Nobleman, it seems right to proceed to +the part of the text which begins, "Souls whom this Grace adorns," in +whom appear the signs by which it is possible to know the Noble Man. + +This part is divided into two. In the first it affirms that this +Nobility is resplendent, and that it shines forth manifestly during +the whole life of the Noble Man; in the second it appears specifically +in its glory, and this second part begins, "In Childhood they obey." +With regard to the first part, it is to be known that this Divine +seed, which has been previously spoken of, germinates immediately in +our Soul, combining with and changing its form with each form of the +Soul, according to the exigency of that power. It germinates, then, as +the Vegetative, as the Sensitive, and as the Rational, and it branches +out through the virtues or powers of all of them, guiding all those to +their perfection, and sustaining itself in them always, even to the +point when, with that part of our Soul which never dies, it returns to +the highest and the most glorious Sower of the seed in Heaven; and it +expresses this in that first part which has been mentioned. Then when +it says, "In Childhood they obey, Are gentle, modest," it shows how we +can recognize the Noble Man by the apparent signs, which are the +Divine operation of this goodness. And this part is divided into four, +as it is made to represent four different ages, such as Adolescence, +Youth, Old Age, and Extreme Old Age. The second part begins, "Are +temperate in Youth;" the third begins, "Are prudent in their Age;" the +fourth begins, "The fourth part of their life." Herein is contained +the purpose of this part in general, with regard to which it is +desirable to know that each effect, inasmuch as it is an effect, +receives the likeness of its cause in proportion as it is capable of +retaining it. + +Wherefore, since our life, as has been said, and also the life of +every living creature here below, is caused by Heaven, Heaven is +revealed in all such effects as these, not, indeed, with the complete +circle, but with part of it, in them. Thus its movement must be not +only with them, but beyond them, and as one arch of life retains (and +I say retains, not only of men, but also of other living creatures) +almost all the lives, ascending and descending, they must be, as it +were, similar in appearance to the form of the arch. Returning, then, +to our course of life which at present we are seeking to understand, I +say that it proceeds after the manner of this arch, ascending and +descending. And it is to be known that the ascent of this arch should +be equal to its descent, if the material of the seed from which we +spring, so complex in its nature, did not impede the law of Human +Nature. But since the humid root is of better quality more or less, +and stronger to endure in one effect more than in another, being +subject to the nutriment of the heat, which is our life, it happens +that the arch of the life of one man is of less or of greater extent +than that of another, life being shortened by a violent death or by +some accidental injury; but that which is called natural by the people +is that span of which it is said by the Psalmist, "Thou settest up a +boundary which it is not possible to pass." And since the Master among +those here living, Aristotle, had perception of this arch of which we +now speak, and seems to be of opinion that our life should be no other +than one ascent and one descent, therefore he says, in that chapter +where he treats of Youth and of Old Age, that Youth is no other than +an increase of life. Where the top of this arch may be, it is +difficult to know, on account of the inequality which has been spoken +of above, but for the most part I believe between the thirtieth and +the fortieth year, and I believe that in the perfectly natural man it +is at the thirty-fifth year. And this reason has weight with me: that +our Saviour Jesus Christ was a perfect natural man, who chose to die +in the thirty-fourth year of His age; for it was not suitable for the +Deity to have place in the descending segment; neither is it to be +believed that He would not wish to dwell in this life of ours even to +the summit of it, since He had been in the lower part even from +childhood. And the hour of the day of His death makes this evident, +for He willed that to conform with His life; wherefore Luke says that +it was about the sixth hour when He died, that is to say, the height +or supreme point of the day; wherefore it is possible to comprehend by +that, as it were, that at the thirty-fifth year of Christ was the +height or supreme point of His age. Truly this arch is not half +distinguished in the Scriptures, but if we follow the four connecting +links of the differing qualities which are in our composition, to each +one of which appears to be appropriated one part of our age, it is +divided into four parts, and they are called the four ages. The first +is Adolescence, which is appropriated to the hot and moist; the second +is Youth, which is appropriated to the hot and dry; the third is Old +Age, which is appropriated to the cold and dry; the fourth is Extreme +Old Age, which is appropriated to the cold and moist, as Albertus +Magnus writes in the fourth chapter of the Metaura. And these parts or +divisions are made in a similar manner in the year--in Spring, in +Summer, in Autumn, and in Winter. And it is the same in the day even +to the third hour, and then even to the ninth, leaving the sixth in +the middle of this part, or division, for the reason which is +understood, and then even to vespers, and from vespers onwards. And +therefore the Gentiles said that the chariot of the Sun had four +horses; they called the first Eoo, the second Piroi, the third Eton, +the fourth Phlegon, even as Ovid writes in the second book of the +Metamorphoses concerning the parts or divisions of the day. + +And, briefly, it is to be known that, as it has been said above in the +sixth chapter of the third treatise, the Church makes use of the hours +temporal in the division of the day, which hours are twelve in each +day, long or short according to the amount of sunlight; and because +the sixth hour, that is, the midday, is the most noble of the whole +day, and has in it the most virtue, the Offices of the Church are +approximated thereto in each side, that is, from the prime, and thence +onwards as much as possible; and therefore the Office of prime, that +is, the tertius, is said at the end of that part, and that of the +third part and of the fourth is said at the beginning; and therefore, +before the clock strikes in a division of the day, it is termed +half-third or mid-tertius; or mid-nones, when in that division the +clock has struck, and thus mid-vespers. + +And, therefore, let each one know that the right and lawful nones +ought always to strike or sound at the beginning of the seventh hour +of the day, and let this suffice to the present digression. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIV. + + +Returning to the proposition, I say that Human Life is divided into +four ages or stages. The first is called Adolescence, that is, the +growth or increase of life; the second is called Youth, that is, the +age which can give perfection, and for this reason one understands +this Youth to be perfect, because no man can give except of that which +he has; the third is called Old Age; the fourth is called Senility, +Extreme Old Age, as has been said above. + +Of the first no one doubts, but each wise man agrees that it lasts +even to the twenty-fifth year; and up to that time our Soul waits for +the increase and the embellishment of the body. While there are many +and very great changes in the person, the rational part cannot possess +perfectly the power of discretion; wherefore, the Civil Law wills +that, previous to that age, a man cannot do certain things without a +guardian of perfect age. + +Of the second, which is the height of our life, the time is variously +taken by many. But leaving that which philosophers and medical men +write concerning it, and returning to the proper argument, we may say +that, in most men in whom one can and ought to be guided by natural +judgment, that age lasts for twenty years. And the reason which leads +me to this conclusion is, that the height or supreme point of our arc +or bow is in the thirty-fifth year; just so much as this age has of +ascent, so much it ought to have of descent; and this ascent passes +into descent, as it were, at the point, the centre, where one would +hold the bow in the hand, at which place a slight flexion may be +discerned. We are of opinion, then, that Youth is completed in the +forty-fifth year. + +And as Adolescence is in the twenty-five years which proceed mounting +upwards to Youth: so the descent, that is, Old Age, is an equal amount +of time which succeeds to Youth; and thus Old Age terminates in the +seventieth year. + +But because Adolescence does not begin at the beginning of +life--taking it in the way which has been said--but about eight months +from birth; and because our life strives to ascend, and curbs itself +in the descent; because the natural heat is lessened and can do +little, and the moist humour is increased, not in quantity, but in +quality, so that it is less able to evaporate and be consumed; it +happens that beyond Old Age there remains of our life an amount, +perhaps, of about ten years, a little more or a little less; and this +time of life is termed Extreme Old Age, or Senility. Wherefore we know +of Plato (of whom one may well say that he was a son of Nature, both +because of his perfection and because of his countenance, which caused +Socrates to love him when first he saw him), that he lived eighty and +one years, according to the testimony of Tullius in that book On Old +Age. And I believe that if Christ had not been crucified, and if He +might have lived the length of time which His life according to nature +could have passed over, at eighty and one years He would have been +transformed from the mortal body into the eternal. + +Truly, as has been said above, these ages may be longer or shorter +according to our complexion or temper and our constitution or +composition; but, as they are, it seems to me that I observe this +proportion in all men, as has been said, that is to say, that in such +men the ages may be made longer or shorter according to the integrity +of the whole term of the natural life. + +Throughout all these ages this Nobility of which we speak manifests +its effects in different ways in the ennobled Soul; and it is that +which this part of the Song, concerning which we write at present, +intends to demonstrate. Where it is to be known that our good and +upright nature makes forward progress in us in the reasoning powers, +as we see the nature of the plants make forward progress; and +therefore it is that different manners and different deportment are to +be held reasonable at one age rather than at another. The ennobled +Soul proceeds in due order along a single path, employing each of its +powers in its time and season, or even as they are all ordained to the +final production of the perfect fruit. And Tullius is in harmony with +this in his book On Old Age. And putting aside the figurative sense +which Virgil holds in the Æneid concerning this different progress of +the ages, and letting that be which Egidius the hermit mentions in the +first part On the Government of Princes, and letting that be to which +Tullius alludes in his book Of Offices, and following that alone which +Reason can see of herself, I say that this first age is the door and +the path through which and along which we enter into our good life, +And this entrance must of necessity have certain things which the good +Nature, which fails not in things necessary, gives to us; as we see +that she gives to the vine the leaves for the protection of the fruit, +and the little tendrils which enable it to twine round its supports, +and thus bind up its weakness, so that it can sustain the weight of +its fruit. Beneficent Nature gives, then, to this age four things +necessary to the entrance into the City of the Good Life. The first is +Obedience, the second Suavity, the third Modesty, the fourth Beauty of +the Body, even as the Song says in the first section of this part. It +is, then, to be known that like one who has never been in a city, who +would not know how to find his way about the streets without +instruction from one who is accustomed to them, even so the adolescent +who enters into the Wood of Error of this life would not know how to +keep to the good path if it were not pointed out to him by his elders. +Neither would the instruction avail if he were not obedient to their +commands, and therefore at this age obedience is necessary. Here it +might be possible for some one to speak thus: Then, is that man to be +called obedient who shall follow evil guidance as well as he who shall +believe the good? I reply that this would not be obedience, but +transgression. For if the King should issue a command in one way and +the servant give forth the command in another, it would not be right +to obey the servant, for that would be to disobey the King; and thus +it would be transgression. And therefore Solomon says, when he intends +to correct his son, and this is his first commandment: "Listen, my +son, to the instruction of thy father." And then he seeks to remove +him immediately from the counsel and teaching of the wicked man, +saying, "My son, if sinners entice thee, consent thou not." + +Wherefore, as soon as he is born, the son clings to the breast of the +mother; even so soon as some light of the Mind appears in him, he +ought to turn to the correction of the father, and the father to +instruction. And let the father take heed that he himself does not set +him an example in work or action that is contrary to the words of the +correction; for naturally we see each son look more to the footprints +of the paternal feet than to those of other men. And therefore the +Law, which provides for this, says and commands that the life of the +father should appear to his sons always honourable and upright. Thus +it appears that obedience was necessary in this age; and therefore +Solomon writes in the Book of Proverbs, that he who humbly and +obediently sustains his just reproofs from the corrector shall be +glorious. And he says "shall be," to cause men to understand that he +speaks to the adolescent, who cannot be so in his present age. And if +any one should reflect on me because I have said obedience is due to +the father and not to other men, I say that to the father all other +obedience ought to be referred; wherefore the Apostle says to the +Colossians: "Sons, obey your fathers in all things, for such is the +will of God." And if the father be not in this life, the son ought to +refer to that which is said by the father in his last Will as a +father; and if the father die intestate, the son ought to refer to him +to whom the Law commits his authority; and then ought the masters and +elders to be obeyed, for this appears to be a reasonable charge laid +upon the son by the father, or by him who stands in the father's +place. + +But because this present chapter has been long, on account of the +useful digressions which it contains, in another chapter other things +shall be discussed. + + + + +CHAPTER XXV. + + +Not only this Soul, naturally good in Adolescence, is obedient, but +also gentle; which is the other thing necessary in this age to make a +good entrance through the portal of Youth. + +It is necessary, since we cannot have a perfect life without friends, +as Aristotle expresses it in the eighth book of Ethics; and the seed +of the greater number of friendships seems to be sown in the first age +of life, because in it a man begins to be gracious or the contrary. +Such graciousness is acquired by gentle rules of conduct, as are sweet +and courteous speech, gentle service courteously rendered, and actions +kindly done or performed. And therefore Solomon says to the adolescent +son: "Surely God scorneth the scorners; but He giveth grace unto the +lowly." And elsewhere he says: "Put away from thee a forward mouth, +and perverse lips put far from thee." Wherefore it appears that, as +has been said, this suavity or affability is necessary. + +Likewise to this age the passion of modesty is necessary; and +therefore the nature which is good and noble shows it in this age, +even as the Song says. And since modesty is the clearest sign, in +Adolescence, of Nobility, because there it is especially necessary to +the good foundation of our life, at which the noble nature aims, it is +right to speak of it somewhat. By modesty I mean three passions or +strong feelings necessary to the foundation of our good life: the one +is wonder, the next is modesty, the third is shame, although the +common people do not discern this distinction. And all three of these +are necessary to this life, for this reason: at this age it is +requisite to be reverent and desirous for knowledge; at this age it is +necessary or requisite to be self-controlled, so as not to transgress +or pass beyond due bounds; at this age it is necessary to be penitent +for a fault, so as not to grow accustomed to doing wrong. And all +these things the aforesaid passions or strong feelings do, which +vulgarly are called shame; for wonder is an amazement of the mind at +beholding great and wonderful things, at hearing them, or feeling them +in some way or other; for, inasmuch as they appear great, they excite +reverence in him who sees them; inasmuch as they appear wonderful, +they make him who perceives them desirous of knowledge concerning +them. And therefore the ancient Kings in their palaces or habitations +set up magnificent works in gold and in marble and works of art, in +order that those who should see them should become astonished, and +therefore reverent inquirers into the honourable conditions of the +King. Therefore Statius, the sweet Poet, in the first part of the +Theban History, says that, when Adrastus, King of the Argives, saw +Polynices covered with the skin of a lion, and saw Tydeus covered with +the hide of a wild boar, and recalled to mind the reply that Apollo +had given concerning his daughters, he became amazed, and therefore +more reverent and more desirous for knowledge. Modesty is a shrinking, +a drawing-back of the mind from unseemly things, with the fear of +falling into them; even as we see in virgins and in good women, and in +adolescent or young men, who are so modest that not only when they are +tempted to do wrong, and urged to do so, but even when some fancied +joy flashes across the mind, the feeling is depicted in the face, +which either grows pale with fear, or flushes rosy-red. Wherefore the +before-mentioned poet, in the first book of the Thebaid already +quoted, says that when Acesta the nurse of Argia and Deiphile, the +daughters of King Adrastus, led them before the eyes of their holy +father into the presence of the two pilgrims, that is to say, +Polynices and Tydeus, the virgins grew pale and blushed rosy-red, and +their eyes shunned the glance of any other person, and they kept them +fixed on the paternal face alone, as if there were safety. This +modesty--how many errors does it bridle in, or repress? On how many +immodest questions and impure things does it impose silence! How much +dishonest greed does it repress! In the chaste woman, against how many +evil temptations does it rouse mistrust, not only in her, but also in +him who watches over her! How many unseemly words does it restrain! +for, as Tullius says in the first chapter of the Offices: "No action +is unseemly which is not unseemly in the naming." And furthermore, the +Modest and Noble Man never could speak in such a manner that to a +woman his words would not be decent and such as she could hear. Alas, +how great is the evil in every man who seeks for honour, to mention +things which would be deemed evil in the mouth of any woman! + +Shame is a fear of dishonour through fault committed, and from this +fear there springs up a penitence for the fault, which has in itself a +bitter sorrow or grief, which is a chastisement and preservative +against future wrong-doing. Wherefore this same poet says, in that +same part, that when Polynices was questioned by King Adrastus +concerning his life, he hesitated at first through shame to speak of +the crime which he had committed against his father, and also for the +sins of Oedipus, his father, which appeared to remain in the shame of +the son; therefore he named not his father, but his ancestors, and his +country, and his mother; and therefore it does indeed appear that +shame is necessary to that age. And the noble nature reveals in this +age, not only obedience, gentleness, affability, and modesty, but it +shows beauty and agility of body, even as the Song expresses: "To +furnish Virtue's person with The graces it may need." Here it is to be +known that this work of beneficent Nature is also necessary to our +good life, for our Soul must work in the greater part of all its +operations with a bodily organ; and then it works well when the body +through all its parts is well proportioned and appointed. And when it +is well proportioned and appointed, then it is beautiful throughout +and in all its parts; for the due ordering or proportion of our limbs +produces a pleasing impression of I know not what of wonderful +harmony; and the good disposition, that is to say, the health of mind +and body, throws over all a colouring sweet to behold. And thus to say +that the noble nature takes heed for the graces of the body, and makes +it fair and harmonious, is tantamount to saying that it prepares it +and renders it fit to attain the perfection ordained for it: and those +other things which have been discussed seem to be requisite to +Adolescence, which the noble Mind, that is to say, the noble Nature, +furnishes forth to it in the first years of life, as growth of the +seed sown therein by the Divine Providence. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVI. + + +Since the first section of this part, which shows how we can recognize +the Noble Man by apparent signs, is reasoned out, it is right to +proceed to the second section, which begins: "Are temperate in Youth, +And resolutely strong." + +It says, then, that as the noble Nature in Adolescence or the +Spring-time of Youth appears obedient, gentle, and modest, the +beautifier of its person, so in Youth it is temperate, strong, and +loving, courteous and loyal; which five things appear to be, and are, +necessary to our perfection, inasmuch as we have respect unto +ourselves. And with regard to this it is desirable to know that just +as the noble Nature prepares in the first age, it is prepared and +ordained by the care or foresight of Universal Nature, which ordains +and appoints the particular Nature where-ever existing, to attain its +perfection. + +This perfection of ours may be considered in a double sense. It is +possible to consider it as it has respect to ourselves, and we ought +to possess this in our Youth, which is the culminating point of our +life. It is possible to consider it as it has respect to others, and +since in the first place it is necessary to be perfect, and then to +communicate the perfection to others, it is requisite to possess this +secondary perfection after this age, that is to say, in Old Age, as +will be said subsequently. Here, then, it is needful to recall to mind +that which was argued in the twenty-second chapter of this treatise +concerning the appetite or impulse which is born in us. This appetite +or impulse never does aught else but to pursue and to flee, and +whenever it pursues that which is to be pursued, and as far as is +right, and flies from that which is to be fled from, and as much as is +right, then is the man within the limits of his perfection. Truly, +this appetite or natural impulse must have Reason for its rider; for +as a horse at liberty, however noble it may be by nature, by itself +without the good rider does not conduct itself well, even thus this +appetite, however noble it may be, must obey Reason, which guides it +with the bridle and spur, as the good knight uses the bridle when he +hunts. And that bridle is termed Temperance, which marks the limit up +to which it is lawful to pursue; he uses the spur in flight to turn +the horse away from the place from which he would flee away; and this +spur is called Courage, or rather Magnanimity, a Virtue that points +out the place at which it is right to stop, and to resist evil even to +mortal combat. And thus Virgil, our greatest Poet, represents Æneas as +under the influence of powerful self control in that part of the Æneid +wherein this age is typified, which part comprehends the fourth and +the fifth and the sixth books of the Æneid. And what self-restraint +was that when, having received from Dido so much pleasure, as will be +spoken of in the seventh treatise, and enjoying so much delectation +with her, he departed, in order to follow the upright and praiseworthy +path fruitful of good works, even as it is written in the fourth book +of the Æneid! What impetus was that when Æneas had the fortitude alone +with Sybilla to enter into Hades, to search for the Soul of his father +Anchises, in the face of so many dangers, as it is shown in the sixth +book of the Æneid. Wherefore it appears that in our Youth, in order to +be in our perfection, we must be Temperate and Brave. The good +disposition secures this for us, even as the Song expressly states. + +Again, at this age it is necessary to its perfection to be Loving; +because at this age it is requisite to look behind and before, as +being midway over the arch. The youth ought to love his elders, from +whom he has received his being, and his nutriment, and his +instruction, so that he may not appear ungrateful. He ought to love +his juniors, since, in loving them, he gives them of his good gifts, +for which in after-years, when the younger friends are prospering, he +may be supported and honoured by them. And the poet named above, in +the fifth book before-mentioned, makes it evident that Æneas possessed +this loving disposition, when he left the aged Trojans in Sicily, +recommended to Acestes, and set them free from the fatigues of the +voyage; and when he instructed, in the same place, Ascanius his son, +with the other young men, in jousting or in feats of arms; wherefore +it appears that to this age Love is necessary, even as the Song says. + +Again, to this age Courtesy is necessary, for, although to every age +it is right or beautiful to be possessed of courteous manners, to this +age it is especially necessary, because, on the contrary, Old Age, +with its gravity and its severity, cannot possess courtesy, if it has +been wanting in this youthful period of life; and with Extreme Old Age +it is the same in a greater degree. And that most noble poet, in the +sixth book before-mentioned, proves that Æneas possessed this +courtesy, when he says that Æneas, then King, in order to pay honour +to the dead body of Misenus, who had been the trumpeter of Hector, and +afterwards accompanied Æneas, made himself ready and took the axe to +assist in cutting the logs for the fire which must burn the dead body, +as was their custom. Wherefore this courtesy does indeed appear to be +necessary to Youth; and therefore the noble Soul reveals it in that +age, as has been said. + +Again, it is necessary to this age to be Loyal. Loyalty is to follow +and to put in operation that which the Laws command, and this +especially is necessary in the young man; because the adolescent, as +it has been said, on account of his minority, merits ready pardon; the +old man, on account of greater experience, ought to be just, but not a +follower of the Law except inasmuch as his upright judgment and the +Law are at one as it were; and almost without any Law he ought to be +able to follow the dictates of his own just mind. The young man is not +able to do this, and it is sufficient that he should obey the Law, and +take delight in that obedience; even as the before-said poet says, in +the fifth book previously mentioned, that Æneas did when he instituted +the games in Sicily on the anniversary of his father's death, for what +he promised for the victories he loyally gave to each victor, +according to their ancient custom, which was their Law. + +Wherefore, it is evident that, to this age, Loyalty, Courtesy, Love, +Courage, and Temperance are necessary, even as the Song says, which at +present I have reasoned out; and therefore the noble Soul reveals them +all. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVII. + + +That section which the text puts forward having been reasoned out and +made sufficiently clear, showing the qualities of uprightness which +the noble Soul puts into Youth, we go on to pay attention to the third +part, which begins, "Are prudent in their Age," in which the Song +intends to show those qualities which the noble Nature reveals and +ought to possess in the third age, that is to say, Old Age. And it +says that the noble Soul in Old Age is prudent, is just, is liberal +and cheerful, willing to speak kindly and for the good of others, and +ready to listen for the same reason, that is to say, that it is +affable. And truly these four Virtues are most suitable to this age. +And, in order to perceive this, it is to be known that, as Tullius +says in his book On Old Age, "Our life has a certain course, and one +simple path, that of natural moral goodness; and to each part of our +age there is given a season for certain things." Wherefore, as to +Adolescence is given, as has been said above, that by means of which +it may attain perfection and maturity, so to youth is given perfection +and maturity in order that the sweetness of its perfect fruit may be +profitable to the man himself and to others; for, as Aristotle says, +man is a civil or polite animal, because it is required of him to be +useful, not only to himself, but to others as well. Wherefore one +reads of Cato, that he believed himself to be born not only to +himself, but to his country and to all the world. Then after our own +perfection, which is acquired in Youth, there must follow that which +may give light not only to one's self, but to others as well; and a +man ought to open and broaden like a rose as it were, which can no +longer remain closed, and spread abroad the sweet odour which is bred +within; and this ought to be the case in that third age which we have +now in hand. + +Then it must be Prudent, that is to say, Wise. And, in order to be +this, a good memory of the things which have been seen is requisite, +and a good knowledge of present things, and good foresight for things +of the future. And, as the Philosopher says in the sixth book of +Ethics, it is impossible for the man who is not good to be wise; and +therefore he is not to be called a wise man who acts with cunning and +with deception, but he is to be called an astute man. As no one would +call him a wise man who might indeed know how to draw with the point +of a knife in the pupil of the eye, even so he is not to be called a +wise man who knows how to do a bad thing well, in the doing of which +he must always first injure some other person. If we consider well, +good counsel springs from Prudence, which leads or guides a man, and +other men, to a good end in human affairs. And this is that gift which +Solomon, perceiving himself to be placed as ruler over the people, +asked of God, even as it is written in the Third Book of Kings; nor +does the prudent man wait for counsel to be asked of him; but of +himself, foreseeing the need for it, unasked he gives counsel or +advice; like the rose, which not only to him who goes to her for her +sweet odour freely gives it, but also to any one who passes near. + +Here it would be possible for any doctor or lawyer to say: Then shall +I carry my counsel or advice, and shall I give it even before it be +asked of me, and shall I not reap fruit from my art or skill? I reply +in the words of our Saviour: "Freely ye have received, freely give." I +say, then, Master Lawyer, that those counsels which have no respect to +thine art, and which proceed alone from that good sense or wisdom +which God gave thee (which is the prudence of which we speak), thou +oughtest not to sell to the sons or children of Him who has given it +to thee. But those counsels which belong to the art which thou hast +purchased, thou mayst sell; but not in such a way but that at any time +the tenth part of them may be fitly set apart and given unto God, that +is, to those unhappy ones to whom the Divine protection is all that is +left. + +Likewise at this age it is right to be Just, in order that the +judgments and the authority of the man may be a light and a law to +other men. And because this particular Virtue, that is to say, +Justice, was seen by the ancient philosophers to appear perfect in men +of this age, they entrusted the government of the cities to those men +who had attained that age; and therefore the college of Rectors was +called the Senate. Oh, my unhappy, unhappy country! how my heart is +wrung with pity for thee whenever I read, whenever I write, anything +which may have reference to Civil Government! But since in the last +treatise of this book Justice will be discussed, to the present let +this slight notice of it suffice. + +Also at this age a man ought to be liberal, because a thing is then +most suitable when it gives most satisfaction to the due requirements +of its nature: nor to the due requirements of Liberality is it ever +possible to give more satisfaction than at this age. For if we will +look well at the argument of Aristotle in the fourth book of Ethics, +and at that of Tullius in his book Of Offices, Liberality desires to +be seasonable in place and time; so that the liberal man may not +injure himself nor other men; which thing it is not possible to have +without Prudence and without Justice, Virtues that previous to this +age it is impossible to have or possess in perfection in the Natural +way. + +Alas! ye base-born ones, born under evil stars, ye who rob the widows +and orphans, who ravish or despoil those who possess least, who steal +from and occupy or usurp the homes of other men, and with that spoil +you furnish forth feasts, women, horses, arms, robes, money; you wear +wonderful garments, you build marvellous palaces; and you believe that +you do deeds of great liberality: and this is no other than to take +the cloth from the altar and to cover therewith the thief and his +table! Not otherwise one ought to laugh, O tyrants, at your bounteous +liberality than at the thief who should lead the invited guests into +his house to his feast, and place upon his table the cloth stolen from +the altar, with the ecclesiastical signs inwoven, and should not +believe that other men might perceive the sacrilege. Hear, O ye +obstinate men, what Tullius says against you in the book Of Offices: +"Certainly there are many, desirous of being great and glorious, who +rob some that they may give to others, believing themselves to be +esteemed good men if they enrich their friends with what the Law +allows. But this is so opposite or contrary to that which ought to be +done, that nothing is more wrong." + +At this age also a man ought to be Affable, to speak for the good of +others, and to listen to such speech willingly, since it is good for a +man to discourse kindly at an age when he is listened to. And this age +also has with it a shadow of authority, for which reason it appears +that the aged man is more likely to be listened to than a person in a +younger period of life. And of most good and beautiful Truths it seems +that a man ought to have knowledge after the long experience of life. +Wherefore Tullius says, in that book On Old Age, in the person of Cato +the elder: "To me is increased the desire and the delight to remain in +conversation longer than I am wont." And that all four of these things +are right and proper to this age, Ovid teaches, in the seventh chapter +of Metamorphoses, in that fable where he writes how Cephalus of Athens +came to Æacus the King for help in the war which Athens had with the +Cretans. He shows that Æacus, an old man, was prudent when, having, +through pestilence caused by corruption of the air, lost almost all +his people, he wisely had recourse to God, and besought of Him the +restoration of the dead; and for his wisdom, which in patience +possessed him and caused him to turn to God, his people were restored +to him in greater number than before. He shows that he was just, when +he says that Æacus was the divider and the distributor of his deserted +land to his new people. He shows that Æacus was generous or liberal +when he said to Cephalus, after his request for aid: "O Athens! ask me +not to render assistance, but take it yourself; doubt not the strength +of the forces which this island possesses, nor the power of my state +and realm; troops are not wanting to us, nay, we have them in excess +for offence and defence; it is indeed a happy time to give you aid, +and without excuse." + +Alas, how many things are to be observed in this reply! but to a good, +intelligent man it is sufficient for it to be placed here, even as +Ovid puts it. He shows that Æacus was affable when he described, in a +long speech to Cephalus, the history of the pestilence which destroyed +his people, and the restoration of the same, which he tells readily. + +It is clear enough, then, that to this age four things are suitable, +because the noble Nature reveals them in it, even as the Song says. +And that the example given may be the more memorable, Æacus says that +he was the father of Telamon and Peleus and of Phocus, from which +Telamon sprang Ajax and from Peleus Achilles. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVIII. + + +Following the section which has been discussed, we have now to proceed +to the last, that is, to that which begins, "The fourth part of their +life Weds them again to God," by which the text intends to show what +the noble Soul does in the last age, that is, in Extreme Old Age, that +is, Senility. And it says that it does two things: the one, that it +returns to God as to that port or haven whence it departed when it +issued forth to enter into the sea of this life; the other is, that it +blesses the voyage which it has made, because it has been upright, +straight, and good, and without the bitterness of storm and tempest. + +And here it is to be known that, even as Tullius says in that book On +Old Age, the natural death is, as it were, a port or haven to us after +our long voyage and a place of rest. And the Virtuous Man who dies +thus is like the good mariner; for, as he approaches the port or +haven, he strikes his sails, and gently, with feeble steering, enters +port. Even thus we ought to strike the sails of our worldly affairs, +and turn to God with all our heart and mind, so that one may come into +that haven with all sweetness and all peace. + +And in this we have from our own proper nature great instruction in +gentleness, for in such a death as this there is no pain nor +bitterness, but even as a ripe apple easily and without violence +detaches itself from its branch, so our Soul without grief separates +itself from the body wherein it has dwelt. + +Aristotle, in his book On Youth and Old Age, says that the death which +overtakes us in old age is without sadness. And as to him who comes +from a long journey, before he enters into the gate of his city, the +citizens thereof go forth to meet him, so do those citizens of the +Eternal Life go forth to meet the noble Soul; and they do thus because +of his good works and acts of contemplation, which were of old +rendered unto God and withdrawn from worldly affairs and thoughts. +Hear what Tullius says in the person of Cato the elder: "It seems to +me that already I see, and I uplift myself in the greatest desire to +see, your fathers, whom I loved, and not only those whom I knew +myself, but also those of whom I have heard spoken." In this age, +then, the noble Soul renders itself unto God, and awaits the end of +this life with much desire; and to itself it seems that it goes out +from the Inn to return home to the Father's mansion; to itself it +seems to have reached the end of a long journey and to have reached +the City; to itself it seems to have crossed the wide sea and returned +into the port. O, miserable men and vile, who run into this port with +sails unfurled; and there where you should find rest, are broken by +the fury of the wind and wrecked in the harbour. Truly the Knight +Lancelot chose not to enter it with sails unfurled, nor our most noble +Italian Guido da Montefeltro. These noble Spirits indeed furled the +sails after the voyage of this World, whose cares were rendered to +Religion in their long old age, when they had laid down each earthly +joy and labour. And it is not possible to excuse any man because of +the bond of matrimony, which may hold him in his old age, from turning +to Religion, even as he who adopts the habit of St. Benedict and St. +Augustine and St. Francis and St. Dominic and the like mode of life, +but also it is possible to turn to a good and true Religion whilst +remaining in the bonds of matrimony, for God asks of us no more than +the religious heart. And therefore St. Paul says to the Romans: "For +he is not a Jew which is one outwardly; neither is that circumcision +which is outward in the flesh. But he is a Jew which is one inwardly; +and circumcision is that of the heart, in the spirit, and not in the +letter; whose praise is not of men, but of God." + +And the Noble Soul in this age blesses likewise the time that is past, +and it may well bless it; because when Memory turns back to them, the +Noble Soul remembers her upright deeds, without which it were not +possible for her to come to the port whither she is hastening with +such wealth nor with such gain. And the Noble Soul does like the good +merchant, who, when he draws near to his port, examines his cargo, and +says: "If I had not passed along such a highway as that, I should not +possess this treasure, and I should not have wherewith to rejoice in +my city, to which I am approaching;" and therefore he blesses the +voyage he has made. + +And that these two things are suitable to this age that great poet +Lucan represents to us in the second book of his Pharsalia, when he +says that Marcia returned to Cato, and entreated him that he would +take her back in his fourth and Extreme Old Age, by which Marcia the +Noble Soul is meant, and we can thus depict the symbol of it in all +Truth. Marcia was a virgin, and in that state typifies Adolescence; +she then espoused Cato, and in that state typifies Youth; she then +bore sons, by whom are typified the Virtues which are becoming to +young men, as previously described; and she departed from Cato and +espoused Hortensius, by which it is typified that she quitted Youth +and came to Old Age. She bore sons to this man also, by whom are +typified the Virtues which befit Old Age, as previously said. +Hortensius died, by which is typified the end of Old Age, and Marcia, +made a widow, by which widowhood is typified Extreme Old Age, returned +in the early days of her widowhood to Cato, whereby is typified the +Noble Soul turning to God in the beginning of Extreme Old Age. And +what earthly man was more worthy to typify God than Cato? None, of a +certainty. And what does Marcia say to Cato? "Whilst there was blood +in me [that is to say, Youth], whilst the maternal power was in me +[that is, Age, which is indeed the Mother of all other Virtues or +Powers, as has been previously shown or proved], I," says Marcia, +"fulfilled all thy commandments [that is to say, that the Soul stood +firm in obedience to the Civil Laws]." She says: "And I took two +husbands," that is to say, I have been in two fruitful periods of +life. "Now," says Marcia, "that I am weary, and that I am void and +empty, I return to thee, being no longer able to give happiness to the +other husband;" that is to say, that the Noble Soul, knowing well that +it has no longer the power to produce, that is, feeling all its +members to have grown feeble, turns to God, that is, to Him who has no +need of members of the body. And Marcia says, "Give me the ancient +covenanted privileges of the beds; give me the name alone of the +Marriage Tie;" that is to say, the Noble Soul says to God, "O my Lord, +give me now repose and rest;" the Soul says, "Give me at least +whatsoever I may have called Thine in a life so long." And Marcia +says, "Two reasons move or urge me to say this; the one is, that they +may say of me, after I am dead, that I was the wife of Cato; the other +is, that it may be said after me that thou didst not drive me away, +but didst espouse me heartily." By these two causes the Noble Soul is +stirred and desires to depart from this life as the spouse of God, and +wishes to show that God was gracious to the creature that He made. O +unhappy and baseborn men! you who prefer to depart from this life +under the name of Hortensius rather than of Cato! + +From Cato's name a grace comes into the close of the discourse which +it was fit to make touching the signs of Nobility; because in him +Nobility reveals them all, through all the ages of his life. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIX. + + +Since the Song has demonstrated those signs which in each age or +period of life appear in the Noble Man, and by which it is possible to +know him, and without which he cannot be, even as the Sun cannot be +without light or the fire without heat, the text cries aloud to the +People in the concluding part of this treatise on Nobility, and it +says: "How many are deceived!" They are deceived who, because they are +of ancient and famous lineage, and because they are descended of +excellent and Noble fathers, believe themselves to be Noble, yet have +in themselves no Nobility. And here arise two questions, to which it +is right to attend at the end of this treatise. It would be possible +for Manfredi da Vico, who but now is called Praetor and Prefect, to +say: "Whatever I may be, I recall to mind and I represent my elders, +who deserved the Office of Prefecture because of their Nobility, and +they merited the honour of investiture at the coronation of the +Emperor, and they merited the honour of receiving the Rose of Gold +from the Roman Pontiff: I ought to receive from the People honour and +reverence." And this is one question. The other is, that it would be +possible for the scions of the families of San Nazzaro di Pavia and of +the Piscitelli of Naples to say: "If Nobility is that which has been +described, that is, that it is Divine seed graciously cast into the +human Soul, and the progeny, or offshoots, have, as is evident, no +Soul, it would not be possible to term any of its progeny or offshoots +Noble; but this is opposed to the opinion of those who assert that our +race is the most Noble in these cities." + +To the first question Juvenal replies in the eighth Satire, when he +begins with exclaiming, as it were: "What is the use of all these +honours and of this glory which remain from the past, except that they +serve as a mantle or cloak to him who may wish to cover himself with +them, badly as he may live; except for him who talks of his ancestors, +and points out their great and wonderful works, giving his own mind to +miserable and vile actions?" And this satirical poet asks: "Who will +call that man Noble, because of his good race, who is not worthy of +his race? It is no other than to call the Dwarf a Giant." Then +afterwards he says to such an one as this: "Between thee and the +statue erected in memory of thine ancestor there is no other +dissimilarity except that its head is of marble and thine is alive." +And in this (with reverence I say it) I disagree with the poet, for +the statue of marble or of wood or of metal, which has remained in +memory of some worthy brave man, differs much in effect from the +wicked descendant: because the statue always confirms a good opinion +in those who have heard of the good renown or fame of him whose statue +it is, and it begets good opinion in others. But the wicked son or +nephew does quite the contrary: he weakens the good opinion of those +who have heard of the goodness of his ancestors. For some one says to +himself in his thought: "It cannot possibly be true, all this that has +been said about this man's ancestors, since from their seed one sees +an offshoot such as that." Wherefore he ought to receive not honour, +but dishonour, who bears false or evil witness against the good. And +therefore Tullius says that the son of the brave man ought to strive +to bear good witness to the father. Wherefore, in my judgment, even as +he who defames an excellent man deserves to be shunned by all people +and not listened to, even so the vile man descended from good +ancestors deserves to be banned by all; and the good man ought to +close his eyes in order not to see that infamous man casting infamy +upon the goodness which remains in Memory alone. And let this suffice +at present to the first question that was moved. + +To the second question it is possible to reply that a race of itself +has no Soul; and indeed it is true that it is called Noble, but it is +in a certain way. Wherefore it is to be known that every whole is +composed of its parts, and there is a certain whole which has a simple +essence in its parts, as in one man there is one essence in all and in +each individual part; and this which is said to be in the part is said +in the same way to be in the whole. There is another whole which has +not a common essential form or essence with the parts, as a heap of +corn; but there is a secondary essence which results from many grains, +which possess in themselves a true and primary essence. And in such a +whole as this they are said to be the qualities of the parts in a +secondary way; wherefore it is called a white heap, because the grains +whereof the heap is made are white. Truly this white appearance is +more in the grains in the first place, and in the second place it +results in the whole heap, and thus secondarily it is possible to call +it white; and in such a way it is possible to call a race Noble. +Wherefore it is to be known, that as in order to make a white heap the +white grains must be most numerous, so to make a Noble race the Noble +Men must be more numerous than the others, so that their goodness, +with its good fame or renown, may cover the opposite quality which is +within. And as from a white heap of corn it would be possible to pick +up the wheat grain by grain, and substitute, grain by grain, red +maize, till, finally, the whole heap or mass would change colour, so +would it be possible for the good men of the Noble race to die out one +by one, and the wicked ones to spring up therein, who would so change +the name or fame thereof, that it would have to be called, not Noble, +but vile, or base. + +And let this be a sufficient answer to the second question. + + + + +CHAPTER XXX. + + +As it has been shown previously in the third chapter of this treatise, +this Song has three principal parts, whereof two have been reasoned or +argued out, the first of which begins in the aforesaid chapter, and +the second in the sixteenth (so that the first through thirteen, and +the second through fourteen chapters, passes on to an end, without +counting the Proem of the treatise on the Song, which is comprised in +two chapters), in this thirtieth and last chapter we must briefly +discuss the third principal part, which was made as a refrain and as a +species of ornament for this Song; and it begins: "My Song, Against +the strayers." + +Here it is chiefly to be known that every good workman, at the end of +his work, ought to ennoble and embellish it as much as possible, that +it may leave his hands so much the more precious, and more worthy of +fame. And this I endeavour to do in this part, not as a good workman, +but as the follower of one. + +I say, then, "My Song, Against the strayers." "Against the strayers" +is a phrase, as, for example, from the good friar, Thomas of Aquinas, +who, to a book of his, which he wrote to the confusion of all those +who go astray from our Faith, gave the title "Contra Gentili," Against +the Heathen. I say, then, that thou shalt go, which is as much as to +say: "Thou art now perfect, and it is now time, not to stand still, +but to go forward, for thy enterprise is great. And 'when you reach +Our Lady, hide not from her that your end Is labour that would lessen +wrong.'" Where it is to be observed that, as our Lord says, "We ought +not to cast pearls before swine," because it is not to their +advantage, and it is injury to the pearls; and, as Aesop the poet says +in the first fable, a little grain of corn is of far more worth to a +cock than a pearl, and therefore he leaves the pearl and picks up the +grain of corn: reflecting on this, as a caution, I speak and give +command to the Song that it reveal its high office where this Lady, +that is, where Philosophy, will be found. And that most noble Lady +will be found when her dwelling-place is found, that is, the Soul in +which she finds her Inn. And this Philosophy dwells not in wise men +alone, but likewise, as is proved above in another treatise, wherever +the love for her inhabits, she is there. "And to such as these," I say +to the Song, "thou mayst reveal thine office, because to them the +purpose thereof will be useful, and by them its thoughts will be +gathered in." + +And I bid it say to this Lady, "I travel ever talking of your Friend." + +Nobility is her Friend. For so much does the one love the other, that +Nobility always seeks her, and Philosophy does not turn aside her most +sweet glance to any other. + +O, what a great and beautiful ornament is this which is given to her +in the last part of this Song, by giving to her the title of Friend, +the Friend of her whose own abode is in the most secret depths of the +Divine Mind. + + * * * * * + + + + +NOTE + +ON THE DATE OF THE CONVITO + + +It is natural to suppose that Dante's death at Ravenna in 1321 caused +the Convito, a work of his latter years, to be left unfinished. But +there are arguments that have been especially dwelt upon by writers +who regard the Convito as a work begun before the conception of the +Divine Comedy, and dropped when the Poet's mind became intent upon +that masterpiece. + +One argument is that the Divine Comedy is nowhere mentioned or alluded +to in the Convito. But as the place designed for the Convito is midway +between the Vita Nuova, which preceded it, and the Divine Comedy, +which was to follow, references to the poem which was not yet before +the reader would have been a fault in art. + +Another argument is drawn from the fourteenth chapter of the Second +Treatise, where (on page 84 in this volume) the shadow in the Moon is +ascribed to "the rarity of its body, in which the rays of the Sun can +find no end wherefrom to strike back again as in the other parts." In +the second canto of the Purgatorio, Beatrice opposes that opinion, +whence it may be inferred that Dante had learnt better, and he speaks +of this again in a later canto (the twenty-second) as a former +opinion. This leads to an inference that the Second Treatise was +written before 1300. + +Attention is due also to a passage in the third chapter of the First +Treatise (on pages 16 and 17 in this volume), in which Dante speaks of +his long exile and poverty. The exile and the wanderings of Dante +began after the year 1300. He was befriended by Guido da Polenta in +Ravenna, by Uguccione della Faggiola in Lucca, by Malaspina in the +Lunigiana, by Can Grande della Scala in Verona, by Bosone de' +Raffaelli in Gubbio, by the Patriarch Pagano della Torre in Udine. In +1311, when the Emperor Henry of Luxembourg went to Italy, Dante had +some hope of return, which passed away in 1313 when that Emperor died +in Buonconvento. Dante remained in exile. In 1321 his patron, Guido +Novello da Polenta, sent him on an embassy to Venice, in which he was +unsuccessful. The sea way being blocked, he had to return by land, and +he was struck by the malaria which caused his death by fever on the +14th of September in that year, 1321. This reference to long exile +leads to an inference that the First Treatise was written much later +than 1300. + +But, again, there is a passage in the third chapter of the Fourth +Treatise (on page 171 of this volume) that points to an earlier date. +Frederick of Suabia is named as the Emperor who + + held, + As far as he could see, + Descent of wealth, and generous ways, + To make Nobility. + +Dante calls him "the last Emperor of the Romans," and adds, "I say +last with respect to the present time, notwithstanding that Rudolf, +and Adolphus, and Albert were elected after his death and from his +descendants." This last of the Romans was that famous Frederick II., +who died in 1250, and of whom Dante said in his Treatise on the +Language of the People: "The illustrious heroes, Frederick Caesar and +his son Manfredi, followed after elegance and scorned what was mean; +so that all the best compositions of the time came out of their Court. +Thus, because their royal throne was in Sicily, all the poems of our +predecessors in the Vulgar Tongue were called Sicilian." Rudolf I. of +Hapsburg, founder of the Imperial House of Austria, was elected +Emperor in 1273, after a time of confusion and nominal rule. He died +in 1291, and, instead of his son Albert, Adolphus of Nassau was next +elected Emperor. But in June 1298 Albert obtained election; Adolphus +was deposed, and was soon afterwards killed in battle with his rival. +Albert was murdered on the 6th of May, 1308, and, after an interregnum +of seven months, he was succeeded by Henry VII. of Luxembourg. Now, +Dante's list does not go on from Albert to Henry. It is assumed, +therefore, that this passage must have been written before the end of +the year 1308. + +There is another passage at the close of chapter vi. of the Fourth +Treatise (on page 186 in this volume) that points to a like inference +of date. Dante writes: "Ye enemies of God, look to your flanks, ye who +have seized the sceptres of the kingdoms of Italy. And I say to you, +Charles, and to you, Frederick, Kings, and to you, ye other Princes +and Tyrants, see who sits by the side of you in council." The Charles +and Frederick here addressed were Charles II. of Anjou, King of +Naples, and Frederick of Aragon, King of Sicily; and King Charles died +in the year 1310. + +It has been inferred, therefore, that the four treatises of the +Convito were not written consecutively. The Second Treatise may have +been begun some time after the death of Beatrice, in 1290, time being +allowed after 1290 for the completion of the Vita Nuova and a period +of devotion to philosophic studies. That Second Treatise having been +first written, the Treatise on Nobility, the Fourth, may have next +followed; and this may have been written before the end of the year +1298. The Third Treatise may have been written later, and made to +connect the Second and the Fourth. The First Treatise, or General +Introduction, which has in it clear indication of a later date, may +have been written last, when the whole design was brought into shape. +Various reasons have been used for dating this final arrangement of +the plan for an Ethical survey of human knowledge in fifteen +treatises, and the suggested date is the year 1314. The whole work +seems to have been planned. Besides the references to the Fifteenth +Treatise, there is a glance forward to the matter of the Seventh +Treatise in the twenty-sixth chapter of the Fourth. + +The question of date is not of great importance, and this may console +us though we know that it can never be settled. Here it is only +touched upon to show the significance of one or two historical +allusions in the book. + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Banquet (Il Convito), by Dante Alighieri + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BANQUET (IL CONVITO) *** + +***** This file should be named 12867-8.txt or 12867-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/2/8/6/12867/ + +Produced by Paul Murray, Marc André Selig and PG Distributed Proofreaders + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Banquet (Il Convito) + +Author: Dante Alighieri + +Release Date: July 9, 2004 [EBook #12867] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BANQUET (IL CONVITO) *** + + + + +Produced by Paul Murray, Marc Andre Selig and PG Distributed Proofreaders + + + + + + + + + IL CONVITO + + THE BANQUET + + OF + + DANTE ALIGHIERI + + + Translated By + + Elizabeth Price Sayer + + With An Introduction By Henry Morely +LL.D., Professor Of English Literature At + University College, London + + + 1887 + + + + +INTRODUCTION. + + +This translation of Dante's Convito--the first in English--is from the +hand of a lady whose enthusiasm for the genius of Dante has made it a +chief pleasure of her life to dwell on it by translating, not his +Divine Comedy only, but also the whole body of his other works. Among +those works the Vita Nuova and the Convito have a distinct place, as +leading up to the great masterpiece. In the New Life, Man starts on +his career with human love that points to the divine. In the Banquet, +he passes to mature life and to love of knowledge that declares the +power and the love of God in the material and moral world about us and +within us. In the Divine Comedy, the Poet passes to the world to come, +and rises to the final union of the love for Beatrice, the beatifier, +with the glory of the Love of God. Of this great series, the crowning +work has, of course, had many translators, and there have been +translators also of the book that shows the youth of love. But the +noble fragment of the Convito that unites these two has, I believe, +never yet been placed within reach of the English reader, except by a +translation of its poems only into unrhymed measure in Mr. Charles +Lyell's "Poems of the Vita Nuova and the Convito," published in 1835. + +The Convito is a fragment. There are four books where fifteen were +designed, including three only of the intended fourteen songs. But the +plan is clear, and one or two glances forward to the matter of the +last book, which would have had Justice for its theme, show that all +was to have been brought to a high spiritual close. + +Its aim was no less than the lifting of men's minds by knowledge of +the world without them and within them, bound together in creation, +showing forth the Mind of the Creator. The reader of this volume must +not flinch from the ingenious dialectics of the mediaeval reasoner on +Man and Nature. Dante's knowledge is the knowledge of his time. +Science had made little advance since Aristotle--who is "the +Philosopher" taken by Dante for his human guide--first laid its +foundations. It is useful, no doubt, to be able in a book like this, +shaped by a noble mind, to study at their best the forms of reasoning +that made the science of the Middle Ages. But the reader is not called +upon to make his mind unhappy with endeavours to seize all the points, +say, of a theory of the heavens that was most ingenious, but in no +part true. The main thing is to observe how the mistaken reasoning +joins each of the seven sciences to one of the seven heavens, and here +as everywhere joins earth to heaven, and bids man lift his head and +look up, Godward, to the source of light. If spiritual truth could +only come from right and perfect knowledge, this would have been a +world of dead souls from the first till now; for future centuries, in +looking back at us, will wonder at the little faulty knowledge that we +think so much. But let the known be what it may, the true soul rises +from it to a sense of the divine mysteries of Wisdom and of Love. +Dante's knowledge may be full of ignorance, and so is ours. But he +fills it as he can with the Spirit of God. He is not content that men +should be as sheep, and look downward to earth for all the food they +need. He bids them to a Banquet of another kind, whose dishes are of +knowledge for the mind and heavenward aspiration for the soul. + +Dante's Convito--of which the name was, no doubt, suggested by the +Banquets of Plato and Xenophon--was written at the close of his life, +after the Divine Comedy, and no trace has been found of more of its +songs than the three which may have been written and made known some +time before he began work on their Commentary. Death stayed his hand, +and the completion passed into a song that joined the voice of Dante +to the praise in heaven. + +H.M. + +_April_ 1887. + + + + +THE + +BANQUET OF DANTE ALIGHIERI + + * * * * * + + + + +The First Treatise. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + + +As the Philosopher says in the beginning of the first Philosophy, "All +men naturally desire Knowledge." The reason of which may be, that each +thing, impelled by the intuition of its own nature, tends towards its +perfection, hence, forasmuch as Knowledge is the final perfection of +our Soul, in which our ultimate happiness consists, we are all +naturally subject to the desire for it. + +Verily, many are deprived of this most noble perfection, by divers +causes within the man and without him, which remove him from the use +of Knowledge. + +Within the man there may be two defects or impediments, the one on the +part of the Body, the other on the part of the Soul. On the part of +the Body it is, when the parts are unfitly disposed, so that it can +receive nothing as with the deaf and dumb, and their like. On the part +of the Soul it is, when evil triumphs in it, so that it becomes the +follower of vicious pleasures, through which it is so much deceived, +that on account of them it holds everything in contempt. + +Without the man, two causes may in like manner be understood, of which +one comes of necessity, the other of stagnation. The first is the +management of the family and conduct of civil affairs, which fitly +draws to itself the greater number of men, so that they cannot live in +the quietness of speculation. The other is the fault of the place +where a person is born and reared, which will ofttimes be not only +without any School whatever, but may be far distant from studious +people. The two first of these causes--the first of the hindrance from +within, and the first of the hindrance from without--are not deserving +of blame, but of excuse and pardon; the two others, although the one +more than the other, deserve blame and are to be detested. + +Hence, he who reflects well, can manifestly see that they are few who +can attain to the enjoyment of Knowledge, though it is desired by all, +and almost innumerable are the fettered ones who live for ever +famished of this food. + +Oh, blessed are those few who sit at that table where the Bread of +Angels is eaten, and wretched those who can feed only as the Sheep. +But because each man is naturally friendly to each man, and each +friend grieves for the fault of him whom he loves; they who are fed at +that high table are full of mercy towards those whom they see straying +in one pasture with the creatures who eat grass and acorns. + +And forasmuch as Mercy is the Mother of Benevolence, those who know +how, do always liberally offer their good wealth to the true poor, and +are like a living stream, whose water cools the before-named natural +thirst. I, then, who sit not at the blessed table, but having fled +from the pasture of the common herd, lie at the feet of those who sit +there and gather up what falls from them, by the sweetness which I +find in that which I collect little by little, I know the wretched +life of those whom I have left behind me; and moved mercifully for the +unhappy ones, not forgetting myself, I have reserved something which I +have shown to their eyes long ago, and for this I have made them +greatly desirous. Wherefore, now wishing to prepare for them, I mean +to make a common Banquet of this which I have shown to them, and of +that needed bread without which food such as this could not be eaten +by them at their feast; bread fit for such meat, which I know, without +it, would be furnished forth in vain. And therefore I desire that no +one should sit at this Banquet whose members are so unfitly disposed +that he has neither teeth, nor tongue, nor palate: nor any follower of +vice; inasmuch as his stomach is full of venomous and hurtful humours, +so that it will retain no food whatever. But let those come to us, +whosoever they be, who, pressed by the management of civil and +domestic life, have felt this human hunger, and at one table with +others who have been in like bondage, let them sit. But at their feet +let us place all those who have been the slaves of sloth, and who are +not worthy to sit higher: and then let these and those eat of my dish, +with the bread which I will cause them to taste and to digest. + +The meat at this repast will be prepared in fourteen different ways, +that is, in fourteen Songs, some of whose themes will be of Love and +some of Virtue: which, without the present bread, might have some +shadow of obscurity, so that to many they might be acceptable more on +account of their form than because of their spirit. But this bread is +the present Exposition. It will be the Light whereby each colour of +their design will be made visible. + +And if in the present work, which is named "Convito"--the Banquet, the +glad Life Together--I desire that the subject should be discussed more +maturely than in the Vita Nuova--the New Life--I do not therefore mean +in any degree to undervalue that Fresh Life, but greatly to enhance +it; seeing how reasonable it is for that age to be fervid and +passionate, and for this to be mature and temperate. At one age it is +fit to speak and work in one way, and at another age in another way; +because certain manners are fit and praiseworthy at one age which are +improper and blameable at another, as will be demonstrated with +suitable argument in the fourth treatise of this Book. In that first +Book (Vita Nuova) at the entrance into my youth I spoke; and in this +latter I speak after my youth has already passed away. And since my +true meaning may be other than that which the aforesaid songs show +forth, I mean by an allegoric exposition to explain these after the +literal argument shall have been reasoned out: so that the one +argument with the other shall give a relish to those who are the +guests invited to this Banquet. And of them all I pray that if the +feast be not so splendid as befits the proclamation thereof, let them +impute each defect, not to my will but to my means, since my will here +is to a full and loving Liberality. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + + +In preparing for every well-ordered Banquet the servants are wont to +take the proper bread, and see that it is clean from all blemish; +wherefore I, who in the present writing stand in servant's place, +intend firstly to remove two spots from this exposition which at my +repast stands in the place of bread. + +The one is, that it appears to be unlawful for any one to speak of +himself; the other, that it seems to be unreasonable to speak too +deeply when giving explanations. Let the knife of my judgment pare +away from the present treatise the unlawful and the unreasonable. One +does not permit any Rhetorician to speak of himself without a +necessary cause. And from this is the man removed, because he can +speak of no one without praise or blame of those of whom he speaks; +which two causes commonly induce a man to speak of himself. And in +order to remove a doubt which here arises, I say that it is worse for +any one to blame than to praise himself, although neither may have to +be done. The reason is, that anything which is essentially wrong is +worse than that which is wrong through accident. For a man openly to +bring contempt on himself is essentially wrong to his friend, because +a man owes it to take account of his fault secretly, and no one is +more friendly to himself than the man himself. In the chamber of his +thoughts, therefore, he should reprove himself and weep over his +faults, and not before the world. Again, a man is but seldom blamed +when he has not the power or the knowledge requisite to guide himself +aright: but he is always blamed when weak of will, because our good or +evil dispositions are measured by the strength of will. Wherefore he +who blames himself proves that he knows his fault, while he reveals +his want of goodness; if, therefore, he know his fault, let him no +more speak evil of himself. If a man praise himself it is to avoid +evil, as it were; inasmuch as it cannot be done except such +self-laudation become in excess dishonour; it is praise in appearance, +it is infamy in substance. For the words are spoken to prove that of +which he has not inward assurance. Hence, he who lauds himself proves +his belief that he is not esteemed to be a good man, and this befalls +him not unless he have an evil conscience, which he reveals by +self-praise, and in so revealing it he blames himself. + +And, again, self-praise and self-blame are to be shunned equally, for +this reason, that it is false witnessing. Because there is no man who +can be a true and just judge of himself, so much will self-love +deceive him. Hence it happens that every man has in his own judgment +the measures of the false merchant, who sells with the one, and buys +with the other. Every man weights the scales against his own +wrong-doing, and adds weight to his good deeds; so that the number and +the quantity and the weight of the good deeds appear to him to be +greater than if they were tried in a just balance; and in like manner +the evil appears less. Wherefore speaking of himself with praise or +with blame, either he speaks falsely with regard to the thing of which +he speaks, or he speaks falsely by the fault of his judgment; and as +the one is untruth, so is the other. And therefore, since to acquiesce +is to admit, he is wrong who praises or who blames before the face of +any man; because the man thus appraised can neither acquiesce nor deny +without falling into the error of either praising or blaming himself. +Reserve the way of due correction, which cannot be taken without +reproof of error, and which corrects if understood. Reserve also the +way of due honour and glory, which cannot be taken without mention of +virtuous works, or of dignities that have been worthily acquired. + +And in truth, returning to the main argument, I say, as before, that +it is permitted to a man for requisite reasons to speak of himself. +And amongst the several requisite reasons two are most evident: the +one is when a man cannot avoid great danger and infamy, unless he +discourse of himself; and then it is conceded for the reason, that to +take the less objectionable of the only two paths, is to take as it +were a good one. And this necessity moved Boethius to speak of +himself, in order that under pretext of Consolation he might excuse +the perpetual shame of his imprisonment, by showing that imprisonment +to be unjust; since no other man arose to justify him. And this reason +moved St. Augustine to speak of himself in his Confessions; that, by +the progress of his life, which was from bad to good, and from good to +better, and from better to best, he might give example and +instruction, which, from truer testimony, no one could receive. +Therefore, if either of these reasons excuse me, the bread of my +moulding is sufficiently cleared from its first impurity. + +The fear of shame moves me; and I am moved by the desire to give +instruction which others truly are unable to give. I fear shame for +having followed passion so ardently, as he may conceive who reads the +afore-named Songs, and sees how greatly I was ruled by it; which shame +ceases entirely by the present speech of myself, which proves that not +passion but virtue may have been the moving cause. + +I intend also to demonstrate the true meaning of those Poems, which +some could not perceive unless I relate it, because it is concealed +under the veil of Allegory; and this it not only will give pleasure to +hear, but subtle instruction, both as to the diction and as to the +intention of the other writings. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + + +Much fault is in that thing which is appointed to remove some grave +evil, and yet encourages it; even as in the man who might be sent to +quell a tumult, and, before he had quelled it, should begin another. + +And forasmuch as my bread is made clean on one side, it behoves me to +cleanse it on the other, in order to shun this reproof: that my +writing, which one may term, as it were, a Commentary, is appointed to +remove obscurity from the before-mentioned Songs, and is, in fact, +itself at times a little hard to understand. This obscurity is here +intended, in order to avoid a greater defect, and does not occur +through ignorance. Alas! would that it might have pleased the +Dispenser of the Universe that the cause of my excuse might never have +been; that others might neither have sinned against me, nor I have +suffered punishment unjustly; the punishment, I say, of exile and +poverty! Since it was the pleasure of the citizens of the most +beautiful and the most famous daughter of Rome, Florence, to cast me +out from her most sweet bosom (wherein I was born and nourished even +to the height of my life, and in which, with her goodwill, I desire +with all my heart to repose my weary soul, and to end the time which +is given to me), I have gone through almost all the land in which this +language lives--a pilgrim, almost a mendicant--showing forth against +my will the wound of Fortune, with which the ruined man is often +unjustly reproached. Truly I have been a ship without a sail and +without a rudder, borne to divers ports and lands and shores by the +dry wind which blows from doleful poverty; and I have appeared vile in +the eyes of many, who perhaps through some report may have imaged me +in other form. In the sight of whom not only my person became vile, +but each work already completed was held to be of less value than that +might again be which remained yet to be done. + +The reason wherefore this happens (not only to me but to all), it now +pleases me here briefly to touch upon. And firstly, it is because +rumour goes beyond the truth; and then, what is beyond the truth +restricts and strangles it. Good report is the first born of kindly +thought in the mind of the friend; which the mind of the foe, although +it may receive the seed, conceives not. + +That mind which gives birth to it in the first place, so to make its +gift more fair, as by the charity of friendship, keeps not within +bounds of truth, but passes beyond them. When one does that to adorn a +tale, he speaks against his conscience; when it is charity that causes +him to pass the bounds, he speaks not against conscience. + +The second mind which receives this, not only is content with the +exaggeration of the first mind, but its own report adds its own effect +of endeavours to embellish, and so by this action, and by the +deception which it also receives from the goodwill generated in it, +good report is made more ample than it should be; either with the +consent or the dissent of the conscience; even as it was with the +first mind. And the third receiving mind does this; and the fourth; +and thus the exaggeration of good ever grows. And so, by turning the +aforesaid motives in the contrary direction, one can perceive why +ill-fame in like manner is made to grow. Wherefore Virgil says in the +fourth of the AEneid: "Let Fame live to be fickle, and grow as she +goes." Clearly, then, he who is willing may perceive that the image +generated by Fame alone is always larger, whatever it may be, than the +thing imaged is, in its true state. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + + +Having previously shown the reason why Fame magnifies the good and the +evil beyond due limit, it remains in this chapter to show forth those +reasons which make evident why the Presence restricts in the opposite +way, and having shown this I will return to the principal proposition. +I say, then, that for three causes his Presence makes a person of less +value than he is. The first is childishness, I do not say of age, but +of mind; the second is envy; and these are in the judge: the third is +human impurity; and this is in the person judged. The first, one can +briefly reason thus: the greater part of men live according to sense +and not according to reason, after the manner of children, and the +like of these judge things simply from without; and the goodness which +is ordained to a fit end they perceive not, because the eyes of +Reason, which they need in order to perceive it, are closed. Hence, +they soon see all that they can, and judge according to their sight. + +And forasmuch as any opinion they form on the good fame of others, +from hearsay, with which, in the presence of the person judged, their +imperfect judgment may dissent, they amend not according to reason, +because they judge merely according to sense, they will deem that +which they have first heard to be a lie as it were, and dispraise the +person who was previously praised. Hence, in such men, and such are +almost all, Presence restricts the one fame and the other. Such men as +these are inconstant and are soon cloyed; they are often gay and often +sad from brief joys and sorrows; speedy friends and speedy foes; each +thing they do like children, without the use of reason. + +The second observation from these reasons is, that due comparison is +cause for envy to the vicious; and envy is a cause of evil judgment, +because it does not permit Reason to argue for that which is envied, +and the judicial power is then like the judge who hears only one side. +Hence, when such men as these perceive a person to be famous, they are +immediately jealous, because they compare members and powers; and they +fear, on account of the excellence of such an one, to be themselves +accounted of less worth; and these passionate men, not only judge +evilly, but, by defamation, they cause others to judge evilly. +Wherefore with such men their apprehension restricts the +acknowledgment of good and evil in each person represented; and I say +this also of evil, because many who delight in evil deeds have envy +towards evil-doers. + +The third observation is of human frailty, which one accepts on the +part of him who is judged, and from which familiar conversation is not +altogether free. In evidence of this, it is to be known that man is +stained in many parts; and, as says St. Augustine, "none is without +spot." Now, the man is stained with some passion, which he cannot +always resist; now, he is blemished by some fault of limb; now, he is +bruised by some blow from Fortune; now, he is soiled by the ill-fame +of his parents, or of some near relation: things which Fame does not +bear with her, but which hang to the man, so that he reveals them by +his conversation; and these spots cast some shadow upon the brightness +of goodness, so that they cause it to appear less bright and less +excellent. And this is the reason why each prophet is less honoured in +his own country; and this is why the good man ought to give his +presence to few, and his familiarity to still fewer, in order that his +name may be received and not despised. And this third observation may +be the same for the evil as for the good, if we reverse the conditions +of the argument. Wherefore it is clearly evident that by +imperfections, from which no one is free, the seen Presence restricts +right perception of the good and of the evil in every one, more than +truth desires. Hence, since, as has been said above, I myself have +been, as it were, visibly present to all the Italians, by which I +perhaps am made more vile than truth desires, not only to those to +whom my repute had already run, but also to others, whereby I am made +the lighter; it behoves me that with a more lofty style I may give to +the present work a little gravity, through which it may show greater +authority. Let this suffice to excuse the difficulty of my commentary. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + + +Since this bread is now cleared of accidental spots, it remains to +excuse it from a substantial one, that is for being in my native +tongue and not in Latin; which by similitude one may term, of +barley-meal and not of wheaten flour. And from this it is briefly +excused by three reasons which moved me to choose the one rather than +the other. One springs from the avoidance of inconvenient Unfitness: +the second from the readiness of well-adjusted Liberality; the third +from the natural Love for one's own Native Tongue. And these things, +with the grounds for them, to the staying of all possible reproof, I +mean in due order to reason out in this form. + +That which most adorns and commends human actions, and which most +directly leads them to a good result, is the use of dispositions best +adapted to the end in view; as the end aimed at in knighthood is +courage of mind and strength of body. And thus he who is ordained to +the service of others, ought to have those dispositions which are +suited to that end; as submission, knowledge and obedience, without +which any one is unfit to serve well. Because if he is not subject to +each of these conditions, he proceeds in his service always with +fatigue and trouble, and but seldom continues in it. If he is not +obedient, he never serves except as in his wisdom he thinks fit, and +when he wills; which is rather the service of a friend than of a +servant. Hence, to escape this disorder, this commentary is fit, which +is made as a servant to the under-written Songs, in order to be +subject to these, and to each separate command of theirs. It must be +conscious of the wants of its lord, and obedient to him, which +dispositions would be all wanting to it if it were a Latin servant, +not a native, since the songs are all in the language of our people. +For, in the first place, if it had been a Latin servant he would be +not a subject but a sovereign, in nobility, in virtue, and in beauty; +in nobility, because the Latin is perpetual and incorruptible; the +language of the vulgar is unstable and corruptible. Hence we see in +the ancient writings of the Latin Comedies and Tragedies that they +cannot change, being the same Latin that we now have; this happens not +with our native tongue, which, being home-made, changes at pleasure. +Hence we see in the cities of Italy, if we will look carefully back +fifty years from the present time, many words to have become extinct, +and to have been born, and to have been altered. But if a little time +transforms them thus, a longer time changes them more. So that I say +that, if those who departed from this life a thousand years ago should +come back to their cities, they would believe those cities to be +inhabited by a strange people, who speak a tongue discordant from +their own. On this subject I will speak elsewhere more completely in a +book which I intend to write, God willing, on the "Language of the +People." + +Again, the Latin was not subject, but sovereign, through virtue. Each +thing has virtue in its nature, which does that to which it is +ordained; and the better it does it so much the more virtue it has: +hence we call that man virtuous who lives a life contemplative or +active, doing that for which he is best fitted; we ascribe his virtue +to the horse that runs swiftly and much, to which end he is ordained: +we see virtue of a sword that cuts through hard things well, since it +has been made to do so. Thus speech, which is ordained to express +human thought, has virtue when it does that; and most virtue is in the +speech which does it most. Hence, forasmuch as the Latin reveals many +things conceived in the mind which the vulgar tongue cannot express, +even as those know who have the use of either language, its virtue is +far greater than that of the vulgar tongue. + +Again, it was not subject, but sovereign, because of its beauty. That +thing man calls beautiful whose parts are duly proportionate, because +beauty results from their harmony; hence, man appears to be beautiful +when his limbs are duly proportioned; and we call a song beautiful +when the voices in it, according to the rule of art, are in harmony +with each other. Hence, that language is most beautiful in which the +words most fitly correspond, and this they do more in the Latin than +in the present Language of the People, since the beautiful vulgar +tongue follows use, and the Latin, Art. Hence, one concedes it to be +more beautiful, more virtuous and more noble. And so one concludes, as +first proposed; that is, that the Latin Commentary would have been the +Sovereign, not the Subject, of the Songs. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + + +Having shown how the present Commentary could not have been the +subject of Songs written in our native tongue, if it had been in the +Latin, it remains to show how it could not have been capable or +obedient to those Songs; and then it will be shown how, to avoid +unsuitable disorder, it was needful to speak in the native tongue. + +I say that Latin would not have been a capable servant for my Lord the +Vernacular, for this reason. The servant is required chiefly to know +two things perfectly: the one is the nature of his lord, because there +are lords of such an asinine nature that they command the opposite of +that which they desire; and there are others who, without speaking, +wish to be understood and served; and there are others who will not +let the servant move to do that which is needful, unless they have +ordered it. And because these variations are in men, I do not intend +in the present work to show, for the digression would be enlarged too +much, except as I speak in general, that such men as these are beasts, +as it were, to whom reason is of little worth. Wherefore, if the +servant know not the nature of his lord, it is evident that he cannot +serve him perfectly. The other thing is, that it is requisite for the +servant to know also the friends of his lord; for otherwise he could +not honour them, nor serve them, and thus he would not serve his lord +perfectly: forasmuch as the friends are the parts of a whole, as it +were, because their whole is one wish or its opposite. Neither would +the Latin Commentary have had such knowledge of those things as the +vulgar tongue itself has. That the Latin cannot be acquainted with the +Vulgar Tongue and with its friends, is thus proved. He who knows +anything in general knows not that thing perfectly; even as he who +knows from afar off one animal, knows not that animal perfectly, +because he knows not if it be a dog, a wolf, or a he-goat. The Latin +knows the Vulgar tongue in general, but not separately; for if it +should know it separately it would know all the Vulgar Tongues, +because it is not right that it should know one more than the other; +and thus, what man soever might possess the complete knowledge of the +Latin tongue, the use of that knowledge would show him all +distinctions of the Vulgar. But this is not so, for one used to the +Latin does not distinguish, if he be a native of Italy, the vulgar +tongue of Provence from the German, nor can the German distinguish the +vulgar Italian tongue from that of Provence: hence, it is evident that +the Latin is not cognizant of the Vulgar. Again, it is not cognizant +of its friends, because it is impossible to know the friends without +knowing the principal; hence, if the Latin does not know the Vulgar, +as it is proved above, it is impossible for it to know its friends. +Again, without conversation or familiarity, it is impossible to know +men; and the Latin has no conversation with so many in any language as +the Vulgar has, to which all are friends, and consequently cannot know +the friends of the Vulgar. + +And this, that it would be possible to say, is no contradiction; that +the Latin does converse with some friends of the Vulgar: but since it +is not familiar with all, it is not perfectly acquainted with its +friends, whereas perfect knowledge is required, and not defective. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + + +Having proved that the Latin Commentary could not have been a capable +servant, I will tell how it could not have been an obedient one. He is +obedient who has the good disposition which is called obedience. True +obedience must have three things, without which it cannot be: it +should be sweet, and not bitter; entirely under control, and not +impulsive; with due measure, and not excessive; which three things it +was impossible for the Latin Commentary to have; and, therefore, it +was impossible for it to be obedient. That to the Latin it would have +been impossible, as is said, is evident by such an argument as this: +each thing which proceeds by an inverse order is laborious, and +consequently is bitter, and not sweet; even as to sleep by day and to +wake by night, and to go backwards and not forwards. For the subject +to command the sovereign, is to proceed in the inverse order; because +the direct order is, for the sovereign to command the subject; and +thus it is bitter, and not sweet; and because to the bitter command it +is impossible to give sweet obedience, it is impossible, when the +subject commands, for the obedience of the sovereign to be sweet. +Hence if the Latin is the sovereign of the Vulgar Tongue, as is shown +above by many reasons, and the Songs, which are in place of +commanders, are in the Vulgar Tongue, it is impossible for the +argument to be sweet. Then is obedience entirely commanded, and in no +way spontaneous, when that which the obedient man does, he would not +have done of his own will, either in whole or in part, without +commandment. And, therefore, if it might be commanded to me to carry +two long robes upon my back, and if without commandment I should carry +one, I say that my obedience is not entirely commanded, but is in part +spontaneous; and such would have been that of the Latin Commentary, +and consequently it would not have been obedience entirely commanded. +What such might have been appears by this, that the Latin, without the +command of this Lord, the Vernacular, would have expounded many parts +of his argument (and it does expound, as he who searches well the +books written in Latin may perceive), which the Vulgar Tongue does +nowhere. + +Again, obedience is within bounds, and not excessive, when it goes to +the limit of the command, and no further; as Individual Nature is +obedient to Universal Nature when she makes thirty-two teeth in the +man, and no more and no less; and when she makes five fingers on the +hand, and no more and no less; and the man is obedient to Justice when +he does that which the Law commands, and no more and no less. + +Neither would the Latin have done this, but it would have sinned not +only in the defect, and not only in the excess, but in each one; and +thus its obedience would not have been within due limit, but +intemperate, and consequently it would not have been obedient. That +the Latin would not have been the executor of the commandment of his +Lord, and that neither would he have been a usurper, one can easily +prove. This Lord, namely, these Songs, to which this Commentary is +ordained for their servant, commands and desires that they shall be +explained to all those whose mind is so far intelligent that when they +hear speech they can understand, and when they speak they can be +understood. And no one doubts, that if the Songs should command by +word of mouth, this would be their commandment. But the Latin would +not have explained them, except to the learned men: and so that the +rest could not have understood. Hence, forasmuch as the number of +unlearned men who desire to understand those Songs may be far greater +than the learned, it follows that it could not have fulfilled its +commandment so well as the Native Tongue, which is understood both by +the Learned and the Unlearned. Again, the Latin would have explained +them to people of another language, as to the Germans, to the English, +and to others; and here it would have exceeded their commandment. For +against their will, speaking freely, I say, their meaning would be +explained there where they could not convey it in all their beauty. + +And, therefore, let each one know, that nothing which is harmonized by +the bond of the Muse can be translated from its own language into +another, without breaking all its sweetness and harmony. And this is +the reason why Homer was not translated from Greek into Latin, like +the other writings that we have of the Greeks. And this is the reason +why the verses of the Psalms are without sweetness of music and +harmony; for they were translated from Hebrew into Greek, and from +Greek into Latin, and in the first translation all that sweetness +vanished. + +And, thus is concluded that which was proposed in the beginning of the +chapter immediately before this. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + + +Since it is proved by sufficient reasons that, in order to avoid +unsuitable confusion, it would be right that the above-named Songs be +opened and explained by a Commentary in our Native Tongue and not in +the Latin, I intend to show again how a ready Liberality makes me +select this way and leave the other. It is possible, then, to perceive +a ready Liberality in three things, which go with this Native Tongue, +and which would not have gone with the Latin. The first is to give to +many; the second is to give useful things; the third is to give the +gift without being asked for it. + +For to give to and to assist one person is good; but to give to and to +assist many is ready goodness, inasmuch as it has a similitude to the +good gifts of God, who is the Benefactor of the Universe. And again, +to give to many is impossible without giving to one, forasmuch as one +is included in many. But to give to one may be good without giving to +many, because he who assists many does good to one and to the other; +he who assists one does good to one only: hence, we see the imposers +of the laws, especially if they are for the common good, hold the eyes +fixed whilst compiling these laws. Again, to give useless things to +the receiver is also a good, inasmuch as he who gives, shows himself +at least to be a friend; but it is not a perfect good, and therefore +it is not ready: as if a knight should give to a doctor a shield, and +as if the doctor should give to a knight the written aphorisms of +Hippocrates, or rather the technics of Galen; because the wise men say +that "the face of the gift ought to be similar to that of the +receiver," that is, that it be suitable to him, and that it be useful; +and therein it is called ready liberality in him who thus +discriminates in giving. + +But forasmuch as moral discourses usually create a desire to see their +origin, in this chapter I intend briefly to demonstrate four reasons +why of necessity the gift (in order that it be ready liberality) +should be useful to him who receives. Firstly, because virtue must be +cheerful and not sad in every action: hence, if the gift be not +cheerful in the giving and in the receiving, in it there is not +perfect nor ready virtue. And this joy can spring only from the +utility, which resides in the giver through the giving, and which +comes to the receiver through the receiving. In the giver, then, there +must be the foresight, in doing this, that on his part there shall +remain the benefit of an inherent virtue which is above all other +advantages; and that to the receiver come the benefit of the use of +the thing given. Thus the one and the other will be cheerful, and +consequently it will be a ready liberality, that is, a liberality both +prompt and well considered. + +Secondly, because virtue ought always to move things forwards and +upwards. For even as it would be a blameable action to make a spade of +a beautiful sword, or to make a fair basin of a lovely lute; so it is +wrong to move anything from a place where it may be useful, and to +carry it into a place where it may be less useful. And since it is +blameable to work in vain, it is wrong not merely to put the thing in +a place where it may be less useful, but even in a place where it may +be equally useful. Hence, in order that the changing of the place of a +thing may be laudable, it must always be for the better, because it +ought to be especially praiseworthy; and this the gift cannot be, if +by transformation it become not more precious. Nor can it become more +precious, if it be not more useful to the receiver than to the giver. +Wherefore, one concludes that the gift must be useful to him who +receives it, in order that it may be in itself ready liberality. + +Thirdly, because the exercise of the virtue of itself ought to be the +acquirer of friends. For our life has need of these, and the end of +virtue is to make life happy. But that the gift may make the receiver +a friend, it must be useful to him, because utility stamps on the +memory the image of the gift, which is the food of friendship, and the +firmer the impression, so much the greater is the utility; hence, +Martino was wont to say, "Never will fade from my mind the gift +Giovanni made me." Wherefore, in order that in the gift there may be +its virtue, which is Liberality, and that it may be ready, it must be +useful to him who receives it. + +Finally, since the act of virtue should be free, not forced, it is +free action, when a person goes willingly to any place; which is shown +by his keeping the face turned thitherward; it is forced action, when +he goes against his will; which is shown by his not looking cheerfully +towards the place whither he goes: and thus the gift looks towards its +appointed place when it addresses itself to the need of the receiver. +And since it cannot address itself to that need except it be useful, +it follows, in order that it may be with free action, that the virtue +be free, and that the gift go freely to its object, which is the +receiver; and consequently the gift must be to the utility of the +receiver, in order that there may be a prompt and reasonable +Liberality therein. + +The third respect in which one can observe a ready Liberality, is +giving unasked; because, to give what is asked, is, on one side, not +virtue, but traffic; for, the receiver buys, although the giver may +not sell; and so Seneca says "that nothing is purchased more dearly +than that whereon prayers are expended." Hence, in order that in the +gift there be ready Liberality, and that one may perceive that to be +in it, there must be freedom from each act of traffic, and the gift +must be unasked. Wherefore that which is besought costs us so dear, I +do not mean to argue now, because it will be fully discussed in the +last treatise of this book. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + + +A Latin Commentary would be wanting in all the three above-mentioned +conditions, which must concur, in order that in the benefit conferred +there may be ready Liberality; and our Mother Tongue possesses all, as +it is possible to show thus manifestly. The Latin would not have +served many; for if we recall to memory that which is discoursed of +above, the learned men, without the Italian tongue, could not have had +this service. And those who know Latin, if we wish to see clearly who +they are, we shall find that, out of a thousand one only would have +been reasonably served by it, because they would not have received it, +so prompt are they to avarice, which removes them from each nobility +of soul that especially desires this food. And to the shame of them, I +say that they ought not to be called learned men: because they do not +acquire knowledge for the use of it, but forasmuch as they gain money +or dignity thereby; even as one ought not to call him a harper who +keeps a harp in his house to be lent out for a price, and not to use +it for its music. + +Returning, then, to the principal proposition, I say that one can see +clearly how the Latin would have given its good gift to few, but the +Mother Tongue will serve many. For the willingness of heart which +awaits this service, is in those who, through misuse of the world, +have left Literature to men who have made of her a harlot; and these +nobles are princes, barons, knights, and many other noble people, not +only men, but women, whose language is that of the people and +unlearned. Again, the Latin would not have been giver of a useful +gift, as the Mother Tongue will be; forasmuch as nothing is useful +except inasmuch as it is used; nor is there a perfect existence with +inactive goodness. Even so of gold, and pearls, and other treasures +which are subterranean, those which are in the hand of the miser are +in a lower place than is the earth wherein the treasure was concealed. +The gift truly of this Commentary is the explanation of the Songs, for +whose service it is made. It seeks especially to lead men to wisdom +and to virtue, as will be seen by the process of this treatise. This +design those only could have in use in whom true nobility is sown, +after the manner that will be described in the fourth treatise; and +these are almost all men of the people, as those are noble which in +this chapter are named above. And there is no contradiction, though +some learned man may be amongst them; for, as says my Master Aristotle +in the first book of the Ethics, "One swallow does not make the +Spring." It is, then, evident that the Mother Tongue will give the +useful thing where Latin would not have given it. Again, the Mother +Tongue will give that gift unasked, which the Latin would not have +given, because it will give itself in form of a Commentary which never +was asked for by any person. But this one cannot say of the Latin, +which for Commentary and for Expositions to many writings has often +been in request, as one can perceive clearly in the opening of many a +book. + +And thus it is evident that a ready Liberality moved me to use the +Mother Tongue rather than Latin. + + + + +CHAPTER X. + + +He greatly needs excuse who, at a feast so noble in its provisions, +and so honourable in its guests, sets bread of barley, not of wheaten +flour: and evident must be the reason which can make a man depart from +that which has long been the custom of others, as the use of Latin in +writing a Commentary. And, therefore, he would make the reason +evident; for the end of new things is not certain, because experience +of them has never been had before: hence, the ways used and observed +are estimated both in process and in the end. + +Reason, therefore, is moved to command that man should diligently look +about him when he enters a new path, saying, "that, in deliberating +about new things, that reason must be clear which can make a man +depart from an old custom." Let no one marvel, then, if the digression +touching my apology be long; but, as is necessary, let him bear its +length with patience. + +Continuing it, I say that, since it has been shown how, in order to +avoid unsuitable confusion and from readiness of liberality, I fixed +on the Commentary in the Mother Tongue and left the Latin, the order +of the entire apology requires that I now prove how I attached myself +to that through the natural love for my native tongue, which is the +third and last reason which moved me to this. I say that natural love +moves the lover principally to three things: the one is to exalt the +loved object, the second is to be jealous thereof, the third is to +defend it, as each one sees constantly to happen; and these three +things made me adopt it, that is, our Mother Tongue, which naturally +and accidentally I love and have loved. + +I was moved in the first place to exalt it. And that I do exalt it may +be seen by this reason: it happens that it is possible to magnify +things in many conditions of greatness, and nothing makes so great as +the greatness of that goodness which is the mother and preserver of +all other forms of greatness. And no greater goodness can a man have +than that of virtuous action, which is his own goodness, by which the +greatness of true dignity and of true honour, of true power, of true +riches, of true friends, of true and pure renown, are acquired and +preserved: and this greatness I give to this friend, inasmuch as that +which he had of goodness in latent power and hidden, I cause him to +have in action and revealed in its own operation, which is to declare +thought. + +Secondly, I was moved by jealousy of it. The jealousy of the friend +makes a man anxious to secure lasting provision; wherefore, thinking +that, from the desire to understand these Songs, some unlearned man +would have translated the Latin Commentary into the Mother Tongue; and +fearing that the Mother Tongue might have been employed by some one +who would have made it seem ugly, as he did who translated the Latin +of the "Ethics," I endeavoured to employ it, trusting in myself more +than in any other. Again, I was moved to defend it from its numerous +accusers, who depreciate it and commend others, especially the Langue +d'Oc, saying, that the latter is more beautiful and better than this, +therein deviating from the truth. For by this Commentary the great +excellence of our common Lingua di Si will appear, since through it, +most lofty and most original ideas may be as fitly, sufficiently, and +easily expressed as if it were by the Latin itself, which cannot show +its virtue in things rhymed because of accidental ornaments which are +connected therewith--that is, the rhyme and the rhythm, or the +regulated measure; as it is with the beauty of a lady when the +splendour of the jewels and of the garments excite more admiration +than she herself. He, therefore, who wishes to judge well of a lady +looks at her when she is alone and her natural beauty is with her, +free from all accidental ornament. So it will be with this Commentary, +in which will be seen the facility of the syllables, the propriety of +the conditions, and the sweet orations which are made in our Mother +Tongue, which a good observer will perceive to be full of most sweet +and most amiable beauty. But, since it is most determined in its +intention to show the error and the malice of the accuser, I will +tell, to the confusion of those who accuse the Italian language, +wherefore they are moved to do this; and this I shall do in a special +chapter, in order that their shame may be more notable. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + + +To the perpetual shame and abasement of the evil men of Italy who +commend the Mother Tongue of other nations and depreciate their own, I +say that their action proceeds from five abominable causes: the first +is blindness of discretion; the second, mischievous self-justification; +the third, greed of vainglory; the fourth, an invention of envy; the +fifth and last, vileness of mind, that is, cowardice. And each one of +these grave faults has a great following, for few are those who are +free from them. + +Of the first, one can reason thus. As the sensitive part of the soul +has its eyes, with which it learns the difference of things, inasmuch +as they are coloured externally; so the rational part has its eye with +which it learns the difference of things, inasmuch as each is ordained +to some end; and this is discretion. And as he who is blind with the +eyes of sense goes always according to the guidance of others judging +evil and good; so he who is blinded from the light of discretion, +always goes in his judgment according to the cry, right or wrong as it +may be. Hence, whenever the guide is blind, it must follow that what +blind man soever leans on him must come to a bad end. Therefore it is +written that, "If the blind lead the blind, both fall into the ditch." +This cry has been long raised against our Mother Tongue, for the +reasons which will be argued below. + +After this cry the blind men above mentioned, who are infinite, as it +were with one hand on the shoulder of these false witnesses, have +fallen into the ditch of false opinion, from which they know not how +to escape. From the use of the sight of discretion the mass of the +people are debarred, because each being occupied from the early years +of his life with some trade, he so directs his mind to that, by force +of necessity, that he understands nought else. And forasmuch as the +habit of virtue, moral as well as intellectual, cannot possibly be had +all on a sudden, but it must be acquired through long custom, and as +these people place their custom in some art, and care not to discern +other things, it is impossible to them to have discretion. Wherefore +it happens that often they cry aloud: "Long live Death!" and "Let Life +die!" because some one begins the cry. And this is the most dangerous +defect in their blindness. For this reason Boethius judges glory of +the people vain, because he sees it to be without discernment. These +persons are to be termed sheep and not men; for if a sheep should leap +over a precipice of a thousand feet, all the others would follow after +it; and if one sheep, for some cause or other, in crossing a road, +leaps, all the others leap, even when they see nothing to leap over. +And I once saw many leap into a well, because one had leapt into it, +believing perhaps that it was leaping a wall; notwithstanding that the +shepherd, weeping and shouting, with arms and breast set himself +against them. + +The second faction against our Mother Tongue springs from a malicious +self-justification. There are many who would rather be thought masters +than be such; and to avoid the opposite--that is, to be held not to be +such--they always cast blame on the material they work on, or upon the +instrument; as the clumsy smith blames the iron given to him, and the +bad harpist blames the harp, thinking to cast the blame of the bad +blade and of the bad music upon the iron and upon the harp, and to +lift it from themselves. Thus there are some, and not a few, who +desire that a man may hold them to be orators; and to excuse +themselves for not speaking, or for speaking badly, they accuse or +throw blame on the material, that is, their own Mother Tongue, and +praise that of other lands, which they are not required to employ. And +he who wishes to see wherefore this iron is to be blamed, let him look +at the work which good artificers make of it, and he will understand +the malice of those who, in casting blame upon it, think thereby to +excuse themselves. Against such as these, Tullius exclaims in the +beginning of his book, which he names the book "De Finibus," because +in his time they blamed the Roman Latin and praised the Greek grammar. +And thus I say, for like reasons, that these men vilify the Italian +tongue, and glorify that of Provence. + +The third faction against our Mother Tongue springs from greed of +vainglory. There are many who, by describing certain things in some +other language, and by praising that language, deem themselves to be +more worthy of admiration than if they described them in their own. +And undoubtedly to learn well a foreign tongue is deserving of some +praise for intellect; but it is a blameable thing to applaud that +language beyond truth, to glorify one's self for such an acquisition. + +The fourth springs from an invention of envy. So that, as it is said +above, envy is always where there is equality. Amongst the men of one +nation there is the equality of the native tongue; and because one +knows not how to use it like the other, therefrom springs envy. The +envious man then argues, not blaming himself for not knowing how to +speak like him who does speak as he should, but he blames that which +is the material of his work, in order to rob, by depreciating the work +on that side, him who does speak, of honour and fame; like him who +should find fault with the blade of a sword, not in order to throw +blame on the sword, but on the whole work of the master. + +The fifth and last faction springs from vileness of mind. The +magnanimous man always praises himself in his heart; and so the +pusillanimous man, on the contrary, always deems himself less than he +is. And because to magnify and to diminish always have respect to +something, by comparison with which the large-minded man makes himself +great and the small-minded man makes himself small, it results +therefrom that the magnanimous man always makes others less than they +are, and the pusillanimous makes others always greater. And therefore +with that measure wherewith a man measures himself, he measures his +own things, which are as it were a part of himself. It results that to +the magnanimous man his own things always appear better than they are, +and those of others less good; the pusillanimous man always believes +his things to be of little value, and those of others of much worth. +Wherefore many, on account of this vileness of mind, depreciate their +native tongue, and applaud that of others; and all such as these are +the abominable wicked men of Italy who hold this precious Mother +Tongue in vile contempt, which if it be vile in any case, is so only +inasmuch as it sounds in the evil mouth of these adulterers, under +whose guidance go those blind men of whom I spoke in the first +argument. + + + + +CHAPTER XII. + + +If flames of fire should issue visibly through the windows of a house, +and if any one should ask if there were fire within it, and if another +should answer "Yes" to him, one would not well know how to judge which +of those might be mocking the most. Not otherwise would the question +and the answer pass between me and that man who should ask me if love +for my own language is in me, and if I should answer "Yes" to him, +after the arguments propounded above. + +But, nevertheless, it has to be proved that not only love, but the +most perfect love for it exists in me, and again its adversaries must +be blamed. Whilst demonstrating this to him who will understand well, +I will tell how I became the friend of it, and then how my friendship +is confirmed. + +I say that (as Tullius writes in his book on Friendship, not +dissenting from the opinion of the Philosopher opened up in the eighth +and in the ninth of the Ethics) Neighbourhood and Goodness are, +naturally, the causes of the birth of Love: Benevolence, Study, and +Custom are the causes of the growth of Love. And there have been all +these causes to produce and to strengthen the love which I bear to my +Native Language, as I shall briefly demonstrate. A thing is so much +the nearer in proportion as it is most nearly allied to all the other +things of its own kind; wherefore, of all men the son is nearest to +the father, and of all the Arts, Medicine is nearest to the Doctor, +and Music to the Musician, because they are more allied to them than +the others. Of all parts of the earth the nearest is that whereon a +man lives, because he is most united to it. And thus his own Native +Language is nearest to him, inasmuch as he is most united to it; for +it, and it alone, is first in the mind before any other. And not only +of itself is it united, but by accident, inasmuch as it is united with +the persons nearest to him, as his parents, and his fellow-citizens, +and his own people. And this is his own Mother Tongue, which is not +only nearest, but especially the nearest to each man. Therefore, if +near neighbourhood be the seed of friendship, as is said above, it is +manifest that it has been one of the causes of the love which I bear +to my Native Language, which is nearer to me than the others. The +above-mentioned cause, whereby that alone which stands first in each +mind is most bound to it, gave rise to the custom of the people, that +the first-born sons should succeed to the inheritance solely as being +the nearest relatives; and because the nearest relatives, therefore +the most beloved. + +Again, Goodness made me a friend to it. And here it is to be known +that all goodness inherent in anything is loveable in that thing; as +in manhood to be well bearded, and in womanhood to be all over the +face quite free from hair; as in the setter to have good scent, and as +in the greyhound to be swift. And in proportion as it is native, so +much the more is it delightful. Hence, although each virtue is +loveable in man, that is the most loveable in him which is most human: +and this is Justice, which alone is in the rational part, or rather in +the intellectual, that is, in the Will. This is so loveable that as +says the Philosopher in the fifth book of the Ethics, its enemies love +it, such as thieves and robbers; and, therefore, we see that its +opposite, that is, Injustice, is especially hated; such as treachery, +ingratitude, falsehood, theft, rapine, deceit, and their like; the +which are such inhuman sins, that, in order to excuse himself from the +infamy of such, it is granted through long custom that a man may speak +of himself, as has been said above, and may say if he be faithful and +loyal. Of this virtue I shall speak hereafter more fully in the +fourteenth treatise; and here quitting it, I return to the +proposition. Having proved, then, that the goodness of a thing is +loved the more the more it is innate, the more it is to be loved and +commended for itself, it remains to see what that goodness is. And we +see that, in all speech, to express a thought well and clearly is the +thing most to be admired and commended. This, then, is its first +goodness. And forasmuch as this is in our Mother Tongue, as is made +evident in another chapter, it is manifest that it has been the cause +of the love which I bear to it; since, as has been said, "Goodness is +the producer of Love." + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + + +Having said how in the Mother Tongue there are those two things which +have made me its friend, that is, nearness to me and its innate +goodness, I will tell how by kindness and union in study, and through +the benevolence of long use, the friendship is confirmed and grows. +Firstly, I say that I for myself have received from it the greatest +benefits. And, therefore, it is to be known that, amongst all +benefits, that is the greatest which is most precious to him who +receives it; and nothing is so precious as that through which all +other things are wished; and all the other things are wished for the +perfection of him who wishes. Wherefore, inasmuch as a man may have +two perfections, one first and one second (the first causes him to be, +the second causes him to be good), if the Native Language has been to +me the cause of the one and of the other, I have received from it the +greatest benefit. And that it may have been the cause of this +condition in me can be shown briefly. The efficient cause for the +existence of things is not one only, but among many efficient causes +one is the chief of the others, hence the fire and the hammer are the +efficient causes of the sword-blade, although the workman is +especially so. This my Mother Tongue was the bond of union between my +forefathers, who spoke with it, even as the fire is the link between +the iron and the smith who makes the knife; therefore it is evident +that it co-operated in my birth, and so it was in some way the cause +of my being. Again, this my Mother Tongue was my introducer into the +path of knowledge, which is the ultimate perfection, inasmuch as with +it I entered into the Latin Language, and with it I was taught; the +which Latin was then the way of further advancement for me. And so it +is evident and known by me that this my language has been my great +benefactor. Also it has been engaged with me in one self-same study, +and this I can thus prove. Each thing naturally studies its +self-preservation; hence, if the Mother Tongue could seek anything of +itself, it would seek that; and that would be to secure for itself a +position of the greatest stability: but greater stability it could not +secure than by uniting itself with number and with rhyme. + +And this self-same study has been mine, as is so evident that it +requires no testimony; therefore its study and mine have been one and +the same, whereby the harmony of friendship is confirmed and +increased. Also between us there has been the benevolence of long use: +for from the beginning of my life I have had with it kind fellowship +and conversation, and have used it, when deliberating, interpreting, +and questioning; wherefore, if friendship increases through long use, +as in all reason appears, it is manifest that in me it has increased +especially, for with this my Mother Tongue I have spent all my time. +And thus one sees that to the shaping of this friendship there have +co-operated all causes of birth and growth. Therefore, let it be +concluded that not only Love, but the most Perfect Love, is that which +I have for it. So it is, and ought to be. + +Thus, casting the eyes backwards and gathering up the afore-stated +reasons, one can see that this Bread, with which the Meat of the +under-written Poems ought to be eaten, is made clear enough of +blemishes, and of fault in the nature of its grain. Wherefore, it is +time to attend to and serve up the viands. + +This will be that barley-bread with which a thousand will satisfy +themselves; and my full baskets shall overflow with it. This will be +that new Light, that new Sun, which shall rise when the sun of this +our day shall set, and shall give light to those who are in darkness +and in gloom because the sun of this our day gives light to them no +more. + + * * * * * + + + + +The Second Treatise. + + + Ye who the third Heaven move, intent of thought, + Hear reasoning that is within my heart, + Thoughts that to none but you I can impart: + Heaven, that is moved by you, my life has brought + To where it stands, therefore I pray you heed + What I shall say about the life I lead. + + To you I tell the heart's new cares: always + The sad Soul weeps within it, and there hears + Voice of a Spirit that condemns her tears, + A Spirit that descends in your star's rays. + Thought that once fed the grieving heart was sweet, + Thought that oft fled up to your Father's feet. + + There it beheld a Lady glorified, + Of whom so sweetly it discoursed to me + That the Soul said, "With her I long to be!" + Now One appears that drives the thought aside, + And masters me with so effectual might + That my heart quivers to the outward sight. + + This on a Lady fixes my regard + And says, "Who seeks where his salvation lies + Must gaze intently in this Lady's eyes, + Nor dread the sighs of anguish!" O, ill-starred! + Such opposite now breaks the humble dream + Of the crowned angel in the glory beam. + + Still, therefore, the Soul weeps, "The tender stir," + It says, "of thought that once consoled me flies!" + That troubled one asks, "When into thine eyes + Looked she? Why doubted they my words of her?" + I said, "Her eyes bear death to such as I: + Yet, vainly warned, I gaze on her and die. + + "Thou art not dead, but in a vain dismay, + Dear Soul of ours so lost in thy distress," + Whispers a spirit voice of tenderness. + "This Lady's beauty darkens all your day, + Vile fear possesses you; see, she is lowly + Pitiful, courteous, though so wise and holy. + + "Think thou to call her Mistress evermore: + Save thou delude thyself, then shall there shine + High miracles before thee, so divine + That thou shalt say, O Love, when I adore, + True Lord, behold the handmaid of the Lord, + Be it unto me according to thy Word!" + + My song, I do believe there will be few + Who toil to understand thy reasoning; + But if thou pass, perchance, to those who bring + No skill to give thee the attention due, + Then pray I, dear last-born, let them rejoice + To find at least a music in my voice. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + + +Since I, the servant, with preliminary discourse in the preceding +Treatise, have with all due care prepared my bread, the time now +summons, and requires my ship to leave the port: wherefore, having +trimmed the mizen-mast of reason to the wind of my desire, I enter the +ocean with the hope of an easy voyage, and a healthful happy haven to +be reached at the end of my supper. But in order that my food may be +more profitable, before the first dish comes on the table I wish to +show how it ought to be eaten. I say then, as is narrated in the first +chapter, that this exposition must be Literal and Allegorical; and to +make this explicit one should know that it is possible to understand a +book in four different ways, and that it ought to be explained chiefly +in this manner. + +The one is termed Literal, and this is that which does not extend +beyond the text itself, such as is the fit narration of that thing +whereof you are discoursing, an appropriate example of which is the +third Song, which discourses of Nobility. + +Another is termed Allegorical, and it is that which is concealed under +the veil of fables, and is a Truth concealed under a beautiful +Untruth; as when Ovid says that Orpheus with his lute made the wild +beasts tame, and made the trees and the stones to follow him, which +signifies that the wise man with the instrument of his voice makes +cruel hearts gentle and humble, and makes those follow his will who +have not the living force of knowledge and of art; who, having not the +reasoning life of any knowledge whatever, are as the stones. And in +order that this hidden thing should be discovered by the wise, it will +be demonstrated in the last Treatise. Verily the theologians take this +meaning otherwise than do the poets: but, because my intention here is +to follow the way of the poets, I shall take the Allegorical sense +according as it is used by the poets. + +The third sense is termed Moral; and this is that which the readers +ought intently to search for in books, for their own advantage and for +that of their descendants; as one can espy in the Gospel, when Christ +ascended the Mount for the Transfiguration, that, of the twelve +Apostles, He took with Him only three. From which one can understand +in the Moral sense that in the most secret things we ought to have but +little company. + +The fourth sense is termed Mystical, that is, above sense, +supernatural; and this it is, when spiritually one expounds a writing +which even in the Literal sense by the things signified bears express +reference to the Divine things of Eternal Glory; as one can see in +that Song of the Prophet which says that by the exodus of the people +of Israel from Egypt Judaea is made holy and free. That this happens to +be true according to the letter is evident. Not less true is that +which it means spiritually, that in the Soul's liberation from Sin (or +in the exodus of the Soul from Sin) it is made holy and free in its +powers. + +But in demonstrating these, the Literal must always go first, as that +in whose sense the others are included, and without which it would be +impossible and irrational to understand the others. Especially is it +impossible in the Allegorical, because, in each thing which has a +within and a without, it is impossible to come to the within if you do +not first come to the without. Wherefore, since in books the Literal +meaning is always external, it is impossible to reach the others, +especially the Allegorical, without first coming to the Literal. +Again, it is impossible, because in each thing, natural and +artificial, it is impossible to proceed to the form without having +first laid down the matter upon which the form should be. Thus, it is +impossible for the form of the gold to come, if the matter, that is, +its subject, is not first laid down and prepared; or for the form of +the ark to come, if the material, that is, the wood, be not first laid +down and prepared. Therefore, since the Literal meaning is always the +subject and the matter of the others, especially of the Allegorical, +it is impossible to come first to the meaning of the others before +coming to it. Again, it is impossible, because in each thing, natural +and artificial, it is impossible to proceed unless the foundation be +first laid, as in the house, so also in the mind. Therefore, since +demonstration must be the building up of Knowledge, and Literal +demonstration must be the foundation of the other methods of +interpreting, especially of the Allegorical, it is impossible to come +first to the others before coming to that. Again, if it were possible +that it could be so ordered, it would be irrational, that is, out of +order; and, therefore, one would proceed with, much fatigue and with +much error. Hence, as the Philosopher says in the first book of the +Physics, Nature desires that we proceed in due order in our search for +knowledge, that is, by proceeding from that which we know well to that +which we know not so well; so I say that Nature desires it, inasmuch +as this way to knowledge is innate in us; and therefore, if the other +meanings, apart from the Literal, are less understood--which they are, +as evidently appears--it would be irrational to demonstrate them if +the Literal had not first been demonstrated. + +I, then, for these reasons will discourse in due order of each Song, +firstly upon its Literal meaning, and after that I will discourse of +its Allegory, that is, the hidden Truth, and sometimes I will touch +incidentally on the other meanings as may be convenient to place and +time. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + + +Beginning, then, I say that the star of Venus had twice revolved in +that circle which causes the evening and the morning to appear, +according to the two varying seasons, since the death of that blessed +Beatrice, who lives in Heaven with the Angels, and on Earth with my +soul; when that gentle Lady, of whom I made mention at the end of the +"Vita Nuova," first appeared before my eyes, accompanied by Love, and +assumed a position in my mind. And, as has been stated by me in the +little book referred to, more because of her gentle goodness than from +choice of mine, it befell that I consented to be her servant. For she +appeared impassioned with such sorrow for my sad widowed life that the +spirits of my eyes became especially friendly to her; and, so +disposed, they then depicted her to be such that my good-will was +content to espouse itself to that image. But because Love is not born +suddenly, nor grows great nor comes to perfection in haste, but +desires time and food for thought, especially there where there are +antagonistic thoughts which impede it, there must needs be, before +this new Love could be perfect, a great battle between the thought of +its food and of that which was antagonistic to it, which still held +the fortress of my mind for that glorious Beatrice. For the one was +succoured on one side continually by the ever-present vision, and the +other on the opposite side by the memory of the past. And the help of +the ever-present sight increased each day, which memory could not do, +in opposing that which to a certain degree prevented me from turning +the face towards the past. Wherefore it seemed to me so wonderful, and +also so hard to endure, that I could not support it, and with a loud +cry (to excuse myself from the struggle, in which it seemed to me that +I had failed in courage) I lifted up my voice towards that part whence +came the victory of the new thought, which was full of virtuous power, +even the power of celestial virtue; and I began to say: "You! who the +third Heaven move, intent of thought." For the intelligent +understanding of which Song, one must first know its divisions well, +so that it will then be easy to perceive its meaning. + +In order that it may no longer be necessary to preface the +explanations of the others, I say that the order which will be taken +in this Treatise I intend to keep through all the others. I say, then, +that the proposed Song is contained within three principal parts. The +first is the first verse of that, in which certain Intelligences are +induced to listen to what I intend to say, or rather by a more usual +form of speech we should call them Angels, who are in the revolution +of the Heaven of Venus, as the movers thereof. The second is in the +lines which follow after the first, in which is made manifest that +which I felt spiritually amidst various thoughts. The third is in the +last lines, wherein the man begins to speak to the work itself, as if +to comfort it, as it were, and all these three parts are in due order +to be demonstrated, as has been said above. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + + +That we may more easily perceive the Literal meaning of the first +division, to which we now attend, it is requisite to know who and what +are those who are summoned to my audience, and what is that third +Heaven which I say is moved by them. And firstly I will speak of the +Heaven; then I will speak of those whom I address And although with +regard to the truth concerning those things it is possible to know but +little, yet so much as human reason can discern gives more delight +than the best known and most certain of the things judged by the +sense; according to the opinion of the Philosopher in his book on +Animals. + +I say, then, that concerning the number of the Heavens and their site, +different opinions are held by many, although the truth at last may be +found. Aristotle believed, following merely the ancient foolishness of +the Astrologers, that there might be only eight Heavens, of which the +last one, and which contained all, might be that where the fixed stars +are, that is, the eighth sphere, and that beyond it there could be no +other. Again, he believed that the Heaven of the Sun might be +immediate with that of the Moon, that is, second to us. And this +opinion of his, so erroneous, he who wishes can see in the second book +on Heaven and the World, which is in the second of the Books on +Natural History. In fact, he excuses himself for this in the twelfth +book of the Metaphysics, where he clearly proves himself to have +followed also another opinion where he was obliged to speak of +Astrology. Ptolemy, then, perceiving that the eighth sphere is moved +by many movements, seeing its circle to depart from the right circle, +which turns from East to West, constrained by the principles of +Philosophy, which of necessity desires a Primum Mobile, a most simple +one, supposed another Heaven to be outside the Heaven of the fixed +stars, which might make that revolution from East to West which I say +is completed in twenty-four hours nearly, that is, in twenty-three +hours, fourteen parts of the fifteen of another, counting roughly. +Therefore, according to him, and according to that which is held in +Astrology and in Philosophy since those movements were seen, there are +nine moveable Heavens; the site of which is evident and determined, +according to an Art which is termed Perspective, Arithmetical and +Geometrical, by which and by other sensible experiences it is visibly +and reasonably seen, as in the eclipses of the Sun it appears +sensibly, that the Moon is below the Sun; and as by the testimony of +Aristotle, who saw with his own eyes, according to what he says in the +second book on Heaven and the World, the Moon, being new, to enter +below Mars, on the side not shining, and Mars to remain concealed so +long that he re-appeared on the other bright side of the Moon, which +was towards the West. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + + +And the order of the houses is this, that the first that they +enumerate is that where the Moon is; the second is that where Mercury +is; the third is that where Venus is; the fourth is that where the Sun +is; the fifth is that where Mars is; the sixth is that where Jupiter +is; the seventh is that where Saturn is; the eighth is that of the +Stars; the ninth is that which is not visible except by that movement +which is mentioned above, which they designate the great Crystalline +sphere, diaphanous, or rather all transparent. Truly, beyond all +these, the Catholics place the Empyrean Heaven, which is as much as to +say, the Heaven of Flame, or rather the Luminous Heaven; and they +assign it to be immoveable, in order to have in itself, according to +each part, that which its material desires. And this is why that first +moved--the Primum Mobile--has such extremely rapid motion. For, +because of the most fervent appetite which each part of it has to be +united with each part of that most Divine Heaven of Peace, in which it +revolves with so much desire, its velocity is almost incomprehensible. +And this quiet and peaceful Heaven is the place of that Supreme Deity +who from above beholds the whole. This is the place of the blessed +Spirits, according as Holy Church teaches, which cannot speak falsely; +and even Aristotle seems to feel this, to him who understands him +well, in the first book of Heaven and the World. This is the highest +bound of the World, within which the whole World is included, and +beyond which there is nothing. And it is in no place, but was formed +alone in the First Mind, which the Greeks term Protonoe. This is that +magnificence of which the Psalmist spoke when he sang to God: "Thy +glory is raised above the Heavens." + +So, then, gathering together this which is discussed, it seems that +there may be ten Heavens, of which the Heaven of Venus may be the +third; whereof mention is made in that part which I intend to +demonstrate. And it is to be known that each Heaven below the +Crystalline has two firm poles as to itself; and the ninth has them +firm and fixed, and not mutable in any respect. And each one, the +ninth even as the others, has a circle, which one may term the equator +of its own Heaven; which equally, in each part of its revolution, is +remote from one pole and from the other, as he who rolls an apple or +any other round thing can sensibly perceive. And this circle has more +swiftness in its movement than any other part of its Heaven, in each +Heaven, as he may perceive who considers well. And each part, in +proportion as it is nearer to it, moves so much the more swiftly; so +much the slower in proportion as it is more remote and nearer to the +pole; since its revolution is less, and it must of necessity be in one +self-same time with the greater. I say again, that in proportion as +the Heaven is nearer to the equatorial circle, so much the more noble +is it in comparison to its poles; since it has more motion and more +actuality and more life and more form and more touch from that which +is above itself, and consequently has more virtue. Hence the stars in +the Heaven of the fixed stars are more full of power amongst +themselves in proportion as they are nearer to that circle. + +And upon the back of this circle in the Heaven of Venus, of which I +now speak, is a little sphere, which revolves by itself in this +Heaven, the circle of which Astrologers call Epicycle; and as the +great sphere revolves about two poles, so does this little sphere: and +so has this little sphere the equatorial circle; and so much the more +noble it is in proportion as it is nearer to those: and in the arc, or +rather back, of this circle is fixed the most brilliant star of Venus. +And, although it may be said that there are ten Heavens according to +strict Truth, this number does not comprehend them all: for that of +which mention is made, the Epicycle, in which the star is fixed, is a +Heaven by itself, or rather sphere; and it has not one essence with +that which bears it, although it may be more like to it than to the +others, and with it is called one Heaven, and they name the one and +the other from the star. How the other Heavens and the other stars may +be is not for present discussion; let it suffice that the nature of +the third Heaven, with which I am at present concerned, has been told, +and concerning which all that is at present needful has been shown. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + + +Since it has been shown in the preceding chapter what this third +Heaven is, and how it is ordered in itself, it remains to show who +those are who move it. It is then to be known, in the first place, +that the movers thereof are substances apart from material, that is, +Intelligences, which the common people term Angels: and of these +creatures, as of the Heavens, different persons have had different +ideas, although the truth may be found. There were certain +Philosophers, of whom Aristotle appears to be one in his Metaphysics, +although in the first book on Heaven and Earth incidentally he appears +to think otherwise, who only believed these to be so many as there are +revolutions in the Heavens, and no more; saying, that the others would +have been eternally in vain, without operation, which was impossible, +inasmuch as their being is their operation. There were others, like +Plato, a most excellent man, who place not only so many Intelligences +as there are movements in Heaven, but even as there are species of +things, that is, manners of things; as of one species are all mankind, +and of another all the gold, and of another all the silver, and so +with all: and they are of opinion that as the Intelligences of the +Heavens are generators of those movements each after his kind, so +these were generators of the other things, each one being a type of +its species: and Plato calls them _Ideas_, which is as much as to +say, so many universal forms and natures. + +The Gentiles called them Gods and Goddesses, although they could not +understand those so philosophically as Plato did; and they adored +their images, and built large temples to them, as to Juno, whom they +called the Goddess of Power; as to Vulcan, whom they called the God of +Fire; as to Pallas, or rather Minerva, whom they called the Goddess of +Wisdom; and to Ceres, whom they called the Goddess of Corn. Opinions +such as these the testimony of the Poets makes manifest, for they +describe to a certain extent the mode of the Gentiles both in their +sacrifices and in their faith; and it is testified also in many names, +remains of antiquity, or in names of places and ancient buildings, as +he who will can easily find. And although these opinions above +mentioned might be built upon a good foundation by human reason and by +no slight knowledge, yet the Truth was not seen by them, either from +defect of reason or from defect of instruction. Yet even by reason it +was possible to see that very numerous were the creatures above +mentioned who are not such as men can understand. And the one reason +is this: no one doubts, neither Philosopher, nor Gentile, nor Jew, nor +Christian, nor any one of any sect, that they are either the whole or +the greater part full of all Blessedness, and that those blessed ones +are in a most perfect state. Therefore, since that which is here Human +Nature may have not only one Beatitude, but two Beatitudes, as that of +the Civil Life and that of the Contemplative, it would be irrational +if we should see these Celestial Beings to have the Beatitude of the +Active Life, that is, the Civil, in the government of the World, and +not to have that of the Contemplative, which is the most excellent and +most Divine. + +But since that which has the Beatitude of the Civil government cannot +have the other, because their intellect is one and perpetual, there +must be others beyond this ministry, who live only in contemplation. +And because this latter life is more Divine--and in proportion as the +thing is more Divine so much the more is it in the image of God--it is +evident that this life is more beloved of God: and if it be more +beloved, so much the more vast has its Beatitude been; and if it has +been more vast, so much the more vivifying power has He given to it +rather than to the other; therefore one concludes that there may De a +much larger number of those creatures than the effects tend to show. +And this is not opposed to that which Aristotle seems to state in the +tenth book of the Ethics, that to the separate substances the +Contemplative Life must be requisite; as also the Active Life must be +imperative to them. Nevertheless, in the contemplation of certain +truths the revolution of the Heaven follows, which is the government +of the World; which is, as it were, a Civil government ordained and +comprehended in the contemplation of the movers, that is, the ruling +Intelligences. The other reason is, that no effect is greater than the +cause, because the cause cannot give that which it has not; wherefore, +since the Divine Intellect is the cause of all, especially of the +Human Intellect, it follows that the Human Intellect does not dominate +the Divine, but is dominated by it in proportion to the superior power +of the Divine. Hence, if we, by the reason above stated, and by many +others, understand God to have been able to create Spiritual Creatures +almost innumerable, it is quite evident that He has made them in this +great number. Many other reasons it were possible to see: but let +these suffice for the present. Nor let any one marvel if these and +other reasons which we could adduce concerning this are not fully +demonstrated; since likewise we ought to wonder at their excellence, +which overpowers the eyes of the Human Mind, as the Philosopher says +in the second book of the Metaphysics, and he affirms their existence. +Though we have not any perception of them from which our knowledge can +begin, yet some light from their most vivacious essence shines upon +our intellect, inasmuch as we perceive the above-mentioned reasons and +many others, even as he who has the eyes closed affirms the air to be +luminous, because of some little brightness or ray of light which +passes through the pupils; as it is with the bat, for not otherwise +are the eyes of the intellect closed, so long as the soul is bound and +prisoned by the organs of our body. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + + +It has been said that, through defective instruction, the ancients saw +not the Truth concerning the Spiritual Creatures, although the people +of Israel were in part instructed by their Prophets, through whom by +many modes of speech and in many ways God had spoken to them, as the +Apostle says. But we are therein instructed by Him who came from God, +by Him who made them, by Him who preserves them, that is, by the +Emperor of the Universe, who is Christ the Son of the Supreme God, and +the Son of the Virgin Mary, a woman truly, and the daughter of Joseph +and Anna--very Man, who was slain by us in order that He might bring +us Life; who was the Light which enlightens us in the Darkness, even +as John the Evangelist says; and He told us the Truth of those things +which we could not have known without Him, nor seen truly. The first +thing and the first secret which He showed us was one of the +before-mentioned Beings or creatures. This was that one, His great +Legate, the Angel Gabriel, who came to Mary, a young damsel of +thirteen years, on the part of the Heavenly Saviour. This our Saviour, +with His own mouth, said, that the Father could give Him many Legions +of Angels. This He denied not, when it was said to Him that the Father +had commanded His Angels that they should minister unto Him and should +serve Him. Wherefore, it is evident to us that these creatures are in +a very great number; since His Spouse and Secretary, Holy Church, of +whom Solomon says: "Who is this that cometh forth from the Desert, +full of those things which give delight, leaning upon her friend?" +says, believes, and preaches these most noble creatures to be almost +innumerable; and She divides them into three Hierarchies, that is to +say, three holy, or rather Divine, Principalities: and each Hierarchy +has three orders, so that nine orders of spiritual creatures the +Church holds and affirms. + +The first is that of the Angels, the second of the Archangels, the +third of the Thrones; and these three orders make the first +Hierarchy--not first as to nobility, nor as to creation, for the +others are more noble, and all were created together, but first in +degree, according to our perception of their exaltation. + +Then there are the Dominations; after them the Virtues; then the +Principalities; and these make the second Hierarchy. + +Above these are the Powers and the Cherubim, and above all are the +Seraphim; and these make the third Hierarchy. + +And the most potent reason for their contemplation is the number in +which the Hierarchies are, and that in which the orders are. For, +since the Divine Majesty is in Three Persons, which have one +substance, it is possible to contemplate them triply. For it is +possible to contemplate the Supreme Power of the Father, which the +first Hierarchy gazes upon, namely, that which is first by nobility, +and which we enumerate last. And it is possible to contemplate the +Supreme Wisdom of the Son; and upon this the second Hierarchy gazes. +And it is possible to contemplate the Supreme and most fervent Charity +of the Holy Spirit; and upon this the third Hierarchy gazes, which, +being nearest to us, gives of the gifts which it receives. + +And, since it is possible to regard each person in the Divine Trinity +triply, so in each Hierarchy there are three orders which contemplate +diversely. It is possible to consider the Father having regard to none +but Him; and this is the contemplation of the Seraphim, who see more +of the First Cause than any other Angelic Nature. It is possible to +consider the Father according as He has relation to the Son, that is, +how He is apart from Him, and how united with Him; and this is the +contemplation of the Cherubim. It is possible again to consider the +Father according as from Him proceeds the Holy Spirit, and how it is +apart from Him and how united with Him; and this is the contemplation +of the Powers. + +And in like way it is possible to contemplate the Son and the Holy +Spirit. + +Wherefore, there must be nine orders of contemplative Spirits to gaze +into the Light, which alone beholds itself completely. And this is not +the place to be silent so much as one word. I say, that of all these +orders some were lost as soon as they were created, perhaps in number +of the tenth part, to restore which Human Nature was created. The +numbers, the orders, the Hierarchies, declare the glory of the movable +Heavens, which are nine; and the tenth announces this Unity and +stability of God. And therefore the Psalmist says: "The Heavens +declare the glory of God, and the Firmament showeth His handiwork." +Wherefore it is reasonable to believe that the movers of the Heaven of +the Moon are of the order of the Angels, and those of Mercury may be +the Archangels, and those of Venus may be the Thrones, in whom the +Love of the Holy Spirit being innate, they do their work conformably +to it, which means that the revolution of that Heaven is full of Love. +The form of the said Heaven takes from this a virtue by whose glow +souls here below are kindled to love according to their disposition. + +And because the ancients perceived that Heaven to be here below the +cause of Love, they said that Love was the son of Venus, as Virgil +testifies in the first book of the AEneid, where Venus says to Love: +"Oh! son, my virtue, son of the great Father, who takest no heed of +the darts of Typhoeus." And Ovid so testifies in the fifth book of +his Metamorphoses, when he says that Venus said to Love: "Son, my +arms, my power." And there are Thrones which are ordered to the +government of this Heaven in number not great, concerning which the +Philosophers and the Astrologers have thought differently, according +as they held different opinions concerning its revolutions. But all +may be agreed, as many are, in this, as to how many movements it +makes. Of this, as abbreviated in the book of the Aggregation of the +Stars, you may find in the better demonstration of the Astrologers +that there are three: one, according as the star moves towards its +Epicycle; the other, according as the Epicycle moves with its whole +Heaven equally with that of the Sun; the third, according as the whole +of that Heaven moves, following the movement of the starry sphere from +West to East in one hundred years one degree. So that to these Three +Movements there are Three Movers. Again, if the whole of this Heaven +moves and turns with the Epicycle from East to West once in each +natural day, that movement, whether it be caused by some Intelligence +or whether it be through the rapid movement of the Primum Mobile, God +knows, for to me it seems presumptuous to judge. These Movers produce, +caring for that alone, the revolution proper to that sphere which each +one moves. The most noble form of the Heaven, which has in itself the +principle of this passive Nature, revolves, touched by the Moving +Power, which cares for this; and I say touched, not by a bodily touch, +but by a Power which directs itself to that operation. And these +Movers are those to whom I begin to speak and to whom I put my +inquiry. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + + +According to that which is said above in the third chapter of this +treatise, in order to understand well the first part of the Song I +comment on, it is requisite to discourse of those Heavens, and of +their Movers; and in the three preceding chapters this has been +discussed. I say, then, to those whom I proved to be Movers of the +Heaven of Venus: "Ye who, with thought intent" (_i.e._, with the +intellect alone, as is said above), "the third Heaven move, Hear +reasoning that is within my heart;" and I do not say "Hear" because +they hear any sound, for they have no sense of hearing; but I say +"Hear," meaning with that hearing which they have, which is of the +understanding through the intellect. I say, "Hear reasoning that is +within my heart," within me, which as yet has not appeared externally. +It is to be known that throughout this Song, according to the one +sense (the Literal), and the other sense (the Allegorical), the Heart +is concerned with the secret within, and not any other special part of +the soul or body. When I have called them to hear that which I wish to +say, I assign two reasons why I ought fitly to speak to them. One is +the novelty of my condition, which, from not having been experienced +by other men, would not be so understood by them as by those who +superintend such effects in their operation. And this reason I touch +upon when I say: "To you alone its new thoughts I impart." The other +reason is: when a man receives a benefit or injury, he ought first to +relate it to him who bestows or inflicts it, if he can, rather than to +others; in order that, if it be a benefit, he who receives it may show +himself grateful towards the benefactor, and, if it be an injury, let +him lead the doer thereof to gentle mercy with sweet words. And this +reason I touch upon when I say: "Heaven, that is moved by you, my life +has brought To where it stands;" that is to say, your operation, +namely, your revolution, is that which has drawn me into the present +condition; therefore I conclude and say that my speech ought to be to +them, such as is said; and I say here: "Therefore to you 'tis need +That I should speak about the life I lead." And after these reasons +assigned, I beseech them to listen when I speak. + +But, because in each manner of speech the speaker especially ought to +look to persuasion, that is, to the pleasing of the audience, as that +which is the beginning of all other persuasions, as do the +Rhetoricians, and the most powerful persuasion to render the audience +attentive is to promise to say new and wonderful things, I add to the +prayer made for attention, this persuasion, or embellishment, +announcing to them my intention to speak of new things, that is, the +division which is in my mind; and great things, namely, the power of +their star; and I say this in those last words of this first part: + + To you I'll tell the heart's new cares: always + The sad Soul weeps within it, and there hears + Voice of a Spirit that condemns her tears, + A Spirit that descends through your star's rays. + +And to the full understanding of these words, I say that this Spirit +is no other than a frequent thought how to commend and beautify this +new Lady. And this Soul is no other than another thought, accompanied +with acquiescence, which, repudiating that Spirit, commends and +beautifies the memory of that glorious Beatrice. But, again, because +the last sentiment of the mind, acquiescence, is held by that thought +which memory assisted, I call it the Soul, and the other the Spirit; +as we are accustomed to call the City those who hold it, and not those +who fight it, although the one and the other may be citizens. I say +also, that this Spirit comes on the rays of the star, because one +desires to know that the rays of each Heaven are the way by which +their virtue descends into things here below. And since the rays are +no other than a light which comes from the source of Light through the +air even to the thing illuminated, and the light has no source except +the star, because the other Heaven is transparent, I say not that this +Spirit, this thought, comes from their Heaven entirely, but from their +star. And their star, through the nobility of its Movers, is of such +virtue that in our souls, and in other things, it has very great +power, notwithstanding that it is so far from us, about one hundred +and sixty-seven times farther than it is to the centre of the Earth, +which is three thousand two hundred and fifty miles. And this is the +Literal exposition of the first part of the Song. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + + +What I have said shows clearly enough the Literal meaning of the first +part. In the second, there is to be understood how it makes manifest +what I experienced from the struggle within me; and this part has two +divisions. In the first place it describes the quality of these +oppositions, according as their cause was within me. Then I narrate +what the one and the other voice of opposition said; and upon that +firstly which described what was being lost, in the passage which is +the second of that part and the third of the Song. In evidence, then, +of the meaning of the first division, it is to be known that things +must be named by that part of their form which is the noblest and +best, as Man by Reason, and not by Sense, nor by aught else which is +less noble; therefore, when one speaks of the living man, one should +understand the man using Reason, which is his especial Life, and is +the action of his noblest part. And, therefore, whoso departs from +Reason and uses only the Senses is not a living man, but a living +beast, as says that most excellent Boethius, "Let the Ass live." + +Rightly I speak, because thought is the right act of reason, wherefore +the beasts who have it not do not think; and I speak not only of the +lesser beasts, but of those who have a human appearance with the +spirit of a sheep or of some other abominable beast. I say then: +"Thought that once fed my grieving heart"--thought, that is, of the +inner life--"was sweet" (sweet, insomuch as it is persuasive, that is, +pleasing, or beautiful, gentle, delightful); this thought often sped +away to the feet of the Father of those Spirits to whom I speak, that +is, God; that is to say, that I in thought contemplated the realm of +the Blessed. "Thought that once fled up to the Father's feet." And I +name the final cause immediately, because I ascended there above in +thought when I say, "There I beheld a Lady glorified," to let you +understand that I was certain, and am certain by its gracious +revelation, that she was in Heaven; wherefore I, thinking many times +how this was possible for me, went thither, rapt, as it were. Then +subsequently I speak of the effect of this thought, in order to let +you understand its sweetness, which was such that it made me desirous +of Death, that I also might go where she was gone. And of this I speak +there: "Of whom so sweetly it discoursed to me That the Soul said, +'With her would I might be!'" And this is the root of one of the +struggles which was in me. And it is to be known that here one terms +Thought, and not Soul, that which ascended to see that Blessed Spirit, +because it was an especial thought sent on that mission; the Soul is +understood, as is stated in the preceding chapter, as thought in +general, with acquiescence. + +Then, when I say, "Now One appears that drives the thought aside," I +touch the root of the other struggle, saying how that previous thought +was wont to be the life of me, even as another appears, which makes +that one cease to be. I say, "drives the thought aside," in order to +show that one to be antagonistic, for naturally the opposing one +drives aside the other, and that which is driven appears to yield +through want of power. And I say that this thought, which newly +appears, is powerful in taking hold of me and in subduing my Soul, +saying that it "masters me with such effectual might" that the heart, +that is, my inner life, trembles so much that my countenance shows it +in some new appearance. + +Subsequently I show the power of this new thought by its effect, +saying that it makes me "fix my regard" on a Lady, and speaks to me +words of allurement, that is to say, it reasons before the eyes of my +intelligent affection, in order the better to induce me, promising me +that the sight of her eyes is its salvation. And in order to make this +credible to the Soul experienced in love, it says that it is for no +one to gaze into the eyes of this woman who fears the anguish of +laboured sighs. And it is a beautiful mode of rhetoric when externally +it appears that you disembellish a thing, and yet really embellish it +within. This new thought of love could not induce my mind to consent, +except by discoursing of the virtue of the eyes of this fair Lady so +profoundly. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + + +Now that it is shown how and whereof Love is born, and the antagonist +that fought with me, I must proceed to open the meaning of that part +in which different thoughts contend within me. I say that, firstly, +one must speak on the part of the Soul, that is, of the former +thought, and then of the other; for this reason, that always that +which the speaker intends most especially to say he ought to reserve +in the background, because that which is said finally, remains most in +the mind of the hearer. Therefore, since I mean to speak further, and +to discourse of that which performs the work of those to whom I speak, +rather than of that which undoes this work, it was reasonable first to +mention and to discourse of the condition of the part which was +undone, and then of that which was generated by the other. + +But here arises a doubt, which is not to be passed over without +explanation. It would be possible for any one to say: Since Love is +the effect of these Intelligences, to whom I speak, and that of the +first Love might be the same as that of the new Love, why should their +virtue destroy the one, and produce the other? since it ought to +preserve the first, for the reason that each cause loves its effect, +and ought to protect what it loves. To this question one can easily +reply, that the effect of those Spirits, as has been said, is Love: +and since they could not save it except in those who are subject to +their revolution, they transfer it from that part which is beyond +their power to that which is within reach, from the soul departed out +of this life, into that which is yet living; as human nature transfers +in the human form its preservation of the father to the son, because +it cannot in this father preserve perpetually its effect: I say effect +in as far as soul and body are united, and not effect in as far as +that soul, which is divided from the body, lasts for ever, in a nature +more than human. And thus is the question solved. + +But since the immortality of the Soul is here touched upon, I will +make a digression upon that; because to discourse of that will make a +fit conclusion to the mention I have made of that living and blessed +Beatrice, of whom I do not intend to speak further in this book. + +For proposition I say that, amongst all the bestialities, that is the +most foolish, the most vile, and most damnable which believes no other +life to be after this life; wherefore, if we turn over all books, +whether of philosophers or of the other wise writers, all agree in +this, that in us there is some everlasting principle. And this +especially Aristotle seems to desire in that book on the Soul; this +especially each stoic seems to desire; this Tullius seems to desire, +especially in that book on Old Age. This each of the Poets who have +spoken according to the faith of the Gentiles seems to desire; this +the law seems to desire, among Jews, Saracens, and Tartars, and all +other people who live according to some civil law. And if all these +could be deceived, there would result an impossibility which even to +describe would be horrible. Each man is certain that human nature is +the most perfect of all natures here below. This no one denies: and +Aristotle affirms it when he says, in the twelfth book On Animals, +that man is the most perfect of all the animals. Therefore, since many +who live are entirely mortal, as are the brute animals, and all may +be, whilst they live, without that hope of the other life; if our hope +should be in vain, our want would be greater than that of any other +animal. There have been many who have given this life for that: and +thus it would follow that the most perfect animal, man, would be the +most imperfect, which is impossible; and that that part, namely, +reason, which is his chief perfection, would be in him the cause of +the chief defect: which seems strange to say of the whole. And again +it would follow that Nature, in contradiction to herself, could have +put this hope in the human mind; since it is said that many have +hastened to death of the body that they might live in the other life; +and this also is impossible. Again, we have continual experience of +our immortality in the divination of our dreams, which could not be if +there were no immortal part in us, since immortal must be the +revelation. This part may be either corporeal or incorporeal if one +think well and closely. I say corporeal or incorporeal, because of the +different opinions which I find concerning this. That which is moved, +or rather informed, by an immediate informer, ought to have proportion +to the informer; and between the mortal and the immortal there is no +proportion. Again, we are assured of it by the most truthful doctrine +of Christ, which is the Way, the Truth, and the Light: the Way, +because by it without impediment we go to the happiness of that +immortality; the Truth, because it endures no error; the Light, +because it enlightens us in the darkness of worldly ignorance. This +doctrine, I say, which above all other reasons makes us certain of it; +for it has been given to us by Him who sees and measures our +immortality, which we cannot perfectly see whilst our immortal is +mingled with the mortal. But we see it by faith perfectly; and by +reason we see it with the cloud of obscurity which grows from the +mixture of the mortal with the immortal. This ought to be the most +powerful argument that both are in us: and I thus believe, thus +affirm; and I am equally certain, after this life, to pass to that +other and better life--there where that glorious Lady lives, with whom +my soul was enamoured when it was struggling, as will be set forth in +the next chapter. + + + + +CHAPTER X. + + +Returning to the proposition, I say that in that verse which begins "A +foe so strong I find him that he destroys," I intend to make manifest +that which was discoursing in my Soul, the ancient thought against the +new; and first briefly I show the cause of its lamentation, when I +say: "This opposite now breaks the humble dream Of the crowned angel +in the glory-beam." This one is that especial thought of which it is +said above that it was wont to be the life of the sorrowing heart. +Then when I say, "Still, therefore, my Soul weeps," it is evident that +my Soul is still on its side, and speaks with sadness; and I say that +it speaks words of lamentation, as if it might wonder at the sudden +transformation, saying: "'The tender star,' It says, 'that once was my +consoler, flies.'" It can well say consoler, for in the great loss +which I sustained in the death of Beatrice this thought, which +ascended into Heaven, had given to my Soul much consolation. + +Then afterwards I say, that all my thought, my Soul, of which I say, +"That troubled one," turns in excuse of itself, and speaks against the +eyes; and this is made evident there: "That troubled one asked, 'When +into thine eyes Looked she?'" And I say that she speaks of them and +against them three things: the first is, she blasphemes the hour when +this woman saw them. And here you must know, that although many things +in one hour can come into the eyes, truly that which comes by a +straight line into the point of the pupil, that truly one sees, and +that only is sealed in the imaginative part. And this is, because the +nerve by which the visible spirit runs is directed to that part, and +thereupon truly one eye cannot look on the eye of another so that it +is not seen by it; for as that which looks receives the form of the +pupil by a right line, so by that same line its form passes into that +eye which gazes. And many times in the direction of that line a shaft +flies from the bow of Love, with whom each weapon is light. Therefore, +when I ask, "When first into mine eyes looked she?" it is as much as +to ask, "When did her eyes and mine look into each other?" + +The second point is in that which reproves their disobedience, when it +says, "Of her, why doubted they my words?" Then it proceeds to the +third thing and says that it is not right to reprove them for +precaution, but for their disobedience; for it says that, sometimes, +when speaking of this woman, it might be said, "Her eyes bear death to +such as I," if she could have opened the way of approach. And indeed +one ought to believe that my Soul knew of its own inclination ready to +receive the operation of this power, and therefore dreaded it; for the +act of the agent takes full effect in the patient who has the +inclination to receive it, as the Philosopher says in the second book +on the Soul. And, therefore, if wax could have the spirit of fear, it +would fear most to come into the rays of the Sun, which would not turn +it into stone, since its disposition is to yield to that strong +operation. + +Lastly, the Soul reveals in its speech that their presumption had been +dangerous when it says, "Yet vainly warned, I gazed on her and die." +And thus it closes its speech, to which the new thought replies, as +will be declared in the following chapter. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + + +The meaning of that part in which the Soul speaks, that is, the old +thought which is undone, has been shown. Now, in due order, the +meaning must be shown of the part in which the new antagonistic +thought speaks; and this part is contained entirely in the verse or +stanza which begins, "Thou art not dead," which part, in order to +understand it well, I will divide into two; that in the first part, +which begins "Thou art not dead," it then says, continuing its last +words, "It is not true that thou art dead; but the cause wherefore +thou to thyself seemest to be dead is a deadly dismay into which thou +art vilely fallen because of this woman who has appeared to thee." And +here it is to be observed that, as Boethius says in his Consolation, +each sudden change of things does not happen without some flurry of +mind. And this is expressed in the reproof of that thought which is +called "the spirit voice of tenderness," when it gave me to understand +that my consent was inclining towards it; and thus, one can easily +comprehend this, and recognize its victory, when it already says, +"Dear Soul of ours," therein making itself familiar. Then, as is +stated, it commands where it ought to rebuke that Soul, in order to +induce it to come to her; and therefore it says to her: "See, she is +lowly, Pitiful, courteous, though so wise and holy." + +These are two things which are a fit remedy for the fear with which +the Soul appeared impassioned; for, firmly united, they cause the +individual to hope well, and especially Pity, which causes all other +goodness to shine forth by its light. Wherefore Virgil, speaking of +AEneas, in his greater praise calls him compassionate, pitiful; and +that is not pity such as the common people understand it, which is to +lament over the misfortunes of others; nay, this is an especial effect +which is called Mercy, Pity, Compassion; and it is a passion. But +compassion is not a passion; rather a noble disposition of mind, +prepared to receive Love, Mercy, and other charitable passions. Then +it says: "See also how courteous, though so wise and holy." + +Here it says three things which, according as they can be acquired by +us, make the person especially pleasing. It says Wise. Now, what is +more beautiful in a woman than knowledge? It says Courteous. Nothing +in a woman can be more excellent than courtesy. And neither are the +wretched common people deceived even in this word, for they believe +that courtesy is no other than liberality; for liberality is an +especial, and not a general courtesy. Courtesy is all one with +honesty, modesty, decency; and because the virtues and good manners +were the custom in Courts anciently, as now the opposite is the +custom, this word was taken from the Courts; which word, if it should +now be taken from the Courts, especially of Italy, would and could +express no other than baseness. It says Holy. The greatness which is +here meant is especially well accompanied with the two afore-mentioned +virtues; because it is that light which reveals the good and the evil +of the person clearly. And how much knowledge and how much virtuous +custom does there not seem to be wanting by this light! How much +madness and how much vice are seen to be by this light! Better would +it be for the wretched madmen high in station, stupid and vicious, to +be of low estate, that neither in the world nor after this life they +should be so infamous. Truly for such Solomon says in Ecclesiastes: +"There is a sore evil that I have seen under the Sun; namely, riches +kept for the owners thereof to their hurt." + +Then subsequently it lays a command on it, that is, on my Soul, that +it should now call this one its Lady: "Think thou to call her Mistress +evermore," promising my Soul that it will be quite content with her +when it shall have clear perception of all her wonderful +accomplishments; and then this one says: "Save thou delude thyself, +then shall there shine High miracles before thee;" neither does it +speak otherwise even to the end of that stanza. And here ends the +Literal meaning of all that which I say in this Song, speaking to +these Celestial Intelligences. + + + + +CHAPTER XII. + + +Finally, according to that which the letter of this Commentary said +above, when I divided the principal parts of this Song, I turn back +with the face of my discourse to the same Song, and I speak to that. +And in order that this part may be understood more fully, I say that +generally in each Song there is what is called a Tornata, because the +Reciters, who originally were accustomed to compose it, so contrived +that when the song was sung, with a certain part of the song they +could return to it. But I have rarely done it with that intention; +and, in order that others may perceive, this I have seldom placed it +with the sequence of the Song, so long as it is in the rhythm which is +necessary to the measure. But I have used it when it was requisite to +express something independent of the meaning of the Song, and which +was needful for its embellishment, as it will be possible to perceive +in this and in the other Songs. + +And, therefore, I say at present, that the goodness and the beauty of +each discourse are parted and divided; for the goodness is in the +meaning, and the beauty in the ornament of the words. And the one and +the other are with delight, although the goodness is especially +delightful. Wherefore, since the goodness of this Song might be +difficult to perceive, because of the various persons who are led to +speak in it, where so many distinctions are required; and the beauty +would be easy to see, it seemed to me, of the nature of the Song that +by some men more attention might be paid to the beauty of the words +than to the goodness of matter. And this is what I say in that part. + +But, because it often happens that to admonish seems presumptuous in +certain conditions, it is usual for the Rhetorician to speak +indirectly to others, directing his words, not to him for whom he +speaks, but towards another. And truly this method is maintained here; +for to the Song the words go, and to the men the meaning of them. I +say then: "My Song, I do believe there will be few Who toil to +understand thy reasoning." And I state the cause, which is double. +First, because thou speakest with fatigue--with fatigue, I say, for +the reason which is stated; and then because thou speakest with +difficulty--with difficulty, I say, as to the novelty of the meaning. +Now afterwards I admonish it, and say: + + But if thou pass perchance by those who bring + No skill to give thee the attention due, + Then pray I, dear last-born, let them rejoice + At least to find a music in my voice. + +For in this I desire to say no other according to what is said above, +except "Oh, men, you who cannot see the meaning of this Song, do not +therefore refuse it; but pay attention to its beauty, which is great, +both for construction, which belongs to the Grammarians; and for the +order of the discourse, which belongs to the Rhetoricians; as well as +for the rhythm of its parts, which belongs to the Musicians." For +which things he who looks well can see that there may be beauty in it. +And this is the entire Literal meaning of the first Song which is +prepared for the first dish in my Banquet. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + + +Since the Literal meaning has been sufficiently explained, we must now +proceed to the Allegorical and true exposition. And, therefore, +beginning again from the first head, I say that when I had lost the +chief delight of my Soul in former time, I was left so stung with +sadness that no consolation whatever availed me. Nevertheless, after +some time, my mind, reasoning with itself to heal itself, took heed, +since neither my own nor that of another availed to comfort it, to +turn to the method which a certain disconsolate one had adopted when +he looked for Consolation. And I set myself to read that book of +Boethius, not known to many, in which, when a captive exile, he had +consoled himself. And, again, hearing that Tullius had written another +book, in which, treating of Friendship, he had spoken words for the +consolation of Laelius, a most excellent man, on the death of his +friend Scipio, I set myself to read it. And although at first it was +difficult to me to enter into their meaning, yet, finally, I entered +into it so much as the knowledge of grammar that I possessed, together +with some slight power of intellect, enabled me to do: by which power +of intellect I formerly beheld many things almost like a person in a +dream, as may be seen in the Vita Nuova. And as it is wont to be that +a man goes seeking for silver, and beyond his purpose he finds gold, +whose hidden cause appears not perhaps without the Divine Will; I, who +sought to console myself, found not only a remedy for my tears, but +words of authors and of sciences and of books; reflecting on which I +judged well that Philosophy, who was the Lady of these authors, of +these sciences, and of these books, might be a supreme thing. And I +imagined her in the form of a gentle Lady; and I could imagine her in +no other attitude than a compassionate one, because if willingly the +sense of Truth beheld her, hardly could it turn away from her. And +with this imagination I began to go where she is demonstrated +truthfully, that is, to the Schools of the Religious, and to the +disputations of the Philosophers; so that in a short time, perhaps of +thirty months, I began to feel her sweetness so much that my love for +her chased away and destroyed all other thought. Wherefore I, feeling +myself to rise from the thought of the first Love to the virtue of +this new one, as if wondering at myself, opened my mouth in the speech +of the proposed Song, showing my condition under the figure of other +things: for of the Lady with whom I was enamoured, no rhyme of any +Vernacular was worthy to speak openly, neither were the hearers so +well prepared that they could have easily understood the words without +figure: neither would faith have been given by them to the true +meaning, as to the figurative; since if the truth of the whole was +believed, that I was inclined to that love, it would not be believed +of this. I then begin to speak: "Ye who, intent of thought, the third +Heaven move." + +And because, as has been said, this Lady was the daughter of God, the +Queen of all, the most noble and most beautiful Philosophy, it remains +to be seen who these Movers were, and what this third Heaven. And +firstly of the third Heaven, according to the order which has been +gone through. And here it is not needful to proceed to division, and +to explanation of the letter, for, having turned the fictitious speech +away from that which it utters to that which it means, by the +exposition just gone through, this meaning is sufficiently made +evident. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. + + +In order to see what is meant by the "third Heaven," one has in the +first place to perceive what I desire to express by this word Heaven +alone: and then one will see how and why this third Heaven was needful +to us. I say that by Heaven I mean Science, and by the Heavens "the +Sciences," from three resemblances which the Heavens have with the +Sciences, especially by the order and number in which they must +appear; as will be seen by discussing that word Third. The first +similitude is the revolution of the one and the other round one fixed +centre. For each movable Heaven revolves round its centre, which, on +account of its movement, moves not; and thus each Science moves round +its subject, which itself moves not; for no Science demonstrates its +own foundation, but presupposes that. The second similitude is the +illumination of the one and the other. For each Heaven illuminates +visible things; and thus each Science illuminates the things +intelligible. And the third similitude is the inducing of perfection +in the things so inclined. Of which induction, as to the first +perfection, that is, of the substantial generation, all the +philosophers agree that the Heavens are the cause, although they +attribute this in different ways: some from the Movers, as Plato, +Avicenna, and Algazel; some from the stars themselves, especially the +human souls, as Socrates, and also Plato and Dionysius the +Academician; and some from celestial virtue which is in the natural +heat of the seed, as Aristotle and the other Peripatetics. Thus the +Sciences are the cause in us of the induction of the second +perfection; by the use of which we can speculate concerning the Truth, +which is our ultimate perfection, as the Philosopher says in the sixth +book of the Ethics, when he says that Truth is the good of the +intellect. Because of these and many other resemblances, it is +possible to call Science, Heaven. + +Now it remains to see why it is called the third Heaven. Here it is +requisite to reflect somewhat with regard to a comparison which exists +between the order of the Heavens and that of the Sciences Wherefore, +as has been previously described, the Seven Heavens next to us are +those of the Planets; then there are two Heavens above these, the +Mobile, and one above all, Quiet. To the Seven first correspond the +Seven Sciences of the _Trivium_ and of the _Quadrivium_, +namely, Grammar, Logic, Rhetoric, Arithmetic, Music, Geometry, and +Astrology. To the eighth Sphere, i.e., to the starry, correspond +Natural Science, which is termed Physics, and the first Science, which +is termed Metaphysics. To the ninth Sphere corresponds Moral Science; +and to the Quiet Heaven corresponds Divine Science, which is +designated Theology. + +And the reason why this is, remains briefly to be seen. I say that the +Heaven of the Moon is likened unto Grammar because it is possible to +find a comparison to it. For if you look at the Moon well, two things +are seen to be proper to it which are not seen in the other stars: the +one is the shadow which is in it, which is no other than the rarity of +its body, in which the rays of the Sun can find no end wherefrom to +strike back again as in the other parts; the other is the variation of +its brightness, which now shines on one side, and now on the other, +according as the Sun sees it. And these two properties Grammar has: +for, because of its infinity, the rays of reason can find no end in it +in parts, especially of the words; and it shines now on this side, now +on that, inasmuch as certain words, certain declensions, certain +constructions, are in use which were not formerly, and many formerly +were which again will be; as Horace says in the beginning of his book +on the art of Poetry, when he says: "Many words will spring up again +which have now fallen out of use." + +And the Heaven of Mercury may be compared to Logic because of two +properties: that Mercury is the smallest star in Heaven, that the +amount of its diameter is no more than two hundred and thirty-two +miles, according as Alfergano puts it, who says that it is one +twenty-eighth part of the diameter of the Earth, which is six thousand +five hundred miles; the other property is, that it is more concealed +by the rays of the Sun than any other star. And these two properties +are in Logic: for Logic is less in substance than any other Science, +for it is perfectly compiled and terminated in so much text as is +found in the old Art and the new; and it is more concealed than any +other Science, inasmuch as it proceeds with more sophistical and +probable arguments than any other. + +And the Heaven of Venus may be compared to Rhetoric because of two +properties: the one is the brightness of its aspect, which is most +sweet to behold, far more than any other star; the other is its +appearance, now in the morning, now in the evening. And these two +properties are in Rhetoric: for Rhetoric is the sweetest of all +Sciences, since it principally aims at sweetness. It appears in the +morning, when the Rhetorician speaks before the face of the hearer; it +appears in the evening, that is, afterwards, when it speaks by Letters +in distant parts. + +And the Heaven of the Sun may be compared to Arithmetic because of two +properties: the one is, that with his light all the other stars are +informed; the other is that the eye cannot gaze at it. And these two +properties are in Arithmetic, which with its light illuminates all its +Sciences: for their subjects are all considered under some Number, and +with Number one always proceeds in the consideration of these; as in +Natural Science the movable body is the subject, which movable body +has in itself three reasons of continuity, and this has in itself +reason of infinite number. And of Natural Science its first and +chiefest consideration is to consider the principles of natural +objects, which are three, that is, matter, privation, and form; in +which this Number is seen, and not only in all together, but again in +each one, as he who considers subtly may perceive. Wherefore, +Pythagoras, according to what Aristotle says in the first book of the +Physics, established as the principles of natural things, the equal +and the unequal; considering all things to be Number. The other +property of the Sun is again seen in Number, of which Number is the +Science of Arithmetic, that the eye of the intellect cannot gaze at +it. For Number, inasmuch as it is considered in itself, is infinite; +and this we cannot, understand. + +And the Heaven of Mars may be compared to Music because of two +properties. One is its most beautiful relative position; for, when +enumerating the movable Heavens, from which one soever you may begin, +either from the lowest or from the highest, this Heaven of Mars is the +fifth; it is the central one of all, that is, of the first, of the +second, of the third, and of the fourth. The other is, that this Mars +dries up and burns things, because his heat is like to that of fire; +and this is why it appears flaming in colour, sometimes more and +sometimes less, according to the density and rarity of the vapours +which follow it, which of themselves are often kindled, as is +determined in the first book on Meteors. And, therefore, Albumassar +says that the kindling of these vapours signifies the death of Kings +and the change of Kingdoms; for they are the effects of the dominion +of Mars. And, therefore, Seneca says that, on the death of Augustus, +he beheld on high a ball of fire. And in Florence, at the beginning of +its destruction, there was seen in the air, in the form of a cross, a +great quantity of these vapours following the planet Mars. And these +two properties are in Music, which is all relative, as is seen in +harmonized words and in songs, from which the sweeter harmony results +in proportion as the relation is more beautiful, which in this Science +is especially beautiful, because there is in it a special harmony. +Again, Music attracts to itself human spirits, which are as it were +chiefly vapours from the heart, so that they almost cease from all +labour; so is the whole soul when it hears it, and the power of all +those spirits flies as it were to the spirit of sense, which receives +the sound. + +And the Heaven of Jupiter can be compared to Geometry because of two +properties. The one is, that it moves between two Heavens, repugnant +to its good tempering, namely, that of Mars and that of Saturn. Hence +Ptolemy says, in the book alluded to, that Jupiter is a star of a +temperate complexion, midway between the cold of Saturn and the heat +of Mars. The other is, that amongst all the stars it appears white, as +if silvered. And these things are in the Science of Geometry. Geometry +moves between two things antagonistic to it; as between the point and +the circle, and I term circle freely anything that is round, either a +body or superfices; for, as Euclid says, the point is the beginning of +Geometry, and, according to what he says, the circle is the most +perfect figure in it, which must therefore have reason for its end; so +that between the point and the circle, as between the beginning and +the end, Geometry moves. And these two are antagonistic to its +certainty; for the point by its indivisibility is immeasurable, and +the circle, on account of its arc, it is impossible to square +perfectly, and therefore it is impossible to measure precisely. And +again, Geometry is most white, inasmuch as it is without spot of +error, and it is most certain in itself, and by its handmaid, called +Perspective. + +And the Heaven of Saturn has two properties because of which it can be +compared to Astrology. One is the slowness of its movement through the +twelve signs; for twenty-nine years and more, according to the +writings of the Astrologers, is the time that it requires in its +orbit. The other is, that above all the other planets it is highest. +And these two properties are in Astrology, for in completing its +circle, as in the acquirement of this Science, the greatest space of +time is revolved, because its demonstrations are more than any other +of the aforementioned Sciences, and long experience is requisite to +those who would acquire good judgment in it. And again, it is the +highest of all the others, because, as Aristotle says in the +commencement of his book on the Soul, the Science is high, because of +its nobility, and because of the nobleness of its subject and its +certainty. And this Science more than any other of those mentioned +above is noble and high, for noble and high is its subject, which is +the movement of the Heavens; and high and noble, because of its +certainty, which is without any defect, even as that which springs +from the most perfect and most regular principle. And if any one +believe that there is defect in it, it is not on the part of the +Science, but, as Ptolemy says, it is through our negligence, and to +that it must be imputed. + + + + +CHAPTER XV. + + +After the comparisons which I have made of the seven first Heavens, we +must now proceed to the others, which are three, as has been often +stated. + +I say that the Starry Heaven may be compared to Physics because of +three properties, and to Metaphysics because of three others. For it +shows us of itself two visible things, such as the multitude of stars +and such as the Galaxy, that white circle which the common people call +the Path of St. James. It shows to us also one of the poles, and keeps +the other hidden from us. And it shows to us one movement alone from +East to West; and another, which it makes from West to East, it keeps +almost, as it were, hidden from us. Therefore, in due order are to be +seen, first the comparison with the Physical and then that with the +Metaphysical. + +I say that the Starry Heaven shows us many stars; for, according to +what the wise men of Egypt have seen, even to the last star which +appeared to them in the Meridian, they place there twenty-two thousand +bodies of stars, of which I speak. And in this it has the greatest +similitude with Physics, if these three numbers, namely, Two, and +Twenty, and Thousand, are regarded well and subtly. For by the two is +meant the local movement, which is of necessity from one point to +another; and by the twenty is signified the movement of the +alteration, for, since from the ten upwards one advances not except by +altering this ten with the other nine and with itself; and the most +beautiful alteration which it receives is its own with itself, and the +first which it receives is the twenty; reasonably by this number the +said movement is signified. And by the thousand is signified the +movement of increase, which in name, that is, this thousand, is the +greater number, and to increase still more is not possible except by +multiplying this. And these three movements alone are observed in +Physics, as it is demonstrated in the fifth chapter of his first book. + +And because of the Milky Way, this Heaven has a great similitude with +Metaphysics. Wherefore, it is to be known that concerning this Galaxy +the Philosophers have had different opinions. For the followers of +Pythagoras said that the Sun at some time or other went astray from +his path, and, passing through other parts not suitable to his fervent +heat, he burnt the place through which he passed, and there remained +that appearance of the conflagration. And I believe that they were +moved by the fable of Phaeton, which Ovid relates in the beginning of +the second part of his Metamorphoses. Others said, such as Anaxagoras +and Democritus, that it was the light of the Sun reflected into that +part. And these opinions, with demonstrative reasons, they proved over +and over again. What Aristotle may have said of this is not so easy to +learn, because his opinion is not found to be the same in one +translation as in the other; and I believe that it might be due to the +error of the translators, for in the new one he seems to say that the +Galaxy is a collection of vapours under the stars of that part which +always attract them; and this does not seem to be the true reason. In +the old translation he says that the Galaxy is no other than a +multitude of fixed stars in that part, so small that we cannot +distinguish them from here below, but that they cause the whiteness +which we call the Milky Way. And it may be that the Heaven in that +part is more dense, and therefore retains and represents that light; +and this opinion Avicenna and Ptolemy seem to share with Aristotle. +Therefore, since the Galaxy is an effect of those stars which we +cannot see, if we understand those things by their effect alone, and +Metaphysics treats of the first substances, which we cannot similarly +understand except by their effects, it is evident that the Starry +Heaven has a great similitude to Metaphysics. + +Again, by the pole which we see is signified the things known to our +senses, concerning which, taking them universally, the Science of +Physics treats; and by the pole which we do not see is signified the +things which are without matter, which are not sensible, concerning +which Metaphysics treats; and therefore the said Heaven has a great +similitude with the one Science and with the other. + +Again, by the two movements it signifies these two Sciences: for by +the movement in which every day revolves, and makes a new revolution +from point to point, it signifies things natural and corruptible which +daily complete their path, and their material is changed from form to +form; and of this the Science of Physics treats. And by the almost +insensible movement which it makes from West to East by one degree in +a hundred years, it signifies things incorruptible, which received +from God the beginning of their creation, and will have no end; but of +these Metaphysics treats. Therefore I say that this movement signifies +those things, for it began this revolution which will have no end; the +end of the revolution being to return to one self-same point, to which +this Heaven will not return by this movement, which has revolved a +little more than the sixth part from the commencement of the world; +and we are now in the last age of the world, and verily we wait the +consummation of the celestial movement. Thus it is evident that the +Starry Heaven, on account of many properties, may be compared to the +Science of Physics and Metaphysics. + +The Crystalline Heaven, which, as the Primum Mobile, has been +previously counted, has a sufficiently evident comparison to Moral +Philosophy; for Moral Philosophy, according to what Tommaso says upon +the second book of the Ethics, teaches us method in the other +Sciences. + +For as the Philosopher says in the fifth book of the Ethics, legal +Justice requires the Sciences to be learnt, and commands, in order +that they may not be abandoned, that they be learnt and taught: thus, +the said Heaven rules with its movement the daily revolution of all +the others; from which revolution every day all those receive and send +below the virtues of their several parts. For, if the revolution of +this Heaven could not rule over that, but little of their power would +descend below, and little of their aspect. Wherefore we hold that, if +it could be possible for this ninth Heaven not to move, the third part +of the Heaven would not again be seen in any part from the Earth: +Saturn would be for fourteen years and a half concealed from any place +on the Earth, Jupiter would be hidden for six years, and Mars for +almost a whole year, and the Sun for one hundred and eighty-two days +and fourteen hours (I say days, meaning so much time as so many days +measure); and Venus and Mercury, almost like the Sun, would be hidden +and would reappear, and the Moon for the space of fourteen days and a +half would be hidden from all people. Verily, here below there would +be neither generation, nor the life of animals, nor of plants; there +would be no night, nor day, nor week, nor month, nor year; but the +whole Universe would be disordered, and the movement of the stars +would be in vain. Not otherwise, should Moral Philosophy cease to be, +would the other Sciences be hidden for some time, and there would be +no generation nor life of happiness, and all books would be in vain, +and all discoveries of old. Therefore it is sufficiently evident that +there is a comparison between this Heaven and Moral Philosophy. + +Again, the Empyrean Heaven, because of its Peace, bears a similitude +to the Divine Science, which is full of all Peace; which endures no +conflict of opinion or of sophistical arguments, on account of the +most excellent certainty of its subject, which is God. And of this He +Himself speaks to His disciples: "My peace I give to you: My peace I +leave unto you," giving and leaving to them His doctrine, which is +this Science whereof I speak. + +Solomon says of this Science: "Sixty are the queens, and eighty the +friendly concubines; and youthful virgins without number; but one is +my dove and my perfect one." All the Sciences he terms queens, and +friends, and virgins; and he calls this one dove, because it is +without blemish of strife; and he calls this one perfect, because it +causes us to see perfectly the Truth in which our Soul finds Peace. + +And therefore the comparison of the Heavens to the Sciences having +been thus reasoned out, it is easy to see that by the Third Heaven I +mean Rhetoric, which has been likened unto the Third Heaven, as +appears above. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI. + + +By the similitudes spoken of it is possible to see who these Movers +are to whom I speak; what are the Movers of that Heaven; even as +Boethius and Tullius, who by the sweetness of their speech sent me, as +has before been stated, to the Love, which is the study of that most +gentle Lady, Philosophy, by the rays of their star, which is the +written word of that fair one. Therefore in each Science the written +word is a star full of light, which that Science reveals And, this +being made manifest, it is easy to see the true meaning of the first +verse of the purposed Poem by means of the exposition, Figurative and +Literal. And by means of this self-same exposition one can +sufficiently understand the second verse, even to that part where it +says, This Spirit made me look on a fair Lady: where it should be +known that this Lady is Philosophy; which truly is a Lady full of +sweetness, adorned with modesty, wonderful for wisdom, the glory of +freedom, as in the Third Treatise, where her Nobility will be +described, it is made manifest. And then where it says: "Who seeks +where his Salvation lies, Must gaze intently in this Lady's eyes;" the +eyes of this Lady are her demonstrations, which look straight into the +eyes of the intellect, enamour the Soul, and set it free from the +trammels of circumstance. Oh, most sweet and ineffable forms, swift +stealers of the human mind, which appear in these demonstrations, that +is, in the eyes of Philosophy, when she discourses to her faithful +friends! Verily in you is Salvation, whereby he is made blessed who +looks at you, and is saved from the death of Ignorance and Vice. Where +it says, "Nor dread the sighs of anguish, joys debarred," the wish is +to signify, if he fear not the labour of study and the strife of +conflicting opinions, which flow forth ever multiplying from the +living Spring in the eyes of this Lady, and then her light still +continuing, they fall away, almost like little morning clouds before +the Sun. And now the intellect, become her friend, remains free and +full of certain Truth, even as the atmosphere is rendered pure and +bright by the shining of the midday Sun. + +The third passage again is explained by the Literal exposition as far +as to where it says, "Still therefore the Soul weeps." Here it is +desirable to attend to a certain moral sense which may be observed in +these words: that a man ought not for the sake of the greater friend +to forget the service received from the lesser; but if one must follow +the one and leave the other, the greater is to be followed, with +honest lamentation for desertion of the other, whereby he gives +occasion to the one whom he follows to bestow more love on him. Then +there where it says, "Of my eyes," has no other meaning except that +bitter was the hour when the first demonstration of this Lady entered +into the eyes of my intellect, which was the cause of this most close +attachment. And there where it says, "My peers," it means the Souls +set free from miserable and vile pleasures, and from vulgar habits, +endowed with understanding and memory. And then it says, "Her eyes +bear death," and then it says, "I gazed on her and die," which appears +contrary to that which is said above of Salvation by this Lady. And +therefore it is to be known that one Spirit speaks here on one side +and the other speaks there on the other; which two dispute +contrariwise, according to that which is made evident above. Wherefore +it is no wonder if here the one Spirit says Yes, and there the other +Spirit says No. Then in the stanza where it says, "A sweet voice of +tenderness," a thought is meant which was born of my deep +contemplation; wherefore it is to be known that by Love, in this +Allegory, is always meant that deep contemplation which is the earnest +application of the enamoured mind to that object wherewith it is +enamoured. Then when it says, "There shall shine High miracles before +thee," it announces that through her the adornments of the miracles +will be seen; and it speaks truly, that the adornment of the miracles +is to see the cause of the same, which she demonstrates; as in the +beginning of the book on Metaphysics the Philosopher seems to feel, +saying that, through the contemplation of these adornments, men began +to be enamoured with this Lady. And concerning this word, i.e., +miracle, in the following treatise I shall speak more fully. What then +follows of this Song is sufficiently explained by the other +exposition. + +And thus at the end of this Second Treatise, I say and affirm that the +Lady with whom I became enamoured after the first Love was the most +beautiful and most excellent daughter of the Ruler of the Universe, to +which daughter Pythagoras gave the name of Philosophy. And here ends +the Second Treatise, which is brought in for the first dish at my +Banquet. + + * * * * * + + + + +The Third Treatise. + + + Love, reasoning of my Lady in my mind + With constant pleasure, oft of her will say + Things over which the intellect may stray; + His words make music of so sweet a kind + That the Soul hears and feels, and cries, Ah, me, + That I want power to tell what thus I see! + + If I would tell of her what thus I hear, + First, all that Reason cannot make its own + I needs must leave; and of what may be known + Leave part, for want of words to make it clear. + If my Song fail, blame wit and words, whose force + Fails to tell all I hear in Love's discourse. + + The Sun sees not in travel round the earth, + Till it reach her abode, so fair a thing + As she of whom Love causes me to sing. + All minds of Heaven wonder at her worth; + Mortals, enamoured, find her in their thought + When Love his peace into their minds has brought. + + Her Maker saw that she was good, and poured, + Beyond our Nature, fulness of His Power + On her pure soul, whence shone this holy dower + Through all her frame, with beauty so adored + That from the eyes she touches heralds fly + Heartward with longings, heavenward with a sigh. + + On her fair frame Virtue Divine descends + As on the angel that beholds His face. + Fair one who doubt, go with her, mark the grace + In all her acts. Downward from Heaven bends + An angel when the speaks, who can attest + A power in her by none of us possessed. + + The graceful acts that she shows forth to all + Rival in calls to love that love must hear; + Fair in all like her, fairest she'll appear + Who is most like her. We, content to call + Her face a Miracle, have Faith made sure: + For that, He made her ever to endure. + + Her aspect shows delights of Paradise, + Seen in her eyes and in her smiling face; + Love brought them there as to his dwelling-place. + They dazzle reason, as the Sun the eyes; + And since I cannot fix on them my gaze + Words must suffice that little speak their praise. + + Rain from her beauty little flames of fire, + Made living with a spirit to create + Good thoughts, and crush the vices that innate + Make others vile. Fair one, who may desire + Escape from blame as one not calm or meek, + From her, who is God's thought, thy teaching seek. + + My Song, it seems you speak this to oppose + The saying of a sister Song of mine: + This lowly Lady whom you call divine, + Your sister called disdainful and morose. + Though Heaven, you know, is ever bright and pure, + Eyes may have cause to find a star obscure. + + So when your sister called this Lady proud + She judged not truly, by what seemed; but fear + Possessed her soul; and still, when I come near + Her glance, there's dread. Be such excuse allowed, + My Song, and when thou canst, approach her, say; + My Lady, take all homage I can pay. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + + +In the preceding treatise is described how my second Love took its +rise from the compassionate countenance of a Lady; which Love, finding +my Soul inclined to its ardour, after the manner of fire, was kindled +from a slight spark into a great flame; so that not only during my +waking hours, but during sleep, its light threw many a vision into my +mind. And how great the desire which Love excited to behold this Lady, +it would be impossible either to tell or to make understood. And not +only of her was I thus desirous, but of all those persons who had any +nearness to her, either as acquaintances or as relations. Oh! how many +were the nights, when the eyes of other persons were closed in sleep, +that mine, wide open, gazed fixedly upon the tabernacle of my Love. + +And as the rapidly increasing fire must of necessity be seen, it being +impossible for fire to remain hidden, the desire seized me to speak of +the Love that I could no longer restrain within me. And although I +could receive but little help from my own counsel, yet, inasmuch as, +either from the will of Love or from my own promptness, I drew nigh to +it many times, I deliberated, and I saw that, in speaking of Love, +there could be no more beautiful nor more profitable speech than that +which commends the beloved person. And in this deliberation three +reasons assisted me. One of them was self-love, which is the source of +all the rest, as every one sees. For there is no more lawful nor more +courteous way of doing honour to one's self than by doing honour to +one's friend; and, since friendship cannot exist between the unlike, +wherever one sees friendship, likeness is understood; and wherever +likeness is understood, thither runs public praise or blame. And from +this reason two great lessons may be learnt: the one is, never to wish +that any vicious man should seem your friend, for in that case a bad +opinion is formed of him who has made the evil man his friend; the +other is, that no one ought to blame his friend publicly, because, if +you consider well the aforesaid reason, he but points to himself with +his finger in his eye. + +The second reason was the desire for the duration of this friendship; +wherefore it is to be known, as the Philosopher says in the ninth book +of the Ethics, in the friendship of persons of unequal position it is +requisite, for the preservation of that friendship, for a certain +proportion to exist between them, which may reduce the dissimilarity +to a similarity, as between the master and the servant. For, although +the servant cannot render the same benefit to the master that is +conferred on him, yet he ought to render the best that he can, with so +much solicitude and freewill that that which is dissimilar in itself +may become similar through the evidence of good-will, which proves the +friendship, confirms and preserves it. Wherefore I, considering myself +lower than that Lady, and perceiving myself benefited by her, +endeavoured to praise her according to my ability. And, if it be not +similar of itself, my prompt freewill proves at least that if I could +I would do more, and thus it makes its friendship similar to that of +this gentle Lady. + +The third reason was an argument of prudence; for, as Boethius says, +"It is not sufficient to look only at that which is before the eyes, +that is, at the Present; and, therefore, Prudence, Foresight, is given +to us, which looks beyond to that which may happen." I say that I +thought that for a long time I might be reproached by many with levity +of mind, on hearing that I had turned from my first Love. Wherefore, +to remove this reproach, there was no better argument than to state +who the Lady was who had thus changed me; that, by her manifest +excellence, they might gain some perception of her virtue; and that, +by the comprehension of her most exalted virtue, they might be able to +see that all stability of mind could be in that mutability: and, +therefore, they should not judge me light and unstable. I then began +to praise this Lady, and if not in the most suitable manner, at least +as well as I could at first; and I began to say: "Love, reasoning of +my Lady in my mind." This Song chiefly has three parts. The first is +the whole of the first two stanzas, in which I speak in a preliminary +manner. The second is the whole of the six following stanzas, in which +is described that which is intended, i.e., the praise of that gentle +Lady; the first of which begins: "The Sun sees not in travel round the +earth." The third part is in the last two stanzas, in which, +addressing myself to the Song, I purify it from all doubtful +interpretation. And these three parts remain to be discussed now in +due order. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + + +Turning, then, to the First Part, which was composed as a Proem or +Preface to the Song or Poem, I say that it is fitly divided into three +parts. In the first place, it alludes to the ineffable condition of +this theme; secondly, it describes my insufficiency to speak of it in +a perfect manner; and this second part begins: "If I would tell of her +what thus I hear." Finally, I excuse myself for my insufficiency, for +which they ought not to lay blame to my charge; and I commence this +part when I say: "If my Song fail." + +I begin, then: "Love, reasoning of my Lady in my mind," where in the +first place it is to be seen who this speaker is, and what this place +is in which I say that he is speaking. Love, taking him in his true +sense, and considering him subtly, is no other than the spiritual +union of the Soul with the beloved object; into which union, of its +own nature, the Soul hastens sooner or later, according as it is free +or impeded. And the reason for that natural disposition may be this: +each substantial form proceeds from its First Cause, which is God, as +is written in the book of Causes; and they receive not diversity from +that First Cause, which is the most simple, but from the secondary +causes, and from the material into which it descends. Wherefore, in +the same book it is written, when treating of the infusion of the +Divine Goodness: "The bounties and good gifts make diverse things, +through the concurrence of that which receives them." Wherefore, since +each effect retains somewhat of the nature of its cause, as Alfarabio +says when he affirms that that which has been the first cause of a +round body has in some way an essentially round form, so each form in +some way has the essence of the Divine Nature in itself; not that the +Divine Nature can be divided and communicated to these, but +participated in by these, almost in the same way that the other stars +participate in the nature of the Sun. And the nobler the form, the +more does it retain of that Divine Nature. + +Wherefore the human Soul, which is the noblest form of all those which +are generated under Heaven, receives more from the Divine Nature than +any other. And since it is most natural to wish to be in God, for as +in the book quoted above one reads, the first thing is to exist, and +before that there is nothing, the human Soul desires to exist +naturally with all possible desire. And since its existence depends +upon God, and is preserved by Him, it naturally desires and longs to +be united to God, and so add strength to its own being. And since, in +the goodness of Human Nature, Reason gives us proof of the Divine, it +follows that, naturally, the Human Soul is united therewith by the +path of the spirit so much the sooner, and so much the more firmly, in +proportion as those good qualities appear more perfect; which +appearance of perfection is achieved according as the power of the +Soul to produce a good impression is strong and clear, or is +trammelled and obscure. And this union is that which we call Love, +whereby it is possible to know that which is within the Soul, by +looking at those whom it loves in the world without. This Love, which +is the union of my Soul with that gentle Lady in whom so much of the +Divine Light was revealed to me, is that speaker of whom I speak; +since from him continuous thoughts were born, whilst gazing at and +considering the wondrous power of this Lady who was spiritually made +one with my Soul. + +The place in which I say that he thus speaks is the Mind. But in +saying that it is the Mind, one does not attach more meaning to this +than before; and therefore it is to be seen what this Mind properly +signifies. I say, then, that the Philosopher, in the second book on +the Soul, when speaking of its powers, says that the Soul principally +has three powers, which are, to Live, to Feel, and to Reason: and he +says also to Move, but it is possible to make this one with feeling, +since every Soul moves that feels, either with all the senses or with +one alone; for the power to move is conjoined with feeling. And +according to that which he says, it is most evident that these powers +are so entwined that the one is a foundation of the other; and that +which is the foundation can of itself be divided; but the other, which +is built upon it, cannot be apart from its foundation. Therefore, the +Vegetative power, whereby one lives, is the foundation upon which one +feels, that is, sees, hears, tastes, smells, and touches; and this +vegetative power of itself can be the Soul, vegetative, as we see in +all the plants. The Sensitive cannot exist without that. We find +nothing that feels, and does not live. And this Sensitive power is the +foundation of the Intellectual, that is, of the Reason; so that, in +animate mortals, the Reasoning power is not found without the +Sensitive. But the Sensitive is found without Reason, as in the +beasts, and in the birds, and in the fishes, and in any brute animal, +as we see. And that Soul which contains all these powers is the most +perfect of all. And the Human Soul possessing the nobility of the +highest power, which is Reason, participates in the Divine Nature, +after the manner of an eternal Intelligence: for the Soul is ennobled +and denuded of matter by that Sovereign Power in proportion as the +Divine Light of Truth shines into it, as into an Angel; and Man is +therefore called by the Philosophers the Divine Animal. + +In this most noble part of the Soul are many virtues, as the +Philosopher says, especially in the third chapter of the Soul, where +he says that there is in it a virtue which is called Scientific, and +one which is called Ratiocinative, or rather deliberative; and with +this there are certain virtues, as Aristotle says in that same place, +such as the Inventive and the Judging. And all these most noble +virtues, and the others which are in that excellent power, are +designated by that one word, which we sought to understand, that is, +Mind. Wherefore it is evident that by Mind is meant the highest, +noblest part of a man's Soul. + +And it is seen to be so, for only of man and of the Divine substances +is this Mind predicated, as can plainly be seen in Boethius, who first +predicates it of men, where he says to Philosophy: "Thou, and God who +placed thee in the mind of men;" then he predicates it of God, when he +says: "Thou dost produce everything from the Divine Model, Thou most +beautiful One, bearing the beautiful World in Thy mind." Neither was +it ever predicated of brute animals; nay, of many men who appear +defective in the most perfect part, it does not seem that it ought to +be, or that it could be, predicated; and therefore such as these are +termed in the Latin Tongue _amenti_ and _dementi_, that is, +without mind. Hence one can now perceive that it is Mind which is the +perfect and most precious part of the Soul in which is God. + +And that is the place where I say that Love discourses to me of my +Lady. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + + +Not without cause do I say that this Love was at work in my mind; but +it is said reasonably, in order to explain what this Love is, by the +place in which it works. Wherefore, it is to be known that each thing, +as is said above, for the reason shown above, has its especial Love, +as the simple bodies have Love, innate, each in its proper place. +Therefore the Earth always descends to the centre, the fire to the +circumference above near the Heaven of the Moon, and always ascends +towards that. The bodies first composed, such as are the minerals, +have love for the place where their generation is ordained, and in +which they increase, and from which they have vigour and power. +Wherefore, we see the loadstone always receive power from the place of +its generation. Each of the plants which are first animated, that is, +first animated with a vegetative soul has most evident love for a +particular place, according as its nature may require; and therefore +we see certain plants almost always grow by the side of the streams, +and certain others upon the mountain tops, and certain others grow by +the sea-shore, or at the foot of hills, which, if they are +transplanted, either die entirely or live a sad life, as it were, like +a being separated from his friend. The brute beasts have a most +evident love, not only for places, but we see also their love towards +each other. Men have their own love for things perfect and excellent; +and since Man, although his Soul is one substance alone, because of +his nobility, partakes of the nature of each of these things, he can +possess all these affections, and he does possess them all. By his +part in the nature of the simple body, as earth, naturally it tends +downwards; therefore, when he moves his body upwards, he becomes more +weary. + +Because of the second nature, of the mixed body, it loves the place of +its generation, and even the time; and therefore each one naturally is +of more power in his own place and in his own time than in any other. +Wherefore, one reads in the History of Hercules, and in the greater +Ovid, and in Lucan, and in other Poets, that when fighting with the +Giant who was named Antaeus, every time that the Giant was weary, and +laid his body down on the earth at full length, either by the will or +strength of Hercules, new strength and vigour then surged up in him, +drawn wholly from the Earth, in which and from which he was produced; +Hercules, perceiving this, at last seized him, and having compressed +and raised him above the Earth, he held him so tightly, without +allowing him to touch the Earth again, that he conquered Antaeus by +excess of strength, and killed him. According to the testimony of the +books, this battle took place in Africa. + +And because of the third nature, that is, of the plants, Man has a +love for a certain food, not inasmuch as it affects the senses, but in +so much as it is nutritious; and that particular food does the work of +that most perfect Nature, while certain other food, dissimilar, acts +but imperfectly. And therefore we see that certain food will make men +handsome, and strong-limbed, and very brightly coloured, and certain +other food will do the opposite of this. + +And by the fourth nature, of the animals, that is, the sensitive, Man +has the other love, by which he loves according to the sensible +appearance, like the beasts; and this love in Man especially has need +of control, because of its excessive operation in the delights given, +especially through sight and touch. + +And because of the fifth and last nature, which is the true Human +Nature, and, to use a better phrase, the Angelic, namely, the +Rational, Man has by it the Love of Truth and Virtue; and from this +Love is born true and perfect friendship from the honest intercourse +of which the Philosopher speaks in the eighth book of the Ethics, when +he treats of Friendship. + +Wherefore, since this nature is termed Mind, as is proved above, I +spoke of Love as discoursing in my Mind in order to explain that this +Love was the Friendship which is born of that most noble nature, that +is, of Truth and Virtue, and to exclude each false opinion, by which +my Love might be suspected to spring from pleasure of the Senses. + +I then say, "With constant pleasure," to make people understand its +continuance and its fervour. And I say that it often whispers "Things +over which the intellect may stray." And I speak truth, because my +thoughts, when reasoning of her, often sought to draw conclusions of +her, which I could not comprehend, and I was alarmed, so that I seemed +almost like one dazed, even as he who, looking with the eye along a +direct line, sees first the nearest things clearly; then, proceeding, +it sees them less clearly; then, further on, doubtfully; then, +proceeding an immense way, the sight is divided from the object, and +sees nothing. And this is one unspeakable thing of that which I have +taken for a theme; and consequently I relate the other when I say: + + His words make music of so sweet a kind + That the Soul hears and feels, and cries, Ah, me, + That I want power to tell what thus I see! + +And because I know not how to tell it, I say that my soul laments, +saying, "Ah, me, that I want power." And this is the other unspeakable +thing, that the tongue is not a complete and perfect follower of all +that the intellect sees. And I say, "That the Soul hears and feels;" +hearing, as to the words, and feeling, as to the sweetness of the +sound. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + + +Now that the two ineffable parts of this matter have been discussed, +we must proceed to discuss words that describe my insufficiency. + +I say, then, that my insufficiency arises from a double cause, even as +in a twofold manner the exalted nature of my Lady surpasses all, in +the way which has been told. For I am compelled, by the poverty of my +intellect, to omit much of the truth concerning her which shone into +my mind like rays of light, but which my mind receives like a +transparent body, unable to gather up the ends thereof and reflect +them back. And this I express in that following part: "First, all that +Reason cannot make its own I needs must leave." Then, when I say, "And +of what can be known," I say that not even to that which I do +understand am I sufficient, because my tongue is not so eloquent that +it could tell that which is discoursed in my thoughts concerning her. +It may be seen, therefore, that, with respect to the Truth, it is very +little that I shall say; and this redounds to her great praise, if +well considered, in that which was the main intention. And it is +possible to say that this form of speech came indeed from the workshop +of Rhetoric, which on every side lays its hand upon the main +intention. Then, when it says, "If my Song fail," I excuse myself for +my fault, which ought not, then, to be blamed when others see that my +words are far below the dignity of this Lady. And I say that, if the +defect is in my rhymes, that is, in my words, which are appointed to +discourse of her, for this are to be blamed the weakness of the +intellect and the abruptness of our speech: "blame wit and words," +which are overpowered by the thought, so that they cannot follow it +entirely, especially there where the thought is born of love, because +there the Soul searches more deeply than elsewhere. It would be quite +possible for any one to say: Thou dost excuse and accuse thyself all +in one breath, which is a reason for blame, not for escape from blame, +inasmuch as the blame, which is mine, is cast on the intellect and on +the speech; for, if it be good, I ought to be praised for it in so +much as it is so; and if it be defective, I ought to be blamed. To +this it is possible to reply, briefly, that I do not accuse myself, +but that I excuse myself in truth. And therefore it is to be known, +according to the opinion of the Philosopher in the third book of the +Ethics, that man is worthy of praise or of blame only in those things +which it is in his power to do or not to do; but in those things over +which he has no power he deserves neither blame nor praise, since +either the praise or blame is to be attributed to some other, although +the things may be parts of the man himself. Therefore, we ought not to +blame the man because his body, from his birth, may be ugly, since it +was not in his power to make it beautiful; but our blame should fall +on the evil disposition of the matter whereof he is made, whose source +was a defect of Nature. And even so we ought not to praise the man for +the beauty of form which he may have from his birth, for he was not +the maker of it; but we ought to praise the artificer, that is, Human +Nature, who shapes her material into so much beauty when she is not +impeded. And therefore the priest said well to the Emperor who laughed +and scoffed at the ugliness of his body: "The Lord, He is God: It is +He that hath made us, and not we ourselves;" and these are the words +of the Prophet in a verse of the Psalms, written neither more nor less +than according to the reply of the Priest. + +And therefore let the wicked evil-born ones perceive that, if they put +their chief care in the adornment of their persons, it must be with +all modesty; for to do that is no other than to adorn the work of +another, that is, Nature, and to abandon their own proper work. + +Returning, then, to the proposition, I say that our intellect, through +defect of the power through which it sees organic power, that is, the +imagination, is not able to ascend to certain things, because the +imagination cannot help it and has not the wherewithal, such as are +the substances apart from matter, which (if we can have any knowledge +of them) we cannot fully comprehend. + +And the man is not to blame for this, because he was not the maker of +this defect; nay, Universal Nature did this, which is God, who wills +that in this life we be without this light. And because He was the +cause, it would be presumptuous to argue concerning it. So that if my +earnest thought transported me into a place where my imagination +failed my intellect, I was not to blame if I could not possibly +understand. + +Again, a bound is set to our understanding in each operation thereof; +but not by us, but by Universal Nature; and therefore it is to be +known that the bounds of the understanding are wider in thought than +in speech, and wider in speech than in signs. Hence, if our thought, +not only that which fails in a perfect intellect, but also that which +in a perfect intellect attains its end, is the conqueror of speech, we +are not to blame, because we are not the makers of it. And therefore I +prove that I do truthfully excuse myself when I say: "Blame wit and +words, whose force Fails to tell all that I hear Love discourse;" for, +sufficiently clear ought to appear the good-will, which alone we +should regard in respect to merits that are human. + +And thus is now explained the first principal part of this Song which +flows from my hand. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + + +Discourse on the first part of the Song has now made its meaning open +and clear, and it is needful to proceed to the second; for the clearer +perception of which, three divisions are desirable, according as it is +contained in three sections. For in the first part I praise that Lady +entirely and generally, as in the Soul so in the body; in the second +part I descend to especial commendation of the Soul; and in the third, +to especial praise of the body. The first part begins: "The Sun sees +not in travel round the earth;" the second begins: "Her Maker saw that +she was good;" the third begins: "Rain from her beauty little flames +of fire," and these parts or divisions in due order are to be +discussed. + +I say then: "The Sun sees not in travel round the earth;" where it is +to be known, in order to have perfect understanding thereof, how the +Earth is circled round by the Sun. In the first place, I say that by +the Earth I do not here mean the whole body of the Universe, but only +that part of the sea and land, following the common speech, which is +thus wont to designate it, whereupon some one exclaims, "This man has +seen all the World," meaning "this part of the sea and land." This +World Pythagoras and his followers asserted to be one of the stars, +and they also said that there was another opposite to it, similar to +it: and they called that one Antictona; and he said that both were in +one sphere which revolved from East to West, and by this revolution +the Sun was circled round us, and now he was seen, and now he was not +seen. And he said that the fire was in the centre of these, +considering the fire to be a more noble body than the water and than +the Earth, and giving the noblest centre to the four simple bodies; he +said that the fire, when it appeared to ascend, according to strict +truth descended to the centre. Then Plato was of another opinion, and +he wrote in a book of his, which he called Timaeus, that the Earth with +the sea was indeed the centre of all, but that its whole sphere +revolved round its centre, following the first movement of the +Heavens, but much slower on account of its gross material, and because +of the immense distance from that first moved. These opinions are +confuted in the second chapter, Of Heaven and the World, by that +glorious Philosopher, to whom Nature opened her secrets most freely; +and by him it is therein proved that this World, the Earth, is of +itself stable and fixed to all eternity. And his reasons, which +Aristotle states in order to break those other opinions and to affirm +the truth, it is not my intention here to narrate; therefore, let it +be enough for those to whom I speak, to know, upon his great +authority, that this Earth is fixed, and does not revolve, and that +it, with the sea, is the centre of the Heavens. These Heavens revolve +round this centre continuously, even as we see; in which revolution +there must of necessity be two fixed Poles, and a circle equally +distant from these round which all especially revolves. Of these two +Poles, the one is visible to almost all the discovered Earth, that is, +the Northern Pole; the other is hidden from almost all the discovered +Earth, that is, the Southern Pole. The circle spread from them is that +part of Heaven under which the Sun revolves when it is in Aries and +Libra. Wherefore, it is to be known that if a stone could fall from +this Pole of ours, it would fall there beyond into the sea precisely +upon that surface of the sea, where, if a man could be, he would +always have the Sun above the middle of his head; and I believe that +from Rome to that place, going in a straight line to the North, the +distance may be almost two thousand seven hundred miles, or a little +more or less. Imagining, then, in order to understand better what I +say, that there is in that place a city, and that its name may be +Maria, I say again that if from the other Pole, that is, the Southern, +a stone could fall, that it would fall upon that part of the ocean +which is precisely on this ball opposite to Maria; and I believe that +from Rome to where this second stone would fall, going in a direct +line to the South, the distance may be seven thousand five hundred +miles, a little more or less. And here let us imagine another city, +which may have the name of Lucia; and the distance, from whatever part +one draws the line, is ten thousand two hundred miles between the one +and the other, that is, half the circumference of this ball, so that +the citizens of Maria hold the soles of the feet opposite the soles of +the feet of the citizens of Lucia. Let us imagine also a circle upon +this ball which is in every part equi-distant from Maria as from +Lucia. I believe that this circle, according to what I understand by +the assertions of the Astrologers, and by that of Albertus Magnus in +his book On the Nature of Places and on the Properties of the +Elements, and also by the testimony of Lucan in his ninth book, would +divide this Earth uncovered by the sea in the Meridian, almost through +all the extreme end of the first climate, where there are amongst the +other people the Garamanti, who are almost always naked; to whom came +Cato with the people of Rome when flying from the dominion of Caesar. +Having marked out these three places upon this ball, one can easily +see how the Sun circles round it. + +I say, then, that the Heaven of the Sun revolves from West to East, +not directly against the diurnal movement, that is, of the day and +night, but obliquely against that, so that its mid-circle, which is +equally between its Poles, in which is the body of the Sun, cuts into +two opposite parts the circle of the two first Poles, in the beginning +of Aries and in the beginning of Libra; and it is divided by two arcs +from it, one towards the North and one towards the South; the points +of these two said arcs are equi-distant from the first circle in every +part by twenty-three degrees and one point more, and the one point is +the tropic of Cancer, and the other is the tropic of Capricorn; +therefore it must be that Maria in the sign of Aries can see, when the +Sun sinks below the mid-circle of the first Poles, this Sun to revolve +round the Earth below, or rather the sea, like a millstone, of which +only one half of its body appears, and can see this come rising up +after the manner of the screw of a vine-press, so much so that it +completes ninety-one rotations, or a little more. When these rotations +are completed, its ascension is to Maria almost as much in proportion +as it ascends to us in the half-third, that is, of the equal day and +night; and if a man could stand in Maria, with his face always turned +to the Sun, he would see that Sun pass by on the right. Then by the +same way it seems to descend another ninety-one rotations, or a little +more, so much so that it circles round below the Earth, or rather sea, +not showing the whole of itself; and then it is hidden, and Lucia +begins to see it, which, the same as Maria, then sees it to ascend and +to descend around itself with the same number of rotations. And if a +man could stand in Lucia, with his face always turned towards the Sun, +he would see it pass to the left. Therefore, it is possible to see +that these places have in the year one day of six months' duration, +and one night of the same length of time; and when one has the day the +other has the night. + +It must be also that the circle where the Garamanti are, as has been +said above, upon this ball, can see the Sun revolve precisely above +them, not after the fashion of a mill-stone, but of a wheel, which +cannot in any part be seen except the centre, when it goes under +Aries. And then it is seen to depart from its place immediately above +and go towards Maria ninety-one days, or a little more, and by so many +to return to its position; and then, when it has turned back, it goes +before Libra, and even so departs and goes towards Lucia ninety-one +days, or a little more, and in so many returns to its position. And +this place always has the day equal with the night, either on this +side or on that, as the Sun goes, and twice a year it has the summer +of intense heat, and two little winters. It must also be that the two +distances, which are midway from the two imaginary Cities and the +mid-circle, see the Sun variously, according as they are remote from, +and near to, these places. + +Now, by what has been said, this can be seen by him who has good +understanding, to which it is well to give a little fatigue. He can +now perceive that, by the Divine Providence, the World is so ordained +that the sphere of the Sun, being revolved and turned round to one +point, this ball whereon we are in every part receives an equal share +of light and darkness. Oh, ineffable Wisdom, Thou which didst thus +ordain! Oh, how poor and feeble is our mind when seeking to comprehend +Thee! And you, O men, for whose benefit and pleasure I write, in what +fearful blindness do you live if you never raise your eyes upwards to +these things, but keep them fixed in the mud of your foolishness. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + + +In the preceding chapter is shown after what manner the Sun travels +round the Earth; so that now one can proceed to demonstrate the +meaning of the part to which this thought belongs. I say, then, that +in that first part I begin to praise that Lady by comparison with +other things. And I say that the Sun, circling round the Earth, sees +nothing so gentle as that Lady; wherefore it follows that she is, +according to the letter, the most gentle of all things that the sun +shines upon. And it says: "Till the hour;" wherefore it is to be known +that "hour" is understood in two ways by the Astrologers. The one is, +that of the day and of the night they make twenty-four hours--twelve +of the day, twelve of the night, however long or short the day may be. +And these hours are short and long in the day and night according as +the day and night increase and diminish. And these hours the Church +uses when it says, Prima, Tertia, Sexta, and Nona--first, third, +sixth, and ninth; and these are termed hours temporal. The other mode +is, that, making of the day and of the night twenty-four hours, the +day sometimes has fifteen hours and the night nine; and sometimes the +night has sixteen and the day eight, according as the day and night +increase and diminish; and they term these hours equal at the +Equinox, and those that are termed temporal are always the same, +because, the day being equal to the night, it must happen thus. + +Then when I say, "All Minds of Heaven wonder at her worth," I praise +her, not having respect to any other thing. And I say that the +Intelligences of Heaven behold her, and that the people here below +think of that gentle Lady when they have more of that peace which +delights them. And here it is to be known that each Mind or Intellect +in Heaven above, according to that which is written in the book Of +Causes, knows that which is above itself and that which is below +itself; therefore it knows God as its Cause; therefore it knows that +which is below itself as its effect. + +And since God is the most universal cause of everything, to know Him +is to know all, according to the degree of the Intelligence; wherefore +all the Intelligences know the human form in as far as it is by +intention fixed or determined in the Divine Mind. The moving +Intelligences especially know it; since they are the most especial +causes of it, and of every kind of form; and they know the most +perfect, as far as they can know it, as their rule and pattern. + +And if this human form, copied and individualized, is not perfect, it +is not the fault of the said copy or image, but of the matter from +which the individual is formed. Therefore when I say, "All Minds in +Heaven wonder at her worth," I wish to express no other than that she +is thus made, even as the express image of the human form in the +Divine Mind. And each Mind there above beholds her by virtue of that +quality which exists especially in those angelic Minds which build up +and shape, with Heaven, things that exist below. And to confirm this, +I subjoin when I say, "Mortals, enamoured, find her in their thought +When Love his peace into their minds has brought," where it is to be +known that each thing especially desires its perfection, and in that +its every desire finds peace and calm, and for that peace each thing +is desired. + +And this is that desire which always makes every pleasure appear +incomplete, for there is no joy or pleasure so great in this life that +it can quench the thirst in our Soul, for always the desire for that +perfection remains in the Mind. And since this Lady is truly that +perfection, I say that people here below receive great delight when +they have most peace; for she abides then in their thoughts. For this +Lady, I say, is perfect in as high a degree as it is possible for +Human Nature to be. + +Then when I say, "Her Maker saw that she was good," I prove that not +only this Lady is the most perfect in the human race, but more than +the most perfect, inasmuch as she receives from the Divine Goodness +more than human dues. Wherefore one can reasonably believe that as +each Master loves most his best work far more than the other work, so +God loves the good human being far above the rest. And forasmuch as +His Bounty is of necessity not restricted by any limit, His love has +no regard to the amount due to him who receives, but it overflows in +gifts, and in the blessings of power and grace. Wherefore I say here, +that this God, who gave life or being to this Lady, through love or +charity for her perfection pours into her of His Bounty beyond the +limits of the amount due to our nature. + +Then when I say, "On her pure soul," I prove this that has been said +with reasonable testimony, which gives us to know that, as the +Philosopher says in the second chapter, On the Soul, the Soul is the +act of the Body; and if it be its act, it is its Cause; and as it is +written in the book before, quoted, On Causes, each Cause infuses into +its effect some of the goodness which it receives from its own Cause, +which is "God." Wherefore, since in her are seen wonderful things, so +much so on the part of the body that they make each beholder desirous +to see those things, it is evident that her form, which is her Soul, +guides it as its proper Cause and receives miraculously the gracious +goodness of God. + +And thus is proved, by that appearance, which exceeds the due +appointment of our nature, which in her is most perfect, as has been +said above, that this Lady is by God endowed with good gifts and made +a noble thing. And this is the whole Literal meaning of the first +section of the second principal part. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + + +Having commended this Lady generally, both according to the Soul and +according to the Body, I proceed to praise her specially according to +the Soul. + +And first I praise her Soul for its goodness, that is great in itself; +then I commend it for a goodness that is great in others, and useful +to the World. And that second part begins when I say, firstly, "On her +fair frame Virtue Divine descends;" where it is to be known that the +Divine Goodness descends into all things, and otherwise they could not +exist; but, although this goodness springs from the First Cause, it is +received diversely, according to the more or less of virtue in the +recipients. Wherefore it is written in the book Of Causes: "The First +Goodness sends His good gifts forth upon things in one stream. Verily +each thing receives from this stream according to the manner of its +virtue and its being." And we can have a sensible, living example of +this in the Sun. We see the light of the Sun, which is one thing, +derived from one fountain, to be variously received by material +substances; as Albertus Magnus says in his book On the Intellect, that +certain bodies, through having mixed in themselves an excess of +transparent brightness, so soon as the Sun sees them they become so +bright that, by the multiplication of light within them, their aspect +is hardly discernible, and from themselves they render back to others +great splendour or brilliancy, such as is gold and any gem. Sure I am +that by being entirely transparent, not only do they receive the +light, but that they do not intercept it; nay, they pass it on, like +stained glass, coloured with their own colour, to other things. And +there are certain other bodies so overpowering in the purity of the +transparency that they become so radiant as to overpower the +adjustments of the eye, and you cannot look at them without fatigue of +sight; such as are the mirrors. Certain others are so free from +transparency, that but little light can they receive; as is the Earth. +Thus the Goodness of God is received in sundrywise by the sundry +substances, that is, in one way by the Angels, who are without +grossness of matter, as if transparent through their purity of form; +and otherwise by the human Soul, which although on one side it may be +free from matter, on another side it is impeded: even as the man who +is all in the water but his head, of whom one cannot say that he is +entirely in the water, or entirely out of it. Again otherwise it is +received by the animals, whose soul is wholly comprised in matter; but +I say that the soul of animals receives of the Goodness of God in +proportion as it is ennobled. Again otherwise is it received by the +minerals; and otherwise by the Earth, than by the others, because the +Earth is most material, and therefore most remote, and most out of all +proportion to the First most simple and most high Cause, which is +alone Intellectual, that is to say, God. + +And although here below there may be placed general degrees of +excellence, nevertheless, singular degrees of excellence may also be +placed; that is to say, that amongst human Souls one Soul may receive +more bountifully than another. And since in the intellectual order of +the Universe one ascends and descends by degrees almost continuous +from the lowest form to the highest, and from the highest to the +lowest, as we see in the visible order of things; and between the +Angelic Nature, which is intellectual, and the Human Soul there may be +no step, but the one rise to the other as it were continuously through +the height of the degrees; and from the Human Soul and the most +perfect soul of the brute animals, again, there may not be any break +in the descent. For as we see many men so vile and of such low +condition that it seems almost that it can be no other than bestial, +so it is to be asserted and firmly believed that there may be some men +so noble and of a condition so exalted that it can be no other than +that of the Angel. Otherwise the human species could not be continued +on every side, which cannot be. Such as these Aristotle calls, in the +seventh book of the Ethics, Divine; and such a one I say that this +Lady is, so that the Divine Virtue, after the manner that it descends +into the Angel, descends into her. + +Then when I say, "Fair one who doubt," I prove this by the experience +that it is possible to have of it in those operations which are proper +to the rational Soul, wherein the Divine Light shines forth more +quickly, that is, in the speech and in the actions, which are wont to +be termed conduct and deportment. Wherefore it is to be known that +only man amongst the animals speaks, and has conduct and acts which +are called rational, because he alone has Reason in himself. And if +any one might wish to say, in contradiction, that a certain bird can +speak, as appears true, especially of the magpie and of the parrot; +and that some beast performs acts, or rather things, by rule, as +appears in the ape and in some other; I reply that it is not true that +they speak, nor that they have rules, because they have not Reason, +from which these things must proceed; neither is there in them the +principle of these operations; neither do they know what that is; +neither do they understand that by those acts something is intended; +but that only which they see and hear they represent, even as the +image of somebody may be reflected in a glass. Wherefore, as in the +mirror the corporal image which the mirror shows is not true, so the +image of Reason, in the acts and the speech which the brute soul +represents, or rather shows, is not true. I say that what gentle Lady +soever doubts should "go with her, mark the grace In all her acts." I +do not say man, because one can derive experience more modestly from +the woman than from the man; and I say she will find that "Downward +from Heaven bends An angel when she speaks." For her speech, because +of its exalted character and because of its sweetness, kindles in the +mind of him who hears it a thought of Love, which I call a celestial +Spirit; since from Heaven is the source and from Heaven the intention +thereof, as has been already narrated. From which thought I pass to a +firm opinion that this Lady is of miraculous power, that there is "A +power in her by none of us possessed." Her actions, by their suavity +and by their moderation, "Rival in calls to Love that Love must hear." +They cause Love to awaken and again to hear whenever he is sown by the +power of bountiful Nature. Which natural seed acts as in the next +treatise is shown. + +Then when I say, "Fair in all like her, fairest she'll appear Who is +most like her," I intend to narrate how the goodness and the power of +her soul are good and useful to others; and, firstly, how useful it is +to other women, saying that she is "Fair in all like her," where I +present a clear or bright example to the women, from gazing at which +they can make their beauty seem gentle in following the same. +Secondly, I relate how useful she is to all people, saying that her +aspect assists our faith, which is more useful to the whole Human Race +than all other things beside; for it is that by which we escape from +Eternal Death and acquire Eternal Life; and she assists our Faith, for +the first foundation of our Faith is on the miracles performed by Him +who was crucified, who created our Reason, and willed that it should +be less than His power. He performed these miracles, then, in His own +name for His saints; and many men are so obstinate that they are in +doubt of those miracles if there be the least mist or cloud around +them; and they cannot believe any miracle unless they have visible +experience of the same; and this Lady is a thing visibly miraculous, +of which the eyes of men daily can have experience, and which can make +the other miracles appear possible to us. Wherefore it is manifest +that this Lady, with her marvellous aspect, assists our Faith. And, +therefore, finally I say: + + We, content to call + Her face a Miracle, have Faith made sure: + For that God made her ever to endure. + +And thus ends the second section of the second principal part of the +Song according to its Literal meaning. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + + +Amongst the Works of Divine Wisdom, Man is the most wonderful, +considering how in one form the Divine Power joined three natures; and +in such a form how subtly harmonized his body must be. It is organized +for all his distinct powers; wherefore, because of the great concord +there must be, among so many organs, to secure their perfect response +to each other, in all the multitude of men but few are perfect. And if +this Creature is so wonderful, certainly it is a dread thing to +discourse of his conditions, not only in words, but even in thought. +So that to this apply those words of Ecclesiastes: "I beheld all the +Work of God, that a Man cannot find out the Work that is done under +the Sun." And those other words there, where he says: "Let not thine +heart be hasty to utter anything before God: for God is in Heaven, and +thou upon Earth: therefore let thy words be few." I, then, who in this +third section intend to speak of a certain condition of such a +creature, inasmuch as, through the goodness of the Soul, visible +beauty appears in his body, I begin timorously uncertain, intending, +if not fully, at least partially, to untie such a knot as this. I say, +then, that since the meaning of that section is clear, wherein this +Lady is praised on the part of the Soul, we are now to proceed and to +see how it is when I say: "Her aspect shows delights of Paradise." I +praise her on the part of the body, and I say that in her aspect +bright gleams appear which show us pleasant things, and amongst others +those of Paradise. + +The most noble state of all, and that which is the crown of every +good, is to be at peace within one's self; and this is to be happy. +And this content is truly (although in another manner) in her aspect; +so that, by looking at her, the people find peace, so sweetly does her +Beauty feed the eyes of the beholders; but in another way, for the +Peace that is perpetual in Paradise is not attainable by any man. + +And since some one might ask where this wonderful content appears in +this Lady, I distinguish in her person two parts, in which human +pleasure and displeasure most appear. Wherefore it is to be known that +in whatever part the Soul most fulfils its office, it strives most +earnestly to adorn that part, and there it does its work most subtly. +Wherefore we see that in the Face of Man, where it fulfils its office +more than in any other outward part, it works so subtly that, by +making itself subtle therein as much as its material permits, it +causes that no face is like another, because its utmost power over +matter, which is dissimilar in almost all, is there brought into +action; and because in the face the Soul works especially in two +places, as if in those two places all the three Natures of the Soul +had jurisdiction, that is, in the Eyes and in the Mouth, these it +chiefly adorns, and there it spends its care to make all beautiful if +it can. And in these two places I say that those pleasures of content +appear, saying: "Seen in her eyes and in her smiling face;" the which +two places, by means of a beautiful comparison, may be designated the +balconies of the woman who dwells in the house of the body, she being +the Soul; because there, although veiled, as it were, the Soul often +shows itself. The Soul shows itself so evidently in the eyes that it +is possible to know its present passion if you look attentively. + +Six passions are proper to the human Soul of which the Philosopher +makes mention in his Rhetoric, namely, Grace, Zeal, Mercy, Envy, Love, +and Shame; and with whichever of these the Soul is impassioned, there +comes into the window of the Eyes the semblance of it, unless it be +repressed within, and shut from view by great power of will. Wherefore +some one formerly plucked out his eyes that an inward shame should not +appear without, as Statius the Poet says of the Theban Oedipus when he +says that with eternal night he loosed his damned shame. + +It reveals itself in the Mouth, like colour behind glass as it were. +And what is a smile or a laugh except a coruscation of the Soul's +delight, a light shot outwardly from that which shines within? And +therefore it is right for a man to reveal his Soul by a well-tempered +cheerfulness, smiling moderately with a due restraint, and with slight +movement of the limbs; so that the Lady, that is, the Soul, which +then, as has been said, shows herself, may appear modest, and not +dissolute. Therefore the book on the Four Cardinal Virtues commands us +thus: "Let thy smile be without loud laughter, that is, without +cackling like a hen." + +Ah, the sweet wonder of my Lady's smile, which is never seen but in +the eyes! + +And I say of these delights seen in her eyes and smile: "Love brought +them there as to his dwelling place;" where it is possible to consider +Love in a twofold form. First, the Love of the Soul, peculiar or +proper to these places; secondly, universal Love, which inclines +things to love and to be loved, which ordains the Soul to rule these +parts. + +Then, when I say, "They dazzle Reason," I excuse myself for this, that +it appears of such exceeding beauty that I can tell but little, owing +to its overpowering force; and I say that I can say but little +concerning it for two reasons. The one is, that those things which +appear in her aspect overpower our intellect; and I tell how this +conquest is made: that "They dazzle Reason, as sunbeams our eyes," +when the Sun overpowers our feeble sight, if not also the healthy and +the strong. The other is, that the man cannot look fixedly at it, +because the Soul becomes inebriate therein; so that incontinently, +after gazing thereat, it fails in all its operations. + +Then, when I say, "Rain from her beauty little flames of fire," I +recur to discourse of its effect, since to discourse entirely of it is +not possible. Wherefore it is to be known that all those things which +subdue our intellect, so that it is unable to see what they are, are +most suitably to be discussed in their effects; wherefore of God, and +of His separate substances, and of the first matter we can thus have +some knowledge. And therefore I say that the beauty of that Lady rains +little flames of fire, meaning the ardour of Love and of Charity, +"Made living with a spirit," that is, Love informed by a gentle +spirit, which is direct desire, through which and from which "to +create Good thoughts;" and it not only does this, but it crushes and +destroys its opposite, the innate vices which are especially the foes +of all good thoughts. + +And here it is to be known that there are certain vices in the Man to +which he is naturally disposed; as certain men of a choleric +complexion are disposed to anger: and such vices as these are innate, +that is, natural. Others are the vices of habit, for which not the +complexion, but habit, or custom, is to blame; such as intemperance, +and especially intemperance in wine. But these vices are subdued and +put to flight by good habits, and the man is made virtuous thereby +without finding fatigue in his moderation, as the Philosopher says in +the second book of the Ethics. Truly there is this difference between +the natural passions and the habitual, that through use of good morals +the habitual entirely vanish, because their origin, the evil habit, is +destroyed by its opposite; but the natural, the source of which is in +the complexion of the passionate man, although they may be made much +lighter by good morals, yet they do not entirely disappear as far as +regards the first cause, but they almost wholly disappear in act, +because custom is not equal to nature, which is the source of such a +passion. And therefore the man is more praiseworthy who guides himself +and rules himself when he is of an evil disposition by nature, in +opposition to natural impulse, than he who, being gifted with a good +disposition by nature, carries himself naturally well; as it is more +praiseworthy to control a bad horse than one that is not troublesome. +I say, then, that those little flames which rain down from her beauty +destroy the innate, or the natural, vices, to make men understand that +her beauty has power to renew Nature in those who behold it, which is +a miraculous thing. And this confirms that which is observed above in +the other chapter when I say that she is the helper of our Faith. + +Finally, when I say, "Lady, who may desire Escape from blame," I +infer, under pretext of admonishing another, the end for which so much +beauty was made. And I say that what lady believes her beauty to be +open to blame through some defect, let her look on this most perfect +example; where it is understood that it is designed not only to +improve and raise the good, but also to convert evil to good. And, +finally, it is subjoined that she is "God's thought," that is, from +the Mind of God. And this to make men understand that, by design of +the Creator, Nature is made to produce such an effect. + +And thus ends the whole of the second chief part of the Song. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + + +The order of the present treatise requires, after these two parts of +the Song have been discussed, according to my intention, that we now +proceed to the third, in which I intend to purify the Song from a +reproof which might be unfavourable to it. + +And it is this, that before I composed it, this Lady seeming to me to +be somewhat fierce and haughty against me, I made a little ballad, in +which I called her proud and angry, which appears to be contrary to +that which is here reasoned; and therefore I turn to the Song, and, +under colour of teaching it how it is proper that it should excuse +itself, I make an excuse for that which came before. And this, when +one addresses inanimate things, is a figure which is called by +rhetoricians, Prosopopoeia, and the Poets often use it. "My Song, it +seems you speak this to oppose," The intention of which address, to +make it more easy of understanding, it behoves me to divide into three +sections: first, one affirms wherefore excuse is necessary; then, one +proceeds with the excuse, when I say, "Though Heaven, you know;" +finally, I speak to the Song as to a person well skilled in that which +it is right to do when I say, "Be such excuse allowed." + +I say, then, in the first place: "My Song, it seems you speak this to +oppose The saying of a sister Song of mine." For the sake of +similitude, I say sister; for as that woman is called a sister who is +born of the same father, so may a man call that work a sister which is +wrought by the same worker; for our work is in some degree a thing +begotten. And I say why it seems opposed or contrary to that sister +Song, saying: "This lovely Lady whom you count divine, Your sister +called disdainful and morose." This accusation being affirmed, I +proceed to the excuse, by quoting an example, wherein the Truth is +quite opposite to the appearance of Truth, and it is quite possible to +take the false semblance of Truth for Truth itself, regarding Truth +itself as Falsehood. I say: "Though Heaven, you know, is ever high and +pure, Men's eyes may fail, and find a star obscure;" where it is shown +that it is the property of colour and light to be visible, as +Aristotle affirms in the second book Of the Soul and in the book on +Sense and Sensation. Other things, indeed, are visible, but it is not +their property to be so, nor to be tangible, as in form, height, +number, motion, and rest, which are said to be subject to the Common +Sense, and which we comprehend by union of many senses; but of colour +and light it is the property to be visible, because with the sight +only we comprehend them. These visible things, both those of which it +is the property and those subject to the Common Sense, inasmuch as +they are visible, come within the eye; I do not say the things, but +their form; through the transparent medium, not really, but by +intention, as it were through transparent glass. And in the humour +which is in the pupil of the eye this current which makes the form +visible is completed, because that humour is closed behind like a +mirror which has its glass backed with lead; so that it cannot pass +farther on, but strikes there, after the manner of a ball, and stops; +so that the form which does not appear in the transparent medium, +having reached the disc behind, shines brightly thereon; and this is +the reason why the image appears only in the glass which has lead at +the back. + +From this pupil the visual spirit, which is continued from it to the +part of the Brain, the anterior, where the sensitive power is, +suddenly, without loss of time, depicts it as in the clear spring of a +fountain; and thus we see. Wherefore, in order that its vision be +truthful, that is, such as the visible thing is in itself, the medium +through which the form comes to the eye must be without any colour, +and so also the humour of the pupil; otherwise the visible form would +be stained of the colour of the medium and of that of the pupil. And +this is the reason why they who wish to make things appear of a +certain colour in a mirror interpose that colour between the glass and +the lead, the glass being pressed over it. + +Plato and other Philosophers said, indeed, that our sight was not +because the visible came into the eye, but because the visual virtue +went out to the visible form. And this opinion is confuted by the +Philosopher in that book of his on Sense and Sensation. Having thus +considered this law of vision, one can easily perceive how, although +the star is always in one way bright, clear, and resplendent, and +receives no change whatever except that of local movement, as is +proved in that book on Heaven and the World, yet from many causes it +may appear dim and obscure; since it may appear thus on account of the +medium, the atmosphere, that changes continually. This medium changes +from light to darkness, according to the presence or absence of the +Sun; and during the presence of the Sun the medium, which is +transparent, is so full of light that it overpowers the star, and +therefore it no longer appears brilliant. This medium also changes +from rare to dense, from dry to moist, because of the vapours of the +Earth which rise continually. The medium, thus changed, changes by its +density the image of the star, which passes through it, makes it +appear dim, and by its moisture or dryness changes it in colour. In +like manner it may thus appear through the visual organ, that is, the +eye, which on account of some infirmity, or because of fatigue, is +changed into some degree of dimness or into some degree of weakness. +So it happens very often, owing to the membrane of the pupil becoming +suffused with blood, on account of some corruption produced by +weakness, that things all appear of a red colour; and therefore the +star appears so coloured. And owing to the sight being weakened, there +results in it some dispersion of the spirit, so that things do not +appear united, but scattered, almost in the same way as our writing +does on a wet piece of paper. And this is the reason why many persons, +when they wish to read, remove the paper to some distance from the +eyes, in order that the image thereof may come within the eye more +easily and more subtly, and thereby the lettering is left impressed on +the sight more distinctly and connectedly. For like reason the star +also may appear blurred; and I had experience of this in the same year +in which this Song was born, for, by trying the eyes very much in the +labour of reading, the visual spirits were so weakened that the stars +all appeared to me to be blurred by some white mist: and by means of +long repose in shady and cool places, and by cooling the ball of the +eye with spring water, I re-united the scattered powers, which I +restored to their former good condition. + +And thus, for the reasons mentioned above, there are many visible +causes why the star can appear to us different to what it really is. + + + + +CHAPTER X. + + +Leaving this digression, which has been needful for seeing the Truth, +I return to the proposition, and I say that, as our eyes call, that +is, judge, the star other than it really is as to its true condition, +so this little ballad judged this Lady according to appearance, other +than the Truth, through infirmity of the Soul, which was impassioned +with too much desire. And this I make evident when I say that "fear +possessed her soul." For this which I saw in her presence appeared +fierce or proud to me. Where it is to be known that in proportion as +the agent is more closely united to the patient, so much the more +powerful is the passion, as may be understood from the opinion of the +Philosopher in his book On Generation. Wherefore in proportion as the +desired thing draws nigh to the person who desires it, so much the +greater is the desire; and the Soul, more impassioned, unites itself +more closely to the carnal part, and abandons reason more and more; so +that the individual no longer judges like a man, but almost like some +other animal, even according to appearance, not discerning the Truth. +And this is the reason why the countenance, modest according to the +truth, appears disdainful and proud in her. + +And that little ballad spoke, according to that judgment, as sensual +and irrational at once. And herein it is sufficiently understood that +this Song judges this Lady according to Truth, by the disagreement +which it has with that other Song of harmony between it and that +ballad. And not without reason I say, "When I come near to her +glance," and not when she comes within mine. But in this I wish to +express the great power which her eyes had over me; for, as if I had +been transparent, through every part their light shone through me. And +here it would be possible to assign reasons natural and supernatural, +but let it suffice here to have said as much as I have; elsewhere I +will discourse of it more suitably. Then when I say, "Be such excuse +allowed," I impose on the Song instruction how, by the assigned +reasons, it may excuse itself there where that is needful, namely, +where there may be any suspicion of this opposition; for there is no +more to say, except that whoever may feel doubtful as to the matter +wherein this Song differs from the other, let him look at the reason +which has been here stated. And such a figure as this is quite +laudable in Rhetoric, and even necessary when the words are to one +person and the intention is to another; because it is always +praiseworthy to admonish and necessary also; but it is not always +suitable in the mouth of every one. Wherefore, when the son is aware +of the vice of the father, and when the subject is aware of the vice +of the lord, and when the friend knows that the shame of his friend +would be increased to him by admonition from him, when he knows that +it would detract from his honour, or when he knows that his friend +would not be patient, but enraged at the admonition, this figure is +most beautiful and most useful. You may term it dissimulation; it is +similar to the work of that wise warrior who attacked the castle on +one side in order to draw off the defence from the other, for the +attack and the design of the commander are not aimed at one and the +same part. + +Also, I lay a command on this Song, that it ask permission of this +Lady to speak of her; whereby one may infer that a man ought not to be +presumptuous in praising another, ought not to take it for granted in +his own mind that it is pleasing to the person praised, because often, +when some one believes he is bestowing praise, it is taken as blame, +either through defect of the speaker or through defect of him who +hears. Wherefore it is requisite to have much discretion in this +matter; which discretion is tantamount to asking permission, in the +way in which I say that this Song or Poem should ask for it. + +And thus ends the whole Literal meaning of this treatise; wherefore +the order of the work now requires the Allegorical exposition, +following the Truth, to be proceeded with. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + + +Returning now, as the order requires, to the beginning of the Song, I +say that this Lady is that Lady of the Intellect who is called +Philosophy. But naturally praise excites a desire to know the person +praised; and to know the thing may be to know what it is considered to +be in itself, and in all that pertains to it, as the Philosopher says +in the beginning of the book On Physics; and the name may reveal this +when it bears some meaning, as he says in the fourth chapter of the +Metaphysics, where it is said that the definition is that reason which +the name signifies. Here, therefore, it is necessary, before +proceeding farther with her praises, to prove and to say what this is +that is called Philosophy, what this name signifies; and when this has +been demonstrated, the present Allegory will be more efficaciously +discussed. And first of all I will state who first gave this name; +then I shall proceed to its signification. + +I say, then, that anciently in Italy, almost from the beginning of the +foundation of Rome, which was seven hundred and fifty years, a little +more or less, before the advent of the Saviour, according as Paul +Orosius writes, about the time of Numa Pompilius, second king of the +Romans, there lived a most noble Philosopher, who was named +Pythagoras. And that he might be living about that time appears from +something to which Titus Livius alludes incidentally in the first part +of his History. And before him they were called the followers of +Science, not Philosophers but Wise Men such as were those Seven most +ancient Wise Men, who still live in popular fame. The first of them +had the name of Solon, the second Chilon, the third Periander, the +fourth Talus, the fifth Cleobulus, the sixth Bias, the seventh +Pittacus. Pythagoras, being asked if he were considered to be a Wise +Man, rejected this name, and stated himself to be not a Wise Man, but +a Lover of Wisdom. And from this circumstance it subsequently arose +that any man studious to acquire knowledge, was called a Lover of +Wisdom, that is, a Philosopher; for inasmuch as "Philo" in Greek is +equivalent to "Love" and "sophia" is equivalent to Wisdom, therefore, +"Philo and sophia" mean the same as Love of Wisdom. Wherefore it is +possible to see that those two words make that name Philosopher, which +is as much as to say Lover of Wisdom. Therefore it may be observed +that it is not a term of arrogance, but of humility. + +From this sprang naturally the word philosophy, as from the word +friend springs naturally the word friendship. Wherefore it is possible +to see, considering the signification of the first and second word, +that philosophy is no other than friendship to wisdom, or rather to +knowledge; wherefore to a certain degree it is possible to call every +man a philosopher, according to the natural love which generates a +desire for knowledge in each individual. + +But since the natural passions are common to all men, we do not +specify those passions by some distinctive word, applied to some +individual who shares our common nature, as when we say, John is the +friend of Martin, we do not mean to signify merely the natural love +which all men bear to all men, but we mean the friendship founded upon +the natural love which is distinct and peculiar to certain +individuals. Thus we do not term any one a philosopher because of the +love common to us all. It is the intention or meaning of Aristotle, in +the eighth book of the Ethics, that that man may be called a friend +whose friendship is not concealed from the person beloved, and to whom +also the beloved person is a friend, so that the attachment is mutual; +and this must be so either for mutual benefit, or for pleasure, or for +credit's sake. And thus, in order that a man may be a philosopher, it +must be love to Wisdom which makes one of the sides friendly; it must +be study and care which make the other side also friendly, so that +familiarity and manifestation of benevolence may spring up between +them; because without love and without study one cannot be called a +philosopher, but there must be both the one and the other. + +And as friendship for the sake of pleasure given or for profit is not +true friendship, but accidental, as the Ethics demonstrate, so +philosophy for delight or profit is not true philosophy, but +accidental. Wherefore one ought not to call him a true philosopher who +for some pleasure or other may be a friend of Wisdom in some degree; +even as there are many who take delight in repeating songs and in +studying the same, and who delight in studying Rhetoric and Music, and +who avoid and abandon the other Sciences, which are all members of +Wisdom's body. One ought not to call him a true philosopher who is the +friend of Wisdom for the sake of profit; such as are the Lawyers, +Doctors, and almost all the Religious Men, who do not study for the +sake of knowledge, but to acquire money or dignity; and if any one +would give them that which they seek to acquire, they would not +continue to study. And as amongst the various kinds of friendship, +that which is for profit may be called the meanest friendship, so such +men as these have less share in the name of Philosopher than any other +people. + +Wherefore as the friendship conceived through honest affection is true +and perfect and perpetual, so is that philosophy true and perfect +which is generated by upright desire for knowledge, without regard to +aught else, and by the goodness of the friendly soul; which is as much +as to say, by right appetite and right reason. And it is possible to +say here that as true friendship amongst men is, that each love each +entirely, so the true Philosopher loves each part of Wisdom, and +Wisdom each part of the Philosopher, so as to draw him wholly to +herself, and to allow no thought of his to stray away to other things. +Wherefore Wisdom herself says in the Proverbs of Solomon, "I love +those who love me." And as true friendship of the mind, considered in +itself alone, has for its subject the knowledge of good effects, and +for its form the desire for the same, even so Philosophy considered in +itself alone, apart from the Soul, has understanding for its subject, +and for its form an almost divine love to intellect. + +And as the efficient cause of true friendship is Virtue, so the +efficient cause of Philosophy is Truth. And as the end of true +friendship is true affection, which proceeds from the intercourse +proper to Humanity, that is, according to the dictates of Reason, as +Aristotle seems to think in the ninth book of the Ethics, so the end +of Philosophy is that most excellent affection which suffers no +intermission or defect, that is, the true happiness which is acquired +by the contemplation of Truth. + +And thus it is now possible to see who this my Lady is, in all her +causes and in her whole reason, and why she is called Philosophy; and +who is a true Philosopher, and who is one by accident. + +But in some fervour or heat of mind the one and the other end of the +acts and of the passions are called by the word for the act itself or +the passion; as Virgil does in the second book of the AEneid, where he +calls Hector, "Oh, light" (which was the act) "and hope" (which is the +passion) "of the Trojans:" for he was neither the light nor the hope, +but he was the end whence came to them their light in council, and he +was the end in which was reposed their hope of safety; as Statius +writes in the fifth book of the Thebaid, when Hypsipyle says to +Archemorus, "Oh, consolation of things and of the lost country! oh, +honour of my servitude!" even as we say daily, showing the friend, +"See my friendship;" and the father says to the son, "My love;" and so +it is that, through long custom, the Sciences, in which most fervently +Philosophy finds the end to which she looks, are called by her name, +such as the Natural Science, the Moral Science, and the Metaphysical +Science, which last, because most necessarily she looks to her end in +that chiefly and most fervently, is called the First Philosophy. + +Now, therefore, since it has been seen what the true Philosophy is in +its essence; which is that Lady of whom I speak; how her noble name +through custom is communicated to the Sciences, and the first science +is called the First Philosophy, I may proceed further with her praise. + + + + +CHAPTER XII. + + +In the first chapter of this treatise the reason which moved me to +this Song is so fully discussed that it is no longer necessary to +discuss it further, for one can easily enough recall to mind what has +been said in this exposition: and therefore, following the divisions +made for the Literal meaning, I shall run through the Song, turning +back to the sense of the letter where it may be needful. I say, "Love, +reasoning of my Lady in my mind." By Love I mean the labour and pains +I took to acquire the love of this Lady. If one wishes to know what +labour, it can be here considered in two ways. There is one study +which leads the man to the daily use of Art and Science; there is +another study which he will employ in the acquired use. The first is +that which I call Love, which fills my mind continually with new and +most exalted ideas of this Lady: even as the anxious pains which one +takes to acquire a friendship are wont to do; for, when desiring that +friendship, a man is wont to take anxious thought concerning it. This +is that study and that affection which usually precedes in men the +begetting of the friendship, when already on one side Love is born, +and desires and strives that it may be on the other; for, as is said +above, Philosophy is born when the Soul and Wisdom have become +friends, so that the one is loved by the other. + +Neither is it again needful to discuss that first stanza in the +present explanation, which was reasoned out as the Proem in the +Literal exposition; since, from the first argument thereof, it is easy +enough to make out the meaning in this the second one. + +We may proceed, then, to the second part, which begins the treatise, +and to that place where I say, "The Sun sees not in travel round the +Earth." Here it is to be known that as, when discoursing of a sensible +thing, one handles it suitably by means of an insensible thing, so of +an intelligible thing, one fitly argues by means of an unintelligible. +In the Literal sense one speaks of the Sun as a substantial and +sensible body; so now it is fit, by image of the Sun, to discourse of +the Spiritual and Unintelligible, that is, God. + +There is no visible thing in all the world more worthy to serve as a +type of God than the Sun, which illuminates with visible light itself +first, and then all the celestial and elemental bodies. Thus, God +illuminates Himself first with intellectual light, and then the +celestial and other intelligible beings. The Sun vivifies all things +with his heat, and if anything is destroyed thereby, it is not by the +intention of the cause, but it is an accidental effect: thus God +vivifies all things in His Goodness, and, if any suffer evil, it is +not by the Divine intention, but the effect is accidental. For, if God +made the Angels good and evil, He did not make both by intention, but +He made the good only; there followed afterwards, beyond His +intention, the wickedness of the evil ones; but not so far beyond His +intention that God could not foreknow in Himself their wickedness; but +so great was the loving desire to produce the Spiritual creature that +the foreknowledge that some would come to a bad end neither could nor +should prevent God from continuing the production; as it would not be +to the praise of Nature if, knowing of herself that the flowers of a +tree in a certain part must perish, she should refuse to produce +flowers on that tree, and should abandon the production of +fruit-bearing trees as vain and useless. I say, then, that God, who +encircles and understands all, in His encircling and His understanding +sees nothing so gentle, so noble, as He sees when He shines on this +Philosophy. For, although God Himself, beholding, may see all things +together, inasmuch as the distinction of things is in Him in the same +way as the effect is in the cause, yet He sees those things also apart +and distinct. He sees, then, this Lady the most noble of all +absolutely, inasmuch as most perfectly He sees her in Himself and in +her essence. If what has been said above be recalled to mind, +Philosophy is a loving use of Wisdom; which especially is in God, +because in Him is Supreme Wisdom, and Supreme Love, and Supreme +Action; which cannot be elsewhere except inasmuch as it proceeds from +Him. It is, then, the Divine Philosophy of the Divine Being, since in +Him nothing can be that is not part of His Essence; and it is most +noble, because the Divine Essence is most noble, and it is in Him in a +manner perfect and true, as if by eternal wedlock; it is in the other +Intelligences in a less degree, as if platonic, as if a virgin love +from whom no lover receives full and complete joy, but contents +himself by gazing on the beauty of her countenance. Wherefore it is +possible to say that God sees not, that He does not intently regard, +anything so noble as this Lady; I say anything, inasmuch as He sees +and distinguishes the other things, as has been said, seeing Himself +to be the cause of all. Oh, most noble and most excellent heart, which +is at peace in the bride of the Ruler of Heaven; and not bride only, +but sister, and the daughter beloved above all others. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + + +Having seen in the beginning of the praises of this Lady how subtly it +is said that she is of the Divine Substance, as was first to be +considered, we proceed now to consider her as she is in the +Intelligences that proceed thence. "All minds of Heaven wonder at her +worth," where it is to be known that I say, "minds of Heaven," making +that allusion to God which has been mentioned above; and from this one +excludes the Intelligences who are exiled from the eternal country, +who can never study Philosophy, because love in them is entirely +extinct, and for the study of Philosophy, as has been already said, +Love is necessary. One sees, therefore, that the spirits of Hell are +deprived of the sight of this most beautiful Lady; and, since she is +the blessing of the intellect, the deprivation of her is most bitter +and full of every sadness. + +Then, when I say, "Mortals, enamoured, find her in their thought," I +descend to show how she also may come into the Human Intelligence in a +secondary degree; with which Human Philosophy I then proceed through +the treatise, praising it. I say, then, that the mortals who "find her +in their thought" in this life do not always find her there, but only +"When Love his peace into their hearts has brought;" wherein there are +to be seen three points which are alluded to in this text. + +The first is when one says, "Mortals, enamoured," because it seems to +make a distinction in the human race, and of necessity it must be +made; for, according to what manifestly appears, and which in the +following treatise will be specially reasoned out, the greatest part +of men live more according to the Sense than according to Reason; and +those who live according to the Sense can never be enamoured of this +Lady, since of her they can have no apprehension whatever. + +The second point is when it says, "When Love his peace into their +minds has brought," where it appears to make a distinction of time. +And that is necessary; for, although the separate Intelligences gaze +at this Lady continually, the Human Intelligence cannot do so; since +Human Nature, besides that which gives delight to the Intellect and +the Reason, has need of many things requisite for its support which +contemplation cannot furnish forth. Therefore our Wisdom is sometimes +habitual only, and not actual; and this does not happen to the other +Intelligences, which alone are perfect in their intellectual nature. +And so, when our soul is not in the act of contemplation, one cannot +truly say that it is in Philosophy, except inasmuch as it has the +habit of it, and the power of being able to arouse it; sometimes, +therefore, she is with the people who are enamoured of her here below, +and sometimes not. + +The third point is, when it speaks of the time when those people are +with her, namely, when Love has brought into their minds his peace; +which means no other than when the man is in the act of contemplation, +since he does not strive to feel the peace of that Lady except in the +act of contemplation. + +And thus one sees how this Lady is firstly in the Mind of God, +secondly in the other separate Intelligences through continual +contemplation, and afterwards in the human intellect through +interpreted contemplation. But the man who has her for his Lady is +ever to be termed a Philosopher, notwithstanding that he may not be +always in the final act of Philosophy, for it is usual to name other +men after their habits. Wherefore we call any man virtuous, not merely +when performing virtuous actions, but from having the habit or custom +of virtue. And we call a man eloquent, even when he is not speaking, +from his habit of eloquence, that is, of speaking well. + +And of this Philosophy, in which Human Intelligence has part, there +will now be the following encomiums to prove how great a part of her +good gifts is bestowed on Human Nature. I say, then, afterwards: + + Her Maker saw that she was good, and poured, + Beyond our Nature, fulness of His Power + On her pure Soul, whence shone this holy dower + Through all her frame. + +For the capacity of our Nature is subdued by it, which it makes +beautiful and virtuous. Wherefore, although into the habit of that +Lady one may somewhat come, it is not possible to say that any one who +enters thereinto properly has that habit; since the first study, that +whereby the habit is begotten, cannot perfectly acquire that +philosophy. And here one sees her lowly praise; for, perfect or +imperfect, she never loses the name of perfection. And because of this +her surpassing excellence, it says that the Soul of Philosophy "shone +Through all her frame," that is, that God ever imparts to her of His +Light. + +Here we may recall to mind what is said above, that Love is a form of +Philosophy, and therefore here is called her Soul; which Love is +manifest in the use of Wisdom, and such use brings with it a wonderful +beauty, that is to say, contentment under any condition of the time, +and contempt for those things which other men make their masters. + +Wherefore it happens that those other unhappy ones who gaze thereon, +and think over their own defects from the desire for perfection, fall +into the weariness of sighs; and this is meant where it says: "That +from the eyes she touches heralds fly Heartward with longings, +heavenward with a sigh." + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. + + +As in the Literal exposition, after the general praises one descends +to the especial, firstly on the part of the Soul, then on the part of +the body, so now the text proceeds after the general encomium to +descend to the especial commendation. As it is said above, Philosophy +here has Wisdom for its material subject and Love for its form, and +the habit of contemplation for the union of the two. Wherefore in this +passage which subsequently begins, "On her fair form Virtue Divine +descends," I mean to praise Love, which is part of Philosophy. Here it +is to be known that for a virtue to descend from one thing into +another there is no other way than to reduce that thing into its own +similitude; as we see evidently in the natural agents, for their +virtue descending into the things that are the patients, they bring +those things into their similitude as far as they are able to attain +it. + +We see that the Sun, pouring his rays down on this Earth, reduces the +things thereon to his own similitude of light in proportion as they by +their own disposition are able to receive light of his light. Thus, I +say that God reduces this Love to His own Similitude as much as it is +possible for it to bear likeness to Him. And it alludes to the nature +of the creative act, saying, "As on the Angel that beholds His face." +Where again it is to be known that the first Agent, who is God, paints +His Virtue on some things by means of direct radiance, and on some +things by means of reflected splendour; wherefore into the separate +Intelligences the Divine Light shines without any interposing medium; +into the others it is reflected from those Intelligences which were +first illumined. + +But since mention is here made of Light and Splendour, for the more +perfect understanding thereof I will show the difference between those +words, according to the opinion of Avicenna. I say that it is the +custom of Philosophers to speak of Heaven as Light, inasmuch as Light +is there in its primeval Spring, or its first origin. They speak of it +as a ray of Light while it passes through the medium from its source +into the first body in which it has its end; they call it Splendour +where it is reflected back from some part that has received +illumination. I say, then, that the Divine Virtue or Power draws this +Love into Its Own Similitude without any interposing medium. + +And it is possible to make this evident, especially in this, that as +the Divine Love is Eternal, so must its object of necessity be +eternal, so that those things are eternal which He loves. And thus it +makes this Love to love, for the Wisdom into which this Love strikes +is eternal. Wherefore it is written of her: "From the beginning, +before Time was created, I am: and in the Time to come I shall not +fail." And in the Proverbs of Solomon this Wisdom says: "I am +established for ever." And in the beginning of the Gospel of John, her +eternity is openly alluded to, as it is possible to observe. And +therefore it results that there, where this Love shines, all the other +Loves become obscure and almost extinct, since its eternal object +subdues and overpowers all other objects in a manner beyond all +comparison; and therefore the most excellent Philosophers in their +actions openly demonstrate it, whereby we know that they have treated +all other things with indifference except Wisdom. Wherefore +Democritus, neglecting all care of his own person, trimmed neither his +beard, nor the hair of his head, nor his nails. Plato, indifferent to +the riches of this world, despised the royal dignity, for he was the +son of a king. Aristotle, caring for no other friend, combated with +his own best friend, even with the above-named Plato, his dearest +friend after Philosophy. And why do we speak of these, when we find +others who, for these thoughts, held their life in contempt, such as +Zeno, Socrates, Seneca, and many more? It is evident, therefore, that +in this Love the Divine Power, after the manner of an Angel, descends +into men; and to give proof of this, the text presently exclaims: +"Fair one who doubt, go with her, mark the grace In all her acts." By +"Fair one" is meant the noble soul of judgment, free in its own power, +which is Reason; hence the other souls cannot be called Ladies, but +handmaids, since they are not for themselves, but for others; and the +Philosopher says, in the first book of Metaphysics, that that thing is +free which is a cause of itself and not for others. It says, "go with +her, mark the grace In all her acts," that is, make thyself the +companion of this Love, and look at that which will be found within +it; and in part it alludes to this, saying, "Downward from Heaven +bends An Angel when she speaks," meaning that where Philosophy is in +action a celestial thought stoops down, in which this being reasons or +discourses beyond the power of Human Nature. + +The Song says "from Heaven," to give people to understand that not +only Philosophy, but the thoughts friendly to it, are abstracted from +all low and earthly things. Then afterwards it says how she +strengthens and kindles love wherever she appears with the sweet +persuasions of her actions, which are in all her aspects modest, +gentle, and without any domineering assumption. And subsequently, by +still greater persuasion to induce a desire for her company, it says: +"Fair in all like her, fairest she'll appear Who is most like her." +Again it adds: "We, content to call Her face a Miracle," find help in +it, where it is to be known that the regard of this Lady was freely +ordained to arouse a desire in us for its acquisition, not only in her +countenance, which she reveals to sight, but also in the things which +she keeps hidden. Wherefore as, through her, much of that which is +hidden is seen by means of Reason (and consequently to see by Reason +without her seems a miracle), so, through her, one believes each +miracle in the action of a higher intellectual Power to have reason, +and therefore to be possible. From whence true Faith has its origin, +from which comes the Hope to desire the Future, and from that are born +the works of Charity, by which three Virtues we mount to become +Philosophers in that celestial Athens where Stoics, Peripatetics, and +Epicureans, by the practice of Eternal Truth, concur harmoniously in +one desire. + + + + +CHAPTER XV. + + +In the preceding chapter this glorious Lady is praised according to +one of her component parts, that is, Love. In this chapter I intend to +explain that passage which begins, "Her aspect shows delights of +Paradise," and here it is requisite to discuss and praise her other +part, Wisdom. + +The text then says that in the face of this Lady things appear which +show us joys of Paradise; and it distinguishes the place where this +appears, namely, in the eyes and the smile. And here it must be known +that the eyes of Wisdom are her demonstrations, whereby one sees the +Truth most certainly; but her persuasions are in her smile, in which +persuasions the inner Light of Wisdom reveals itself without any veil +or concealment. And in these two is felt that most exalted joy which +is the supreme good in Paradise. This joy cannot be in any other thing +here below, except in gazing into these eyes and upon that smile. And +the reason is this, that since each thing naturally desires its +perfection, without which it cannot be at peace, to have that is to be +blessed. For although it might possess all other things, yet, being +without that, there would remain in it desire, which cannot consist +with perfect happiness, since perfect happiness is a perfect thing, +and desire is a defective thing. For one desires not that which he +has, but that which he has not, and here is a manifest defect. And in +this form solely can human perfection be acquired, as the perfection +of Reason, on which, as on its principal part, our essential being all +depends. All our other actions, as to feel or hear, to take food, and +the rest, are through this one alone; and this is for itself, and not +for others. So that, if that be perfect, it is so perfect that the +man, inasmuch as he is a man, sees each desire fulfilled, and thus he +is happy. And therefore it is said in the Book of Wisdom: "Whoso +casteth away Wisdom and Knowledge is unhappy," that is to say, he +suffers the privation of happiness. From the habit of Wisdom it +follows that a man learns to be happy and content, according to the +opinion of the Philosopher. One sees, then, how in the aspect of this +Lady joys of Paradise appear, and therefore one reads in the Book of +Wisdom quoted above, when speaking of her, "She is a shining whiteness +of the Eternal Light; a Mirror without blemish, of the Majesty of +God." Then when it says, "Things over which the intellect may stray," +I excuse myself, saying that I can say but little concerning these, on +account of their overpowering influence. Where it is to be known that +in any way these things dazzle our intellect, inasmuch as they affirm +certain things to be, which our intellect is unable to comprehend, +that is, God and Eternity, and the first Matter which most certainly +they do not see, and with all faith they believe to be. And even what +they are we cannot understand; and so, by not denying things, it is +possible to draw near to some knowledge of them, but not otherwise. + +Truly here it is possible to have some very strong doubt how it is +that Wisdom can make the man completely happy without being able to +show him certain things perfectly; since the natural desire for +knowledge is in the man, and without fulfilment of the desire he +cannot be fully happy. To this it is possible to reply clearly, that +the natural desire in each thing is in proportion to the possibility +of reaching to the thing desired; otherwise it would pass into +opposition to itself, which is impossible; and Nature would have +worked in vain, which also is impossible. + +It would pass into opposition, for, desiring its perfection, it would +desire its imperfection, since he would desire always to desire, and +never fulfil his desire. And into this error the cursed miser falls, +and does not perceive that he desires always to desire, going +backwards to reach to an impossible amount. + +Nature also would have worked in vain, since it would not be ordained +to any end; and, in fact, human desire is proportioned in this life to +that knowledge which it is possible to have here. One cannot pass that +point except through error, which is outside the natural intention. +And thus it is proportioned in the Angelic, and it is limited in Human +Nature, and it finds its end in that Wisdom in proportion as the +nature of each can apprehend it. + +And this is the reason why the Saints have no envy amongst themselves, +since each one attains the end of his desire, and the desire of each +is in due proportion to the nature of his goodness. Wherefore, since +to know God and certain other things, as Eternity and the first +Matter, is not possible to our Nature, naturally we have no desire for +that knowledge, and hereby is this doubtful question solved. + +Then when I say, "Rain from her beauty little flames of fire," I +proceed to another joy of Paradise, that is, from the secondary +felicity, happiness, to this first one, which proceeds from her +beauty, where it is to be known that Morality is the beauty of +Philosophy. For as the beauty of the body is the result of its members +in proportion as they are fitly ordered, so the beauty of Wisdom, +which is the body of Philosophy, as has been said, results from the +order of the Moral Virtues which visibly make that joy. And therefore +I say that her beauty, which is Morality, rains down little flames of +fire, meaning direct desire, which is begotten in the pleasure of the +Moral Doctrine; which desire removes it again from the natural vices, +and not only from the others. And thence springs that happiness which +Aristotle defined in the first book of Ethics, saying, that it is Work +according to Virtue in the Perfect Life. + +And when it says, "Fair one, who may desire Escape from blame," it +proceeds in praise of Philosophy. I cry aloud to the people that they +should follow her, telling them of her good gifts, that is to say, +that by following her each one may become good. Therefore it says to +each Soul, that feels its beauty is to blame because it does not +appear what it ought to appear, let her look at this example. Where it +is to be known that the Morals are the beauty of the Soul, that is to +say, the most excellent virtues, which sometimes through vanity or +through pride are made less beautiful or less agreeable, as in the +last treatise it was possible to perceive. And therefore I say that, +in order to shun this, one looks at that Lady, Philosophy, there where +she is the example of Humility, namely, in that part of herself which +is called Moral Philosophy. And I subjoin that by gazing at her (I +say, at Wisdom) in that part, every vicious man will become upright +and good. And therefore I say she has "a spirit to create Good +thoughts, and crush the vices." She turns gently back him who has gone +astray from the right course. + +Finally, in highest praise of Wisdom, I say of her that she is the +Mother of every good Principle, saying that she is "God's thought," +who began the World, and especially the movement of the Heaven by +which all things are generated, and wherein each movement has its +origin, that is to say, that the Divine Thought is Wisdom. She was, +when God made the World; whence it follows that she could make it, and +therefore Solomon said in the Book of Proverbs, in the person of +Wisdom: "When He prepared the Heavens, I was there: when He set a +compass upon the face of the depth; when He established the clouds +above; when He strengthened the fountains of the deep; when He gave to +the sea His decree, that the waters should not pass His commandment; +when He appointed the foundations of the Earth: then I was by Him, as +one brought up with Him, and I was daily His delight, rejoicing always +before Him." O, ye Men, worse than dead, who fly from the friendship +of Wisdom, open your eyes, and see that before you were she was the +Lover of you, preparing and ordaining the process of your being! Since +you were made she came that she might guide you, came to you in your +own likeness; and, if all of you cannot come into her presence, honour +her in her friends, and follow their counsels, as of them who announce +to you the will of this eternal Empress! Close not your ears to +Solomon, who tells you "the path of the Just is as a shining Light, +which goeth forth and increaseth even to the day of salvation." Follow +after them, behold their works, which ought to be to you as a beacon +of light for guidance in the path of this most brief life. + +And here we may close the Commentary on the true meaning of the +present Song. The last stanza, which is intended for a refrain, can be +explained easily enough by the Literal exposition, except inasmuch as +it says that I there called this Lady "disdainful and morose." Where +it is to be known that at the beginning this Philosophy appeared to me +on the part of her body, which is Wisdom, morose, for she smiled not +on me, insomuch that as yet I did not understand her persuasions; and +she seemed to me disdainful, for she turned not her glance to me, that +is to say, I could not see her demonstrations. But the defect was +altogether on my side. From this, and from that which is given in the +explanation of the Literal meaning of the Song, the Allegory of the +refrain is evident. It is time, therefore, that we proceed farther, +and this treatise end. + + * * * * * + + + + +The Fourth Treatise + + + Soft rhymes of love I used to find + Within my thought, I now must leave, + Not without hope to turn to them again; + But signs of a disdainful mind + That in my Lady I perceive + Have closed the way to my accustomed strain. + + And since time suits me now to wait, + I put away the softer style + Proper to love; rhyme subtle and severe + Shall tell how Nobleman's estate + Is won by worth, hold false and vile + The judgment that from wealth derives a Peer. + + First calling on that Lord + Who dwells within her eyes, + Containing whom, my Lady learnt + Herself to love and prize. + + One raised to Empire held, + As far as he could see, + Descent of wealth, and generous ways, + To make Nobility. + + Another, lightly wise, + That saying turned aside, + Perchance for want of generous ways + The second source denied. + + And followers of him + Are all the men who rate + Those noble in whose families + The wealth has long been great. + + And so long among us + The falsehood has had sway, + That men call him a Nobleman, + Though worthless, who can say. + + I nephew am, or son, + Of one worth such a sum; + But he who sees the Truth may know + How vile he has become + + To whom the Truth was shown, + Who from the Truth has fled, + And though he walks upon the earth + Is counted with the dead: + + Whoever shall define + The man a living tree + Will speak untruth and less than truth, + Though more he may not see. + + The Emperor so erred; + First set the false in view, + Proceeding, on the other side, + To what was less than true. + + For riches make not worth + Although they can defile: + Nor can their want take worth away: + They are by nature vile. + + No painter gives a form + That is not of his knowing; + No tower leans above a stream + That far away is flowing. + + How vile and incomplete + Wealth is, let this declare + However great the heap may be + It brings no peace, but care. + + And hence the upright mind, + To its own purpose true, + Stands firm although the flood of wealth + Sweep onward out of view + + They will not have the vile + Turn noble, nor descent + From parent vile produce a race + For ever eminent. + + Yet this, they say, can be, + Their reason halts behind, + Since time they suit to noble birth + By course of time defined. + + It follows then from this + That all are high or base, + Or that in Time there never was + Beginning to our race. + + But that I cannot hold, + Nor yet, if Christians, they; + Sound intellect reproves their words + As false, and turns away. + + And now I seek to tell, + As it appears to me, + What is, whence comes, what signs attest + A true Nobility. + + I say that from one root + Each Virtue firstly springs, + Virtue, I mean, that Happiness + To man, by action, brings. + + This, as the Ethics teach, + Is habit of right choice + That holds the means between extremes, + So spake that noble voice. + + Nobility by right + No other sense has had + Than to import its subject's good, + As vileness makes him bad. + + Such virtue shows its good + To others' intellect, + For when two things agree in one, + Producing one effect. + + One must from other come, + Or each one from a third, + If each be as each, and more, then one + From the other is inferred. + + Where Virtue is, there is + A Nobleman, although + Not where there is a Nobleman + Must Virtue be also. + + So likewise that is Heaven + Wherein a star is hung, + But Heaven may be starless; so + In women and the young + + A modesty is seen, + Not virtue, noble yet; + Comes virtue from what's noble, as + From black comes violet; + + Or from the parent root + It springs, as said before, + And so let no one vaunt that him. + A noble mother bore. + + They are as Gods whom Grace + Has placed beyond all sin: + God only gives it to the Soul + That He finds pure within. + + That seed of Happiness + Falls in the hearts of few, + Planted by God within the Souls + Spread to receive His dew. + + Souls whom this Grace adorns + Declare it in each breath, + From birth that joins the flesh and soul + They show it until death. + + In Childhood they obey, + Are gentle, modest, heed + To furnish Virtue's person with + The graces it may need. + + Are temperate in Youth, + And resolutely strong, + Love much, win praise for courtesy, + Are loyal, hating wrong. + + Are prudent in their Age, + And generous and just, + And glad at heart to hear and speak + When good to man's discussed. + + The fourth part of their life + Weds them again to God, + They wait, and contemplate the end, + And bless the paths they trod. + + How many are deceived! My Song, + Against the strayers: when you reach + Our Lady, hide not from her that your end + Is labour that would lessen wrong, + And tell her too, in trusty speech, + I travel ever talking of your Friend. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + + +Love, according to the unanimous opinion of the wise men who discourse +of him, and as by experience we see continually, is that which brings +together and unites the lover with the beloved; wherefore Pythagoras +says, "In friendship many become one." + +And the things which are united naturally communicate their qualities +to each other, insomuch that sometimes it happens that one is wholly +changed into the nature of the other, the result being that the +passions of the beloved person enter into the person of the lover, so +that the love of the one is communicated to the other, and so likewise +hatred, desire, and every other passion; wherefore the friends of the +one are beloved by the other, and the enemies hated; and so in the +Greek proverb it is said: "With friends all things ought to be in +common." + +Wherefore I, having made a friend of this Lady, mentioned above in the +truthful exposition, began to love and to hate according to her love +and her hatred. I then began to love the followers of Truth, and to +hate the followers of Error and Falsehood, even as she does. But since +each thing is to be loved for itself and none are to be hated except +for excess of evil, it is reasonable and upright to hate not the +things, but the evil in the things, and to endeavour to distinguish +between these. And if any person has this intention, my most excellent +Lady understands especially how to distinguish the evil in anything, +which is the cause of hate; since in her is all Reason, and in her is +the fountain-head of all uprightness. + +I, following her as much as I could in her work as in her love, +abominated and despised the errors of the people with infamy or +reproach, not cast on those lost in error, but on the errors +themselves; by blaming which, I thought to create displeasure and to +separate the displeased ones from those faults in them which were +hated by me. Amongst which errors one especially I reproved, which, +because it is hurtful and dangerous not only to those who remain in +it, but also to others who reprove it, I separate it from them and +condemn. + +This is the error concerning Human Goodness, which, inasmuch as it is +sown in us by Nature, ought to be termed Nobility; which error was so +strongly entrenched by evil custom and by weak intellect that the +opinion of almost all people was falsified or deceived by it; and from +the false opinion sprang false judgments, and from false judgments +sprang unjust reverence and unjust contempt; wherefore the good were +held in vile disdain, and the evil were honoured and exalted. This was +the worst confusion in the world; even as he can see who looks subtly +at that which may result from it. And though it seemed that this my +Lady had somewhat changed her sweet countenance towards me, especially +where I gazed and sought to discover whether the first Matter of the +Elements was created by God, for which reason I strengthened myself to +frequent her presence a little, as if remaining there with her assent, +I began to consider in my mind the fault of man concerning the said +error. And to shun sloth, which is an especial enemy of this Lady, and +to describe or state this error very clearly, this error which robs +her of so many friends, I proposed to cry aloud to the people who are +walking in the path of evil, in order that they might direct their +steps to the right road; and I began a Song, in the beginning of which +I said, "Soft rhymes of love I used to find," wherein I intend to lead +the people back into the right path, the path of right knowledge +concerning true Nobility, as by the knowledge of its text, to the +explanation of which I now turn my attention, any one will be able to +perceive. + +And since the intention of this Song is directed to a remedy so +requisite, it was not well to speak under any figure of speech; but it +was needful to prepare this medicine speedily, that speedy might be +the restoration to health, which, being so corrupted, hastened to a +hideous death. It will not, then, be requisite in the exposition of +this Song to unveil any allegory, but simply to discuss its meaning +according to the letter. By my Lady I always mean her who is spoken of +in the preceding Song, that is to say, that Light of supreme virtue, +Philosophy, whose rays cause the flowers of true Nobility to blossom +forth in mankind and to bear fruit in the sons of men; concerning +which true Nobility the proposed Song fully intends to treat. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + + +In the beginning of the explanation now undertaken, in order to render +the meaning of the proposed Song more clear and distinct, it is +requisite to divide that first part into two parts, for in the first +part one speaks in the manner of a Proem or Preface; in the second, +the subject under discussion is continued; and the second part begins +in the commencement of the stanza, where it says: + + One raised to Empire held, + As far as he could see, + Descent of wealth, and generous ways, + To make Nobility. + +The first part, again, can be comprehended in three divisions or +members. In the first it states why I depart from my usual mode of +speech; in the second, I say of what it is my intention to discourse; +in the third, I call upon that Helper who most can aid me to establish +Truth. The second member, clause, or division begins: "And since time +suits me now." The third begins: "First calling on that Lord." I say +then that I was compelled to abandon the soft rhymes of Love which I +was accustomed to search for in my thoughts, and I assign the reason +or cause; wherefore I say that it is not because I have given up all +intention of making rhymes of Love, but because new aspects have +appeared in my Lady which have deprived me of material for present +speech of Love. Where it is to be known that it does not here say that +the gestures of this Lady are disdainful and angry according to +appearance only, as may be seen in the tenth chapter of the preceding +treatise; for at another time I say that the appearance is contrary to +the Truth; and how this can be, how one self-same thing can be sweet +and appear bitter, or rather be clear and appear obscure, may there be +seen clearly enough. + +Afterwards when I say, "And since time suits," I say, even as has been +said, what that is whereof I intend to discourse. And that which it +says in the words "time suits" is not here to be passed over with a +dry foot, because there is a most powerful reason for my action; but +it is to be seen how reasonably time must wait on all our acts, and +especially on speech. + +Time, according to what Aristotle says in the fourth chapter of +Physics, is the number of movement, first, second, and onwards; and +the number of the celestial movement, which prepares the things here +below to receive in various ways any informing power. For the Earth is +prepared in one way in the beginning of Spring to receive into itself +the informing power of the herbs and flowers, and the Winter +otherwise; and in one manner is one season prepared to receive the +seed, differing from another. And even so our Mind, inasmuch as it is +founded upon the temper of the body, which has to follow the +revolution of the Heaven, at one time is disposed in one way, at +another time in another way; wherefore words, which are, as it were, +the seeds of actions, ought very discreetly to be withheld or uttered; +they should be spoken with such sound judgment that they may be well +received, and good fruit follow from them; not withheld or spent so +sparingly that barrenness is the result of their defective utterance. +And therefore a suitable time should be chosen, both for him who +speaks and for him who must hear: for if the speaker is badly +prepared, very often his words are injurious or hurtful; and if the +hearer is ill-disposed, those words which are good are ill received. +And therefore Solomon says in Ecclesiastes: "There is a time to speak, +and a time to be silent." Wherefore I, feeling within myself that my +disposition to speak of Love was disturbed, for the cause which has +been mentioned in the preceding chapter, it seemed to me that the time +might suit me now, time which bears with it the fulfilment of every +desire, and appears in the guise of a generous giver to those who +grudge not to await him patiently. Wherefore St. James says in his +Epistle, in the fifth chapter: "Behold, the husbandman waiteth for the +precious fruit of the Earth, and hath long patience for it, until he +receive the early and the latter rain." For all our sorrows, or cares, +or vexations, if we inquire diligently into their origin, proceed, as +it were, from not knowing the use of time. I say, "since the time +suits," I will leave my pen alone, that is to say, the sweet or gentle +style I used when I sang of Love; and I say that I will speak of that +worth whereby a man is truly noble. + +And as it is possible to understand worth in many ways, here I intend +to assume worth to be a power of Nature, or rather a goodness bestowed +by her, as will be seen in what follows; and I promise to discourse on +this subject with a "rhyme subtle and severe." + +Wherefore it is requisite to know that rhyme may be considered in a +double sense, that is to say, in a wide and in a narrow sense. In the +narrow sense, it is understood as that concordance which in the last +and in the penultimate syllable it is usual to make. In the wide +sense, it is understood for all that language which, with numbers and +regulated time, falls into rhymed consonance; and thus it is desired +that it should be taken and understood in this Proem. And therefore it +says "severe," with reference to the sound of the style, which to such +a subject must not be sweet and pleasing; and it says "subtle," with +regard to the meaning of the words, which proceed with subtle argument +and disputation. + +And I subjoin: "hold false and vile The judgment;" where again it is +promised to confute the judgment of the people full of error: false, +that is, removed from the Truth; and vile, that is to say, affirmed +and fortified by vileness of mind. And it is to be observed that in +this Proem I promise, firstly, to treat of the Truth, and then to +confute the False; and in the treatise the opposite is done, for, in +the first place, I confute the False, and then treat of the Truth, +which does not appear rightly according to the promise. And therefore +it is to be known that, although the intention is to speak of both, +the principal intention is to handle the Truth; and the intention is +to reprove the False or Untrue, in so far as by so doing I make the +Truth appear more excellent. + +And here, in the first place, the promise is to speak of the Truth +according to the chief intention, which creates in the minds of the +hearers a desire to hear; for in the first treatise I reprove the +False of Untrue in order that, the false opinions being chased away, +the Truth may be received more freely. And this method was adopted by +the master of human argument, Aristotle, who always in the first place +fought with the adversaries of Truth, and then, having vanquished +them, revealed or demonstrated Truth itself. + +Finally, when I say, "First calling on that Lord," I appeal to Truth +to be with me, Truth being that Lord who dwells in the eyes of +Philosophy, that is to say, in her demonstrations. And indeed Truth is +that Lord; for the Soul espoused to Truth is the bride of Truth, and +otherwise it is a slave or servant deprived of all liberty. + +And it says, "my Lady learnt Herself to love and prize," because this +Philosophy, which has been said in the preceding treatise to be a +loving use of Wisdom, beholds herself when the beauty of her eyes +appears to her. And what else is there to be said, except that the +Philosophic Soul not only contemplates this Truth, but again +contemplates her own contemplation and the beauty of that, again +revolving upon herself, and being enamoured with herself on account of +the beauty of her first glance? + +And thus ends this which, as a Proem or Preface in three divisions, +heads the present treatise. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + + +Having seen the meaning of the Proem, we must now follow the treatise, +and, to demonstrate it clearly, it must be divided into its chief +parts, which are three. + +In the first, one treats of Nobility according to the opinion of other +men; in the second, one treats of it according to the true opinion; in +the third, one addresses speech to the Song by way of ornament to that +which has been said. The second part begins: "I say that from one root +Each Virtue firstly springs." The third begins: "How many are +deceived! My Song, Against the strayers." And after these general +parts, it will be right to make other divisions, in order to make the +meaning of the demonstration clear. Therefore, let no one marvel if it +proceed with many divisions, since a great and high work is now on my +hands, and one that is but little entered upon by authors; the +treatise must be long and subtle into which the reader now enters with +me, if I am to unfold perfectly the text according to the meaning +which it bears. + +I say, then, that this first part is now divided into two: for in the +first, the opinions of others are placed; in the second, those +opinions are confuted; and this second part begins: "Whoever shall +define The man a living tree." Again, the first part which remains has +two clauses: the first is the variation of the opinion of the Emperor; +the second is the variation of the opinion of the Common People, which +is naked or void of all reason; and this second clause or division +begins: "Another, lightly wise." I say then, "One raised to Empire," +that is to say, such an one made use of the Imperial Office. Where it +is to be known that Frederick of Suabia, the last Emperor of the +Romans (I say last with respect to the present time, notwithstanding +that Rudolf, and Adolphus, and Albert were elected after his death and +from his descendants), being asked what Nobility might be, replied +that "it was ancient wealth, and good manners." + +And I say that there was another of less wisdom, who, pondering and +revolving this definition in every part, removed the last particle, +that is, the good manners, and held to the first, that is, to the +ancient riches. And as he seems to have doubted the text, perhaps +through not having good manners, and not wishing to lose the title of +Nobility, he defined it according to that which made himself noble, +namely, possession of ancient wealth. + +And I say that this opinion is that of almost all, saying that after +it go all the people who make those men noble who have a long +pedigree, and who have been rich through many generations; since in +this cry do almost all men bark. + +These two opinions (although one, as has been said, is of no +consequence whatever) seem to have two very grave arguments in support +of them. The first is, that the Philosopher says that whatever appears +true to the greatest number cannot be entirely false. The second is, +the authority of the definition by an Emperor. And that one may the +better see the power of the Truth, which conquers all other authority, +I intend to argue with the one reason as with the other, to which it +is a strong helper and powerful aid. + +And, firstly, one cannot understand Imperial authority until the roots +of it are found. It is our intention to treat or discourse of them in +an especial chapter. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + + +The radical foundation of Imperial Majesty, according to the Truth, is +the necessity of Human Civilization, which is ordained to one end, +that is, to a Happy Life. Nothing is of itself sufficient to attain +this without some external help, since man has need of many things +which one person alone is unable to obtain. And therefore the +Philosopher says that man is naturally a companionable animal. And as +a man requires for his sufficient comfort the domestic companionship +of a family, so a house requires for its sufficient comfort a +neighbourhood; otherwise there would be many wants to endure which +would be an obstacle to happiness. And since a neighbourhood cannot +satisfy all requirements, there must for the satisfaction of men be +the City. Again, the City requires for its Arts and Manufactures to +have an environment, as also for its defence, and to have brotherly +intercourse with the circumjacent or adjacent Cities, and thence the +Kingdom. + +But since the human mind in restricted possession of the Earth finds +no peace, but always desires to acquire Glory, as we see by +experience, discords and wars must arise between realm and realm. +These are the tribulation of Cities; and through the Cities, of the +neighbourhoods; and through the neighbourhoods, of the houses; and +through the houses, of men; and thus is the happiness of man prevented +or obstructed. Wherefore, in order to prevent these wars, and to +remove the causes of them through all the Earth, so far as it is given +to the Human Race to possess it, there must of necessity be Monarchy, +that is to say, one sole principality; and there must be one Prince, +who, possessing all, and not being able to desire more, holds the +Kings content within the limits of the kingdoms, so that peace may be +between them, wherein the Cities may repose, and in this rest the +neighbouring hamlets may dwell together in mutual love; in this love +the houses obtain all they need, which, being obtained, men can live +happily, which is that end for which man was born. And to these +reasons might be applied the words of the Philosopher, for he says, in +the book On Politics, that when many things are ordained to one end, +one of those must be the ruling power, and all the others must be +governed by that. Even as we see in a ship that the different offices +and the different means to different ends in that ship are ordained to +one end alone, that is to say, to reach the desired port by a safe +voyage, where as each officer orders his own work to the proper end, +even so there is one who considers all these ends, and ordains those +to the final one; and this is the Pilot, whose voice all must obey. + +We see this also in the religious bodies and in the military bodies, +in all those things which are ordained to one end, as has been said. +Wherefore it can plainly be seen that to attain the perfection of the +Universal Union of the Human Race there must be one Pilot, as it were, +who, considering the different conditions of the World, and ordaining +the different and needful offices, may hold or possess over the whole +the universal and incontestable office of Command. And this office is +well designated Empire, without any addition, because it is of all +other governments the government; and so he who is appointed to this +office is designated Emperor, because of all Governors he is the +Governor, and what he says is Law to all, and ought by all to be +obeyed; and every other government derives vigour and authority from +the government of this man. And thus it is evident that the Imperial +Majesty and Authority is the most exalted in the Human Family. + +No doubt it would be possible for some one to cavil, saying, that +although the office of Empire may be required in the World, that does +not make the authority of the Roman Prince rationally supreme, which +it is the intention of the treatise to prove; since the Roman Power +was acquired, not by Reason nor by decree of Universal Election, but +by Force, which seems to be opposed to Reason. To this one can easily +reply, that the election of this Supreme Official must primarily +proceed from that Council which foresees all things, that is, God; +otherwise the election would not have been of equal benefit for all +the people, since, before the pre-ordained Official, there was none +who had the good of all at heart. + +And since a gentler nature in ruling, and a stronger in maintaining, +and a more subtle in acquiring never was and never will be than that +of the Latin People, as one can see by experience, and especially that +of the Holy People, in whom was blended the noble Trojan blood; to +that office it was elected by God. Wherefore, since, to obtain it, not +without very great power could it be approached, and to employ it a +most exalted and most humane benignity was required, this was the +people which was most fitly prepared for it. Hence not by Force was it +assumed in the first place by the Roman People but by Divine +Ordinance, which is above all Reason. And Virgil is in harmony with +this in the first book of the AEneid, when he says, speaking in the +person of God: "On these [that is, on the Romans] I impose no limits +to their possessions, nor to their duration; to them I have given +boundless Empire." Force, then, was not the moving cause, as he +believed who was cavilling; but there was an instrumental cause even +as the blows of the hammer are the cause of the knife, and the soul of +the workman is the moving and the efficient cause; and thus, not +force, but a cause, even a Divine Cause, has been the origin of the +Roman Empire. + +And that this is so it is possible to see by two most evident reasons, +which prove that City to be the Empress, and to have from God an +especial birth, and to have from God an especial success. But since in +this chapter without too great length it would not be possible to +discuss this subject, and long chapters are the enemies of Memory, I +will again make a digression in another chapter in order to prove the +reasons here alluded to, which are not without and may give great +pleasure. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + + +It is no cause for wonder if the Divine Providence, which surpasses +beyond measure all angelic and human foresight, often appears to us to +proceed mysteriously, since many times human actions conceal their +motives from men. But there is great cause for wonder when the +execution of the Eternal Counsel proceeds so evidently that our reason +can discern it. And therefore in the beginning of this chapter I can +speak with the mouth of Solomon, who, in the person of Wisdom, says in +his Proverbs: "Hear, for I will speak of excellent things!" + +The Divine Goodness unmeasureable, desiring to conform again to Itself +the Human Creature, which, through the sin of the prevarication of the +first Man, was separated from God and deformed thereby, it was +decided, in that most exalted and most united Divine Consistory of the +Trinity, that the Son of God should descend to the Earth to accomplish +this union. And since at His advent into the world, not only Heaven, +but Earth, must be in the best disposition; and the best disposition +of the Earth is when it is a Monarchy, that is to say, all subject to +one Prince, as has been said above, by Divine Providence it was +ordained what people and what city should fulfil this, and that people +was the Roman nation, and that city was glorious Rome. And since the +Inn also wherein the Heavenly King must enter must of necessity be +most cleanly and most pure, there was ordained a most Holy Race, from +which, after many excellent or just ancestors, there should be born a +Woman more perfect than all others, who should be the abode of the Son +of God. And this race was the Race of David, from which was born the +glory and honour of the Human Race, that is to say, Mary. And +therefore it is written in Isaiah: "A virgin shall be born of the stem +of Jesse, and a branch shall grow out of his roots." And Jesse was the +father of the aforesaid David. And it happened at one period of time +that when David was born, Rome was born, that is to say, AEneas then +came from Troy to Italy, which was the origin of the most noble Roman +City, even as the written word bears witness. Evident enough, +therefore, is the Divine election of the Roman Empire by the birth of +the Holy City, which was contemporaneous with the root of the race +from which Mary sprang. + +And incidentally it is to be mentioned that, since this Heaven began +to revolve, it never was in a better disposition than when He +descended from on high, He who had made it and who is its Ruler, even +as again by virtue of their arts the Mathematicians may be able to +discover. The World never was nor ever will be so perfectly prepared +as then, when it was governed by the voice of one man alone, Prince +and Commander of the Roman people, even as Luke the Evangelist bears +witness. And therefore there was Universal Peace, which never was +again nor ever will be, for the Ship of the Human Family rightly by a +sweet pathway was hastening to its rightful haven. Oh, ineffable and +incomprehensible Wisdom of God, which in Heaven above didst prepare, +so long beforehand, for Thy advent into Syria and here in Italy at the +same time! And oh, most foolish and vile beasts who pasture in the +guise of men--you who presume to speak against our Faith, and profess +to know, as ye spin and dig, what God has ordained with so much +forethought--curses be on you and your presumption, and on him who +believes in you! + +And, as has been said above, at the end of the preceding chapter, the +Roman People had from God not only an especial birth, but an especial +success; for, briefly, from Romulus, who was the first father of Rome, +even to its most perfect era, that is, to the time of its predicted +Emperor, its success was achieved not only by human, but by Divine +means. For if we consider the Seven Kings who first governed +it--Romulus, Numa, Tullus, Ancus Martius, Servius Tullius, and the +Tarquins, who were, as it were, the nurses and tutors of its +Childhood--we shall be able to find, by the written word of Roman +History, especially by Titus Livius, those to have been of different +natures, according to the opportunity of the advancing tract of time. +If we consider, then, its Adolescence, when it was emancipated from +the regal tutorship by Brutus, the first Consul, even to Caesar, its +first supreme Prince, we shall find it exalted, not with human, but +with Divine citizens, into whom, not human, but Divine love was +inspired in loving Rome; and this neither could be nor ought to be, +except for an especial end intended by God through such infusion of a +heavenly spirit. And who will say that there was no Divine inspiration +in Fabricius when he rejected an almost infinite amount of gold +because he was unwilling to abandon his country? or in Curius, whom +the Samnites attempted to corrupt, who said, when refusing a very +large quantity of gold for love of his country, that the Roman +citizens did not desire to possess gold, but the possessors of the +gold? Who will say there was no Divine inspiration in Mutius burning +his own hand because it had failed in the blow wherewith he had +thought to deliver Rome? Who will say of Torquatus, who sentenced his +own son to death from love to the Public Good, that he could have +endured this without a Divine Helper? Who will say this of the Brutus +before mentioned? Who will say it of the Decii and of the Drusi, who +laid down their lives for their country? Who will say of the captive +Regulus of Carthage, sent to Rome to exchange the Carthaginian +prisoners for Roman prisoners of war, who, after having explained the +object of his embassy, gave counsel against himself; through pure love +to Rome, that he was moved to do this by the impulse of Human Nature +alone? Who will say it of Quinctius Cincinnatus, who, taken from the +plough and made dictator, after the time of office had expired, +spontaneously refusing its continuance, followed his plough again? Who +will say of Camillus, banished and chased into exile, who, having come +to deliver Rome from her enemies, and having accomplished her +liberation, spontaneously returned into exile in order not to offend +against the authority of the Senate, that he was without Divine +inspiration? O, most sacred heart of Cato, who shall presume to speak +of thee? Truly, to speak freely of thee is not possible; it were +better to be silent and to follow Jerome, when, in the Preface of the +Bible where he alludes to Paul, he says that it were better to be +silent than say little. Certainly it must be evident, remembering the +lives of these men and of the other Divine citizens, that such wonders +could not have been without some light of the Divine Goodness, added +to their own goodness of nature. And it must be evident that these +most excellent men were instruments with which Divine Providence +worked in the building up of the Roman Empire, wherein many times the +arm of God appeared to be present. And did not God put His own hand to +the battle wherein the Albans fought with the Romans in the beginning +for the chief dominion, when one Roman alone held in his hands the +liberty of Rome? And did not God interfere with His own hands when the +Franks, having taken all Rome, attacked by stealth the Capitol by +night, and the voice alone of a goose caused this to be known? And did +not God interfere with His own hands when, in the war with Hannibal, +having lost so many citizens that three bushels of rings were carried +into Africa, the Romans wished to abandon the land, if the blessed +Scipio the younger had not undertaken his expedition into Africa for +the recovery of freedom? And did not God interfere with His own hands +when a new citizen of humble station, Tullius, defended, against such +a citizen as Catiline, the Roman liberty? Yes, surely. Wherefore one +should not need to inquire further to see that an especial birth and +an especial success were in the Mind of God decreed to that holy City. +And certainly I am of a firm opinion that the stones which remain in +her walls are worthy of reverence; and it is asserted and proved that +the ground whereon she stands is worthy beyond all other that is +occupied by man. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + + +Above, in the third chapter of this treatise, a promise was made to +discourse of the supremacy of the Imperial Authority and of the +Philosophic Authority. And since the Imperial Authority has been +discussed, my digression must now proceed further in order to consider +that of the Philosopher, according to the promise made. + +And here we must first see what is the meaning of this word; since +here there is a greater necessity to understand it than there was +above in the argument on the Imperial Authority, which, on account of +its Majesty, does not seem to be doubted. It is then to be known that +Authority is no other than the act of the Author. + +This word, that is to say, Auctore, without this third letter, +_c_, can be derived from two roots. One is from a verb, whose use +in grammar is much abandoned, which signifies to bind or to tie words +together, that is, A U I E O; and whoso looks well at it in its first +vowel or syllable will clearly perceive that it demonstrates it +itself, for it is constituted solely of a tie of words, that is, of +five vowels alone, which are the soul and bond of every word, and +composed of them in a twisted way, to figure the image of a ligature; +for beginning with the A, then it twists round into the U, and comes +straight through the I into the E, then it revolves and turns round +into the O: so that truly this figure represents A, E, I, O, U, which +is the figure or form of a tie; and how much _Autore_ (Author) +derives its origin from this word, one learns from the poets alone, +who have bound their words together with the art of harmony; but on +this signification we do not at present dwell. The other root from +which the word "Autore" (Author) is derived, as Uguccione testifies in +the beginning of his Derivations, is a Greek word, "Autentim," which +in Latin means "worthy of faith and obedience." And thus "Autore" +(Author), derived from this, is taken for any person worthy to be +believed and obeyed; and thence comes this word, of which one treats +at the present moment, that is to say, Authority. Wherefore one can +see that Authority is equivalent to an act worthy of faith and +obedience. + +[Here is a small break in the original, containing some such words +as--Worthy, nay, most worthy, of obedience and of faith is Aristotle:] +hence it is evident that his words are a supreme and chief Authority. +That Aristotle is most worthy of faith and obedience, one can thus +prove. Amongst workmen and artificers of different Arts and +Manufactures, which are all directed to one final work of Art, or to +one building, the Artificer or Designer of that work must be +completely believed in, and implicitly obeyed by all, as the man who +alone beholds the ultimate end of all the other ends. Hence the +sword-cutler must believe in the knight, so must the bridle-maker and +saddle-maker and the shield-maker, and all those trades which are +appointed to the profession of knighthood. And since all human actions +require an aim, which is that of human life, to which man is appointed +inasmuch as he is man, the master and artificer who considers that aim +and demonstrates it ought especially to be believed in and obeyed; and +he is Aristotle; wherefore he is most worthy of faith and obedience. +And in order to see how Aristotle is the master and leader of Human +Reason in so far as it aims at its final operation, it is requisite to +know that this our aim of life, which each one naturally desires, in +most ancient times was searched for by the Wise Men; and since those +who desire this end are so numerous, and their desires are as it were +all singularly different, although they exist in us universally, it +was nevertheless very difficult to discern that end whereon rightly +each human appetite or desire might repose. + +There were then many ancient philosophers, the first and the chief of +whom was Zeno, who saw and believed this end of human life to be +solely a rigid honesty, that is to say, rigid without regard to any +one in following Truth and Justice, to show no sorrow, to show no joy, +to have no sense of any passion whatever. And they defined thus this +honest uprightness, as that which, without bearing fruit, is to be +praised for reason of itself. And these men and their sect were called +Stoics; and that glorious Cato was one of them, of whom in the +previous chapter I had not courage enough to speak. + +Other philosophers there were who saw and believed otherwise; and of +these the first and chief was a philosopher, who was named Epicurus, +who, seeing that each animal as soon as it is born is as it were +directed by Nature to its right end, which shuns pain and seeks for +pleasure, said that this end or aim of ours was enjoyment. I do not +say greedy enjoyment, voluntade, but I write it with a _p_, +voluptate, that is, delight or pleasure free from pain; and therefore +between pleasure and pain no mean was placed. He said that pleasure +was no other than no pain; as Tullius seems to say in the first +chapter De Finibus. And of these, who from Epicurus are named +Epicureans, was Torquatus, a noble Roman, descended from the blood of +the glorious Torquatus mention of whom I made above. There were +others, and they had their rise from Socrates, and then from his +successor, Plato, who, looking more subtly, and seeing that in our +actions it was possible to sin, and that one sinned in too much and in +too little, said that our action, without excess and without defect, +measured to the due mean of our own choice, is virtue, and virtue is +the aim of man; and they called it action with virtue. And these were +called Academicians, as was Plato and Speusippus, his nephew; they +were thus called from the place where Plato taught, that is, the +Academy; neither from Socrates did they take or assume any word, +because in his Philosophy nothing was affirmed. Truly Aristotle, who +had his surname from Stagira, and Xenocrates of Chalcedon, his +companion, through the genius, almost Divine, which Nature had put +into Aristotle, knowing this end by means of the Socratic method, with +the Academic file, as it were, reduced Moral Philosophy to perfection, +and especially Aristotle. And since Aristotle began to reason while +walking hither and thither, they were called, he, I say, and his +companions, Peripatetics, which means the same as walkers about. And +since the perfection of this Morality by Aristotle was attained, the +name of Academician became extinct, and all those who attached +themselves to this sect are called Peripatetics, and these people hold +the doctrine of the government of the World through all its parts: and +it may be termed a catholic opinion, as it were. Wherefore it is +possible to see that Aristotle was the Indicator and the Leader of the +people to this mark. And this is what I wished to prove. + +Wherefore, collecting all together, the principal intention is +manifest, that is to say, that the authority of him whom we understand +to be the supreme Philosopher is full of complete vigour, and in no +way repugnant to Imperial Authority. But the Imperial without the +Philosopher is dangerous; and this without that is weak, not of +itself, but through the disorder of the people: but when one is united +with the other they are together most useful and full of all vigour; +and therefore it is written in that Book of Wisdom: "Love the Light of +Wisdom, all you who are before the people," that is to say, unite +Philosophic Authority with the Imperial, in order to rule well and +perfectly. O, you miserable ones, who rule at the present time! and O, +most miserable ones, you who are ruled! For no Philosophic Authority +is united with your governments, neither through suitable study nor by +counsel; so that to all it is possible to repeat those words from +Ecclesiastes: "Woe to thee, O land, when thy King is a child, and thy +Princes eat in the morning;" and to no land is it possible to say that +which follows: "Blessed art thou, O land, when thy King is the son of +nobles, and thy Princes eat in due season, for strength and not for +drunkenness." + +Ye enemies of God, look to your flanks, ye who have seized the +sceptres of the kingdoms of Italy. And I say to you, Charles, and to +you, Frederick, Kings, and to you, ye other Princes and Tyrants, see +who sits by the side of you in council, and count how many times a day +this aim of human life is indicated to you by your councillors. Better +would it be for you, like swallows, to fly low down than, like kites, +to make lofty circles over carrion. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + + +Since it is seen how much the Imperial Authority and the Philosophic +are to be revered, which must support the opinions propounded, it is +now for us to return into the straight path to the intended goal. I +say, then, that this last opinion of the Common People has continued +so long that without other cause, without inquiry into any reason, +every man is termed Noble who may be the son or nephew of any brave +man, although he himself is nothing. And this is what the Song says: + + And so long among us + This falsehood has had sway, + That men call him a Nobleman, + Though worthless, who can say, + + I nephew am, or son, + Of one worth such a sum. + +Wherefore it is to be observed that it is most dangerous negligence to +allow this evil opinion to take root; for even as weeds multiply in +the uncultivated field, and surmount and cover the ear of the corn, so +that, looking at it from a distance, the wheat appears not, and +finally the corn is lost; so the evil opinion in the mind, neither +chastised nor corrected, increases and multiplies, so that the ear of +Reason, that is, the true opinion, is concealed and buried as it were, +and so it is lost. O, how great is my undertaking in this Song, for I +wish now to weed the field so full of wild and woody plants as is this +field of the common opinion so long bereft of tillage! Certainly I do +not intend to cleanse all, but only those parts where the ears of +Reason are not entirely overcome; that is, I intend to lift up again +those in whom some little light of Reason still lives through the +goodness of their nature; the others need only as much care as the +brute beasts: wherefore it seems to me that it would not be a less +miracle to lead back to Reason him in whom it is entirely extinct than +to bring back to Life him who has been four days in the grave. + +Then the evil quality of this popular opinion is narrated suddenly, as +if it were a horrible thing; it strikes at that, springing forth from +the order of the confutation, saying, "But he who sees the Truth will +know How vile he has become," in order to make people understand its +intolerable wickedness, saying, that those men lie especially, for not +only is the man vile, that is, not Noble, who, although descended from +good people, is himself wicked, but also he is most vile; and I quote +the example of the right path being indicated, where, to prove this, +it is fit for me to propound a question, and to reply to that question +in this way. + +There is a plain with certain paths, a field with hedges, with +ditches, with rocks, with tanglewood, with all kinds of obstacles; +with the exception of its two straight paths. And it has snowed so +much that the snow covers everything, and presents one smooth +appearance on every side, so that no trace of any path is to be seen. +Here comes a man from one part of the country, and he wishes to go to +a house which is on the other side; and by his industry, that is, +through prudent foresight and through the goodness of genius, guided +solely by himself, he goes through the right path whither he meant to +go, leaving the prints of his footsteps behind him. Another comes +after this man, and he wishes to go to that mansion, and to him it is +only needful to follow the footprints left there; but through his own +fault this man strays from the path, which the first man without a +guide has known how to keep; this man, though it is pointed out to +him, loses his way through the brambles and the rocks, and he goes not +to the place whither he is bound. + +Which of these men ought to be termed excellent, brave, or worthy? I +reply: He who went first. How would you designate that other man? I +reply: "As most vile." Why is he not called unworthy or cowardly, that +is to say, vile? I reply: Because unworthy, that is, vile, he should +be called who, having no guide, might have failed to walk +straightforward; but since this man had a guide, his error and his +fault can rise higher; and therefore he is to be called, not vile, but +most vile. And likewise he who, by his father or by some elder of his +race is ennobled, and does not continue in a noble course, not only is +he vile, but he is most vile, and deserving of as much contempt and +infamy as any other villain, if not of more. And because a man may +preserve himself from this vile baseness, Solomon lays this command on +him who has had a brave and excellent ancestor, in the twenty-second +chapter of Proverbs: "Remove not the ancient landmark, which thy +fathers have set," And previously he says, in the fourth chapter of +the said book: "The path of the Just," that is, of the worthy men, "is +as the shining light, that shineth more and more unto the perfect day; +the way of the wicked is as darkness, and they know not at what they +stumble." + +Finally, when it says, "And though he walks upon the earth Is counted +with the dead," to his greater disgrace I say that this most +worthless man is dead, seeming still alive. Where it is to be known +that the wicked man may be truly said to be dead, and especially he +who goes astray from the path trodden by his good ancestor. And this +it is possible to prove thus: as Aristotle says in the second book On +the Soul, to live is to be with the living; and since there are many +ways of living--as in the plants to vegetate; in the animals to +vegetate and to feel and to move; in men to vegetate, to feel, to +move, and to reason, or rather to understand; and since things ought +to be denominated by the noblest part, it is evident that in animals +to live is to feel--in the brute animals, I say; in man, to live is to +use reason. Wherefore, if to live is the life or existence of man, and +if thus to depart from the use of Reason, which is his life, is to +depart from life or existence, even thus is that man dead. + +And does he not depart from the use of Reason who does not reason or +think concerning the aim of his life? And does he not depart from the +use of Reason who does not reason or think concerning the path which +he ought to take? Certainly he does so depart; and this is evident +especially in him who has the footprints before him, and looks not at +them; and therefore Solomon says in the fifth chapter of Proverbs: "He +shall die without instruction; and in the greatness of his folly he +shall go astray," that is to say, he is dead who becomes a disciple, +and who does not follow his master; and such an one is most vile. + +And of him it would be possible for some one to say: How is he dead +and yet he walks? I reply, that as a man he is dead, but as a beast he +has remained alive; for as the Philosopher says in the second book On +the Soul, the powers of the Soul stand upon itself, as the figure of +the quadrangle stands upon the triangle, and the pentagon stands upon +the quadrangle; so the sensitive stands upon the vegetative, and the +intellectual stands upon the sensitive. Wherefore, as, by removing the +last side of the pentagon, the quadrangle remains, so by removing the +last power of the Soul, that is, Reason, the man no longer remains, +but a thing with a sensitive soul only, that is, the brute animal. + +And this is the meaning or intention of the second part of the devised +Song, in which are placed the opinions of others. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + + +The most beautiful branch which grows up from the root of Reason is +Discretion. For as St. Thomas says thereupon in the prologue to the +book of Ethics, to know the order of one thing to another is the +proper act of Reason; and this is Discretion. One of the most +beautiful and sweetest fruits of this branch is the reverence which +the lesser owes to the greater. Wherefore Tullius, in the first +chapter of the Offices, when speaking of the beauty which shines forth +in Uprightness, says that reverence is part of that beauty; and thus +as this reverence is the beauty of Uprightness, so its opposite is +baseness and want of uprightness; which opposite quality it is +possible to term irreverence, or rather as impudent boldness, in our +Vulgar Tongue. + +And therefore this Tullius in the same place says: "To treat with +contemptuous indifference that which others think of one, not only is +the act of an arrogant, but also of a dissolute person," which means +no other except that arrogance and dissolute conduct show want of +self-knowledge, which is the beginning of the capacity for all +reverence. Wherefore I, desiring (and bearing meanwhile all reverence +both to the Prince and to the Philosopher) to remove the infirmity +from the minds of some men, in order afterwards to build up thereupon +the light of truth, before I proceed to confute the opinions +propounded, will show how, whilst confuting those opinions, I argue +with irreverence neither against the Imperial Majesty nor against the +Philosopher. For if in any part of this entire book I should appear +irreverent, it would not be so bad as in this treatise; in which, +whilst treating of Nobility, I ought to appear Noble, and not vile. + +And firstly I will prove that I do not presume against the authority +of the Philosopher; then I will prove that I do not presume against +Imperial Majesty. + +I say, then, that when the Philosopher says, "that which appears to +the most is impossible to be entirely false," I do not mean to speak +of the external appearance, that is, the sensual, but of that which +appears within, the rational; since the sensual appearance, according +to most people, is many times most false, especially in the common +things appreciable by the senses, wherein the sense is often deceived. +Thus we know that to most people the Sun appears of the width of a +foot in diameter; and this is most false, for, according to the +inquiry and the discovery which human reason has made with its skill, +the diameter of the body of the Sun is five times as much as that of +the Earth and also one-half time more, since the Earth in its diameter +is six thousand five hundred miles, the diameter of the Sun, which to +the sense of sight presents the appearance of the width of one foot, +is thirty-five thousand seven hundred and fifty miles. Wherefore it is +evident that Aristotle did not understand or judge it by the +appearance which it presents to the sense of sight. And therefore, if +I intend only to oppose false trust in appearance according to the +senses, that is not done against the intention of the Philosopher, and +therefore I do not offend against the reverence which is due to him. + +And that I intend to confute the appearance according to the sense is +manifest; for those people who judge thus, judge only by what they +feel or think of those things which fortune can give and take away. +For, because they see great alliances made and high marriages to take +place, and the wonderful palaces, the large possessions, great +lordships, they believe that all those things are the causes of +Nobility--nay, they believe them to be Nobility itself. For if they +could judge with any appearance of reason, they would say the +contrary, that is, that Nobility is the cause of these things, as will +be seen in the sequel of this treatise. And even as it may be seen +that I speak not against the reverence due to the Philosopher whilst +confuting this error, so I speak not against the reverence due to the +Empire; and the reason I intend to show. But when he reasons or argues +before the adversary, the Rhetorician ought to use much caution in his +speech, in order that the adversary may not derive thence material +wherewith to disturb the Truth. I, who speak in this treatise in the +presence of so many adversaries, cannot speak briefly; wherefore, if +my digressions should be long, let no one marvel. + +I say, then, that, in order to prove that I am not irreverent to the +Majesty of the Empire, it is requisite, in the first place, to see +what reverence is. I say that reverence is no other than a confession +of due submission by an evident sign; and, having seen this, it +remains to distinguish between them. Irreverent expresses privation, +not reverent expresses negation; and, therefore, irreverence is to +disavow the due submission by a manifest sign. The want of reverence +is to refuse submission as not due. A man can deny or refuse a thing +in a double sense. In one way, the man can deny offending against the +Truth when he abstains from the due confession, and this properly is +to disavow. In another way, the man can deny offending against the +Truth when he does not confess that which is not, and this is proper +negation; even as for the man to deny that he is entirely mortal is to +deny properly speaking. Wherefore, if I deny or refuse reverence due +to the Imperial Authority, I am not irreverent, but I am not reverent; +which is not against reverence, forasmuch as it offends not that +Imperial Authority; even as not to live does not offend Life, but +Death, which is privation of that Life, offends; wherefore, to die is +one thing and not to live is another thing, for not to live is in the +stones. And since Death expresses privation, which cannot be except in +decease of the subject, and the stones are not the subject of Life, +they should not be called dead, but not living. In like manner, I, who +in this case ought not to have reverence to the Imperial Authority, am +not irreverent if I deny or refuse it, but I am not reverent, which is +neither boldness, nor presumption, nor a thing to be blamed. But it +would be presumption to be reverent, if it could be called reverence, +since it would fall into greater and more true irreverence, that is, +into irreverence of Nature and of Truth, as will be seen in the +sequel. Against this error that Master of Philosophers, Aristotle, +guards, in the beginning of the book of Ethics, when he says: "If the +friends are two, and one is the Truth, their one mind is the Truth's." +If I have said that I am not reverent, that is, to deny reverence, or +by a manifest sign to deny or refuse a submission not due. It is to be +seen how this is to deny and not to disavow, that is to say, it +remains to be seen how, in this case, I am not rightfully subject to +the Imperial Majesty. It must be a long argument wherewith I intend to +prove this in the chapter next following. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + + +To see how in this case, that is, in approving or in not approving the +opinion of the Emperor, I am not held in subjection to him, it is +necessary to recall to mind that which has been argued previously +concerning the Imperial Office, in the fourth chapter of this +treatise, namely, that to promote the perfection of human Life, +Imperial Authority was designed; and that it is the director and ruler +of all our operations, and justly so, for however far our operations +extend themselves, so far the Imperial Majesty has jurisdiction, and +beyond those limits it does not reach. But as each Art and Office of +mankind is restricted by the Imperial Office within certain limits, so +this Imperial Office is confined by God within certain bounds. And it +is not to be wondered at, for the Office and the Arts of Nature in all +her operations we see to be limited. For if we wish to take Universal +Nature, it has jurisdiction as far as the whole World, I say as far as +Heaven and Earth extend; and this within a certain limit, as is proved +by the third chapter of the book on Physics, and by the first chapter, +of Heaven and the World. Then the jurisdiction of Universal Nature is +limited within a certain boundary, and consequently the individual; of +which also He is the Limiter who is limited by nothing, that is, the +First Goodness, that is, God, who alone with infinite capacity +comprehends the Infinite. And, that we may see the limits of our +operations, it is to be known that those alone are our operations +which are subject to Reason and to Will; for, if in us there is the +digestive operation, that is not human, but natural. And it is to be +known that our Reason is ordained to four operations, separately to be +considered; for those are operations which Reason only considers and +does not produce, neither can produce, any one of them, such as are +the Natural facts and the Supernatural and the Mathematics. And those +are operations which it considers and does in its own proper act which +are called rational, such as are the arts of speech. And those are +operations which it considers and does in material beyond itself, such +as are the Mechanical Arts. And all these operations, although the +considering them is subject to our will, they in their essential form +are not subject to our will; for although we might will that heavy +things should mount upwards naturally, they would not be able to +ascend; and although we might will that the syllogism with false +premisses should conclude with demonstration of the Truth, it could +not so conclude; and although we might will that the house should +stand as firmly when leaning forward as when upright, it could not be; +since of those operations we are not properly the factors, we are +their discoverers; Another ordained them and made them, the great +Maker, who alone can Will and Do All--God. + +There also are operations which our Reason considers and which lie in +the act of the Will, such as to offend and to rejoice; such as to +stand firm in the battle and to fly from it; such as to be chaste and +to be lewd; these are entirely subject to our will, and therefore we +are called from them good and evil, because such acts are entirely our +own; for so far as our will can obtain power, so far do our operations +extend. And since in all these voluntary operations there is some +equity to preserve and some iniquity to shun--which equity may be lost +through two causes, either through not knowing what it is, or through +not wishing to follow it--the written Reason, the Law, was invented, +both to point it out to us and to command its observance. Wherefore +Augustine says: "If men could know this, that is, Equity, and knowing +it would obey it, the written Reason, the Law, would not be needful." +And therefore it is written in the beginning of the old Digests or +Books of the Civil Law: "The written Reason is the Art of Goodness and +of Equity." To write this, to show forth and to enforce this, is the +business of that Official Post of which one speaks, that of the +Emperor, to whom, as has been said, in so far as our own operations +extend, we are subject, and no farther. For this reason in each Art +and in each trade the artificers and the scholars are and ought to be +subject to the chief and to the master of their trades and Art: beyond +their callings the subjection ceases, because the superiority ceases. +So that it is possible to speak of the Emperor in this manner, if we +will represent his office figuratively, and say that he may be the +rider of the Human Will, of which horse how it goes without its rider +through the field is evident enough, and especially in miserable +Italy, left without any means for its right government. And it is to +be considered that in proportion as a thing is more fit for the +Master's art, so much the greater is the subjection; for the cause +being multiplied, so is the effect multiplied. Wherefore it is to be +known that there are things which are such pure or simple Arts that +Nature is their instrument; even as rowing with an oar, where the Art +makes its instrument by impulsion, which is a natural movement; as in +the threshing of the corn, where the Art makes its instrument, which +is a natural quality. And in this especially a man ought to be subject +to the chief and master of the Art. And there are things in which Art +is the instrument of Nature, and these are lesser Arts; and in these +the artificers are less subject to their chief, as in giving the seed +to the Earth, where one must await the will of Nature; as to sail out +of the harbour or port, where one must await the natural disposition +of the weather; and therefore we often see in these things contention +amongst the artificers, and the greater to ask counsel of the lesser. +And there are other things which are not Arts, but appear to have some +relationship with them; and therefore men are often deceived; and in +these the scholars are not subject to a master, neither are they bound +to believe in him so far as regards the Art. Thus, to fish seems to +have some relationship with navigation; and to know the virtue of the +herb or grass seems to have some relationship with agriculture; for +these Arts have no general rule, since fishing may be below the Art of +hunting, and beneath its command; to know the virtue of the herb may +be below the science of medicine, or rather below its most noble +teaching. + +Those things which have been argued concerning the other Arts in like +manner may be seen in the Imperial Art, for there are rules in those +Arts which are pure or simple Arts, as are the laws of marriage, of +servants, of armies, of successors in offices of dignity; and in all +these we may be entirely subject to the Emperor without doubt and +without any suspicion whatever. There are other laws which are the +followers of Nature, such as to constitute a man of sufficient age to +fill some office in the administration; and to such a law as this we +are entirely subject; there are many others which appear to have some +relationship with the Imperial Art; and here he was and is deceived +who believes that the Imperial judgment in this part may be authentic, +as of youth, whose nature is laid down by no Imperial judgment, as it +were, of the Emperor. Render, therefore, unto God that which is God's. +Wherefore it is not to be believed, nor to be allowed, because it was +said by Nero the Emperor that youth is beauty and strength of body; +but credit would be given to the philosopher who should say that youth +is the crown or summit of the natural life. And therefore it is +evident that to define Nobility is not the function of the Art +Imperial; and if it is not in the nature of the Art, when we are +treating of Nobility we are not subject to it; and if we are not +subject, we are not bound to yield reverence therein; and this is the +conclusion we have sought. + +Now, therefore, with all freedom, with all liberty of mind, it remains +to strike to the heart the vicious opinions, thereby causing them to +fall to earth, in order that the Truth by means of this my victory may +hold the field in the mind of him for whom it is good that this Light +should shine clear. + + + + +CHAPTER X. + + +Since the opinions of others concerning Nobility have now been brought +forward, and since it has been shown that it is lawful for me to +confute those opinions, I shall now proceed to discourse concerning +that part of the Song which confutes those opinions, beginning, as has +been said above: "Whoever shall define The man a living tree." And +therefore it is to be known that in the opinion of the Emperor, +although it states it defectively in one part, that is, where he spoke +of "generous ways," he alluded to the manners of the Nobility; and +therefore the Song does not intend to reprove that part: the other +part, which is entirely opposed to the nature of Nobility, it does +intend to confute, which cites two things when it says: "Descent of +wealth," "The wealth has long been great," that is, time and riches, +which are entirely apart from Nobility, as has been said, and as will +be shown farther on; and, therefore, in this confutation two divisions +are made: in the first we deny the Nobility of riches, then confute +the idea that time can cause Nobility. The second part begins: "They +will not have the vile Turn noble." + +It is to be known that, riches being reproved, not only is the opinion +of the Emperor reproved in that part which alludes to the riches, but +also entirely that opinion of the common people, which was founded +solely upon riches. The first part is divided into two: in the first +it says in a general way that the Emperor was erroneous in his +definition of Nobility; secondly, it shows the reason why or how that +is; and this begins that second part, "For riches make no Nobleman." + +I say, then, "Whoever shall define The man a living tree," that, +firstly, he will speak untruth, inasmuch as he says "tree," and "less +than truth," inasmuch as he says "living," and does not say rational, +which is the difference whereby Man is distinguished from the Beast. +Then I say that in this way he was erroneous in his definition, he who +held Imperial Office, not saying Emperor, but "one raised to Empire," +to indicate, as has been said above, that this question is beyond the +bounds of the Imperial Office. In like manner I say that he errs who +places a false subject under Nobility, that is, "descent of wealth," +and then proceeds to a defective form, or rather difference, that is, +"generous ways," which do not contain any essential part of Nobility, +but only a small part, as will appear below. And it is not to be +omitted, although the text may be silent, that my Lord the Emperor in +this part did not err in the parts of the definition, but only in the +mode of the definition, although, according to what fame reports of +him, he was a logician and a great scholar; that is to say, the +definition of Nobility can be made more sufficiently by the effects +than by the principles or premisses, since it appears to have the +place of a first principle or premiss, which it is not possible to +notify by first things, but by subsequent things. Then, when I say, +"For riches make not worth," I show how they cannot possibly be the +cause of Nobility, because they are vile. And I prove that they have +not the power to take it away, because they are disjoined so much from +Nobility. And I prove these to be vile by an especial and most evident +defect; and I do this when I say, "How vile and incomplete." Finally, +I conclude, by virtue of that which is said above: + + And hence the upright mind, + To its own purpose true, + Stands firm although the flood of wealth + Sweep onward out of view; + +which proves that which is said above, that those riches are disunited +from Nobility by not following the effect of union with it. Where it +is to be known that, as the Philosopher expresses it, all the things +which make anything must first exist perfectly within the being of the +thing out of which that other thing is made. Wherefore he says in the +seventh chapter of the Metaphysics: "When one thing is generated from +another, it is generated of that thing by being in that Being." + +Again, it is to be known that each thing which becomes corrupt is thus +corrupted by some change or alteration, and each thing which is +changed or altered must be conjoined with the cause of the change, +even as the Philosopher expresses it in the seventh chapter of the +book on Physics and in the first chapter on Generation. These things +being propounded, I proceed thus, and I say that riches, as another +man believed, cannot possibly bestow Nobility, and to prove how great +is the difference between them I say that they are unable to take +Nobility away from him who possesses it. To bestow it they have not +the power, since by nature they are vile, and because of their +vileness they are opposed to Nobility. And here by vileness one means +baseness, through degeneracy, which is directly opposite to Nobility: +for the one opposite thing cannot be the maker of the other, neither +is it possible to be, for the reason given above, which is briefly +added to the text, saying, "No painter gives a form That is not of his +knowing." Wherefore no painter would be able to depict any figure or +form if he could not first design what such figure or form ought to +be. + +Again, riches cannot take it away, because they are so far from +Nobility; and, for the reason previously narrated, that which alters +or corrupts anything must be conjoined with that thing, and therefore +it is subjoined: "No tower leans above a stream That far away is +flowing," which means nothing more than to accord with that which has +been previously said, that riches cannot take Nobility away, saying +that Nobility is, as it were, an upright tower and riches a river +flowing swiftly in the distance. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + + +It now remains only to prove how vile riches are, and how disjoined +and far apart they are from Nobility; and this is proved in two little +parts of the text, to which at present it is requisite to pay +attention, and then, those being explained, what I have said will be +evident, namely, that riches are vile and far apart from Nobility, and +hereby the reasons stated above against riches will be perfectly +proved. + +I say then, "How vile and incomplete Wealth is," and to make evident +what I intend to say it is to be known that the vileness or baseness +of each thing is derived from the imperfection of that thing, and +Nobility from its perfection: wherefore in proportion as a thing is +perfect, it is noble in its nature; in proportion as it is imperfect, +it is vile. And therefore, if riches are imperfect, it is evident that +they are vile or base. And that they are imperfect, the text briefly +proves when it says: "However great the heap may be, It brings no +peace, but care;" in which it is evident, not only that they are +imperfect, but most imperfect, and therefore they are most vile; and +Lucan bears witness to this when he says, speaking of those same +riches: "Without strife or contention or opposition, the Laws would +perish, and you, Riches, the basest part of things, you move or are +the cause of Battles." It is possible briefly to see their +imperfection in three things quite clearly: firstly, in the +indiscriminate manner in which they fall to a person's lot; secondly, +in their dangerous increase; thirdly, in their hurtful possession. + +And, firstly, that which I demonstrate concerning this is to clear up +a doubt which seems to arise, for, since gold, pearls, and lands, may +have in their essential being perfect form and act, it does not seem +true to say that they are imperfect. And therefore one must +distinguish that inasmuch as by themselves, of them it is considered, +they are perfect things, and they are not riches, but gold and pearls; +but inasmuch as they are appointed to the possession of man they are +riches, and in this way they are full of imperfection; which is not an +unbecoming or impossible thing, considered from different points of +view, to be perfect and imperfect. I say that their imperfection +firstly may be observed in the indiscretion, or unwisdom, or folly, of +their arrival, in which no distributive Justice shines forth, but +complete iniquity almost always; which iniquity is the proper effect +of imperfection. For if the methods or ways by which they come are +considered, all may be gathered together in three methods, or kinds of +ways: for, either they come by simple chance, as when without +intention or hope they come upon some discovery not thought of; or +they come by fortune which is aided by law or right, as by will, or +testament, or succession; or they come by fortune, the helper of the +Law, as by lawful or unlawful provision; lawful, I say, when by art, +or skill, or by trade, or deserved kindness; unlawful, I say, when +either by theft or rapine. And in each one of these three ways, one +sees that inequitable character of which I speak, for more often to +the wicked than to the good the hidden treasures which are discovered +present themselves; and this is so evident, that it has no need of +proof. I saw the place in the side of a hill, or mountain, in Tuscany, +which is called Falterona, where the most vile peasant of all the +country, whilst digging, found more than a bushel of the finest +Santelena silver, which had awaited him perhaps for more than a +thousand years. And in order to see this iniquity, Aristotle said that +in proportion as the Man is subject to the Intellect, so much the less +is he the slave of Fortune. And I say that oftener to the wicked than +to the good befall legal inheritance and property by succession; and +concerning this I do not wish to bring forward any proof, but let each +one turn his eyes round his own immediate neighbourhood, and he will +see that concerning which I am silent that I may not offend or bring +shame to some one. Would to God that might be which was demanded by +the Man of Provence, namely, that the man who is not the heir of +goodness should lose the inheritance of wealth. And I say that many +times to the wicked more than to the good comes rich provision, for +the unlawful never comes to the good, because they refuse it; and what +good man ever would endeavour to enrich himself by force or fraud? +That would be impossible, for by the mere choice of the enterprise he +would no more be good. And the lawful gains of wealth but rarely fall +to the lot of the good, because, since much anxiety or anxious care is +required therein, and the solicitude of the good is directed to +greater things, the good man is rarely solicitous enough to seek them. +Wherefore it is evident that in each way these riches fall unjustly or +inequitably; and therefore our Lord called them wicked or unrighteous +when He said, "Make to yourselves friends of the Mammon of +unrighteousness," inviting and encouraging men to be liberal with good +gifts, which are the begetters of friends. And what a beautiful +exchange he makes who gives freely of these most imperfect things in +order to have and to acquire perfect things, such as are the hearts of +good and worthy men! This exchange it is possible to make every day. +Certainly this is a new commerce, different from the others, which, +thinking to win one man by generosity, has won thereby thousands and +thousands. Who lives not again in the heart of Alexander because of +his royal beneficence? Who lives not again in the good King of +Castile, or Saladin, or the good Marquis of Monferrat, or the good +Count of Toulouse, or Beltramo dal Bornio, or Galasso da Montefeltro, +when mention is made of their noble acts of courtesy and liberality? +Certainly not only those who would do the same willingly, had they the +power, but those even who would die before they would do it, bear love +to the memory of these good men. + + + + +CHAPTER XII. + + +As has been said, it is possible to see the imperfection of riches not +only in their indiscriminate advent, but also in their dangerous +increase; and that in this we may perceive their defect more clearly, +the text makes mention of it, saying of those riches, "However great +the heap may be It brings no peace, but care;" they create more thirst +and render increase more defective and insufficient. And here it is +requisite to know that defective things may fail in such a way that on +the surface they appear complete, but, under pretext of perfection, +the shortcoming is concealed. But they may have those defects so +entirely revealed that the imperfection is seen openly on the surface. +And those things which do not reveal their defects in the first place +are the most dangerous, since very often it is not possible to be on +guard against them; even as we see in the traitor who, before our +face, shows himself friendly, so that he causes us to have faith in +him, and under pretext of friendship, hides the defect of his +hostility. And in this way riches, in their increase, are dangerously +imperfect, for, submitting to our eyes this that they promise, they +bring just the contrary. The treacherous gains always promise that, if +collected up to a certain amount, they will make the collector full of +every satisfaction; and with this promise they lead the Human Will +into the vice of Avarice. And, for this reason, Boethius calls them, +in his book of Consolations, dangerous, saying, "Oh, alas! who was +that first man who dug up the precious stones that wished to hide +themselves, and who dug out the loads of gold once covered by the +hills, dangerous treasures?" + +The treacherous ones promise, if we will but look, to remove every +want, to quench all thirst, to bring satisfaction and sufficiency; and +this they do to every man in the beginning, confirming promise to a +certain point in their increase, and then, as soon as their pile +rises, in place of contentment and refreshment they bring on an +intolerable fever-thirst; and beyond sufficiency, they extend their +limit, create a desire to amass more, and, with this, fear and anxiety +far in excess of the new gain. + +Then, truly, they bring no peace, but more care, more trouble, than a +man had in the first place when he was without them. And therefore +Tullius says, in that book on Paradoxes, when execrating riches: "I at +no time firmly believed the money of those men, or magnificent +mansions, or riches, or lordships, or voluptuous joys, with which +especially they are shackled, to be amongst things good or desirable, +since I saw certain men in the abundance of them especially desire +those wherein they abounded; because at no time is the thirst of +cupidity quenched; not only are they tormented by the desire for the +increase of those things which they possess, but also they have +torment in the fear of losing them." And all these are the words of +Tullius, and even thus they stand in that book which has been +mentioned. + +And, as a stronger witness to this imperfection, hear Boethius, +speaking in his book of Consolation: "If the Goddess of Riches were to +expand and multiply riches till they were as numerous as the sands +thrown up by the sea when tost by the tempest, or countless as the +stars that shine, still Man would weep." + +And because still further testimony is needful to reduce this to a +proof, note how much Solomon and his father David exclaim against +them, how much against them is Seneca, especially when writing to +Lucilius, how much Horace, how much Juvenal, and, briefly, how much +every writer, every poet, and how much Divine Scripture. All Truthful +cries aloud against these false enticers to sin, full of all defect. +Call to mind also, in aid of faith, what your own eyes have seen, what +is the life of those men who follow after riches, how far they live +securely when they have piled them up, what their contentment is, how +peacefully they rest. + +What else daily endangers and destroys cities, countries, individual +persons, so much as the fresh heaping up of wealth in the possession +of some man? His accumulation wakens new desires, to the fulfilment of +which it is not possible to attain without injury to some one. + +And what else does the Law, both Canonical and Civil, intend to +rectify except cupidity or avarice, which grows with its heaps of +riches, and which the Law seeks to resist or prevent. Truly, the +Canonical and the Civil Law make it sufficiently clear, if the first +sections of their written word are read. How evident it is, nay, I say +it is most evident, that these riches are, in their increase, entirely +imperfect; when, being amassed, naught else but imperfection can +possibly spring forth from them. And this is what the text says. + +But here arises a doubtful question, which is not to be passed over +without being put and answered. Some calumniator of the Truth might be +able to say that if, by increasing desire in their acquisition, riches +are imperfect and therefore vile, for this reason science or knowledge +is imperfect and vile, in the acquisition of which the desire steadily +increases, wherefore Seneca says, "If I should have one foot in the +grave, I should still wish to learn." + +But it is not true that knowledge is vile through imperfection. By +distinction of the consequences, increase of desire is not in +knowledge the cause of vileness. That it is perfect is evident, for +the Philosopher, in the sixth book of the Ethics, says that science or +knowledge is the perfect reason of certain things. To this question +one has to reply briefly; but in the first place it is to be seen +whether in the acquisition of Knowledge the desire for it is enlarged +in the way suggested by the question, and whether the argument be +rational. Wherefore I say that not only in the acquisition of +knowledge and riches, but in each and every acquisition, human desire +expands, although in different ways; and the reason is this: that the +supreme desire of each thing bestowed by Nature in the first place is +to return to its first source. And since God is the First Cause of our +Souls, and the Maker of them after His Own Image, as it is written, +"Let us make Man in Our Image, after Our likeness," the Soul +especially desires to return to that First Cause. As a pilgrim, who +goes along a path where he never journeyed before, may believe every +house that he sees in the distance to be his inn, and, not finding it +to be so, may direct his belief to the next, and so travel on from +house to house until he reach the inn, even so our Soul, as soon as it +enters the untrodden path of this life, directs its eyes to its +supreme good, the sum of its day's travel to good; and therefore +whatever thing it sees which seems to have in itself some goodness, it +thinks to be the supreme good. And because its knowledge at first is +imperfect, owing to want of experience and want of instruction, good +things that are but little appear great to it; and therefore in the +first place it begins to desire those. So we see little children +desire above all things an apple; and then, growing older, they desire +a little bird; and then, being older, desire a beautiful garment; and +then a horse, and then a wife, and then moderate wealth, and then +greater wealth, and then still more. And this happens because in none +of these things that is found for which search is made, and as we live +on we seek further. Wherefore it is possible to see that one desirable +thing stands under the other in the eyes of our Soul in a way almost +pyramidal, for the least first covers the whole, and is as it were the +point of the desirable good, which is God, at the basis of all; so +that the farther it proceeds from the point towards the basis, so much +the greater do the desirable good things appear; and this is the +reason why, by acquisition, human desires become broader the one after +the other. + +But, thus this pathway is lost through error, even as in the roads of +the earth; for as from one city to another there is of necessity an +excellent direct road, and often another which branches from that, the +branch road goes into another part, and of many others some do not go +all the way, and some go farther round; so in Human Life there are +different roads, of which one is the truest, and another the most +misleading, and some are less right, and some less wrong. And as we +see that the straightest road to the city satisfies desire and gives +rest after toil, and that which goes in the opposite direction never +satisfies and never can give rest, so it happens in our Life. The man +who follows the right path attains his end, and gains his rest. The +man who follows the wrong path never attains it, but with much fatigue +of mind and greedy eyes looks always before him. + +Wherefore, although this argument does not entirely reply to the +question asked above, at least it opens the way to the reply, which +causes us to see that each desire of ours does not proceed in its +expansion in one way alone. But because this chapter is somewhat +prolonged, we will reply in a new chapter to the question, wherein may +be ended the whole disputation which it is our intention to make +against riches. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + + +In reply to the question, I say that it is not possible to affirm +properly that the desire for knowledge does increase, although, as has +been said, it does expand in a certain way. For that which properly +increases is always one; the desire for knowledge is not always one, +but is many; and one desire fulfilled, another comes; so that, +properly speaking, its expansion is not its increase, but it is +advance of a succession of smaller things into great things. For if I +desire to know the principles of natural things, as soon as I know +these, that desire is satisfied and there is an end of it. If I then +desire to know the why and the wherefore of each one of these +principles, this is a new desire altogether. Nor by the advent of that +new desire am I deprived of the perfection to which the other might +lead me. Such an expansion as that is not the cause of imperfection, +but of new perfection. That expansion of riches, however, is properly +increased which is always one, so that no succession is seen therein, +and therefore no end and no perfection. + +And if the adversary would say, that if the desire to know the first +principles of natural things is one thing, and the desire to know what +they are is another, so is the desire for a hundred marks one thing, +and the desire for a thousand marks is another, I reply that it is not +true; for the hundred is part of the thousand and is related to it, as +part of a line to the whole of the line along which one proceeds by +one impulse alone; and there is no succession there, nor completion of +motion in any part. But to know what the principles of natural things +are is not the same as to know what each one of them is; the one is +not part of the other, and they are related to each other as diverging +lines along which one does not proceed by one impulse, but the +completed movement of the one succeeds the completed movement of the +other. And thus it appears that, because of the desire for knowledge, +knowledge is not to be called imperfect in the same way as riches are +to be called imperfect, on account of the desire for them, as the +question put it; for in the desire for knowledge the desires terminate +successively with the attainment of their aims; and in the desire for +riches, NO; so that the question is solved. + +Again, the adversary may calumniate, saying that, although many +desires are fulfilled in the acquisition of knowledge, the last is +never attained, which is the imperfection of that one desire, which +does not gain its end; and that will be both one and imperfect. + +Again one here replies that it is not a truth which is brought forward +in opposition, that is, that the last desire is never attained; for +our natural desires, as is proved in the third treatise of this book, +are all tending to a certain end; and the desire for knowledge is +natural, so that this desire compasses a certain end, although but +few, since they walk in the wrong path, accomplish the day's journey. +And he who understands the Commentator in the third chapter, On the +Soul, learns this of him; and therefore Aristotle says, in the tenth +chapter of the Ethics, against Simonides the Poet, that man ought to +draw near to Divine things as much as is possible; wherein he shows +that our power tends towards a certain end. And in the first book of +the Ethics he says that the disciplined Mind demands certainty in its +knowledge of things in proportion as their nature received certainty, +in which he proves that not only on the side of the man desiring +knowledge, but on the side of the desired object of knowledge, +attention ought to be given; and therefore St. Paul says: "Not much +knowledge, but right knowledge in moderation." So that in whatever way +the desire for knowledge is considered, either generally or +particularly, it comes to perfection. + +And since knowledge is a noble perfection, and through the desire for +it its perfection is not lost, as is the case with the accursed +riches, we must note briefly how injurious they are when possessed, +and this is the third notice of their imperfection. It is possible to +see that the possession of them is injurious for two reasons: one, +that it is the cause of evil; the other, that it is the privation of +good. It is the cause of evil, which makes the timid possessor +wakeful, watchful, and suspicious or hateful. + +How great is the fear of that man who knows he carries wealth about +him, when walking abroad, when dwelling at home, when not only wakeful +or watching, but when sleeping, not only the fear that he may lose his +property, but fear for his life because he possesses these riches! +Well do the miserable merchants know, who travel through the World, +that the leaves which the wind stirs on the trees cause them to +tremble when they are bearing their wealth with them; and when they +are without it, full of confidence they go singing and talking, and +thus make their journey shorter! Therefore the Wise Man says: "If the +traveller enters on his road empty, he can sing in the presence of +thieves." And this Lucan desires to express in the fifth book, when he +praises the safety of poverty: "O, the safe and secure liberty of the +poor Life! O, narrow dwelling-places and thrift! O, not again deem +riches to be of the Gods! In what temples and within what palace walls +could this be, that is to have no fear, in some tumult or other, of +striking the hand of Caesar?" + +And Lucan says this when he depicts how Caesar came by night to the +little house of the fisher Amyclas to cross the Adriatic Sea. And how +great is the hatred that each man bears to the possessor of riches, +either through envy, or from the desire to take possession of his +wealth! So true it is, that often and often, contrary to due filial +piety, the son meditates the death of the father; and most great and +most evident experience of this the Italians can have, both on the +banks of the Po and on the banks of the Tiber. And therefore Boethius +in the second chapter of his Consolations says: "Certainly Avarice +makes men hateful." + +Nay, their possession is privation of good, for, possessing those +riches, a man does not give freely with generosity, which is a virtue, +which is a perfect good, and which makes men magnificent and beloved; +which does not lie in possession of those riches, but in ceasing to +possess them. Wherefore Boethius in the same book says: "Then money is +good when, bartered for other things, by the use of generosity one no +longer possesses it." Wherefore the baseness of riches is sufficiently +proved by all these remarks of his; and therefore the man with an +upright desire and true knowledge never loves them; and, not loving +them, he does not unite himself to them, but always desires them to be +far from himself, except inasmuch as they are appointed to some +necessary service; and it is a reasonable thing, since the perfect +cannot be united with the imperfect. So we see that the curved line +never joins the straight line, and if there be any conjunction, it is +not of line to line, but of point to point. And thus it follows that +the Mind which is upright in desire, and truthful in knowledge, is not +disheartened at the loss of wealth: as the text asserts at the end of +that part. And by this the text intends to prove that riches are as a +river flowing in the distance past the upright tower of Reason, or +rather of Nobility; and that these riches cannot take Nobility away +from him who has it. And in this manner in the present Song it is +argued against riches. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. + + +Having confuted the error of other men in that part wherein it was +advanced in support of riches, it remains now to confute it in that +part where Time is said to be a cause of Nobility, saying, "Descent of +wealth;" and this reproof or confutation is made in that part which +begins: "They will not have the vile Turn noble." And in the first +place one confutes this by means of an argument taken from those men +themselves who err in this way; then, to their greater confusion, this +their argument is also destroyed; and it does this when it says, "It +follows then from this." Finally it concludes, their error being +evident, and it being therefore time to attend to the Truth; and it +does this when it says, "Sound intellect reproves." + +I say, then, "They will not have the vile Turn noble." Where it is to +be known that the opinion of these erroneous persons is, that a man +who is a peasant in the first place can never possibly be called a +Nobleman; and the man who is the son of a peasant in like manner can +never be Noble; and this breaks or destroys their own argument when +they say that Time is requisite to Nobility, adding that word +"descent." For it is impossible by process of Time to come to the +generation of Nobility in this way of theirs, which declares it to be +impossible for the humble peasant to become Noble by any work that he +may do, or through any accident; and declares the mutation of a +peasant father into a Noble son to be impossible. For if the son of +the peasant is also a peasant, and his son again is also a peasant, +and so always, it will never be possible to discover the place where +Nobility can begin to be established by process of Time. + +And if the adversary, wishing to defend himself, should say that +Nobility will begin at that period of Time when the low estate of the +ancestors will be forgotten, I reply that this goes against +themselves, for even of necessity there will be a transmutation of +peasant into Noble, from one man into another, or from father to son, +which is against that which they propound. + +And if the adversary should defend himself pertinaciously, saying that +indeed they do desire that it should be possible for this +transmutation to take place when the low estate of the ancestors +passes into oblivion, although the text takes no notice of this, it is +right that the Commentary should reply to it. And therefore I reply +thus: that from this which they say there follow four very great +difficulties, so that it cannot possibly be a good argument. One is, +that in proportion as Human Nature might become better, the slower +would be the generation of Nobility, which is a very great +inconvenience; since in proportion as a thing is honoured for its +excellence, so much the more is it the cause of goodness; and Nobility +is reckoned amongst the good. What this means is shown thus: If +Nobility, which I understand as a good thing, should be generated by +oblivion, Nobility would be generated in proportion to the speediness +with which men might be forgotten, for so much the sooner would +oblivion descend upon all. Hence, in proportion as men might be +forgotten, so much the sooner would they be Noble; and, on the +contrary, in proportion to the length of time during which they were +held in remembrance, so much the longer it would be before they could +be ennobled. + +The second difficulty is, that in nothing apart from men would it be +possible to make this distinction, that is to say, Noble or Vile, +which is very inconvenient; since, in each species of things we see +the image of Nobility or of Baseness, wherefore we often call one +horse noble and one vile; and one falcon noble and one vile; and one +pearl noble and one vile. And that it would not be possible to make +this distinction is thus proved; if the oblivion of the humble +ancestors is the cause of Nobility, or rather the baseness of the +ancestors never was, it is not possible for oblivion of them to be, +since oblivion is a destruction of remembrance, and in those other +animals, and in plants, and in minerals, lowness and loftiness are not +observed, since in one they are natural or innate and in an equal +state, and Nobility cannot possibly be in their generation, and +likewise neither can vileness nor baseness; since one regards the one +and the other as habit and privation, which are possible to occur in +the same subject; and therefore in them it would not be possible for a +distinction to exist between the one and the other. + +And if the adversary should wish to say, that in other things Nobility +is represented by the goodness of the thing, but in a man it is +understood because there is no remembrance of his humble or base +condition, one would wish to reply not with words, but with the sword, +to such bestiality as it would be to give to other things goodness as +a cause for Nobility, and to found the Nobility of men upon +forgetfulness or oblivion as a first cause. + +The third difficulty is, that often the person or thing generated +would come before the generator, which is quite impossible; and it is +possible to prove this thus: Let us suppose that Gherardo da Cammino +might have been the grandson of the most vile peasant who ever drank +of the Sile or of the Cagnano, and that oblivion had not yet overtaken +his grandfather; who will be bold enough to say that Gherardo da +Cammino was a vile man? and who will not agree with me in saying that +he was Noble? Certainly no one, however presumptuous he may wish to +be, for he was so, and his memory will always be treasured. If +oblivion had not yet overtaken his ancestor, as is proposed in +opposition, so that he might be great through Nobility, and the +Nobility in him might be seen so clearly, even as one does see it, +then it would have been first in him before the founder of his +Nobility could have existed; and this is impossible in the extreme. + +The fourth difficulty is, that such a man, the supposed grandfather, +would have been held Noble after he was dead who was not Noble whilst +alive; and a more inconvenient thing could not be. One proves it thus: +Let us suppose that in the age of Dardanus there might be a +remembrance of his low ancestors, and let us suppose that in the age +of Laomedon this memory might have passed away, and that oblivion had +overtaken it. According to the adverse opinion, Laomedon was Noble and +Dardanus was vile, each in his lifetime. We, to whom the remembrance +of the ancestors of Dardanus has not come, shall we say that Dardanus +living was vile, and dead a Noble? And is not this contrary to the +legend which says that Dardanus was the son of Jupiter (for such is +the fable, which one ought not to regard whilst disputing +philosophically); and yet if the adversary might wish to find support +in the fable, certainly that which the fable veils destroys his +arguments. And thus it is proved that the argument, which asserted +that oblivion is the cause of Nobility, is false. + + + + +CHAPTER XV. + + +Since, by their own argument, the Song has confuted them, and proved +that Time is not requisite to Nobility, it proceeds immediately to +confound their premisses, since of their false arguments no rust +remains in the mind which is disposed towards Truth; and this it does +when it says, "It follows then from this." Where it is to be known +that if it is not possible for a peasant to become a Noble, or for a +Noble son to be born of a humble father, as is advanced in their +opinion, of two difficulties one must follow. + +The first is, that there can be no Nobility; the other is, that the +World may have been always full of men, so that from one alone the +Human Race cannot be descended; and this it is possible to prove. + +If Nobility is not generated afresh, and it has been stated many times +that such is the basis of their opinion, the peasant man not being +able to beget it in himself, or the humble father to pass it on to his +son, the man always is the same as he was born; and such as the father +was born, so is the son born; and so this process from one condition +onwards is reached even by the first parent; for such as was the first +father, that is, Adam, so must the whole Human Race be, because from +him to the modern nations it will not be possible to find, according +to that argument, any change whatever. Then, if Adam himself was +Noble, we are all Noble; if he was vile, we are all vile or base; +which is no other than to remove the distinction between these +conditions, and thus it is to remove the conditions. + +And the Song states this, which follows from what is advanced, saying, +"That all are high or base." And if this is not so, then any nation is +to be called Noble, and any is to be called vile, of necessity. +Transmutation from vileness into Nobility being thus taken away, the +Human Race must be descended from different ancestors, that is, some +from Nobles and some from vile persons, and so the Song says, "Or that +in Time there never was Beginning to our race," that is to say, one +beginning; it does not say beginnings. And this is most false +according to the Philosopher, according to our Faith, which cannot +lie, according to the Law and ancient belief of the Gentiles. For +although the Philosopher does not assert the succession from one first +man, yet he would have one essential being to be in all men, which +cannot possibly have different origins. And Plato would have that all +men depend upon one idea alone, and not on more or many, which is to +give them only one beginning. And undoubtedly Aristotle would laugh +very loudly if he heard of two species to be made out of the Human +Race, as of horses and asses; and (may Aristotle forgive me) one might +call those men asses who think in this way. For according to our Faith +(which is to be preserved in its entirety) it is most false, as +Solomon makes evident where he draws a distinction between men and the +brute animals, for he calls men "all the sons of Adam," and this he +does when he says: "Who knows if the spirits of the sons of Adam mount +upwards, and if those of the beasts go downwards?" And that it is +false according to the Gentiles, let the testimony of Ovid in the +first chapter of his Metamorphoses prove, where he treats of the +constitution of the World according to the Pagan belief, or rather +belief of the Gentiles, saying: "Man is born "--he did not say "Men;" +he said, "Man is born," or rather, "that the Artificer of all things +made him from Divine seed, or that the new earth, but lately parted +from the noble ether, retained seeds of the kindred Heaven, which, +mingled with the water of the river, formed the son of Japhet into an +image of the Gods, who govern all." Where evidently he asserts the +first man to have been one alone; and therefore the Song says, "But +that I cannot hold," that is, to the opinion that man had not one +beginning; and the Song subjoins, "Nor yet if Christians they." And it +says Christians, not Philosophers, or rather Gentiles, whose opinion +also is adverse, because the Christian opinion is of greater force, +and is the destroyer of all calumny, thanks to the supreme light of +Heaven, which illuminates it. + +Then when I say, "Sound intellect reproves their words As false, and +turns away," I conclude this error to be confuted, and I say that it +is time to open the eyes to the Truth; and this is expressed when I +say, "And now I seek to tell, As it appears to me." It is now evident +to sound minds that the words of those men are vain, that is, without +a crumb or particle of Truth; and I say sound not without cause. Our +intellect may be said to be sound or unsound. And I say intellect for +the noble part of our Soul, which it is possible to designate by the +common word "Mind." It may be called sound or healthy, when it is not +obstructed in its action by sickness of mind or body, which is to know +what things are, as Aristotle expresses it in the third chapter on the +Soul. + +For, owing to the sickness of the Soul, I have seen three horrible +infirmities in the minds of men. + +One is caused by natural vanity, for many men are so presumptuous that +they believe they know everything, and, owing to this, they assert +things to be facts which are not facts. Tullius especially execrates +this vice in the first chapter of the Offices, and St. Thomas in his +book against the Gentiles, saying: "There are many men, so +presumptuous in their conceit, who believe that they can compass all +things with their intellect, deeming all that appears to them to be +true, and count as false that which does not appear to them." Hence it +arises that they never attain to any knowledge; believing themselves +to be sufficiently learned, they never inquire, they never listen; +they desire to be inquired of, and when a question is put, bad enough +is their reply. Of those men Solomon speaks in Proverbs: "Seest thou a +man that is hasty in his words? there is more hope of a fool than of +him." + +Another infirmity of mind is caused by natural weakness or smallness, +for many men are so vilely obstinate or stubborn that they cannot +believe that it is possible either for them or for others to know +things; and such men as these never of themselves seek knowledge, nor +ever reason; for what other men say, they care not at all. And against +these men Aristotle speaks in the first book of the Ethics, declaring +those men to be insufficient or unsatisfactory hearers of Moral +Philosophy. Those men always live, like beasts, a life of grossness, +the despair of all learning. + +The third infirmity of mind is caused by the levity of nature; for +many men are of such light fancy that in all their arguments they go +astray, and even when they make a syllogism and have concluded, from +that conclusion they fly off into another, and it seems to them most +subtle argument. They start not from any true beginning, and truly +they see nothing true in their imagination. Of those men the +Philosopher says that it is not right to trouble about them, or to +have business with them, saying, in the first book of Physics, that +against him who denies the first postulate it is not right to dispute. +And of such men as these are many idiots, who may not know their A B +C, and who would wish to dispute in Geometry, in Astrology, and in the +Science of Physics. + +Also through sickness or defect of body, it is possible for the Mind +to be unsound or sick; even as through some primal defect at birth, as +with those who are born fools, or through alteration in the brain, as +with the madmen. And of this mental infirmity the Law speaks when it +says: "In him who makes a Will or Testament, at the time when he makes +the Will or Testament, health of mind, not health of body, is +required." + +But to those intellects which from sickness of mind or body are not +infirm, but are free, diligent, and whole in the light of Truth, I say +it must be evident that the opinion of the people, which has been +stated above, is vain, that is, without any value whatever, worthless. + +Afterwards the Song subjoins that I thus judge them to be false and +vain; and this it does when it says, "Sound intellect reproves their +words As false, and turns away." And afterwards I say that it is time +to demonstrate or prove the Truth; and I say that it is now right to +state what kind of thing true Nobility is, and how it is possible to +know the man in whom it exists; and I speak of this where I say: + + And now I seek to tell + As it appears to me, + What is, whence comes, what signs attest + A true Nobility. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI. + + +"The King shall rejoice in God, and all those shall be praised who +swear by him, for closed is the mouth of those who speak wicked +things." These words I can here propound in all truth; because each +true King ought especially to love the Truth. Wherefore it is written +in the Book of Wisdom, "Love the Light of Wisdom, you, who stand +before, the people," and the Light of Wisdom is this same Truth. I +say, then, every King shall rejoice that the most false and most +injurious opinion of the wicked and deceitful men who have up to this +time spoken iniquitously of Nobility is confuted. + +It is now requisite to proceed to the discussion of the Truth +according to the division made above, in the third chapter of the +present treatise. This second part, then, which begins, "I say that +from one root Each Virtue firstly springs," intends to describe this +Nobility according to the Truth, and this part is divided into two: +for in the first the intention is to prove what this Nobility is; and +in the second how it is possible to recognize him in whom it dwells, +and this second part begins, "Such virtue shows its good." The first +part, again, has two parts; for in the first certain things are sought +for which are needful in order to perceive the definition of Nobility; +in the second, one looks for its definition, and this second part +begins, "Where virtue is, there is A Nobleman." + +That we may enter perfectly into the treatise, two things are to be +considered in the first place. The one is, what is meant by this word +Nobility, taken alone, in its simple meaning; the other is, in what +path it is needful to walk in order to search out the before-named +definition. I say, then, that, if we will pay attention to the common +use of speech, by this word Nobility is understood the perfection of +its own nature in each thing; wherefore it is predicated not only of +the man, but also of all things; for the man calls a stone noble, a +plant or tree noble, a horse noble, a falcon noble, whatever is seen +to be perfect in its nature. And therefore Solomon says in +Ecclesiastes, "Blessed is the land whose King is Noble;" which is no +other than saying, whose King is perfect according to the perfection +of the mind and body; and he thus makes this evident by that which he +says previously, when he writes, "Woe unto the land whose King is a +child." For that is not a perfect man, and a man is a child, if not by +age, yet by his disordered manners and by the evil or defect of his +life, as the Philosopher teaches in the first book of the Ethics. + +There are some foolish people who believe that by this word Noble is +meant that which is to be named and known by many men; and they say +that it comes from a verb which stands for _to know_, that is, +_nosco_. But this is most false, for, if this could be, those +things which were most named and best known in their species would in +their species be the most noble. Thus the obelisk of St. Peter would +be the most noble stone in the world; and Asdente, the shoemaker of +Parma, would be more Noble than any one of his fellow-citizens; and +Albuino della Scala would be more Noble than Guido da Castello di +Reggio. Each one of those things is most false, and therefore it is +most false that _nobile_ (noble) can come from _cognoscere_, +to know. It comes from _non vile_ (not vile); wherefore +_nobile_ (noble) is as it were _non vile_ (not vile). + +This perfection the Philosopher means in the seventh chapter of +Physics, when he says: "Each thing is especially perfect when it +touches and joins its own proper or relative virtue; and then it is +especially perfect according to its nature. It is, then, possible to +call the circle perfect when it is truly a circle, that is, when it is +joined with its own proper or relative virtue, it is then complete in +its nature, and it may then be called a noble circle." This is when +there is a point in it which is equally distant from the +circumference. That circle which has the figure of an egg loses its +virtue and it is not Noble, nor that circle which has the form of an +almost full moon, because in that its nature is not perfect. And thus +evidently it is possible to see that commonly, or in a general sense, +this word Nobility, expresses in all things perfection of their +nature, and this is that for which one seeks primarily in order to +enter more clearly into the discussion of that part which it is +intended to explain. + +Secondly, it remains to be seen how one must proceed in order to find +the definition of Human Nobility to which the present argument leads. +I say, then, that since in those things which are of one species, as +are all men, it is not possible by essential first principles to +define their highest perfection, it is necessary to know and to define +that by their effects. Therefore one reads in the Gospel of St. +Matthew, when Christ speaks, "Beware of false prophets: by their +fruits ye shall know them." And in a direct way the definition we seek +is to be seen by the fruits, which are the moral and intellectual +virtues of which this Nobility is the seed, as in its definition will +be fully evident. + +And these are those two things we must see before one can proceed to +the others, as is said in the previous part of this chapter. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII. + + +Since those two things which it seemed needful to understand before +the text could be proceeded with have been seen and understood, it now +remains to proceed with the text and to explain it, and the text then +begins: + + I say that from one root + Each Virtue firstly springs, + Virtue, I mean, that Happiness + To man, by action, brings + +And I subjoin: + + This, as the Ethics teach, + Is habit of right choice; + +placing the whole definition of the Moral Virtues as it is defined by +the Philosopher in the second book of Ethics, in which two things +principally are understood. One is, that each Virtue comes from one +first principle or original cause; the other is, that by "Each Virtue" +I mean the Moral Virtues, and this is evident from the words, "This, +as the Ethics teach" + +Hence it is to be known that our most right and proper fruits are the +Moral Virtues, since on every side they are in our power; and these +are differently distinguished and enumerated by different +philosophers. But it seems to me right to omit the opinion of other +men in that part where the divine opinion of Aristotle is stated by +word of mouth, and therefore, wishing to describe what those Moral +Virtues are, I will pass on, briefly discoursing of them according to +his opinion. + +There are eleven Virtues named by the said Philosopher. The first is +called Courage, which is sword and bridle to moderate our boldness and +timidity in things which are the ruin of our life. The second is +Temperance, which is the law and bridle of our gluttony and of our +undue abstinence in those things requisite for the preservation of our +life. The third is Liberality, which is the moderator of our giving +and of our receiving things temporal. The fourth is Magnificence, +which is the moderator of great expenditures, making and supporting +those within certain limits. The fifth is Magnanimity, which is the +moderator and acquirer of great honours and fame. The sixth is the +Love of Honour, which is the moderator and regulator to us of the +honours of this World. The seventh is Mildness, which moderates our +anger and our excessive or undue patience against our external +misfortunes. The eighth is Affability, which makes us live on good +terms with other men. The ninth is called Truth, which makes us +moderate in boasting ourselves over and above what we are, and in +depreciating ourselves below what we are in our speech. The tenth is +called Eutrapelia, pleasantness of intercourse, which makes us +moderate in joys or pleasures, causing us to use them in due measure. +The eleventh is Justice, which teaches us to love and to act with +uprightness in all things. + +And each of these Virtues has two collateral enemies, that is to say, +vices; one in excess and one in defect. And these Moral Virtues are +the centres or middle stations between them, and those Virtues all +spring from one root or principle, that is to say, from the habit of +our own good choice. Wherefore, in a general sense, it is possible to +say of all, that they are a habit of choice standing firm in due +moderation; and these are those which make a man happy in their active +operation, as the Philosopher says in the first book of the Ethics +when he defines Happiness, saying that Happiness is virtuous action in +a perfect life. + +By many, Prudence, that is, good, judgment or wisdom, is well asserted +to be a Moral Virtue. But Aristotle numbers that amongst the +Intellectual Virtues, although it is the guide of the moral, and +points out the way by which they are formed, and without it they could +not be. Verily, it is to be known that we can have in this life two +happinesses or felicities by following two different roads, both good +and excellent, which lead us to them: the one is the Active Life and +the other is the Contemplative Life, which (although by the Active +Life one may attain, as has been said, to a good state of Happiness) +leads us to supreme Happiness, even as the Philosopher proves in the +tenth book of the Ethics; and Christ affirms it with His own Lips in +the Gospel of Luke, speaking to Martha, when replying to her: "Martha, +Martha, thou art anxious and troubled about many things: verily, one +thing alone is needful," meaning, that which thou hast in hand; and He +adds: "Mary has chosen the better part, which shall not be taken away +from her." And Mary, according to that which is previously written in +the Gospel, sitting at the feet of Christ, showed no care for the +service of the house, but listened only to the words of the Saviour. + +For if we will explain this in the moral sense, our Lord wished to +show thereby that the Contemplative Life was supremely good, although +the Active Life might be good; this is evident to him who will give +his mind to the words of the Gospel. + +It would be possible, however, for any one to say, in argument against +me: Since the happiness of the Contemplative Life is more excellent +than that of the Active Life, and both may be, and are, the fruit and +end of Nobility, why not rather have proceeded in the argument along +the line of the Intellectual Virtues than of the Moral? To this it is +possible to reply briefly, that in all instruction it is desirable to +have regard to the capability of the learner, and to lead him by that +path which is easiest to him. Wherefore, since the Moral Virtues +appear to be, and are, more general and more required than the others, +and are more seen in outward appearances, it was more convenient and +more useful to proceed along that path than by the other; for thus +indeed we shall attain to the knowledge of the bees by arguing of +profit from the wax, as well as by arguing of profit from the honey, +for both the one and the other proceed from them. + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII. + + +In the preceding chapter has been determined how each Moral Virtue +comes from one root, or first principle, that is, a good habit of +choice; and the present text bears upon that, until the part which +begins: "Nobility by right." In this part, then, it proceeds, by a way +that is allowable, to teach that each Virtue mentioned above, taken +singly, or otherwise generally, proceeds from Nobility as an effect +from its cause, and it is founded upon a philosophical proposition, +which says that, when two things are found to meet in one, both these +things must be reduced to a third, or one to the other, as an effect +to a cause: because one thing having stood first and of itself, it +cannot exist except it be from one; and if those two could not be both +the effect of a third, or else one the effect of the other, each would +have had a separate first cause, which is impossible. It says, then, +that + + Such virtue shows its good + To others' intellect, + For when two things agree in one, + Producing one effect, + + One must from other come, + Or each one from a third, + If each be as each, and more, then one + From the other is inferred. + +Where it is to be known that here one does not proceed by an evident +demonstration; as it would be to say that the cold is the generative +principle of water, when we see the clouds; but certainly by a +beautiful and suitable induction. For if there are many laudable +things in us, and one is the principle or first cause of them all, +reason requires each to be reduced to that first cause, which +comprehends more things; and this ought more reasonably to be called +the principle of those things than that which comprehends in itself +less of their principle. For as the trunk of a tree, which contains or +encloses all the other branches, ought to be called the first +beginning and cause of those branches, and not those branches the +cause of the trunk, so Nobility, which comprehends each and every +Virtue (as the cause contains the effect) and many other actions or +operations of ours which are praiseworthy, it ought to be held for +such; that the Virtue may be reduced to it, rather than to the other +third which is in us. Finally it says that the position taken (namely, +that each Moral Virtue comes from one root, and that such Virtue and +Nobility unite in one thing, as is stated above, and that therefore it +is requisite to reduce the one to the other, or both to a third; and +that if the one contains the value of the other and more, from that it +proceeds rather than from the other third) may be considered as a rule +established and set forth, as was before intended. + +And thus ends this passage and this present part. + + + + +CHAPTER XIX. + + +Since in the preceding part are discussed three certain definite +things which were necessary to be seen before we define, if possible, +this good thing of which we speak, it is right to proceed to the +following part, which begins: "Where Virtue is, there is A Nobleman." +And it is desirable to reduce this into two parts. In the first a +certain thing is proved, which before has been touched upon and left +unproved; in the second, concluding, the definition sought is found; +and this second part begins; "Comes virtue from what's noble, as From +black comes violet." + +In evidence of the first part, it is to be recalled to mind that it +says previously that, if Nobility is worth more and extends farther +than Virtue, Virtue rather will proceed from it, which this part now +proves, namely, that Nobility extends farther, and produces a copy of +Heaven, saying that wherever there is Virtue there is Nobility. And +here it is to be known that (as it is written in the Books of the Law, +and is held as a Rule of the Law) in those things which of themselves +are evident there is no need of proof; and nothing is more evident +than that Nobility exists wherever there is Virtue, and each thing, +commonly speaking, that we see perfect according to its nature is +worthy to be called Noble. It says then: "So likewise that is Heaven +Wherein a star is hung, But Heaven may be starless." So there is +Nobility wherever there is Virtue, and not Virtue wherever there is +Nobility. And with a beautiful and suitable example; for truly it is a +Heaven in which many and various stars shine. In this Nobility there +shine the Moral and the Intellectual Virtues: there shine in it the +good dispositions bestowed by nature, piety, and religion; the +praiseworthy passions, as Modesty and Mercy and many others; there +shine in it the good gifts of the body, that is to say, beauty, +strength, and almost perpetual health; and so many are the stars which +stud its Heaven that certainly it is not to be wondered at if they +produce many and divers effects in Human Nobility; such are the +natures and the powers of those stars, assembled and contained within +one simple substance, through the medium of which stars, as through +different branches, it bears fruit in various ways. Certainly, with +all earnestness, I make bold to say that Human Nobility, so far as +many of its fruits are considered, excels that of the Angel, although +the Angelic may be more Divine in its unity. + +Of this Nobility of ours, which fructifies into such fruits and so +numerous, the Psalmist had perception when he composed that Psalm +which begins: "O Lord our God, how admirable is Thy Name through all +the Earth!" where he praises man, as if wondering at the Divine +affection for this Human Creature, saying: "What is man, that Thou, +God, dost visit him? Thou hast made him a little lower than the +Angels; Thou hast crowned him with glory and honour, and placed him +over the works of Thy hands." Then, truly, it was a beautiful and +suitable comparison to compare Heaven with Human Nobility. + +Then, when the Song says, "In women and the young A modesty is seen, +Not virtue, noble yet," it proves that Nobility extends into parts +where Virtue is not; and it says, "noble yet," alluding to Nobility as +indeed a true safeguard, being where there is shame or modesty, that +is to say, fear of dishonour, as it is in maidens and youths, where +shame or modesty is good and praiseworthy; which shame or modesty is +not virtue, but a certain good passion. And it says, "In women and the +young," that is to say, in youths; because, as the Philosopher +expresses it in the fourth book of the Ethics, shame, bashfulness, +modesty, is not praiseworthy nor good in the old nor in men of +studious habits, because to them it is fit that they beware of those +things which would lead them to shame. In youths and maidens such +caution is not so much required, and therefore in them the fear of +receiving dishonour through some fault is praiseworthy. It springs +from Nobility, and it is possible to account their timid bashfulness +to be Nobility. Baseness and ignoble ways produce impudence: wherefore +it is a good and excellent sign of Nobility in children and persons of +tender years when, after some fault, their shame is painted in their +face, which blush of shame is then the fruit of true Nobility. + + + + +CHAPTER XX. + + +When it proceeds to say, "Comes virtue from what's noble, as From +black comes violet," the text advances to the desired definition of +Nobility, by which one may see what this Nobility is of which so many +people speak erroneously. It says then, drawing a conclusion from that +which has been said before, that each Virtue, or rather its generator, +that is to say, the habit of right choice, which stands firm in due +moderation, will spring forth from this, that is, Nobility. And it +gives an example in the colours, saying, as from the black the violet, +so this Virtue springs from Nobility. The violet is a mixed colour of +purple and black, but the black prevails, and the colour is named from +it. And thus the Virtue is a mixed thing of Nobility and Passion; but, +because Nobility prevails, the Virtue takes its name from it, and is +called Goodness. Then afterwards it argues, by that which has been +said, that no man ought to say boastfully, "I am of such and such a +race or family;" nor ought he to believe that he is of this Nobility +unless the fruits of it are in him. And immediately it renders a +reason, saying that those who have this Grace, that is to say, this +Divine thing, are almost Gods as it were, without spot of vice, and no +one has the power to bestow this except God alone, with whom there is +no respect of persons, even as Divine Scripture makes manifest. And it +does not appear too extravagant when it says, "They are as Gods," for +as it is argued previously in the seventh chapter of the third +treatise, even as there are men most vile and bestial so are men most +Noble and Divine. And this Aristotle proves in the seventh chapter of +Ethics by the text of Homer the poet; therefore, let not those men who +are of the Uberti of Florence, nor those of the Visconti of Milan, +say, "Because I am of such a family or race, I am Noble," for the +Divine seed falls not into a race of men, that is, into a family; but +it falls into individual persons, and, as will be proved below, the +family does not make individual persons Noble, but the individual +persons make the family Noble. + +Then when it says, "God only gives it to the Soul," the argument is of +the susceptive, that is, of the subject whereon this Divine gift +descends, which is indeed a Divine gift, according to the word of the +Apostle: "Every good gift and every perfect gift comes from above, +proceeding from the Father of Light." It says then that God alone +imparts this Grace to the Soul that He sees pure, within the Soul of +that man whom He sees to be perfectly prepared and fit to receive in +his own proper person this Divine action; for, according as the +Philosopher says in the second chapter Of the Soul, things must be +prepared for their agents and qualified to receive their acts; +wherefore if the Soul is imperfectly prepared, it is not qualified to +receive this blessed and Divine infusion, even as a precious stone, if +it is badly cut or prepared, wherever it is imperfect, cannot receive +the celestial virtue; even as that noble Guido Guinizzelli said, in a +Song of his which begins: "To gentle hearts Love ever will repair." It +is possible for the Soul to be unqualified through some defect of +temper, or perhaps through some sinister circumstances of the time in +which the person lives, and into a Soul so unhappy as this the Divine +radiance never shines. And it may be said of such men as these, whose +Souls are deprived of this Light, that they are as deep valleys turned +towards the North, or rather subterranean caves wherein the light of +the Sun never enters unless it be reflected from another part which +has caught its rays. + +Finally, it deduces, from that which has been previously said, that +the Virtues are the fruit of Nobility, and that God places that +Nobility in the Soul which has a good foundation. For to some, that +is, to those who have intellect, who are but few, it is evident that +human Nobility is no other than the seed of Happiness + + That seed of Happiness + Falls in the hearts of few, + Planted by God within the Souls + Spread to receive His dew; + +that is to say, whose body is in every part perfectly prepared, +ordered, or qualified. + +For if the Virtues are the fruit of Nobility, and Happiness is +pleasure or sweetness acquired through or by them, it is evident that +this Nobility is the seed of Happiness, as has been said. And if one +considers well, this definition comprehends all the four arguments, +that is to say, the material, the formal, the efficient, and the +final: material, inasmuch as it says, "to the Soul spread to receive," +which is the material and subject of Nobility; formal, inasmuch as it +says, "That seed;" efficient, inasmuch as it says, "Planted by God +within the Soul;" final, inasmuch as it says, "of Happiness," Heaven's +blessing. And thus is defined this our good gift, which descends into +us in like manner from the Supreme and Spiritual Power, as virtue into +a precious stone from a most noble celestial body. + + + + +CHAPTER XXI. + + +That we may have more perfect knowledge of Human Goodness, as it is +the original cause in us of all good that can be called Nobility, it +is requisite to explain clearly in this especial chapter how this +Goodness descends into us. + +In the first place, it comes by the Natural way, and then by the +Theological way, that is to say, the Divine and Spiritual. In the +first place, it is to be known that man is composed of Soul and body; +but that Goodness or Nobility is of the Soul, as has been said, and is +after the manner of seed from the Divine Virtue. By different +philosophers it has been differently argued concerning the difference +in our Souls; for Avicenna and Algazel were of opinion that Souls of +themselves and from their beginning were Noble or Base. Plato and some +others were of opinion that they proceeded by the stars, and were +Noble more or less according to the nobility of the star. Pythagoras +was of opinion that all were of one nobility, not only human Souls, +but with human Souls those of the brute animals and of the trees and +the forms of minerals; and he said that all the difference in the +bodies is form. If each one were to defend his opinion, it might be +that Truth would be seen to be in all. But since on the surface they +seem somewhat distant from the Truth, one must not proceed according +to those opinions, but according to the opinion of Aristotle and of +the Peripatetics. And therefore I say that when the human seed falls +into its receptacle, that is, into the matrix, it bears with it the +virtue or power of the generative Soul, and the virtue or power of +Heaven, and the virtue or power of the aliments united or bound +together, that is the involution or complex nature of the seed. It +matures and prepares the material for the formative power or virtue +which the generating Soul bestows; and the formative power or virtue +prepares the organs for the celestial virtue or power, which produces, +from the power of the seed, the Soul in life; which, as soon as +produced, receives from the power of the Mover of the Heaven the +passive intellect or mind, which potentially brings together in itself +all the universal forms according as they are in its producer, and so +much the less in proportion as it is farther removed from the first +Intelligence. + +Let no one marvel if I speak what seems difficult to understand; for +to myself it seems a miracle how it is possible even to arrive at a +conclusion concerning it, and to perceive it with the intellect. It is +not a thing to reveal in language, especially the language of the +Vulgar Tongue; wherefore I will say, even as did the Apostle: "Oh, +great is the depth of the riches of Wisdom of God: how incomprehensible +are Thy judgments, and Thy ways past finding out!" And since the +complex nature of the seed may be better and less good, and the +disposition of the receiver of the seed may be better and less good, +and the disposition of the dominant Heaven to this effect may be good +and better and best, which varies in the constellations, which are +continually transformed; it befalls that from the human seed and from +these virtues or powers the Soul is produced more or less pure; and +according to its purity there descends into it the virtue or power of +the possible or passive intellect, as it is called, and as it has been +spoken of. And if it happen that through the purity of the receptive +Soul the intellectual power is indeed separate and absolute, free from +all corporeal shadow, the Divine Goodness multiplies in it, as in a +thing sufficient to receive that good gift; and then it multiplies in +the Soul of this intelligent being, according as it can receive it; +and this is that seed of Happiness of which we speak at present. And +this is in harmony with the opinion of Tullius in that book on Old Age +when, speaking personally of Cato, he says: "For this reason a +celestial spirit descended into us from the highest habitation, having +come into a place which is adverse to the Divine Nature and to +Eternity." And in such a Soul as this there is its own individual +power, and the intellectual power, and the Divine power; that is to +say, that influence which has been mentioned. Therefore it is written +in the book On Causes: "Each Noble Soul has three operations, that is +to say, the animal, the intellectual, and the Divine." And there are +some men who hold such opinions that they say, if all the preceding +powers were to unite in the production of a Soul in their best +disposition, arrangement, order, that into that Soul would descend so +much of the Deity that it would be as it were another God Incarnate; +and this is almost all that it is possible to say concerning the +Natural way. + +By the Theological way it is possible to say that, when the Supreme +Deity, that is, God, sees His creature prepared to receive His good +gift, so freely He imparts it to His creature in proportion as it is +prepared or qualified to receive it. And because these gifts proceed +from ineffable Love, and the Divine Love is appropriate to the Holy +Spirit, therefore it is that they are called the gifts of the Holy +Spirit, which, even as the Prophet Isaiah distinguishes them, are +seven, namely, Wisdom, Intelligence, Counsel, Courage, Knowledge, +Pity, and the Fear of God. O, good green blades, and good and +wonderful the seed! + +And O, admirable and benign Sower of the seed, who dost only wait for +human nature to prepare the ground for Thee wherein to sow! O, blessed +are those who till the land to fit it to receive such seed! + +Here it is to be known that the first noble shoot which germinates +from this seed that it may be fruitful, is the desire or appetite of +the mind, which in Greek is called "hormen;" and if this is not well +cultivated and held upright by good habits, the seed is of little +worth, and it would be better if it had not been sown. + +And therefore St. Augustine urges, and Aristotle also in the second +book of Ethics, that man should accustom himself to do good, and to +bridle in his passions, in order that this shoot which has been +mentioned may grow strong through good habits, and be confirmed in its +uprightness, so that it may fructify, and from its fruit may issue the +sweetness of Human Happiness. + + + + +CHAPTER XXII. + + +It is the commandment of the Moral Philosophers that, of the good +gifts whereof they have spoken, Man ought to put his thought and his +anxious care into the effort to make them as useful as possible to the +receiver. Wherefore I, wishing to be obedient to such a mandate, +intend to render this my BANQUET [Convito] as useful as possible in +each one of its parts. And because in this part it occurs to me to be +able to reason somewhat concerning the sweetness of Human Happiness, I +consider that there could not be a more useful discourse, especially +to those who know it not; for as the Philosopher says in the first +book of Ethics, and Tullius in that book Of the Ends of Good and Evil, +he shoots badly at the mark who sees it not. Even thus a man can but +ill advance towards this sweet joy who does not begin with a +perception of it. Wherefore, since it is our final rest for which we +live and labour as we can, most useful and most necessary it is to see +this mark in order to aim at it the bow of this our work. And it is +most essential to make it inviting to those who do not see the mark +when simply pointed out. Leaving alone, then, the opinion which +Epicurus the philosopher had concerning it, and that which Zeno +likewise had, I intend to come summarily to the true opinion of +Aristotle and of the other Peripatetics. As it is said above, of the +Divine Goodness sown and infused in us, from the original cause of our +production, there springs up a shoot, which the Greeks term "hormen," +that is to say, the natural appetite of the soul. + +And as it is with the blades of corn which, when they first shoot +forth, have in the beginning one similar appearance, being in the +grass-like stage, and then, by process of time, they become unlike, so +this Natural appetite, which springs from the Divine Grace, in the +beginning appears as it were not unlike that which comes nakedly from +Nature; but with it, even as the herbage born of various grains of +corn, it has the same appearance, as it were: and not only in the +blades of corn, but in men and in beasts there is the same similitude. +And it appears that every animal, as soon as it is born, both rational +and brute beast, loves itself, and fears and flies from those things +which are adverse to it, and hates them, then proceeding as has been +said. And there begins a difference between them in the progress of +this Natural appetite, for the one keeps to one road, and the other to +another; even as the Apostle says: "Many run to the goal, but there is +but one who reaches it." Even thus these Human appetites from the +beginning run through different paths, and there is one path alone +which leads us to our peace; and therefore, leaving all the others +alone, it is for the treatise to follow the course of that one who +begins well. + +I say, then, that from the beginning a man loves himself, although +indistinctly; then comes the distinguishing of those things which to +him are more or less; to be more or less loved or hated; and he +follows after and flies from either more or less according as the +right habit distinguishes, not only in the other things which he loves +in a secondary manner, for he even distinguishes in himself which +thing he loves principally; and perceiving in himself divers parts, +those which are the noblest in him he loves most. But, since the +noblest part of man is the Mind, he loves that more than the Body; and +thus, loving himself principally, and through himself other things, +and of himself loving the better part most, it is evident that he +loves the Mind more than the Body or any other thing; and the Mind it +is that, naturally, more than any other thing he ought to love. + +Then, if the Mind always delights in the use of the beloved thing, +which is the fruit of love, the use of that thing which is especially +beloved is especially delightful: the use of our Mind is especially +delightful to us, and that which is especially delightful to us +becomes our Happiness and our Beatitude, beyond which there is no +greater delight or pleasure, nor any equal to it, as may be seen by +him who looks well at the preceding argument. + +And no one ought to say that every appetite is Mind; for here one +understands Mind solely as that which belongs to the Rational part, +that is, the Will and the Intellect; so that if any one should wish to +call Mind the appetite of the Senses, here it has no place, nor can it +have any abiding; for no one doubts that the Rational appetite is more +noble than the Sensual, and therefore more to be loved; and so is this +of which we are now speaking. + +The use of our Mind is double, that is to say, Practical and +Speculative (it is Practical insomuch as it has the power of acting); +both the one and the other are delightful in their use, but that of +Contemplation is the most pleasing, as has been said above. The use of +the Practical is to act in or through us virtuously, that is to say, +honestly or uprightly, with Prudence, with Temperance, with Courage, +and with Justice. The use of the Speculative is not to work or act +through us, but to consider the works of God and of Nature. This and +the other form our Beatitude and Supreme Happiness, which is the +sweetness of the before-mentioned seed, as now clearly appears. To +this often such seed does not attain, through being ill cultivated, or +through its tender growing shoots being perverted. In like manner it +is quite possible, by much correction and cultivation of him into whom +this seed does not fall primarily, to induce it by the process of +steady endeavour after goodness, so that it may attain to the power of +bearing this fruit. And it is, as it were, a method of grafting the +nature of another upon a different stock. + +No man, therefore, can hold himself excused; for if from his natural +root the man does not produce sweet fruit, it is possible for him to +have it by the process of grafting; and in fact there would be as many +who should be grafted as those are who, sprung from a good root, allow +themselves to grow degenerate. + +Of the two ways of goodness, one is more full of bliss than the other, +as is the Speculative, which is the use of our noblest part without +any alloy, and which, for the root, Love, as has been said, is +especially to be loved as the intellect. And in this life it is not +possible to have the use of this part perfectly, which is to see God, +who is the Supreme Being to be comprehended by the Mind, except +inasmuch as the intellect considers Him and beholds Him through His +effects, His Works. And that we may seek this Beatitude as the +supreme, and not the other, that is, that of the Active Life, the +Gospel of St. Mark teaches us, if we will look at it well. + +Mark says that Mary Magdalene, and Mary the mother of James, and Mary +Salome went to find the Saviour in the Tomb, and they found Him not, +but they found a youth clothed in white, who said to them: "You seek +the Saviour, and I tell you that He is not here; and therefore be not +affrighted, but go and tell His disciples and Peter that He goeth +before you into Galilee; and there ye shall see Him, as He said unto +you." By these three women may be understood the three sects of the +Active Life, that is to say, the Epicureans, the Stoics, and the +Peripatetics, who go to the Tomb, that is to say, to the present +World, which is the receptacle of corruptible things, and seek for the +Saviour, that is, Beatitude, and they find it not; but they find a +youth in white garments, who, according to the testimony of Matthew, +and also of the other Evangelists, was an Angel of God. And therefore +Matthew said: "The Angel of the Lord descended from Heaven, and came +and rolled back the stone from the door, and sat upon it. His +countenance was like lightning, and his raiment white as snow." The +Angel is this Nobility of ours which comes from God, as it has been +said, of which our argument speaks, and says to each one of these +sects, that is, to whoever seeks perfect Happiness in the Active Life, +that it is not here; but go and tell the disciples and Peter, that is, +tell those who seek for it and those who are gone astray like Peter, +who had denied Him, that He will go before them into Galilee; meaning +that the Beatitude or Happiness will go before us into Galilee, that +is, into Contemplation; Galilee is as much as to say, Whiteness. +Whiteness is a colour full of material light, more so than any other; +and thus, Contemplation is more full of Spiritual light than any other +thing which is below. + +And it says, "He will go before you," but it does not say, "He will be +with you," to make us understand that in our contemplation God always +goes before. Nor is it ever possible to us to attain to Him here, to +Him, our Supreme Bliss. And it says, "There shall ye see Him, as He +said unto you;" that is to say, there you will receive of His +Sweetness, that is, of the Happiness as it is promised to you here, as +it is established that you may receive it. + +And thus it appears that our Beatitude, this Happiness of which we +speak, first we are able to find imperfect in the Active Life, that +is, in the operations of the Moral Virtues, and then almost perfect in +the operations of the Intellectual Virtues; which two operations are +speedy and most direct ways to lead to the Supreme Bliss, which it is +not possible to have here below, even as appears by that which has +been said. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIII. + + +Since the definition of Nobility is sufficiently demonstrated, and +since in all its parts it has been made as explicit as possible, so +that we can now see who is the Nobleman, it seems right to proceed to +the part of the text which begins, "Souls whom this Grace adorns," in +whom appear the signs by which it is possible to know the Noble Man. + +This part is divided into two. In the first it affirms that this +Nobility is resplendent, and that it shines forth manifestly during +the whole life of the Noble Man; in the second it appears specifically +in its glory, and this second part begins, "In Childhood they obey." +With regard to the first part, it is to be known that this Divine +seed, which has been previously spoken of, germinates immediately in +our Soul, combining with and changing its form with each form of the +Soul, according to the exigency of that power. It germinates, then, as +the Vegetative, as the Sensitive, and as the Rational, and it branches +out through the virtues or powers of all of them, guiding all those to +their perfection, and sustaining itself in them always, even to the +point when, with that part of our Soul which never dies, it returns to +the highest and the most glorious Sower of the seed in Heaven; and it +expresses this in that first part which has been mentioned. Then when +it says, "In Childhood they obey, Are gentle, modest," it shows how we +can recognize the Noble Man by the apparent signs, which are the +Divine operation of this goodness. And this part is divided into four, +as it is made to represent four different ages, such as Adolescence, +Youth, Old Age, and Extreme Old Age. The second part begins, "Are +temperate in Youth;" the third begins, "Are prudent in their Age;" the +fourth begins, "The fourth part of their life." Herein is contained +the purpose of this part in general, with regard to which it is +desirable to know that each effect, inasmuch as it is an effect, +receives the likeness of its cause in proportion as it is capable of +retaining it. + +Wherefore, since our life, as has been said, and also the life of +every living creature here below, is caused by Heaven, Heaven is +revealed in all such effects as these, not, indeed, with the complete +circle, but with part of it, in them. Thus its movement must be not +only with them, but beyond them, and as one arch of life retains (and +I say retains, not only of men, but also of other living creatures) +almost all the lives, ascending and descending, they must be, as it +were, similar in appearance to the form of the arch. Returning, then, +to our course of life which at present we are seeking to understand, I +say that it proceeds after the manner of this arch, ascending and +descending. And it is to be known that the ascent of this arch should +be equal to its descent, if the material of the seed from which we +spring, so complex in its nature, did not impede the law of Human +Nature. But since the humid root is of better quality more or less, +and stronger to endure in one effect more than in another, being +subject to the nutriment of the heat, which is our life, it happens +that the arch of the life of one man is of less or of greater extent +than that of another, life being shortened by a violent death or by +some accidental injury; but that which is called natural by the people +is that span of which it is said by the Psalmist, "Thou settest up a +boundary which it is not possible to pass." And since the Master among +those here living, Aristotle, had perception of this arch of which we +now speak, and seems to be of opinion that our life should be no other +than one ascent and one descent, therefore he says, in that chapter +where he treats of Youth and of Old Age, that Youth is no other than +an increase of life. Where the top of this arch may be, it is +difficult to know, on account of the inequality which has been spoken +of above, but for the most part I believe between the thirtieth and +the fortieth year, and I believe that in the perfectly natural man it +is at the thirty-fifth year. And this reason has weight with me: that +our Saviour Jesus Christ was a perfect natural man, who chose to die +in the thirty-fourth year of His age; for it was not suitable for the +Deity to have place in the descending segment; neither is it to be +believed that He would not wish to dwell in this life of ours even to +the summit of it, since He had been in the lower part even from +childhood. And the hour of the day of His death makes this evident, +for He willed that to conform with His life; wherefore Luke says that +it was about the sixth hour when He died, that is to say, the height +or supreme point of the day; wherefore it is possible to comprehend by +that, as it were, that at the thirty-fifth year of Christ was the +height or supreme point of His age. Truly this arch is not half +distinguished in the Scriptures, but if we follow the four connecting +links of the differing qualities which are in our composition, to each +one of which appears to be appropriated one part of our age, it is +divided into four parts, and they are called the four ages. The first +is Adolescence, which is appropriated to the hot and moist; the second +is Youth, which is appropriated to the hot and dry; the third is Old +Age, which is appropriated to the cold and dry; the fourth is Extreme +Old Age, which is appropriated to the cold and moist, as Albertus +Magnus writes in the fourth chapter of the Metaura. And these parts or +divisions are made in a similar manner in the year--in Spring, in +Summer, in Autumn, and in Winter. And it is the same in the day even +to the third hour, and then even to the ninth, leaving the sixth in +the middle of this part, or division, for the reason which is +understood, and then even to vespers, and from vespers onwards. And +therefore the Gentiles said that the chariot of the Sun had four +horses; they called the first Eoo, the second Piroi, the third Eton, +the fourth Phlegon, even as Ovid writes in the second book of the +Metamorphoses concerning the parts or divisions of the day. + +And, briefly, it is to be known that, as it has been said above in the +sixth chapter of the third treatise, the Church makes use of the hours +temporal in the division of the day, which hours are twelve in each +day, long or short according to the amount of sunlight; and because +the sixth hour, that is, the midday, is the most noble of the whole +day, and has in it the most virtue, the Offices of the Church are +approximated thereto in each side, that is, from the prime, and thence +onwards as much as possible; and therefore the Office of prime, that +is, the tertius, is said at the end of that part, and that of the +third part and of the fourth is said at the beginning; and therefore, +before the clock strikes in a division of the day, it is termed +half-third or mid-tertius; or mid-nones, when in that division the +clock has struck, and thus mid-vespers. + +And, therefore, let each one know that the right and lawful nones +ought always to strike or sound at the beginning of the seventh hour +of the day, and let this suffice to the present digression. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIV. + + +Returning to the proposition, I say that Human Life is divided into +four ages or stages. The first is called Adolescence, that is, the +growth or increase of life; the second is called Youth, that is, the +age which can give perfection, and for this reason one understands +this Youth to be perfect, because no man can give except of that which +he has; the third is called Old Age; the fourth is called Senility, +Extreme Old Age, as has been said above. + +Of the first no one doubts, but each wise man agrees that it lasts +even to the twenty-fifth year; and up to that time our Soul waits for +the increase and the embellishment of the body. While there are many +and very great changes in the person, the rational part cannot possess +perfectly the power of discretion; wherefore, the Civil Law wills +that, previous to that age, a man cannot do certain things without a +guardian of perfect age. + +Of the second, which is the height of our life, the time is variously +taken by many. But leaving that which philosophers and medical men +write concerning it, and returning to the proper argument, we may say +that, in most men in whom one can and ought to be guided by natural +judgment, that age lasts for twenty years. And the reason which leads +me to this conclusion is, that the height or supreme point of our arc +or bow is in the thirty-fifth year; just so much as this age has of +ascent, so much it ought to have of descent; and this ascent passes +into descent, as it were, at the point, the centre, where one would +hold the bow in the hand, at which place a slight flexion may be +discerned. We are of opinion, then, that Youth is completed in the +forty-fifth year. + +And as Adolescence is in the twenty-five years which proceed mounting +upwards to Youth: so the descent, that is, Old Age, is an equal amount +of time which succeeds to Youth; and thus Old Age terminates in the +seventieth year. + +But because Adolescence does not begin at the beginning of +life--taking it in the way which has been said--but about eight months +from birth; and because our life strives to ascend, and curbs itself +in the descent; because the natural heat is lessened and can do +little, and the moist humour is increased, not in quantity, but in +quality, so that it is less able to evaporate and be consumed; it +happens that beyond Old Age there remains of our life an amount, +perhaps, of about ten years, a little more or a little less; and this +time of life is termed Extreme Old Age, or Senility. Wherefore we know +of Plato (of whom one may well say that he was a son of Nature, both +because of his perfection and because of his countenance, which caused +Socrates to love him when first he saw him), that he lived eighty and +one years, according to the testimony of Tullius in that book On Old +Age. And I believe that if Christ had not been crucified, and if He +might have lived the length of time which His life according to nature +could have passed over, at eighty and one years He would have been +transformed from the mortal body into the eternal. + +Truly, as has been said above, these ages may be longer or shorter +according to our complexion or temper and our constitution or +composition; but, as they are, it seems to me that I observe this +proportion in all men, as has been said, that is to say, that in such +men the ages may be made longer or shorter according to the integrity +of the whole term of the natural life. + +Throughout all these ages this Nobility of which we speak manifests +its effects in different ways in the ennobled Soul; and it is that +which this part of the Song, concerning which we write at present, +intends to demonstrate. Where it is to be known that our good and +upright nature makes forward progress in us in the reasoning powers, +as we see the nature of the plants make forward progress; and +therefore it is that different manners and different deportment are to +be held reasonable at one age rather than at another. The ennobled +Soul proceeds in due order along a single path, employing each of its +powers in its time and season, or even as they are all ordained to the +final production of the perfect fruit. And Tullius is in harmony with +this in his book On Old Age. And putting aside the figurative sense +which Virgil holds in the AEneid concerning this different progress of +the ages, and letting that be which Egidius the hermit mentions in the +first part On the Government of Princes, and letting that be to which +Tullius alludes in his book Of Offices, and following that alone which +Reason can see of herself, I say that this first age is the door and +the path through which and along which we enter into our good life, +And this entrance must of necessity have certain things which the good +Nature, which fails not in things necessary, gives to us; as we see +that she gives to the vine the leaves for the protection of the fruit, +and the little tendrils which enable it to twine round its supports, +and thus bind up its weakness, so that it can sustain the weight of +its fruit. Beneficent Nature gives, then, to this age four things +necessary to the entrance into the City of the Good Life. The first is +Obedience, the second Suavity, the third Modesty, the fourth Beauty of +the Body, even as the Song says in the first section of this part. It +is, then, to be known that like one who has never been in a city, who +would not know how to find his way about the streets without +instruction from one who is accustomed to them, even so the adolescent +who enters into the Wood of Error of this life would not know how to +keep to the good path if it were not pointed out to him by his elders. +Neither would the instruction avail if he were not obedient to their +commands, and therefore at this age obedience is necessary. Here it +might be possible for some one to speak thus: Then, is that man to be +called obedient who shall follow evil guidance as well as he who shall +believe the good? I reply that this would not be obedience, but +transgression. For if the King should issue a command in one way and +the servant give forth the command in another, it would not be right +to obey the servant, for that would be to disobey the King; and thus +it would be transgression. And therefore Solomon says, when he intends +to correct his son, and this is his first commandment: "Listen, my +son, to the instruction of thy father." And then he seeks to remove +him immediately from the counsel and teaching of the wicked man, +saying, "My son, if sinners entice thee, consent thou not." + +Wherefore, as soon as he is born, the son clings to the breast of the +mother; even so soon as some light of the Mind appears in him, he +ought to turn to the correction of the father, and the father to +instruction. And let the father take heed that he himself does not set +him an example in work or action that is contrary to the words of the +correction; for naturally we see each son look more to the footprints +of the paternal feet than to those of other men. And therefore the +Law, which provides for this, says and commands that the life of the +father should appear to his sons always honourable and upright. Thus +it appears that obedience was necessary in this age; and therefore +Solomon writes in the Book of Proverbs, that he who humbly and +obediently sustains his just reproofs from the corrector shall be +glorious. And he says "shall be," to cause men to understand that he +speaks to the adolescent, who cannot be so in his present age. And if +any one should reflect on me because I have said obedience is due to +the father and not to other men, I say that to the father all other +obedience ought to be referred; wherefore the Apostle says to the +Colossians: "Sons, obey your fathers in all things, for such is the +will of God." And if the father be not in this life, the son ought to +refer to that which is said by the father in his last Will as a +father; and if the father die intestate, the son ought to refer to him +to whom the Law commits his authority; and then ought the masters and +elders to be obeyed, for this appears to be a reasonable charge laid +upon the son by the father, or by him who stands in the father's +place. + +But because this present chapter has been long, on account of the +useful digressions which it contains, in another chapter other things +shall be discussed. + + + + +CHAPTER XXV. + + +Not only this Soul, naturally good in Adolescence, is obedient, but +also gentle; which is the other thing necessary in this age to make a +good entrance through the portal of Youth. + +It is necessary, since we cannot have a perfect life without friends, +as Aristotle expresses it in the eighth book of Ethics; and the seed +of the greater number of friendships seems to be sown in the first age +of life, because in it a man begins to be gracious or the contrary. +Such graciousness is acquired by gentle rules of conduct, as are sweet +and courteous speech, gentle service courteously rendered, and actions +kindly done or performed. And therefore Solomon says to the adolescent +son: "Surely God scorneth the scorners; but He giveth grace unto the +lowly." And elsewhere he says: "Put away from thee a forward mouth, +and perverse lips put far from thee." Wherefore it appears that, as +has been said, this suavity or affability is necessary. + +Likewise to this age the passion of modesty is necessary; and +therefore the nature which is good and noble shows it in this age, +even as the Song says. And since modesty is the clearest sign, in +Adolescence, of Nobility, because there it is especially necessary to +the good foundation of our life, at which the noble nature aims, it is +right to speak of it somewhat. By modesty I mean three passions or +strong feelings necessary to the foundation of our good life: the one +is wonder, the next is modesty, the third is shame, although the +common people do not discern this distinction. And all three of these +are necessary to this life, for this reason: at this age it is +requisite to be reverent and desirous for knowledge; at this age it is +necessary or requisite to be self-controlled, so as not to transgress +or pass beyond due bounds; at this age it is necessary to be penitent +for a fault, so as not to grow accustomed to doing wrong. And all +these things the aforesaid passions or strong feelings do, which +vulgarly are called shame; for wonder is an amazement of the mind at +beholding great and wonderful things, at hearing them, or feeling them +in some way or other; for, inasmuch as they appear great, they excite +reverence in him who sees them; inasmuch as they appear wonderful, +they make him who perceives them desirous of knowledge concerning +them. And therefore the ancient Kings in their palaces or habitations +set up magnificent works in gold and in marble and works of art, in +order that those who should see them should become astonished, and +therefore reverent inquirers into the honourable conditions of the +King. Therefore Statius, the sweet Poet, in the first part of the +Theban History, says that, when Adrastus, King of the Argives, saw +Polynices covered with the skin of a lion, and saw Tydeus covered with +the hide of a wild boar, and recalled to mind the reply that Apollo +had given concerning his daughters, he became amazed, and therefore +more reverent and more desirous for knowledge. Modesty is a shrinking, +a drawing-back of the mind from unseemly things, with the fear of +falling into them; even as we see in virgins and in good women, and in +adolescent or young men, who are so modest that not only when they are +tempted to do wrong, and urged to do so, but even when some fancied +joy flashes across the mind, the feeling is depicted in the face, +which either grows pale with fear, or flushes rosy-red. Wherefore the +before-mentioned poet, in the first book of the Thebaid already +quoted, says that when Acesta the nurse of Argia and Deiphile, the +daughters of King Adrastus, led them before the eyes of their holy +father into the presence of the two pilgrims, that is to say, +Polynices and Tydeus, the virgins grew pale and blushed rosy-red, and +their eyes shunned the glance of any other person, and they kept them +fixed on the paternal face alone, as if there were safety. This +modesty--how many errors does it bridle in, or repress? On how many +immodest questions and impure things does it impose silence! How much +dishonest greed does it repress! In the chaste woman, against how many +evil temptations does it rouse mistrust, not only in her, but also in +him who watches over her! How many unseemly words does it restrain! +for, as Tullius says in the first chapter of the Offices: "No action +is unseemly which is not unseemly in the naming." And furthermore, the +Modest and Noble Man never could speak in such a manner that to a +woman his words would not be decent and such as she could hear. Alas, +how great is the evil in every man who seeks for honour, to mention +things which would be deemed evil in the mouth of any woman! + +Shame is a fear of dishonour through fault committed, and from this +fear there springs up a penitence for the fault, which has in itself a +bitter sorrow or grief, which is a chastisement and preservative +against future wrong-doing. Wherefore this same poet says, in that +same part, that when Polynices was questioned by King Adrastus +concerning his life, he hesitated at first through shame to speak of +the crime which he had committed against his father, and also for the +sins of Oedipus, his father, which appeared to remain in the shame of +the son; therefore he named not his father, but his ancestors, and his +country, and his mother; and therefore it does indeed appear that +shame is necessary to that age. And the noble nature reveals in this +age, not only obedience, gentleness, affability, and modesty, but it +shows beauty and agility of body, even as the Song expresses: "To +furnish Virtue's person with The graces it may need." Here it is to be +known that this work of beneficent Nature is also necessary to our +good life, for our Soul must work in the greater part of all its +operations with a bodily organ; and then it works well when the body +through all its parts is well proportioned and appointed. And when it +is well proportioned and appointed, then it is beautiful throughout +and in all its parts; for the due ordering or proportion of our limbs +produces a pleasing impression of I know not what of wonderful +harmony; and the good disposition, that is to say, the health of mind +and body, throws over all a colouring sweet to behold. And thus to say +that the noble nature takes heed for the graces of the body, and makes +it fair and harmonious, is tantamount to saying that it prepares it +and renders it fit to attain the perfection ordained for it: and those +other things which have been discussed seem to be requisite to +Adolescence, which the noble Mind, that is to say, the noble Nature, +furnishes forth to it in the first years of life, as growth of the +seed sown therein by the Divine Providence. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVI. + + +Since the first section of this part, which shows how we can recognize +the Noble Man by apparent signs, is reasoned out, it is right to +proceed to the second section, which begins: "Are temperate in Youth, +And resolutely strong." + +It says, then, that as the noble Nature in Adolescence or the +Spring-time of Youth appears obedient, gentle, and modest, the +beautifier of its person, so in Youth it is temperate, strong, and +loving, courteous and loyal; which five things appear to be, and are, +necessary to our perfection, inasmuch as we have respect unto +ourselves. And with regard to this it is desirable to know that just +as the noble Nature prepares in the first age, it is prepared and +ordained by the care or foresight of Universal Nature, which ordains +and appoints the particular Nature where-ever existing, to attain its +perfection. + +This perfection of ours may be considered in a double sense. It is +possible to consider it as it has respect to ourselves, and we ought +to possess this in our Youth, which is the culminating point of our +life. It is possible to consider it as it has respect to others, and +since in the first place it is necessary to be perfect, and then to +communicate the perfection to others, it is requisite to possess this +secondary perfection after this age, that is to say, in Old Age, as +will be said subsequently. Here, then, it is needful to recall to mind +that which was argued in the twenty-second chapter of this treatise +concerning the appetite or impulse which is born in us. This appetite +or impulse never does aught else but to pursue and to flee, and +whenever it pursues that which is to be pursued, and as far as is +right, and flies from that which is to be fled from, and as much as is +right, then is the man within the limits of his perfection. Truly, +this appetite or natural impulse must have Reason for its rider; for +as a horse at liberty, however noble it may be by nature, by itself +without the good rider does not conduct itself well, even thus this +appetite, however noble it may be, must obey Reason, which guides it +with the bridle and spur, as the good knight uses the bridle when he +hunts. And that bridle is termed Temperance, which marks the limit up +to which it is lawful to pursue; he uses the spur in flight to turn +the horse away from the place from which he would flee away; and this +spur is called Courage, or rather Magnanimity, a Virtue that points +out the place at which it is right to stop, and to resist evil even to +mortal combat. And thus Virgil, our greatest Poet, represents AEneas as +under the influence of powerful self control in that part of the AEneid +wherein this age is typified, which part comprehends the fourth and +the fifth and the sixth books of the AEneid. And what self-restraint +was that when, having received from Dido so much pleasure, as will be +spoken of in the seventh treatise, and enjoying so much delectation +with her, he departed, in order to follow the upright and praiseworthy +path fruitful of good works, even as it is written in the fourth book +of the AEneid! What impetus was that when AEneas had the fortitude alone +with Sybilla to enter into Hades, to search for the Soul of his father +Anchises, in the face of so many dangers, as it is shown in the sixth +book of the AEneid. Wherefore it appears that in our Youth, in order to +be in our perfection, we must be Temperate and Brave. The good +disposition secures this for us, even as the Song expressly states. + +Again, at this age it is necessary to its perfection to be Loving; +because at this age it is requisite to look behind and before, as +being midway over the arch. The youth ought to love his elders, from +whom he has received his being, and his nutriment, and his +instruction, so that he may not appear ungrateful. He ought to love +his juniors, since, in loving them, he gives them of his good gifts, +for which in after-years, when the younger friends are prospering, he +may be supported and honoured by them. And the poet named above, in +the fifth book before-mentioned, makes it evident that AEneas possessed +this loving disposition, when he left the aged Trojans in Sicily, +recommended to Acestes, and set them free from the fatigues of the +voyage; and when he instructed, in the same place, Ascanius his son, +with the other young men, in jousting or in feats of arms; wherefore +it appears that to this age Love is necessary, even as the Song says. + +Again, to this age Courtesy is necessary, for, although to every age +it is right or beautiful to be possessed of courteous manners, to this +age it is especially necessary, because, on the contrary, Old Age, +with its gravity and its severity, cannot possess courtesy, if it has +been wanting in this youthful period of life; and with Extreme Old Age +it is the same in a greater degree. And that most noble poet, in the +sixth book before-mentioned, proves that AEneas possessed this +courtesy, when he says that AEneas, then King, in order to pay honour +to the dead body of Misenus, who had been the trumpeter of Hector, and +afterwards accompanied AEneas, made himself ready and took the axe to +assist in cutting the logs for the fire which must burn the dead body, +as was their custom. Wherefore this courtesy does indeed appear to be +necessary to Youth; and therefore the noble Soul reveals it in that +age, as has been said. + +Again, it is necessary to this age to be Loyal. Loyalty is to follow +and to put in operation that which the Laws command, and this +especially is necessary in the young man; because the adolescent, as +it has been said, on account of his minority, merits ready pardon; the +old man, on account of greater experience, ought to be just, but not a +follower of the Law except inasmuch as his upright judgment and the +Law are at one as it were; and almost without any Law he ought to be +able to follow the dictates of his own just mind. The young man is not +able to do this, and it is sufficient that he should obey the Law, and +take delight in that obedience; even as the before-said poet says, in +the fifth book previously mentioned, that AEneas did when he instituted +the games in Sicily on the anniversary of his father's death, for what +he promised for the victories he loyally gave to each victor, +according to their ancient custom, which was their Law. + +Wherefore, it is evident that, to this age, Loyalty, Courtesy, Love, +Courage, and Temperance are necessary, even as the Song says, which at +present I have reasoned out; and therefore the noble Soul reveals them +all. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVII. + + +That section which the text puts forward having been reasoned out and +made sufficiently clear, showing the qualities of uprightness which +the noble Soul puts into Youth, we go on to pay attention to the third +part, which begins, "Are prudent in their Age," in which the Song +intends to show those qualities which the noble Nature reveals and +ought to possess in the third age, that is to say, Old Age. And it +says that the noble Soul in Old Age is prudent, is just, is liberal +and cheerful, willing to speak kindly and for the good of others, and +ready to listen for the same reason, that is to say, that it is +affable. And truly these four Virtues are most suitable to this age. +And, in order to perceive this, it is to be known that, as Tullius +says in his book On Old Age, "Our life has a certain course, and one +simple path, that of natural moral goodness; and to each part of our +age there is given a season for certain things." Wherefore, as to +Adolescence is given, as has been said above, that by means of which +it may attain perfection and maturity, so to youth is given perfection +and maturity in order that the sweetness of its perfect fruit may be +profitable to the man himself and to others; for, as Aristotle says, +man is a civil or polite animal, because it is required of him to be +useful, not only to himself, but to others as well. Wherefore one +reads of Cato, that he believed himself to be born not only to +himself, but to his country and to all the world. Then after our own +perfection, which is acquired in Youth, there must follow that which +may give light not only to one's self, but to others as well; and a +man ought to open and broaden like a rose as it were, which can no +longer remain closed, and spread abroad the sweet odour which is bred +within; and this ought to be the case in that third age which we have +now in hand. + +Then it must be Prudent, that is to say, Wise. And, in order to be +this, a good memory of the things which have been seen is requisite, +and a good knowledge of present things, and good foresight for things +of the future. And, as the Philosopher says in the sixth book of +Ethics, it is impossible for the man who is not good to be wise; and +therefore he is not to be called a wise man who acts with cunning and +with deception, but he is to be called an astute man. As no one would +call him a wise man who might indeed know how to draw with the point +of a knife in the pupil of the eye, even so he is not to be called a +wise man who knows how to do a bad thing well, in the doing of which +he must always first injure some other person. If we consider well, +good counsel springs from Prudence, which leads or guides a man, and +other men, to a good end in human affairs. And this is that gift which +Solomon, perceiving himself to be placed as ruler over the people, +asked of God, even as it is written in the Third Book of Kings; nor +does the prudent man wait for counsel to be asked of him; but of +himself, foreseeing the need for it, unasked he gives counsel or +advice; like the rose, which not only to him who goes to her for her +sweet odour freely gives it, but also to any one who passes near. + +Here it would be possible for any doctor or lawyer to say: Then shall +I carry my counsel or advice, and shall I give it even before it be +asked of me, and shall I not reap fruit from my art or skill? I reply +in the words of our Saviour: "Freely ye have received, freely give." I +say, then, Master Lawyer, that those counsels which have no respect to +thine art, and which proceed alone from that good sense or wisdom +which God gave thee (which is the prudence of which we speak), thou +oughtest not to sell to the sons or children of Him who has given it +to thee. But those counsels which belong to the art which thou hast +purchased, thou mayst sell; but not in such a way but that at any time +the tenth part of them may be fitly set apart and given unto God, that +is, to those unhappy ones to whom the Divine protection is all that is +left. + +Likewise at this age it is right to be Just, in order that the +judgments and the authority of the man may be a light and a law to +other men. And because this particular Virtue, that is to say, +Justice, was seen by the ancient philosophers to appear perfect in men +of this age, they entrusted the government of the cities to those men +who had attained that age; and therefore the college of Rectors was +called the Senate. Oh, my unhappy, unhappy country! how my heart is +wrung with pity for thee whenever I read, whenever I write, anything +which may have reference to Civil Government! But since in the last +treatise of this book Justice will be discussed, to the present let +this slight notice of it suffice. + +Also at this age a man ought to be liberal, because a thing is then +most suitable when it gives most satisfaction to the due requirements +of its nature: nor to the due requirements of Liberality is it ever +possible to give more satisfaction than at this age. For if we will +look well at the argument of Aristotle in the fourth book of Ethics, +and at that of Tullius in his book Of Offices, Liberality desires to +be seasonable in place and time; so that the liberal man may not +injure himself nor other men; which thing it is not possible to have +without Prudence and without Justice, Virtues that previous to this +age it is impossible to have or possess in perfection in the Natural +way. + +Alas! ye base-born ones, born under evil stars, ye who rob the widows +and orphans, who ravish or despoil those who possess least, who steal +from and occupy or usurp the homes of other men, and with that spoil +you furnish forth feasts, women, horses, arms, robes, money; you wear +wonderful garments, you build marvellous palaces; and you believe that +you do deeds of great liberality: and this is no other than to take +the cloth from the altar and to cover therewith the thief and his +table! Not otherwise one ought to laugh, O tyrants, at your bounteous +liberality than at the thief who should lead the invited guests into +his house to his feast, and place upon his table the cloth stolen from +the altar, with the ecclesiastical signs inwoven, and should not +believe that other men might perceive the sacrilege. Hear, O ye +obstinate men, what Tullius says against you in the book Of Offices: +"Certainly there are many, desirous of being great and glorious, who +rob some that they may give to others, believing themselves to be +esteemed good men if they enrich their friends with what the Law +allows. But this is so opposite or contrary to that which ought to be +done, that nothing is more wrong." + +At this age also a man ought to be Affable, to speak for the good of +others, and to listen to such speech willingly, since it is good for a +man to discourse kindly at an age when he is listened to. And this age +also has with it a shadow of authority, for which reason it appears +that the aged man is more likely to be listened to than a person in a +younger period of life. And of most good and beautiful Truths it seems +that a man ought to have knowledge after the long experience of life. +Wherefore Tullius says, in that book On Old Age, in the person of Cato +the elder: "To me is increased the desire and the delight to remain in +conversation longer than I am wont." And that all four of these things +are right and proper to this age, Ovid teaches, in the seventh chapter +of Metamorphoses, in that fable where he writes how Cephalus of Athens +came to AEacus the King for help in the war which Athens had with the +Cretans. He shows that AEacus, an old man, was prudent when, having, +through pestilence caused by corruption of the air, lost almost all +his people, he wisely had recourse to God, and besought of Him the +restoration of the dead; and for his wisdom, which in patience +possessed him and caused him to turn to God, his people were restored +to him in greater number than before. He shows that he was just, when +he says that AEacus was the divider and the distributor of his deserted +land to his new people. He shows that AEacus was generous or liberal +when he said to Cephalus, after his request for aid: "O Athens! ask me +not to render assistance, but take it yourself; doubt not the strength +of the forces which this island possesses, nor the power of my state +and realm; troops are not wanting to us, nay, we have them in excess +for offence and defence; it is indeed a happy time to give you aid, +and without excuse." + +Alas, how many things are to be observed in this reply! but to a good, +intelligent man it is sufficient for it to be placed here, even as +Ovid puts it. He shows that AEacus was affable when he described, in a +long speech to Cephalus, the history of the pestilence which destroyed +his people, and the restoration of the same, which he tells readily. + +It is clear enough, then, that to this age four things are suitable, +because the noble Nature reveals them in it, even as the Song says. +And that the example given may be the more memorable, AEacus says that +he was the father of Telamon and Peleus and of Phocus, from which +Telamon sprang Ajax and from Peleus Achilles. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVIII. + + +Following the section which has been discussed, we have now to proceed +to the last, that is, to that which begins, "The fourth part of their +life Weds them again to God," by which the text intends to show what +the noble Soul does in the last age, that is, in Extreme Old Age, that +is, Senility. And it says that it does two things: the one, that it +returns to God as to that port or haven whence it departed when it +issued forth to enter into the sea of this life; the other is, that it +blesses the voyage which it has made, because it has been upright, +straight, and good, and without the bitterness of storm and tempest. + +And here it is to be known that, even as Tullius says in that book On +Old Age, the natural death is, as it were, a port or haven to us after +our long voyage and a place of rest. And the Virtuous Man who dies +thus is like the good mariner; for, as he approaches the port or +haven, he strikes his sails, and gently, with feeble steering, enters +port. Even thus we ought to strike the sails of our worldly affairs, +and turn to God with all our heart and mind, so that one may come into +that haven with all sweetness and all peace. + +And in this we have from our own proper nature great instruction in +gentleness, for in such a death as this there is no pain nor +bitterness, but even as a ripe apple easily and without violence +detaches itself from its branch, so our Soul without grief separates +itself from the body wherein it has dwelt. + +Aristotle, in his book On Youth and Old Age, says that the death which +overtakes us in old age is without sadness. And as to him who comes +from a long journey, before he enters into the gate of his city, the +citizens thereof go forth to meet him, so do those citizens of the +Eternal Life go forth to meet the noble Soul; and they do thus because +of his good works and acts of contemplation, which were of old +rendered unto God and withdrawn from worldly affairs and thoughts. +Hear what Tullius says in the person of Cato the elder: "It seems to +me that already I see, and I uplift myself in the greatest desire to +see, your fathers, whom I loved, and not only those whom I knew +myself, but also those of whom I have heard spoken." In this age, +then, the noble Soul renders itself unto God, and awaits the end of +this life with much desire; and to itself it seems that it goes out +from the Inn to return home to the Father's mansion; to itself it +seems to have reached the end of a long journey and to have reached +the City; to itself it seems to have crossed the wide sea and returned +into the port. O, miserable men and vile, who run into this port with +sails unfurled; and there where you should find rest, are broken by +the fury of the wind and wrecked in the harbour. Truly the Knight +Lancelot chose not to enter it with sails unfurled, nor our most noble +Italian Guido da Montefeltro. These noble Spirits indeed furled the +sails after the voyage of this World, whose cares were rendered to +Religion in their long old age, when they had laid down each earthly +joy and labour. And it is not possible to excuse any man because of +the bond of matrimony, which may hold him in his old age, from turning +to Religion, even as he who adopts the habit of St. Benedict and St. +Augustine and St. Francis and St. Dominic and the like mode of life, +but also it is possible to turn to a good and true Religion whilst +remaining in the bonds of matrimony, for God asks of us no more than +the religious heart. And therefore St. Paul says to the Romans: "For +he is not a Jew which is one outwardly; neither is that circumcision +which is outward in the flesh. But he is a Jew which is one inwardly; +and circumcision is that of the heart, in the spirit, and not in the +letter; whose praise is not of men, but of God." + +And the Noble Soul in this age blesses likewise the time that is past, +and it may well bless it; because when Memory turns back to them, the +Noble Soul remembers her upright deeds, without which it were not +possible for her to come to the port whither she is hastening with +such wealth nor with such gain. And the Noble Soul does like the good +merchant, who, when he draws near to his port, examines his cargo, and +says: "If I had not passed along such a highway as that, I should not +possess this treasure, and I should not have wherewith to rejoice in +my city, to which I am approaching;" and therefore he blesses the +voyage he has made. + +And that these two things are suitable to this age that great poet +Lucan represents to us in the second book of his Pharsalia, when he +says that Marcia returned to Cato, and entreated him that he would +take her back in his fourth and Extreme Old Age, by which Marcia the +Noble Soul is meant, and we can thus depict the symbol of it in all +Truth. Marcia was a virgin, and in that state typifies Adolescence; +she then espoused Cato, and in that state typifies Youth; she then +bore sons, by whom are typified the Virtues which are becoming to +young men, as previously described; and she departed from Cato and +espoused Hortensius, by which it is typified that she quitted Youth +and came to Old Age. She bore sons to this man also, by whom are +typified the Virtues which befit Old Age, as previously said. +Hortensius died, by which is typified the end of Old Age, and Marcia, +made a widow, by which widowhood is typified Extreme Old Age, returned +in the early days of her widowhood to Cato, whereby is typified the +Noble Soul turning to God in the beginning of Extreme Old Age. And +what earthly man was more worthy to typify God than Cato? None, of a +certainty. And what does Marcia say to Cato? "Whilst there was blood +in me [that is to say, Youth], whilst the maternal power was in me +[that is, Age, which is indeed the Mother of all other Virtues or +Powers, as has been previously shown or proved], I," says Marcia, +"fulfilled all thy commandments [that is to say, that the Soul stood +firm in obedience to the Civil Laws]." She says: "And I took two +husbands," that is to say, I have been in two fruitful periods of +life. "Now," says Marcia, "that I am weary, and that I am void and +empty, I return to thee, being no longer able to give happiness to the +other husband;" that is to say, that the Noble Soul, knowing well that +it has no longer the power to produce, that is, feeling all its +members to have grown feeble, turns to God, that is, to Him who has no +need of members of the body. And Marcia says, "Give me the ancient +covenanted privileges of the beds; give me the name alone of the +Marriage Tie;" that is to say, the Noble Soul says to God, "O my Lord, +give me now repose and rest;" the Soul says, "Give me at least +whatsoever I may have called Thine in a life so long." And Marcia +says, "Two reasons move or urge me to say this; the one is, that they +may say of me, after I am dead, that I was the wife of Cato; the other +is, that it may be said after me that thou didst not drive me away, +but didst espouse me heartily." By these two causes the Noble Soul is +stirred and desires to depart from this life as the spouse of God, and +wishes to show that God was gracious to the creature that He made. O +unhappy and baseborn men! you who prefer to depart from this life +under the name of Hortensius rather than of Cato! + +From Cato's name a grace comes into the close of the discourse which +it was fit to make touching the signs of Nobility; because in him +Nobility reveals them all, through all the ages of his life. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIX. + + +Since the Song has demonstrated those signs which in each age or +period of life appear in the Noble Man, and by which it is possible to +know him, and without which he cannot be, even as the Sun cannot be +without light or the fire without heat, the text cries aloud to the +People in the concluding part of this treatise on Nobility, and it +says: "How many are deceived!" They are deceived who, because they are +of ancient and famous lineage, and because they are descended of +excellent and Noble fathers, believe themselves to be Noble, yet have +in themselves no Nobility. And here arise two questions, to which it +is right to attend at the end of this treatise. It would be possible +for Manfredi da Vico, who but now is called Praetor and Prefect, to +say: "Whatever I may be, I recall to mind and I represent my elders, +who deserved the Office of Prefecture because of their Nobility, and +they merited the honour of investiture at the coronation of the +Emperor, and they merited the honour of receiving the Rose of Gold +from the Roman Pontiff: I ought to receive from the People honour and +reverence." And this is one question. The other is, that it would be +possible for the scions of the families of San Nazzaro di Pavia and of +the Piscitelli of Naples to say: "If Nobility is that which has been +described, that is, that it is Divine seed graciously cast into the +human Soul, and the progeny, or offshoots, have, as is evident, no +Soul, it would not be possible to term any of its progeny or offshoots +Noble; but this is opposed to the opinion of those who assert that our +race is the most Noble in these cities." + +To the first question Juvenal replies in the eighth Satire, when he +begins with exclaiming, as it were: "What is the use of all these +honours and of this glory which remain from the past, except that they +serve as a mantle or cloak to him who may wish to cover himself with +them, badly as he may live; except for him who talks of his ancestors, +and points out their great and wonderful works, giving his own mind to +miserable and vile actions?" And this satirical poet asks: "Who will +call that man Noble, because of his good race, who is not worthy of +his race? It is no other than to call the Dwarf a Giant." Then +afterwards he says to such an one as this: "Between thee and the +statue erected in memory of thine ancestor there is no other +dissimilarity except that its head is of marble and thine is alive." +And in this (with reverence I say it) I disagree with the poet, for +the statue of marble or of wood or of metal, which has remained in +memory of some worthy brave man, differs much in effect from the +wicked descendant: because the statue always confirms a good opinion +in those who have heard of the good renown or fame of him whose statue +it is, and it begets good opinion in others. But the wicked son or +nephew does quite the contrary: he weakens the good opinion of those +who have heard of the goodness of his ancestors. For some one says to +himself in his thought: "It cannot possibly be true, all this that has +been said about this man's ancestors, since from their seed one sees +an offshoot such as that." Wherefore he ought to receive not honour, +but dishonour, who bears false or evil witness against the good. And +therefore Tullius says that the son of the brave man ought to strive +to bear good witness to the father. Wherefore, in my judgment, even as +he who defames an excellent man deserves to be shunned by all people +and not listened to, even so the vile man descended from good +ancestors deserves to be banned by all; and the good man ought to +close his eyes in order not to see that infamous man casting infamy +upon the goodness which remains in Memory alone. And let this suffice +at present to the first question that was moved. + +To the second question it is possible to reply that a race of itself +has no Soul; and indeed it is true that it is called Noble, but it is +in a certain way. Wherefore it is to be known that every whole is +composed of its parts, and there is a certain whole which has a simple +essence in its parts, as in one man there is one essence in all and in +each individual part; and this which is said to be in the part is said +in the same way to be in the whole. There is another whole which has +not a common essential form or essence with the parts, as a heap of +corn; but there is a secondary essence which results from many grains, +which possess in themselves a true and primary essence. And in such a +whole as this they are said to be the qualities of the parts in a +secondary way; wherefore it is called a white heap, because the grains +whereof the heap is made are white. Truly this white appearance is +more in the grains in the first place, and in the second place it +results in the whole heap, and thus secondarily it is possible to call +it white; and in such a way it is possible to call a race Noble. +Wherefore it is to be known, that as in order to make a white heap the +white grains must be most numerous, so to make a Noble race the Noble +Men must be more numerous than the others, so that their goodness, +with its good fame or renown, may cover the opposite quality which is +within. And as from a white heap of corn it would be possible to pick +up the wheat grain by grain, and substitute, grain by grain, red +maize, till, finally, the whole heap or mass would change colour, so +would it be possible for the good men of the Noble race to die out one +by one, and the wicked ones to spring up therein, who would so change +the name or fame thereof, that it would have to be called, not Noble, +but vile, or base. + +And let this be a sufficient answer to the second question. + + + + +CHAPTER XXX. + + +As it has been shown previously in the third chapter of this treatise, +this Song has three principal parts, whereof two have been reasoned or +argued out, the first of which begins in the aforesaid chapter, and +the second in the sixteenth (so that the first through thirteen, and +the second through fourteen chapters, passes on to an end, without +counting the Proem of the treatise on the Song, which is comprised in +two chapters), in this thirtieth and last chapter we must briefly +discuss the third principal part, which was made as a refrain and as a +species of ornament for this Song; and it begins: "My Song, Against +the strayers." + +Here it is chiefly to be known that every good workman, at the end of +his work, ought to ennoble and embellish it as much as possible, that +it may leave his hands so much the more precious, and more worthy of +fame. And this I endeavour to do in this part, not as a good workman, +but as the follower of one. + +I say, then, "My Song, Against the strayers." "Against the strayers" +is a phrase, as, for example, from the good friar, Thomas of Aquinas, +who, to a book of his, which he wrote to the confusion of all those +who go astray from our Faith, gave the title "Contra Gentili," Against +the Heathen. I say, then, that thou shalt go, which is as much as to +say: "Thou art now perfect, and it is now time, not to stand still, +but to go forward, for thy enterprise is great. And 'when you reach +Our Lady, hide not from her that your end Is labour that would lessen +wrong.'" Where it is to be observed that, as our Lord says, "We ought +not to cast pearls before swine," because it is not to their +advantage, and it is injury to the pearls; and, as Aesop the poet says +in the first fable, a little grain of corn is of far more worth to a +cock than a pearl, and therefore he leaves the pearl and picks up the +grain of corn: reflecting on this, as a caution, I speak and give +command to the Song that it reveal its high office where this Lady, +that is, where Philosophy, will be found. And that most noble Lady +will be found when her dwelling-place is found, that is, the Soul in +which she finds her Inn. And this Philosophy dwells not in wise men +alone, but likewise, as is proved above in another treatise, wherever +the love for her inhabits, she is there. "And to such as these," I say +to the Song, "thou mayst reveal thine office, because to them the +purpose thereof will be useful, and by them its thoughts will be +gathered in." + +And I bid it say to this Lady, "I travel ever talking of your Friend." + +Nobility is her Friend. For so much does the one love the other, that +Nobility always seeks her, and Philosophy does not turn aside her most +sweet glance to any other. + +O, what a great and beautiful ornament is this which is given to her +in the last part of this Song, by giving to her the title of Friend, +the Friend of her whose own abode is in the most secret depths of the +Divine Mind. + + * * * * * + + + + +NOTE + +ON THE DATE OF THE CONVITO + + +It is natural to suppose that Dante's death at Ravenna in 1321 caused +the Convito, a work of his latter years, to be left unfinished. But +there are arguments that have been especially dwelt upon by writers +who regard the Convito as a work begun before the conception of the +Divine Comedy, and dropped when the Poet's mind became intent upon +that masterpiece. + +One argument is that the Divine Comedy is nowhere mentioned or alluded +to in the Convito. But as the place designed for the Convito is midway +between the Vita Nuova, which preceded it, and the Divine Comedy, +which was to follow, references to the poem which was not yet before +the reader would have been a fault in art. + +Another argument is drawn from the fourteenth chapter of the Second +Treatise, where (on page 84 in this volume) the shadow in the Moon is +ascribed to "the rarity of its body, in which the rays of the Sun can +find no end wherefrom to strike back again as in the other parts." In +the second canto of the Purgatorio, Beatrice opposes that opinion, +whence it may be inferred that Dante had learnt better, and he speaks +of this again in a later canto (the twenty-second) as a former +opinion. This leads to an inference that the Second Treatise was +written before 1300. + +Attention is due also to a passage in the third chapter of the First +Treatise (on pages 16 and 17 in this volume), in which Dante speaks of +his long exile and poverty. The exile and the wanderings of Dante +began after the year 1300. He was befriended by Guido da Polenta in +Ravenna, by Uguccione della Faggiola in Lucca, by Malaspina in the +Lunigiana, by Can Grande della Scala in Verona, by Bosone de' +Raffaelli in Gubbio, by the Patriarch Pagano della Torre in Udine. In +1311, when the Emperor Henry of Luxembourg went to Italy, Dante had +some hope of return, which passed away in 1313 when that Emperor died +in Buonconvento. Dante remained in exile. In 1321 his patron, Guido +Novello da Polenta, sent him on an embassy to Venice, in which he was +unsuccessful. The sea way being blocked, he had to return by land, and +he was struck by the malaria which caused his death by fever on the +14th of September in that year, 1321. This reference to long exile +leads to an inference that the First Treatise was written much later +than 1300. + +But, again, there is a passage in the third chapter of the Fourth +Treatise (on page 171 of this volume) that points to an earlier date. +Frederick of Suabia is named as the Emperor who + + held, + As far as he could see, + Descent of wealth, and generous ways, + To make Nobility. + +Dante calls him "the last Emperor of the Romans," and adds, "I say +last with respect to the present time, notwithstanding that Rudolf, +and Adolphus, and Albert were elected after his death and from his +descendants." This last of the Romans was that famous Frederick II., +who died in 1250, and of whom Dante said in his Treatise on the +Language of the People: "The illustrious heroes, Frederick Caesar and +his son Manfredi, followed after elegance and scorned what was mean; +so that all the best compositions of the time came out of their Court. +Thus, because their royal throne was in Sicily, all the poems of our +predecessors in the Vulgar Tongue were called Sicilian." Rudolf I. of +Hapsburg, founder of the Imperial House of Austria, was elected +Emperor in 1273, after a time of confusion and nominal rule. He died +in 1291, and, instead of his son Albert, Adolphus of Nassau was next +elected Emperor. But in June 1298 Albert obtained election; Adolphus +was deposed, and was soon afterwards killed in battle with his rival. +Albert was murdered on the 6th of May, 1308, and, after an interregnum +of seven months, he was succeeded by Henry VII. of Luxembourg. Now, +Dante's list does not go on from Albert to Henry. It is assumed, +therefore, that this passage must have been written before the end of +the year 1308. + +There is another passage at the close of chapter vi. of the Fourth +Treatise (on page 186 in this volume) that points to a like inference +of date. Dante writes: "Ye enemies of God, look to your flanks, ye who +have seized the sceptres of the kingdoms of Italy. And I say to you, +Charles, and to you, Frederick, Kings, and to you, ye other Princes +and Tyrants, see who sits by the side of you in council." The Charles +and Frederick here addressed were Charles II. of Anjou, King of +Naples, and Frederick of Aragon, King of Sicily; and King Charles died +in the year 1310. + +It has been inferred, therefore, that the four treatises of the +Convito were not written consecutively. The Second Treatise may have +been begun some time after the death of Beatrice, in 1290, time being +allowed after 1290 for the completion of the Vita Nuova and a period +of devotion to philosophic studies. That Second Treatise having been +first written, the Treatise on Nobility, the Fourth, may have next +followed; and this may have been written before the end of the year +1298. The Third Treatise may have been written later, and made to +connect the Second and the Fourth. The First Treatise, or General +Introduction, which has in it clear indication of a later date, may +have been written last, when the whole design was brought into shape. +Various reasons have been used for dating this final arrangement of +the plan for an Ethical survey of human knowledge in fifteen +treatises, and the suggested date is the year 1314. The whole work +seems to have been planned. Besides the references to the Fifteenth +Treatise, there is a glance forward to the matter of the Seventh +Treatise in the twenty-sixth chapter of the Fourth. + +The question of date is not of great importance, and this may console +us though we know that it can never be settled. Here it is only +touched upon to show the significance of one or two historical +allusions in the book. + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Banquet (Il Convito), by Dante Alighieri + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BANQUET (IL CONVITO) *** + +***** This file should be named 12867.txt or 12867.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/2/8/6/12867/ + +Produced by Paul Murray, Marc Andre Selig and PG Distributed Proofreaders + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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